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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 12, Slice 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 2
+       "Gloss" to "Gordon, Charles George"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: October 29, 2011 [EBook #37880]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 12 SL 2 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE GLUTARIC ACID: "By distillation of the ammonium salt
+      glutarimide, CH2(CH2·CO)2NH ..." 'CH2(CH2·CO)2NH' amended from
+      'CH2(CH2·CP)2NH'.
+
+    ARTICLE GNOSTICISM: "In this respect the opposition to Gnosticism
+      led to a reactionary movement." 'respect' amended from 'repect'.
+
+    ARTICLE GODEFROY: "Other members of the family who attained
+      distinction in the same branch of learning were the two sons of
+      Denis Godefroy--Denis (1653-1719) ..." 'Godefroy' amended from
+      'Godefroi'.
+
+    ARTICLE GODWIT: "In Turner's days (1544) it was worth three times
+      as much as a snipe, and at the same period Belon said of it ..."
+      'period' amended from 'peroid'.
+
+    ARTICLE GOITRE: "In exophthalmic goitre the bronchocele is but one
+      of three phenomena, which together constitute the disease, viz.
+      palpitation of the heart, enlargement of the thyroid gland, and
+      protrusion of the eyeballs." 'enlargement' amended from
+      'elargement'.
+
+    ARTICLE GOLD COAST: "In 1907 the export was 292,125 oz.,
+      £1,164,676." 'worth' amended from 'wotht'.
+
+    ARTICLE GOLDSMITH, OLIVER: "Green Arbour Court and the ascent have
+      long disappeared. Here, at thirty, the unlucky adventurer sat down
+      to toil like a galley slave." 'disappeared' amended from
+      'diasppeared'.
+
+    ARTICLE GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK: "After studying painting on glass for
+      some years under his father, he was taught the use of the burin by
+      Dirk Volkertsz Coornhert, a Dutch engraver of mediocre attainment
+      ..." 'Coornhert' amended from 'Coornlert'.
+
+    ARTICLE GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA, GERTRUDIS: "... for she has neither
+      the monk's mastery of poetic form nor the nun's sublime simplicity
+      of soul." 'nor' amended from 'not'.
+
+    ARTICLE GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY: "A third volume of poetry, Bush
+      Ballads and Galloping Rhymes, appeared in 1870." 'third' amended
+      from 'second'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME XII, SLICE II
+
+          Gloss to Gordon, Charles
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  GLOSS, GLOSSARY                    GOLDBEATING
+  GLOSSOP                            GOLDBERG
+  GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF     GOLD COAST
+  GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE       GOLDEN
+  GLOUCESTER, HUMPHREY               GOLDEN BULL
+  GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE       GOLDEN-EYE
+  GLOUCESTER, ROBERT                 GOLDEN FLEECE
+  GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK    GOLDEN HORDE
+  GLOUCESTER (city of England)       GOLDEN ROD
+  GLOUCESTER (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) GOLDEN ROSE
+  GLOUCESTER CITY                    GOLDEN RULE
+  GLOUCESTERSHIRE                    GOLDFIELD
+  GLOVE                              GOLDFINCH
+  GLOVER, SIR JOHN HAWLEY            GOLDFISH
+  GLOVER, RICHARD                    GOLDFUSS, GEORG AUGUST
+  GLOVERSVILLE                       GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE DASHWOOD TAUBMAN
+  GLOW-WORM                          GOLDING, ARTHUR
+  GLOXINIA                           GOLDINGEN
+  GLUCINUM                           GOLDMARK, KARL
+  GLUCK, CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD         GOLDONI, CARLO
+  GLÜCKSBURG                         GOLDS
+  GLÜCKSTADT                         GOLDSBORO
+  GLUCOSE                            GOLDSCHMIDT, HERMANN
+  GLUCOSIDE                          GOLDSMID
+  GLUE                               GOLDSMITH, LEWIS
+  GLUTARIC ACID                      GOLDSMITH, OLIVER
+  GLUTEN                             GOLDSTÜCKER, THEODOR
+  GLUTTON                            GOLDWELL, THOMAS
+  GLYCAS, MICHAEL                    GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ
+  GLYCERIN                           GOLETTA
+  GLYCOLS                            GOLF
+  GLYCONIC                           GOLIAD
+  GLYPH                              GOLIARD
+  GLYPTODON                          GOLIATH
+  GLYPTOTHEK                         GOLITSUIN, BORIS ALEKSYEEVICH
+  GMELIN                             GOLITSUIN, DMITRY MIKHAILOVICH
+  GMÜND                              GOLITSUIN, VASILY VASILEVICH
+  GMUNDEN                            GOLIUS, JACOBUS
+  GNAT                               GOLLNOW
+  GNATHOPODA                         GOLOSH
+  GNATIA                             GOLOVIN, FEDOR ALEKSYEEVICH
+  GNEISENAU, AUGUST WILHELM ANTON    GOLOVKIN, GAVRIIL IVANOVICH
+  GNEISS                             GOLOVNIN, VASILY MIKHAILOVICH
+  GNEIST, HEINRICH FRIEDRICH VON     GOLTZ, BOGUMIL
+  GNESEN                             GOLTZ, COLMAR
+  GNOME, and GNOMIC POETRY           GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK
+  GNOMES                             GOLUCHOWSKI, AGENOR
+  GNOMON                             GOMAL
+  GNOSTICISM                         GOMARUS, FRANZ
+  GNU                                GOMBERVILLE, MARIN LE ROY
+  GO                                 GOMER
+  GOA                                GOMERA
+  GOAL                               GOMEZ, DIOGO
+  GOALPARA                           GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA, GERTRUDIS
+  GOAT                               GOMM, SIR WILLIAM MAYNARD
+  GOATSUCKER                         GOMPERS, SAMUEL
+  GOBAT, SAMUEL                      GOMPERZ, THEODOR
+  GOBEL, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH        GONAGUAS
+  GOBELIN                            GONÇALVES DIAS, ANTONIO
+  GOBI                               GONCHAROV, IVAN ALEXANDROVICH
+  GOBLET, RENÉ                       GONCOURT, DE
+  GOBLET                             GONDA
+  GOBY                               GONDAL
+  GOCH                               GONDAR
+  GOD                                GONDOKORO
+  GODALMING                          GONDOMAR, DIEGO SARMIENTO DE ACUÑA
+  GODARD, BENJAMIN LOUIS PAUL        GONDOPHARES
+  GODAVARI (river of India)          GONDWANA
+  GODAVARI (district of India)       GONFALON
+  GODEFROY                           GONG
+  GODESBERG                          GÓNGORA Y ARGOTE, LUIS DE
+  GODET, FRÉDÉRIC LOUIS              GONIOMETER
+  GODFREY, SIR EDMUND BERRY          GONTAUT, MARIE JOSÉPHINE LOUISE
+  GODFREY OF BOUILLON                GONVILE, EDMUND
+  GODFREY OF VITERBO                 GONZAGA
+  GODHRA                             GONZAGA, THOMAZ ANTONIO
+  GODIN, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRÉ         GONZÁLEZ-CARVAJAL, TOMAS JOSÉ
+  GODIVA                             GONZALO DE BERCEO
+  GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE             GOOCH, SIR DANIEL
+  GODMANCHESTER                      GOOD, JOHN MASON
+  GÖDÖLLÖ                            GOOD FRIDAY
+  GODOLPHIN, SIDNEY GODOLPHIN        GOODMAN, GODFREY
+  GODOY, ALVAREZ DE FARIA, MANUEL DE GOODRICH, SAMUEL GRISWOLD
+  GODROON                            GOODRICH, THOMAS
+  GODWIN, FRANCIS                    GOODSIR, JOHN
+  GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT        GOODWILL
+  GODWIN, WILLIAM                    GOODWIN, JOHN
+  GODWIN-AUSTEN, ROBERT CLOYNE       GOODWIN, NATHANIEL CARL
+  GODWINE                            GOODWIN, THOMAS
+  GODWIT                             GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON
+  GOEBEN, AUGUST KARL VON            GOODWIN SANDS
+  GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE              GOODWOOD
+  GOES, DAMIÃO DE                    GOODYEAR, CHARLES
+  GOES, HUGO VAN DER                 GOOGE, BARNABE
+  GOES                               GOOLE
+  GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON        GOOSE (bird)
+  GOETZ, HERMANN                     GOOSE (game)
+  GOFFE, WILLIAM                     GOOSEBERRY
+  GOFFER                             GOOTY
+  GOG                                GOPHER
+  GOGO                               GÖPPINGEN
+  GOGOL, NIKOLAI VASILIEVICH         GORAKHPUR
+  GOGRA                              GORAL
+  GOHIER, LOUIS JÉRÔME               GORAMY
+  GÖHRDE                             GÖRBERSDORF
+  GOITO                              GORBODUC
+  GOITRE                             GORCHAKOV
+  GOKAK                              GORDIAN
+  GOKCHA                             GORDIUM
+  GOLCONDA                           GORDON
+  GOLD                               GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY
+  GOLD AND SILVER THREAD             GORDON, ALEXANDER
+  GOLDAST AB HAIMINSFELD, MELCHIOR   GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE
+
+
+
+
+GLOSS, GLOSSARY, &c. The Greek word [Greek: glôssa] (whence our
+"gloss"), meaning originally a tongue, then a language or dialect,
+gradually came to denote any obsolete, foreign, provincial, technical or
+otherwise peculiar word or use of a word (see Arist. _Rhet._ iii. 3. 2).
+The making of collections and explanations[1] of such [Greek: glôssai]
+was at a comparatively early date a well-recognized form of literary
+activity. Even in the 5th century B.C., among the many writings of
+Abdera was included a treatise entitled [Greek: Peri Homêrou ê
+orthoepeiês kai glôsseôn]. It was not, however, until the Alexandrian
+period that the [Greek: glôssographoi], glossographers (writers of
+glosses), or glossators, became numerous. Of many of these perhaps even
+the names have perished; but Athenaeus the grammarian alone (c. A.D.
+250) alludes to no fewer than thirty-five. Among the earliest was
+Philetas of Cos (d. c. 290 B.C.), the elegiac poet, to whom Aristarchus
+dedicated the treatise [Greek: Pros Philptan]; he was the compiler of a
+lexicographical work, arranged probably according to subjects, and
+entitled [Greek: Hatakta] or [Greek: Glôssai] (sometimes [Greek: Ataktoi
+glôssai]). Next came his disciple Zenodotus of Ephesus (c. 280 B.C.),
+one of the earliest of the Homeric critics and the compiler of [Greek:
+Glôssai Homêrikai]; Zenodotus in turn was succeeded by his greater pupil
+Aristophanes of Byzantium (c. 200 B.C.), whose great compilation [Greek:
+Peri lexeôn] (still partially preserved in that of Pollux), is known to
+have included [Greek: Attikai lexeis, Lakônikai glôssai], and the like.
+From the school of Aristophanes issued more than one glossographer of
+name,--Diodorus, Artemidorus ([Greek: Glôssai], and a collection of
+[Greek: lexeis opsartutikai]), Nicander of Colophon ([Greek: Glôssai],
+of which some twenty-six fragments still survive), and Aristarchus (c.
+210 B.C.), the famous critic, whose numerous labours included an
+arrangement of the Homeric vocabulary ([Greek: lexeis]) in the order of
+the books. Contemporary with the last named was Crates of Mallus, who,
+besides making some new contributions to Greek lexicography and
+dialectology, was the first to create at Rome a taste for similar
+investigations in connexion with the Latin idioms. From his school
+proceeded Zenodotus of Mallus, the compiler of [Greek: Ethnikai lexeis]
+or [Greek: glôssai], a work said to have been designed chiefly to
+support the views of the school of Pergamum as to the allegorical
+interpretation of Homer.[2] Of later date were Didymus (Chalcenterus, c.
+50 B.C.), who made collections of [Greek: lexeis tragôdoumenai kômikai],
+&c.; Apollonius Sophista (c. 20 B.C.), whose Homeric Lexicon has come
+down to modern times; and Neoptolemus, known distinctively as [Greek: ho
+glôssographos]. In the beginning of the 1st century of the Christian era
+Apion, a grammarian and rhetorician at Rome during the reigns of
+Tiberius and Claudius, followed up the labours of Aristarchus and other
+predecessors with [Greek: Glôssai Homêrikai], and a treatise [Greek:
+Peri tês Hrômaïkês dialekton]; Heliodorus or Herodorus was another
+almost contemporary glossographer; Erotian also, during the reign of
+Nero, prepared a special glossary for the writings of Hippocrates, still
+preserved. To this period also Pamphilus, the author of the [Greek:
+Leimôn], from which Diogenian and Julius Vestinus afterwards drew so
+largely, most probably belonged. In the following century one of the
+most prominent workers in this department of literature was Aelius
+Herodianus, whose treatise [Greek: Peri monêrous lexeôs] has been edited
+in modern times, and whose [Greek: Epimerismoi] we still possess in an
+abridgment; also Pollux, Diogenian ([Greek: Lexis pantodapê]), Julius
+Vestinus ([Greek: 'Epitomê tôn Pamphilou glôssôn]) and especially
+Phrynichus, who flourished towards the close of the 2nd century, and
+whose _Eclogae nominum et verborum Atticorum_ has frequently been
+edited. To the 4th century belongs Ammonius of Alexandria (c. 389), who
+wrote [Greek: Peri Homoiôn kai diaphorôn lexeôn], a dictionary of words
+used in senses different from those in which they had been employed by
+older and approved writers. Of somewhat later date is the well-known
+Hesychius, whose often-edited [Greek: Lexikon] superseded all previous
+works of the kind; Cyril, the celebrated patriarch of Alexandria, also
+contributed somewhat to the advancement of glossography by his [Greek:
+Sunagôgê tôn pros diaphoron sêmasian diaphorôs tonoumenôn lexeôn]; while
+Orus, Orion, Philoxenus and the two Philemons also belong to this
+period. The works of Photius, Suidas and Zonaras, as also the
+_Etymologicum magnum_, to which might be added the _Lexica Sangermania_
+and the _Lexica Segueriana_, are referred to in the article DICTIONARY.
+
+To a special category of technical glossaries belongs a large and
+important class of works relating to the law-compilations of Justinian.
+Although the emperor forbade under severe penalties all commentaries
+([Greek: hupomnêmata]) on his legislation (_Const. Deo Auctore_, sec.
+12; _Const. Tanta_, sec. 21), yet indices ([Greek: indikes]) and
+references ([Greek: paratitla]), as well as translations ([Greek:
+ermêneiai kata poda]) and paraphrases ([Greek: hermêneiai eis platos]),
+were expressly permitted, and lavishly produced. Among the numerous
+compilers of alphabetically arranged [Greek: lexeis Rhômaïkai] or
+[Greek: Lateinikai], and [Greek: glôssai nomikai] (glossae nomicae),
+Cyril and Philoxenus are particularly noted; but the authors of [Greek:
+paragraphai], or [Greek: sêmeiôseis], whether [Greek: exôthen] or
+[Greek: esôthen keimenai], are too numerous to mention. A collection of
+these [Greek: paragraphai tôn palaiôn], combined with [Greek: neai
+paragraphai] on the revised code called [Greek: ta basilika], was made
+about the middle of the 12th century by a disciple of Michael
+Hagiotheodorita. This work is known as the _Glossa ordinaria_ [Greek:
+tôn basilikôn].[3]
+
+In Italy also, during the period of the Byzantine ascendancy, various
+glossae (glosae) and scholia on the Justinian code were produced[4];
+particularly the Turin gloss (reprinted by Savigny), to which, apart
+from later additions, a date prior to 1000 is usually assigned. After
+the total extinction of the Byzantine authority in the West the study of
+law became one of the free arts, and numerous schools for its
+cultivation were instituted. Among the earliest of these was that of
+Bologna, where Pepo (1075) and Irnerius (1100-1118) began to give their
+expositions. They had a numerous following, who, besides delivering
+exegetical lectures ("ordinariae" on the _Digest_ and _Code_,
+"extraordinariae" on the rest of the _Corpus juris civilis_), also wrote
+Glossae, first interlinear, afterwards marginal.[5] The series of these
+glossators was closed by Accursius (q.v.) with the compilation known as
+the _Glossa ordinaria_ or _magistralis_, the authority of which soon
+became very great, so that ultimately it came to be a recognized maxim,
+"Quod non agnoscit glossa, non agnoscit curia."[6] For some account of
+the glossators on the canon law, see CANON LAW.
+
+In late classical and medieval Latin, _glosa_ was the vulgar and romanic
+(e.g. in the early 8th century Corpus Glossary, and the late 8th century
+Leiden Glossary), _glossa_ the learned form (Varro, _De ling. Lat._ vii.
+10; Auson. _Epigr_. 127. 2 (86. 2), written in Greek, Quint, i. 1. 34).
+The diminutive _glossula_ occurs in Diom. 426. 26 and elsewhere. The
+same meaning has _glossarium_ (Gell. xviii. 7. 3 _glosaria_ = [Greek:
+glôssarion]), which also occurs in the modern sense of "glossary"
+(Papias, "unde _glossarium_ dictum quod omnium fere partium glossas
+contineat"), as do the words _glossa_, _glossae_, _glossulae_,
+_glossemata_ (Steinmeyer, _Alth. Gloss._ iv. 408, 410), expressed in
+later times by _dictionarium_, _dictionarius_, _vocabularium_,
+_vocabularius_ (see DICTIONARY). _Glossa_ and _glossema_ (Varro vii. 34.
+107; Asinius Gallus, ap. Suet. _De gramm._ 22; Fest. 166^b. 8, 181^a.
+18; Quint. i. 8. 15, &c.) are synonyms, signifying (a) the word which
+requires explanation; or (b) such a word (called _lemma_) together with
+the interpretation (_interpretamentum_); or (c) the interpretation alone
+(so first in the _Anecd. Helv._).
+
+Latin, like Greek glossography, had its origin chiefly in the practical
+wants of students and teachers, of whose names we only know a few. No
+doubt even in classical times collections of glosses ("glossaries") were
+compiled, to which allusion seems to be made by Varro (_De ling. Lat._
+vii. 10, "tesca, aiunt sancta esse qui glossas scripserunt") and
+Verrius-Festus (166^b .6, "naucum ... glossematorum ... scriptures fabae
+grani quod haereat in fabulo"), but it is not known to what extent
+Varro, for instance, used them, or retained their original forms. The
+_scriptores glossematorum_ were distinguished from the learned
+glossographers like Aurelius Opilius (cf. his _Musae_, ap. Suet. _De
+gramm._ 6; Gell. i. 25. 17; Varro vii. 50, 65, 67, 70, 79, 106), Servius
+Clodius (Varro vii. 70. 106), Aelius Stilo, L. Ateius Philol., whose
+_liber glossematorum_ Festus mentions (181^{a}.18).
+
+  Verrius Flaccus and his epitomists, Festus and Paulus, have preserved
+  many treasures of early glossographers who are now lost to us. He
+  copied Aelius Stilo (Reitzenstein, "Verr. Forsch.," in vol. i. of
+  _Breslauer philol. Abhandl._, p. 88; Kriegshammer, _Comm. phil. Ien._
+  vii. 1. 74 sqq.), Aurelius Opilius, Ateius Philol., the treatise _De
+  obscuris Catonis_ (Reitzenstein, ib. 56. 92). He often made use of
+  Varro (Willers, _De Verrio Flacco_, Halle, 1898), though not of his
+  _ling. lat._ (Kriegshammer, 74 sqq.); and was also acquainted with
+  later glossographers. Perhaps we owe to him the _glossae asbestos_
+  (Goetz, _Corpus_, iv.; _id., Rhein. Mus._ xl. 328). Festus was used by
+  Ps.-Philoxenus (Dammann, "De Festo Ps.-Philoxeni auctore," _Comm.
+  Ien._ v. 26 sqq.), as appears from the _glossae ab absens_ (Goetz, "De
+  Astrabae Pl. fragmentis," _Ind. Ien._, 1893, iii. sqq.). The distinct
+  connexions with Nonius need not be ascribed to borrowing, as Plinius
+  and Caper may have been used (P. Schmidt, _De Non. Marc. auctt.
+  gramm._ 145; Nettleship, _Lect. and Ess._ 229; Fröhde, _De Non. Marc.
+  et Verrio Flacco_, 2; W. M. Lindsay, "Non. Marc.," _Dict. of Repub.
+  Latin_, 100, &c.).
+
+  The _bilingual_ (Gr.-Lat., Lat.-Gr.) glossaries also point to an early
+  period, and were used by the grammarians (1) to explain the
+  peculiarities (_idiomata_) of the Latin language by comparison with
+  the Greek, and (2) for instruction in the two languages (Charis. 254.
+  9, 291. 7, 292. 16 sqq.; Marschall, _De Q. Remmii P. libris gramm.
+  22_; Goetz, _Corp. gloss. lat._ ii. 6).
+
+  For the purposes of grammatical instruction (Greek for the Romans,
+  Latin for the Hellenistic world), we have systematic works, a
+  translation of Dositheus and the so-called _Hermeneutica_, parts of
+  which may be dated as early as the 3rd century A.D., and lexica (cf.
+  Schoenemann, _De lexicis ant._ 122; Knaack, in _Phil. Rundsch._, 1884,
+  372; Traube, in _Byzant. Ztschr._ iii. 605; David, _Comment. Ien._ v.
+  197 sqq.).
+
+  The most important remains of bilingual glossaries are two well-known
+  lexica; one (Latin-Greek), formerly attributed (but wrongly, see
+  Rudorff, in _Abh.. Akad. Berl._, 1865, 220 sq.; Loewe, _Prodr._ 183,
+  190; Mommsen, _C.I.L._ v. 8120; A. Dammann, _De Festo Pseudo-philoxeni
+  auctore_, 12 sqq.; Goetz, _Corp._ ii. 1-212) to Philoxenus (consul
+  A.D. 525), clearly consists of two closely allied glossaries
+  (containing glosses to Latin authors, as Horace, Cicero, Juvenal,
+  Virgil, the Jurists, and excerpts from Festus), worked into one by
+  some Greek grammarian, or a person who worked under Greek influence
+  (his alphabet runs A, B, G, D, E, &c.); the other (Greek-Latin) is
+  ascribed to Cyril (Stephanus says it was found at the end of some of
+  his writings), and is considered to be a compilation of not later than
+  the 6th century (Macrobius is used, and the _Cod. Harl._, which is the
+  source of all the other MSS., belongs to the 7th century); cf. Goetz,
+  _Corp._ ii. 215-483, 487-506, praef. _ibid._ p. xx. sqq. Furthermore,
+  the bilingual medico-botanic glossaries had their origin in old lists
+  of plants, as Ps.-Apuleius in the treatise _De herbarum virtutibus_,
+  and Ps.-Dioscorides (cf. M. Wellmann, _Hermes_, xxxiii. 360 sqq., who
+  thinks that the latter work is based on Pamphilus, q.v.; Goetz,
+  _Corp._ iii.); the glossary, entitled _Hermeneuma_, printed from the
+  _Cod. Vatic._ reg. Christ. 1260, contains names of diseases.
+
+  Just as grammar developed, so we see the original form of the glosses
+  extend. If _massucum edacem_ in Placidus indicates the original form,
+  the allied gloss of Festus (_masucium edacem a mandendo scilicet_)
+  shows an etymological addition. Another extension consists in adding
+  special references to the original source, as e.g. at the gloss
+  _Ocrem_ (Fest. 181^a. 17), which is taken from Ateius Philol. In this
+  way collections arose like the _priscorum verborum cum exemplis_, a
+  title given by Fest. (218^b. 10) to a particular work. Further the
+  _glossae veterum_ (Charis. 242. 10); the _glossae antiquitatum_ (id.
+  229. 30); the _idonei vocum antiquarum enarratores_ (Gell. xviii. 6.
+  8); the _libri rerum verborumque veterum_ (_id._ xiii. 24. 25). L.
+  Cincius, according to Festus (330^b. 2), wrote _De verbis priscis_;
+  Santra, _De antiquitate verborum_ (Festus 277^a. 2).
+
+  Of Latin glossaries of the first four centuries of the Roman emperors
+  few traces are left, if we except Verrius-Festus. Charis, 229. 30,
+  speaks of _glossae antiquitatum_ and 242. 10 of _glossae veterum_, but
+  it is not known whether these glosses are identic, or in what relation
+  they stand to the _glossemata per litteras Latinas ordine composita_,
+  which were incorporated with the works of this grammarian according to
+  the index in Keil, p. 6. Latin glosses occur in Ps.-Philoxenus, and
+  Nonius must have used Latin glossaries; there exists a _glossarium
+  Plautinum_ (Ritschl, Op. ii. 234 sqq.), and the bilingual glossaries
+  have been used by the later grammarian Martyrius; but of this early
+  period we know by name only Fulgentius and Placidus, who is sometimes
+  called Luctatius Placidus, by confusion with the Statius scholiast,
+  with whom the _glossae Placidi_ have no connexion. All that we know of
+  him tends to show that he lived in North Africa (like Fulgentius and
+  Nonius and perhaps Charisius) in the 6th century, from whence his
+  glosses came to Spain, and were used by Isidore and the compiler of
+  the _Liber glossarum_ (see below). These glosses we know from (1)
+  Codices Romani (15th and 16th century); (2) the _Liber glossarum_; (3)
+  the Cod. Paris. nov. acquis. 1298 (saec. xi.), a collection of
+  glossaries, in which the Placidus-glosses are kept separate from the
+  others, and still retain traces of their original order (cf. the
+  editions published by A. Mai, _Class. auct._ iii. 427-503, and
+  Deuerling, 1875; Goetz, _Corp._ v.; P. Karl, "De Placidi glossis,"
+  _Comm. Ien._ vii. 2. 99, 103 sqq.; Loewe, _Gloss. Nom._ 86; F.
+  Bücheler, in _Thesaur. gloss. emend._). His collection includes
+  glosses from Plautus and Lucilius.
+
+  (Fabius Planciades) Fulgentius (c. A.D. 468-533) wrote _Expositio
+  sermonum antiquorum_ (ed. Rud. Helm, Lips. 1898; cf. Wessner,
+  _Comment. Ien._ vi. 2. 135 sqq.) in sixty-two paragraphs, each
+  containing a lemma (sometimes two or three) with an explanation giving
+  quotations and names of authors. Next to him come the _glossae
+  Nonianae_, which arose from the contents of the various paragraphs in
+  Nonius Marcellus' work being written in the margin without the words
+  of the text; these epitomized glosses were alphabetized and afterwards
+  copied for other collections (see Goetz, _Corp._ v. 637 sqq., id. v.
+  Praef. xxxv.; Onions and Lindsay, _Harvard Stud._ ix. 67 sqq.;
+  Lindsay, _Nonii praef._ xxi.). In a similar way arose the _glossae
+  Eucherii_ or _glossae spiritales secundum Eucherium episcopum_ found
+  in many MSS. (cf. K. Wotke, _Sitz. Ber. Akad. Wien_, cxv. 425 sqq.; =
+  the _Corpus Glossary_, first part), which are an alphabetical extract
+  from the _formulae spiritalis intelligentiae_ of St Eucherius, bishop
+  of Lyons, c. 434-450.[7]
+
+  Other sources were the _Differentiae_, already known to Placidus and
+  much used in the medieval glossaries; and the _Synonyma Ciceronis_;
+  cf. Goetz, "Der Liber glossarum," in _Abhandl. der philol.-hist. Cl.
+  der sächs. Gesellsch. d. Wiss._, 1893, p. 215; id. in _Berl. philol.
+  Wochenschr._, 1890, p. 195 sqq.; Beck, in _Wochenschr._, p. 297 sqq.,
+  and Sittls, _ibid._ p. 267; _Archiv f. lat. Lex._ vi. 594; W. L.
+  Mahne, (Leid. 1850, 1851); also various collections of _scholia_. By
+  the side of the scholiasts come the grammarians, as Charisius, or an
+  ars similar to that ascribed to him; further, treatises _de dubiis
+  generibus_, the _scriptores orthographici_ (especially Caper and
+  Beda), and Priscianus, the chief grammarian of the middle ages (cf.
+  Goetz in _Mélanges Boissier_, 224).
+
+  During the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries glossography developed in
+  various ways; old glossaries were worked up into new forms, or
+  amalgamated with more recent ones. It ceased, moreover, to be
+  exclusively Latin-Latin, and interpretations in Germanic (Old High
+  German, Anglo-Saxon) and Romanic dialects took the place of or were
+  used side by side with earlier Latin ones. The origin and development
+  of the late classic and medieval glossaries preserved to us can be
+  traced with certainty. While reading the manuscript texts of classical
+  authors, the Bible or early Christian and profane writers, students
+  and teachers, on meeting with any obscure or out-of-the-way words
+  which they considered difficult to remember or to require elucidation,
+  wrote above them, or in the margins, interpretations or explanations
+  in more easy or better-known words. The interpretations written above
+  the line are called "interlinear," those written in the margins of the
+  MSS. "marginal glosses." Again, MSS. of the Bible or portions of the
+  Bible were often provided with literal translations in the vernacular
+  written above the lines of the Latin version (interlinear versions).
+
+  Of such glossed MSS. or translated texts, photographs may be seen in
+  the various palaeographical works published in recent years; cf. _The
+  Palaeogr. Society_, 1st ser. vol. ii. pls. 9 (Terentius MS. of 4th or
+  5th century, interlinear glosses) and 24 (Augustine's epistles, 6th or
+  7th century, marginal glosses); see further, plates 10, 12, 33, 40,
+  50-54, 57, 58, 63, 73, 75, 80; vol. iii. plates 10, 24, 31, 39, 44,
+  54, 80.
+
+  From these glossed or annotated MSS. and interlinear versions
+  glossaries were compiled; that is, the obscure and difficult Latin
+  words, together with the interpretations, were excerpted and collected
+  in separate lists, in the order in which they appeared, one after the
+  other, in the MSS., without any alphabetical arrangement, but with the
+  names of the authors or the titles of the books whence they were
+  taken, placed at the head of each separate collection or chapter. In
+  this arrangement each article by itself is called a gloss; when
+  reference is made only to the word explained it is called the _lemma_,
+  while the explanation is termed the _interpretamentum_. In most cases
+  the form of the lemma was retained just as it stood in its source, and
+  explained by a single word (_tesca: sancta_, Varro vii. 10;
+  _clucidatus: suavis, id._ vii. 107; cf. Isid. _Etym._ i. 30. 1, "quid
+  enim illud sit in uno verbo positum declarat [_scil._ glossa] ut
+  conticescere est tacere"), so that we meet with lemmata in the
+  accusative, dative and genitive, likewise explained by words in the
+  same cases; the forms of verbs being treated in the same way. Of this
+  first stage in the making of glossaries, many traces are preserved,
+  for instance, in the late 8th century Leiden Glossary (Voss. 69, ed.
+  J. H. Hessels), where chapter iii. contains words or glosses excerpted
+  from the _Life of St Martin_ by Sulpicius Severus; chs. iv., v. and
+  xxxv. glosses from Rufinus; chs. vi. and xl. from Gildas; chs. vii. to
+  xxv. from books of the Bible (Paralipomenon; Proverbs, &c., &c.); chs.
+  xxvi. to xlviii, from Isidore, the _Vita S. Anthonii_, Cassiodorus, St
+  Jerome, Cassianus, Orosius, St Augustine, St Clement, Eucherius, St
+  Gregory, the grammarians Donatus, Phocas, &c. (See also Goetz, _Corp._
+  v. 546. 23-547. 6. and i. 5-40 from Ovid's _Metam._; v. 657 from
+  Apuleius, _De deo Socratis_; cf. Landgraf, in _Arch._ ix. 174).
+
+  By a second operation the glosses came to be arranged in
+  _alphabetical_ order according to the first letter of the lemma, but
+  still retained in separate chapters under the names of authors or the
+  titles of books. Of this _second_ stage the Leiden Glossary contains
+  traces also: ch. i. (_Verba de Canonibus_) and ii. (_Sermones de
+  Regulis_); see Goetz, _Corp._ v. 529 sqq. (from Terentius), iv. 427
+  sqq. (Virgil).
+
+  The third operation collected all the accessible glosses in
+  alphabetical order, in the first instance according to the first
+  letters of the lemmata. In this arrangement the names of the authors
+  or the titles of the books could no longer be preserved, and
+  consequently the sources whence the glosses were excerpted became
+  uncertain, especially if the grammatical forms of the lemmata had been
+  normalized.
+
+  A fourth arrangement collected the glosses according to the first two
+  letters of the lemmata, as in the Corpus Glossary and in the still
+  earlier _Cod. Vat._ 3321 (Goetz, _Corp._ iv. 1 sqq.), where even many
+  attempts were made to arrange them according to the first three
+  letters of the alphabet. A peculiar arrangement is seen in the
+  _Glossae affatim_ (Goetz, _Corp._ iv. 471 sqq.), where all words are
+  alphabetized, first according to the initial letter of the word (a, b,
+  c, &c.), and then further according to the first _vowel_ in the word
+  (a, e, i, o, u).
+
+  No date or period can be assigned to any of the above stages or
+  arrangements. For instance, the first and second are both found in the
+  Leiden Glossary, which dates from the end of the 8th century, whereas
+  the Corpus Glossary, written in the beginning of the same century,
+  represents already the fourth stage.
+
+  For the purpose of identification titles have of late years been given
+  to the various nameless collections of glosses, derived partly from
+  their first lemma, partly from other characteristics, as glossae
+  _abstrusae_; glossae _abavus major_ and _minor_; g. _affatim_; g. _ab
+  absens_; g. _abactor_; g. _Abba Pater_; g. a, a; g. _Vergilianae_; g.
+  _nominum_ (Goetz, _Corp._ ii. 563, iv.); g. _Sangallenses_ (Warren,
+  _Transact. Amer. Philol. Assoc._ xv., 1885, p. 141 sqq.).
+
+  A chief landmark in glossography is represented by the _Origines_
+  (_Etymologiae_) of Isidore (d. 636), an encyclopedia in which he, like
+  Cassiodorus, mixed human and divine subjects together. In many places
+  we can trace his sources, but he also used glossaries. His work became
+  a great mine for later glossographers. In the tenth book he deals with
+  the etymology of many substantives and adjectives arranged
+  alphabetically according to the first letter of the words, perhaps by
+  himself from various sources. His principal source is Servius, then
+  the fathers of the Church (Augustine, Jerome, Lactantius) and Donatus
+  the grammarian. This tenth book was also copied and used separately,
+  and mixed up with other works (cf. Loewe, _Prodr._ 167. 21). Isidore's
+  _Differentiae_ have also had a great reputation.
+
+  Next comes the _Liber glossarum_, chiefly compiled from Isidore, but
+  all articles arranged alphabetically; its author lived in Spain c.
+  A.D. 690-750; he has been called Ansileubus, but not in any of the
+  MSS., some of which belong to the 8th century; hence this name is
+  suspected to be merely that of some owner of a copy of the book (cf.
+  Goetz, "Der Liber Glossarum," in _Abhandl. der philol.-hist. Class,
+  der kön. sächs. Ges._ xiii., 1893; _id._, _Corp._ v., praef. xx. 161).
+
+  Here come, in regard to time, some Latin glossaries already largely
+  mixed with Germanic, more especially Anglo-Saxon interpretations: (1)
+  the Corpus Glossary (ed. J. H. Hessels), written in the beginning of
+  the 8th century, preserved in the library of Corpus Christi College,
+  Cambridge; (2) the Leiden Glossary (end of 8th century, ed. Hessels;
+  another edition by Plac. Glogger), preserved in the Leiden MS. Voss.
+  Q^o. 69; (3) the Épinal Glossary, written in the beginning of the 9th
+  century[8] and published in facsimile by the London Philol. Society
+  from a MS. in the town library at Épinal; (4) the _Glossae
+  Amplonianae_, i.e. three glossaries preserved in the Amplonian library
+  at Erfurt, known as Erfurt¹, Erfurt² and Erfurt³. The first, published
+  by Goetz (_Corp._ v. 337-401; cf. also Loewe, _Prodr._ 114 sqq.) with
+  the various readings of the kindred Épinal, consists, like the latter,
+  of different collections of glosses (also some from Aldhelm), some
+  arranged alphabetically according to the first letter of the lemma,
+  others according to the first two letters. The title of Erfurt²
+  (_incipit II. conscriptio glosarum in unam_) shows that it is also a
+  combination of various glossaries; it is arranged alphabetically
+  according to the first two letters of the lemmata, and contains the
+  _affatim_ and _abavus maior_ glosses, also a collection from Aldhelm;
+  Erfurt³ are the _Glossae nominum_, mixed also with Anglo-Saxon
+  interpretations (Goetz, _Corp._ ii. 563). The form in which the three
+  Erfurt glossaries have come down to us points back to the 8th century.
+
+  The first great glossary or collection of various glosses and
+  glossaries is that of Salomon, bishop of Constance, formerly abbot of
+  St Gall, who died A.D. 919. An edition of it in two parts was printed
+  c. 1475 at Augsburg, with the headline _Salemonis ecclesie
+  Constantiensis episcopi glosse ex illustrissimis collecte auctoribus_.
+  The oldest MSS. of this work date from the 11th century. Its sources
+  are the _Liber glossarum_ (Loewe, _Prodr._ 234 sqq.), the glossary
+  preserved in the 9th-century MS. _Lat. Monac._ 14429 (Goetz, "Lib.
+  Gloss." 35 sqq.), and the great Abavus Gloss (_id., ibid._ p. 37;
+  _id._, _Corp._ iv. praef. xxxvii.).
+
+  The _Lib. glossarum_ has also been the chief source for the important
+  (but not original) glossary of Papias, of A.D. 1053 (cf. Goetz in
+  _Sitz. Ber. Akad. Münch._, 1903, p. 267 sqq., who enumerates
+  eighty-seven MSS. of the 12th to the 15th centuries), of whom we only
+  know that he lived among clerics and dedicated his work to his two
+  sons. An edition of it was published at Milan "per Dominicum de
+  Vespolate" on the 12th of December 1476; other editions followed in
+  1485, 1491, 1496 (at Venice). He also wrote a grammar, chiefly
+  compiled from Priscianus (Hagen, _Anecd. Helv._ clxxix. sqq.).
+
+  The same _Lib. gloss._ is the source (1) for the _Abba Pater_ Glossary
+  (cf. Goetz, _ibid._ p. 39), published by G. M. Thomas (_Sitz. Ber.
+  Akad. Münch._, 1868, ii. 369 sqq.); (2) the Greek glossary _Absida
+  lucida_ (Goetz, ib. p. 41); and (3) the Lat.-Arab. glossary in the
+  _Cod. Leid. Scal. Orient._ No. 231 (published by Seybold in _Semit.
+  Studien_, Heft xv.-xvii., Berlin, 1900).
+
+  The Paulus-Glossary (cf. Goetz, "Der Liber Glossarum," p. 215) is
+  compiled from the second Salomon-Glossary (_abacti magistratus_), the
+  _Abavus major_ and the _Liber glossarum_, with a mixture of Hebraica.
+  Many of his glosses appear again in other compilations, as in the Cod.
+  Vatic. 1469 (cf. Goetz, _Corp._ v. 520 sqq.), mixed up with glosses
+  from Beda, Placidus, &c. (cf. a glossary published by Ellis in _Amer.
+  Journ. of Philol._ vi. 4, vii. 3, containing besides Paulus glosses,
+  also excerpts from Isidore; Cambridge _Journ. of Philol._ viii. 71
+  sqq., xiv. 81 sqq.).
+
+  Osbern of Gloucester (c. 1123-1200) compiled the glossary entitled
+  _Panormia_ (published by Angelo Mai as _Thesaurus novus Latinitatis_,
+  from Cod. Vatic. reg. Christ. 1392; cf. W. Meyer, _Rhein. Mus._ xxix.,
+  1874; Goetz in _Sitzungsber. sächs. Ges. d. Wiss._, 1903, p. 133 sqq.;
+  _Berichte üb. die Verhandl. der kön. sächs. Gesellsch. der Wiss._,
+  Leipzig, 1902); giving derivations, etymologies, testimonia collected
+  from Paulus, Priscianus, Plautus, Horace, Virgil, Ovid, Mart. Capella,
+  Macrobius, Ambrose, Sidonius, Prudentius, Josephus, Jerome, &c., &c.
+  Osbern's material was also used by Hugucio, whose compendium was still
+  more extensively used (cf. Goetz, l.c., p. 121 sqq., who enumerates
+  one hundred and three MSS. of his treatise), and contains many
+  biblical glosses, especially Hebraica, some treatises on Latin
+  numerals, &c. (cf. Hamann, _Weitere Mitteil. aus dem Breviloquus
+  Benthemianus_, Hamburg, 1882; A. Thomas, "Glosses provençales inéd."
+  in _Romania_, xxxiv. p. 177 sqq; P. Toynbee, _ibid._ xxv. p. 537
+  sqq.).
+
+  The great work of Johannes de Janua, entitled _Summa quae vocatur
+  catholicon_, dates from the year 1286, and treats of (1) accent, (2)
+  etymology, (3) syntax, and (4) so-called prosody, i.e. a lexicon,
+  which also deals with quantity. It mostly uses Hugucio and Papias;
+  its classical quotations are limited, except from Horace; it quotes
+  the Vulgate by preference, frequently independently from Hugucio; it
+  excerpts Priscianus, Donatus, Isidore, the fathers of the Church,
+  especially Jerome, Gregory, Augustine, Ambrose; it borrows many Hebrew
+  glosses, mostly from Jerome and the other collections then in use; it
+  mentions the _Graecismus_ of Eberhardus Bethuniensis, the works of
+  Hrabanus Maurus, the _Doctrinale_ of Alexander de Villa Dei, and the
+  _Aurora_ of Petrus de Riga. Many quotations from the _Catholicon_ in
+  Du Cange are really from Hugucio, and may be traced to Osbern. There
+  exist many MSS. of this work, and the Mainz edition of 1460 is well
+  known (cf. Goetz in _Berichte üb. die Verhandl. der kön. sächs.
+  Gesellsch. der Wiss._, Leipzig, 1902).
+
+  The gloss MSS. of the 9th and 10th centuries are numerous, but a
+  diminution becomes visible towards the 11th. We then find grammatical
+  treatises arise, for which also glossaries were used. The chief
+  material was (1) the _Liber glossarum_; (2) the Paulus glosses; (3)
+  the _Abavus major_; (4) excerpts from Priscian and glosses to
+  Priscian; (5) Hebrew-biblical collections of proper names (chiefly
+  from Jerome). After these comes medieval material, as the
+  _derivationes_ which are found in many MSS. (cf. Goetz in
+  _Sitzungsber. sächs. Ges. d. Wiss._, 1903, p. 136 sqq.; Traube in
+  _Archiv f. lat. Lex._ vi. 264), containing quotations from Plautus,
+  Ovid, Juvenal, Persius, Terence, occasionally from Priscian, Eutyches,
+  and other grammarians, with etymological explanations. These
+  _derivationes_ were the basis for the grammatical works of Osbern,
+  Hugucio and Joannes of Janua.
+
+  A peculiar feature of the late middle ages are the medico-botanic
+  glossaries based on the earlier ones (see Goetz, _Corp._ iii.). The
+  additions consisted in Arabic words with Latin explanations, while
+  Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Arabic, interchange with English, French,
+  Italian and German forms. Of glossaries of this kind we have (1) the
+  _Glossae alphita_ (published by S. de Renzi in the 3rd vol. of the
+  _Collect. Salernitana_, Naples, 1854, from two Paris MSS. of the 14th
+  and 15th centuries, but some of the glosses occur already in earlier
+  MSS.); (2) _Sinonoma Bartholomei_, collected by John Mirfeld, towards
+  the end of the 14th century, ed. J. L. G. Mowat (_Anecd. Oxon._ i. 1,
+  1882, cf. Loewe, _Gloss. Nom._ 116 sqq.); it seems to have used the
+  same or some similar source as No. 1; (3) the compilations of Simon de
+  Janua (_Clavis sanationis_, end of 13th century), and of Matthaeus
+  Silvaticus (_Pandectae medicinae_, 14th century; cf. H. Stadler,
+  "Dioscor. Longob." in _Roman. Forsch._ x. 3. 371; Steinmeyer,
+  _Althochd. Gloss._ iii.).
+
+  Of biblical glossaries we have a large number, mostly mixed with
+  glosses on other, even profane, subjects, as Hebrew and other biblical
+  proper names, and explanations of the text of the Vulgate in general,
+  and the prologues of Hieronymus. So we have the _Glossae veteris ac
+  novi testamenti_ (beginning "Prologus graece latine praelocutio sive
+  praefatio") in numerous MSS. of the 9th to 14th centuries, mostly
+  retaining the various books under separate headings (cf. Arevalo,
+  _Isid._ vii. 407 sqq.; Loewe, _Prodr._ 141; Steinmeyer iv. 459; S.
+  Berger, _De compendiis exegeticis quibusdam medii aevi_, Paris, 1879).
+  Special mention should be made of Guil. Brito, who lived about 1250,
+  and compiled a _Summa_ (beginning "difficiles studeo partes quas
+  Biblia gestat Pandere"), contained in many MSS. especially in French
+  libraries. This _Summa_ gave rise to the _Mammotrectus_ of Joh.
+  Marchesinus, about 1300, of which we have editions printed in 1470,
+  1476, 1479, &c.
+
+  Finally we may mention such compilations as the _Summa Heinrici_; the
+  work of Johannes de Garlandia, which he himself calls _dictionarius_
+  (cf. Scheler in _Jahrb. f. rom. u. engl. Philol._ vi., 1865, p. 142
+  sqq.); and that of Alexander Neckam (ib. vii. p. 60 sqq., cf. R.
+  Ellis, in _Amer. Journ. of Phil._ x. 2); which are, strictly speaking,
+  not glossographic. The _Breviloquus_ drew its chief material from
+  Papias, Hugucio, Brito, &c. (K. Hamann, _Mitteil. aus dem Breviloquus
+  Benthemianus_, Hamburg, 1879; id., _Weitere Mitteil._, &c., Hamburg,
+  1882); so also the _Vocabularium Ex quo_; the various _Gemmae_;
+  _Vocabularia rerum_ (cf. Diefenbach, _Glossar. Latino-Germanicum_).
+
+  After the revival of learning, J. Scaliger (1540-1609) was the first
+  to impart to glossaries that importance which they deserve (cf. Goetz,
+  in _Sitzungsber. sächs. Ger. d. Wiss._, 1888, p. 219 sqq.), and in his
+  edition of Festus made great use of Ps.-Philoxenus, which enabled O.
+  Müller, the later editor of Festus, to follow in his footsteps.
+  Scaliger also planned the publication of a _Corpus glossarum_, and
+  left behind a collection of glosses known as _glossae Isidori_ (Goetz,
+  _Corp._ v. p. 589 sqq.; id. in _Sitzungsber. sächs. Ges._, 1888, p.
+  224 sqq.; Loewe, _Prodr._ 23 sqq.), which occurs also in old
+  glossaries, clearly in reference to the tenth book of the
+  _Etymologiae_.
+
+  The study of glosses spread through the publication, in 1573, of the
+  bilingual glossaries by H. Stephanus (Estienne), containing, besides
+  the two great glossaries, also the _Hermeneumata Stephani_, which is a
+  recension of the _Ps.-Dositheana_ (republished Goetz, _Corp._ iii.
+  438-474), and the _glossae Stephani_, excerpted from a collection of
+  the _Hermeneumata_ (ib. iii. 438-474).
+
+  In 1600 Bonav. Vulcanius republished the same glossaries, adding (1)
+  the glossae _Isidori_, which now appeared for the first time; (2) the
+  _Onomasticon_; (3) _notae_ and _castigationes_, derived from Scaliger
+  (Loewe, _Prodr._ 183).
+
+  In 1606 Carolus and Petrus Labbaeus published, with the effective help
+  of Scaliger, another collection of glossaries, republished, in 1679,
+  by Du Cange, after which the 17th and 18th centuries produced no
+  further glossaries (Erasm. Nyerup published extracts from the Leiden
+  Glossary, Voss. 69, in 1787, _Symbolae ad Literat. Teut._), though
+  glosses were constantly used or referred to by Salmasius, Meursius,
+  Heraldus, Barth, Fabricius and Burman at Leiden, where a rich
+  collection of glossaries had been obtained by the acquisition of the
+  Vossius library (cf. Loewe, _Prodr._ 168). In the 19th century came
+  Osann's _Glossarii Latini specimen_ (1826); the glossographic
+  publications of Angelo Mai (_Classici auctores_, vols. iii., vi.,
+  vii., viii., Rome, 1831-1836, containing Osbern's _Panormia_, Placidus
+  and various glosses from Vatican MSS.); Fr. Oehler's treatise (1847)
+  on the _Cod. Amplonianus_ of Osbern, and his edition of the three
+  Erfurt glossaries, so important for Anglo-Saxon philology; in 1854 G.
+  F. Hildebrand's _Glossarium Latinum_ (an extract from _Abavus minor_),
+  preserved in a Cod. Paris. lat. 7690; 1857, Thomas Wright's vol. of
+  Anglo-Saxon glosses, which were republished with others in 1884 by R.
+  Paul Wülcker under the title _Anglo-Saxon and Old English
+  Vocabularies_ (London, 2 vols., 1857); L. Diefenbach's supplement to
+  Du Cange, entitled _Glossarium Latino-Germanicum mediae et infimae
+  aetatis_, containing mostly glosses collected from glossaries,
+  vocabularies, &c., enumerated in the preface; Ritschl's treatise
+  (1870) on Placidus, which called forth an edition (1875) of Placidus
+  by Deuerling; G. Loewe's _Prodromus_ (1876), and other treatises by
+  him, published after his death by G. Goetz (Leipzig, 1884); 1888, the
+  second volume of Goetz's own great _Corpus glossariorum Latinorum_, of
+  which seven volumes (except the first) had seen the light by 1907, the
+  last two being separately entitled _Thesaurus glossarum emendatarum_,
+  containing many emendations and corrections of earlier glossaries by
+  the author and other scholars; 1900, Arthur S. Napier, _Old English
+  Glosses_ (Oxford), collected chiefly from Aldhelm MSS., but also from
+  Augustine, Avianus, Beda, Boethius, Gregory, Isidore, Juvencus,
+  Phocas, Prudentius, &c.
+
+  There are a very great number of glossaries still in MS. scattered in
+  various libraries of Europe, especially in the Vatican, at Monte
+  Cassino, Paris, Munich, Bern, the British Museum, Leiden, Oxford,
+  Cambridge, &c. Much has already been done to make the material
+  contained in these MSS. accessible in print, and much may yet be done
+  with what is still unpublished, though we may find that the
+  differences between the glossaries which often present themselves at
+  first sight are mere differences in form introduced by successive more
+  or less qualified copyists.
+
+  Some Celtic (Breton, Cornish, Welsh, Irish) glossaries have been
+  preserved to us, the particulars of which may be learnt from the
+  publications of Whitley Stokes, Sir John Rhys, Kuno Meyer, L. C.
+  Stern, G. I. Ascoli, Heinr. Zimmer, Ernst Windisch, Nigra, and many
+  others; these are published separately as books or in Zeuss's
+  _Grammatica Celtica_, A. Kühn's _Beiträge zur vergleich.
+  Sprachforschung, Zeitschr. für celtische Philologie, Archiv für
+  Celtische Lexicographie, the Revue celtique, Transactions of the
+  London Philological Society_, &c.
+
+  The first Hebrew author known to have used glosses was R. Gershom of
+  Metz (1000) in his commentaries on the Talmud. But he and other Hebrew
+  writers after him mostly used the Old French language (though
+  sometimes also Italian, Slavonic, German) of which an example has been
+  published by Lambert and Brandin, in their _Glossaire hébreu-français
+  du XIII^e siècle: recueil de mots hébreux bibliques avec traduction
+  française_ (Paris, 1905). See further _The Jewish Encyclopedia_ (New
+  York and London, 1903), article "Gloss."
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For a great part of what has been said above, the writer
+  is indebted to G. Goetz's article on "Latein. Glossographie" in
+  Pauly's _Realencyklopädie_. By the side of Goetz's _Corpus_ stands the
+  great collection of Steinmeyer and Sievers, _Die althochdeutschen
+  Glossen_ (in 4 vols., 1879-1898), containing a vast number of (also
+  Anglo-Saxon) glosses culled from Bible MSS. and MSS. of classical
+  Christian authors, enumerated and described in the 4th vol. Besides
+  the works of the editors of, or writers on, glosses, already
+  mentioned, we refer here to a few others, whose writings may be
+  consulted: Hugo Blümner; _Catholicon Anglicum_ (ed. Hertage); De-Vit
+  (at end of Forcellini's _Lexicon_); F. Deycks; Du Cange; Funck; J. H.
+  Gallée (_Altsächs. Sprachdenkm._, 1894); Gröber; K. Gruber
+  (_Hauptquellen des Corpus, Épin. u. Erfurt Gloss._, Erlangen, 1904);
+  Hattemer; W. Heraeus (_Die Sprache des Petronius und die Glossen_,
+  Leipzig, 1899); Kettner; Kluge; Krumbacher; Lagarde; Landgraf; Marx;
+  W. Meyer-Lubke ("Zu den latein. Glossen" in _Wiener Stud._ xxv. 90
+  sqq.); Henry Nettleship; Niedermann, _Notes d'étymol. lat._ (Macon,
+  1902), _Contribut. à la critique des glosses latines_ (Neuchâtel,
+  1905); Pokrowskij; Quicherat; Otto B. Schlutter (many important
+  articles in _Anglia, Englische Studien, Archiv f. latein.
+  Lexicographie_, &c.); Schöll; Schuchardt; Leo Sommer; Stadler;
+  Stowasser; Strachan; H. Sweet; Usener (_Rhein. Mus._ xxiii. 496, xxiv.
+  382); A. Way, _Promptorium parvulorum sive clericorum_ (3 vols.,
+  London, 1843-1865); Weyman; Wilmanns (in _Rhein. Mus._ xxiv. 363);
+  Wölfflin in _Arch. für lat. Lexicogr._; Zupitza. Cf. further, the
+  various volumes of the following periodicals: _Romania_; _Zeitschr.
+  für deutsches Alterthum_; _Anglia_; _Englische Studien_; _Journal of
+  English and German Philology_ (ed. Cook and Karsten); _Archiv für
+  latein. Lexicogr._, and others treating of philology, lexicography,
+  grammar, &c.     (J. H. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The history of the literary gloss in its proper sense has given
+    rise to the common English use of the word to mean an interpretation,
+    especially in a disingenuous, sinister or false way; the form
+    "gloze," more particularly associated with explaining away,
+    palliating or talking speciously, is simply an alternative spelling.
+    The word has thus to some extent influenced, or been influenced by,
+    the meaning of the etymologically different "gloss" = lustrous
+    surface (from the same root as "glass"; cf. "glow"), in its extended
+    sense of "outward fair seeming."
+
+  [2] See Matthaei, _Glossaria Graeca_ (Moscow, 1774/5).
+
+  [3] See Labbé, _Veteres glossae verborum juris quae passim in
+    Basilicis reperiuntur_ (1606); Otto, _Thesaurus juris Romani_, iii.
+    (1697); Stephens, _Thesaurus linguae Graecae_, viii. (1825).
+
+  [4] See Biener, _Geschichte der Novellen_, p. 229 sqq.
+
+  [5] Irnerius himself is with some probability believed to have been
+    the author of the Brachylogus (q.v.).
+
+  [6] Thus Fil. Villani (_De origine civitatis Florentiae_, ed. 1847,
+    p. 23), speaking of the Glossator Accursius, says of the Glossae that
+    "tantae auctoritatis gratiaeque fuere, ut omnium consensu publice
+    approbarentur, et reiectis aliis, quibuscumque penitus abolitis,
+    solae juxta textum legum adpositae sunt et ubique terrarum sine
+    controversia pro legibus celebrantur, ita ut nefas sit, non secus
+    quam textui, Glossis Accursii contraire." For similar testimonies see
+    Bayle's _Dictionnaire_, s.v. "Accursius," and Rudorff, _Röm.
+    Rechtsgeschichte_, i. 338 (1857).
+
+  [7] The so-called _Malberg_ glosses, found in various texts of the
+    Lex Salica, are not glosses in the ordinary sense of the word, but
+    precious remains of the parent of the present literary Dutch, namely,
+    the Low German dialect spoken by the Salian Franks who conquered Gaul
+    from the Romans at the end of the 5th century. It is supposed that
+    the conquerors brought their Frankish law with them, either written
+    down, or by oral tradition; that they translated it into Latin for
+    the sake of the Romans settled in the country, and that the
+    translators, not always knowing a proper Latin equivalent for certain
+    things or actions, retained in their translations the Frankish
+    technical names or phrases which they had attempted to translate into
+    Latin. E.g. in chapter ii., by the side of "_porcellus lactans_" (a
+    sucking-pig), we find the Frankish "_chramnechaltio_," lit. a
+    stye-porker. The person who stole such a pig (still kept in an
+    enclosed place, in a stye) was fined three times as much as one who
+    stole a "_porcellus de campo qui sine matre vivere possit_," as the
+    Latin text has it, for which the Malberg technical expression appears
+    to have been _ingymus_, that is, a one year (winter) old animal, i.e.
+    a yearling. Nearly all these glosses are preceded by "_mal_" or
+    "_malb_," which is thought to be a contraction for "_malberg_," the
+    Frankish for "forum." The antiquity and importance of these glosses
+    for philology may be realized from the fact that the Latin
+    translation of the Lex Salica probably dates from the latter end of
+    the 5th century. For further information cf. Jac. Grimm's preface to
+    Joh. Merkel's ed. (1850), and H. Kern's notes to J. H. Hessels's ed.
+    (London, 1880) of the Lex Salica.
+
+  [8] Anglo-Saxon scholars ascribe an earlier date to the text of the
+    MS. on account of certain archaisms in its Anglo-Saxon words.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSOP, a market town and municipal borough, in the High Peak
+parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, on the extreme northern
+border of the county; 13 m. E. by S. of Manchester by the Great Central
+railway. Pop. (1901) 21,526. It is the chief seat of the cotton
+manufacture in Derbyshire, and it has also woollen and paper mills, dye
+and print works, and bleaching greens. The town consists of three main
+divisions, the Old Town (or Glossop proper), Howard Town (or Glossop
+Dale) and Mill Town. An older parish church was replaced by that of All
+Saints in 1830; there is also a very fine Roman Catholic church. In the
+immediate neighbourhood is Glossop Hall, the seat of Lord Howard, lord
+of the manor, a picturesque old building with extensive terraced
+gardens. On a hill near the town is Melandra Castle, the site of a Roman
+fort guarding Longdendale and the way into the hills of the Peak
+District. In the neighbourhood also a great railway viaduct spans the
+Dinting valley with sixteen arches. To the north, in Longdendale, there
+are five lakes belonging to the water-supply system of Manchester,
+formed by damming the Etherow, a stream which descends from the high
+moors north-east of Glossop. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen
+and 18 councillors. Area, 3052 acres.
+
+Glossop was granted by Henry I. to William Peverel, on the attainder of
+whose son it reverted to the crown. In 1157 it was gifted by Henry II.
+to the abbey of Basingwerk. Henry VIII. bestowed it on the earl of
+Shrewsbury. It was made a municipal borough in 1866.
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The English earldom of Gloucester was
+held by several members of the royal family, including Robert, a natural
+son of Henry I., and John, afterwards king, and others, until 1218, when
+Gilbert de Clare was recognized as earl of Gloucester. It remained in
+the family of Clare (q.v.) until 1314, when another Earl Gilbert was
+killed at Bannockburn; and after this date it was claimed by various
+relatives of the Clares, among them by the younger Hugh le Despenser (d.
+1326) and by Hugh Audley (d. 1347), both of whom had married sisters of
+Earl Gilbert. In 1397 Thomas le Despenser (1373-1400), a descendant of
+the Clares, was created earl of Gloucester; but in 1399 he was degraded
+from his earldom and in January 1400 was beheaded.
+
+The dukedom dates from 1385, when Thomas of Woodstock, a younger son of
+Edward III., was created duke of Gloucester, but his honours were
+forfeited when he was found guilty of treason in 1397. The next holder
+of the title was Humphrey, a son of Henry IV., who was created duke of
+Gloucester in 1414. He died without sons in 1447, and in 1461 the title
+was revived in favour of Richard, brother of Edward IV., who became king
+as Richard III. in 1483.
+
+In 1659 Henry (1639-1660), a brother of Charles II., was formally
+created duke of Gloucester, a title which he had borne since infancy.
+This prince, sharing the exile of the Stuarts, had incensed his mother,
+Queen Henrietta Maria, by his firm adherence to the Protestant religion,
+and had fought among the Spaniards at Dunkirk in 1658. Having returned
+to England with Charles II., he died unmarried in London on the 13th of
+September 1660. The next duke was William (1689-1700), son of the
+princess Anne, who was, after his mother, the heir to the English
+throne, and who was declared duke of Gloucester by his uncle, William
+III., in 1689, but no patent for this creation was ever passed. William
+died on the 30th of July 1700, and again the title became extinct.
+
+Frederick Louis, the eldest son of George II., was known for some time
+as duke of Gloucester, but when he was raised to the peerage in 1726 it
+was as duke of Edinburgh only. In 1764 Frederick's third son, William
+Henry (1743-1805), was created duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh by his
+brother, George III. This duke's secret marriage with Maria (d. 1807),
+an illegitimate daughter of Sir Edward Walpole and widow of James, 2nd
+Earl Waldegrave, in 1766, greatly incensed his royal relatives and led
+to his banishment from court. Gloucester died on the 25th of August
+1805, leaving an only son, William Frederick (1776-1834), who now became
+duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh. The duke, who served with the British
+army in Flanders, married his cousin Mary (1776-1857), a daughter of
+George III. He died on the 30th of November 1834, leaving no children,
+and his widow, the last survivor of the family of George III., died on
+the 30th of April 1857.
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE, EARL OF (1243-1295), was a son of Richard
+de Clare, 7th earl of Gloucester and 8th earl of Clare, and was born at
+Christchurch, Hampshire, on the 2nd of September 1243. Having married
+Alice of Angoulême, half-sister of king Henry III., he became earl of
+Gloucester and Clare on his father's death in July 1262, and almost at
+once joined the baronial party led by Simon de Montfort, earl of
+Leicester. With Simon Gloucester was at the battle of Lewes in May 1264,
+when the king himself surrendered to him, and after this victory he was
+one of the three persons selected to nominate a council. Soon, however,
+he quarrelled with Leicester. Leaving London for his lands on the Welsh
+border he met Prince Edward, afterwards king Edward I., at Ludlow, just
+after his escape from captivity, and by his skill contributed largely to
+the prince's victory at Evesham in August 1265. But this alliance was as
+transitory as the one with Leicester. Gloucester took up the cudgels on
+behalf of the barons who had surrendered at Kenilworth in November and
+December 1266, and after putting his demands before the king, secured
+possession of London. This happened in April 1267, but the earl quickly
+made his peace with Henry III. and with Prince Edward, and, having
+evaded an obligation to go on the Crusade, he helped to secure the
+peaceful accession of Edward I. to the throne in 1272. Gloucester then
+passed several years in fighting in Wales, or on the Welsh border; in
+1289 when the barons were asked for a subsidy he replied on their behalf
+that they would grant nothing until they saw the king in person (_nisi
+prius personaliter viderent in Anglia faciem regis_), and in 1291 he was
+fined and imprisoned on account of his violent quarrel with Humphrey de
+Bohun, earl of Hereford. Having divorced his wife Alice, he married in
+1290 Edward's daughter Joan, or Johanna (d. 1307). Earl Gilbert, who is
+sometimes called the "Red," died at Monmouth on the 7th of December
+1295, leaving in addition to three daughters a son, Gilbert, earl of
+Gloucester and Clare, who was killed at Bannockburn.
+
+  See C. Bémont, _Simon de Montfort, comte de Leicester_ (1884), and G.
+  W. Prothero, _Simon de Montfort_ (1877).
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTER, HUMPHREY, DUKE OF (1391-1447), fourth son of Henry IV. by
+Mary de Bohun, was born in 1391. He was knighted at his father's
+coronation on the 11th of October 1399, and created duke of Gloucester
+by Henry V. at Leicester on the 16th of May 1414. He served in the war
+next year, and was wounded at Agincourt, where he owed his life to his
+brother's valour. In April 1416 Humphrey received the emperor Sigismund
+at Dover and, according to a 16th-century story, did not let him land
+till he had disclaimed all title to imperial authority in England. In
+the second invasion of France Humphrey commanded the force which during
+1418 reduced the Cotentin and captured Cherbourg. Afterwards he joined
+the main army before Rouen, and took part in subsequent campaigns till
+January 1420. He then went home to replace Bedford as regent in England,
+and held office till Henry's own return in February 1421. He was again
+regent for his brother from May to September 1422.
+
+Henry V. measured Humphrey's capacity, and by his will named him merely
+deputy for Bedford in England. Humphrey at once claimed the full
+position of regent, but the parliament and council allowed him only the
+title of protector during Bedford's absence, with limited powers. His
+lack of discretion soon justified this caution. In the autumn of 1422 he
+married Jacqueline of Bavaria, heiress of Holland, to whose lands Philip
+of Burgundy had claims. Bedford, in the interest of so important an
+ally, endeavoured vainly to restrain his brother. Finally in October
+1424 Humphrey took up arms in his wife's behalf, but after a short
+campaign in Hainault went home, and left Jacqueline to be overwhelmed by
+Burgundy. Returning to England in April 1425 he soon entangled himself
+in a quarrel with the council and his uncle Henry Beaufort, and stirred
+up a tumult in London. Open war was averted only by Beaufort's prudence,
+and Bedford's hurried return. Humphrey had charged his uncle with
+disloyalty to the late and present kings. With some difficulty Bedford
+effected a formal reconciliation at Leicester in March 1426, and forced
+Humphrey to accept Beaufort's disavowal. When Bedford left England next
+year Humphrey renewed his intrigues. But one complication was removed by
+the annulling in 1428 of his marriage with Jacqueline. His open adultery
+with his mistress, Eleanor Cobham, also made him unpopular. To check his
+indiscretion the council, in November 1429, had the king crowned, and so
+put an end to Humphrey's protectorate. However, when Henry VI. was soon
+afterwards taken to be crowned in France, Humphrey was made lieutenant
+and warden of the kingdom, and thus ruled England for nearly two years.
+His jealousy of Bedford and Beaufort still continued, and when the
+former died in 1435 there was no one to whom he would defer. The
+defection of Burgundy roused English feeling, and Humphrey won
+popularity as leader of the war party. In 1436 he commanded in a short
+invasion of Flanders. But he had no real power, and his political
+importance lay in his persistent opposition to Beaufort and the
+councillors of his party. In 1439 he renewed his charges against his
+uncle without effect. His position was further damaged by his connexion
+with Eleanor Cobham, whom he had now married. In 1441 Eleanor was
+charged with practising sorcery against the king, and Humphrey had to
+submit to see her condemned, and her accomplices executed. Nevertheless,
+he continued his political opposition, and endeavoured to thwart
+Suffolk, who was now taking Beaufort's place in the council, by opposing
+the king's marriage to Margaret of Anjou. Under Suffolk's influence
+Henry VI. grew to distrust his uncle altogether. The crisis came in the
+parliament of Bury St Edmunds in February 1447. Immediately on his
+arrival there Humphrey was arrested, and four days later, on the 23rd of
+February, he died. Rumour attributed his death to foul play. But his
+health had been long undermined by excesses, and his end was probably
+only hastened by the shock of his arrest.
+
+Humphrey was buried at St Albans Abbey, in a fine tomb, which still
+exists. He was ambitious and self-seeking, but unstable and
+unprincipled, and, lacking the fine qualities of his brothers, excelled
+neither in war nor in peace. Still he was a cultured and courtly prince,
+who could win popularity. He was long remembered as the good Duke
+Humphrey, and in his lifetime was a liberal patron of letters. He had
+been a great collector of books, many of which he presented to the
+university of Oxford. He contributed also to the building of the
+Divinity School, and of the room still called Duke Humphrey's library.
+His books were dispersed at the Reformation and only three volumes of
+his donation now remain in the Bodleian library. Titus Livius, an
+Italian in Humphrey's service, wrote a life of Henry V. at his patron's
+bidding. Other Italian scholars, as Leonardo Aretino, benefited by his
+patronage. Amongst English men of letters he befriended Reginald Pecock,
+Whethamstead of St Albans, Capgrave the historian, Lydgate, and Gilbert
+Kymer, who was his physician and chancellor of Oxford university. A
+popular error found Humphrey a fictitious tomb in St Paul's Cathedral.
+The adjoining aisle, called Duke Humphrey's Walk, was frequented by
+beggars and needy adventurers. Hence the 16th-century proverb "to dine
+with Duke Humphrey," used of those who loitered there dinnerless.
+
+  The most important contemporary sources are Stevenson's _Wars of the
+  English in France_, Whethamstead's _Register_, and Beckington's
+  _Letters_ (all in Rolls Ser.), with the various _London Chronicles_,
+  and the works of Waurin and Monstrelet. For his relations with
+  Jacqueline see F. von Löher's _Jacobäa von Bayern und ihre Zeit_ (2
+  vols., Nördlingen, 1869). For other modern authorities consult W.
+  Stubbs's _Constitutional History_; J. H. Ramsay's _Lancaster and
+  York_; _Political History of England_, vol. iv.; R. Pauli, _Pictures
+  of Old England_, pp. 373-401 (1861); and K. H. Viekers, _Humphrey,
+  Duke of Gloucester_ (1907). For Humphrey's correspondence with Piero
+  Candido Decembrio see the _English Historical Review_, vols. x., xix.,
+  xx.     (C. L. K.)
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE, EARL OF (1222-1262), was a son of Gilbert
+de Clare, 6th earl of Gloucester and 7th earl of Clare, and was born on
+the 4th of August 1222, succeeding to his father's earldoms on the
+death of the latter in October 1230. His first wife was Margaret,
+daughter of Hubert de Burgh, and after her death in 1237 he married
+Maud, daughter of John de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, and passed his early
+years in tournaments and pilgrimages, taking for a time a secondary and
+undecided part in politics. He refused to help Henry III. on the French
+expedition of 1250, but was afterwards with the king at Paris; then he
+went on a diplomatic errand to Scotland, and was sent to Germany to work
+among the princes for the election of his stepfather, Richard, earl of
+Cornwall, as king of the Romans. About 1258 Gloucester took up his
+position as a leader of the barons in their resistance to the king, and
+he was prominent during the proceedings which followed the Mad
+Parliament at Oxford in 1258. In 1259, however, he quarrelled with Simon
+de Montfort, earl of Leicester; the dispute, begun in England, was
+renewed in France and he was again in the confidence and company of the
+king. This attitude, too, was only temporary, and in 1261 Gloucester and
+Leicester were again working in concord. The earl died at his residence
+near Canterbury on the 15th of July 1262. A large landholder like his
+son and successor, Gilbert, Gloucester was the most powerful English
+baron of his time; he was avaricious and extravagant, but educated and
+able. He left several children in addition to Earl Gilbert.
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTER, ROBERT, EARL OF (d. 1147), was a natural son of Henry I. of
+England. He was born, before his father's accession, at Caen in
+Normandy; but the exact date of his birth, and his mother's name are
+unknown. He received from his father the hand of a wealthy heiress,
+Mabel of Gloucester, daughter of Robert Fitz Hamon, and with her the
+lordships of Gloucester and Glamorgan. About 1121 the earldom of
+Gloucester was created for his benefit. His rank and territorial
+influence made him the natural leader of the western baronage. Hence, at
+his father's death, he was sedulously courted by the rival parties of
+his half-sister the empress Matilda and of Stephen. After some
+hesitation he declared for the latter, but tendered his homage upon
+strict conditions, the breach of which should be held to invalidate the
+contract. Robert afterwards alleged that he had merely feigned
+submission to Stephen with the object of secretly furthering his
+half-sister's cause among the English barons. The truth appears to be
+that he was mortified at finding himself excluded from the inner
+councils of the king, and so resolved to sell his services elsewhere.
+Robert left England for Normandy in 1137, renewed his relations with the
+Angevin party, and in 1138 sent a formal defiance to the king. Returning
+to England in the following year, he raised the standard of rebellion in
+his own earldom with such success that the greater part of western
+England and the south Welsh marches were soon in the possession of the
+empress. By the battle of Lincoln (Feb. 2, 1141), in which Stephen was
+taken prisoner, the earl made good Matilda's claim to the whole kingdom.
+He accompanied her triumphal progress to Winchester and London; but was
+unable to moderate the arrogance of her behaviour. Consequently she was
+soon expelled from London and deserted by the bishop Henry of Winchester
+who, as legate, controlled the policy of the English church. With
+Matilda the earl besieged the legate at Winchester, but was forced by
+the royalists to beat a hasty retreat, and in covering Matilda's flight
+fell into the hands of the pursuers. So great was his importance that
+his party purchased his freedom by the release of Stephen. The earl
+renewed the struggle for the crown and continued it until his death
+(Oct. 31, 1147); but the personal unpopularity of Matilda, and the
+estrangement of the Church from her cause, made his efforts unavailing.
+His loyalty to a lost cause must be allowed to weigh in the scale
+against his earlier double-dealing. But he hardly deserves the
+extravagant praise which is lavished upon him by William of Malmesbury.
+The sympathies of the chronicler are too obviously influenced by the
+earl's munificence towards literary men.
+
+  See the _Historia novella_ by William of Malmesbury (Rolls edition);
+  the _Historia Anglorum_ by Henry of Huntingdon (Rolls edition); J. H.
+  Round's _Geoffrey de Mandeville_ (1892); and O. Rössler's _Kaiserin
+  Mathilde_ (Berlin, 1897).     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK, DUKE OF (1355-1397), seventh and
+youngest son of the English king Edward III., was born at Woodstock on
+the 7th of January 1355. Having married Eleanor (d. 1399), daughter and
+co-heiress of Humphrey de Bohun, earl of Hereford, Essex and Northampton
+(d. 1373), Thomas obtained the office of constable of England, a
+position previously held by the Bohuns, and was made earl of Buckingham
+by his nephew, Richard II., at the coronation in July 1377. He took part
+in defending the English coasts against the attacks of the French and
+Castilians, after which he led an army through northern and central
+France, and besieged Nantes, which town, however, he failed to take.
+
+Returning to England early in 1381, Buckingham found that his brother,
+John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, had married his wife's sister, Mary
+Bohun, to his own son, Henry, afterwards King Henry IV. The relations
+between the brothers, hitherto somewhat strained, were not improved by
+this proceeding, as Thomas, doubtless, was hoping to retain possession
+of Mary's estates. Having taken some part in crushing the rising of the
+peasants in 1381, Buckingham became more friendly with Lancaster; and
+while marching with the king into Scotland in 1385 was created duke of
+Gloucester, a mark of favour, however, which did not prevent him from
+taking up an attitude of hostility to Richard. Lancaster having left the
+country, Gloucester placed himself at the head of the party which
+disliked the royal advisers, Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk and
+Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, whose recent elevation to the dignity of
+duke of Ireland had aroused profound discontent. The moment was
+propitious for interference, and supported by those who were indignant
+at the extravagance and incompetence, real or alleged, of the king,
+Gloucester was soon in a position of authority. He forced on the
+dismissal and impeachment of Suffolk; was a member of the commission
+appointed in 1386 to reform the kingdom and the royal household; and
+took up arms when Richard began proceedings against the commissioners.
+Having defeated Vere at Radcot in December 1387 the duke and his
+associates entered London to find the king powerless in their hands.
+Gloucester, who had previously threatened his uncle with deposition, was
+only restrained from taking this extreme step by the influence of his
+colleagues; but, as the leader of the "lords appellant" in the
+"Merciless Parliament," which met in February 1388 and was packed with
+his supporters, he took a savage revenge upon his enemies, while not
+neglecting to add to his own possessions.
+
+He was not seriously punished when Richard regained his power in May
+1389, but he remained in the background, although employed occasionally
+on public business, and accompanying the king to Ireland in 1394. In
+1396, however, uncle and nephew were again at variance. Gloucester
+disliked the peace with France and Richard's second marriage with
+Isabella, daughter of King Charles VI.; other causes of difference were
+not wanting, and it has been asserted that the duke was plotting to
+seize the king. At all events Richard decided to arrest him. By refusing
+an invitation to dinner the duke frustrated the first attempt, but on
+the 11th of July 1397 he was arrested by the king himself at his
+residence, Pleshey castle in Essex. He was taken at once to Calais, and
+it is probable that he was murdered by order of the king on the 9th of
+September following. The facts seem to be as follows. At the beginning
+of September it was reported that he was dead. The rumour, probably a
+deliberate one, was false, and about the same time a justice, Sir
+William Rickhill (d. 1407), was sent to Calais with instructions dated
+the 17th of August to obtain a confession from Gloucester. On the 8th of
+September the duke confessed that he had been guilty of treason, and his
+death immediately followed this avowal. Unwilling to meet his parliament
+so soon after his uncle's death, Richard's purpose was doubtless to
+antedate this occurrence, and to foster the impression that the duke had
+died from natural causes in August. When parliament met in September he
+was declared guilty of treason and his estates forfeited. Gloucester had
+one son, Humphrey (c. 1381-1399), who died unmarried, and four
+daughters, the most notable of whom was Anne (c. 1380-1438), who was
+successively the wife of Thomas, 3rd earl of Stafford, Edmund, 5th earl
+of Stafford, and William Bourchier, count of Eu. Gloucester is supposed
+to have written _L'Ordonnance d'Angleterre pour le camp à l'outrance, ou
+gaige de bataille_.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See T. Walsingham, _Historia Anglicana_, edited by H.
+  T. Riley (London, 1863-1864); The Monk of Evesham, _Historia vitae et
+  regni Ricardi II._, edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1729); _Chronique de
+  la traison et mort de Richard II_, edited by B. Williams (London,
+  1846); J. Froissart, _Chroniques_, edited by S. Luce and G. Raynaud
+  (Paris, 1869-1897); W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. ii.
+  (Oxford, 1896); J. Tait in _Owens College Historical Essays_ and S.
+  Armitage-Smith, _John of Gaunt_ (London, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTER (abbreviated as pronounced _Glo'ster_), a city, county of a
+city, municipal and parliamentary borough and port, and the county town
+of Gloucestershire, England, on the left (east) bank of the river
+Severn, 114 m. W.N.W. of London. Pop. (1901) 47,955. It is served by the
+Great Western railway and the west-and-north branch of the Midland
+railway; while the Berkeley Ship Canal runs S.W. to Sharpness Docks in
+the Severn estuary (16½ m.). Gloucester is situated on a gentle eminence
+overlooking the Severn and sheltered by the Cotteswolds on the east,
+while the Malverns and the hills of the Forest of Dean rise prominently
+to the west and north-west.
+
+The cathedral, in the north of the city near the river, originates in
+the foundation of an abbey of St Peter in 681, the foundations of the
+present church having been laid by Abbot Serlo (1072-1104); and Walter
+Froucester (d. 1412) its historian, became its first mitred abbot in
+1381. Until 1541, Gloucester lay in the see of Worcester, but the
+separate see was then constituted, with John Wakeman, last abbot of
+Tewkesbury, for its first bishop. The diocese covers the greater part of
+Gloucestershire, with small parts of Herefordshire and Wiltshire. The
+cathedral may be succinctly described as consisting of a Norman nucleus,
+with additions in every style of Gothic architecture. It is 420 ft.
+long, and 144 ft. broad, with a beautiful central tower of the 15th
+century rising to the height of 225 ft. and topped by four graceful
+pinnacles. The nave is massive Norman with Early English roof; the crypt
+also, under the choir, aisles and chapels, is Norman, as is the
+chapter-house. The crypt is one of the four apsidal cathedral crypts in
+England, the others being at Worcester, Winchester and Canterbury. The
+south porch is Perpendicular, with fan-tracery roof, as also is the
+north transept, the south being transitional Decorated. The choir has
+Perpendicular tracery over Norman work, with an apsidal chapel on each
+side. The choir-vaulting is particularly rich, and the modern scheme of
+colouring is judicious. The splendid late Decorated east window is
+partly filled with ancient glass. Between the apsidal chapels is a cross
+Lady chapel, and north of the nave are the cloisters, with very early
+example of fan-tracery, the carols or stalls for the monks' study and
+writing lying to the south. The finest monument is the canopied shrine
+of Edward II. who was brought hither from Berkeley. By the visits of
+pilgrims to this the building and sanctuary were enriched. In a
+side-chapel, too, is a monument in coloured bog oak of Robert Curthose,
+a great benefactor to the abbey, the eldest son of the Conqueror, who
+was interred there; and those of Bishop Warburton and Dr Edward Jenner
+are also worthy of special mention. A musical festival (the Festival of
+the Three Choirs) is held annually in this cathedral and those of
+Worcester and Hereford in turn. Between 1873 and 1890 and in 1897 the
+cathedral was extensively restored, principally by Sir Gilbert Scott.
+Attached to the deanery is the Norman prior's chapel. In St Mary's
+Square outside the Abbey gate, Bishop Hooper suffered martyrdom under
+Queen Mary in 1555.
+
+Quaint gabled and timbered houses preserve the ancient aspect of the
+city. At the point of intersection of the four principal streets stood
+the Tolsey or town hall, replaced by a modern building in 1894. None of
+the old public buildings, in fact, is left, but the New Inn in Northgate
+Street is a beautiful timbered house, strong and massive, with external
+galleries and courtyards, built in 1450 for the pilgrims to Edward II.'s
+shrine, by Abbot Sebroke, a traditional subterranean passage leading
+thence to the cathedral. The timber is principally chestnut. There are a
+large number of churches and dissenting chapels, and it may have been
+the old proverb, "as sure as God's in Gloucester," which provoked Oliver
+Cromwell to declare that the city had "more churches than godliness." Of
+the churches four are of special interest: St Mary de Lode, with a
+Norman tower and chancel, and a monument of Bishop Hooper, on the site
+of a Roman temple which became the first Christian church in Britain; St
+Mary de Crypt, a cruciform structure of the 12th century, with later
+additions and a beautiful and lofty tower; the church of St Michael,
+said to have been connected with the ancient abbey of St Peter; and St
+Nicholas church, originally of Norman erection, and possessing a tower
+and other portions of later date. In the neighbourhood of St Mary de
+Crypt are slight remains of Greyfriars and Blackfriars monasteries, and
+also of the city wall. Early vaulted cellars remain under the Fleece and
+Saracen's Head inns.
+
+There are three endowed schools: the College school, refounded by Henry
+VIII. as part of the cathedral establishment; the school of St Mary de
+Crypt, founded by Dame Joan Cooke in the same reign; and Sir Thomas
+Rich's Blue Coat hospital for 34 boys (1666). At the Crypt school the
+famous preacher George Whitefield (1714-1770) was educated, and he
+preached his first sermon in the church. The first Sunday school was
+held in Gloucester, being originated by Robert Raikes, in 1780.
+
+The noteworthy modern buildings include the museum and school of art and
+science, the county gaol (on the site of a Saxon and Norman castle), the
+Shire Hall and the Whitefield memorial church. A park in the south of
+the city contains a spa, a chalybeate spring having been discovered in
+1814. West of this, across the canal, are the remains (a gateway and
+some walls) of Llanthony Priory, a cell of the mother abbey in the vale
+of Ewyas, Monmouthshire, which in the reign of Edward IV. became the
+secondary establishment.
+
+Gloucester possesses match works, foundries, marble and slate works,
+saw-mills, chemical works, rope works, flour-mills, manufactories of
+railway wagons, engines and agricultural implements, and boat and
+ship-building yards. Gloucester was declared a port in 1882. The
+Berkeley canal was opened in 1827. The Gloucester canal-harbour and that
+at Sharpness on the Severn are managed by a board. Principal imports are
+timber and grain; and exports, coal, salt, iron and bricks. The salmon
+and lamprey fisheries in the Severn are valuable. The tidal bore in the
+river attains its extreme height just below the city, and sometimes
+surmounts the weir in the western branch of the river, affecting the
+stream up to Tewkesbury lock. The parliamentary borough returns one
+member. The city is governed by a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors.
+Area, 2315 acres.
+
+_History._--The traditional existence of a British settlement at
+Gloucester (Cær Glow, Gleawecastre, Gleucestre) is not confirmed by any
+direct evidence, but Gloucester was the Roman municipality or _colonia_
+of _Glevum_, founded by Nerva (A.D. 96-98). Parts of the walls can be
+traced, and many remains and coins have been found, though inscriptions
+(as is frequently the case in Britain) are somewhat scarce. Its
+situation on a navigable river, and the foundation in 681 of the abbey
+of St Peter by Æthelred favoured the growth of the town; and before the
+Conquest Gloucester was a borough governed by a portreeve, with a castle
+which was frequently a royal residence, and a mint. The first overlord,
+Earl Godwine, was succeeded nearly a century later by Robert, earl of
+Gloucester. Henry II. granted the first charter in 1155 which gave the
+burgesses the same liberties as the citizens of London and Winchester,
+and a second charter of Henry II. gave them freedom of passage on the
+Severn. The first charter was confirmed in 1194 by Richard I. The
+privileges of the borough were greatly extended by the charter of John
+(1200) which gave freedom from toll throughout the kingdom and from
+pleading outside the borough. Subsequent charters were numerous.
+Gloucester was incorporated by Richard III. in 1483, the town being made
+a county in itself. This charter was confirmed in 1489 and 1510, and
+other charters of incorporation were received by Gloucester from
+Elizabeth in 1560, James I. in 1604, Charles I. in 1626 and Charles II.
+in 1672. The chartered port of Gloucester dates from 1580. Gloucester
+returned two members to parliament from 1275 to 1885, since when it has
+been represented by one member. A seven days' fair from the 24th of June
+was granted by Edward I. in 1302, and James I. licensed fairs on the
+25th of March and the 17th of November, and fairs under these grants are
+still held on the first Saturday in April and July and the last Saturday
+in November. The fair now held on the 28th of September was granted to
+the abbey of St Peter in 1227. A market on Wednesday existed in the
+reign of John, was confirmed by charter in 1227 and is still held. The
+iron trade of Gloucester dates from before the Conquest, tanning was
+carried on before the reign of Richard III., pin-making and
+bell-founding were introduced in the 16th, and the long-existing coal
+trade became important in the 18th century. The cloth trade flourished
+from the 12th to the 16th century. The sea-borne trade in corn and wine
+existed before the reign of Richard I.
+
+  See W. H. Stevenson, _Records of the Corporation of Gloucester_
+  (Gloucester, 1893); _Victoria County History, Gloucestershire_.
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTER, a city and port of entry of Essex county, Massachusetts,
+U.S.A., beautifully situated on Cape Ann. Pop. (1890) 24,651; (1900)
+26,121, of whom 8768 were foreign-born, including 4388 English
+Canadians, 800 French Canadians, 665 Irish, 653 Finns and 594
+Portuguese; (1910 census) 24,398. Area, 53.6 sq. m. It is served by the
+Boston & Maine railway and by a steamboat line to Boston. The surface is
+sterile, naked and rugged, with bold, rocky ledges, and a most
+picturesque shore, the beauties of which have made it a favourite summer
+resort, much frequented by artists. Included within the city borders are
+several villages, of which the principal one, also known as Gloucester,
+has a deep and commodious harbour. Among the other villages, all summer
+resorts, are Annisquam, Bay View and Magnolia (so called from the
+_Magnolia glauca_, which grows wild there, this being probably its most
+northerly habitat); near Magnolia are Rafe's Chasm (60 ft. deep and 6-10
+ft. wide) and Norman's Woe, the scene of the wreck of the "Hesperus"
+(which has only tradition as a basis), celebrated in Longfellow's poem.
+There is some slight general commerce--in 1909 the imports were valued
+at $130,098; the exports at $7853--but the principal business is
+fishing, and has been since early colonial days. The pursuit of cod,
+mackerel, herring and halibut fills up, with a winter coasting trade,
+the round of the year. In this industry Gloucester is the most important
+place in the United States; and is, indeed, one of the greatest fishing
+ports of the world. Most of the adult males are engaged in it. The
+"catch" was valued in 1895 at $3,212,985 and in 1905 at $3,377,330. The
+organization of the industry has undergone many transformations, but a
+notable feature is the general practice--especially since modern methods
+have necessitated larger vessels and more costly gear, and
+correspondingly greater capital--of profit-sharing; all the crew
+entering on that basis and not independently. There are some
+manufactures, chiefly connected with the fisheries. The total factory
+product in 1905 was valued at $6,920,984, of which the canning and
+preserving of fish represented $4,068,571, and glue represented
+$752,003. An industry of considerable importance is the quarrying of the
+beautiful, dark Cape Ann granite that underlies the city and all the
+environs.
+
+Gloucester harbour was probably noted by Champlain (as La Beauport), and
+a temporary settlement was made by English fishermen sent out by the
+Dorchester Company of "merchant adventurers" in 1623-1625; some of these
+settlers returned to England in 1625, and others, with Roger Conant, the
+governor, removed to what is now Salem.[1] Permanent settlement
+ante-dated 1639 at least, and in 1642 the township was incorporated. From
+Gosnold's voyages onward the extraordinary abundance of cod about Cape
+Ann was well known, and though the first settlers characteristically
+enough tried to live by farming, they speedily became perforce a
+sea-faring folk. The active pursuit of fishing as an industry may be
+dated as beginning about 1700, for then began voyages beyond Cape Sable.
+Voyages to the Grand Banks began about 1741. Mackerel was a relatively
+unimportant catch until about 1821, and since then has been an important
+but unstable return; halibut fishing has been vigorously pursued since
+about 1836 and herring since about 1856. At the opening of the War of
+Independence Gloucester, whose fisheries then employed about 600 men, was
+second to Marblehead as a fishing-port. The war destroyed the fisheries,
+which steadily declined, reaching their lowest ebb from 1820 to 1840.
+Meanwhile foreign commerce had greatly expanded. The cod take had
+supported in the 18th century an extensive trade with Bilbao, Lisbon and
+the West Indies, and though changed in nature with the decline of the
+Bank fisheries after the War of Independence, it continued large through
+the first quarter of the 19th century. Throughout more than half of the
+same century also Gloucester carried on a varied and valuable trade with
+Surinam, hake being the chief article of export and molasses and sugar
+the principal imports. "India Square" remains, a memento of a bygone day.
+About 1850 the fisheries revived, especially after 1860, under the
+influence of better prices, improved methods and the discovery of new
+grounds, becoming again the chief economic interest; and since that time
+the village of Gloucester has changed from a picturesque hamlet to a
+fairly modern, though still quaint and somewhat foreign, settlement.
+Gasoline boats were introduced in 1900. Ship-building is another industry
+of the past. The first "schooner" was launched at Gloucester in 1713.
+From 1830 to 1907, 776 vessels and 5242 lives were lost in the fisheries;
+but the loss of life has been greatly reduced by the use of better
+vessels and by improved methods of fishing. Gloucester became a city in
+1874.
+
+  Gloucester life has been celebrated in many books; among others in
+  Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward's _Singular Life_ and _Old Maid's
+  Paradise_, in Rudyard Kipling's _Captains Courageous_, and in James B.
+  Connolly's _Out of Gloucester_ (1902), _The Deep Sea's Toll_ (1905),
+  and _The Crested Seas_ (1907).
+
+  See J. J. Babson, _History of the Town of Gloucester_ (Gloucester,
+  1860; with _Notes and Additions_, on genealogy, 1876, 1891); and J. R.
+  Pringle, _History of the Town and City of Gloucester_ (Gloucester,
+  1892).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] According to some authorities (e.g. Pringle) a few settlers
+    remained on the site of Gloucester, the permanent settlement thus
+    dating from 1623 to 1625; of this, however, there is no proof, and
+    the contrary opinion is the one generally held.
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTER CITY, a city of Camden county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the
+Delaware river, opposite Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 6564; (1900) 6840, of
+whom 1094 were foreign-born; (1905) 8055; (1910) 9462. The city is
+served by the West Jersey & Seashore and the Atlantic City railways, and
+by ferry to Philadelphia, of which it is a residential suburb. Among its
+manufactures are incandescent gas-burners, rugs, cotton yarns, boats and
+drills. The municipality owns and operates the water works. It was near
+the site of Gloucester City that the Dutch in 1623 planted the
+short-lived colony of Fort Nassau, the first European settlement on the
+Delaware river, but it was not until after the arrival of English
+Quakers on the Delaware, in 1677, that a permanent settlement, at first
+called Axwamus, was established on the site of the present city. This
+was surveyed and laid out as a town in 1689. During the War of
+Independence the place was frequently occupied by troops, and a number
+of skirmishes were fought in its vicinity. The most noted of these was a
+successful attack upon a detachment of Hessians on the 25th of November
+1777 by American troops under the command of General Lafayette. In 1868
+Gloucester City was chartered as a city. In Camden county there is a
+township named GLOUCESTER (pop. in 1905, 2300), incorporated in 1798,
+and originally including the present township of Clementon and parts of
+the present townships of Waterford, Union and Winslow.
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTERSHIRE, a county of the west midlands of England, bounded N. by
+Worcestershire, N.E. by Warwickshire, E. by Oxfordshire, S.E. by
+Berkshire and Wiltshire, S. by Somerset, and W. by Monmouth and
+Herefordshire. Its area is 1243-3 sq. m. The outline is very irregular,
+but three physical divisions are well marked--the hills, the vale and
+the forest. (1) The first (the eastern part of the county) lies among
+the uplands of the Cotteswold Hills (q.v.), whose westward face is a
+line of heights of an average elevation of 700 ft., but exceeding 1000
+ft. at some points. This line bisects the county from S.W. to N.E. The
+watershed between the Thames and Severn valleys lies close to it, so
+that Gloucestershire includes Thames Head itself, in the south-east near
+Cirencester, and most of the upper feeders of the Thames which join the
+main stream, from narrow and picturesque valleys on the north. (2) The
+western Cotteswold line overlooks a rich valley, that of the lower
+Severn, usually spoken of as "The Vale," or, in two divisions, as the
+vale of Gloucester and the vale of Berkeley. This great river receives
+three famous tributaries during its course through Gloucestershire. Near
+Tewkesbury, on the northern border, the Avon joins it on the left and
+forms the county boundary for 4 m. This is the river known variously as
+the Upper, Worcestershire, Warwickshire, Stratford or Shakespeare's
+Avon, which descends a lovely pastoral valley through the counties
+named. It is to be distinguished from the Bristol Avon, which rises as
+an eastward flowing stream of the Cotteswolds, in the south-east of
+Gloucestershire, sweeps southward and westward through Wiltshire,
+pierces the hills through a narrow valley which becomes a wooded gorge
+where the Clifton suspension bridge crosses it below Bristol, and enters
+the Severn estuary at Avonmouth. For 17 m. from its mouth it forms the
+boundary between Gloucestershire and Somersetshire, and for 8 m. it is
+one of the most important commercial waterways in the kingdom,
+connecting the port of Bristol with the sea. The third great tributary
+of the Severn is the Wye. From its mouth in the estuary, 8 m. N. of that
+of the Bristol Avon, it forms the county boundary for 16 m. northward,
+and above this, over two short reaches of its beautiful winding course,
+it is again the boundary. (3) Between the Wye and the Severn lies a
+beautiful and historic tract, the forest of Dean, which, unlike the
+majority of English forests, maintains its ancient character.
+Gloucestershire has thus a share in the courses of five of the most
+famous of English rivers, and covers two of the most interesting
+physical districts in the country. The minor rivers of the county are
+never long. The vale is at no point within the county wider than 24 m.,
+and so does not permit the formation of any considerable tributary to
+the Severn from the Dean Hills on the one hand or the Cotteswolds on the
+other. The Leadon rises east of Hereford, forms part of the
+north-western boundary, and joins the Severn near Gloucester, watering
+the vale of Gloucester, the northern part of the vale. In the southern
+part, the vale of Berkeley, the Stroudwater traverses a narrow,
+picturesque and populous valley, and the Little Avon flows past the town
+of Berkeley, joining the Severn estuary on the left. The Frome runs
+southward to the Bristol Avon at Bristol. The principal northern feeders
+of the Thames are the Churn (regarded by some as properly the headwater
+of the main river) rising in the Seven Springs, in the hills above
+Cheltenham, and forming the southern county boundary near its junction
+with the Thames at Cricklade; the Coln, a noteworthy trout-stream,
+joining above Lechlade, and the Lech (forming part of the eastern county
+boundary) joining below the same town; while from the east of the county
+there pass into Oxfordshire the Windrush and the Evenlode, much larger
+streams, rising among the bare uplands of the northern Cotteswolds.
+
+  _Geology._--No county in England has a greater variety of geological
+  formations. The pre-Cambrian is represented by the gneissic rocks at
+  the south end of the Malvern Hills and by grits at Huntley. At Damory,
+  Charfield and Woodford is a patch of greenstone, the cause of the
+  upheaval of the Upper Silurian basin of Tortworth, in which are the
+  oldest stratified rocks of the county. Of these the Upper Llandovery
+  is the dominant stratum, exposed near Damory mill, Micklewood chase
+  and Purton passage, wrapping round the base of May and Huntley hills,
+  and reappearing in the vale of Woolhope. The Wenlock limestone is
+  exposed at Falfield mill and Whitfield, and quarried for burning at
+  May hill. The Lower Ludlow shales or mudstones are seen at Berkeley
+  and Purton, where the upper part is probably Aymestry limestone. The
+  series of sandy shales and sandstones which, as Downton sandstones and
+  Ledbury shales, form a transition to the Old Red Sandstone are
+  quarried at Dymock. The "Old Red" itself occurs at Berkeley, Tortworth
+  Green, Thornbury, and several places in the Bristol coal-field, in
+  anticlinal folds forming hills. It forms also the great basin
+  extending from Ross to Monmouth and from Dymock to Mitcheldean,
+  Abenhall, Blakeney, &c., within which is the Carboniferous basin of
+  the forest. It is cut through by the Wye from Monmouth to Woolaston.
+  This formation is over 8000 ft. thick in the forest of Dean. The
+  Bristol and Forest Carboniferous basins lie within the synclinal folds
+  of the Old Red Sandstone; and though the seams of coal have not yet
+  been correlated, they must have been once continuous, as further
+  appears from the existence of an intermediate basin, recently pierced,
+  under the Severn. The lower limestone shales are 500 ft. thick in the
+  Bristol area and only 165 in the forest, richly fossiliferous and
+  famous for their bone bed. The great marine series known as the
+  Mountain Limestone, forming the walls of the grand gorges of the Wye
+  and Avon, is over 2000 ft. thick in the latter district, but only 480
+  in the former, where it yields the brown hematite in pockets so
+  largely worked for iron even from Roman times. It is much used too for
+  lime and road metal. Above this comes the Millstone Grit, well seen at
+  Brandon hill, where it is 1000 ft. in thickness, though but 455 in the
+  forest. On this rest the Coal Measures, consisting in the Bristol
+  field of two great series, the lower 2000 ft. thick with 36 seams, the
+  upper 3000 ft. with 22 seams, 9 of which reach 2 ft. in thickness.
+  These two series are separated by over 1700 ft. of hard sandstone
+  (Pennant Grit), containing only 5 coal-seams. In the Forest coal-field
+  the whole series is not 3000 ft. thick, with but 15 seams. At Durdham
+  Down a dolomitic conglomerate, of the age known as Keuper or Upper
+  Trias, rests unconformably on the edges of the Palaeozoic rocks, and
+  is evidently a shore deposit, yielding dinosaurian remains. Above the
+  Keuper clays come the Penarth beds, of which classical sections occur
+  at Westbury, Aust, &c. The series consists of grey marls, black paper
+  shales containing much pyrites and a celebrated bone bed, the Cotham
+  landscape marble, and the White Lias limestone, yielding _Ostrea
+  Liassica_ and _Cardium Rhaeticum_. The district of Over Severn is
+  mainly of Keuper marls. The whole vale of Gloucester is occupied by
+  the next formation, the Lias, a warm sea deposit of clays and clayey
+  limestones, characterized by ammonites, belemnites and gigantic
+  saurians. At its base is the insect-bearing limestone bed. The
+  pastures producing Gloucester cheese are on the clays of the Lower
+  Lias. The more calcareous Middle Lias or marlstone forms hillocks
+  flanking the Oolite escarpment of the Cotteswolds, as at
+  Wotton-under-Edge and Churchdown. The Cotteswolds consist of the great
+  limestone series of the Lower Oolite. At the base is a transition
+  series of sands, 30 to 40 ft. thick, well developed at Nailsworth and
+  Frocester. Leckhampton hill is a typical section of the Lower Oolite,
+  where the sands are capped by 40 ft. of a remarkable pea grit. Above
+  this are 147 ft. of freestone, 7 ft. of oolite marl, 34 ft. of upper
+  freestone and 38 ft. of ragstone. The Painswick stone belongs to lower
+  freestone. Resting on the Inferior Oolite, and dipping with it to
+  S.E., is the "fuller's earth," a rubbly limestone about 100 ft. thick,
+  throwing out many of the springs which form the head waters of the
+  Thames. Next comes the Great or Bath Oolite, at the base of which are
+  the Stonesfield "slate" beds, quarried for roofing, paling, &c., at
+  Sevenhampton and elsewhere. From the Great Oolite Minchinhampton stone
+  is obtained, and at its top is about 40 ft. of flaggy Oolite with
+  bands of clay known as the Forest Marble. Ripple marks are abundant on
+  the flags; in fact all the Oolites seem to have been near shore or in
+  shallow water, much of the limestone being merely comminuted coral.
+  The highest bed of the Lower Oolite is the Cornbrash, about 40 ft. of
+  rubble, productive in corn, forming a narrow belt from Siddington to
+  Fairford. Near the latter town and Lechlade is a small tract of blue
+  Oxford Clay of the Middle Oolite. The county has no higher Secondary
+  or Tertiary rocks; but the Quaternary series is represented by much
+  northern drift gravel in the vale and Over Severn, by accumulations of
+  Oolitic detritus, including post-Glacial extinct mammalian remains on
+  the flanks of the Cotteswolds, and by submerged forests extending from
+  Sharpness to Gloucester.
+
+  _Agriculture._--The climate is mild. Between three-quarters and
+  seven-eighths of the total area is under cultivation, and of this some
+  four-sevenths is in permanent pasture. Wheat is the chief grain crop.
+  In the vale the deep rich black and red loamy soil is well adapted for
+  pasturage, and a moist mild climate favours the growth of grasses and
+  root crops. The cattle, save on the frontier of Herefordshire, are
+  mostly shorthorns, of which many are fed for distant markets, and many
+  reared and kept for dairy purposes. The rich grazing tract of the vale
+  of Berkeley produces the famous "double Gloucester" cheeses, and the
+  vale in general has long been celebrated for cheese and butter. The
+  vale of Gloucester is the chief grain-growing district. Turnips, &c.,
+  occupy about three-fourths of the green crop acreage, potatoes
+  occupying only about a twelfth. A feature of the county is its apple
+  and pear orchards, chiefly for the manufacture of cider and perry,
+  which are attached to nearly every farm. The Cotteswold district is
+  comparatively barren except in the valleys, but it has been famous
+  since the 15th century for the breed of sheep named after it. Oats and
+  barley are here the chief crops.
+
+  _Other Industries._--The manufacture of woollen cloth followed upon
+  the early success in sheep-farming among the Cotteswolds. This
+  industry is not confined to the hill country or even to
+  Gloucestershire itself in the west of England. The description of
+  cloth principally manufactured is broadcloth, dressed with teazles to
+  produce a short close nap on the face, and made of all shades of
+  colour, but chiefly black, blue and scarlet. The principal centre of
+  the industry lies in and at the foot of the south-western Cotteswolds.
+  Stroud is the centre for a number of manufacturing villages, and
+  south-west of this are Wotton-under-Edge, North Nibley and others.
+  Machinery and tools, paper, furniture, pottery and glass are also
+  produced. Ironstone, clay, limestone and sandstone are worked, and the
+  coal-fields in the forest of Dean are important. Of less extent is the
+  field in the south of the county, N.E. of Bristol. Strontium sulphate
+  is dug from shallow pits in the red marl of Gloucestershire and
+  Somersetshire.
+
+  _Communications._--Railway communications are provided principally by
+  the Great Western and Midland companies. Of the Great Western lines,
+  the main line serves Bristol from London. It divides at Bristol, one
+  section serving the south-western counties, another South Wales,
+  crossing beneath the Severn by the Severn Tunnel, 4-1/3 m. in length,
+  a remarkable engineering work. A more direct route, by this tunnel,
+  between London and South Wales, is provided by a line from Wootton
+  Bassett on the main line, running north of Bristol by Badminton and
+  Chipping Sodbury. Other Great Western lines are that from Swindon on
+  the main line, by the Stroud valley to Gloucester, crossing the Severn
+  there, and continuing by the right bank of the river into Wales, with
+  branches north-west into Herefordshire; the Oxford and Worcester trunk
+  line, crossing the north-east of the county, connected with Cheltenham
+  and Gloucester by a branch through the Cotteswolds from Chipping
+  Norton junction; and the line from Cheltenham by Broadway to
+  Honeybourne. The west-and-north line of the Midland railway follows
+  the vale from Bristol by Gloucester and Cheltenham with a branch into
+  the forest of Dean by Berkeley, crossing the Severn at Sharpness by a
+  great bridge 1387 yds. in length, with 22 arches. The coal-fields of
+  the forest of Dean are served by several branch lines. In the north,
+  Tewkesbury is served by a Midland branch from Ashchurch to Malvern.
+  The Midland and South-western Junction railway runs east and south
+  from Cheltenham by Cirencester, affording communication with the south
+  of England. The East Gloucester line of the Great Western from Oxford
+  terminates at Fairford. The Thames and Severn canal, rising to a
+  summit level in the tunnel through the Cotteswolds at Sapperton, is
+  continued from Wallbridge (Stroud) by the Stroudwater canal, and gives
+  communication between the two great rivers. The Berkeley Ship Canal
+  (16½ m.) connects the port of Gloucester with its outport of Sharpness
+  on Severn.
+
+  _Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is
+  795,709 acres, with a population in 1891 of 599,947 and in 1901 of
+  634,729. The area of the administrative county is 805,482 acres. The
+  county contains 28 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are--Bristol, a
+  city and county borough (pop. 328,945); Cheltenham (49,439);
+  Gloucester, a city and county borough (47,955); Tewkesbury (5419). The
+  other urban districts are--Awre (1096), Charlton Kings (3806),
+  Circenester (7536), Coleford (2541), Kingswood, on the eastern
+  outskirts of Bristol (11,961), Nailsworth (3028), Newnham (1184),
+  Stow-on-the-Wold (1386), Stroud (9153), Tetbury (1989),
+  Westbury-on-Severn (1866). The number of small ancient market towns is
+  large, especially in the southern part of the vale, on the outskirts
+  of the forest, and among the foot hills of the wolds. Those in the
+  forest district are mostly connected with the coal trade, such as
+  Lydney (3559), besides Awre and Coleford; and, to the north, besides
+  Newnham, Cinderford and Mitcheldean. South from Stroud there are
+  Minchinhampton (3737) and Nailsworth; near the south-eastern boundary
+  Tetbury and Marshfield; Stonehouse (2183), Dursley (2372),
+  Wotton-under-Edge (2992) and Chipping Sodbury along the western line
+  of the hills; and between them and the Severn, Berkeley and Thornbury
+  (2594). Among the uplands of the Cotteswolds there are no towns, and
+  villages are few, but in the east of the county, in the upper Thames
+  basin, there are, besides Cirencester, Fairford on the Coln and
+  Lechlade, close to the head of the navigation on the Thames itself.
+  Far up in the Lech valley, remote from railway communication, is
+  Northleach, once a great posting station on the Oxford and Cheltenham
+  road. In the north-east are Stow-on-the-Wold, standing high, and
+  Moreton-in-the-Marsh near the headwaters of the Evenlode. In a
+  northern prolongation of the county, almost detached, is Chipping
+  Campden. Winchcomb (2699) lies 6 m. N.E. of Cheltenham. In the
+  north-west, Newent (2485) is the only considerable town.
+  Gloucestershire is in the Oxford circuit, and assizes are held at
+  Gloucester. It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into
+  24 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Bristol, Gloucester and
+  Tewkesbury have separate commissions of the peace and courts of
+  quarter sessions. There are 359 civil parishes. Gloucestershire is
+  principally in the diocese of Gloucester, but part is in that of
+  Bristol, and small parts in those of Worcester and Oxford. There are
+  408 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the
+  county. There are five parliamentary divisions, namely, Tewkesbury or
+  northern, Cirencester or eastern, Stroud or mid, Thornbury or
+  southern, and Forest of Dean, each returning one member. The county
+  also includes the boroughs of Gloucester and Cheltenham, each
+  returning one member; and the greater part of the borough of Bristol,
+  which returns four members.
+
+_History._--The English conquest of the Severn valley began in 577 with
+the victory of Ceawlin at Deorham, followed by the capture of
+Cirencester, Gloucester and Bath. The Hwiccas who occupied the district
+were a West Saxon tribe, but their territory had become a dependency of
+Mercia in the 7th century, and was not brought under West Saxon dominion
+until the 9th century. No important settlements were made by the Danes
+in the district. Gloucestershire probably originated as a shire in the
+10th century, and is mentioned by name in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in
+1016. Towards the close of the 11th century the boundaries were
+readjusted to include Winchcomb, hitherto a county by itself, and at the
+same time the forest district between the Wye and the Severn was added
+to Gloucestershire. The divisions of the county for a long time remained
+very unsettled, and the thirty-nine hundreds mentioned in the Domesday
+Survey and the thirty-one hundreds of the Hundred Rolls of 1274 differ
+very widely in name and extent both from each other and from the
+twenty-eight hundreds of the present day.
+
+Gloucestershire formed part of Harold's earldom at the time of the
+Norman invasion, but it offered slight resistance to the Conqueror. In
+the wars of Stephen's reign the cause of the empress Maud was supported
+by Robert of Gloucester who had rebuilt the castle at Bristol, and the
+castles at Gloucester and Cirencester were also garrisoned on her
+behalf. In the barons' war of the reign of Henry III. Gloucester was
+garrisoned for Simon de Montfort, but was captured by Prince Edward in
+1265, in which year de Montfort was slain at Evesham. Bristol and
+Gloucester actively supported the Yorkist cause during the Wars of the
+Roses. In the religious struggles of the 16th century Gloucester showed
+strong Protestant sympathy, and in the reign of Mary Bishop Hooper was
+sent to Gloucester to be burnt as a warning to the county, while the
+same Puritan leanings induced the county to support the Parliamentary
+cause in the civil war of the 17th century. In 1643 Bristol and
+Cirencester were captured by the Royalists, but the latter was recovered
+in the same year and Bristol in 1645. Gloucester was garrisoned for the
+parliament throughout the struggle.
+
+On the subdivision of the Mercian diocese in 680 the greater part of
+modern Gloucestershire was included in the diocese of Worcester, and
+shortly after the Conquest constituted the archdeaconry of Gloucester,
+which in 1290 comprised the deaneries of Campden, Stow, Cirencester,
+Fairford, Winchcombe, Stonehouse, Hawkesbury, Bitton, Bristol, Dursley
+and Gloucester. The district west of the Severn, with the exception of a
+few parishes in the deaneries of Ross and Staunton, constituted the
+deanery of the forest within the archdeaconry and diocese of Hereford.
+In 1535 the deanery of Bitton had been absorbed in that of Hawkesbury.
+In 1541 the diocese of Gloucester was created, its boundaries being
+identical with those of the county. On the erection of Bristol to a see
+in 1542 the deanery of Bristol was transferred from Gloucester to that
+diocese. In 1836 the sees of Gloucester and Bristol were united; the
+archdeaconry of Bristol was created out of the deaneries of Bristol,
+Cirencester, Fairford and Hawkesbury; and the deanery of the forest was
+transferred to the archdeaconry of Gloucester. In 1882 the archdeaconry
+of Cirencester was constituted to include the deaneries of Campden,
+Stow, Northleach north and south, Fairford and Cirencester. In 1897 the
+diocese of Bristol was recreated, and included the deaneries of Bristol,
+Stapleton and Bitton.
+
+After the Conquest very extensive lands and privileges in the county
+were acquired by the church, the abbey of Cirencester alone holding
+seven hundreds at fee-farm, and the estates of the principal lay-tenants
+were for the most part outlying parcels of baronies having their "caput"
+in other counties. The large estates held by William Fitz Osbern, earl
+of Hereford, escheated to the crown on the rebellion of his son Earl
+Roger in 1074-1075. The Berkeleys have held lands in Gloucestershire
+from the time of the Domesday Survey, and the families of Basset, Tracy,
+Clifton, Dennis and Poyntz have figured prominently in the annals of the
+county. Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, and Richard of Cornwall
+claimed extensive lands and privileges in the shire in the 13th century,
+and Simon de Montfort owned Minsterworth and Rodley.
+
+Bristol was made a county in 1425, and in 1483 Richard III. created
+Gloucester an independent county, adding to it the hundreds of Dudston
+and King's Barton. The latter were reunited to Gloucestershire in 1673,
+but the cities of Bristol and Gloucester continued to rank as
+independent counties, with separate jurisdiction, county rate and
+assizes. The chief officer of the forest of Dean was the warden, who was
+generally also constable of St Briavel Castle. The first justice-seat
+for the forest was held at Gloucester Castle in 1282, the last in 1635.
+The hundred of the duchy of Lancaster is within the jurisdiction of the
+duchy of Lancaster for certain purposes.
+
+The physical characteristics of the three natural divisions of
+Gloucestershire have given rise in each to a special industry, as
+already indicated. The forest district, until the development of the
+Sussex mines in the 16th century, was the chief iron-producing area of
+the kingdom, the mines having been worked in Roman times, while the
+abundance of timber gave rise to numerous tanneries and to an important
+ship-building trade. The hill district, besides fostering agricultural
+pursuits, gradually absorbed the woollen trade from the big towns, which
+now devoted themselves almost entirely to foreign commerce. Silk-weaving
+was introduced in the 17th century, and was especially prosperous in the
+Stroud valley. The abundance of clay and building-stone in the county
+gave rise to considerable manufactures of brick, tiles and pottery.
+Numerous minor industries sprang up in the 17th and 18th centuries, such
+as flax-growing and the manufacture of pins, buttons, lace, stockings,
+rope and sailcloth.
+
+Gloucestershire was first represented in parliament in 1290, when it
+returned two members. Bristol and Gloucester acquired representation in
+1295, Cirencester in 1572 and Tewkesbury in 1620. Under the Reform Act
+of 1832 the county returned four members in two divisions; Bristol,
+Gloucester, Cirencester, Stroud and Tewkesbury returned two members
+each, and Cheltenham returned one member. The act of 1868 reduced the
+representation of Cirencester and Tewkesbury to one member each.
+
+_Antiquities._--The cathedrals of Gloucester and Bristol, the
+magnificent abbey church of Tewkesbury, and the church of Cirencester
+with its great Perpendicular porch, are described under their separate
+headings. Of the abbey of Hayles near Winchcomb, founded by Richard,
+earl of Cornwall, in 1246, little more than the foundations are left,
+but these have been excavated with great care, and interesting fragments
+have been brought to light. Most of the old market towns have fine
+parish churches. At Deerhurst near Tewkesbury, and Cleeve near
+Cheltenham, there are churches of special interest on account of the
+pre-Norman work they retain. The Perpendicular church at Lechlade is
+unusually perfect; and that at Fairford was built (c. 1500), according
+to tradition, to contain the remarkable series of stained-glass windows
+which are said to have been brought from the Netherlands. These are,
+however, adjudged to be of English workmanship, and are one of the
+finest series in the country. The great Decorated Calcot Barn is an
+interesting relic of the monastery of Kingswood near Tetbury. The castle
+at Berkeley is a splendid example of a feudal stronghold. Thornbury
+Castle, in the same district, is a fine Tudor ruin, the pretensions of
+which evoked the jealousy of Cardinal Wolsey against its builder, Edward
+Stafford, duke of Buckingham, who was beheaded in 1521. Near Cheltenham
+is the fine 15th-century mansion of Southam de la Bere, of timber and
+stone. Memorials of the de la Bere family appear in the church at
+Cleeve. The mansion contains a tiled floor from Hayles Abbey. Near
+Winchcomb is Sudeley Castle, dating from the 15th century, but the
+inhabited portion is chiefly Elizabethan. The chapel is the burial place
+of Queen Catherine Parr. At Great Badminton is the mansion and vast
+domain of the Beauforts (formerly of the Botelers and others), on the
+south-eastern boundary of the county.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Gloucestershire_; Sir R. Atkyns, _The
+  Ancient and Present State of Gloucestershire_ (London, 1712; 2nd ed.,
+  London, 1768); Samuel Rudder, _A New History of Gloucestershire_
+  (Cirencester, 1779); Ralph Bigland, _Historical, Monumental and
+  Genealogical Collections relative to the County of Gloucester_ (2
+  vols., London, 1791); Thomas Rudge, _The History of the County of
+  Gloucester_ (2 vols., Gloucester, 1803); T. D. Fosbroke _Abstract of
+  Records and Manuscripts respecting the County of Gloucestershire
+  formed into a History_ (2 vols., Gloucester, 1807); _Legends, Tales
+  and Songs in the Dialect of the Peasantry of Gloucestershire_ (London,
+  1876); J. D. Robertson, _Glossary of Dialect and Archaic Words of
+  Gloucester_ (London, 1890); W. Bazeley and F. A. Hyett,
+  _Bibliographers' Manual of Gloucestershire_ (3 vols., London,
+  1895-1897); W. H. Hutton, _By Thames and Cotswold_ (London, 1903). See
+  also _Transactions of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological
+  Society_.
+
+
+
+
+GLOVE (O. Eng. _glof_, perhaps connected with Gothic _lofa_, the palm of
+the hand), a covering for the hand, commonly with a separate sheath for
+each finger.
+
+The use of gloves is of high antiquity, and apparently was known even to
+the pre-historic cave dwellers. In Homer Laërtes is described as wearing
+gloves ([Greek: cheiridas epi chersi]) while walking in his garden
+(_Od._ xxiv. 230). Herodotus (vi. 72) tells how Leotychides filled a
+glove ([Greek: cheiris]) with the money he received as a bribe, and
+Xenophon (_Cyrop._ viii. 8. 17) records that the Persians wore fur
+gloves having separate sheaths for the fingers ([Greek: cheiridas
+daseias kai daktylêthras]). Among the Romans also there are occasional
+references to the use of gloves. According to the younger Pliny (Ep.
+iii. 5. 15) the secretary whom his uncle had with him when ascending
+Vesuvius wore gloves (_manicae_) so that he might not be impeded in his
+work by the cold, and Varro (_R.R._ i. 55. 1) remarks that olives
+gathered with the bare fingers are better than those gathered with
+gloves (_digitabula_ or _digitalia_). In the northern countries the
+general use of gloves would be more natural than in the south, and it is
+not without significance that the most common medieval Latin word for
+glove (_guantus_ or _wantus_, Mod. Fr. _gant_) is of Teutonic origin (O.
+H. Ger. _want_). Thus in the life of Columbanus by Jonas, abbot of
+Bobbio (d. c. 665), gloves for protecting the hands in doing manual
+labour are spoken of as _tegumenta manuum quae Galli wantos vocant_.
+Among the Germans and Scandinavians, in the 8th and 9th centuries, the
+use of gloves, fingerless at first, would seem to have been all but
+universal; and in the case of kings, prelates and nobles they were often
+elaborately embroidered and bejewelled. This was more particularly the
+case with the gloves which formed part of the pontifical vestments (see
+below). In war and in the chase gloves of leather, or with the backs
+armoured with articulated iron plates, were early worn; yet in the
+Bayeux tapestry the warriors on either side fight ungloved. The fact
+that gloves are not represented by contemporary artists does not prove
+their non-existence, since this might easily be an omission due to lack
+of observation or of skill; but, so far as the records go, there is no
+evidence to prove that gloves were in general use in England until the
+13th century. It was in this century that ladies began to wear gloves as
+ornaments; they were of linen and sometimes reached to the elbow. It
+was, however, not till the 16th century that they reached their greatest
+elaboration, when Queen Elizabeth set the fashion for wearing them
+richly embroidered and jewelled.
+
+The symbolic sense of the middle ages early gave to the use of gloves a
+special significance. Their liturgical use by the Church is dealt with
+below (_Pontifical gloves_); this was imitated from the usage of civil
+life. Embroidered and jewelled gloves formed part of the _insignia_ of
+the emperors, and also, and that quite early, of the kings of England.
+Thus Matthew of Paris, in recording the burial of Henry II. in 1189,
+mentions that he was buried in his coronation robes, with a golden crown
+on his head and gloves on his hands. Gloves were also found on the hands
+of King John when his tomb was opened in 1797, and on those of King
+Edward I. when his tomb was opened in 1774.
+
+  See W. B. Redfern, _Royal and Historic Gloves and Shoes_, with
+  numerous examples.
+
+_Gages._--Of the symbolical uses of the glove one of the most widespread
+and important during the middle ages was the practice of tendering a
+folded glove as a gage for waging one's law. The origin of this custom
+is probably not far to seek. The promise to fulfil a judgment of a court
+of law, a promise secured by the delivery of a _wed_ or gage, is one of
+the oldest, if not the very oldest, of all enforceable contracts. This
+gage was originally a chattel of value, which had to be deposited at
+once by the defendant as security into his adversary's hand; and that
+the glove became the formal symbol of such deposit is doubtless due to
+its being the most convenient loose object for the purpose. The custom
+survived after the contract with the _vadium_, _wed_ or gage had been
+superseded by the contract with pledges (personal sureties). In the
+rules of procedure of a baronial court of the 14th century we find: "He
+shall wage his law with his folded glove (_de son gaunt plyee_) and
+shall deliver it into the hand of the other, and then take his glove
+back and find pledges for his law." The delivery of the glove had, in
+fact, become a mere ceremony, because the defendant had his sureties
+close at hand.[1]
+
+Associated with this custom was the use of the glove in the wager of
+battle (_vadium in duello_). The glove here was thrown down by the
+defendant in open court as security that he would defend his cause in
+arms; the accuser by picking it up accepted the challenge (see WAGER).
+This form is still prescribed for the challenge of the king's champion
+at the coronation of English sovereigns, and was actually followed at
+that of George IV. (see CHAMPION). The phrase "to throw down the
+gauntlet" is still in common use of any challenge.
+
+_Pledges of Service._--The use of the glove as a pledge of fulfilment is
+exemplified also by the not infrequent practice of enfeoffing vassals by
+investing them with the glove; similarly the emperors symbolized by the
+bestowal of a glove the concession of the right to found a town or to
+establish markets, mints and the like; the "hands" in the armorial
+bearings of certain German towns are really gloves, reminiscent of this
+investiture. Conversely, fiefs were held by the render of presenting
+gloves to the sovereign. Thus the manor of Little Holland in Essex was
+held in Queen Elizabeth's time by the service of one knight's fee and
+the rent of a pair of gloves turned up with hare's skin (Blount's
+_Tenures_, ed. Beckwith, p. 130). The most notable instance in England,
+however, is the grand serjeanty of finding for the king a glove for his
+right hand on coronation day, and supporting his right arm as long as he
+holds the sceptre. The right to perform this "honourable service" was
+originally granted by William the Conqueror to Bertram de Verdun,
+together with the manor of Fernham (Farnham Royal) in Buckinghamshire.
+The male descendants of Bertram performed this serjeanty at the
+coronations until the death of Theobald de Verdun in 1316, when the
+right passed, with the manor of Farnham, to Thomas Lord Furnival by his
+marriage with the heiress Joan. His son William Lord Furnival performed
+the ceremony at the coronation of Richard II. He died in 1383, and his
+daughter and heiress Jean de Furnival having married Sir Thomas Nevill,
+Lord Furnival in her right, the latter performed the ceremony at the
+coronation of Henry IV. His heiress Maud married Sir John Talbot (1st
+earl of Shrewsbury) who, as Lord Furnival, presented the glove
+embroidered with the arms of Verdun at the coronation of Henry V. When
+in 1541 Francis earl of Shrewsbury exchanged the manor of Farnham with
+King Henry VIII. for the site and precincts of the priory of Worksop in
+Nottinghamshire he stipulated that the right to perform this serjeanty
+should be reserved to him, and the king accordingly transferred the
+obligation from Farnham to Worksop. On the 3rd of April 1838 the manor
+of Worksop was sold to the duke of Newcastle and with it the right to
+perform the service, which had hitherto always been carried out by a
+descendant of Bertram de Verdun. At the coronation of King Edward VII.
+the earl of Shrewsbury disputed the duke of Newcastle's right, on the
+ground that the serjeanty was attached not to the manor but to the
+priory lands at Worksop, and that the latter had been subdivided by sale
+so that no single person was entitled to perform the ceremony and the
+right had therefore lapsed. His petition for a regrant to himself as
+lineal heir of Bertram de Verdun, however, was disallowed by the court
+of claims, and the serjeanty was declared to be attached to the manor of
+Worksop (G. Woods Wollaston, _Coronation Claims_, London, 1903, p. 133).
+
+_Presentations._--From the ceremonial and symbolic use of gloves the
+transition was easy to the custom which grew up of presenting them to
+persons of distinction on special occasions. When Queen Elizabeth
+visited Cambridge in 1578 the vice-chancellor offered her a "paire of
+gloves, perfumed and garnished with embroiderie and goldsmithe's wourke,
+price 60s.," and at the visit of James I. there in 1615 the mayor and
+corporation of the town "delivered His Majesty a fair pair of perfumed
+gloves with gold laces." It was formerly the custom in England for
+bishops at their consecrations to make presents of gloves to those who
+came to their consecration dinners and others, but this gift became such
+a burden to them that by an order in council in 1678 It was commuted for
+the payment of a sum of £50 towards the rebuilding of St Paul's.
+Serjeants at law, on their appointment, were given a pair of gloves
+containing a sum of money which was termed "regards"; this custom is
+recorded as early as 1495, when according to the _Black Book_ of
+Lincoln's Inn each of the new Serjeants received £6, 13s. 4d. and a pair
+of gloves costing 4d., and it persisted to a late period. At one time it
+was the practice for a prisoner who pleaded the king's pardon on his
+discharge to present the judges with gloves by way of a fee.
+Glove-silver, according to Jacob's _Law Dictionary_, was a name used of
+extraordinary rewards formerly given to officers of courts, &c., or of
+money given by the sheriff of a county in which no offenders were left
+for execution to the clerk of assize and judge's officers; the
+explanation of the term is that the glove given as a perquisite or fee
+was in some cases lined with money to increase its value, and thus came
+to stand for money ostensibly given in lieu of gloves. It is still the
+custom in the United Kingdom to present a pair of white gloves to a
+judge or magistrate who when he takes his seat for criminal business at
+the appointed time finds no cases for trial. By ancient custom judges
+are not allowed to wear gloves while actually sitting on the bench, and
+a witness taking the oath must remove the glove from the hand that holds
+the book. (See J. W. Norton-Kyshe, _The Law and Customs relating to
+Gloves_, London, 1901.)
+
+_Pontifical gloves_ (Lat. _chirothecae_) are liturgical ornaments
+peculiar to the Western Church and proper only to the pope, the
+cardinals and bishops, though the right to wear them is often granted by
+the Holy See to abbots, cathedral dignitaries and other prelates, as in
+the case of the other episcopal insignia. According to the present use
+the gloves are of silk and of the liturgical colour of the day, the edge
+of the opening ornamented with a narrow band of embroidery or the like,
+and the middle of the back with a cross. They may be worn only at the
+celebration of mass (except masses for the dead). In vesting, the gloves
+are put on the bishop immediately after the dalmatic, the right hand one
+by the deacon, the other by the subdeacon. They are worn only until the
+ablution before the canon of the mass, after which they may not again be
+put on.
+
+At the consecration of a bishop the consecrating prelate puts the gloves
+on the new bishop immediately after the mitre, with a prayer that his
+hands may be kept pure, so that the sacrifice he offers may be as
+acceptable as the gift of venison which Jacob, his hands wrapped in the
+skin of kids, brought to Isaac. This symbolism (as in the case of the
+other vestments) is, however, of late growth. The liturgical use of
+gloves itself cannot, according to Father Braun, be traced beyond the
+beginning of the 10th century, and their introduction was due, perhaps
+to the simple desire to keep the hands clean for the holy mysteries, but
+more probably merely as part of the increasing pomp with which the
+Carolingian bishops were surrounding themselves. From the Frankish
+kingdom the custom spread to Rome, where liturgical gloves are first
+heard of in the earlier half of the 11th century. The earliest authentic
+instance of the right to wear them being granted to a non-bishop is a
+bull of Alexander IV. in 1070, conceding this to the abbot of S. Pietro
+in Cielo d' Oro.
+
+During the middle ages the occasions on which pontifical gloves (often
+_wanti_, _guanti_, and sometimes _manicae_ in the inventories) were
+worn were not so carefully defined as now, the use varying in different
+churches. Nor were the liturgical colours prescribed. The most
+characteristic feature of the medieval pontifical glove was the ornament
+(_tasellus_, _fibula_, _monile_, _paratura_) set in the middle of the
+back of the glove. This was usually a small plaque of metal, enamelled
+or jewelled, generally round, but sometimes square or irregular in
+shape. Sometimes embroidery was substituted; still more rarely the whole
+glove was covered, even to the fingers, with elaborate needlework
+designs.
+
+Liturgical gloves have not been worn by Anglican bishops since the
+Reformation, though they are occasionally represented as wearing them on
+their effigies.
+
+  See J. Braun, S.J., _Die liturgische Gewandung_ (Freiburg im Breisgau,
+  1907), pp. 359-382, where many beautiful examples are illustrated.
+
+_Manufacture of Gloves._--Three countries, according to an old proverb,
+contribute to the making of a good glove--Spain dressing the leather,
+France cutting it and England sewing it. But the manufacture of gloves
+was not introduced into Great Britain till the 10th or 11th century. The
+incorporation of glovers of Perth was chartered in 1165, and in 1190 a
+glove-makers' gild was formed in France, with the object of regulating
+the trade and ensuring good workmanship. The glovers of London in 1349
+framed their ordinances and had them approved by the corporation, the
+city regulations at that time fixing the price of a pair of common
+sheepskin gloves at 1d. In 1464, when the gild received armorial
+bearings, they do not seem to have been very strong, but apparently
+their position improved subsequently and in 1638 they were incorporated
+as a new company. In 1580 it is recorded that both French and Spanish
+gloves were on sale in London shops, and in 1661 a company of glovers
+was incorporated at Worcester, which still remains an important seat of
+the English glove Industry. In America the manufacture of gloves dates
+from about 1760, when Sir William Johnson brought over several families
+of glove makers from Perth; these settled in Fulton county, New York,
+which is now the largest seat of the glove trade in the United States.
+
+  Gloves may be divided into two distinct categories, according as these
+  are made of leather or are woven or knitted from fibres such as silk,
+  wool or cotton. The manufacture of the latter kinds is a branch of the
+  hosiery industry. For leather gloves skins of various animals are
+  employed--deer, calves, sheep and lambs, goats and kids, &c.--but kids
+  have had nothing to do with the production of many of the "kid gloves"
+  of commerce. The skins are prepared and dressed by special processes
+  (see LEATHER) before going to the glove-maker to be cut. Owing to the
+  elastic character of the material the cutting is a delicate operation,
+  and long practice is required before a man becomes expert at it.
+  Formerly it was done by shears, the workmen following an outline
+  marked on the leather, but now steel dies are universally employed not
+  only for the bodies of the gloves but also for the thumb-pieces and
+  fourchettes or sides of the fingers. When hand sewing is employed the
+  pieces to be sewn together are placed between a pair of jaws, the
+  holding edges of which are serrated with fine saw-teeth, and the sewer
+  by passing the needle forwards and backwards between each of these
+  teeth secures neat uniform stitching. But sewing machines are now
+  widely employed on the work. The labour of making a glove is much
+  subdivided, different operators sewing different pieces, and others
+  again embroidering the back, forming the button-holes, attaching the
+  buttons, &c. After the gloves are completed, they undergo the process
+  of "laying off," in which they are drawn over metal forms, shaped like
+  a hand and heated internally by steam; in this way they are finally
+  smoothed and shaped before being wrapped in paper and packed in boxes.
+
+  Gloves made of thin india-rubber or of white cotton are worn by some
+  surgeons while performing operations, on account of the ease with
+  which they can be thoroughly sterilized.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] F. W. Maitland and W. P. Baildon, _The Court Baron_ (Selden
+    Society, London, 1891), p. 17. Maitland wrongly translates _gaunt
+    plyee_ as "twisted" glove, adding "why it should be twisted I cannot
+    say." An earlier instance of the delivery of a folded glove as gage
+    is quoted from the 13th-century Anglo-Norman poem known as _The Song
+    of Dermott and the Earl_ (ed. G. H. Orpen, Oxford, 1892) in J. H.
+    Round's _Commune of London_, p. 153.
+
+
+
+
+GLOVER, SIR JOHN HAWLEY (1829-1885), captain in the British navy,
+entered the service in 1841 and passed his examination as lieutenant in
+1849, but did not receive a commission till May 1851. He served on
+various stations, and was wounded severely in an action with the Burmese
+at Donabew (4th February 1853). But his reputation was not gained at sea
+and as a naval officer, but on shore and as an administrative official
+in the colonies. During his years of service as lieutenant in the navy
+he had had considerable experience of the coast of Africa, and had taken
+part in the expedition of Dr W. B. Baikie (1824-1864) up the Niger. On
+the 21st of April 1863 he was appointed administrator of the government
+of Lagos, and in that capacity, or as colonial secretary, he remained
+there till 1872. During this period he had been much employed in
+repelling the marauding incursions of the Ashantis. When the Ashanti war
+broke out in 1873, Captain Glover undertook the hazardous and doubtful
+task of organizing the native tribes, whom hatred of the Ashantis might
+be expected to make favourable to the British authorities--to the extent
+at least to which their fears would allow them to act. His services were
+accepted, and in September of 1873 he landed at Cape Coast, and, after
+forming a small trustworthy force of Hausa, marched to Accra. His
+influence sufficed to gather a numerous native force, but neither he nor
+anybody else could overcome their abject terror of the ferocious
+Ashantis to the extent of making them fight. In January 1874 Captain
+Glover was able to render some assistance in the taking of Kumasi, but
+it was at the head of a Hausa force. His services were acknowledged by
+the thanks of parliament and by his creation as G.C.M.G. In 1875 he was
+appointed governor of Newfoundland and held the post till 1881, when he
+was transferred to the Leeward Islands. He returned to Newfoundland in
+1883, and died in London on the 30th September 1885.
+
+  Lady Glover's _Life_ of her husband appeared in 1897.
+
+
+
+
+GLOVER, RICHARD (1712-1785), English poet, son of Richard Glover, a
+Hamburg merchant, was born in London in 1712. He was educated at Cheam
+in Surrey. While there he wrote in his sixteenth year a poem to the
+memory of Sir Isaac Newton, which was prefixed by Dr Pemberton to his
+_View of Newton's Philosophy_, published in 1728. In 1737 he published
+an epic poem in praise of liberty, _Leonidas_, which was thought to have
+a special reference to the politics of the time; and being warmly
+commended by the prince of Wales and his court, it soon passed through
+several editions. In 1739 Glover published a poem entitled _London, or
+the Progress of Commerce_; and in the same year, with a view to exciting
+the nation against the Spaniards, he wrote a spirited ballad, _Hosier's
+Ghost_, very popular in its day. He was also the author of two
+tragedies, _Boadicea_ (1753) and _Medea_ (1761), written in close
+imitation of Greek models. The success of Glover's _Leonidas_ led him to
+take considerable interest in politics, and in 1761 he entered
+parliament as member for Weymouth. He died on the 25th of November 1785.
+The _Athenaid_, an epic in thirty books, was published in 1787, and his
+diary, entitled _Memoirs of a distinguished literary and political
+Character from 1742 to 1757_, appeared in 1813. Glover was one of the
+reputed authors of _Junius_; but his claims--which were advocated in an
+_Inquiry concerning the author of the Letters of Junius_ (1815), by R.
+Duppa--rest on very slight grounds.
+
+
+
+
+GLOVERSVILLE, a city of Fulton county, New York, U.S.A., at the
+foot-hills of the Adirondacks, about 55 m. N.W. of Albany. Pop. (1890)
+13,864; (1900) 18,349, of whom 2542 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
+20,642. It is served by the Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville railway
+(connecting at Fonda, about 9 m. distant, with the New York Central),
+and by electric lines connecting with Johnstown, Amsterdam and
+Schenectady. The city has a public library (26,000 volumes in 1908), the
+Nathan Littauer memorial hospital, a state armoury and a fine government
+building. Gloversville is the principal glove-manufacturing centre in
+the United States. In 1900 Fulton county produced more than 57%, and
+Gloversville 38.8%, of all the leather gloves and mittens made in the
+United States; in 1905 Gloversville produced 29.9% of the leather gloves
+and mittens made in the United States, its products being valued at
+$5,302,196. Gloversville has more than a score of tanneries and
+leather-finishing factories, and manufactures fur goods. In 1905 the
+city's total factory product was valued at $9,340,763. The extraordinary
+localization of the glove-making industry in Gloversville, Johnstown and
+other parts of Fulton county, is an incident of much interest in the
+economic history of the United States. The industry seems to have had
+its origin among a colony of Perthshire families, including many
+glove-makers, who were settled in this region by Sir William Johnson
+about 1760. For many years the entire product seems to have been
+disposed of in the neighbourhood, but about 1809 the goods began to find
+more distant markets, and by 1825 the industry was firmly established on
+a prosperous basis, the trade being handed down from father to son. An
+interesting phase of the development is that, in addition to the factory
+work, a large amount of the industry is in the hands of "home workers"
+both in the town and country districts. Gloversville, settled originally
+about 1770, was known for some time as Stump City, its present name
+being adopted in 1832. It was incorporated as a village in 1851 and was
+chartered as a city in 1890.
+
+
+
+
+GLOW-WORM, the popular name of the wingless female of the beetle
+_Lampyris noctiluca_, whose power of emitting light has been familiar
+for many centuries. The luminous organs of the glow-worm consist of
+cells similar to those of the fat-body, grouped into paired masses in
+the ventral region of the hinder abdominal segments. The light given out
+by the wingless female insect is believed to serve as an attraction to
+the flying male, whose luminous organs remain in a rudimentary
+condition. The common glow-worm is a widespread European and Siberian
+insect, generally distributed in England and ranging in Scotland
+northwards to the Tay, but unknown in Ireland. Exotic species of
+_Lampyris_ are similarly luminous, and light-giving organs are present
+in many genera of the family _Lampyridae_ from various parts of the
+world. Frequently--as in the south European _Luciola italica_--both
+sexes of the beetle are provided with wings, and both male and female
+emit light. These luminous, winged Lampyrids are generally known as
+"fire-flies." In correspondence with their power of emitting light, the
+insects are nocturnal in habit.
+
+Elongate centipedes of the family _Geophilidae_, certain species of
+which are luminous, are sometimes mistaken for the true glow-worm.
+
+
+
+
+GLOXINIA, a charming decorative plant, botanically a species of
+_Sinningia_ (_S. speciosa_), a member of the natural order Gesneraceae
+and a native of Brazil. The species has given rise under cultivation to
+numerous forms showing a wonderful variety of colour, and hybrid forms
+have also been obtained between these and other species of _Sinningia_.
+A good strain of seed will produce many superb and charmingly coloured
+varieties, and if sown early in spring, in a temperature of 65° at
+night, they may be shifted on into 6-in. pots, and in these may be
+flowered during the summer. The bulbs are kept at rest through the
+winter in dry sand, in a temperature of 50°, and to yield a succession
+should be started at intervals, say at the end of February and the
+beginning of April. To prolong the blooming season, use weak manure
+water when the flower-buds show themselves.
+
+
+
+
+GLUCINUM, an alternative name for Beryllium (q.v.). When L. N. Vauquelin
+in 1798 published in the _Annales de chimie_ an account of a new earth
+obtained by him from beryl he refrained from giving the substance a
+name, but in a note to his paper the editors suggested glucine, from
+[Greek: glykys], sweet, in reference to the taste of its salts, whence
+the name Glucinum or Glucinium (symbol Gl. or sometimes G). The name
+beryllium was given to the metal by German chemists and was generally
+used until recently, when the earlier name was adopted.
+
+
+
+
+GLUCK,[1] CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD (1714-1787), operatic composer, German by
+his nationality, French by his place in art, was born at Weidenwang,
+near Neumarkt, in the upper Palatinate, on the 2nd of July 1714. He
+belonged to the lower middle class, his father being gamekeeper to
+Prince Lobkowitz; but the boy's education was not neglected on that
+account. From his twelfth to his eighteenth year he frequented the
+Jesuit school of Kommotau in the neighbourhood of Prince Lobkowitz's
+estate in Bohemia, where he not only received a good general education,
+but also had lessons in music. At the age of eighteen Gluck went to
+Prague, where he continued his musical studies under Czernohorsky, and
+maintained himself by the exercise of his art, sometimes in the very
+humble capacity of fiddler at village fairs and dances. Through the
+introductions of Prince Lobkowitz, however, he soon gained access to the
+best families of the Austrian nobility; and when in 1736 he proceeded to
+Vienna he was hospitably received at his protector's palace. Here he met
+Prince Melzi, an ardent lover of music, whom he accompanied to Milan,
+continuing his education under Giovanni Battista San Martini, a great
+musical historian and contrapuntist, who was also famous in his own day
+as a composer of church and chamber music. We soon find Gluck producing
+operas at the rapid rate necessitated by the omnivorous taste of the
+Italian public in those days. Nine of these works were produced at
+various Italian theatres between 1741 and 1745. Although their artistic
+value was small, they were so favourably received that in 1745 Gluck was
+invited to London to compose for the Haymarket. The first opera produced
+there was called _La Caduta dei giganti_; it was followed by a revised
+version of one of his earlier operas. Gluck also appeared in London as a
+performer on the musical glasses (see HARMONICA).
+
+The success of his two operas, as well as that of a _pasticcio_ (i.e. a
+collection of favourite arias set to a new libretto) entitled _Piramo e
+Tisbe_, was anything but brilliant, and he accordingly left London. But
+his stay in England was not without important consequences for his
+subsequent career. Gluck at this time was rather less than an ordinary
+producer of Italian opera. Handel's well-known saying that Gluck "knew
+no more counterpoint than his cook" must be taken in connexion with the
+less well-known fact that that cook was an excellent bass singer who
+performed in many of Handel's own operas. But it indicates the musical
+reason of Gluck's failure, while Gluck himself learnt the dramatic
+reason through his surprise at finding that arias which in their
+original setting had been much applauded lost all effect when adapted to
+new words in the _pasticcio_. Irrelevant as Handel's criticism appears,
+it was not without bearing on Gluck's difficulties. The use of
+counterpoint has very little necessary connexion with contrapuntal
+display; its real and final cause is a certain depth of harmonic
+expression which Gluck attained only in his most dramatic moments, and
+for want of which he, even in his finest works, sometimes moved very
+lamely. And in later years his own mature view of the importance of
+harmony, which he upheld in long arguments with Grétry, who believed
+only in melody, shows that he knew that the dramatic expression of music
+must strike below the surface. At this early period he was simply
+producing Handelian opera in an amateurish style, suggesting an
+unsuccessful imitation of Hasse; but the failure of his _pasticcio_ is
+as significant to us as it was to him, since it shows that already the
+effect of his music depended upon its characteristic treatment of
+dramatic situations. This characterizing power was as yet not directly
+evident, and it needed all the influence of the new instrumental
+resources of the rising sonata-forms before music could pass out of what
+we may call its architectural and decorative period and enter into
+dramatic regions at all.
+
+It is highly probable that the chamber music of his master, San Martini,
+had already indicated to Gluck a new direction which was more or less
+incompatible with the older art; and there is nothing discreditable
+either to Gluck or to his contemporaries in the failure of his earlier
+works. Had the young composer been successful in the ordinary _opera
+seria_, there is reason to fear that the great dramatic reform,
+initiated by him, might not have taken place. The critical temper of the
+London public fortunately averted this calamity. It may also be assumed
+that the musical atmosphere of the English capital, and especially the
+great works of Handel, were not without beneficial influence upon the
+young composer. But of still greater importance in this respect was a
+short trip to Paris, where Gluck became for the first time acquainted
+with the classic traditions and the declamatory style of the French
+opera--a sphere of music in which his own greatest triumphs were to be
+achieved. Of these great issues little trace, however, is to be found in
+the works produced by Gluck during the fifteen years after his return
+from England. In this period Gluck, in a long course of works by no
+means free from the futile old traditions, gained technical experience
+and important patronage, though his success was not uniform. His first
+opera written for Vienna, _La Semiramide riconosciuta_, is again an
+ordinary _opera seria_, and little more can be said of _Telemacco_,
+although thirty years later Gluck was able to use most of its overture
+and an energetic duet in one of his greatest works, _Armide_.
+
+Gluck settled permanently at Vienna in 1756, having two years previously
+been appointed court chapel-master, with a salary of 2000 florins, by
+the empress Maria Theresa. He had already received the order of
+knighthood from the pope in consequence of the successful production of
+two of his works in Rome. During the long interval from 1756 to 1762
+Gluck seems to have matured his plans for the reform of the opera; and,
+barring a ballet named _Don Giovanni_, and some _airs nouveaux_ to
+French words with pianoforte accompaniment, no compositions of any
+importance have to be recorded. Several later _pièces d'occasion_, such
+as _Il Trionfo di Clelia_ (1763), are still written in the old manner,
+though already in 1762 _Orfeo ed Euridice_ shows that the composer had
+entered upon a new career. Gluck had for the first time deserted
+Metastasio for Raniero Calzabigi, who, as Vernon Lee suggests, was in
+all probability the immediate cause of the formation of Gluck's new
+ideas, as he was a hot-headed dramatic theorist with a violent dislike
+for Metastasio, who had hitherto dominated the whole sphere of operatic
+libretto.
+
+Quite apart from its significance in the history of dramatic music,
+_Orpheus_ is a work which, by its intrinsic beauty, commands the highest
+admiration. Orpheus's air, _Che faro_, is known to every one; but still
+finer is the great scena in which the poet's song softens even the
+_ombre sdegnose_ of Tartarus. The ascending passion of the entries of
+the solo (_Deh! placatevi_; _Mille pene_; _Men tiranne_), interrupted by
+the harsh but gradually softening exclamations of the Furies, is of the
+highest dramatic effect. These melodies, moreover, as well as every
+declamatory passage assigned to Orpheus, are made subservient to the
+purposes of dramatic characterization; that is, they could not possibly
+be assigned to any other person in the drama, any more than Hamlet's
+monologue could be spoken by Polonius. It is in this power of musically
+realizing a character--a power all but unknown in the serious opera of
+his day--that Gluck's genius as a dramatic composer is chiefly shown.
+After a short relapse into his earlier manner, Gluck followed up his
+_Orpheus_ by a second classical music-drama (1767) named _Alceste_. In
+his dedication of the score to the grand-duke of Tuscany, he fully
+expressed his aims, as well as the reasons for his total breach with the
+old traditions. "I shall try," he wrote, "to reduce music to its real
+function, that of seconding poetry by intensifying the expression of
+sentiments and the interest of situations without interrupting the
+action by needless ornament. I have accordingly taken care not to
+interrupt the singer in the heat of the dialogue, to wait for a tedious
+_ritornel_, nor do I allow him to stop on a sonorous vowel, in the
+middle of a phrase, in order to show the nimbleness of a beautiful voice
+in a long _cadenza_." Such theories, and the stern consistency with
+which they were carried out, were little to the taste of the
+pleasure-loving Viennese; and the success of _Alceste_, as well as that
+of _Paris and Helena_, which followed two years later, was not such as
+Gluck had desired and expected. He therefore eagerly accepted the chance
+of finding a home for his art in the centre of intellectual and more
+especially dramatic life, Paris. Such a chance was opened to him through
+the _bailli_ Le Blanc du Roullet, attaché of the French embassy at
+Vienna, and a musical amateur who entered into Gluck's ideas with
+enthusiasm. A classic opera for the Paris stage was accordingly
+projected, and the friends fixed upon Racine's _Iphigénie en Aulide_.
+After some difficulties, overcome chiefly by the intervention of Gluck's
+former pupil the dauphiness Marie Antoinette, the opera was at last
+accepted and performed at the Académie de Musique, on the 19th of April
+1774.
+
+The great importance of the new work was at once perceived by the
+musical amateurs of the French capital, and a hot controversy on the
+merits of _Iphigénie_ ensued, in which some of the leading literary men
+of France took part. Amongst the opponents of Gluck were not only the
+admirers of Italian vocalization and sweetness, but also the adherents
+of the earlier French school, who refused to see in the new composer the
+legitimate successor of Lulli and Rameau. Marmontel, Laharpe and
+D'Alembert were his opponents, the Abbé Arnaud and others his
+enthusiastic friends. Rousseau took a peculiar position in the struggle.
+In his early writings he is a violent partisan of Italian music, but
+when Gluck himself appeared as the French champion Rousseau acknowledged
+the great composer's genius; although he did not always understand it,
+as for example when he suggested that in _Alceste_, "Divinités du Styx,"
+perhaps the most majestic of all Gluck's arias, ought to have been set
+as a rondo. Nevertheless in a letter to Dr Burney, written shortly
+before his death, Rousseau gives a close and appreciative analysis of
+_Alceste_, the first Italian version of which Gluck had submitted to him
+for suggestions; and when, on the first performance of the piece not
+being received favourably by the Parisian audience, the composer
+exclaimed, "_Alceste est tombée_," Rousseau is said to have comforted
+him with the flattering _bonmot_, "_Oui, mais elle est tombée du ciel_."
+The contest received a still more personal character when Piccinni, a
+celebrated and by no means incapable composer, came to Paris as the
+champion of the Italian party at the invitation of Madame du Barry, who
+held a rival court to that of the young princess (see OPERA). As a
+dramatic controversy it suggests a parallel with the Wagnerian and
+anti-Wagnerian warfare of a later age; but there is no such radical
+difference between Gluck's and Piccinni's musical methods as the
+comparison would suggest. Gluck was by far the better musician, but his
+deficiencies in musical technique were of a kind which contemporaries
+could perceive as easily as they could perceive Piccinni's. Both
+composers were remarkable inventors of melody, and both had the gift of
+making incorrect music sound agreeable. Gluck's indisputable dramatic
+power might be plausibly dismissed as irrelevant by upholders of music
+for music's sake, even if Piccinni himself had not chosen, as he did, to
+assimilate every feature in Gluck's style that he could understand. The
+rivalry between the two composers was soon developed into a quarrel by
+the skilful engineering of Gluck's enemies. In 1777 Piccinni was given a
+libretto by Marmontel on the subject of _Roland_, to Gluck's intense
+disgust, as he had already begun an opera on that subject himself. This,
+and the failure of an attempt to show his command of a lighter style by
+furbishing up some earlier works at the instigation of Marie Antoinette,
+inspired Gluck to produce his _Armide_, which appeared four months
+before Piccinni's _Roland_ was ready, and raised a storm of controversy,
+admiration and abuse. Gluck did not anticipate Wagner more clearly in
+his dramatic reforms than in his caustic temper; and, as in Gluck's own
+estimation the difference between _Armide_ and _Alceste_ is that "_l'un
+(Alceste) doit faire pleurer et l'autre faire éprouver une voluptueuse
+sensation_," it was extremely annoying for him to be told by Laharpe
+that he had made Armide a sorceress instead of an enchantress, and that
+her part was "_une criaillerie monotone et fatiguante_." He replied to
+Laharpe in a long public letter worthy of Wagner in its venomous sarcasm
+and its tremendous value as an advertisement for its recipient.
+
+Gluck's next work was _Iphigénie en Tauride_, the success of which
+finally disposed of Piccinni, who produced a work on the same subject at
+the same time and who is said to have acknowledged Gluck's superiority.
+Gluck's next work was _Écho et Narcisse_, the comparative failure of
+which greatly disappointed him; and during the composition of another
+opera, _Les Danaïdes_, an attack of apoplexy compelled him to give up
+work. He left Paris for Vienna, where he lived for several years in
+dignified leisure, disturbed only by his declining health. He died on
+the 15th of November 1787.     (F. H.; D. F. T.)
+
+The great interest of the dramatic aspect of Gluck's reforms is apt to
+overshadow his merit as a musician, and yet in some ways to idealize it.
+One is tempted to regard him as condoning for technical musical
+deficiencies by sheer dramatic power, whereas unprejudiced study of his
+work shows that where his dramatic power asserts itself there is no lack
+of musical technique. Indeed only a great musician could so reform opera
+as to give it scope for dramatic power at all. Where Gluck differs from
+the greatest musicians is in his absolute dependence on literature for
+his inspiration. Where his librettist failed him (as in his last
+complete work, _Écho et Narcisse_), he could hardly write tolerably good
+music; and, even in the finest works of his French period, the less
+emotional situations are sometimes set to music which has little
+interest except as a document in the history of the art. This must not
+be taken to mean merely that Gluck could not, like Mozart and nearly all
+the great song-writers, set good music to a bad text. Such inability
+would prove Gluck's superior literary taste without casting a slur on
+his musicianship. But it points to a certain weakness as a musician that
+Gluck could not be inspired except by the more thrilling portions of his
+libretti. When he was inspired there was no question that he was the
+first and greatest writer of dramatic music before Mozart. To begin
+with, he could invent sublime melodies; and his power of producing great
+musical effects by the simplest means was nothing short of Handelian.
+Moreover, in his peculiar sphere he deserves the title generally
+accorded to Haydn of "father of modern orchestration." It is misleading
+to say that he was the first to use the timbre of instruments with a
+sense of emotional effect, for Bach and Handel well knew how to give a
+whole aria or whole chorus peculiar tone by means of a definite scheme
+of instrumentation. But Gluck did not treat instruments as part of a
+decorative design, any more than he so treated musical forms. Just as
+his sense of musical form is that of Philipp Emmanuel Bach and of
+Mozart, so is his treatment of instrumental tone-colour a thing that
+changes with every shade of feeling in the dramatic situation, and not
+in accordance with any purely decorative scheme. To accompany an aria
+with strings, oboes and flutes, was, for example, a perfectly ordinary
+procedure; nor was there anything unusual in making the wind instruments
+play in unison with the strings for the first part of the aria, and
+writing a passage for one or more of them in the middle section. But it
+was an unheard-of thing to make this passage consist of long
+_appoggiaturas_ once every two bars in rising sequence on the first
+oboe, answered by deep _pizzicato_ bass notes, while Agamemnon in
+despair cries: "_J'entends retentir dans mon sein le cri plaintif de la
+nature_." Some of Gluck's most forcible effects are of great subtlety,
+as, for instance, in _Iphigénie en Tauride_, where Orestes tries to
+reassure himself by saying: "_Le calme rentre dans mon coeur_," while
+the intensely agitated accompaniment of the strings belies him. Again,
+the sense of orchestral climax shown in the oracle scene in _Alceste_
+was a thing inconceivable in older music, and unsurpassed in artistic
+and dramatic spirit by any modern composer. Its influence in Mozart's
+_Idomeneo_ is obvious at a first glance.
+
+The capacity for broad melody always implies a true sense of form,
+whether that be developed by skill or not; and thus Gluck, in rejecting
+the convenient formalities of older styles of opera, was not, like some
+reformers, without something better to substitute for them. Moreover he,
+in consultation with his librettist, achieved great skill in holding
+together entire scenes, or even entire acts, by dramatically apposite
+repetitions of short arias and choruses. And thus in large portions of
+his finest works the music, in spite of frequent full closes, seems to
+move _pari passu_ with the drama in a manner which for naturalness and
+continuity is surpassed only by the finales of Mozart and the entire
+operas of Wagner. This is perhaps most noticeable in the second act of
+_Orfeo_. In its original Italian version both scenes, that in Hades and
+that in Elysium, are indivisible wholes, and the division into single
+movements, though technically obvious, is aesthetically only a natural
+means of articulating the structure. The unity of the scene in Hades
+extends, in the original version, even to the key-system. This was
+damaged when Gluck had to transpose the part of Orpheus from an alto to
+a tenor in the French version. And here, we have one of many instances
+in which the improvements his French experience enabled him to make in
+his great Italian works were not altogether unmixed. Little harm,
+however, was done to _Orfeo_ which has not been easily remedied by
+transposing Orpheus's part back again; and in a suitable compromise
+between the two versions _Orfeo_ remains Gluck's most perfect and
+inspired work. The emotional power of the music is such that the
+inevitable spoiling of the story by a happy ending has not the aspect of
+mere conventionality which it had in cases where the music produced no
+more than the normal effect upon 18th-century audiences. Moreover
+Gluck's genius was of too high an order for him to be less successful in
+portraying a sufficiently intense happiness than in portraying grief. He
+failed only in what may be called the business capacities of artistic
+technique; and there is less "business" in _Orfeo_ than in almost any
+other music-drama. It was Gluck's first great inspiration, and his
+theories had not had time to take action in paper warfare. _Alceste_
+contains his grandest music and is also very free from weak pages; but
+in its original Italian version the third act did not give Gluck scope
+for an adequate climax. This difficulty so accentuated itself in the
+French version that after continual retouchings a part for Hercules was,
+in Gluck's absence, added by Gossec; and three pages of Gluck's music,
+dealing with the supreme crisis where Alceste is rescued from Hades
+(either by Apollo or by Hercules) were no longer required in performance
+and have been lost. The Italian version is so different from the French
+that it cannot help us to restore this passage, in which Gluck's music
+now stops short just at the point where we realize the full height of
+his power. The comparison between the Italian and French _Alceste_ is
+one of the most interesting that can be made in the study of a
+musician's development. It would have been far easier for Gluck to write
+a new opera if he had not been so justly attached to his second Italian
+masterpiece. So radical are the differences that in retranslating the
+French libretto into Italian for performance with the French music not
+one line of Calzabigi's original text can be retained.
+
+In _Iphigénie en Aulide_ and _Iphigénie en Tauride_, Gluck shows signs
+that the controversies aroused by his methods began to interfere with
+his musical spontaneity. He had not, in _Orfeo_, gone out of his way to
+avoid rondos, or we should have had no "_Che faro senza Euridice_." We
+read with a respectful smile Gluck's assurance to the bailli Le Blanc du
+Roullet that "you would not believe _Armide_ to be by the same composer"
+as _Alceste_. But there is no question that _Armide_ is a very great
+work, full of melody, colour and dramatic point; and that Gluck has
+availed himself of every suggestion that his libretto afforded for
+orchestral and emotional effects of an entirely different type from any
+that he had attempted before. And it is hardly relevant to blame him for
+his inability to write erotic music. In the first place, the libretto is
+not erotic, though the subject would no doubt become so if treated by a
+modern poet. In the second place a conflict of passions (as, for
+instance, where Armide summons the demons of Hate to exorcise love from
+her heart, and her courage fails her as soon as they begin) has never,
+even in _Alceste_, been treated with more dramatic musical force. The
+work as a whole is unequal, partly because there is a little too much
+action in it to suit Gluck's methods; but it shows, as does no other
+opera until Mozart's _Don Giovanni_, a sense of the _development_ of
+characters, as distinguished from the mere presentation of them as
+already fixed.
+
+In _Iphigénie en Aulide_ and _Iphigénie en Tauride_, the very subtlety
+of the finest features indicates a certain self-consciousness which,
+when inspiration is lacking, becomes mannerism. Moreover, in both cases
+the libretti, though skilfully managed, tell a rather more complicated
+story than those which Gluck had hitherto so successfully treated; and,
+where inspiration fails, the musical technique becomes curiously
+amateurish without any corresponding naïveté. Still these works are
+immortal, and their finest passages are equal to anything in _Alceste_
+and _Orfeo_. _Écho et Narcisse_ we must, like Gluck's contemporaries,
+regard as a failure. As in _Orfeo_, the pathetic story is ruined by a
+violent happy ending, but here this artistic disaster takes place before
+the pathos has had time to assert itself. Gluck had no opportunities in
+this work for any higher qualities, musical or dramatic, than
+prettiness; and with him beauty, without visible emotion, was indeed
+skin-deep. It is a pity that the plan of the great Pelletan-Damcke
+critical _édition de luxe_ of Gluck's French operas forbids the
+inclusion of his Italian _Paride e Elena_, his third opera to
+Calzabigi's libretto, which was never given in a French version; for
+there can be no question that, whatever he owed to France, the period
+of his greatness began with his collaboration with Calzabigi.
+     (D. F. T.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Not, as frequently spelt, Glück.
+
+
+
+
+GLÜCKSBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Schleswig-Holstein, romantically situated among pine woods on the
+Flensburg Fjord off the Baltic, 6 m. N.E. from Flensburg by rail. Pop.
+(1905) 1551. It has a Protestant church and some small manufactures and
+is a favourite sea-bathing resort. The castle, which occupies the site
+of a former Cistercian monastery, was, from 1622 to 1779, the residence
+of the dukes of Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, passing then to the king
+of Denmark and in 1866 to Prussia. King Frederick VII. of Denmark died
+here on the 15th of November 1863.
+
+
+
+
+GLÜCKSTADT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Schleswig-Holstein, on the right bank of the Elbe, at the confluence of
+the small river Rhin, and 28 m. N.W. of Altona, on the railway from
+Itzehoe to Elmshorn. Pop. (1905) 6586. It has a Protestant and a Roman
+Catholic church, a handsome town-hall (restored in 1873-1874), a
+gymnasium, a provincial prison and a penitentiary. The inhabitants are
+chiefly engaged in commerce and fishing; but the frequent losses from
+inundations have greatly retarded the prosperity of the town. Glückstadt
+was founded by Christian IV. of Denmark in 1617, and fortified in 1620.
+It soon became an important trading centre. In 1627-28 it was besieged
+for fifteen weeks by the imperialists under Tilly, without success. In
+1814 it was blockaded by the allies and capitulated, whereupon its
+fortifications were demolished. In 1830 it was made a free port. It came
+into the possession of Prussia together with the rest of
+Schleswig-Holstein in 1866.
+
+  See Lucht, _Glückstadt. Beiträge zur Geschichte dieser Stadt_ (Kiel,
+  1854).
+
+
+
+
+GLUCOSE (from Gr. [Greek: glykys], sweet), a carbohydrate of the formula
+C6H12O6; it may be regarded as the aldehyde of sorbite. The name is
+applied in commerce to a complex mixture of carbohydrates obtained by
+boiling starch with dilute mineral acids; in chemistry, it denotes, with
+the prefixes d, l and d + l (or i), the dextro-rotatory, laevo-rotatory
+and inactive forms of the definite chemical compound defined above. The
+d modification is of the commonest occurrence, the other forms being
+only known as synthetic products; for this reason it is usually termed
+glucose, simply; alternative names are dextrose, grape sugar and
+diabetic sugar, in allusion to its right-handed optical rotation, its
+occurrence in large quantity in grapes, and in the urine of diabetic
+patients respectively. In the vegetable kingdom glucose occurs, always
+in admixture with fructose, in many fruits, especially grapes, cherries,
+bananas, &c.; and in combination, generally with phenols and aldehydes
+belonging to the aromatic series, it forms an extensive class of
+compounds termed glucosides. It appears to be synthesized in the plant
+tissues from carbon dioxide and water, formaldehyde being an
+intermediate product; or it may be a hydrolytic product of a glucoside
+or of a polysaccharose, such as cane sugar, starch, cellulose, &c. In
+the plant it is freely converted into more complex sugars,
+poly-saccharoses and also proteids. In the animal kingdom, also, it is
+very widely distributed, being sometimes a normal and sometimes a
+pathological constituent of the fluids and tissues; in particular, it is
+present in large amount in the urine of those suffering from diabetes,
+and may be present in nearly all the body fluids. It also occurs in
+honey, the white appearance of candied honey being due to its
+separation.
+
+Pure d-glucose, which may be obtained synthetically (see SUGAR) or by
+adding crystallized cane sugar to a mixture of 80% alcohol and 1/15
+volume of fuming hydrochloric acid so long as it dissolves on shaking,
+crystallizes from water or alcohol at ordinary temperatures in nodular
+masses, composed of minute six-sided plates, and containing one molecule
+of water of crystallization. This product melts at 86° C., and becomes
+anhydrous when heated to 110° C. The anhydrous compound can also be
+prepared, as hard crusts melting at 146°, by crystallizing concentrated
+aqueous solutions at 30° to 35°. It is very soluble in water, but only
+slightly soluble in strong alcohol. Its taste is somewhat sweet, its
+sweetening power being estimated at from ½ to 3/5 that of cane sugar.
+When heated to above 200° it turns brown and produces caramel, a
+substance possessing a bitter taste, and used, in its aqueous solution
+or otherwise, under various trade names, for colouring confectionery,
+spirits, &c. The specific rotation of the plane of polarized light by
+glucose solutions is characteristic. The specific rotation of a freshly
+prepared solution is 105°, but this value gradually diminishes to 52.5°,
+24 hours sufficing for the transition in the cold, and a few minutes
+when the solution is boiled. This phenomenon has been called
+mutarotation by T. M. Lowry. The specific rotation also varies with the
+concentration; this is due to the dissociation of complex molecules into
+simpler ones, a view confirmed by cryoscopic measurements.
+
+Glucose may be estimated by means of the polarimeter, i.e. by
+determining the rotation of the plane of polarization of a solution, or,
+chemically, by taking advantage of its property of reducing alkaline
+copper solutions. If a glucose solution be added to copper sulphate and
+much alkali added, a yellowish-red precipitate of cuprous hydrate
+separates, slowly in the cold, but immediately when the liquid is
+heated; this precipitate rapidly turns red owing to the formation of
+cuprous oxide. In 1846 L. C. A. Barreswil found that a strongly alkaline
+solution of copper sulphate and potassium sodium tartrate (Rochelle
+salt) remained unchanged on boiling, but yielded an immediate
+precipitate of red cuprous oxide when a solution of glucose was added.
+He suggested that the method was applicable for quantitatively
+estimating glucose, but its acceptance only followed after H. von
+Fehling's investigation. "Fehling's solution" is prepared by dissolving
+separately 34.639 grammes of copper sulphate, 173 grammes of Rochelle
+salt, and 71 grammes of caustic soda in water, mixing and making up to
+1000 ccs.; 10 ccs. of this solution is completely reduced by 0.05
+grammes of hexose. Volumetric methods are used, but the uncertainty of
+the end of the reaction has led to the suggestion of special indicators,
+or of determining the amount of cuprous oxide gravimetrically.
+
+  _Chemistry._--In its chemical properties glucose is a typical
+  oxyaldehyde or aldose. The aldehyde group reacts with hydrocyanic acid
+  to produce two stereo-isomeric cyanhydrins; this isomerism is due to
+  the conversion of an originally non-asymmetric carbon atom into an
+  asymmetric one. The cyanhydrin is hydrolysable to an acid, the lactone
+  of which may be reduced by sodium amalgam to a glucoheptose, a
+  non-fermentable sugar containing seven carbon atoms. By repeating the
+  process a non-fermentable gluco-octose and a fermentable glucononose
+  may be prepared. The aldehyde group also reacts with phenyl hydrazine
+  to form two phenylhydrazones; under certain conditions a hydroxyl
+  group adjacent to the aldehyde group is oxidized and glucosazone is
+  produced; this glucosazone is decomposed by hydrochloric acid into
+  phenyl hydrazine and the keto-aldehyde glucosone. These
+  transformations are fully discussed in the article SUGAR. On reduction
+  glucose appears to yield the hexahydric alcohol _d_-sorbite, and on
+  oxidation _d_-gluconic and _d_-saccharic acids. Alkalis partially
+  convert it into _d_-mannose and _d_-fructose. Baryta and lime yield
+  saccharates, e.g. C6H12O6·BaO, precipitable by alcohol.
+
+        CH2OH             CH2OH
+        .                 .
+        CH·OH             CH·OH
+        .                 .
+        CH                CH
+      /                /
+    O<               O<
+      \ .               \ .
+       (CH·OH)2          (CH·OH2
+        .                 .
+       HC·OH           HO·CH
+
+    [alpha]-glucose  [beta]-glucose
+
+  The constitution of glucose was established by H. Kiliani in
+  1885-1887, who showed it to be CH2OH·(CH·OH)4·CHO. The subject was
+  taken up by Emil Fischer, who succeeded in synthesizing glucose, and
+  also several of its stereo-isomers, there being 16 according to the Le
+  Bel-van't Hoff theory (see Stereo-Isomerism and Sugar). This open
+  chain structure is challenged in the views put forward by T. M. Lowry
+  and E. F. Armstrong. In 1895 C. Tanret showed that glucose existed in
+  more than one form, and he isolated [alpha], [beta] and [gamma]
+  varieties with specific rotations of 105°, 52.5° and 22°. It is now
+  agreed that the [beta] variety is a mixture of the [alpha] and
+  [gamma]. This discovery explained the mutarotation of glucose. In a
+  fresh solution [alpha]-glucose only exists, but on standing it is
+  slowly transformed into [gamma]-glucose, equilibrium being reached
+  when the [alpha] and [gamma] forms are present in the ratio
+  0.368:0.632 (Tanret, _Zeit. physikal. Chem._, 1905, 53, p. 692). It is
+  convenient to refer to these two forms as [alpha] and [beta]. Lowry
+  and Armstrong represent these compounds by the following spatial
+  formulae which postulate a [gamma]-oxidic structure, and 5 asymmetric
+  carbon atoms, i.e. one more than in the Fischer formulae. These
+  formulae are supported by many considerations, especially by the
+  selective action of enzymes, which follows similar lines with the
+  [alpha]- and [beta]-glucosides, i.e. the compounds formed by the
+  interaction of glucose with substances generally containing hydroxyl
+  groups (see GLUCOSIDE).
+
+  _Fermentation of Glucose._--Glucose is readily fermentable. Of the
+  greatest importance is the alcoholic fermentation brought about by
+  yeast cells (_Saccharomyces cerevisiae seu vini_); this follows the
+  equation C6H12O6 = 2C2H6O + 2CO2, Pasteur considering 94 to 95% of the
+  sugar to be so changed. This character is the base of the plan of
+  adding glucose to wine and beer wort before fermenting, the alcohol
+  content of the liquid after fermentation being increased. Some fusel
+  oil, glycerin and succinic acid appear to be formed simultaneously,
+  but in small amount. Glucose also undergoes fermentation into lactic
+  acid (q.v.) in the presence of the lactic acid bacillus, and into
+  butyric acid if the action of the preceding ferment be continued, or
+  by other bacilli. It also yields, by the so-called mucous
+  fermentation, a mucous, gummy mass, mixed with mannitol and lactic
+  acid.
+
+  We may here notice the frequent production of glucose by the action of
+  enzymes upon other carbohydrates. Of especial note is the
+  transformation of maltose by maltase into glucose, and of cane sugar
+  by invertase into a mixture of glucose and fructose (invert sugar);
+  other instances are: lactose by lactase into galactose and glucose;
+  trehalose by trehalase into glucose; melibiose by melibiase into
+  galactose and glucose; and of melizitose by melizitase into touranose
+  and glucose, touranose yielding glucose also when acted upon by the
+  enzyme touranase.
+
+  _Commercial Glucose._--The glucose of commerce, which may be regarded
+  as a mixture of grape sugar, maltose and dextrins, is prepared by
+  hydrolysing starch by boiling with a dilute mineral acid. In Europe,
+  potato starch is generally employed; in America, corn starch. The acid
+  employed may be hydrochloric, which gives the best results, or
+  sulphuric, which is used in Germany; sulphuric acid is more readily
+  separated from the product than hydrochloric, since the addition of
+  powdered chalk precipitates it as calcium sulphate, which may be
+  removed by a filter press. The processes of manufacture have much in
+  common, although varying in detail. The following is an outline of the
+  process when hydrochloric acid is used: Starch ("green" starch in
+  America) is made into a "milk" with water, and the milk pumped into
+  boiling dilute acid contained in a closed "converter," generally made
+  of copper or cast iron; steam is led in at the same time, and the
+  pressure is kept up to about 25 lb. to the sq. in. When the converter
+  is full the pressure is raised somewhat, and the heating continued
+  until the conversion is complete. The liquid is now run into
+  neutralizing tanks containing sodium carbonate, and, after settling,
+  the supernatant liquid, termed "light liquor," is run through bag
+  filters and then on to bone-char filters, which have been previously
+  used for the "heavy liquor." The colourless or amber-coloured filtrate
+  is concentrated to 27° to 28° B., when it forms the "heavy liquor,"
+  just mentioned. This is filtered through fresh bone-char filters, from
+  which it is discharged as a practically colourless liquid. This liquid
+  is concentrated in vacuum pans to a specific gravity of 40° to 44° B.,
+  a small quantity of sodium bisulphite solution being added to bleach
+  it, to prevent fermentation, and to inhibit browning. "Syrup glucose"
+  is the commercial name of the product; by continuing the concentration
+  further solid glucose or grape sugar is obtained.
+
+  Several brands are recognized: "Mixing glucose" is used by syrup and
+  molasses manufacturers, "jelly glucose" by makers of jellies,
+  "confectioners' glucose" in confectionery, "brewers' glucose" in
+  brewing, &c.
+
+
+
+
+GLUCOSIDE, in chemistry, the generic name of an extensive group of
+substances characterized by the property of yielding a sugar, more
+commonly glucose, when hydrolysed by purely chemical means, or
+decomposed by a ferment or enzyme. The name was originally given to
+vegetable products of this nature, in which the other part of the
+molecule was, in the greater number of cases, an aromatic aldehydic or
+phenolic compound (exceptions are sinigrin and jalapin or scammonin). It
+has now been extended to include synthetic ethers, such as those
+obtained by acting on alcoholic glucose solutions with hydrochloric
+acid, and also the polysaccharoses, e.g. cane sugar, which appear to be
+ethers also. Although glucose is the commonest sugar present in
+glucosides, many are known which yield rhamnose or iso-dulcite; these
+may be termed pentosides. Much attention has been given to the non-sugar
+parts of the molecules; the constitutions of many have been determined,
+and the compounds synthesized; and in some cases the preparation of the
+synthetic glucoside effected.
+
+The simplest glucosides are the alkyl esters which E. Fischer (_Ber._,
+28, pp. 1151, 3081) obtained by acting with hydrochloric acid on
+alcoholic glucose solutions. A better method of preparation is due to E.
+F. Armstrong and S. L. Courtauld (_Proc. Phys. Soc._, 1905, July 1),
+who dissolve solid anhydrous glucose in methyl alcohol containing
+hydrochloric acid. A mixture of [alpha]- and [beta]-glucose result,
+which are then etherified, and if the solution be neutralized before the
+[beta]-form isomerizes and the solvent removed, a mixture of the
+[alpha]- and [beta]-methyl ethers is obtained. These may be separated by
+the action of suitable ferments. Fischer found that these ethers did not
+reduce Fehling's solution, neither did they combine with phenyl
+hydrazine at 100°; they appear to be stereo-isomeric [gamma]-oxidic
+compounds of the formulae I., II.: The difference between the [alpha]-
+and [beta]-forms is best shown by the selective action of enzymes.
+Fischer found that maltase, an enzyme occurring in yeast cells,
+hydrolysed [alpha]-glucosides but not the [beta]; while emulsin, an
+enzyme occurring in bitter almonds, hydrolyses the [beta] but not the
+[alpha]. The ethers of non-fermentable sugars are themselves
+non-fermentable. By acting with these enzymes on the natural glucosides,
+it is found that the majority are of the [beta]-form; e.g. emulsin
+hydrolyses salicin, helicin, aesculin, coniferin, syringin, &c.
+
+       CH2OH                   CH2OH
+       ·                       ·
+       CHOH                    CHOH
+       ·                       ·
+     / CH                    / CH
+  O <  ·                  O <  ·
+     \(CHOH)2                \(CHOH)2
+       ·                       ·
+     H·C·OCH3             CH3O·C·H
+
+  I. [alpha]-methyl     II. [beta]-methyl
+     _d_-glucoside        _d_-glucoside
+
+Classification of the glucosides is a matter of some difficulty. One
+based on the chemical constitution of the non-glucose part of the
+molecules has been proposed by Umney, who framed four groups: (1)
+ethylene derivatives, (2) benzene derivatives, (3) styrolene
+derivatives, (4) anthracene derivatives. A group may also be made to
+include the cyanogenetic glucosides, i.e. those containing prussic acid.
+J. J. L. van Rijn (_Die Glykoside_, 1900) follows a botanical
+classification, which has several advantages; in particular, plants of
+allied genera contain similar compounds. In this article the chemical
+classification will be followed. Only the more important compounds will
+be noticed, the reader being referred to van Rijn (_loc. cit._) and to
+Beilstein's _Handbuch der organischen Chemie_ for further details.
+
+  1. _Ethylene Derivatives._--These are generally mustard oils, and are
+  characterized by a burning taste; their principal occurrence is in
+  mustard and _Tropaeolum seeds_. Sinigrin or the potassium salt of
+  myronic acid, C10H16NS2KO9·H2O, occurs in black pepper and in
+  horse-radish root. Hydrolysis with baryta, or decomposition by the
+  ferment myrosin, gives glucose, allyl mustard oil and potassium
+  bisulphate. Sinalbin, C30H42N2S2O15, occurs in white pepper; it
+  decomposes to the mustard oil HO·C6H4·CH2·NCS, glucose and sinapin, a
+  compound of choline and sinapinic acid. Jalapin or scammonin,
+  C34H56O16, occurs in scammony; it hydrolyses to glucose and
+  jalapinolic acid. The formulae of sinigrin, sinalbin, sinapin and
+  jalapinolic acid are:--
+
+                 / N·C3H5                     / N·CH2·C6H4·OH
+    C6H11O5·S·C <                C6H11O5·S·C <
+                 \ O·SO2·OK                   \ O·SO2·OC16H24O5N
+              Sinigrin                     Sinalbin
+
+              (CH3O)2 \                          / (CH3)3
+                       > C6H2·CH:CH·CO·C2H4·O·N <
+                   HO /                          \ OH
+                                Sinapin
+
+                     CH3 \
+                          > CH·CH(OH)·C10H20·CO2H
+                    C2H6 /
+                       Jalapinolic acid (Kramer)
+
+  2. _Benzene Derivatives._--These are generally oxy and oxyaldehydic
+  compounds. Arbutin, C12H16O7, which occurs in bearberry along with
+  methyl arbutin, hydrolyses to hydroquinone and glucose.
+  Pharmacologically it acts as a urinary antiseptic and diuretic; the
+  benzoyl derivative, cellotropin, has been used for tuberculosis.
+  Salicin, also termed "saligenin" and "glucose," C13H18O7, occurs in
+  the willow. The enzymes ptyalin and emulsin convert it into glucose
+  and saligenin, ortho-oxybenzylalcohol, HO·C6H4·CH2OH. Oxidation gives
+  the aldehyde helicin. Populin, C20H22O8, which occurs in the leaves
+  and bark of _Populus tremula_, is benzoyl salicin.
+
+  3. _Styrolene Derivatives._--This group contains a benzene and also an
+  ethylene group, being derived from styrolene C6H5·CH:CH2. Coniferin,
+  C16H22O8, occurs in the cambium of coniferous woods. Emulsin converts
+  it into glucose and coniferyl alcohol, while oxidation gives
+  glycovanillin, which yields with emulsin glucose and vanillin (see
+  EUGENOL and VANILLA). Syringin, which occurs in the bark of _Syringa
+  vulgaris_, is methoxyconiferin. Phloridzin, C21H24O10, occurs in the
+  root-bark of various fruit trees; it hydrolyses to glucose and
+  phloretin, which is the phloroglucin ester of para-oxyhydratropic acid.
+  It is related to the pentosides naringin, C21H26O11, which hydrolyses
+  to rhamnose and naringenin, the phloroglucin ester of para-oxycinnamic
+  acid, and hesperidin, C50H60O22(?), which hydrolyses to rhamnose and
+  hesperetin, C16H14O6, the phloroglucin ester of
+  meta-oxy-para-methoxycinnamic acid or isoferulic acid, C10H10O4. We may
+  here include various coumarin and benzo-[gamma]-pyrone derivatives.
+  Aesculin, C15H16O9, occurring in horse-chestnut, and daphnin, occurring
+  in _Daphne alpina_, are isomeric; the former hydrolyses to glucose and
+  aesculetin (4·5-dioxycoumarin), the latter to glucose and daphnetin
+  (3·4-dioxycoumarin). Fraxin, C16H18O10, occurring in _Fraxinus
+  excelsior_, and with aesculin in horse-chestnut, hydrolyses to glucose
+  and fraxetin, the monomethyl ester of a trioxycoumarin. Flavone or
+  benzo-[gamma]-pyrone derivatives are very numerous; in many cases they
+  (or the non-sugar part of the molecule) are vegetable dyestuffs.
+  _Quercitrin_, C21H22O12, is a yellow dyestuff found in _Quercus
+  tinctoria_; it hydrolyses to rhamnose and quercetin, a
+  dioxy-[beta]-phenyl-trioxybenzo-[gamma]-pyrone. Rhamnetin, a splitting
+  product of the glucosides of _Rhamnus_, is monomethyl quercetin;
+  fisetin, from _Rhus cotinus_, is monoxyquercetin; chrysin is
+  phenyl-dioxybenzo-[gamma]-pyrone. Saponarin, a glucoside found in
+  _Saponaria officinalis_, is a related compound. Strophanthin is the
+  name given to three different compounds, two obtained from
+  _Strophanthus Kombe_ and one from _S. hispidus_.
+
+  4. _Anthracene Derivatives._--These are generally substituted
+  anthraquinones; many have medicinal applications, being used as
+  purgatives, while one, ruberythric acid, yields the valuable dyestuff
+  madder, the base of which is alizarin (q.v.). Chrysophanic acid, a
+  dioxymethylanthraquinone, occurs in rhubarb, which also contains
+  emodin, a trioxymethylanthraquinone; this substance occurs in
+  combination with rhamnose in frangula bark.
+
+  The most important cyanogenetic glucoside is amygdalin, which occurs
+  in bitter almonds. The enzyme maltase decomposes it into glucose and
+  mandelic nitrile glucoside; the latter is broken down by emulsin into
+  glucose, benzaldehyde and prussic acid. Emulsin also decomposes
+  amygdalin directly into these compounds without the intermediate
+  formation of mandelic nitrile glucoside. Several other glucosides of
+  this nature have been isolated. The saponins are a group of substances
+  characterized by forming a lather with water; they occur in soap-bark
+  (q.v.). Mention may also be made of indican, the glucoside of the
+  indigo plant; this is hydrolysed by the indigo ferment, indimulsin, to
+  indoxyl and indiglucin.
+
+
+
+
+GLUE (from the O. Fr. _glu_, bird-lime, from the Late Lat. _glutem_,
+_glus_, glue), a valuable agglutinant, consisting of impure gelatin and
+widely used as an adhesive medium for wood, leather, paper and similar
+substances. Glues and gelatins merge into one another by imperceptible
+degrees. The difference is conditioned by the degree of purity: the more
+impure form is termed glue and is only used as an adhesive, the purer
+forms, termed gelatin, have other applications, especially in culinary
+operations and confectionery. Referring to the article GELATIN for a
+general account of this substance, it is only necessary to state here
+that gelatigenous or glue-forming tissues occur in the bones, skins and
+intestines of all animals, and that by extraction with hot water these
+agglutinating materials are removed, and the solution on evaporating and
+cooling yields a jelly-like substance--gelatin or glue.
+
+Glues may be most conveniently classified according to their sources:
+bone glue, skin glue and fish glue; these may be regarded severally as
+impure forms of bone gelatin, skin gelatin and isinglass.
+
+_Bone Glue._--For the manufacture of glue the bones are supplied fresh
+or after having been used for making soups; Indian and South American
+bones are unsuitable, since, by reason of their previous treatment with
+steam, both their fatty and glue-forming constituents have been already
+removed (to a great extent). On the average, fresh bones contain about
+50% of mineral matter, mainly calcium and magnesium phosphates, about
+12% each of moisture and fat, the remainder being other organic matter.
+The mineral matter reappears in commerce chiefly as artificial manure;
+the fat is employed in the candle, soap and glycerin industries, while
+the other organic matter supplies glue.
+
+The separation of the fat, or "de-greasing of the bones" is effected (1)
+by boiling the bones with water in open vessels; (2) by treatment with
+steam under pressure; or (3) by means of solvents. The last process is
+superseding the first two, which give a poor return of fat--a valuable
+consideration--and also involve the loss of a certain amount of glue.
+Many solvents have been proposed; the greatest commercial success
+appears to attend Scottish shale oil and natural petroleum (Russian or
+American) boiling at about 100° C. The vessels in which the extraction
+is carried out consist of upright cylindrical boilers, provided with
+manholes for charging, a false bottom on which the bones rest, and with
+two steam coils--one for heating only, the other for leading in "live"
+steam. There is a pipe from the top of the vessel leading to a
+condensing plant. The vessels are arranged in batteries. In the actual
+operation the boiler is charged with bones, solvent is run in, and the
+mixture gradually heated by means of the dry coil; the spirit distils
+over, carrying with it the water present in the bones; and after a time
+the extracted fat is run off from discharge cocks in the bottom of the
+extractor.[1] A fresh charge of solvent is introduced, and the cycle
+repeated; this is repeated a third and fourth time, after which the
+bones contain only about 0.2% of fat, and a little of the solvent, which
+is removed by blowing in live steam under 70 to 80 lb. pressure. The
+de-greased bones are now cleansed from all dirt and flesh by rotation in
+a horizontal cylindrical drum covered with stout wire gauze. The
+attrition accompanying this motion suffices to remove the loosely
+adherent matter, which falls through the meshes of the gauze; this meal
+contains a certain amount of glue-forming matter, and is generally
+passed through a finer mesh, the residuum being worked up in the
+glue-house, and the flour which passes through being sold as a
+bone-meal, or used as a manure.
+
+The bones, which now contain 5 to 6% of glue-forming nitrogen and about
+60% of calcium phosphate, are next treated for glue. The most economical
+process consists in steaming the bones under pressure (15 lb. to start
+with, afterwards 5 lb.) in upright cylindrical boilers fitted with false
+bottoms. The glue-liquors collect beneath the false bottoms, and when of
+a strength equal to about 20% dry glue they are run off to the
+clarifiers. The first runnings contain about 65 to 70% of the total
+glue; a second steaming extracts another 25 to 30%. For clarifying the
+solutions, ordinary alum is used, one part being used for 200 parts of
+dry glue. The alum is added to the hot liquors, and the temperature
+raised to 100°; it is then allowed to settle, and the surface scum
+removed by filtering through coarse calico or fine wire filters.
+
+The clear liquors are now concentrated to a strength of about 32% dry
+glue in winter and 35% in summer. This is invariably effected in vacuum
+pans--open boiling yields a dark-coloured and inferior product. Many
+types of vacuum plant are in use; the Yaryan form, invented by H. T.
+Yaryan, is perhaps the best, and the double effect system is the most
+efficient. After concentration the liquors are bleached by blowing in
+sulphur dioxide, manufactured by burning sulphur; by this means the
+colour can be lightened to any desired degree. The liquors are now run
+into galvanized sheet-iron troughs, 2 ft. long, 6 in. wide and 5 in.
+deep, where they congeal to a firm jelly, which is subsequently removed
+by cutting round the edges, or by warming with hot water, and turning
+the cake out. The cake is sliced to sheets of convenient thickness,
+generally by means of a wire knife, i.e. a piece of wire placed in a
+frame. Mechanical slicers acting on this principle are in use. Instead
+of allowing the solution to congeal in troughs, it may be "cast" on
+sheets of glass, the bottoms of which are cooled by running water. After
+congealing, the tremulous jelly is dried; this is an operation of great
+nicety: the desiccation must be slow and is generally effected by
+circulating a rapid current of air about the cakes supported on nets set
+in frames; it occupies from four to five days, and the cake contains on
+the average from 10 to 13% of water.
+
+_Skin Glue._--In the preparation of skin glue the materials used are the
+parings and cuttings of hides from tan-yards, the ears of oxen and
+sheep, the skins of rabbits, hares, cats, dogs and other animals, the
+parings of tawed leather, parchment and old gloves, and many other
+miscellaneous scraps of animal matter. Much experience is needed in
+order to prepare a good glue from such heterogeneous materials; one
+blending may be a success and another a failure. The raw material has
+been divided into three great divisions: (1) sheep pieces and fleshings
+(ears, &c.); (2) ox fleshings and trimmings; (3) ox hides and pieces;
+the best glue is obtained from a mixture of the hide, ear and face
+clippings of the ox and calf. The raw material or "stock" is first
+steeped for from two to ten weeks, according to its nature, in wooden
+vats or pits with lime water, and afterwards carefully dried and stored.
+The object of the lime steeping is to remove any blood and flesh which
+may be attached to the skin, and to form a lime soap with the fatty
+matter present. The "scrows" or glue pieces, which may be kept a long
+time without undergoing change, are washed with a dilute hydrochloric
+acid to remove all lime, and then very thoroughly with water; they are
+now allowed to drain and dry. The skins are then placed in hemp nets and
+introduced into an open boiler which has a false bottom, and a tap by
+which liquid may be run off. As the boiling proceeds test quantities of
+liquid are from time to time examined, and when a sample is found on
+cooling to form a stiff jelly, which happens when it contains about 32%
+dry glue, it is ready to draw off. The solution is then run to a
+clarifier, in which a temperature sufficient to keep it fluid is
+maintained, and in this way any impurity is permitted to subside. The
+glue solution is then run into wooden troughs or coolers in which it
+sets to a firm jelly. The cakes are removed as in the case of bone glue
+(see above), and, having been placed on nets, are, in the Scottish
+practice, dried by exposure to open air. This primitive method has many
+disadvantages: on a hot day the cake may become unshapely, or melt and
+slip through the net, or dry so rapidly as to crack; a frost may produce
+fissures, while a fog or mist may precipitate moisture on the surface
+and occasion a mouldy appearance. The surface of the cake, which is
+generally dull after drying, is polished by washing with water. The
+practice of boiling, clarification, cooling and drying, which has been
+already described in the case of bone glue, has been also applied to the
+separation of skin glue.
+
+_Fish Glue._--Whereas isinglass, a very pure gelatin, is yielded by the
+sounds of a limited number of fish, it is found that all fish offals
+yield a glue possessing considerable adhesive properties. The
+manufacture consists in thoroughly washing the offal with water, and
+then discharging it into extractors with live steam. After digestion,
+the liquid is run off, allowed to stand, the upper oily layer removed,
+and the lower gluey solution clarified with alum. The liquid is then
+filtered, concentrated in open vats, and bleached with sulphur
+dioxide.[2] Fish glue is a light-brown viscous liquid which has a
+distinctly disagreeable odour and an acrid taste; these disadvantages to
+its use are avoided if it be boiled with a little water and 1% of sodium
+phosphate, and 0.025% of saccharine added.
+
+_Properties of Glue._--A good quality of glue should be free from all
+specks and grit, have a uniform, light brownish-yellow, transparent
+appearance, and should break with a glassy fracture. Steeped for some
+time in cold water it softens and swells up without dissolving, and when
+again dried it ought to resume its original properties. Under the
+influence of heat it entirely dissolves in water, forming a thin syrupy
+fluid with a not disagreeable smell. The adhesiveness of different
+qualities of glue varies considerably; the best adhesive is formed by
+steeping the glue, broken in small pieces, in water until they are quite
+soft, and then placing them with just sufficient water to effect
+solution in the glue-pot. The hotter the glue, the better the joint;
+remelted glue is not so strong as the freshly prepared; and newly
+manufactured glue is inferior to that which has been long in stock. It
+is therefore seen that many factors enter into the determination of the
+cohesive power of glue; a well-prepared joint may, under favourable
+conditions, withstand a pull of about 700 lb. per sq. in. The following
+table, after Kilmarsch, shows the holding power of glued joints with
+various kinds of woods.
+
+    +---------+-----------------------------+
+    |         |       lb. per sq. in.       |
+    |  Wood.  +-------------+---------------+
+    |         | With grain. | Across grain. |
+    +---------+-------------+---------------+
+    | Beech   |     852     |     434.5     |
+    | Maple   |     484     |     346       |
+    | Oak     |     704     |     302       |
+    | Fir     |     605     |     132       |
+    +---------+-------------+---------------+
+
+  _Special Kinds of Glues, Cements, &c._--By virtue of the fact that the
+  word "glue" is frequently used to denote many adhesives, which may or
+  may not contain gelatin, there will now be given an account of some
+  special preparations. These may be conveniently divided into: (1)
+  liquid glues, mixtures containing gelatin which do not jelly at
+  ordinary temperatures but still possess adhesive properties; (2)
+  water-proof glues, including mixtures containing gelatin, and also the
+  "marine glues," which contain no glue; (3) glues or cements for
+  special purposes, e.g. for cementing glass, pottery, leather, &c., for
+  cementing dissimilar materials, such as paper or leather to iron.
+
+  _Liquid Glues._--The demand for liquid glues is mainly due to the
+  disadvantages--the necessity of dissolving and using while hot--of
+  ordinary glue. They are generally prepared by adding to a warm glue
+  solution some reagent which destroys the property of gelatinizing. The
+  reagents in common use are acetic acid; magnesium chloride, used for a
+  glue employed by printers; hydrochloric acid and zinc sulphate; nitric
+  acid and lead sulphate; and phosphoric acid and ammonium carbonate.
+
+  _Water-proof Glues._--Numerous recipes for water-proof glues have been
+  published; glue, having been swollen by soaking in water, dissolved in
+  four-fifths its weight of linseed oil, furnishes a good water-proof
+  adhesive; linseed oil varnish and litharge, added to a glue solution,
+  is also used; resin added to a hot glue solution in water, and
+  afterwards diluted with turpentine, is another recipe; the best glue
+  is said to be obtained by dissolving one part of glue in one and a
+  half parts of water, and then adding one-fiftieth part of potassium
+  bichromate. Alcoholic solutions of various gums, and also tannic acid,
+  confer the same property on glue solutions. The "marine glues" are
+  solutions of india-rubber, shellac or asphaltum, or mixtures of these
+  substances, in benzene or naphtha. Jeffrey's marine glue is formed by
+  dissolving india-rubber in four parts of benzene and adding two parts
+  of shellac; it is extensively used, being easily applied and drying
+  rapidly and hard. Another water-proof glue which contains no gelatin
+  is obtained by heating linseed oil with five parts of quicklime; when
+  cold it forms a hard mass, which melts on heating like ordinary glue.
+
+  _Special Glues._--There are innumerable recipes for adhesives
+  specially applicable to certain substances and under certain
+  conditions. For repairing glass, ivory, &c. isinglass (q.v.), which
+  may be replaced by fine glue, yields valuable cements; bookbinders
+  employ an elastic glue obtained from an ordinary glue solution and
+  glycerin, the water being expelled by heating; an efficient cement for
+  mounting photographs is obtained by dissolving glue in ten parts of
+  alcohol and adding one part of glycerin; portable or mouth glue--so
+  named because it melts in the mouth--is prepared by dissolving one
+  part of sugar in a solution of four parts of glue. An india-rubber
+  substitute is obtained by adding sodium tungstate and hydrochloric
+  acid to a strong glue solution; this preparation may be rolled out
+  when heated to 60°.
+
+  For further details see Thomas Lambert, _Glue, Gelatine and their
+  Allied Products_ (London, 1905); R. L. Fernbach, _Glues and Gelatine_
+  (1907); H. C. Standage, _Agglutinants of all Kinds for all Purposes_
+  (1907).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] This fat contains a small quantity of solvent, which is removed
+    by heating with steam, when the solvent distils off. Hot water is
+    then run in to melt the fat, which rises to the surface of the water
+    and is floated off. Another boiling with water, and again floating
+    off, frees the fat from dirt and mineral matter, and the product is
+    ready for casking.
+
+  [2] The residue in the extractors is usually dried in steam-heated
+    vessels, and mixed with potassium and magnesium salts; the product is
+    then put on the market as fish-potash guano.
+
+
+
+
+GLUTARIC ACID, or NORMAL PYROTARIC ACID, HO2C·CH2·CH2·CH2·CO2H, an
+organic acid prepared by the reduction of [alpha]-oxyglutaric acid with
+hydriodic acid, by reducing glutaconic acid, HO2C·CH2·CH:CH·CO2H, with
+sodium amalgam, by conversion of trimethylene bromide into the cyanide
+and hydrolysis of this compound, or from acetoacetic ester, which, in
+the form of its sodium derivative, condenses with [beta]-iodopropionic
+ester to form acetoglutaric ester, CH3·CO·CH(CO2C2H5)·CH2·CH2·CO2C2H5,
+from which glutaric acid is obtained by hydrolysis. It is also obtained
+when sebacic, stearic and oleic acids are oxidized with nitric acid. It
+crystallizes in large monoclinic prisms which melt at 97.5° C., and
+distils between 302° and 304° C., practically without decomposition. It
+is soluble in water, alcohol and ether. By long heating the acid is
+converted into its anhydride, which, however, is obtained more readily
+by heating the silver salt of the acid with acetyl chloride. By
+distillation of the ammonium salt glutarimide, CH2(CH2·CO)2NH, is
+obtained; it forms small crystals melting at 151° to 152° C. and
+sublimes unchanged.
+
+  On the alkyl glutaric acids, see C. Hell (_Ber._, 1889, 22, pp. 48,
+  60), C. A. Bischoff (_Ber._, 1891, 24, p. 1041), K. Auwers (_Ber._,
+  1891, 24, p. 1923) and W. H. Perkin, junr. (_Journ. Chem. Soc._, 1896,
+  69, p. 268).
+
+
+
+
+GLUTEN, a tough, tenacious, ductile, somewhat elastic, nearly tasteless
+and greyish-yellow albuminous substance, obtained from the flour of
+wheat by washing in water, in which it is insoluble. Gluten, when dried,
+loses about two-thirds of its weight, becoming brittle and
+semi-transparent; when strongly heated it crackles and swells, and burns
+like feather or horn. It is soluble in strong acetic acid, and in
+caustic alkalis, which latter may be used for the purification of starch
+in which it is present. When treated with .1 to .2% solution of
+hydrochloric acid it swells up, and at length forms a liquid resembling
+a solution of albumin, and laevorotatory as regards polarized light.
+Moistened with water and exposed to the air gluten putrefies, and
+evolves carbon dioxide, hydrogen and sulphuretted hydrogen, and in the
+end is almost entirely resolved into a liquid, which contains leucin and
+ammonium phosphate and acetate. On analysis gluten shows a composition
+of about 53% of carbon, 7% of hydrogen, and nitrogen 15 to 18%, besides
+oxygen, and about 1% of sulphur, and a small quantity of inorganic
+matter. According to H. Ritthausen it is a mixture of _glutencasein_
+(Liebig's vegetable fibrin), _glutenfibrin_, _gliadin_ (Pflanzenleim),
+_glutin_ or vegetable gelatin, and _mucedin_, which are all closely
+allied to one another in chemical composition. It is the gliadin which
+confers upon gluten its capacity of cohering to form elastic masses, and
+of separating readily from associated starch. In the so-called gluten of
+the flour of barley, rye and maize, this body is absent (H. Ritthausen
+and U. Kreusler). The gluten yielded by wheat which has undergone
+fermentation or has begun to sprout is devoid of toughness and
+elasticity. These qualities can be restored to it by kneading with salt,
+lime-water or alum. Gluten is employed in the manufacture of gluten
+bread and biscuits for the diabetic, and of chocolate, and also in the
+adulteration of tea and coffee. For making bread it must be used fresh,
+as otherwise it decomposes, and does not knead well. Granulated gluten
+is a kind of vermicelli, made in some starch manufactories by mixing
+fresh gluten with twice its weight of flour, and granulating by means of
+a cylinder and contained stirrer, each armed with spikes, and revolving
+in opposite directions. The process is completed by the drying and
+sifting of the granules.
+
+
+
+
+GLUTTON, or WOLVERINE (_Gulo luscus_), a carnivorous mammal belonging to
+the _Mustelidae_, or weasel family, and the sole representative of its
+genus. The legs are short and stout, with large feet, the toes of which
+terminate in strong, sharp claws considerably curved. The mode of
+progression is semi-plantigrade. In size and form the glutton is
+something like the badger, measuring from 2 to 3 ft. in length,
+exclusive of the thick bushy tail, which is about 8 in. long. The head
+is broad, the eyes are small and the back arched. The fur consists of an
+undergrowth of short woolly hair, mixed with long straight hairs, to the
+abundance and length of which on the sides and tail the creature owes
+its shaggy appearance. The colour of the fur is blackish-brown, with a
+broad band of chestnut stretching from the shoulders along each side of
+the body, the two meeting near the root of the tail. Unlike the majority
+of arctic animals, the fur of the glutton in winter grows darker. Like
+other _Mustelidae_, the glutton is provided with anal glands, which
+secrete a yellowish fluid possessing a highly foetid odour. It is a
+boreal animal, inhabiting the northern regions of both hemispheres, but
+most abundant in the circumpolar area of the New World, where it occurs
+throughout the British provinces and Alaska, being specially numerous in
+the neighbourhood of the Mackenzie river, and extending southwards as
+far as New York and the Rocky Mountains. The wolverine is a voracious
+animal, and also one with an inquisitive disposition. It feeds on
+grouse, the smaller rodents and foxes, which it digs from their burrows
+during the breeding-season; but want of activity renders it dependent
+for most of its food on dead carcases, which it frequently obtains by
+methods that have made it peculiarly obnoxious to the hunter and
+trapper. Should the hunter, after succeeding in killing his game, leave
+the carcase insufficiently protected for more than a single night, the
+glutton, whose fear of snares is sufficient to prevent him from touching
+it during the first night, will, if possible, get at and devour what he
+can on the second, hiding the remainder beneath the snow. It annoys the
+trapper by following up his lines of marten-traps, often extending to a
+length of 40 to 50 m., each of which it enters from behind, extracting
+the bait, pulling up the traps, and devouring or concealing the
+entrapped martens. So persistent is the glutton in this practice, when
+once it discovers a line of traps, that its extermination along the
+trapper's route is a necessary preliminary to the success of his
+business. This is no easy task, as the glutton is too cunning to be
+caught by the methods successfully employed on the other members of the
+weasel family. The trap generally used for this purpose is made to
+resemble a cache, or hidden store of food, such as the Indians and
+hunters are in the habit of forming, the discovery and rifling of which
+is one of the glutton's most congenial occupations--the bait, instead of
+being paraded as in most traps, being carefully concealed, to lull the
+knowing beast's suspicions. One of the most prominent characteristics of
+the wolverine is its propensity to steal and hide things, not merely
+food which it might afterwards need, or traps which it regards as
+enemies, but articles which cannot possibly have any interest except
+that of curiosity. The following instance of this is quoted by Dr E.
+Coues in his work on the _Fur-bearing Animals of North America_: "A
+hunter and his family having left their lodge unguarded during their
+absence, on their return found it completely gutted--the walls were
+there, but nothing else. Blankets, guns, kettles, axes, cans, knives and
+all the other paraphernalia of a trapper's tent had vanished, and the
+tracks left by the beast showed who had been the thief. The family set
+to work, and, by carefully following up all his paths, recovered, with
+some trifling exceptions, the whole of the lost property." The cunning
+displayed by the glutton in unravelling the snares set for it forms at
+once the admiration and despair of every trapper, while its great
+strength and ferocity render it a dangerous antagonist to animals larger
+than itself, occasionally including man. The rutting-season occurs in
+March, and the female, secure in her burrow, produces her young--four or
+five at a birth--in June or July. In defence of these, she is
+exceedingly bold, and the Indians, according to Dr Coues, "have been
+heard to say that they would sooner encounter a she-bear with her cubs
+than a carcajou (the Indian name of the glutton) under the same
+circumstances." On catching sight of its enemy, man, the wolverine
+before finally determining on flight, is said to sit on its haunches,
+and, in order to get a clearer view of the danger, shade its eyes with
+one of its fore-paws. When pressed for food it becomes fearless, and has
+been known to come on board an ice-bound vessel, and in presence of the
+crew seize a can of meat. The glutton is valuable for its fur, which,
+when several skins are sewn together, forms elegant hearth and carriage
+rugs.     (R. L.*)
+
+[Illustration: The Glutton, or Wolverine (_Gulo luscus_).]
+
+
+
+
+GLYCAS, MICHAEL, Byzantine historian (according to some a Sicilian,
+according to others a Corfiote), flourished during the 12th century A.D.
+His chief work is his _Chronicle_ of events from the creation of the
+world to the death of Alexius I. Comnenus(1118). It is extremely brief
+and written in a popular style, but too much space is devoted to
+theological and scientific matters. Glycas was also the author of a
+theological treatise and a number of letters on theological questions. A
+poem of some 600 "political" verses, written during his imprisonment on
+a charge of slandering a neighbour and containing an appeal to the
+emperor Manuel, is still extant. The exact nature of his offence is not
+known, but the answer to his appeal was that he was deprived of his
+eyesight by the emperor's orders.
+
+  Editions: "Chronicle and Letters," in J. P. Migne, _Patrologia
+  Graeca_, clviii.; poem in E. Legrand, _Bibliothèque grecque vulgaire_,
+  i.; see also F. Hirsch, _Byzantinische Studien_ (1876); C. Krumbacher
+  in _Sitzungsberichte bayer. Acad._, 1894; C. F. Bähr in Ersch and
+  Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopädie_.
+
+
+
+
+GLYCERIN, GLYCERINE or GLYCEROL (in pharmacy _Glycerinum_) (from Gr.
+[Greek: glykys], sweet), a trihydric alcohol, trihydroxypropane,
+C3H5(OH)3. It is obtainable from most natural fatty bodies by the action
+of alkalis and similar reagents, whereby the fats are decomposed, water
+being taken up, and glycerin being formed together with the alkaline
+salt of some particular acid (varying with the nature of the fat). Owing
+to their possession of this common property, these natural fatty bodies
+and various artificial derivatives of glycerin, which behave in the same
+way when treated with alkalis, are known as glycerides. In the ordinary
+process of soap-making the glycerin remains dissolved in the aqueous
+liquors from which the soap is separated.
+
+Glycerin was discovered in 1779 by K. W. Scheele and named _Ölsüss_
+(_principe doux des huiles_--sweet principle of oils), and more fully
+investigated subsequently by M. E. Chevreul, who named it glycerin, M.
+P. E. Berthelot, and many other chemists, from whose researches it
+results that glycerin is a trihydric alcohol indicated by the formula
+C3H5(OH)3, the natural fats and oils, and the glycerides generally,
+being substances of the nature of compound esters formed from glycerin
+by the replacement of the hydrogen of the OH groups by the radicals of
+certain acids, called for that reason "fatty acids." The relationship of
+these glycerides to glycerin is shown by the series of bodies formed
+from glycerin by replacement of hydrogen by "stearyl" (C18H35O), the
+radical of stearic acid (C18H35O·OH):--
+
+  Glycerin.   Monostearin.      Distearin.      Tristearin.
+
+  CH2·OH     CH2·O(C18H35O)   CH2·O(C18H35O)   CH2·O(C18H35O)
+  |          |                |                |
+  CH·OH      CH·OH            CH·O(C18H35O)    CH·O(C18H35O)
+  |          |                |                |
+  CH2·OH     CH2·OH           CH2·OH           CH2·O(C18H35O)
+
+The process of saponification may be viewed as the gradual progressive
+transformation of tristearin, or some analogously constituted substance,
+into distearin, monostearin and glycerin, or as the similar
+transformation of a substance analogous to distearin or to monostearin
+into glycerin. If the reaction is brought about in presence of an
+alkali, the acid set free becomes transformed into the corresponding
+alkaline salt; but if the decomposition is effected without the presence
+of an alkali (i.e. by means of water alone or by an acid), the acid set
+free and the glycerin are obtained together in a form which usually
+admits of their ready separation. It is noticeable that with few
+exceptions the fatty and oily matters occurring in nature are substances
+analogous to tristearin, i.e. they are trebly replaced glycerins.
+Amongst these glycerides may be mentioned the following:
+
+  _Tristearin_--C3H5(O·C18H35O)3. The chief constituent of hard animal
+  fats, such as beef and mutton tallow, &c.; also contained in many
+  vegetable fats in smaller quantity.
+
+  _Triolein_--C3H5(O·C18H33O)3. Largely present in olive oil and other
+  saponifiable vegetable oils and soft fats; also present in animal
+  fats, especially hog's lard.
+
+  _Tripalmitin_--C3H5(O·C16H31O)3. The chief constituent of palm oil;
+  also contained in greater or less quantities in human fat, olive oil,
+  and other animal and vegetable fats.
+
+  _Triricinolein_--C3H5(O·C18H33O2)3. The main constituent of castor
+  oil.
+
+Other analogous glycerides are apparently contained in greater or
+smaller quantity in certain other oils. Thus in cows' butter,
+_tributyrin_, C3H5(O·C4H7O)3, and the analogous glycerides of other
+readily volatile acids closely resembling butyric acid, are present in
+small quantity; the production of these acids on saponification and
+distillation with dilute sulphuric acid is utilized as a test of a
+purity of butter as sold. _Triacetin_, C3H5(O·C2H3O)3, is apparently
+contained in cod-liver oil. Some other glycerides isolated from natural
+sources are analogous in composition to tristearin, but with this
+difference, that the three radicals which replace hydrogen in glycerin
+are not all identical; thus kephalin, myelin and lecithin are glycerides
+in which two hydrogens are replaced by fatty acid radicals, and the
+third by a complex phosphoric acid derivative.
+
+Glycerin is also a product of certain kinds of fermentation, especially
+of the alcoholic fermentation of sugar; consequently it is a constituent
+of many wines and other fermented liquors. According to Louis Pasteur,
+about 1/30th of the sugar transformed under ordinary conditions in the
+fermentation of grape juice and similar saccharine liquids into alcohol
+and other products become converted into glycerin. In certain natural
+fatty substances, e.g. palm oil, it exists in the free state, so that it
+can be separated by washing with boiling water, which dissolves the
+glycerin but not the fatty glycerides.
+
+_Properties._--Glycerin is a viscid, colourless liquid of sp. gr. 1.265
+at 15° C., possessing a somewhat sweet taste; below 0° C. it solidifies
+to a white crystalline mass, which melts at 17° C. When heated alone it
+partially volatilizes, but the greater part decomposes; under a pressure
+of 12 mm. of mercury it boils at 170° C. In an atmosphere of steam it
+distils without decomposition under ordinary barometric pressure. It
+dissolves readily in water and alcohol in all proportions, but is
+insoluble in ether. It possesses considerable solvent powers, whence it
+is employed for numerous purposes in pharmacy and the arts. Its viscid
+character, and its non-liability to dry and harden by exposure to air,
+also fit it for various other uses, such as lubrication, &c., whilst its
+peculiar physical characters, enabling it to blend with either aqueous
+or oily matters under certain circumstances, render it a useful
+ingredient in a large number of products of varied kinds.
+
+  _Manufacture._--The simplest modes of preparing pure glycerin are
+  based on the saponification of fats, either by alkalis or by
+  superheated steam, and on the circumstance that, although glycerin
+  cannot be distilled by itself under the ordinary pressure without
+  decomposition, it can be readily volatilized in a current of
+  superheated steam. Commercial glycerin is mostly obtained from the
+  "spent lyes" of the soap-maker. In the van Ruymbeke process the spent
+  lyes are allowed to settle, and then treated with "persulphate of
+  iron," the exact composition of which is a trade secret, but it is
+  possibly a mixture of ferric and ferrous sulphates. Ferric hydrate,
+  iron soaps and all insoluble impurities are precipitated. The liquid
+  is filter-pressed, and any excess of iron in the filtrate is
+  precipitated by the careful addition of caustic soda and then removed.
+  The liquid is then evaporated under a vacuum of 27 to 28 in. of
+  mercury, and, when of specific gravity 1.295 (corresponding to about
+  80% of glycerin), it is distilled under a vacuum of 28 to 29 in. In
+  the Glatz process the lye is treated with a little milk of lime, the
+  liquid then neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and the liquid
+  filtered. Evaporation and subsequent distillation under a high vacuum
+  gives crude glycerin. The impure glycerin obtained as above is
+  purified by redistillation in steam and evaporation in vacuum pans.
+
+  _Technical Uses._--Besides its use as a starting-point in the
+  production of "nitroglycerin" (q.v.) and other chemical products,
+  glycerin is largely employed for a number of purposes in the arts, its
+  application thereto being due to its peculiar physical properties.
+  Thus its non-liability to freeze (when not absolutely anhydrous, which
+  it practically never is when freely exposed to the air) and its
+  non-volatility at ordinary temperatures, combined with its power of
+  always keeping fluid and not drying up and hardening, render it
+  valuable as a lubricating agent for clockwork, watches, &c., as a
+  substitute for water in wet gas-meters, and as an ingredient in
+  cataplasms, plasters, modelling clay, pasty colouring matters, dyeing
+  materials, moist colours for artists, and numerous other analogous
+  substances which are required to be kept in a permanently soft
+  condition. Glycerin acts as a preservative against decomposition,
+  owing to its antiseptic qualities, which also led to its being
+  employed to preserve untanned leather (especially during transit when
+  exported, the hides being, moreover, kept soft and supple); to make
+  solutions of gelatin, albumen, gum, paste, cements, &c. which will
+  keep without decomposition; to preserve meat and other edibles; to
+  mount anatomical preparations; to preserve vaccine lymph unchanged;
+  and for many similar purposes. Its solvent power is also utilized in
+  the production of various colouring fluids, where the colouring matter
+  would not dissolve in water alone; thus aniline violet, the tinctorial
+  constituents of madder, and various allied colouring matters dissolve
+  in glycerin, forming liquids which remain coloured even when diluted
+  with water, the colouring matters being either retained in suspension
+  or dissolved by the glycerin present in the diluted fluid. Glycerin is
+  also employed in the manufacture of formic acid (q.v.). Certain kinds
+  of copying inks are greatly improved by the substitution of glycerin,
+  in part or entirely, for the sugar or honey usually added.
+
+  In its medicinal use glycerin is an excellent solvent for such
+  substances as iodine, alkaloids, alkalis, &c., and is therefore used
+  for applying them to diseased surfaces, especially as it aids in their
+  absorption. It does not evaporate or turn rancid, whilst its marked
+  hygroscopic action ensures the moistness and softness of any surface
+  that it covers. Given by the mouth glycerin produces purging if large
+  doses are administered, and has the same action if only a small
+  quantity be introduced into the rectum. For this purpose it is very
+  largely used either as a suppository or in the fluid form (one or two
+  drachms). The result is prompt, safe and painless. Glycerin is useless
+  as a food and is not in any sense a substitute for cod-liver oil. Very
+  large doses in animals cause lethargy, collapse and death.
+
+
+
+
+GLYCOLS, in organic chemistry, the generic name given to the aliphatic
+dihydric alcohols. These compounds may be obtained by heating the
+alkylen iodides or bromides (e.g. ethylene dibromide) with silver
+acetate or with potassium acetate and alcohol, the esters so produced
+being then hydrolysed with caustic alkalis, thus:
+
+  C2H4Br2 + 2 C2H3O2·Ag --> C2H4(O·C2H3O)2 --> C2H4(OH)2 + 2 K·C2H3O2;
+
+by the direct union of water with the alkylen oxides; by oxidation of
+the olefines with cold potassium permanganate solution (G. Wagner,
+_Ber._, 1888, 21, p. 1231), or by the action of nitrous acid on the
+diamines.
+
+Glycols may be classified as _primary_, containing two -CH2OH groups;
+_primary-secondary_, containing the grouping -CH(OH)·CH2OH; _secondary_,
+with the grouping -CH(OH)·CH(OH)-; and _tertiary_, with the grouping
+>C(OH)·(OH)C<. The secondary glycols are prepared by the action of
+alcoholic potash on aldehydes, thus:
+
+  3(CH3)2CH·CHO + KHO = (CH3)2CHCO2K + (CH3)2CH·CH(OH)·CH(OH)·CH(CH3)2.
+
+The tertiary glycols are known as _pinacones_ and are formed on the
+reduction of ketones with sodium amalgam.
+
+The glycols are somewhat thick liquids, of high boiling point, the
+pinacones only being crystalline solids; they are readily soluble in
+water and alcohol, but are insoluble in ether. By the action of
+dehydrating agents they are converted into aldehydes or ketones. In
+their general behaviour towards oxidizing agents the primary glycols
+behave very similarly to the ordinary primary alcohols (q.v.), but the
+secondary and tertiary glycols break down, yielding compounds with a
+smaller carbon content.
+
+  Ethylene glycol, C2H4(OH)2, was first prepared by A. Wurtz (_Ann.
+  chim._, 1859 [3], 55, p. 400) from ethylene dibromide and silver
+  acetate. It is a somewhat pleasant smelling liquid, boiling at 197° to
+  197.5° C. and having a specific gravity of 1.125 (0°). On fusion with
+  solid potash at 250° C. it completely decomposes, giving potassium
+  oxalate and hydrogen,
+
+    C2H6O2 + 2 KHO = K2C2O4 + 4H2.
+
+  Two propylene glycols, C3H8O2, are known, viz. [alpha]-propylene
+  glycol, CH3·CH(OH)·CH2OH, a liquid boiling at 188° to 189°, and
+  obtained by heating glycerin with sodium hydroxide and distilling the
+  mixture; and trimethylene glycol, CH2OH·CH2·CH2OH, a liquid boiling at
+  214° C. and prepared by boiling trimethylene bromide with potash
+  solution (A. Zander, _Ann._, 1882, 214, p. 178).
+
+
+
+
+GLYCONIC (from Glycon, a Greek lyric poet), a form of verse, best known
+in Catullus and Horace (usually in the catalectic variety _ [u_] _ u u _
+u [u_]), with three feet--a spondee and two dactyls; or four--three
+trochees and a dactyl, or a dactyl and three chorees. Sir R. Jebb
+pointed out that the last form might be varied by placing the dactyl
+second or third, and according to its place this verse was called a
+First, Second or Third Glyconic.
+
+  Cf. J. W. White, in _Classical Quarterly_ (Oct. 1909).
+
+
+
+
+GLYPH (from Gr. [Greek: glyphein], to carve), in architecture, a
+vertical channel in a frieze (see TRIGLYPH).
+
+
+
+
+GLYPTODON (Greek for "fluted-tooth"), a name applied by Sir R. Owen to
+the typical representative of a group of gigantic, armadillo-like, South
+American, extinct Edentata, characterized by having the carapace
+composed of a solid piece (formed by the union of a multitude of bony
+dermal plates) without any movable rings. The facial portion of the
+skull is very short; a long process of the maxillary bone descends from
+the anterior part of the zygomatic arch; and the ascending ramus of the
+mandible is remarkably high. The teeth, 8/8 in the later species, are
+much alike, having two deep grooves or flutings on each side, so as to
+divide them into three distinct lobes (fig.). They are very tall and
+grew throughout life. The vertebral column is almost entirely welded
+into a solid tube, but there is a complex joint at the base of the neck,
+to allow the head being retracted within the carapace. The limbs are
+very strong, and the feet short and broad, resembling externally those
+of an elephant or tortoise.
+
+[Illustration: Two views of the tooth of a _Glyptodon_; the upper figure
+showing one side, and the lower the crown.]
+
+  Glyptodonts constitute a family, the _Glyptodontidae_, whose position
+  is next to the armadillos (_Dasypodidae_); the group being represented
+  by a number of generic types. The Pleistocene forms, whose remains
+  occur abundantly in the silt of the Buenos Aires pampas, are by far
+  the largest, the skull and tail-sheath in some instances having a
+  length of from 12 to 16 ft. In _Glyptodon_ (with which
+  _Schistopleurum_ is identical) the tail-sheath consists of a series of
+  coronet-like rings, gradually diminishing in diameter from base to
+  tip. _Daedicurus_, in which the tail-sheath is in the form of a huge
+  solid club, is the largest member of the family, in _Panochthus_ and
+  _Sclerocalyptus_ (_Hoplophorus_) the tail-sheath consists basally of a
+  small number of smooth rings, and terminally of a tube. In some
+  specimens of these genera the horny shields covering the bony scutes
+  of the carapace have been preserved, and since the foramina, which
+  often pierce the latter, stop short of the former, it is evident that
+  these were for the passage of blood-vessels and not receptacles for
+  bristles. In the early Pleistocene epoch, when South America became
+  connected with North America, some of the glyptodonts found their way
+  into the latter continent. Among these northern forms some from Texas
+  and Florida have been referred to _Glyptodon_. One large species from
+  Texas has, however, been made the type of a separate genus, under the
+  name of _Glyptotherium texanum_. In some respects it shows affinity
+  with _Panochthus_, although in the simple structure of the tail-sheath
+  it recalls the undermentioned _Propalaeohoplophorus_. All the above
+  are of Pleistocene and perhaps Pliocene age, but in the Santa Cruz
+  beds of Patagonia there occur the two curious genera
+  _Propalaeohoplophorus_ and _Peltephilus_, the former of which is a
+  primitive and generalized type of glyptodont, while the latter seems
+  to come nearer to the armadillos. Both are represented by species of
+  comparatively small size. In _Propalaeohoplophorus_ the scutes of the
+  carapace, which are less deeply sculptured than in the larger
+  glyptodonts, are arranged in distinct transverse rows, in three of
+  which they partially overlap near the border of the carapace after the
+  fashion of the armadillos. The skull and limb-bones exhibit several
+  features met with in the latter, and the vertebrae of the back are not
+  welded into a continuous tube. There are eight pairs of teeth, the
+  first four of which are simpler than the rest, and may perhaps
+  therefore be regarded as premolars. More remarkable is _Peltephilus_,
+  on account of the fact that the teeth, which are simple, with a
+  chevron-shaped section, form a continuous series from the front of the
+  jaw backwards, the number of pairs being seven. Accordingly, a
+  modification of the character, even of the true Edentata, as given in
+  the earlier article, is rendered necessary. The head bears a pair of
+  horn-like scutes, and the scutes of the carapace and tail, which are
+  loosely opposed or slightly overlapping, form a number of transverse
+  rows.
+
+  LITERATURE.--R. Lydekker, "The Extinct Edentates of Argentina," _An.
+  Mus. La Plata_--_Pal. Argent._ vol. iii. p. 2 (1904); H. F. Osborn,
+  "'Glyptotherium texanum,' a Glyptodont from the Lower Pleistocene of
+  Texas," _Bull. Amer. Mus._, vol. xvii. p. 491 (1903); W. B. Scott,
+  "Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds--Edentata," _Rep. Princeton Exped. to
+  Patagonia_, vol. v. (1903-1904).     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+GLYPTOTHEK (from Gr. [Greek: glyptos], carved, and [Greek: thêkê], a
+place of storage), an architectural term given to a gallery for the
+exhibition of sculpture, and first employed at Munich, where it was
+built to exhibit the sculptures from the temple of Aegina.
+
+
+
+
+GMELIN, the name of several distinguished German scientists, of a
+Tübingen family. Johann Georg Gmelin (1674-1728), an apothecary in
+Tübingen, and an accomplished chemist for the times in which he lived,
+had three sons. The first, Johann Conrad (1702-1759), was an apothecary
+and surgeon in Tübingen. The second, Johann Georg (1709-1755), was
+appointed professor of chemistry and natural history in St Petersburg in
+1731, and from 1733 to 1743 was engaged in travelling through Siberia.
+The fruits of his journey were _Flora Sibirica_ (4 vols., 1749-1750) and
+_Reisen durch Sibirien_ (4 vols., 1753). He ended his days as professor
+of medicine at Tübingen, a post to which he was appointed in 1749. The
+third son, Philipp Friedrich (1721-1768), was extraordinary professor of
+medicine at Tübingen in 1750, and in 1755 became ordinary professor of
+botany and chemistry. In the second generation Samuel Gottlieb
+(1743-1774), the son of Johann Conrad, was appointed professor of
+natural history at St Petersburg in 1766, and in the following year
+started on a journey through south Russia and the regions round the
+Caspian Sea. On his way back he was captured by Usmey Khan, of the
+Kaitak tribe, and died from the ill-treatment he suffered, on the 27th
+of July 1774. One of his nephews, Ferdinand Gottlob von Gmelin
+(1782-1848), became professor of medicine and natural history at
+Tübingen in 1805, and another, Christian Gottlob (1792-1860), who in
+1828 was one of the first to devise a process for the artificial
+manufacture of ultramarine, was professor of chemistry and pharmacy in
+the same university. In the youngest branch of the family, Philipp
+Friedrich had a son, Johann Friedrich (1748-1804), who was appointed
+professor of medicine in Tübingen in 1772, and in 1775 accepted the
+chair of medicine and chemistry at Göttingen. In 1788 he published the
+13th edition of Linnaeus' _Systema Naturae_ with many additions and
+alterations. His son Leopold (1788-1853), was the best-known member of
+the family. He studied medicine and chemistry at Göttingen, Tübingen and
+Vienna, and in 1813 began to lecture on chemistry at Heidelberg, where
+in 1814 he was appointed extraordinary, and in 1817 ordinary, professor
+of chemistry and medicine. He was the discoverer of potassium
+ferricyanide (1822), and wrote the _Handbuch der Chemie_ (1st ed.
+1817-1819, 4th ed. 1843-1855), an important work in its day, which was
+translated into English for the Cavendish Society by H. Watts
+(1815-1884) in 1848-1859. He resigned his chair in 1852, and died on the
+13th of April in the following year at Heidelberg.
+
+
+
+
+GMÜND, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg,[1] in a
+charming and fruitful valley on the Rems, here spanned by a beautiful
+bridge, 31 m. E.N.E. of Stuttgart on the railway to Nördlingen. Pop.
+(1905) 18,699. It is surrounded by old walls, flanked with towers, and
+has a considerable number of ancient buildings, among which are the fine
+church of the Holy Cross; St John's church, which dates from the time of
+the Hohenstaufen; and, situated on a height near the town, partly hewn
+out of the rock, the pilgrimage church of the Saviour. Among the modern
+buildings are the gymnasium, the drawing and trade schools, the Roman
+Catholic seminary, the town hall and the industrial art museum. Clocks
+and watches are manufactured here and also other articles of silver,
+while the town has a considerable trade in corn, hops and fruit. The
+scenery in the neighbourhood is very beautiful, near the town being the
+district called Little Switzerland.
+
+Gmünd was surrounded by walls in the beginning of the 12th century by
+Duke Frederick of Swabia. It received town rights from Frederick
+Barbarossa, and after the extinction of the Hohenstaufen became a free
+imperial town. It retained its independence till 1803, when it came into
+the possession of Württemberg. Gmünd is the birth-place of the painter
+Hans Baldung (1475-1545) and of the architect Heinrich Arler or Parler
+(fl. 1350). In the middle ages the population was about 10,000.
+
+  See Kaiser, _Gmünd und seine Umgebung_ (1888).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] There are two places of this name in Austria. (1) Gmünd, a town
+    in Lower Austria, containing a palace belonging to the imperial
+    family, (2) a town in Carinthia, with a beautiful Gothic church and
+    some interesting ruins.
+
+
+
+
+GMUNDEN, a town and summer resort of Austria, in Upper Austria, 40 m.
+S.S.W. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 7126. It is situated at the efflux
+of the Traun river from the lake of the same name and is surrounded by
+high mountains, as the Traunstein (5446 ft.), the Erlakogel (5150 ft.),
+the Wilde Kogel (6860 ft.) and the Höllen Gebirge. It is much frequented
+as a health and summer resort, and has a variety of lake, brine,
+vegetable and pine-cone baths, a hydropathic establishment, inhalation
+chambers, whey cure, &c. There are a great number of excursions and
+points of interest round Gmunden, specially worth mentioning being the
+Traun Fall, 10 m. N. of Gmunden. It is also an important centre of the
+salt industry in Salzkammergut. Gmunden was a town encircled with walls
+already in 1186. On the 14th of November 1626, Pappenheim completely
+defeated here the army of the rebellious peasants.
+
+  See F. Krackowizer, _Geschichte der Stadt Gmunden in Oberösterreich_
+  (Gmunden, 1898-1901, 3 vols.).
+
+
+
+
+GNAT (O. Eng. _gnæt_), the common English name for the smaller dipterous
+flies (see DIPTERA) of the family _Culicidae_, which are now included
+among "mosquitoes" (see MOSQUITO). The distinctive term has no
+zoological significance, but in England the "mosquito" has commonly been
+distinguished from the "gnat" as a variety of larger size and more
+poisonous bite.
+
+
+
+
+GNATHOPODA, a term in zoological classification, suggested as an
+alternative name for the group Arthropoda (q.v.). The word, which means
+"jaw-footed," refers to the fact that in the members of the group, some
+of the lateral appendages or "feet" in the region of the mouth act as
+jaws.
+
+
+
+
+GNATIA (also EGNATIA or IGNATIA, mod. _Anazzo_, near Fasano), an ancient
+city of the Peucetii, and their frontier town towards the Sallentini
+(i.e. of Apulia towards Calabria), in Roman times of importance for its
+trade, lying as it did on the sea, at the point where the Via Traiana
+joined the coast road,[1] 38 m. S.E. of Barium. The ancient city walls
+have been almost entirely destroyed in recent times to provide building
+material,[2] and the place is famous for the discoveries made in its
+tombs. A considerable collection of antiquities from Gnatia is preserved
+at Fasano, though the best are in the museum at Bari. Gnatia was the
+scene of the prodigy at which Horace mocks (_Sat._ i. 5. 97). Near
+Fasano are two small subterranean chapels with paintings of the 11th
+century A.D. (E. Bertaux, _L'Art dans l'Italie méridionale_, Paris,
+1904, 135).     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] There is no authority for calling the latter Via Egnatia.
+
+  [2] H. Swinburne, _Travels in the Two Sicilies_ (London, 1790), ii.
+    15, mentions the walls as being 8 yds. thick and 16 courses high.
+
+
+
+
+GNEISENAU, AUGUST WILHELM ANTON, COUNT NEITHARDT VON (1760-1831),
+Prussian field marshal, was the son of a Saxon officer named Neithardt.
+Born in 1760 at Schildau, near Torgau, he was brought up in great
+poverty there, and subsequently at Würzburg and Erfurt. In 1777 he
+entered Erfurt university; but two years later joined an Austrian
+regiment there quartered. In 1782 taking the additional name of
+Gneisenau from some lost estates of his family in Austria, he entered as
+an officer the service of the margrave of Baireuth-Anspach. With one of
+that prince's mercenary regiments in English pay he saw active service
+and gained valuable experience in the War of American Independence, and
+returning in 1786, applied for Prussian service. Frederick the Great
+gave him a commission as first lieutenant in the infantry. Made
+_Stabskapitän_ in 1790, Gneisenau served in Poland, 1793-1794, and,
+subsequently to this, ten years of quiet garrison life in Jauer enabled
+him to undertake a wide range of military studies. In 1796 he married
+Caroline von Kottwitz. In 1806 he was one of Hohenlohe's staff-officers,
+fought at Jena, and a little later commanded a provisional infantry
+brigade which fought under Lestocq in the Lithuanian campaign. Early in
+1807 Major von Gneisenau was sent as commandant to Colberg, which, small
+and ill-protected as it was, succeeded in holding out until the peace of
+Tilsit. The commandant received the much-prized order "pour le mérite,"
+and was promoted lieutenant-colonel.
+
+A wider sphere of work was now opened to him. As chief of engineers, and
+a member of the reorganizing committee, he played a great part, along
+with Scharnhorst, in the work of reconstructing the Prussian army. A
+colonel in 1809, he soon drew upon himself, by his energy, the suspicion
+of the dominant French, and Stein's fall was soon followed by Gneisenau's
+retirement. But, after visiting Russia, Sweden and England, he returned
+to Berlin and resumed his place as a leader of the patriotic party. In
+open military work and secret machinations his energy and patriotism were
+equally tested, and with the outbreak of the War of Liberation,
+Major-General Gneisenau became Blücher's quartermaster-general. Thus
+began the connexion between these two soldiers which has furnished
+military history with its best example of the harmonious co-operation
+between the general and his chief-of-staff. With Blücher, Gneisenau
+served to the capture of Paris; his military character was the exact
+complement of Blücher's, and under this happy guidance the young troops
+of Prussia, often defeated but never discouraged, fought their way into
+the heart of France. The plan of the march on Paris, which led directly
+to the fall of Napoleon, was specifically the work of the chief-of-staff.
+In reward for his distinguished service he was in 1814, along with York,
+Kleist and Bülow, made count at the same time as Blücher became prince of
+Wahlstatt; an annuity was also assigned to him.
+
+In 1815, once more chief of Blücher's staff, Gneisenau played a very
+conspicuous part in the Waterloo campaign (q.v.). Senior generals, such
+as York and Kleist, had been set aside in order that the chief-of-staff
+should have the command in case of need, and when on the field of Ligny
+the old field marshal was disabled, Gneisenau at once assumed the
+control of the Prussian army. Even in the light of the evidence that
+many years' research has collected, the precise part taken by Gneisenau
+in the events which followed is much debated. It is known that Gneisenau
+had the deepest distrust of the British commander, who, he considered,
+had left the Prussians in the lurch at Ligny, and that to the hour of
+victory he had grave doubts as to whether he ought not to fall back on
+the Rhine. Blücher, however, soon recovered from his injuries, and, with
+Grolmann, the quartermaster-general, he managed to convince Gneisenau.
+The relations of the two may be illustrated by Brigadier-General
+Hardinge's report. Blücher burst into Hardinge's room at Wavre, saying
+"_Gneisenau has given way_, and we are to march at once to your chief."
+
+On the field of Waterloo, however, Gneisenau was quick to realize the
+magnitude of the victory, and he carried out the pursuit with a
+relentless vigour which has few parallels in history. His reward was
+further promotion and the insignia of the "Black Eagle" which had been
+taken in Napoleon's coach. In 1816 he was appointed to command the
+VIIIth Prussian Corps, but soon retired from the service, both because
+of ill-health and for political reasons. For two years he lived in
+retirement on his estate, Erdmannsdorf in Silesia, but in 1818 he was
+made governor of Berlin in succession to Kalkreuth, and member of the
+_Staatsrath_. In 1825 he became general field marshal. In 1831 he was
+appointed to the command of the Army of Observation on the Polish
+frontier, with Clausewitz as his chief-of-staff. At Posen he was struck
+down by cholera and died on the 24th of August 1831, soon followed by
+his chief-of staff, who fell a victim to the same disease in November.
+
+As a soldier, Gneisenau was the greatest Prussian general since
+Frederick; as a man, his noble character and virtuous life secured him
+the affection and reverence, not only of his superiors and subordinates
+in the service, but of the whole Prussian nation. A statue by Rauch was
+erected in Berlin in 1855, and in memory of the siege of 1807 the
+Colberg grenadiers received his name in 1889. One of his sons led a
+brigade of the VIIIth Army Corps in the war of 1870.
+
+  See G. H. Pertz, _Das Leben des Feldmarschalls Grafen Neithardt von
+  Gneisenau_, vols. 1-3 (Berlin, 1864-1869); vols. 4 and 5, G. Delbrück
+  (ib. 1879, 1880), with numerous documents and letters; H. Delbrück,
+  _Das Leben des G. F. M. Grafen von Gneisenau_ (2 vols., 2nd ed.,
+  Berlin, 1894), based on Pertz's work, but containing much new
+  material; Frau von Beguelin, _Denkwürdigkeiten_ (Berlin, 1892);
+  Hormayr, _Lebensbilder aus den Befreiungskriegen_ (Jena, 1841); Pick,
+  _Aus dem brieflichen Nachlass Gneisenaus_; also the histories of the
+  campaigns of 1807 and 1813-15.
+
+
+
+
+GNEISS, a term long used by the miners of the Harz Mountains to
+designate the country rock in which the mineral veins occur; it is
+believed to be a word of Slavonic origin meaning "rotted" or
+"decomposed." It has gradually passed into acceptance as a generic term
+signifying a large and varied series of metamorphic rocks, which mostly
+consist of quartz and felspar (orthoclase and plagioclase) with
+muscovite and biotite, hornblende or augite, iron oxides, zircon and
+apatite. There is also a long list of accessory minerals which are
+present in gneisses with more or less frequency, but not invariably, as
+garnet, sillimanite, cordierite, graphite and graphitoid, epidote,
+calcite, orthite, tourmaline and andalusite. The gneisses all possess a
+more or less marked parallel structure or foliation, which is the main
+feature by which many of them are separated from the granites, a group
+of rocks having nearly the same mineralogical composition and closely
+allied to many gneisses.
+
+The felspars of the gneisses are predominantly orthoclase (often
+perthitic), but microcline is common in the more acid types and
+oligoclase occurs also very frequently, especially in certain
+sedimentary gneisses, while more basic varieties of plagioclase are
+rare. Quartz is very seldom absent and may be blue or milky and
+opalescent. Muscovite and biotite may both occur in the same rock; in
+other cases only one of them is present. The commonest and most
+important types of gneiss are the mica-gneisses. Hornblende is green,
+rarely brownish; augite pale green or nearly colourless; enstatite
+appears in some granulite-gneisses. Epidote, often with enclosures of
+orthite, is by no means rare in gneisses from many different parts of
+the world. Sillimanite and andalusite are not infrequent ingredients of
+gneiss, and their presence has been accounted for in more than one way.
+Cordierite-gneisses are a special group of great interest and possessing
+many peculiarities; they are partly, if not entirely, foliated
+contact-altered sedimentary rocks. Kyanite and staurolite may also be
+mentioned as occasionally occurring.
+
+Many varieties of gneiss have received specific names according to the
+minerals they consist of and the structural peculiarities they exhibit.
+Muscovite-gneiss, biotite-gneiss and muscovite-biotite-gneiss, more
+common perhaps than all the others taken together, are grey or pinkish
+rocks according to the colour of their prevalent felspar, not unlike
+granites, but on the whole more often fine-grained (though
+coarse-grained types occur) and possessing a gneissose or foliated
+structure. The latter consists in the arrangement of the flakes of mica
+in such a way that their faces are parallel, and hence the rock has the
+property of splitting more readily in the direction in which the mica
+plates are disposed. This fissility, though usually marked, is not so
+great as in the schists or slates, and the split faces are not so smooth
+as in these latter rocks. The films of mica may be continuous and are
+usually not flat, but irregularly curved. In some gneisses the parallel
+flakes of mica are scattered through the quartz and felspar; in others
+these minerals form discrete bands, the quartz and felspar being grouped
+into lenticles separated by thin films of mica. When large felspars, of
+rounded or elliptical form, are visible in the gneiss, it is said to
+have augen structure (Ger. _Augen_ = eyes). It should also be remarked
+that the essential component minerals of the rocks of this family are
+practically always determinable by naked eye inspection or with the aid
+of a simple lens. If the rock is too fine grained for this it is
+generally relegated to the schists. When the bands of folia are very
+fine and tortuous the structure is called helizitic.
+
+In mica-gneisses sillimanite, kyanite, andalusite and garnet may occur.
+The significance of these minerals is variously interpreted; they may
+indicate that the gneiss consists wholly or in part of sedimentary
+material which has been contact-altered, but they have also been
+regarded as having been developed by metamorphic action out of biotite
+or other primary ingredients of the rock.
+
+Hornblende-gneisses are usually darker in colour and less fissile than
+mica-gneisses; they contain more plagioclase, less orthoclase and
+microcline, and more sphene and epidote. Many of them are rich in
+hornblende and thus form transitions to amphibolites. Pyroxene-gneisses
+are less frequent but occur in many parts of both hemispheres. The
+"charnockite" series are very closely allied to the pyroxene-gneisses.
+Hypersthene and scapolite both may occur in these rocks and they are
+sometimes garnetiferous.
+
+  In every country where the lowest and oldest rocks have come to the
+  surface and been exposed by the long continued action of denudation in
+  stripping away the overlying formations, gneisses are found in great
+  abundance and of many different kinds. They are in fact the typical
+  rocks of the Archean (Lewisian, Laurentian, &c.) series. In the Alps,
+  Harz, Scotland, Norway and Sweden, Canada, South America, Peninsular
+  India, Himalayas (to mention only a few localities) they occupy wide
+  areas and exhibit a rich diversity of types. From this it has been
+  inferred that they are of great geological age, and in fact this can
+  be definitely proved in many cases, for the oldest known fossiliferous
+  formations may be seen to rest unconformably on these gneisses and are
+  made up of their débris. It was for a long time believed that they
+  represented the primitive crust of the earth, and while this is no
+  longer generally taught there are still geologists who hold that these
+  gneisses are necessarily of pre-Cambrian age. Others, while admitting
+  the general truth of this hypothesis, consider that there are
+  localities in which typical gneisses can be shown to penetrate into
+  rocks which may be as recent as the Tertiary period, or to pass into
+  these rocks so gradually and in such a way as to make it certain that
+  the gneisses are merely altered states of comparatively recent
+  sedimentary or igneous rocks. Much controversy has arisen on these
+  points; but this is certain, that gneisses are far the most common
+  among Archean rocks, and where their age is not known the presumption
+  is strong that they are at least pre-Cambrian.
+
+  Many gneisses are undoubtedly sedimentary rocks that have been brought
+  to their present state by such agents of metamorphism as heat,
+  movement, crushing and recrystallization. This may be demonstrated
+  partly by their mode of occurrence: they accompany limestones,
+  graphitic schists, quartzites and other rocks of sedimentary type;
+  some of them where least altered may even show remains of bedding or
+  of original pebbly character (conglomerate gneisses). More conclusive,
+  however, is the chemical composition of these rocks, which often is
+  such as no igneous masses possess, but resembles that of many impure
+  argillaceous sediments. These sedimentary gneisses (or paragneisses,
+  as they are often called) are often rich in biotite and garnet and may
+  contain kyanite and sillimanite, or less frequently calcite. Some of
+  them, however, are rich in felspar and quartz, with muscovite and
+  biotite; others may even contain hornblende and augite, and all these
+  may bear so close a resemblance to gneisses of igneous origin that by
+  no single character, chemical or mineralogical, can their original
+  nature be definitely established. In these cases, however, a careful
+  study of the relations of the rock in the field and of the different
+  types which occur together will generally lead to some positive
+  conclusion.
+
+  Other gneisses are igneous (orthogneisses). These have very much the
+  same composition as acid igneous rocks such as granite, aplite,
+  hornblende granite, or intermediate rocks such as syenite and quartz
+  diorite. Many of these orthogneisses are not equally well foliated
+  throughout, but are massive or granitoid in places. They are sometimes
+  subdivided into granite gneiss, diorite gneiss, syenite gneiss and so
+  on. The sedimentary schists into which these rocks have been intruded
+  may show contact alteration by the development of such minerals as
+  cordierite, andalusite and sillimanite. In many of these orthogneisses
+  the foliation is primitive, being an original character of the rock
+  which was produced either by fluxion movements in a highly viscous,
+  semi-solid mass injected at great pressure into the surrounding
+  strata, or by folding stresses acting immediately after consolidation.
+  That the foliation in other orthogneisses is subsequent or
+  superinduced, having been occasioned by pressure and deformation of
+  the solid mass long after it had consolidated and cooled, admits of no
+  doubt, but it is very difficult to establish criteria by which these
+  types may be differentiated. Those gneisses in which the minerals have
+  been crushed and broken by fluxion or injection movements have been
+  called protoclastic, while those which have attained their gneissose
+  state by crushing long after consolidation are distinguished as
+  cataclastic. There are also many examples of gneisses of mixed or
+  synthetic origin. They may be metamorphosed sediments (granulites and
+  schists) into which tongues and thin veins of granitic character have
+  been intruded, following the more or less parallel foliation planes
+  already present in the country rock. These veinlets produce that
+  alternation in mineral composition and banded structure which are
+  essential in gneisses. This intermixture of igneous and sedimentary
+  material may take place on the finest scale and in the most intricate
+  manner. Often there has been resorption of the older rocks, whether
+  sedimentary or igneous, by those which have invaded them, and movement
+  has gone on both during injection and at a later period, so that the
+  whole complex becomes amalgamated and its elements are so completely
+  confused that the geologist can no longer disentangle them.
+
+  When we remember that in the earlier stages of the earth's history, to
+  which most gneisses belong, and in the relatively deep parts of the
+  earth's crust, where they usually occur, there has been most igneous
+  injection and greatest frequency of earth movements, it is not
+  difficult to understand the geological distribution of gneissose
+  rocks. All the factors which are required for their production, heat,
+  movement, plutonic intrusions, contact alteration, interstitial
+  moisture at high temperatures, are found at great depths and have
+  acted most frequently and with greatest power on the older rock
+  masses. But locally, where the conditions were favourable, the same
+  processes may have gone on in comparatively recent times. Hence,
+  though most gneisses are Archean, all gneisses are not necessarily so.
+       (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+GNEIST, HEINRICH RUDOLF HERMANN FRIEDRICH VON (1816-1895), German jurist
+and politician, was born at Berlin on the 13th of August 1816, the son
+of a judge attached to the "Kammergericht" (court of appeal) in that
+city. After receiving his school education at the gymnasium at Eisleben
+in Prussian Saxony, he entered the university of Berlin in 1833 as a
+student of jurisprudence, and became a pupil of the famous Roman law
+teacher von Savigny. Proceeding to the degree of _doctor juris_ in 1838,
+young Gneist immediately established himself as a _Privatdozent_ in the
+faculty of law. He had, however, already chosen the judicial branch of
+the legal profession as a career, and having while yet a student acted
+as _Auscultator_, was admitted _Assessor_ in 1841. He soon found leisure
+and opportunity to fulfil a much-cherished wish, and spent the next few
+years on a lengthened tour in Italy, France and England. He utilized his
+_Wanderjahre_ for the purposes of comparative study, and on his return
+in 1844 was appointed extraordinary professor of Roman law in Berlin
+university, and thus began a professorial connexion which ended only
+with his death. The first-fruits of his activity as a teacher were seen
+in his brilliant work, _Die formellen Verträge des heutigen römischen
+Obligationen-Rechtes_ (Berlin, 1845). _Pari passu_ with his academic
+labours he continued his judicial career, and became in due course
+successively assistant judge of the superior court and of the supreme
+tribunal. But to a mind constituted such as his, the want of elasticity
+in the procedure of the courts was galling. "Brought up," he tells, in
+the preface to his _Englische Verfassungsgeschichte_, "in the laborious
+and rigid school of Prussian judges, at a time when the duty of
+formulating the matter in litigation was entailed upon the judge who
+personally conducted the pleadings, I became acquainted both with the
+advantages possessed by the Prussian bureau system as also with its weak
+points." Feeling the necessity for fundamental reforms in legal
+procedure, he published, in 1849, his _Trial by Jury_, in which, after
+pointing out that the origin of that institution was common to both
+Germany and England, and showing in a masterly way the benefits which
+had accrued to the latter country through its more extended application,
+he pleaded for its freer admission in the tribunals of his own country.
+
+The period of "storm and stress" in 1848 afforded Gneist an opportunity
+for which he had yearned, and he threw himself with ardour into the
+constitutional struggles of Prussia. Although his candidature for
+election to the National Assembly of that year was unsuccessful, he felt
+that "the die was cast," and deciding for a political career, retired in
+1850 from his judicial position. Entering the ranks of the National
+Liberal party, he began both in writing and speeches actively to
+champion their cause, now busying himself pre-eminently with the study
+of constitutional law and history. In 1853 appeared his _Adel und
+Ritterschaft in England_, and in 1857 the _Geschichte und heutige
+Gestalt der Ämter in England_, a pamphlet primarily written to combat
+the Prussian abuses of administration, but for which the author also
+claimed that it had not been without its effect in modifying certain
+views that had until then ruled in England itself. In 1858 Gneist was
+appointed ordinary professor of Roman law, and in the same year
+commenced his parliamentary career by his election for Stettin to the
+Abgeordnetenhaus (House of Deputies) of the Prussian Landtag, in which
+assembly he sat thenceforward uninterruptedly until 1893. Joining the
+Left, he at once became one of its leading spokesmen. His chief
+oratorical triumphs are associated with the early period of his
+membership of the House; two noteworthy occasions being his violent
+attack (September 1862) upon the government budget in connexion with the
+reorganization of the Prussian army, and his defence (1864) of the
+Polish chiefs of the (then) grand-duchy of Posen, who were accused of
+high treason. In 1857-1863 was published _Das heutige englische
+Verfassungsund Verwaltungsrecht_, a work which, contrasting English and
+German constitutional law and administration, aimed at exercising
+political pressure upon the government of the day. In 1868 Gneist became
+a member of the North German parliament, and acted as a member of the
+commission for organizing the federal army, and also of that for the
+settlement of ecclesiastical controversial questions. On the
+establishment of German unity his mandate was renewed for the Reichstag,
+and in this he sat, an active and prominent member of the National
+Liberal party, until 1884. In the Kulturkampf he sided with the
+government against the attacks of the Clericals, whom he bitterly
+denounced, and whose implacable enemy he ever showed himself. In 1879,
+together with his colleague, von Hänel, he violently attacked the motion
+for the prosecution of certain Socialist members, which as a result of
+the vigour of his opposition was almost unanimously rejected. He was
+parliamentary reporter for the committees on all great financial and
+administrative questions, and his profound acquaintance with
+constitutional law caused his advice to be frequently sought, not only
+in his own but also in other countries. In Prussia he largely influenced
+legislation, the reform of the judicial and penal systems and the new
+constitution of the Evangelical Church being largely his work. He was
+also consulted by the Japanese government when a constitution was being
+introduced into that country. In 1875 he was appointed a member of the
+supreme administrative court (_Oberverwaltungsgericht_) of Prussia, but
+only held office for two years. In 1882 was published his _Englische
+Verfassungsgeschichte_ (trans. _History of the English Constitution_,
+London, 1886), which may perhaps be described as his _magnum opus_. It
+placed the author at once on the level of such writers on English
+constitutional history as Hallam and Stubbs, and supplied English
+literature with a text-book almost unrivalled in point of historical
+research. In 1888 one of the first acts of the ill-fated emperor
+Frederick III., who had always, as crown prince, shown great admiration
+for him, was to ennoble Gneist, and attach him as instructor in
+constitutional law to his son, the emperor William II., a charge of
+which he worthily acquitted himself. The last years of his life were
+full of energy, and, in the possession of all his faculties, he
+continued his wonted academic labours until a short time before his
+death, which occurred at Berlin on the 22nd of July 1895.
+
+As a politician, Gneist's career cannot perhaps be said to have been
+entirely successful. In a country where parliamentary institutions are
+the living exponents of the popular will he might have risen to a
+foremost position in the state; as it was, the party to which he allied
+himself could never hope to become more than what it remained, a
+parliamentary faction, and the influence it for a time wielded in the
+counsels of the state waned as soon as the Social-Democratic party grew
+to be a force to be reckoned with. It is as a writer and a teacher that
+Gneist is best known to fame. He was a jurist of a special type. To him
+law was not mere theory, but living force; and this conception of its
+power animates all his schemes of practical reform. As a teacher he
+exercised a magnetic influence, not only by reason of the clearness and
+cogency of his exposition, but also because of the success with which he
+developed the talents and guided the aspirations of his pupils. He was a
+man of noble bearing, religious, and imbued with a stern sense of duty.
+He was proud of being a "Preussischer Junker" (a member of the Prussian
+squirearchy), and throughout his writings, despite their liberal
+tendencies, may be perceived the loyalty and affection with which he
+clung to monarchical institutions. A great admirer and a true friend of
+England, to which country he was attached by many personal ties, he
+surpassed all other Germans in his efforts to make her free
+institutions, in which he found his ideal, the common heritage of the
+two great nations of the Teutonic race.
+
+  Gneist was a prolific writer, especially on the subject he had made
+  peculiarly his own, that of constitutional law and history, and among
+  his works, other than those above named, may be mentioned the
+  following: _Budget und Gesetz nach dem constitutionellen Staatsrecht
+  Englands_ (Berlin, 1867); _Freie Advocatur_ (ib., 1867); _Der
+  Rechtsstaat_ (ib., 1872, and 2nd edition, 1879); _Zur
+  Verwaltungsreform in Preussen_ (Leipzig, 1880); _Das englische
+  Parlament_ (Berlin, 1886); in English translation, _The English
+  Parliament_ (London, 1886; 3rd edition, 1889); _Die Militär-Vorlage
+  von 1892 und der preussische Verfassungsconflikt von 1862 bis 1866_
+  (Berlin, 1893); _Die nationale Rechtsidee von den Ständen und das
+  preussische Dreiklassenwahlsystem_ (ib., 1895); _Die
+  verfassungsmässige Stellung des preussischen Gesamtministeriums_ (ib.,
+  1895). See O. Gierke, _Rudolph von Gneist, Gedächtnisrede_ (Berlin,
+  1895), an In Memoriam address delivered in Berlin.     (P. A. A.)
+
+
+
+
+GNESEN (Polish, _Gniezno_), a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Posen, in an undulating and fertile country, on the Wrzesnia, 30 m.
+E.N.E. of Posen by the railway to Thorn. Pop. (1905) 23,727. Besides the
+cathedral, a handsome Gothic edifice with twin towers, which contains
+the remains of St Adalbert, there are eight Roman Catholic churches, a
+Protestant church, a synagogue, a clerical seminary and a convent of the
+Franciscan nuns. Among the industries are cloth and linen weaving,
+brewing and distilling. A great horse and cattle market is held here
+annually. Gnesen is one of the oldest towns in the former kingdom of
+Poland. Its name, _Gniezno_, signifies "nest," and points to early
+Polish traditions. The cathedral is believed to have been founded
+towards the close of the 9th century, and, having received the bones of
+St Adalbert, it was visited in 1000 by the emperor Otto III., who made
+it the seat of an archbishop. Here, until 1320, the kings of Poland were
+crowned; and the archbishop, since 1416 primate of Poland, acted as
+protector pending the appointment of a new king. In 1821 the see of
+Posen was founded and the archbishop removed his residence thither,
+though its cathedral chapter still remains at Gnesen. After a long
+period of decay the town revived after 1815, when it came under the rule
+of Prussia.
+
+  See S. Karwowski, _Gniezno_ (Posen, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+GNOME, AND GNOMIC POETRY. Sententious maxims, put into verse for the
+better aid of the memory, were known by the Greeks as gnomes, [Greek:
+gnômai], from [Greek: gnôme], an opinion. A gnome is defined by the
+Elizabethan critic Henry Peacham (1576?-1643?) as "a saying pertaining
+to the manners and common practices of men, which declareth, with an apt
+brevity, what in this our life ought to be done, or not done." The
+Gnomic Poets of Greece, who flourished in the 6th century B.C., were
+those who arranged series of sententious maxims in verse. These were
+collected in the 4th century, by Lobon of Argos, an orator, but his
+collection has disappeared. The chief gnomic poets were Theognis, Solon,
+Phocylides, Simonides of Amorgos, Demodocus, Xenophanes and Euenus. With
+the exception of Theognis, whose gnomes were fortunately preserved by
+some schoolmaster about 300 B.C., only fragments of the Gnomic Poets
+have come down to us. The moral poem attributed to Phocylides, long
+supposed to be a masterpiece of the school, is now known to have been
+written by a Jew in Alexandria. Of the gnomic movement typified by the
+moral works of the poets named above, Prof. Gilbert Murray has remarked
+that it receives its special expression in the conception of the Seven
+Wise Men, to whom such proverbs as "Know thyself" and "Nothing too much"
+were popularly attributed, and whose names differed in different lists.
+These gnomes or maxims were extended and put into literary shape by the
+poets. Fragments of Solon, Euenus and Mimnermus have been preserved, in
+a very confused state, from having been written, for purposes of
+comparison, on the margins of the MSS. of Theognis, whence they have
+often slipped into the text of that poet. Theognis enshrines his moral
+precepts in his elegies, and this was probably the custom of the rest;
+it is improbable that there ever existed a species of poetry made up
+entirely of successive gnomes. But the title "gnomic" came to be given
+to all poetry which dealt in a sententious way with questions of
+ethics. It was, unquestionably, the source from which moral philosophy
+was directly developed, and theorists upon life and infinity, such as
+Pythagoras and Xenophanes, seem to have begun their career as gnomic
+poets. By the very nature of things, gnomes, in their literary sense,
+belong exclusively to the dawn of literature; their naïveté and their
+simplicity in moralizing betray it. But it has been observed that many
+of the ethical reflections of the great dramatists, and in particular of
+Sophocles and Euripides, are gnomic distiches expanded. It would be an
+error to suppose that the ancient Greek gnomes are all of a solemn
+character; some are voluptuous and some chivalrous; those of Demodocus
+of Leros had the reputation of being droll. In modern times, the gnomic
+spirit has occasionally been displayed by poets of a homely philosophy,
+such as Francis Quarles (1592-1644) in England and Gui de Pibrac
+(1529-1584) in France. The once-celebrated _Quatrains_ of the latter,
+published in 1574, enjoyed an immense success throughout Europe; they
+were composed in deliberate imitation of the Greek gnomic writers of the
+6th century B.C. These modern effusions are rarely literature and
+perhaps never poetry. With the gnomic writings of Pibrac it was long
+customary to bind up those of Antoine Favre (or Faber) (1557-1624) and
+of Pierre Mathieu (1563-1621). Gnomes are frequently to be found in the
+ancient literatures of Arabia, Persia and India, and in the Icelandic
+staves. The _priamel_, a brief, sententious kind of poem, which was in
+favour in Germany from the 12th to the 16th century, belonged to the
+true gnomic class, and was cultivated with particular success by Hans
+Rosenblut, the lyrical goldsmith of Nuremberg, in the 15th century.
+     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+GNOMES (Fr. _gnomes_, Ger. _Gnomen_), in folk-lore, the name now
+commonly given to the earth and mountain spirits who are supposed to
+watch over veins of precious metals and other hidden treasures. They are
+usually pictured as bearded dwarfs clad in brown close-fitting garments
+with hoods. The word "gnome" as applied to these is of comparatively
+modern and somewhat uncertain origin. By some it is said to have been
+coined by Paracelsus (so Hatzfeld and Darmesteter, _Dictionnaire_), who
+uses _Gnomi_ as a synonym of _Pygmaei_, from the Greek [Greek: gnômê],
+intelligence. The _New English Dictionary_, however, suggests a
+derivation from _genomus_, i.e. a Greek type [Greek: gênomos],
+"earth-dweller," on the analogy of [Greek: thalassonomos], "dwelling in
+the sea," adding, however, that though there is no evidence that the
+term was not used before Paracelsus, it is possibly "a mere arbitrary
+invention, like so many others found in Paracelsus" (_N.E.D._ s.v.).
+
+
+
+
+GNOMON, the Greek word for the style of a sundial, or any object,
+commonly a vertical column, the shadow of which was observed in former
+times in order to learn the altitude of the sun, especially when on the
+meridian. The art of constructing a sundial is sometimes termed
+_gnomonics_. In geometry, a gnomon is a plane figure formed by removing
+a parallelogram from a corner of a larger parallelogram; in the figure
+ABCDEFA is a gnomon. Gnomonic projection is a projection of a sphere in
+which the centre of sight is the centre of the sphere.
+
+       A                  B
+        -------------------
+       /                 /
+      /                 /
+   F /------- E        /
+    /       /         /
+   /       /         /
+  -------------------
+          D        C
+
+
+
+
+GNOSTICISM (Gr. [Greek: gnôsis], knowledge), the name generally applied
+to that spiritual movement existing side by side with genuine
+Christianity, as it gradually crystallized into the old Catholic Church,
+which may roughly be defined as a distinct religious syncretism bearing
+the strong impress of Christian influences.
+
+I. The term "Gnosis" first appears in a technical sense in 1 Tim. vi. 20
+([Greek: hê pseudônymos gnôsis]). It seems to have at first been applied
+exclusively, or at any rate principally, to a particular tendency within
+the movement as a whole, i.e. to those sections of (the Syrian) Gnostics
+otherwise generally known as Ophites or Naasseni (see Hippolytus,
+_Philosophumena_, v. 2: [Greek: Naassênoi ... hoi heautous Gnôstikous
+apokalountes]; Irenaeus i. 11. 1; Epiphanius, _Haeres._ xxvi. Cf. also
+the self-assumed name of the Carpocratiani, Iren. i. 25. 6). But in
+Irenaeus the term has already come to designate the whole movement. This
+first came into prominence in the opening decades of the 2nd century
+A.D., but is certainly older; it reached its height in the second third
+of the same century, and began to wane about the 3rd century, and from
+the second half of the 3rd century onwards was replaced by the
+closely-related and more powerful Manichaean movement. Offshoots of it,
+however, continued on into the 4th and 5th centuries. Epiphanius still
+had the opportunity of making personal acquaintance with Gnostic sects.
+
+II. Of the actual writings of the Gnostics, which were extraordinarily
+numerous,[1] very little has survived; they were sacrificed to the
+destructive zeal of their ecclesiastical opponents. Numerous fragments
+and extracts from Gnostic writings are to be found in the works of the
+Fathers who attacked Gnosticism. Most valuable of all are the long
+extracts in the 5th and 6th books of the _Philosophumena_ of Hippolytus.
+The most accessible and best critical edition of the fragments which
+have been preserved word for word is to be found in Hilgenfeld's
+_Ketzergeschichte des Urchristentums_. One of the most important of
+these fragments is the letter of Ptolemaeus to Flora, preserved in
+Epiphanius, _Haeres_. xxxiii. 3-7 (see on this point Harnack in the
+_Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie_, 1902, pp. 507-545). Gnostic
+fragments are certainly also preserved for us in the _Acts of Thomas_.
+Here we should especially mention the beautiful and much-discussed _Song
+of the Pearl_, or _Song of the Soul_, which is generally, though without
+absolute clear proof, attributed to the Gnostic Bardesanes (till lately
+it was known only in the Syrian text; edited and translated by Bevan,
+_Texts and Studies_,[2] v. 3, 1897; Hofmann, _Zeitschrift für
+neutestamentliche Wissenschaft_, iv.; for the newly-found Greek text see
+_Acta apostolorum_, ed. Bonnet, ii. 2, c. 108, p. 219). Generally also
+much Gnostic matter is contained in the apocryphal histories of the
+Apostles. To the school of Bardesanes belongs the "Book of the Laws of
+the Lands," which does not, however, contribute much to our knowledge of
+Gnosticism. Finally, we should mention in this connexion the text on
+which are based the pseudo-Clementine _Homilies_ and _Recognitiones_
+(beginning of the 3rd century). It is, of course, already permeated with
+the Catholic spirit, but has drawn so largely upon sources of a
+Judaeo-Christian Gnostic character that it comes to a great extent
+within the category of sources for Gnosticism. Complete original Gnostic
+works have unfortunately survived to us only from the period of the
+decadence of Gnosticism. Of these we should mention the comprehensive
+work called the _Pistis-Sophia_, probably belonging to the second half
+of the 3rd century.[3] Further, the Coptic-Gnostic texts of the _Codex
+Brucianus_; both the books of Ieu, and an anonymous third work (edited
+and translated by C. Schmidt, _Texte und Untersuchungen_, vol. viii.,
+1892; and a new translation by the same in _Koptische-gnostische
+Schriften_, i.) which, contrary to the opinion of their editor and
+translator, the present writer believes to represent, in their existing
+form, a still later period and a still more advanced stage in the
+decadence of Gnosticism. For other and older Coptic-Gnostic texts, in
+one of which is contained the source of Irenaeus's treatises on the
+Barbelognostics, but which have unfortunately not yet been made
+completely accessible, see C. Schmidt in _Sitzungsberichte der Berl.
+Akad._ (1896), p. 839 seq., and "Philotesia," dedicated to Paul Kleinert
+(1907); p. 315 seq.
+
+On the whole, then, for an exposition of Gnosticism we are thrown back
+upon the polemical writings of the Fathers in their controversy with
+heresy. The most ancient of these is Justin, who according to his
+_Apol._ i. 26 wrote a _Syntagma_ against all heresies (c. A.D. 150), and
+also, probably, a special polemic against Marcion (fragment in Irenaeus
+iv. 6. 2). Both these writings are lost. He was followed by Irenaeus,
+who, especially in the first book of his treatise _Adversus haereses_
+([Greek: elegchou kai anatropês tês pseudônymou gnôseôs biblia pente],
+c. A.D. 180), gives a detailed account of the Gnostic heresies. He
+founds his work upon that of his master Justin, but adds from his own
+knowledge among many other things, notably the detailed account of
+Valentinianism at the beginning of the book. On Irenaeus, and probably
+also on Justin, Hippolytus drew for his _Syntagma_ (beginning of the 3rd
+century), a work which is also lost, but can, with great certainty, be
+reconstructed from three recensions of it: in the _Panarion_ of
+Epiphanius (after 374), in Philaster of Brescia, _Adversus haereses_,
+and the Pseudo-Tertullian, _Liber adversus omnes haereses_. A second
+work of Hippolytus [Greek: Katà pasôn haipeseôv elegchos] is preserved
+in the so-called _Philosophumena_ which survives under the name of
+Origen. Here Hippolytus gave a second exposition supplemented by fresh
+Gnostic original sources with which he had become acquainted in the
+meanwhile. These sources quoted in Hippolytus have lately met with very
+unfavourable criticisms. The opinion has been advanced that Hippolytus
+has here fallen a victim to the mystification of a forger. The truth of
+the matter must be that Hippolytus probably made use of a collection of
+Gnostic texts, put together by a Gnostic, in which were already
+represented various secondary developments of the genuine Gnostic
+schools. It is also possible that the compiler has himself attempted
+here and there to harmonize to a certain extent the various Gnostic
+doctrines, yet in no case is this collection of sources given by
+Hippolytus to be passed over; it should rather be considered as
+important evidence for the beginnings of the decay of Gnosticism. Very
+noteworthy references to Gnosticism are also to be found scattered up
+and down the _Stromateis_ of Clement of Alexandria. Especially important
+are the _Excerpta ex Theodoto_, the author of which is certainly
+Clement, which are verbally extracted from Gnostic writings, and have
+almost the value of original sources. The writings of Origen also
+contain a wealth of material. In the first place should be mentioned the
+treatise _Contra Celsum_, in which the expositions of Gnosticism by both
+Origen and Celsus are of interest (see especially v. 61 seq. and vi. 25
+seq.). Of Tertullian's works should be mentioned: _De praescriptione
+haereticorum_, especially _Adversus Marcionem_, _Adversus Hermogenem_,
+and finally _Adversus Valentinianos_ (entirely founded on Irenaeus).
+Here must also be mentioned the dialogue of Adamantius with the
+Gnostics, _De recta in deum fide_ (beginning of 4th century). Among the
+followers of Hippolytus, Epiphanius in his _Panarion_ gives much
+independent and valuable information from his own knowledge of
+contemporary Gnosticism. But Theodoret of Cyrus (d. 455) is already
+entirely dependent on previous works and has nothing new to add. With
+the 4th century both Gnosticism and the polemical literature directed
+against it die out.[4]
+
+III. If we wish to grasp the peculiar character of the great Gnostic
+movement, we must take care not to be led astray by the catchword
+"Gnosis." It is a mistake to regard the Gnostics as pre-eminently the
+representatives of intellect among Christians, and Gnosticism as an
+intellectual tendency chiefly concerned with philosophical speculation,
+the reconciliation of religion with philosophy and theology. It is true
+that when Gnosticism was at its height it numbered amongst its followers
+both theologians and men of science, but that is not its main
+characteristic. Among the majority of the followers of the movement
+"Gnosis" was understood not as meaning "knowledge" or "understanding,"
+in our sense of the word, but "revelation." These little Gnostic sects
+and groups all lived in the conviction that they possessed a secret and
+mysterious knowledge, in no way accessible to those outside, which was
+not to be proved or propagated, but believed in by the initiated, and
+anxiously guarded as a secret. This knowledge of theirs was not based on
+reflection, on scientific inquiry and proof, but on revelation. It was
+derived directly from the times of primitive Christianity; from the
+Saviour himself and his disciples and friends, with whom they claimed to
+be connected by a secret tradition, or else from later prophets, of whom
+many sects boasted. It was laid down in wonderful mystic writings, which
+were in the possession of the various circles (Liechtenhahn, _Die
+Offenbarung im Gnosticismus_, 1901).
+
+In short, Gnosticism, in all its various sections, its form and its
+character, falls under the great category of mystic religions, which
+were so characteristic of the religious life of decadent antiquity. In
+Gnosticism as in the other mystic religions we find the same contrast of
+the initiated and the uninitiated, the same loose organization, the same
+kind of petty sectarianism and mystery-mongering. All alike boast a
+mystic revelation and a deeply-veiled wisdom. As in many mystical
+religions, so in Gnosticism, the ultimate object is individual
+salvation, the assurance of a fortunate destiny for the soul after
+death. As in the others, so in this the central object of worship is a
+redeemer-deity who has already trodden the difficult way which the
+faithful have to follow. And finally, as in all mystical religions, so
+here too, holy rites and formulas, acts of initiation and consecration,
+all those things which we call sacraments, play a very prominent part.
+The Gnostic religion is full of such sacraments. In the accounts of the
+Fathers we find less about them; yet here Irenaeus' account of the
+Marcosians is of the highest significance (i. 21 seq.). Much more
+material is to be found in the original Gnostic writings, especially in
+the _Pistis-Sophia_ and the two books of Ieu, and again in the _Excerpta
+ex Theodoto_, the _Acts of Thomas_, and here and there also in the
+pseudo-Clementine writings. Above all we can see from the original
+sources of the Mandaean religion, which also represents a branch of
+Gnosticism, how great a part the sacraments played in the Gnostic sects
+(Brandt, _Mandäische Religion_, p. 96 seq.). Everywhere we are met with
+the most varied forms of holy rites--the various baptisms, by water, by
+fire, by the spirit, the baptism for protection against demons,
+anointing with oil, sealing and stigmatizing, piercing the ears, leading
+into the bridal chamber, partaking of holy food and drink. Finally,
+sacred formulas, names and symbols are of the highest importance among
+the Gnostic sects. We constantly meet with the idea that the soul, on
+leaving the body, finds its path to the highest heaven opposed by the
+deities and demons of the lower realms of heaven, and only when it is in
+possession of the names of these demons, and can repeat the proper holy
+formula, or is prepared with the right symbol, or has been anointed with
+the holy oil, finds its way unhindered to the heavenly home. Hence the
+Gnostic must above all things learn the names of the demons, and equip
+himself with the sacred formulas and symbols, in order to be certain of
+a good destiny after death. The exposition of the system of the Ophites
+given by Celsus (in Origen vi. 25 seq.), and, in connexion with Celsus,
+by Origen, is particularly instructive on this point. The two "Coptic
+Ieu" books unfold an immense system of names and symbols. This system
+again was simplified, and as the supreme secret was taught in a single
+name or a single formula, by means of which the happy possessor was able
+to penetrate through all the spaces of heaven (cf. the name "Caulacau"
+among the Basilidians; Irenaeus, _Adv. haer._ i. 24. 5, and among other
+sects). It was taught that even the redeemer-god, when he once descended
+on to this earth, to rise from it again, availed himself of these names
+and formulas on his descent and ascent through the world of demons.
+Traces of ideas of this kind are to be met with almost everywhere. They
+have been most carefully collected by Anz (_Ursprung des Gnosticismus,
+Texte und Untersuchungen_ xv. 4 _passim_) who would see in them the
+central doctrine of Gnosticism.
+
+IV. All these investigations point clearly to the fact that Gnosticism
+belongs to the group of mystical religions. We must now proceed to
+define more exactly the peculiar and distinctive character of the
+Gnostic system. The basis of the Gnostic religion and world-philosophy
+lies in a decided Oriental dualism. In sharp contrast are opposed the
+two worlds of the good and of the evil, the divine world and the
+material world [Greek: hulê], the worlds of light and of darkness. In
+many systems there seems to be no attempt to derive the one world from
+the other. The true Basilides (q.v.), perhaps also Satornil, Marcion and
+a part of his disciples, Bardesanes and others, were frankly dualists.
+In the case of other systems, owing to the inexactness of our
+information, we are unable to decide; the later systems of Mandaeism and
+Manichaeanism, so closely related to Gnosticism, are also based upon a
+decided dualism. And even when there is an attempt at reconciliation, it
+is still quite clear how strong was the original dualism which has to be
+overcome. Thus the Gnostic systems make great use of the idea of a fall
+of the Deity himself; by the fall of the Godhead into the world of
+matter, this matter, previously insensible, is animated into life and
+activity, and then arise the powers, both partly and wholly hostile, who
+hold sway over this world. Such figures of fallen divinities, sinking
+down into the world of matter are those of Sophia (i.e. Ahamoth) among
+the Gnostics (Ophites) in the narrower sense of the word, the Simoniani
+(the figure of Helena), the Barbelognostics, and in the system of the
+_Pistis-Sophia_ or the Primal Man, among the Naasseni and the sect,
+related to them, as described by Hippolytus.[5] A further weakening of
+the dualism is indicated when, in the systems of the Valentinian school,
+the fall of Sophia takes place within the godhead, and Sophia, inflamed
+with love, plunges into the Bythos, the highest divinity, and when the
+attempt is thus made genetically to derive the lower world from the
+sufferings and passions of fallen divinity. Another attempt at
+reconciliation is set forth in the so-called "system of emanations" in
+which it is assumed that from the supreme divinity emanated a somewhat
+lesser world, from this world a second, and so on, until the divine
+element (of life) became so far weakened and attenuated, that the
+genesis of a partly, or even wholly, evil world appears both possible
+and comprehensible. A system of emanations of this kind, in its purest
+form, is set forth in the expositions coming from the school of
+Basilides, which are handed down by Irenaeus, while the propositions
+which are set forth in the _Philosophumena_ of Hippolytus as being
+doctrines of Basilides represent a still closer approach to a monistic
+philosophy. Occasionally, too, there is an attempt to establish at any
+rate a threefold division of the world, and to assume between the worlds
+of light and darkness a middle world connecting the two; this is
+clearest among the Sethiani mentioned by Hippolytus (and cf. the
+Gnostics in Irenaeus i. 30. 1). Quite peculiar in this connexion are the
+accounts in Books xix. and xx. of the Clementine _Homilies_. After a
+preliminary examination of all possible different attempts at a solution
+of the problem of evil, the attempt is here made to represent the devil
+as an instrument of God. Christ and the devil are the two hands of God,
+Christ the right hand, and the devil the left, the devil having power
+over this world-epoch and Christ over the next. The devil here assumes
+very much the characteristics of the punishing and just God of the Old
+Testament, and the prospect is even held out of his ultimate pardon. All
+these efforts at reconciliation show how clearly the problem of evil was
+realized in these Gnostic and half-Gnostic sects, and how deeply they
+meditated on the subject; it was not altogether without reason that in
+the ranks of its opponents Gnosticism was judged to have arisen out of
+the question, [Greek: pothen to kakon].
+
+This dualism had not its origin in Hellenic soil, neither is it related
+to that dualism which to a certain extent existed also in late Greek
+religion. For the lower and imperfect world, which in that system too is
+conceived and assumed, is the nebulous world of the non-existent and the
+formless, which is the necessary accompaniment of that which exists, as
+shadow is of light.
+
+In Gnosticism, on the contrary, the world of evil is full of active
+energy and hostile powers. It is an Oriental (Iranian) dualism which
+here finds expression, though in one point, it is true, the mark of
+Greek influence is quite clear. When Gnosticism recognizes in this
+corporeal and material world the true seat of evil, consistently
+treating the bodily existence of mankind as essentially evil and the
+separation of the spiritual from the corporeal being as the object of
+salvation, this is an outcome of the contrast in Greek dualism between
+spirit and matter, soul and body. For in Oriental (Persian) dualism it
+is within this material world that the good and evil powers are at war,
+and this world beneath the stars is by no means conceived as entirely
+subject to the influence of evil. Gnosticism has combined the two, the
+Greek opposition between spirit and matter, and the sharp Zoroastrian
+dualism, which, where the Greek mind conceived of a higher and a lower
+world, saw instead two hostile worlds, standing in contrast to each
+other like light and darkness. And out of the combination of these two
+dualisms arose the teaching of Gnosticism, with its thoroughgoing
+pessimism and fundamental asceticism.
+
+Another characteristic feature of the Gnostic conception of the universe
+is the rôle played in almost all Gnostic systems by the seven
+world-creating powers. There are indeed certain exceptions; for
+instance, in the systems of the Valentinian schools there is the figure
+of the one Demiurge who takes the place of the Seven. But how widespread
+was the idea of seven powers, who created this lower material world and
+rule over it, has been clearly proved, especially by the systematic
+examination of the subject by Anz (_Ursprung des Gnosticismus_). These
+Seven, then, are in most systems half-evil, half-hostile powers; they
+are frequently characterized as "angels," and are reckoned as the last
+and lowest emanations of the Godhead; below them--and frequently
+considered as derived from them--comes the world of the actually
+devilish powers. On the other hand, among the speculations of the
+Mandaeans, we find a different and perhaps more primitive conception of
+the Seven, according to which they, together with their mother Namrus
+(Ruha) and their father (Ur), belong entirely to the world of darkness.
+They and their family are looked upon as captives of the god of light
+(Manda-d'hayye, Hibil-Ziva), who pardons them, sets them on chariots of
+light, and appoints them as rulers of the world (cf. chiefly Genza, in
+_Tractat_. 6 and 8; W. Brandt, _Mandäische Schriften_, 125 seq. and 137
+seq.; _Mandäische Religion_, 34 seq., &c.). In the Manichaean system it
+is related how the helper of the Primal Man, the spirit of life,
+captured the evil _archontes_, and fastened them to the firmament, or
+according to another account, flayed them, and formed the firmament from
+their skin (F. C. Baur, _Das manichäische Religionssystem_, v. 65), and
+this conception is closely related to the other, though in this
+tradition the number (seven) of the _archontes_ is lost. Similarly, the
+last book of the _Pistis-Sophia_ contains the myth of the capture of the
+rebellious _archontes_, whose leaders here appear as five in number
+(Schmidt, _Koptisch-gnostische Schriften_, p. 234 seq.).[6] There can
+scarcely be any doubt as to the origin of these seven (five) powers;
+they are the seven planetary divinities, the sun, moon and five planets.
+
+In the Mandaean speculations the Seven are introduced with the
+Babylonian names of the planets. The connexion of the Seven with the
+planets is also clearly established by the expositions of Celsus and
+Origen (_Contra Celsum_, vi. 22 seq.) and similarly by the above-quoted
+passage in the _Pistis-Sophia_, where the _archontes_, who are here
+mentioned as five, are identified with the five planets (excluding the
+sun and moon). This collective grouping of the seven (five) planetary
+divinities is derived from the late Babylonian religion, which can
+definitely be indicated as the home of these ideas (Zimmern,
+_Keilinschriften in dem alten Testament_, ii. p. 620 seq.; cf.
+particularly Diodorus ii. 30). And if in the old sources it is only the
+first beginnings of this development that can be traced, we must assume
+that at a later period the Babylonian religion centred in the adoration
+of the seven planetary deities. Very instructive in this connexion is
+the later (Arabian) account of the religion of the Mesopotamian
+Sabaeans. The religion of the Sabaeans, evidently a later offshoot from
+the stock of the old Babylonian religion, actually consists in the cult
+of the seven planets (cf. the great work of Daniel Chwolsohn, _Die
+Ssabier u. der Ssabismus_). But this reference to Babylonian religion
+does not solve the problem which is here in question. For in the
+Babylonian religion the planetary constellations are reckoned as the
+supreme deities. And here the question arises, how it came about that in
+the Gnostic systems the Seven appear as subordinate, half-daemonic
+powers, or even completely as powers of darkness. This can only be
+explained on the assumption that some religion hostile to, and stronger
+than the Babylonian, has superimposed itself upon this, and has degraded
+its principal deities into daemons. Which religion can this have been?
+We are at first inclined to think of Christianity itself, but it is
+certainly most improbable that at the time of the rise of Christianity
+the Babylonian teaching about the seven planet-deities governing the
+world should have played so great a part throughout all Syria, Asia
+Minor and Egypt, that the most varying sections of syncretic
+Christianity should over and over again adopt this doctrine and work it
+up into their system. It is far more probable that the combination which
+we meet with in Gnosticism is older than Christianity, and was found
+already in existence by Christianity and its sects. We must also reject
+the theory that this degradation of the planetary deities into daemons
+is due to the influence of Hebrew monotheism, for almost all the Gnostic
+sects take up a definitely hostile attitude towards the Jewish religion,
+and almost always the highest divinity among the Seven is actually the
+creator-God of the Old Testament. There remains, then, only one religion
+which can be used as an explanation, namely the Persian, which in fact
+fulfils all the necessary conditions. The Persian religion was at an
+early period brought into contact with the Babylonian, through the
+triumphant progress of Persian culture towards the West; at the time of
+Alexander the Great it was already the prevailing religion in the
+Babylonian plain (cf. F. Cumont, _Textes et monuments rel. aux mystères
+de Mithra_, i. 5, 8-10, 14, 223 seq., 233). It was characterized by a
+main belief, tending towards monotheism, in the Light-deity Ahuramazda
+and his satellites, who appeared in contrast with him as powers of the
+nature of angels.
+
+A combination of the Babylonian with the Persian religion could only be
+effected by the degradation of the Babylonian deities into half-divine,
+half-daemonic beings, infinitely remote from the supreme God of light
+and of heaven, or even into powers of darkness. Even the characteristic
+dualism of Gnosticism has already proved to be in part of Iranian
+origin; and now it becomes clear how from that mingling of late Greek
+and Persian dualism the idea could arise that these seven half-daemonic
+powers are the creators or rulers of this material world, which is
+separated infinitely from the light-world of the good God. Definite
+confirmation of this conjecture is afforded us by later sources of the
+Iranian religion, in which we likewise meet with the characteristic
+fundamental doctrine of Gnosticism. Thus the _Bundahish_ (iii. 25, v. 1)
+is able to inform us that in the primeval strife of Satan against the
+light-world, seven hostile powers were captured and set as
+constellations in the heavens, where they are guarded by good
+star-powers and prevented from doing harm. Five of the evil powers are
+the planets, while here the sun and moon are of course not reckoned
+among the evil powers--for the obvious reason that in the Persian
+official religion they invariably appear as good divinities (cf. similar
+ideas in the Arabic treatise on Persian religion _Ulema-i-Islam_,
+Vullers, _Fragmente über die Religion Zoroasters_, p. 49, and in other
+later sources for Persian religion, put together in Spiegel, _Eranische
+Altertumskunde_, Bd. ii. p. 180). These Persian fancies can hardly be
+borrowed from the Christian Gnostic systems, their definiteness and much
+more strongly dualistic character recalling the exposition of the
+Mandaean (and Manichaean) system, are proofs to the contrary. They are
+derived from the same period in which the underlying idea of the
+Gnostic systems also originated, namely, the time at which the ideas of
+the Persian and Babylonian religions came into contact, the remarkable
+results of which have thus partly found their way into the official
+documents of Parsiism.
+
+With this fundamental doctrine of Gnosticism is connected, as Anz has
+shown in his book which we have so often quoted, a side of their
+religious practices to which we have already alluded. Gnosticism is to a
+great extent dominated by the idea that it is above all and in the
+highest degree important for the Gnostic's soul to be enabled to find
+its way back through the lower worlds and spheres of heaven ruled by the
+Seven to the kingdom of light of the supreme deity of heaven. Hence, a
+principal item in their religious practice consisted in communications
+about the being, nature and names of the Seven (or of any other hostile
+daemons barring the way to heaven), the formulas with which they must be
+addressed, and the symbols which must be shown to them. But names,
+symbols and formulas are not efficacious by themselves: the Gnostic must
+lead a life having no part in the lower world ruled by these spirits,
+and by his knowledge he must raise himself above them to the God of the
+world of light. Throughout this mystic religious world it was above all
+the influence of the late Greek religion, derived from Plato, that also
+continued to operate; it is filled with the echo of the song, the first
+note of which was sounded by the Platonists, about the heavenly home of
+the soul and the homeward journey of the wise to the higher world of
+light.
+
+But the form in which the whole is set forth is Oriental, and it must be
+carefully noted that the Mithras mysteries, so closely connected with
+the Persian religion, are acquainted with this doctrine of the ascent of
+the soul through the planetary spheres (Origen, _Contra Celsum_, vi.
+22).
+
+V. We cannot here undertake to set forth and explain in detail all the
+complex varieties of the Gnostic systems; but it will be useful to take
+a nearer view of certain principal figures which have had an influence
+upon at least one series of Gnostic systems, and to examine their
+origins in the history of religion. In almost all systems an important
+part is played by the Great Mother ([Greek: mêtêr]) who appears under
+the most varied forms (cf. GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS). At an early
+period, and notably in the older systems of the Ophites (a fairly exact
+account of which has been preserved for us by Epiphanius and
+Hippolytus), among the Gnostics in the narrower sense of the word, the
+Archontici, the Sethites (there are also traces among the Naasseni, cf.
+the _Philosophumena_ of Hippolytus), the [Greek: mêtêr] is the most
+prominent figure in the light-world, elevated above the [Greek:
+hebdomas], and the great mother of the faithful. The sect of the
+Barbelognostics takes its name from the female figure of the Barbelo
+(perhaps a corruption of [Greek: Parthenos]; cf. the form [Greek:
+Barthenos] for "virgin" in Epiphanius, _Haer._ xxvi. 1). But Gnostic
+speculation gives various accounts of the descent or fall of this
+goddess of heaven. Thus the "Helena" of the Simoniani descends to this
+world in order by means of her beauty to provoke to sensual passion and
+mutual strife the angels who rule the world, and thus again to deprive
+them of the powers of light, stolen from heaven, by means of which they
+rule over the world. She is then held captive by them in extreme
+degradation. Similar ideas are to be found among the "Gnostics" of
+Epiphanius. The kindred idea of the light-maiden, who, by exciting the
+sensual passions of the rulers ([Greek: archontes]), takes from them
+those powers of light which still remain to them, has also a central
+place in the Manichaean scheme of salvation (F. C. Baur, _Das
+manichäische Religionssystem_, pp. 219, 315, 321). The light-maiden also
+plays a prominent part in the _Pistis-Sophia_ (cf. the index to the
+translation by C. Schmidt). With this figure of the mother-goddess who
+descends into the lower world seems to be closely connected the idea of
+the fallen Sophia, which is so widespread among the Gnostic systems.
+This Sophia then is certainly no longer the dominating figure of the
+light-world, she is a lower aeon at the extreme limit of the world of
+light, who sinks down into matter (Barbelognostics, the anonymous
+Gnostic of Irenaeus, Bardesanes, _Pistis-Sophia_), or turns in
+presumptuous love towards the supreme God ([Greek: Buthos]), and thus
+brings the Fall into the world of the _aeons_ (Valentinians). This
+Sophia then appears as the mother of the "seven" gods (see above).
+
+The origin of this figure is not far to seek. It is certainly not
+derived from the Persian religious system, to the spirit of which it is
+entirely opposed. Neither would it be correct to identify her entirely
+with the great goddess Ishtar of the old Babylonian religion. But there
+can hardly be any doubt that the figure of the great mother-goddess or
+goddess of heaven, who was worshipped throughout Asia under various
+forms and names (Astarte, Beltis, Atargatis, Cybele, the Syrian
+Aphrodite), was the prototype of the [Greek: mêtêr] of the Gnostics (cf.
+GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS). The character of the great goddess of heaven
+is still in many places fairly exactly preserved in the Gnostic
+speculations. Hence we are able to understand how the Gnostic [Greek:
+mêtêr], the Sophia, appears as the mother of the Hebdomas ([Greek:
+hebdomas]). The great goddess of heaven is the mother of the stars.
+Particularly instructive in this connexion is the fact that in those
+very sects, in the systems of which the figure of the [Greek: mêtêr]
+plays a special part, unbridled prostitution appears as a distinct and
+essential part of the cult (cf. the accounts of particular branches of
+the Gnostics, Nicolaitans, Philionites, Borborites, &c. in Epiphanius,
+_Haer._ xxv., xxvi.). The meaning of this cult is, of course,
+reinterpreted in the Gnostic sense: by this unbridled prostitution the
+Gnostic sects desired to prevent the sexual propagation of mankind, the
+origin of all evil. But the connexion is clear, and hence it also
+explained the curious Gnostic myth mentioned above, namely that the
+[Greek: mêtêr] (the light-maiden) by appearing to the archontes ([Greek:
+archontes]), the lower powers of this world, inflames them to sexual
+lusts, in order to take from them that share of light which they have
+stolen from the upper world. This is a Gnostic interpretation of the
+various myths of the great mother-goddess's many loves and
+love-adventures with other gods and heroes. And when the pagan legend of
+the Syrian Astarte tells how she lived for ten years in Tyre as a
+prostitute, this directly recalls the Gnostic myth of how Simon found
+Helena in a brothel in Tyre (Epiphanius, _Ancoratus_, c. 104). From the
+same group of myths must be derived the idea of the goddess who descends
+to the under-world, and is there taken prisoner against her will by the
+lower powers; the direct prototype of this myth is to be found, e.g. in
+Ishtar's journey to hell. And finally, just as the mother-goddess of
+south-western Asia stands in particularly intimate connexion with the
+youthful god of spring (Tammuz, Adonis, Attis), so we ought perhaps to
+compare here as a parallel the relation of Sophia with the Soter in
+certain Gnostic systems (see below).
+
+Another characteristic figure of Gnosticism is that of the Primal Man
+([Greek: prôtos anthrôpos]). In many systems, certainly, it has already
+been forced quite into the background. But on closer examination we can
+clearly see that it has a wide influence on Gnosticism. Thus in the
+system of the Naasseni (see Hippolytus, _Philosophumena_), and in
+certain related sects there enumerated, the Primal Man has a central and
+predominant position. Again, in the text on which are based the
+pseudo-Clementine writings (_Recognitions_, i. 16, 32, 45-47, 52, ii.
+47; and _Homilies_, iii. 17 seq. xviii. 14), as in the closely related
+system of the Ebionites in Epiphanius (_Haer._ xxx. 3-16; cf. liii. 1),
+we meet with the man who existed before the world, the prophet who goes
+through the world in various forms, and finally reveals himself in
+Christ. Among the Barbelognostics (Irenaeus i. 29. 3), the Primal Man
+(Adamas, _homo perfectus et verus_) and Gnosis appear as a pair of
+aeons, occupying a prominent place in the whole series. In the
+Valentinian systems the pair of aeons, Anthropos and Ekklesia, occupy
+the third or fourth place within the _Oydoás_, but incidentally we learn
+that with some representatives of this school the Anthropos took a still
+more prominent place (first or second; Hilgenfeld, _Ketzergeschichte_,
+p. 294 seq.). And even in the _Pistis-Sophia_ the Primal Man "Ieu" is
+frequently alluded to as the King of the Luminaries (cf. index to C.
+Schmidt's translation). We also meet with speculations of this kind
+about man in the circles of non-Christian Gnosis. Thus in the
+_Poimandres_ of Hermes man is the most prominent figure in the
+speculation; numerous pagan and half-pagan parallels (the "Gnostics" of
+Plotinus, Zosimus, Bitys) have been collected by Reitzenstein in his
+work _Poimandres_ (pp. 81-116). Reitzenstein has shown (p. 81 seq.) that
+very probably the system of the Naasseni described by Hippolytus was
+originally derived from purely pagan circles, which are probably
+connected in some way with the mysteries of the Attis cult. The figure
+in the Mandaean system most closely corresponding to the Primal Man,
+though this figure also actually occurs in another part of the system
+(cf. the figure of Adakas Mana; Brandt, _Mandäische Religion_, p. 36
+seq.) is that of Manda d'hayye ([Greek: gnôsis tês zôês]; cf. the pair
+of aeons, Adamas and Gnosis, among the Barbelognostics, in Irenaeus i.
+29. 3). Finally, in the Manichaean system, as is well known, the Primal
+Man again assumes the predominant place (Baur, _Manich.
+Religionssystem_, 49 seq.).
+
+This figure of the Primal Man can particularly be compared with that of
+the Gnostic Sophia. Wherever this figure has not become quite obscure,
+it represents that divine power which, whether simply owing to a fall,
+or as the hero who makes war on, and is partly vanquished by darkness,
+descends into the darkness of the material world, and with whose descent
+begins the great drama of the world's development. From this power are
+derived those portions of light existing and held prisoner in this lower
+world. And as he has raised himself again out of the material world, or
+has been set free by higher powers, so shall also the members of the
+Primal Man, the portions of light still imprisoned in matter, be set
+free.
+
+The question of the derivation of the myth of the Primal Man is still
+one of the unsolved problems of religious history. It is worthy of
+notice that according to the old Persian myth also, the development of
+the world begins with the slaying of the primal man Gayomart by
+Angra-Mainyu (Ahriman); further, that the Primal Man ("son of man" =
+man) also plays a part in Jewish apocalyptic literature (Daniel, Enoch,
+iv. Ezra), whence this figure passes into the Gospels; and again, that
+the dogma of Christ's descent into hell is directly connected with this
+myth. But these parallels do not carry us much further. Even the Persian
+myth is entirely obscure, and has hitherto defied interpretation. It is
+certainly true that in some way an essential part in the formation of
+the myth has been played by the sun-god, who daily descends into
+darkness, to rise from it again victoriously. But how to explain the
+combination of the figure of the sun-god with that of the Primal Man is
+an unsolved riddle. The meaning of this figure in the Gnostic
+speculations is, however, clear. It answers the question: how did the
+portions of light to be found in this lower world, among which certainly
+belong the souls of the Gnostics, enter into it?
+
+A parallel myth to that of the Primal Man are the accounts to be found
+in most of the Gnostic systems of the creation of the first man. In all
+these accounts the idea is expressed that so far as his body is
+concerned man is the work of the angels who created the world. So e.g.
+Satornil relates (Irenaeus i. 24. 1) that a brilliant vision appeared
+from above to the world-creating angels; they were unable to hold it
+fast, but formed man after its image. And as the man thus formed was
+unable to move, but could only crawl like a worm, the supreme Power put
+into him a spark of life, and man came into existence. Imaginations of
+the same sort are also to be found, e.g. in the genuine fragments of
+Valentinus (Hilgenfeld, _Ketzergeschichte_, p. 293), the Gnostics of
+Irenaeus i. 30. 6, the Mandaeans (Brandt, _Religion der Mandäer_, p.
+36), and the Manichaeans (Baur, _Religionssystem_, p. 118 seq.). The
+Naasseni (Hippolytus, _Philosophumena_, v. 7) expressly characterize the
+myth as Chaldean (cf. the passage from Zosimus, in Reitzenstein's
+_Poimandres_, p. 104). Clearly then the question which the myth of the
+Primal Man is intended to answer in relation to the whole universe is
+answered in relation to the nature of man by this account of the coming
+into being of the first man, which may, moreover, have been influenced
+by the account in the Old Testament. That question is: how does it
+happen that in this inferior body of man, fallen a prey to corruption,
+there dwells a higher spark of the divine Being, or in other words, how
+are we to explain the double nature of man?
+
+VI. Of all the fundamental ideas of Gnosticism of which we have so far
+treated, it can with some certainty be assumed that they were in
+existence before the rise of Christianity and the influence of Christian
+ideas on the development of Gnosticism. The main question with which we
+have now to deal is that of whether the dominant figure of the Saviour
+([Greek: Sôtêr]) in Gnosticism is of specifically Christian derivation,
+or whether this can also be explained apart from the assumption of
+Christian influence. And here it must be premised that, intimately as
+the conception of salvation is bound up with the Gnostic religion, the
+idea of salvation accomplished in a definite historical moment to a
+certain extent remained foreign to it. Indeed, nearly all the Christian
+Gnostic systems clearly exhibit the great difficulty with which they had
+to contend in order to reconcile the idea of an historical redeemer,
+actually occurring in the form of a definite person, with their
+conceptions of salvation. In Gnosticism salvation always lies at the
+root of all existence and all history. The fundamental conception varies
+greatly. At one time the Primal Man, who sank down into matter, has
+freed himself and risen out of it again, and like him his members will
+rise out of darkness into the light (_Poimandres_); at another time the
+Primal Man who was conquered by the powers of darkness has been saved by
+the powers of light, and thus too all his race will be saved
+(Manichaeism); at another time the fallen Sophia is purified by her
+passions and sorrows and has found her _Syzygos_, the Soter, and wedded
+him, and thus all the souls of the Gnostics who still languish in matter
+will become the brides of the angels of the _Soter_ (Valentinus). In
+fact salvation, as conceived in Gnosticism, is always a myth, a history
+of bygone events, an allegory or figure, but not an historical event.
+And this decision is not affected by the fact that in certain Gnostic
+sects figured historical personages such as Simon Magus and Menander.
+The Gnostic ideas of salvation were in the later schools and sects
+transferred to these persons whom we must consider as rather obscure
+charlatans and miracle-mongers, just as in other cases they were
+transferred to the person of Christ. The "Helena" of the Simonian system
+was certainly not an historical but a mythical figure. This explains the
+laborious and artificial way in which the person of Jesus is connected
+in many Gnostic systems with the original Gnostic conception of
+redemption. In this patchwork the joins are everywhere still clearly to
+be recognized. Thus, e.g. in the Valentinian system, the myth of the
+fallen Sophia and the Soter, of their ultimate union, their marriage and
+their 70 sons (Irenaeus i. 4. 5; Hippolytus, _Philos._ vi. 34), has
+absolutely nothing to do with the Christian conceptions of salvation.
+The subject is here that of a high goddess of heaven (she has 70 sons)
+whose friend and lover finds her in the misery of deepest degradation,
+frees her, and bears her home as his bride. To this myth the idea of
+salvation through the earthly Christ can only be attached with
+difficulty. And it was openly maintained that the Soter only existed for
+the Gnostic, the Saviour Jesus who appeared on earth only for the
+"Psychicus" (Irenaeus i. 6. 1).
+
+VII. Thus the essential part of most of the conceptions of what we call
+Gnosticism was already in existence and fully developed before the rise
+of Christianity. But the fundamental ideas of Gnosticism and of early
+Christianity had a kind of magnetic attraction for each other. What drew
+these two forces together was the energy exerted by the universal idea
+of salvation in both systems. Christian Gnosticism actually introduced
+only one new figure into the already existing Gnostic theories, namely
+that of the historical Saviour Jesus Christ. This figure afforded, as it
+were, a new point of crystallization for the existing Gnostic ideas,
+which now grouped themselves round this point in all their manifold
+diversity. Thus there came into the fluctuating mass a strong movement
+and formative impulse, and the individual systems and sects sprang up
+like mushrooms from this soil.
+
+It must now be our task to make plain the position of Gnosticism within
+the Christian religion, and its significance for the development of the
+latter. Above all the Gnostics represented and developed the distinctly
+anti-Jewish tendency in Christianity. Paul was the apostle whom they
+reverenced, and his spiritual influence on them is quite unmistakable.
+The Gnostic Marcion has been rightly characterized as a direct disciple
+of Paul. Paul's battle against the law and the narrow national
+conception of Christianity found a willing following in a movement, the
+syncretic origin of which directed it towards a universal religion. St
+Paul's ideas were here developed to their extremest consequences, and in
+an entirely one-sided fashion such as was far from being in his
+intention. In nearly all the Gnostic systems the doctrine of the seven
+world-creating spirits is given an anti-Jewish tendency, the god of the
+Jews and of the Old Testament appearing as the highest of the seven. The
+demiurge of the Valentinians always clearly bears the features of the
+Old Testament creator-God.
+
+The Old Testament was absolutely rejected by most of the Gnostics. Even
+the so-called Judaeo-Christian Gnostics (Cerinthus), the Ebionite
+(Essenian) sect of the Pseudo-Clementine writings (the Elkesaites), take
+up an inconsistent attitude towards Jewish antiquity and the Old
+Testament. In this respect the opposition to Gnosticism led to a
+reactionary movement. If the growing Christian Church, in quite a
+different fashion from Paul, laid stress on the literal authority of the
+Old Testament, interpreted, it is true, allegorically; if it took up a
+much more friendly and definite attitude towards the Old Testament, and
+gave wider scope to the legal conception of religion, this must be in
+part ascribed to the involuntary reaction upon it of Gnosticism.
+
+The attitude of Gnosticism to the Old Testament and to the creator-God
+proclaimed in it had its deeper roots, as we have already seen, in the
+dualism by which it was dominated. With this dualism and the recognition
+of the worthlessness and absolutely vicious nature of the material world
+is combined a decided spiritualism. The conception of a resurrection of
+the body, of a further existence for the body after death, was
+unattainable by almost all of the Gnostics, with the possible exception
+of a few Gnostic sects dominated by Judaeo-Christian tendencies. With
+the dualistic philosophy is further connected an attitude of absolute
+indifference towards this lower and material world, and the practice of
+asceticism. Marriage and sexual propagation are considered either as
+absolute Evil or as altogether worthless, and carnal pleasure is
+frequently looked upon as forbidden. Then again asceticism sometimes
+changes into wild libertinism. Here again Gnosticism has exercised an
+influence on the development of the Church by way of contrast and
+opposition. If here a return was made to the old material view of the
+resurrection (the apostolic [Greek: anastasis tês sarkos]), entirely
+abandoning the more spiritual conception which had been arrived at as a
+compromise by Paul, this is probably the result of a reaction from the
+views of Gnosticism. It was just at this point, too, that Gnosticism
+started a development which was followed later by the Catholic Church.
+In spite of the rejection of the ascetic attitude of the Gnostics, as a
+blasphemy against the Creator, a part of this ascetic principle became
+at a later date dominant throughout all Christendom. And it is
+interesting to observe how, e.g., St Augustine, though desperately
+combating the dualism of the Manichaeans, yet afterwards introduced a
+number of dualistic ideas into Christianity, which are distinguishable
+from those of Manichaeism only by a very keen eye, and even then with
+difficulty.
+
+The Gnostic religion also anticipated other tendencies. As we have seen,
+it is above all things a religion of sacraments and mysteries. Through
+its syncretic origin Gnosticism introduced for the first time into
+Christianity a whole mass of sacramental, mystical ideas, which had
+hitherto existed in it only in its earliest phases. But in the long run
+even genuine Christianity has been unable to free itself from the magic
+of the sacraments; and the Eastern Church especially has taken the same
+direction as Gnosticism. Gnosticism was also the pioneer of the
+Christian Church in the strong emphasis laid on the idea of salvation in
+religion. And since the Gnostics were compelled to draw the figure of
+the Saviour into a world of quite alien myths, their Christology became
+so complicated in character that it frequently recalls the Christology
+of the later dogmatic of the Greek Fathers.
+
+Finally, it was Gnosticism which gave the most decided impulse to the
+consolidation of the Christian Church as a church. Gnosticism itself is
+a free, naturally-growing religion, the religion of isolated minds, of
+separate little circles and minute sects. The homogeneity of wide
+circles, the sense of responsibility engendered by it, and continuity
+with the past are almost entirely lacking in it. It is based upon
+revelation, which even at the present time is imparted to the
+individual, upon the more or less convincing force of the religious
+imagination and speculations of a few leaders, upon the voluntary and
+unstable grouping of the schools round the master. Its adherents feel
+themselves to be the isolated, the few, the free and the enlightened, as
+opposed to the sluggish and inert masses of mankind degraded into
+matter, or the initiated as opposed to the uninitiated, the Gnostics as
+opposed to the "Hylici" ([Greek: hulikoi]); at most in the later and
+more moderate schools a middle place was given to the adherents of the
+Church as Psychici ([Greek: psychikoi]).
+
+This freely-growing Gnostic religiosity aroused in the Church an
+increasingly strong movement towards unity and a firm and inelastic
+organization, towards authority and tradition. An organized hierarchy, a
+definitive canon of the Holy Scriptures, a confession of faith and rule
+of faith, and unbending doctrinal discipline, these were the means
+employed. A part was also played in this movement by a free theology
+which arose within the Church, itself a kind of Gnosticism which aimed
+at holding fast whatever was good in the Gnostic movement, and obtaining
+its recognition within the limits of the Church (Clement of Alexandria,
+Origen). But the mightiest forces, to which in the end this theology too
+had absolutely to give way, were outward organization and tradition.
+
+It must be considered as an unqualified advantage for the further
+development of Christianity, as a universal religion, that at its very
+outset it prevailed against the great movement of Gnosticism. In spite
+of the fact that in a few of its later representatives Gnosticism
+assumed a more refined and spiritual aspect, and even produced blossoms
+of a true and beautiful piety, it is fundamentally and essentially an
+unstable religious syncretism, a religion in which the determining
+forces were a fantastic oriental imagination and a sacramentalism which
+degenerated into the wildest superstitions, a weak dualism fluctuating
+unsteadily between asceticism and libertinism. Indirectly, however,
+Gnosticism was certainly one of the most powerful factors in the
+development of Christianity in the 1st century.
+
+VIII. This sketch may be completed by a short review of the various
+separate sects and their probable connexion with each other. As a point
+of departure for the history of the development of Gnosticism may be
+taken the numerous little sects which were apparently first included
+under the name of "Gnostics" in the narrower sense. Among these probably
+belong the Ophites of Celsus (in Origen), the many little sects included
+by Epiphanius under the name of Nicolaitans and Gnostics (_Haer._ 25,
+26); the Archontici (Epiphanius, _Haer._ xl.), Sethites (Cainites)
+should also here be mentioned, and finally the Carpocratians. Common to
+all these is the dominant position assumed by the "Seven" (headed by
+Ialdabaoth); the heavenly world lying above the spheres of the Seven is
+occupied by comparatively few figures, among which the most important
+part is played by the [Greek: mêtêr], who is sometimes enthroned as the
+supreme goddess in heaven, but in a few systems has already descended
+from there into matter, been taken prisoner, &c. Numerous little groups
+are distinguished from the mass, sometimes by one peculiarity, sometimes
+by another. On the one hand we have sects with a strongly ascetic
+tendency, on the other we find some characterized by unbridled
+libertinism; in some the most abandoned prostitution has come to be the
+most sacred mystery; in others again appears the worship of serpents,
+which here appears to be connected in various and often very loose ways
+with the other ideas of these Gnostics--hence the names of the
+"Ophites," "Naasseni." To this class also fundamentally belong the
+Simoniani, who have included the probably historical figure of Simon
+Magus in a system which seems to be closely connected with those we have
+mentioned, especially if we look upon the "Helena" of this system as a
+mythical figure. A particular branch of the "Gnostic" sects is
+represented by those systems in which the figure of Sophia sinking down
+into matter already appears. To these belong the Barbelognostics (in the
+description given by Irenaeus the figure of the Spirit takes the place
+of that of Sophia), and the Gnostics whom Irenaeus (i. 30) describes
+(cf. Epiphanius, _Haer._ xxvi.). And here may best be included
+Bardesanes, a famous leader of a Gnostic school of the end of the 2nd
+century. Most scholars, it is true, following an old tradition, reckon
+Bardesanes among the Valentinians. But from the little we know of
+Bardesanes, his system bears no trace of relationship with the
+complicated Valentinian system, but is rather completely derived from
+the ordinary Gnosticism, and is distinguished from it apparently only by
+its more strongly dualistic character. The systems of Valentinus and his
+disciples must be considered as a further development of what we have
+just characterized as the popular Gnosticism, and especially of that
+branch of it to which the figure of Sophia is already known. In them
+above all the world of the higher aeons is further extended and filled
+with a throng of varied figures. They also exhibit a variation from the
+characteristic dualism of Gnosticism into monism, in their conception of
+the fall of Sophia and their derivation of matter from the passions of
+the fallen Sophia. The figures of the Seven have here entirely
+disappeared, the remembrance of them being merely preserved in the name
+of the [Greek: Dêmiourgos (hebdomas)]. In general, Valentinianism
+displays a particular resemblance to the dominant ideas of the Church,
+both in its complicated Christology, its triple division of mankind into
+[Greek: pneumatikoi, psychikoi] and [Greek: hulikoi], and its
+far-fetched interpretation of texts.[7] A quite different position from
+those mentioned above is taken by Basilides (q.v.). From what little we
+know of him he was an uncompromising dualist. Both the systems which are
+handed down under his name by Irenaeus and Hippolytus, that of
+emanations and the monistic-evolutionary system, represent further
+developments of his ideas with a tendency away from dualism towards
+monism. Characteristically, in these Basilidian systems the figure of
+the "Mother" or of Sophia does not appear. This peculiarity the
+Basilidian system shares with that of Satornil of Antioch, which has
+only come down to us in a very fragmentary state, and in other respects
+recalls in many ways the popular Gnosticism. By itself, on the other
+hand, stands the system preserved for us by Hippolytus in the
+_Philosophumena_ under the name of the Naasseni, with its central figure
+of "the Man," which, as we have seen, is very closely related with
+certain specifically pagan Gnostic speculations which have come down to
+us (in the _Poimandres_, in Zosimus and Plotinus, _Ennead_ ii. 9). With
+the Naasseni, moreover, are related also the other sects of which
+Hippolytus alone gives us a notice in his _Philosophumena_ (Docetae,
+Perates, Sethiani, the adherents of Justin, the Gnostic of Monoimos).
+Finally, apart from all other Gnostics stands Marcion. With him, as far
+as we are able to conclude from the scanty notices of him, the manifold
+Gnostic speculations are reduced essentially to the one problem of the
+good and the just God, the God of the Christians and the God of the Old
+Testament. Between these two powers Marcion affirms a sharp and, as it
+appears, originally irreconcilable dualism which with him rests moreover
+on a speculative basis. Thanks to the noble simplicity and specifically
+religious character of his ideas, Marcion was able to found not only
+schools, but a community, a church of his own, which gave trouble to the
+Church longer than any other Gnostic sect. Among his disciples the
+speculative and fantastic element of Gnosticism again became more
+apparent. As we have already intimated, Gnosticism had such a power of
+attraction that it now drew within its limits even Judaeo-Christian
+sects. Among these we must mention the Judaeo-Christian Gnostic
+Cerinthus, also the Gnostic Ebionites, of whom Epiphanius (_Haer._)
+gives us an account, and whose writings are to be found in a recension
+in the collected works of the Pseudo-Clementine _Recognitions and
+Homilies_; to the same class belong the Elkesaites with their mystical
+scripture, the _Elxai_, extracts of which are given by Hippolytus in the
+_Philos._ (ix. 13). Later evidence of the decadence of Gnosticism occurs
+in the _Pistis-Sophia_ and the Coptic Gnostic writings discovered and
+edited by Schmidt. In these confused records of human imagination gone
+mad, we possess a veritable herbarium of all possible Gnostic ideas,
+which were once active and now rest peacefully side by side. None the
+less, the stream of the Gnostic religion is not yet dried up, but
+continues on its way; and it is beyond a doubt that the later
+Mandaeanism and the great religious movement of Mani are most closely
+connected with Gnosticism. These manifestations are all the more
+characteristic since in them we meet with a Gnosticism which remained
+essentially more untouched by Christian influences than the Gnostic
+systems of the 2nd century A.D. Thus these systems throw an important
+light on the past, and a true perception of the nature and purpose of
+Gnosticism is not to be obtained without taking them into consideration.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A. Neander, _Genetische Entwicklung d. vornehmsten
+  gnostischen Systeme_ (Berlin, 1818); F. Chr. Baur, _Die christl.
+  Gnosis in ihrer geschichtl. Entwicklung_ (Tübingen, 1835); E. W.
+  Möller, _Gesch. der Kosmologie in der griechischen Kirche bis
+  Origenes_ (Halle, 1860); R. A. Lipsius, _Der Gnosticismus_ (Leipzig,
+  1860; originally in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyclopädie_); H. L. Mansel,
+  _The Gnostic Heresies of the 1st and 2nd Centuries_ (London, 1875); K.
+  Kepler, _Über Gnosis und altbabylonische Religion_, a lecture
+  delivered at the Congress of Orientalists (Berlin, 1881); A.
+  Hilgenfeld, _Ketzergeschichte des Urchristentums_ (Leipzig, 1884); and
+  in _Ztschr. für wissenschaftl. Theol._ 1890, i. "Der Gnosticismus"; A.
+  Harnack, _Dogmengeschichte_, i. 271 seq. (cf. the corresponding
+  sections of the _Dogmengeschichten_ of Loofs and Seeberg); W. Anz,
+  "Zur Frage nach dem Ursprung des Gnosticismus," _Texte u.
+  Untersuchungen_, xv. 4 (Leipzig, 1897); R. Liechtenhahn, _Die
+  Offenbarung im Gnosticismus_ (Göttingen, 1901); C. Schmidt, "Plotins
+  Stellung zum Gnosticismus u. kirchl. Christentum" _Texte u.
+  Untersuch._ xx. 4 (1902); E. de Faye, _Introduction à l'étude du
+  Gnosticisme_ (Paris, 1903); R. Reitzenstein, _Poimandres_ (Leipzig,
+  1904); G. Krüger, article "Gnosticismus" in Herzog-Hauck's
+  _Realencyklopädie_ (3rd ed.) vi. 728 ff.; Bousset, "Hauptprobleme der
+  Gnosis," _Forschungen z. Relig. u. Lit. d. alten u. neuen Testaments_,
+  10 (1907); T. Wendland, _Hellenistisch-römische Kultur in ihren
+  Beziehungen zu Judentum und Christentum_ (1907), p. 161 seq. See
+  further among important monographs on the individual Gnostic systems,
+  R. A. Lipsius, "Die ophitischen Systeme," _Ztschr. f. wissensch.
+  Theologie_ (1863); G. Heinrici, _Die valentinianische Gnosis u. d.
+  Heilige Schrift_ (Berlin, 1871); A. Merx, _Bardesanes von Edessa_
+  (Halle, 1863); A. Hilgenfeld, _Bardesanes, der letzte Gnostiker_
+  (Leipzig, 1864); A. Harnack, "Über das gnostische Buch Pistis-Sophia,"
+  _Texte u. Untersuch._ vii. 2; C. Schmidt, "Gnostische Schriften,"
+  _Texte u. Untersuch._ viii. 1, 2; and also the works mentioned under §
+  II. of this article.     (W. Bo.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See the list of their titles in A. Harnack, _Geschichte der
+    altchristlichen Literatur_, Teil I. v. 171; ib. Teil II. _Chronologie
+    der altchristl. Literatur_, i. 533 seq.; also Liechtenhahn, _Die
+    Offenbarung im Gnosticismus_ (1901).
+
+  [2] For the text see A. Merx, _Bardesanes von Edessa_ (1863), and A.
+    Hilgenfeld, _Bardesanes der letzte Gnostiker_ (1864).
+
+  [3] Ed. Petermann-Schwartze; newly translated by C. Schmidt,
+    _Koptisch-gnostische Schriften_, i. (1905), in the series _Die
+    griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei
+    Jahrhunderte_; see also A. Harnack, _Texte und Untersuchungen_, Bd.
+    vii. Heft 2 (1891), and _Chronologie der altchristlichen Literatur_,
+    ii. 193-195.
+
+  [4] See R. A. Lipsius, _Die Quellen der ältesten Ketzergeschichte_
+    (1875); A. Harnack, _Zur Quellenkritik der Geschichte des
+    Gnosticismus_ (1873); A. Hilgenfeld, _Ketzergeschichte_, pp. 1-83;
+    Harnack, _Geschichte der altchristlich. Literatur_, i. 171 seq., ii.
+    533 seq., 712 seq.; J. Kunze, _De historiae Gnostic. fontibus_
+    (1894). On the _Philosophumena_ of Hippolytus see G. Salmon, the
+    cross-references in the Philosophumena, _Hermathena_, vol. xi. (1885)
+    p. 5389 seq.; H. Staehelin, _Die gnostischen Quellen Hippolyts_,
+    _Texte und Unters._ Bd. vi. Hft. 3 (1890).
+
+  [5] Cf. the same idea of the fall of mankind in the pagan Gnosticism
+    of "Poimandres"; see Reitzenstein, _Poimandres_ (1904); and the
+    position of the Primal Man (_Urmensch_) among the Manichaeans is
+    similar.
+
+  [6] These ideas may possibly be traced still further back, and
+    perhaps even underlie St Paul's exposition in Col. ii. 15.
+
+  [7] For the disciples of Valentinus, especially Marcus, after whom
+    was named a separate sect, the Marcosians, with their Pythagorean
+    theories of numbers and their strong tincture of the mystical, magic,
+    and sacramental, see VALENTINUS AND VALENTINIANS.
+
+
+
+
+GNU, the Hottentot name for the large white-tailed South African
+antelope (q.v.), now nearly extinct, know to the Boers as the black
+wildebeest, and to naturalists as Connochaetes (or Catoblepas) gnu. A
+second and larger species is the brindled gnu or blue wildebeest (_C.
+taurinus_ or _Catoblepas gorgon_), also known by the Bechuana name
+_kokon_ or _kokoon_; and there are several East African forms more or
+less closely related to the latter which have received distinct names.
+
+[Illustration: White-tailed Gnu, or Black Wildebeest (_Connochaetes
+gnu_).]
+
+
+
+
+GO, or GO-BANG (Jap. _Go-ban_, board for playing _Go_), a popular table
+game. It is of great antiquity, having been invented in Japan, according
+to tradition, by the emperor Yao, 2350 B.C., but it is probably of
+Chinese origin. According to Falkener the first historical mention of it
+was made about the year 300 B.C., but there is abundant evidence that it
+was a popular game long before that period. The original Japanese Go is
+played on a board divided into squares by 19 horizontal and 19 vertical
+lines, making 361 intersections, upon which the flat round men, 181
+white and 181 black, are placed one by one as the game proceeds. The men
+are placed by the two players on any intersections (_me_) that may seem
+advantageous, the object being to surround with one's men as many
+unoccupied intersections as possible, the player enclosing the greater
+number of vacant points being the winner. Completely surrounded men are
+captured and removed from the board. This game is played in England upon
+a board divided into 361 squares, the men being placed upon these
+instead of upon the intersections.
+
+A much simpler variety of Go, mostly played by foreigners, has for its
+object to get five men into line. This may have been the earliest form
+of the game, as the word _go_ means five. Except in Japan it is often
+played on an ordinary draughts-board, and the winner is he who first
+gets five men into line, either vertically, horizontally or diagonally.
+
+  See _Go-Bang_, by A. Howard Cady, in Spalding's Home Library (New
+  York, 1896); _Games Ancient and Oriental_, by Edward Falkener (London,
+  1892); _Das japan.-chinesische Spiel Go_, by O. Korschelt (Yokohama,
+  1881); _Das Nationalspiel der Japanesen_, by G. Schurig (Leipzig,
+  1888).
+
+
+
+
+GOA, the name of the past and present capitals of Portuguese India, and
+of the surrounding territory more exactly described as Goa settlement,
+which is situated on the western coast of India, between 15° 44' and 14°
+53' N., and between 73° 45' and 74° 26' E. Pop. (1900) 475,513, area
+1301 sq. m.
+
+_Goa Settlement._--With Damaun (q.v.) and Diu (q.v.) Goa settlement
+forms a single administrative province ruled by a governor-general, and
+a single ecclesiastical province subject to the archbishop of Goa; for
+judicial purposes the province includes Macao in China, and Timor in the
+Malay Archipelago. It is bounded on the N. by the river Terakhul or
+Araundem, which divides it from the Sawantwari state, E. by the Western
+Ghats, S. by Kanara district, and W. by the Arabian Sea. It comprises
+the three districts of Ilhas, Bardez and Salsette, conquered early in
+the 16th century and therefore known as the Velhas Conquistas (Old
+Conquests), seven districts acquired later and known as the Novas
+Conquistas, and the island of Anjidiv or Anjadiva. The settlement, which
+has a coast-line of 62 m., is a hilly region, especially the Novas
+Conquistas; its distinguishing features are the Western Ghats, though
+the highest summits nowhere reach an altitude of 4000 ft., and the
+island of Goa. Numerous short but navigable rivers water the lowlands
+skirting the coast. The two largest rivers are the Mandavi and the
+Juari, which together encircle the island of Goa (Ilhas), being
+connected on the landward side by a creek. The island (native name
+Tisvadi, Tissuvaddy, Tissuary) is a triangular territory, the apex of
+which, called the _cabo_ or cape, is a rocky headland separating the
+harbour of Goa into two anchorages--Agoada or Aguada at the mouth of the
+Mandavi, on the north, and Mormugão or Marmagão at the mouth of the
+Juari, on the south. The northern haven is exposed to the full force of
+the south-west monsoon, and is liable to silt up during the rains. The
+southern, sheltered by the promontory of Salsette, is always open, but
+is less used, owing to its greater distance from the city of Goa, which
+is built on the island. A railway connects Mormagão, south of the Juari
+estuary, with Castle Rock on the Western Ghats. Goa imports textiles
+and foodstuffs, and exports coco-nuts, areca-nuts, spices, fish, poultry
+and timber. Its trade is carried on almost entirely with Bombay, Madras,
+Kathiawar and Portugal. Manganese is mined in large quantities, some
+iron is obtained, and other products are salt, palm-spirit, betel and
+bananas.
+
+_Cities of Goa._--1. The ancient Hindu city of Goa, of which hardly a
+fragment survives, was built at the southernmost point of the island,
+and was famous in early Hindu legend and history for its learning,
+wealth and beauty. In the Puranas and certain inscriptions its name
+appears as Gove, Govapuri, Gomant, &c.; the medieval Arabian geographers
+knew it as Sindabur or Sandabur, and the Portuguese as Goa Velha. It was
+ruled by the Kadamba dynasty from the 2nd century A.D. to 1312, and by
+Mahommedan invaders of the Deccan from 1312 until about 1370, during
+which period it was visited and described by Ibn Batuta. It was then
+annexed to the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, of which, according to
+Ferishta, it still formed part in 1469, when it was conquered by the
+Bahmani sultan of the Deccan; but two of the best Portuguese chroniclers
+state that it became independent in 1440, when the second city (Old Goa)
+was founded.
+
+2. Old Goa is, for the most part, a city of ruins without inhabitants
+other than ecclesiastics and their dependents. The chief surviving
+buildings are the cathedral, founded by Albuquerque in 1511 to
+commemorate his entry into Goa on St Catherine's day 1510, and rebuilt
+in 1623, and still used for public worship; the convent of St Francis
+(1517), a converted mosque rebuilt in 1661, with a portal of carved
+black stone, which is the only relic of Portuguese architecture in India
+dating from the first quarter of the 16th century; the chapel of St
+Catherine (1551); the church of Bom Jesus (1594-1603), a superb example
+of Renaissance architecture as developed by the Jesuits, containing the
+magnificent shrine and tomb of St Francis Xavier (see XAVIER, FRANCISCO
+DE); and the 17th-century convents of St Monica and St Cajetan. The
+college of St Paul (see below) is in ruins.
+
+3. Panjim, Pangim or New Goa, originally a suburb of Old Goa, is, like
+the parent city, built on the left bank of the Mandavi estuary, in 15°
+30' N. and 73° 33' E. Pop. (1901) 9500. It is a modern port with few
+pretensions to architectural beauty. Ships of the largest size can
+anchor in the river, but only small vessels can load or discharge at the
+quay. Panjim became the residence of the viceroy in 1759 and the capital
+of Portuguese India in 1843. It possesses a lyceum, a school for
+teachers, a seminary, a technical school and an experimental
+agricultural station.
+
+_Political History._--With the subdivision of the Bahmani kingdom, after
+1482, Goa passed into the power of Yusuf Adil Shah, king of Bijapur, who
+was its ruler when the Portuguese first reached India. At this time Goa
+was important as the starting-point of pilgrims from India to Mecca, as
+a mart with no rival except Calicut on the west coast, and especially as
+the centre of the import trade in horses (Gulf Arabs) from Hormuz, the
+control of which was a vital matter to the kingdoms warring in the
+Deccan. It was easily defensible by any power with command of the sea,
+as the encircling rivers could only be forded at one spot, and had been
+deliberately stocked with crocodiles. It was attacked on the 10th of
+February 1510 by the Portuguese under Albuquerque. As a Hindu ascetic
+had foretold its downfall and the garrison of Ottoman mercenaries was
+outnumbered, the city surrendered without a struggle, and Albuquerque
+entered it in triumph, while the Hindu townsfolk strewed filagree
+flowers of gold and silver before his feet. Three months later Yusuf
+Adil Shah returned with 60,000 troops, forced the passage of the ford,
+and blockaded the Portuguese in their ships from May to August, when the
+cessation of the monsoon enabled them to put to sea. In November
+Albuquerque returned with a larger force, and after overcoming a
+desperate resistance, recaptured the city, permitted his soldiers to
+plunder it for three days, and massacred the entire Mahommedan
+population.
+
+Goa was the first territorial possession of the Portuguese in Asia.
+Albuquerque intended it to be a colony and a naval base, as distinct
+from the fortified factories which had been established in certain
+Indian seaports. He encouraged his men to marry native women, and to
+settle in Goa as farmers, retail traders or artisans. These married men
+soon became a privileged caste, and Goa acquired a large Eurasian
+population. Albuquerque and his successors left almost untouched the
+customs and constitutions of the 30 village communities on the island,
+only abolishing the rite of suttee. A register of these customs (_Foral
+de usos e costumes_) was published in 1526, and is an historical
+document of much value; an abstract of it is given in R. S. Whiteway's
+_Rise of the Portuguese Empire in India_ (London, 1898).
+
+Goa became the capital of the whole Portuguese empire in the East. It
+was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon. Its senate or municipal
+chamber maintained direct communications with the king and paid a
+special representative to attend to its interests at court. In 1563 the
+governor even proposed to make Goa the seat of a parliament, in which
+all parts of the Portuguese east were to be represented; this was vetoed
+by the king.
+
+In 1542 St Francis Xavier mentions the architectural splendour of the
+city; but it reached the climax of its prosperity between 1575 and 1625.
+_Goa Dourada_, or Golden Goa, was then the wonder of all travellers, and
+there was a Portuguese proverb, "He who has seen Goa need not see
+Lisbon." Merchandise from all parts of the East was displayed in its
+bazaar, and separate streets were set aside for the sale of different
+classes of goods--Bahrein pearls and coral, Chinese porcelain and silk,
+Portuguese velvet and piece-goods, drugs and spices from the Malay
+Archipelago. In the main street slaves were sold by auction. The houses
+of the rich were surrounded by gardens and palm groves; they were built
+of stone and painted red or white. Instead of glass, their balconied
+windows had thin polished oyster-shells set in lattice-work.
+
+The social life of Goa was brilliant, as befitted the headquarters of
+the viceregal court, the army and navy, and the church; but the luxury
+and ostentation of all classes had become a byword before the end of the
+16th century. Almost all manual labour was done by slaves; common
+soldiers assumed high-sounding titles, and it was even customary for the
+poor noblemen who congregated together in boarding-houses to subscribe
+for a few silken cloaks, a silken umbrella and a common man-servant, so
+that each could take his turn to promenade the streets, fashionably
+attired and with a proper escort. There were huge gambling saloons,
+licensed by the municipality, where determined players lodged for weeks
+together; and every form of vice, except drunkenness, was practised by
+both sexes, although European women were forced to lead a kind of zenana
+life, and never ventured unveiled into the streets; they even attended
+at church in their palanquins, so as to avoid observation.
+
+The appearance of the Dutch in Indian waters was followed by the gradual
+ruin of Goa. In 1603 and 1639 the city was blockaded by Dutch fleets,
+though never captured, and in 1635 it was ravaged by an epidemic. Its
+trade was gradually monopolized by the Jesuits. Thevenot in 1666,
+Baldaeus in 1672, Fryer in 1675 describe its ever-increasing poverty and
+decay. In 1683 only the timely appearance of a Mogul army saved it from
+capture by a horde of Mahratta raiders, and in 1739 the whole territory
+was attacked by the same enemies, and only saved by the unexpected
+arrival of a new viceroy with a fleet. This peril was always imminent
+until 1759, when a peace with the Mahrattas was concluded. In the same
+year the proposal to remove the seat of government to Panjim was carried
+out; it had been discussed as early as 1684. Between 1695 and 1775 the
+population dwindled from 20,000 to 1600, and in 1835 Goa was only
+inhabited by a few priests, monks and nuns.
+
+_Ecclesiastical History._--Some Dominican friars came out to Goa in
+1510, but no large missionary enterprise was undertaken before the
+arrival of the Franciscans in 1517. From their headquarters in Goa the
+Franciscan preachers visited many parts of western India, and even
+journeyed to Ceylon, Pegu and the Malay Archipelago. For nearly
+twenty-five years they carried on the work of evangelization almost
+alone, with such success that in 1534 Pope Paul III. made Goa a
+bishopric, with spiritual jurisdiction over all Portuguese possessions
+between China and the Cape of Good Hope, though itself suffragan to the
+archbishopric of Funchal in Madeira. A Franciscan friar, João de
+Albuquerque, came to Goa as its first bishop in 1538. In 1542 St Francis
+Xavier came to Goa, and took over the Franciscan college of Santa Fé,
+for the training of native missionaries; this was renamed the College of
+St Paul, and became the headquarters of all Jesuit missions in the East,
+where the Jesuits were commonly styled _Paulistas_. By a Bull dated the
+4th of February 1557 Goa was made an archbishopric, with jurisdiction
+over the sees of Malacca and Cochin, to which were added Macao (1575),
+Japan (1588), Angamale or Cranganore (1600), Meliapur (Mylapur) (1606),
+Peking and Nanking (1610), together with the bishopric of Mozambique,
+which included the entire coast of East Africa. In 1606 the archbishop
+received the title of Primate of the East, and the king of Portugal was
+named Patron of the Catholic Missions in the East; his right of
+patronage was limited by the Concordat of 1857 to Goa, Malacca, Macao
+and certain parts of British India. The Inquisition was introduced into
+Goa in 1560: a vivid account of its proceedings is given by C. Dellon,
+_Relation de l'inquisition de Goa_ (1688). Five ecclesiastical councils,
+which dealt with matters of discipline, were held at Goa--in 1567, 1575,
+1585, 1592 and 1606; the archbishop of Goa also presided over the more
+important synod of Diamper (Udayamperur, about 12 m. S.E. of Cochin),
+which in 1599 condemned as heretical the tenets and liturgy of the
+Indian Nestorians, or Christians of St Thomas (q.v.). In 1675 Fryer
+described Goa as "a Rome in India, both for absoluteness and fabrics,"
+and Hamilton states that early in the 18th century the number of
+ecclesiastics in the settlement had reached the extraordinary total of
+30,000. But the Jesuits were expelled in 1759, and by 1800 Goa had lost
+much even of its ecclesiastical importance. The Inquisition was
+abolished in 1814 and the religious orders were secularized in 1835.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. N. da Fonseca, _An Historical and Archaeological
+  Sketch of Goa_ (Bombay, 1878) is a minute study of the city from the
+  earliest times, illustrated. For the early history of Portuguese rule
+  the chief authorities are _The Commentaries ... of Dalboquerque_
+  (Hakluyt Society's translation, London, 1877), the _Cartas_ of
+  Albuquerque (Lisbon, 1884), the _Historia ... da India_ of F. L. de
+  Castanheda (Lisbon, 1833, written before 1552), the _Lendas da India
+  of G. Correa_ (Lisbon, 1860, written 1514-1566), and the _Decadas da
+  India_ of João de Barros and D. do Couto (Lisbon, 1778-1788, written
+  about 1530-1616). Couto's _Soldado pratico_ (Lisbon, 1790) and S.
+  Botelho's _Cartas and Tombo_, written 1547-1554, published in
+  "Subsidios" of the Lisbon Academy (1868), are valuable studies of
+  military life and administration. The _Archivo Portuguez oriental_ (6
+  parts, New Goa, 1857-1877) is a most useful collection of documents
+  dating from 1515; part 2 contains the privileges, &c. of the city of
+  Goa, and part 4 contains the minutes of the ecclesiastical councils
+  and of the synod of Diamper. The social life of Goa has been
+  graphically described by many writers; see especially the travels of
+  Varthema (c. 1505), Linschoten (c. 1580), Pyrard (1608) in the Hakluyt
+  Society's translations; J. Mocquet, _Voyages_ (Paris, 1830, written
+  1608-1610); P. Baldaeus, in _Churchill's Voyages_, vol. 3 (London,
+  1732); J. Fryer, _A New Account of East India and Persia_ (London,
+  1698); A. de Mandelslo, _Voyages_ (London, 1669); _Les Voyages de M.
+  de Thevenot aux Indes Orientales_ (Amsterdam, 1779), and A. Hamilton,
+  _A New Account of the East Indies_ (London, 1774). For Goa in the 20th
+  century see _The Imperial Gazetteer of India_.     (K. G. J.)
+
+
+
+
+GOAL, originally an object set up as the place where a race ends, the
+winning-post, and so used figuratively of the end to which any effort is
+directed. It is thus used to translate the Lat. _meta_, the boundary
+pillar, set one at each end of the circus to mark the turning-point. The
+word was quite early used in various games for the two posts, with or
+without a cross-bar, through or over which the ball has to be driven to
+score a point towards winning the game. The _New English Dictionary_
+quotes the use in Richard Stanyhurst's _Description of Ireland_ (1577);
+but the word _gol_ in the sense of a boundary appears as early as the
+beginning of the 14th century in the religious poems of William de
+Shoreham (c. 1315). The origin of the word is obscure. It is usually
+taken to be derived from a French word _gaule_, meaning a pole or stick,
+but this meaning does not appear in the English usage, nor does the
+usual English meaning appear in the French. There is an O. Eng.
+_gaélan_, to hinder, which may point to a lost _gál_, barrier, but there
+is no evidence in other Teutonic languages for such a word.
+
+
+
+
+GOALPARA, a town and district of British India, in the Brahmaputra
+valley division of eastern Bengal and Assam. The town (pop. 6287)
+overlooks the Brahmaputra. It was the frontier outpost of the Mahommedan
+power, and has long been a flourishing seat of river trade. The civil
+station is built on the summit of a small hill commanding a magnificent
+view of the valley of the Brahmaputra, bounded on the north by the snowy
+ranges of the Himalayas and on the south by the Garo hills. The native
+town is built on the western slope of the hill, and the lower portion is
+subject to inundation from the marshy land which extends in every
+direction. It has declined in importance since the district headquarters
+were removed to Dhubri in 1879, and it suffered severely from the
+earthquake of the 12th of June 1897.
+
+The DISTRICT comprises an area of 3961 sq. m. It is situated along the
+Brahmaputra, at the corner where the river takes its southerly course
+from Assam into Bengal. The scenery is striking. Along the banks of the
+river grow clumps of cane and reed; farther back stretch fields of rice
+cultivation, broken only by the fruit trees surrounding the villages,
+and in the background rise the forest-clad hills overtopped by the white
+peaks of the Himalayas. The soil of the hills is of a red ochreous
+earth, with blocks of granite and sandstone interspersed; that of the
+plains is of alluvial formation. Earthquakes are common and occasionally
+severe shocks have been experienced. The Brahmaputra annually inundates
+vast tracts of country. Numerous extensive forests yield valuable
+timber. Wild animals of all kinds are found. In 1901 the population was
+462,083, showing an increase of 2% in the decade. Rice forms the staple
+crop. Mustard and jute are also largely grown. The manufactures consist
+of the making of brass and iron utensils and of gold and silver
+ornaments, weaving of silk cloth, basket-work and pottery. The
+cultivation of tea has been introduced but does not flourish anywhere in
+the district. Local trade is in the hands of Marwari merchants, and is
+carried on at the _bazars_, weekly _hats_ or markets and periodical
+fairs. The chief exports are mustard-seed, jute, cotton, timber, lac,
+silk cloth, india-rubber and tea; the imports, Bengal rice, European
+piece goods, salt, hardware, oil and tobacco.
+
+Dhubri (pop. 3737), the administrative headquarters of the district,
+stands on the Brahmaputra where that river takes its great bend south.
+It is the termination of the emigration road from North Bengal and of
+the river steamers that connect with the North Bengal railway. It is
+also served by the eastern Bengal State railway.
+
+
+
+
+GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. _gát_, Goth. _gaits_, Mod. Ger.
+_Geiss_, cognate with Lat. _haedus_, a kid), properly the name of the
+well-known domesticated European ruminant (_Capra hircus_), which has
+for all time been regarded as the emblem of everything that is evil, in
+contradistinction to the sheep, which is the symbol of excellence and
+purity. Although the more typical goats are markedly distinct from
+sheep, there is, both as regards wild and domesticated forms, an almost
+complete gradation from goats to sheep, so that it is exceedingly
+difficult to define either group. The position of the genus _Capra_ (to
+all the members of which, as well as some allied species, the name
+"goat" in its wider sense is applicable) in the family _Bovidae_ is
+indicated in the article BOVIDAE, and some of the distinctions between
+goats and sheep are mentioned in the article SHEEP. Here then it will
+suffice to mention that goats are characterized by the strong and
+offensive odour of the males, which are furnished with a beard on the
+chin; while as a general rule glands are present between the middle toes
+of the fore feet only.
+
+Goats, in the wild state, are an exclusively old-world group, of which
+the more typical forms are confined to Europe and south-western and
+central Asia, although there are two outlying species in northern
+Africa. The wild goat, or pasang, is represented in Europe in the
+Cyclades and Crete by rather small races. more or less mingled with
+domesticated breeds, the Cretan animal being distinguished as _Capra
+hircus creticus_; but the large typical race _C. h. aegagrus_ is met
+with in the mountains of Asia Minor and Persia, whence it extends to
+Sind, where it is represented by a somewhat different race known as _C.
+h. blythi_. The horns of the old bucks are of great length and beauty,
+and characterized by their bold scimitar-like backward sweep and sharp
+front edge, interrupted at irregular intervals by knots or bosses.
+Domesticated goats have run wild in many islands, such as the Hebrides,
+Shetland, Canaries, Azores, Ascension and Juan Fernandez. Some of these
+reverted breeds have developed horns of considerable size, although not
+showing that regularity of curve distinctive of the wild race. In the
+Azores the horns are remarkably upright and straight, whence the name of
+"antelope-goat" which has been given to these animals. The concretions
+known as _bezoar-stones_, formerly much used in medicine and as
+antidotes of poison, are obtained from the stomach of the wild goat.
+
+Although there have in all probability been more or less important local
+crosses with other wild species, there can be no doubt that domesticated
+goats generally are descended from the wild goat. It is true that many
+tame goats show spirally twisted horns recalling those of the
+under-mentioned Asiatic markhor; but in nearly all such instances it
+will be found that the spiral twists in the opposite direction. Among
+the domesticated breeds the following are some of the more important.
+
+Firstly, we have the common or European goats, of which there are
+several more or less well-marked breeds, differing from each other in
+length of hair, in colour and slightly in the configuration of the
+horns. The ears are more or less upright, sometimes horizontal, but
+never actually pendent, as in some Asiatic breeds. The horns are rather
+flat at the base and not unfrequently corrugated; they rise vertically
+from the head, curving to the rear, and are more or less laterally
+inclined. The colour varies from dirty white to dark-brown, but when
+pure-bred is never black, which indicates eastern blood. Most European
+countries possess more than one description of the common goat. In the
+British Isles there are two distinct types, one short and the other long
+haired. In the former the hair is thick and close, with frequently an
+under-coat resembling wool. The horns are large in the male, and of
+moderate size in the female, flat at the base and inclining outwards.
+The head is short and tapering, the forehead flat and wide, and the nose
+small; while the legs are strong, thick and well covered with hair. The
+colour varies from white or grey to black, but is frequently fawn, with
+a dark line down the spine and another across the shoulders. The other
+variety has a shaggy coat, generally reddish-black, though sometimes
+grey or pied and occasionally white. The head is long, heavy and ugly,
+the nose coarse and prominent, with the horns situated close together,
+often continuing parallel almost to the extremities, being also large,
+corrugated and pointed. The legs are long and the sides flat, the animal
+itself being generally gaunt and thin. This breed is peculiar to
+Ireland, the Welsh being of a similar type, but more often white. The
+short-haired goat is the English goat proper. Both British breeds, as
+well as those from abroad, are frequently ornamented with two
+tassel-like appendages, hanging near together under the throat. It has
+been supposed by many that these are traceable to foreign blood; but
+although there are foreign breeds that possess them, they appear to
+pertain quite as much to the English native breeds as to those of
+distant countries, the peculiarity being mentioned in very old works on
+the goats of the British Islands. The milk-produce in the common goat as
+well as other kinds varies greatly with individuals. Irish goats often
+yield a quantity of milk, but the quality is poor. The goats of France
+are similar to those of Britain, varying in length of hair, colour and
+character of horns. The Norway breed is frequently white with long hair;
+it is rather small in size, with small bones, a short rounded body, head
+small with a prominent forehead, and short, straight, corrugated horns.
+The facial line is concave. The horns of the males are very large, and
+curve round after the manner of the wild goat, with a tuft of hair
+between and in front.
+
+The Maltese goat has the ears long, wide and hanging down below the jaw.
+The hair is long and cream-coloured. The breed is usually hornless.
+
+The Syrian goat is met with in various parts of the East, in Lower
+Egypt, on the shores of the Indian Ocean and in Madagascar. The hair and
+ears are excessively long, the latter so much so that they are sometimes
+clipped to prevent their being torn by stones or thorny shrubs. The
+horns are somewhat erect and spiral, with an outward bend.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Male Angora Goat.]
+
+The Angora goat is often confounded with the Kashmir, but is in reality
+quite distinct. The principal feature of this breed, of which there are
+two or three varieties, is the length and quantity of the hair, which
+has a particularly soft and silky texture, covering the whole body and a
+great part of the legs with close matted ringlets. The horns of the male
+differ from those of the female, being directed vertically and in shape
+spiral, whilst in the female they have a horizontal tendency, somewhat
+like those of a ram. The coat is composed of two kinds of hair, the one
+short and coarse and of the character of hair, which lies close to the
+skin, the other long and curly and of the nature of wool, forming the
+outer covering. Both are used by the manufacturer, but the exterior
+portion, which makes up by far the greater bulk, is much the more
+valuable. The process of shearing takes place in early spring, the
+average amount of wool yielded by each animal being about 2½ lb. The
+best quality comes from castrated males, females producing the next
+best.
+
+The breed was introduced at the Cape about 1864. The Angora is a bad
+milker and an indifferent mother, but its flesh is better than that of
+any other breed, and in its native country is preferred to mutton. The
+kids are born small, but grow fast, and arrive early at maturity. The
+Kashmir, or rather Tibet, goat has a delicate head, with semi-pendulous
+ears, which are both long and wide. The hair varies in length, and is
+coarse and of different colours according to the individual. The horns
+are very erect, and sometimes slightly spiral, inclining inwards and to
+such an extent in some cases as to cross. The coat is composed, as in
+the Angora, of two materials; but in this breed it is the under-coat
+that partakes of the nature of wool and is valued as an article of
+commerce. This under-coat, or _pushm_, which is of a uniform
+greyish-white tint, whatever the colour of the hair may be, is
+beautifully soft and silky, and of a fluffy description resembling down.
+It makes its appearance in the autumn, and continues to grow until the
+following spring, when, if not removed, it falls off naturally; its
+collection then commences, occupying from eight to ten days. The animal
+undergoes during that time a process of combing by which all the wool
+and a portion of the hair, which of necessity comes with it, is removed.
+The latter is afterwards carefully separated, when the fleece in a good
+specimen weighs about half a pound. This is the material of which the
+far-famed and costly shawls are made, which at one time had such a
+demand that, it is stated, 16,000 looms were kept in constant work at
+Kashmir in their manufacture. Those goats having a short, neat head,
+long, thin, ears, a delicate skin, small bones, and a long heavy coat,
+are for this purpose deemed the best. There are several varieties
+possessing this valuable quality, but those of Kashmir, Tibet and
+Mongolia are the most esteemed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Nubian Goat.]
+
+The Nubian goat, which is met with in Nubia, Upper Egypt and Abyssinia,
+differs greatly in appearance from those previously described. The coat
+of the female is extremely short, almost like that of a race-horse, and
+the legs are long. This breed therefore stands considerably higher than
+the common goat. One of its peculiarities is the convex profile of the
+face, the forehead being prominent and the nostrils sunk in, the nose
+itself extremely small, and the lower lip projecting from the upper. The
+ears are long, broad and thin, and hang down by the side of the head
+like a lop-eared rabbit. The horns are black, slightly twisted and very
+short, flat at the base, pointed at the tips, and recumbent on the head.
+Among goats met with in England a good many show signs of a more or less
+remote cross with this breed, derived probably from specimens brought
+from the East on board ships for supplying milk during the voyage.
+
+The Theban goat, of the Sudan, which is hornless, displays the
+characteristic features of the last in an exaggerated degree, and in the
+form of the head and skull is very sheep-like.
+
+The Nepal goat appears to be a variety of the Nubian breed, having the
+same arched facial line, pendulous ears and long legs. The horns,
+however, are more spiral. The colour of the hair, which is longer than
+in the Nubian, is black, grey or white, with black blotches.
+
+Lastly the Guinea goat is a dwarf breed originally from the coast whence
+its name is derived. There are three varieties. Besides the commonest
+_Capra recurva_, there is a rarer breed, _Capra depressa_, inhabiting
+the Mauritius and the islands of Bourbon and Madagascar. The other
+variety is met with along the White Nile, in Lower Egypt, and at various
+points on the African coast of the Mediterranean.
+
+As regards wild goats other than the representatives of _Capra hircus_,
+the members of the ibex-group are noticed under IBEX, while another
+distinctive type receives mention under MARKHOR. The ibex are connected
+with the wild goat by means of _Capra nubiana_, in which the front edge
+of the horns is thinner than in either the European _C. ibex_ or the
+Asiatic _C. sibirica_; while the Spanish _C. pyrenaica_ shows how the
+ibex-type of horn may pass into the spirally twisted one distinctive of
+the markhor, _C. falconeri_. In the article IBEX mention is made of the
+Caucasus ibex, or tur, _C. caucasica_, as an aberrant member of that
+group, but beside this animal the Caucasus is the home of another very
+remarkable goat, or tur, known as _C. pallasi_. In this ruminant, which
+is of a dark-brown colour, the relatively smooth black horns diverge
+outwards in a manner resembling those of the bharal among the sheep
+rather than in goat-fashion; and, in fact, this tur, which has only a
+very short beard, is so bharal-like that it is commonly called by
+sportsmen the Caucasian bharal. It is one of the species which render
+it so difficult to give a precise definition of either sheep or goats.
+
+The short-horned Asiatic goats of the genus _Hemitragus_ receive mention
+in the article TAHR; but it may be added that fossil species of the same
+genus are known from the Lower Pliocene formations of India, which have
+also yielded remains of a goat allied to the markhor of the Himalayas.
+The Rocky Mountain goat (q.v.) of America has no claim to be regarded as
+a member of the goat-group.
+
+  For full descriptions of the various wild species, see R. Lydekker,
+  _Wild Oxen, Sheep, and Goats_ (London, 1898).     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+GOATSUCKER, a bird from very ancient times absurdly believed to have the
+habit implied by the common name it bears in many European tongues
+besides English--as testified by the Gr.[Greek: aigothêlas], the Lat.
+_caprimulgus_, Ital. _succiacapre_, Span. _chotacabras_, Fr.
+_tettechèvre_, and Ger. _Ziegenmelker_. The common goatsucker
+(_Caprimulgus europaeus_, Linn.), is admittedly the type of a very
+peculiar and distinct family, _Caprimulgidae_, a group remarkable for the
+flat head, enormously wide mouth, large eyes, and soft, pencilled plumage
+of its members, which vary in size from a lark to a crow. Its position
+has been variously assigned by systematists. Though now judiciously
+removed from the _Passeres_, in which Linnaeus placed all the species
+known to him, Huxley considered it to form, with two other families--the
+swifts (_Cypselidae_) and humming-birds (_Trochilidae_)--the division
+_Cypselomorphae_ of his larger group Aegithognathae, which is equivalent
+in the main to the Linnaean _Passeres_. There are two ways of regarding
+the _Caprimulgidae_--one including the genus _Podargus_ and its allies,
+the other recognizing them as a distinct family, _Podargidae_. As a
+matter of convenience we shall here comprehend these last in the
+_Caprimulgidae_, which will then contain two subfamilies, _Caprimulginae_
+and _Podarginae_; for what, according to older authors, constitutes a
+third, though represented only by _Steatornis_, the singular oil-bird, or
+guacharo, certainly seems to require separation as an independent family
+(see GUACHERO).
+
+[Illustration: Common Goatsucker.]
+
+Some of the differences between the _Caprimulginae_ and _Podarginae_
+have been pointed out by Sclater (_Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1866, p. 123), and
+are very obvious. In the former, the outer toes have _four_ phalanges
+only, thus presenting a very uncommon character among birds, and the
+middle claws are pectinated; while in the latter the normal number of
+five phalanges is found, and the claws are smooth, and other
+distinctions more recondite have also been indicated by him (_tom. cit._
+p. 582). The Caprimulginae may be further divided into those having the
+gape thickly beset by strong bristles, and those in which there are few
+such bristles or none--the former containing the genera _Caprimulgus_,
+_Antrostomus_, _Nyctidromus_ and others, and the latter _Podargus_,
+_Chordiles_, _Lyncornis_ and a few more.
+
+The common goatsucker of Europe (_C. europaeus_) arrives late in spring
+from its winter-retreat in Africa, and its presence is soon made known
+by its habit of chasing its prey, consisting chiefly of moths and
+cockchafers, in the evening-twilight. As the season advances the song
+of the cock, from its singularity, attracts attention amid all rural
+sounds. This song seems to be always uttered when the bird is at rest,
+though the contrary has been asserted, and is the continuous repetition
+of a single burring note, as of a thin lath fixed at one end and in a
+state of vibration at the other, and loud enough to reach in still
+weather a distance of half-a-mile or more. On the wing, while toying
+with its mate, or performing its rapid evolutions round the trees where
+it finds its food, it has the habit of occasionally producing another
+and equally extraordinary sound, sudden and short, but somewhat
+resembling that made by swinging a thong in the air, though whether this
+noise proceeds from its mouth is not ascertained. In general its flight
+is silent, but at times when disturbed from its repose, its wings may be
+heard to smite together. The goatsucker, or, to use perhaps its commoner
+English name, nightjar,[1] passes the day in slumber, crouching on the
+ground or perching on a tree--in the latter case sitting not across the
+branch but lengthways, with its head lower than its body. In hot
+weather, however, its song may sometimes be heard by day and even at
+noontide, but it is then uttered, as it were, drowsily, and without the
+vigour that characterizes its crepuscular or nocturnal performance.
+Towards evening the bird becomes active, and it seems to pursue its prey
+throughout the night uninterruptedly, or only occasionally pausing for a
+few seconds to alight on a bare spot--a pathway or road--and then
+resuming its career. It is one of the few birds that absolutely make no
+nest, but lays its pair of beautifully-marbled eggs on the ground,
+generally where the herbage is short, and often actually on the soil. So
+light is it that the act of brooding, even where there is some vegetable
+growth, produces no visible depression of the grass, moss or lichens on
+which the eggs rest, and the finest sand equally fails to exhibit a
+trace of the parental act. Yet scarcely any bird shows greater local
+attachment, and the precise site chosen one year is almost certain to be
+occupied the next. The young, covered when hatched with dark-spotted
+down, are not easily found, nor are they more easily discovered on
+becoming fledged, for their plumage almost entirely resembles that of
+the adults, being a mixture of reddish-brown, grey and black, blended
+and mottled in a manner that passes description. They soon attain their
+full size and power of flight, and then take to the same manner of life
+as their parents. In autumn all leave their summer haunts for the south,
+but the exact time of their departure has hardly been ascertained. The
+habits of the nightjar, as thus described, seem to be more or less
+essentially those of the whole subfamily--the differences observable
+being apparently less than are found in other groups of birds of similar
+extent.
+
+A second species of goatsucker (_C. ruficollis_), which is somewhat
+larger, and has the neck distinctly marked with rufous, is a summer
+visitant to the south-western parts of Europe, and especially to Spain
+and Portugal. The occurrence of a single example of this bird at
+Killingworth, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, in October 1856, has been recorded
+by Mr Hancock (_Ibis_, 1862, p. 39); but the season of its appearance
+argues the probability of its being but a casual straggler from its
+proper home. Many other species of _Caprimulgus_ inhabit Africa, Asia
+and their islands, while one (_C. macrurus_) is found in Australia. Very
+nearly allied to this genus is _Antrostomus_, an American group
+containing many species, of which the chuck-will's-widow (_A.
+carolinensis_) and the whip-poor-will (_A. vociferus_) of the eastern
+United States (the latter also reaching Canada) are familiar examples.
+Both these birds take their common name from the cry they utter, and
+their habits seem to be almost identical, with those of the old world
+goatsuckers. Passing over some other forms which need not here be
+mentioned, the genus _Nyctidromus_, though consisting of only one
+species (_N. albicollis_) which inhabits Central and part of South
+America, requires remark, since it has tarsi of sufficient length to
+enable it to run swiftly on the ground, while the legs of most birds of
+the family are so short that they can make but a shuffling progress.
+_Heleothreptes_, with the unique form of wing possessed by the male,
+needs mention. Notice must also be taken of two African species,
+referred by some ornithologists to as many genera (_Macrodipteryx_ and
+_Cosmetornis_), though probably one genus would suffice for both. The
+males of each of them are characterized by the wonderful development of
+the ninth primary in either wing, which reaches in fully adult specimens
+the extraordinary length of 17 in. or more. The former of these birds,
+the _Caprimulgus macrodipterus_ of Adam Afzelius, is considered to
+belong to the west coast of Africa, and the shaft of the elongated
+remiges is bare for the greater part of its length, retaining the web,
+in a spatulate form, only near the tip. The latter, to which the
+specific name of _vexillarius_ was given by John Gould, has been found
+on the east coast of that continent, and is reported to have occurred in
+Madagascar and Socotra. In this the remigial streamers do not lose their
+barbs, and as a few of the next quills are also to some extent
+elongated, the bird, when flying, is said to look as though it had four
+wings. Specimens of both are rare in collections, and no traveller seems
+to have had the opportunity of studying the habits of either so as to
+suggest a reason for this marvellous sexual development.
+
+The second group of _Caprimulginae_, those which are but poorly or not
+at all furnished with rictal bristles, contains about five genera, of
+which we may particularize _Lyncornis_ of the old world and _Chordiles_
+of the new. The species of the former are remarkable for the tuft of
+feathers which springs from each side of the head, above and behind the
+ears, so as to give the bird an appearance like some of the "horned"
+owls--those of the genus _Scops_, for example; and remarkable as it is
+to find certain forms of two families, so distinct as are the
+_Strigidae_ and the _Caprimulgidae_, resembling each other in this
+singular external feature, it is yet more remarkable to note that in
+some groups of the latter, as in some of the former, a very curious kind
+of dimorphism takes place. In either case this has been frequently
+asserted to be sexual, but on that point doubt may fairly be
+entertained. Certain it is that in some groups of goatsuckers, as in
+some groups of owls, individuals of the same species are found in
+plumage of two entirely different hues--rufous and grey. The only
+explanation as yet offered of this fact is that the difference is
+sexual, but evidence to that effect is conflicting. It must not,
+however, be supposed that this common feature, any more than that of the
+existence of tufted forms in each group, indicates any close
+relationship between them. The resemblances may be due to the same
+causes, concerning which future observers may possibly enlighten us, but
+at present we must regard them as analogies, not homologies. The species
+of _Lyncornis_ inhabit the Malay Archipelago, one, however, occurring
+also in China. Of _Chordiles_ the best-known species is the night-hawk
+of North America (_C. virginianus_ or _C. popetue_), which has a wide
+range from Canada to Brazil. Others are found in the Antilles and in
+South America. The general habits of all these birds agree with those of
+the typical goatsuckers.
+
+We have next to consider the birds forming the genus _Podargus_ and
+those allied to it, whether they be regarded as a distinct family, or as
+a subfamily of _Caprimulgidae_. As above stated, they have feet
+constructed as those of birds normally are, and their sternum seems to
+present the constant though comparatively trivial difference of having
+its posterior margin elongated into two pairs of processes, while only
+one pair is found in the true goatsuckers. _Podargus_ includes the bird
+(_P. cuvieri_) known from its cry as morepork to the Tasmanians,[2] and
+several other species, the number of which is doubtful, from Australia
+and New Guinea. They have comparatively powerful bills, and it would
+seem feed to some extent on fruits and berries, though they mainly
+subsist on insects, chiefly _Cicadae_ and _Phasmidae_. They also differ
+from the true goatsuckers in having the outer toes partially reversible,
+and they build a flat nest on the horizontal branch of a tree for the
+reception of their eggs, which are of a spotless white. Apparently
+allied to _Podargus_, but differing among other respects in its mode of
+nidification, is _Aegotheles_, which belongs also to the Australian
+sub-region; and farther to the northward, extending throughout the Malay
+Archipelago and into India, comes _Batrachostomus_, wherein we again
+meet with species having aural tufts somewhat like _Lyncornis_. The
+_Podarginae_ are thought by some to be represented in the new world by
+the genus _Nyctibius_, of which several species occur from the Antilles
+and Central America to Brazil. Finally, it may be stated that none of
+the _Caprimulgidae_ seem to occur in Polynesia or in New Zealand, though
+there is scarcely any other part of the world suited to their habits in
+which members of the family are not found.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Other English names of the bird are evejar, fern-owl, churn-owl
+    and wheel-bird--the last from the bird's song resembling the noise
+    made by a spinning-wheel in motion.
+
+  [2] In New Zealand, however, this name is given to an owl
+    (_Sceloglaux novae-zelandiae_).
+
+
+
+
+GOBAT, SAMUEL (1799-1879), bishop of Jerusalem, was born at Crémine,
+Bern, Switzerland, on the 26th of January 1799. After serving in the
+mission house at Basel from 1823 to 1826, he went to Paris and London,
+whence, having acquired some knowledge of Arabic and Ethiopic, he went
+out to Abyssinia under the auspices of the Church Missionary Society.
+The unsettled state of the country and his own ill health prevented his
+making much headway; he returned to Europe in 1835 and from 1839 to 1842
+lived in Malta, where he supervised an Arabic translation of the Bible.
+In 1846 he was consecrated Protestant bishop of Jerusalem, under the
+agreement between the British and Prussian governments (1841) for the
+establishment of a joint bishopric for Lutherans and Anglicans in the
+Holy Land. He carried on a vigorous mission as bishop for over thirty
+years, his diocesan school and orphanage on Mount Zion being specially
+noteworthy. He died on the 11th of May 1879.
+
+  A record of his life, largely autobiographical, was published at Basel
+  in 1884, and an English translation at London in the same year.
+
+
+
+
+GOBEL, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH (1727-1794), French ecclesiastic and
+politician, was born at Thann, in Alsace, on the 1st of September 1727.
+He studied theology in the German College at Rome, and then became
+successively a member of the chapter of Porrentruy, bishop _in partibus_
+of Lydda, and finally suffragan of Basel for that part of the diocese
+situated in French territory. His political life began when he was
+elected deputy to the states-general of 1789 by the clergy of the
+_bailliage_ of Huningue. The turning-point of his life was his action in
+taking the oath of the civil constitution of the clergy (Jan. 3rd,
+1791); in favour of which he had declared himself since the 5th of May
+1790. The civil constitution of the clergy gave the appointment of
+priests to the electoral assemblies, and since taking the oath Gobel had
+become so popular that he was elected bishop in several dioceses. He
+chose Paris, and in spite of the difficulties which he had to encounter
+before he could enter into possession, was consecrated on the 27th of
+March 1791 by eight bishops, including Talleyrand. On the 8th of
+November 1792, Gobel was appointed administrator of Paris. He was
+careful to flatter the politicians by professing anti-clerical opinions,
+declaring himself, among other things, opposed to the celibacy of the
+clergy; and on the 17th Brumaire in the year II. (7th November 1793), he
+came before the bar of the Convention, and, in a famous scene, resigned
+his episcopal functions, proclaiming that he did so for love of the
+people, and through respect for their wishes. The followers of Hébert,
+who were then pursuing their anti-Christian policy, claimed Gobel as one
+of themselves; while, on the other hand, Robespierre looked upon him as
+an atheist, though apostasy cannot strictly speaking be laid to the
+charge of the ex-bishop, nor did he ever make any actual profession of
+atheism. Robespierre, however, found him an obstacle to his religious
+schemes, and involved him in the fate of the Hébertists. Gobel was
+condemned to death, with Chaumette, Hébert and Anacharsis Cloots, and
+was guillotined on the 12th of April 1794.
+
+  See E. Charavay, _Assemblée électorale de Paris_ (Paris, 1890); H.
+  Monin, _La Chanson et l'Église sous la Révolution_ (Paris, 1892); A.
+  Aulard, "La Culte de la raison" in the review, _La Révolution
+  Française_ (1891). For a bibliography of documents relating to his
+  episcopate see "Épiscopat de Gobel" in vol. iii. (1900) of M.
+  Tourneux's _Bibliographie de l'histoire de Paris pendant la Rév. Fr._
+
+
+
+
+GOBELIN, the name of a family of dyers, who in all probability came
+originally from Reims, and who in the middle of the 15th century
+established themselves in the Faubourg Saint Marcel, Paris, on the banks
+of the Bièvre. The first head of the firm was named Jehan (d. 1476). He
+discovered a peculiar kind of scarlet dyestuff, and he expended so much
+money on his establishment that it was named by the common people _la
+folie Gobelin_. To the dye-works there was added in the 16th century a
+manufactory of tapestry (q.v.). So rapidly did the wealth of the family
+increase, that in the third or fourth generation some of them forsook
+their trade and purchased titles of nobility. More than one of their
+number held offices of state, among others Balthasar, who became
+successively treasurer general of artillery, treasurer extraordinary of
+war, councillor secretary of the king, chancellor of the exchequer,
+councillor of state and president of the chamber of accounts, and who in
+1601 received from Henry IV. the lands and lordship of Briecomte-Robert.
+He died in 1603. The name of the Gobelins as dyers cannot be found later
+than the end of the 17th century. In 1662 the works in the Faubourg
+Saint Marcel, with the adjoining grounds, were purchased by Colbert on
+behalf of Louis XIV., and transformed into a general upholstery
+manufactory, in which designs both in tapestry and in all kinds of
+furniture were executed under the superintendence of the royal painter,
+Le Brun. On account of the pecuniary embarrassments of Louis XIV., the
+establishment was closed in 1694, but it was reopened in 1697 for the
+manufacture of tapestry, chiefly for royal use and for presentation.
+During the Revolution and the reign of Napoleon the manufacture was
+suspended, but it was revived by the Bourbons, and in 1826 the
+manufacture of carpets was added to that of tapestry. In 1871 the
+building was partly burned by the Communists. The manufacture is still
+carried on under the state.
+
+  See Lacordaire, _Notice historique sur les manufactures impériales de
+  tapisserie des Gobelin et de tapis de la Savonnerie, précédée du
+  catalogue des tapisseries qui y sont exposés_ (Paris, 1853); Genspach,
+  _Répertoire détaillé des tapisseries exécutées aux Gobelins,
+  1662-1892_ (Paris, 1893); Guiffrey, _Histoire de la tapisserie en
+  France_ (Paris, 1878-1885). The two last-named authors were directors
+  of the manufactory.
+
+
+
+
+GOBI (for which alternative Chinese names are SHA-MO, "sand desert," and
+HAN-HAI, "dry sea"), a term which in its widest significance means the
+long stretch of desert country that extends from the foot of the Pamirs,
+in about 77° E., eastward to the Great Khingan Mountains, in 116°-118°
+E., on the border of Manchuria, and from the foothills of the Altai, the
+Sayan and the Yablonoi Mountains on the N. to the Astin-tagh or
+Altyn-tagh and the Nan-shan, the northernmost constituent ranges of the
+Kuen-lun Mountains, on the south. By conventional usage a relatively
+small area on the east side of the Great Khingan, between the upper
+waters of the Sungari and the upper waters of the Liao-ho, is also
+reckoned to belong to the Gobi. On the other hand, geographers and
+Asiatic explorers prefer to regard the W. extremity of the Gobi region
+(as defined above), namely, the basin of the Tarim in E. Turkestan, as
+forming a separate and independent desert, to which they have given the
+name of Takla-makan. The latter restriction governs the present article,
+which accordingly excludes the Takla-makan, leaving it for separate
+treatment. The desert of Gobi as a whole is only very imperfectly known,
+information being confined to the observations which individual
+travellers have made from their respective itineraries across the
+desert. Amongst the explorers to whom we owe such knowledge as we
+possess about the Gobi, the most important have been Marco Polo
+(1273-1275), Gerbillon (1688-1698), Ijsbrand Ides (1692-1694), Lange
+(1727-1728 and 1736), Fuss and Bunge (1830-1831), Fritsche (1868-1873),
+Pavlinov and Matusovski (1870), Ney Elias (1872-1873), N. M. Przhevalsky
+(1870-1872 and 1876-1877), Zosnovsky (1875), M. V. Pjevtsov (1878), G.
+N. Potanin (1877 and 1884-1886), Count Széchenyi and L. von Loczy
+(1879-1880), the brothers Grum-Grzhimailo (1889-1890), P. K. Kozlov
+(1893-1894 and 1899-1900), V. I. Roborovsky (1894), V. A. Obruchev
+(1894-1896), Futterer and Holderer (1896); C. E. Bonin (1896 and 1899),
+Sven Hedin (1897 and 1900-1901), K. Bogdanovich (1898), Ladyghin
+(1899-1900) and Katsnakov (1899-1900).
+
+Geographically the Gobi (a Mongol word meaning "desert") is the deeper
+part of the gigantic depression which fills the interior of the lower
+terrace of the vast Mongolian plateau, and measures over 1000 m. from
+S.W. to N.E. and 450 to 600 m. from N. to S., being widest in the west,
+along the line joining the Baghrash-kol and the Lop-nor (87°-89° E.).
+Owing to the immense area covered, and the piecemeal character of the
+information, no general description can be made applicable to the whole
+of the Gobi. It will be more convenient, therefore, to describe its
+principal distinctive sections _seriatim_, beginning in the west.
+
+  _Ghashiun-Gobi and Kuruk-tagh._--The Yulduz valley or valley of the
+  Khaïdyk-gol (83°-86° E., 43° N.) is enclosed by two prominent members
+  of the Tian-shan system, namely the Chol-tagh and the Kuruk-tagh,
+  running parallel and close to one another. As they proceed eastward
+  they diverge, sweeping back on N. and S. respectively so as to leave
+  room for the Baghrash-kol. These two ranges mark the northern and the
+  southern edges respectively of a great swelling, which extends
+  eastward for nearly twenty degrees of longitude. On its northern side
+  the Chol-tagh descends steeply, and its foot is fringed by a string of
+  deep depressions, ranging from Lukchun (425 ft. _below_ the level of
+  the sea) to Hami (2800 ft. above sea-level). To the south of the
+  Kuruk-tagh lie the desert of Lop, the desert of Kum-tagh, and the
+  valley of the Bulunzir-gol. To this great swelling, which arches up
+  between the two border-ranges of the Chol-tagh and Kuruk-tagh, the
+  Mongols give the name of Ghashiun-Gobi or Salt Desert. It is some 80
+  to 100 m. across from N. to S., and is traversed by a number of minor
+  parallel ranges, ridges and chains of hills, and down its middle runs
+  a broad stony valley, 25 to 50 m. wide, at an elevation of 3000 to
+  4500 ft. The Chol-tagh, which reaches an average altitude of 6000 ft.,
+  is absolutely sterile, and its northern foot rests upon a narrow belt
+  of barren sand, which leads down to the depressions mentioned above.
+
+  The Kuruk-tagh is the greatly disintegrated, denuded and wasted relic
+  of a mountain range which formerly was of incomparably greater
+  magnitude. In the west, between Baghrash-kol and the Tarim, it
+  consists of two, possibly of three, principal ranges, which, although
+  broken in continuity, run generally parallel to one another, and
+  embrace between them numerous minor chains of heights. These minor
+  ranges, together with the principal ranges, divide the region into a
+  series of long, narrow valleys, mostly parallel to one another and to
+  the enclosing mountain chains, which descend like terraced steps, on
+  the one side towards the depression of Lukchun and on the other
+  towards the desert of Lop. In many cases these latitudinal valleys are
+  barred transversely by ridges or spurs, generally elevations _en
+  masse_ of the bottom of the valley. Where such elevations exist, there
+  is generally found, on the E. side of the transverse ridge, a
+  cauldron-shaped depression, which some time or other has been the
+  bottom of a former lake, but is now nearly a dry salt-basin. The
+  surface configuration is in fact markedly similar to that which occurs
+  in the inter-mont latitudinal valleys of the Kuen-lun. The hydrography
+  of the Ghashiun-Gobi and the Kuruk-tagh is determined by these
+  chequered arrangements of the latitudinal valleys. Most of the
+  principal streams, instead of flowing straight down these valleys,
+  cross them diagonally and only turn west after they have cut their way
+  through one or more of the transverse barrier ranges.[1] To the
+  highest range on the great swelling Grum-Grzhimailo gives the name of
+  Tuge-tau, its altitude being 9000 ft. above the level of the sea and
+  some 4000 ft. above the crown of the swelling itself. This range he
+  considers to belong to the Chol-tagh system, whereas Sven Hedin would
+  assign it to the Kuruk-tagh. This last, which is pretty certainly
+  identical with the range of Khara-teken-ula (also known as the
+  Kyzyl-sanghir, Sinir, and Singher Mountains), that overlooks the
+  southern shore of the Baghrash-kol, though parted from it by the
+  drift-sand desert of Ak-bel-kum (White Pass Sands), has at first a
+  W.N.W. to E.S.E. strike, but it gradually curves round like a scimitar
+  towards the E.N.E. and at the same time gradually decreases in
+  elevation. In 91° E., while the principal range of the Kuruk-tagh
+  system wheels to the E.N.E., four of its subsidiary ranges terminate,
+  or rather die away somewhat suddenly, on the brink of a long narrow
+  depression (in which Sven Hedin sees a N.E. bay of the former great
+  Central Asian lake of Lop-nor), having over against them the écheloned
+  terminals of similar subordinate ranges of the Pe-shan (Bey-san)
+  system (see below). The Kuruk-tagh is throughout a relatively low, but
+  almost completely barren range, being entirely destitute of animal
+  life, save for hares, antelopes and wild camels, which frequent its
+  few small, widely scattered oases. The vegetation, which is confined
+  to these same relatively favoured spots, is of the scantiest and is
+  mainly confined to bushes of saxaul (_Anabasis Ammodendron_), reeds
+  (_kamish_), tamarisks, poplars, _Kalidium_ and _Ephedra_.
+
+  _Desert of Lop._--This section of the Gobi extends south-eastward from
+  the foot of the Kuruk-tagh as far as the present terminal basin of the
+  Tarim, namely Kara-koshun (Przhevalsky's Lop-nor), and is an almost
+  perfectly horizontal expanse, for, while the Baghrash-kol in the N.
+  lies at an altitude of 2940 ft., the Kara-koshun, over 200 m. to the
+  S., is only 300 ft. lower. The characteristic features of this almost
+  dead level or but slightly undulating region are: (i.) broad, unbroken
+  expanses of clay intermingled with sand, the clay (_shor_) being
+  indurated and saliferous and often arranged in terraces; (ii.) hard,
+  level, clay expanses, more or less thickly sprinkled with fine gravel
+  (_say_), the clay being mostly of a yellow or yellow-grey colour;
+  (iii.) benches, flattened ridges and tabular masses of consolidated
+  clay (_jardangs_), arranged in distinctly defined _laminae_, three
+  stories being sometimes superimposed one upon the other, and their
+  vertical faces being abraded, and often undercut, by the wind, while
+  the formations themselves are separated by parallel gullies or
+  wind-furrows, 6 to 20 ft. deep, all sculptured in the direction of the
+  prevailing wind, that is, from N.E. to S.W.; and (iv.) the absence of
+  drift-sand and sand-dunes, except in the south, towards the outlying
+  foothills of the Astin-tagh. Perhaps the most striking characteristic,
+  after the jardangs or clay terraces, is the fact that the whole of
+  this region is not only swept bare of sand by the terrific sandstorms
+  (_burans_) of the spring months, the particles of sand with which the
+  wind is laden acting like a sand-blast, but the actual substantive
+  materials of the desert itself are abraded, filed, eroded and carried
+  bodily away into the network of lakes in which the Tarim loses itself,
+  or are even blown across the lower, constantly shifting watercourses
+  of that river and deposited on or among the gigantic dunes which choke
+  the eastern end of the desert of Takla-makan. Numerous indications,
+  such as salt-stained depressions of a lacustrine appearance, traces of
+  former lacustrine shore-lines, more or less parallel and concentric,
+  the presence in places of vast quantities of fresh-water mollusc
+  shells (species of _Limnaea_ and _Planorbis_), the existence of belts
+  of dead poplars, patches of dead tamarisks and extensive beds of
+  withered reeds, all these always on top of the jardangs, never in the
+  wind-etched furrows, together with a few scrubby poplars and
+  _Elaeagnus_, still struggling hard not to die, the presence of ripple
+  marks of aqueous origin on the leeward sides of the clay terraces and
+  in other wind-sheltered situations, all testify to the former
+  existence in this region of more or less extensive freshwater lakes,
+  now of course completely desiccated. During the prevalence of the
+  spring storms the atmosphere that overhangs the immediate surface of
+  the desert is so heavily charged with dust as to be a veritable pall
+  of desolation. Except for the wild camel which frequents the reed
+  oases on the N. edge of the desert, animal life is even less abundant
+  than in the Ghashiun-Gobi, and the same is true as regards the
+  vegetation.
+
+  _Desert of Kum-tagh._--This section lies E.S.E. of the desert of Lop,
+  on the other side of the Kara-koshun and its more or less temporary
+  continuations, and reaches north-eastwards as far as the vicinity of
+  the town of Sa-chow and the lake of Kara-nor or Kala-chi. Its southern
+  rim is marked by a labyrinth of hills, dotted in groups and irregular
+  clusters, but evidently survivals of two parallel ranges which are now
+  worn down as it were to mere fragments of their former skeletal
+  structure. Between these and the Astin-tagh intervenes a broad
+  latitudinal valley, seamed with watercourses which come down from the
+  foothills of the Astin-tagh and beside which scrubby desert plants of
+  the usual character maintain a precarious existence, water reaching
+  them in some instances at intervals of years only. This part of the
+  desert has a general slope N.W. towards the relative depression of the
+  Kara-koshun. A noticeable feature of the Kum-tagh is the presence of
+  large accumulations of drift-sand, especially along the foot of the
+  crumbling desert ranges, where it rises into dunes sometimes as much
+  as 250 ft. in height and climbs half-way up the flanks of ranges
+  themselves. The prevailing winds in this region would appear to blow
+  from the W. and N.W. during the summer, winter and autumn, though in
+  spring, when they certainly are more violent, they no doubt come from
+  the N.E., as in the desert of Lop. Anyway, the arrangement of the sand
+  here "agrees perfectly with the law laid down by Potanin, that in the
+  basins of Central Asia the sand is heaped up in greater mass on the
+  south, all along the bordering mountain ranges where the floor of the
+  depressions lies at the highest level."[2] The country to the north of
+  the desert ranges is thus summarily described by Sven Hedin:[3] "The
+  first zone of drift-sand is succeeded by a region which exhibits
+  proofs of wind-modelling on an extraordinarily energetic and well
+  developed scale, the results corresponding to the jardangs and the
+  wind-eroded gullies of the desert of Lop. Both sets of phenomena lie
+  parallel to one another; from this we may infer that the winds which
+  prevail in the two deserts are the same. Next comes, sharply
+  demarcated from the zone just described, a more or less thin kamish
+  steppe growing on level ground; and this in turn is followed by
+  another very narrow belt of sand, immediately south of Achik-kuduk....
+  Finally in the extreme north we have the characteristic and sharply
+  defined belt of kamish steppe, stretching from E.N.E. to W.S.W. and
+  bounded on N. and S. by high, sharp-cut clay terraces.... At the
+  points where we measured them the northern terrace was 113 ft. high
+  and the southern 85¼ ft.... Both terraces belong to the same level,
+  and would appear to correspond to the shore lines of a big bay of the
+  last surviving remnant of the Central Asian Mediterranean. At the
+  point where I crossed it the depression was 6 to 7 m. wide, and thus
+  resembled a flat valley or immense river-bed."
+
+  _Desert of Hami and the Pe-shan Mountains._--This section occupies the
+  space between the Tian-shan system on the N. and the Nan-shan
+  Mountains on the S., and is connected on the W. with the desert of
+  Lop. The classic account is that of Przhevalsky, who crossed the
+  desert from Hami (or Khami) to Su-chow (not Sa-chow) in the summer of
+  1879. In the middle this desert rises into a vast swelling, 80 m.
+  across, which reaches an average elevation of 5000 ft. and a maximum
+  elevation of 5500 ft. On its northern and southern borders it is
+  overtopped by two divisions of the Bey-san (= Pe-shan) Mountains,
+  neither of which attains any great relative altitude. Between the
+  northern division and the Karlyk-tagh range or E. Tian-shan intervenes
+  a somewhat undulating barren plain, 3900 ft. in altitude and 40 m.
+  from N. to S., sloping downwards from both N. and S. towards the
+  middle, where lies the oasis of Hami (2800 ft.). Similarly from the
+  southern division of the Bey-san a second plain slopes down for 1000
+  ft. to the valley of the river Bulunzir or Su-lai-ho, which comes out
+  of China, from the south side of the Great Wall, and finally empties
+  itself into the lake of Kala-chi or Kara-nor. From the Bulunzir the
+  same plain continues southwards at a level of 3700 ft. to the foot of
+  the Nan-shan Mountains. The total breadth of the desert from N. to S.
+  is here 200 m. Its general character is that of an undulating plain,
+  dotted over with occasional elevations of clay, which present the
+  appearance of walls, table-topped mounds and broken towers
+  (_jardangs_), the surface of the plain being strewn with gravel and
+  absolutely destitute of vegetation. Generally speaking, the Bey-san
+  ranges consist of isolated hills or groups of hills, of low relative
+  elevation (100 to 300 ft.), scattered without any regard to order over
+  the arch of the swelling. They nowhere rise into well-defined peaks.
+  Their axis runs from W.S.W. to E.N.E. But whereas Przhevalsky and Sven
+  Hedin consider them to be a continuation of the Kuruk-tagh, though the
+  latter regards them as separated from the Kuruk-tagh by a well-marked
+  bay of the former Central Asian Mediterranean (Lop-nor), Futterer
+  declares they are a continuation of the Chol-tagh. The swelling or
+  undulating plain between these two ranges of the Bey-san measures
+  about 70 m. across and is traversed by several stretches of high
+  ground having generally an east-west direction.[4] Futterer, who
+  crossed the same desert twenty years after Przhevalsky, agrees
+  generally in his description of it, but supplements the account of the
+  latter explorer with several particulars. He observes that the ranges
+  in this part of the Gobi are much worn down and wasted, like the
+  Kuruk-tagh farther west and the tablelands of S.E. Mongolia farther
+  east, through the effects of century-long insolation, wind erosion,
+  great and sudden changes of temperature, chemical action and
+  occasional water erosion. Vast areas towards the N. consist of
+  expanses of gently sloping (at a mean slope of 3°) clay, intermingled
+  with gravel. He points out also that the greatest accumulations of
+  sand and other products of aerial denudation do not occur in the
+  deepest parts of the depressions but at the outlets of the valleys and
+  glens, and along the foot of the ranges which flank the depressions on
+  the S. Wherever water has been, desert scrub is found, such as
+  tamarisks, _Dodartia orientalis_, _Agriophyllum gobicum_, _Calligonium
+  sinnex_, and _Lycium ruthenicum_, but all with their roots elevated on
+  little mounds in the same way as the tamarisks grow in the Takla-makan
+  and desert of Lop.
+
+  Farther east, towards central Mongolia, the relations, says Futterer,
+  are the same as along the Hami-Su-chow route, except that the ranges
+  have lower and broader crests, and the detached hills are more denuded
+  and more disintegrated. Between the ranges occur broad, flat,
+  cauldron-shaped valleys and basins, almost destitute of life except
+  for a few hares and a few birds, such as the crow and the pheasant,
+  and with scanty vegetation, but no great accumulations of drift-sand.
+  The rocks are severely weathered on the surface, a thick layer of the
+  coarser products of denudation covers the flat parts and climbs a good
+  way up the flanks of the mountain ranges, but all the finer material,
+  sand and clay has been blown away partly S.E. into Ordos, partly into
+  the Chinese provinces of Shen-si and Shan-si, where it is deposited as
+  loess, and partly W., where it chokes all the southern parts of the
+  basin of the Tarim. In these central parts of the Gobi, as indeed in
+  all other parts except the desert of Lop and Ordos, the prevailing
+  winds blow from the W. and N.W. These winds are warm in summer, and it
+  is they which in the desert of Hami bring the fierce sandstorms or
+  burans. The wind does blow also from the N.E., but it is then cold and
+  often brings snow, though it speedily clears the air of the
+  everlasting dust haze. In summer great heat is encountered here on the
+  relatively low (3000-4600 ft.), gravelly expanses (_say_) on the N.
+  and on those of the S. (4000-5000 ft.); but on the higher swelling
+  between, which in the Pe-shan ranges ascends to 7550 ft., there is
+  great cold even in summer, and a wide daily range of temperature.
+  Above the broad and deep accumulations of the products of denudation
+  which have been brought down by the rivers from the Tian-shan ranges
+  (e.g. the Karlyk-tagh) on the N. and from the Nan-shan on the S., and
+  have filled up the cauldron-shaped valleys, there rises a broad
+  swelling, built up of granitic rocks, crystalline schists and
+  metamorphosed sedimentary rocks of both Archaic and Palaeozoic age,
+  all greatly folded and tilted up, and shot through with numerous
+  irruptions of volcanic rocks, predominantly porphyritic and dioritic.
+  On this swelling rise four more or less parallel mountain ranges of
+  the Pe-shan system, together with a fifth chain of hills farther S.,
+  all having a strike from W.N.W. to E.N.E. The range farthest N. rises
+  to 1000 ft. above the desert and 7550 ft. above sea-level, the next
+  two ranges reach 1300 ft. above the general level of the desert, and
+  the range farthest south 1475 ft. or an absolute altitude of 7200 ft.,
+  while the fifth chain of hills does not exceed 650 ft. in relative
+  elevation. All these ranges decrease in altitude from W. to E. In the
+  depressions which border the Pe-shan swelling on N. and S. are found
+  the sedimentary deposits of the Tertiary sea of the Han-hai; but no
+  traces of those deposits have been found on the swelling itself at
+  altitudes of 5600 to 5700 ft. Hence, Futterer infers, in recent
+  geological times no large sea has occupied the central part of the
+  Gobi. Beyond an occasional visit from a band of nomad Mongols, this
+  region of the Pe-shan swelling is entirely uninhabited.[5] And yet it
+  was from this very region, avers G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, that the
+  Yue-chi, a nomad race akin to the Tibetans, proceeded when, towards
+  the middle of the 2nd century B.C., they moved westwards and settled
+  near Lake Issyk-kul; and from here proceeded also the Shanshani, or
+  people who some two thousand years ago founded the state of Shanshan
+  or Loû-lan, ruins of the chief town of which Sven Hedin discovered in
+  the desert of Lop in 1901. Here, says the Russian explorer, the Huns
+  gathered strength, as also did the Tukiu (Turks) in the 6th century,
+  and the Uighur tribes and the rulers of the Tangut kingdom. But after
+  Jenghiz Khan in the 12th century drew away the peoples of this region,
+  and no others came to take their place, the country went out of
+  cultivation and eventually became the barren desert it now is.[6]
+
+  _Ala-shan._--This division of the great desert, known also as the
+  Hsi-tau and the Little Gobi, fills the space between the great N. loop
+  of the Hwang-ho or Yellow river on the E., the Edzin-gol on the W.,
+  and the Nan-shan Mountains on the S.W., where it is separated from the
+  Chinese province of Kan-suh by the narrow rocky chain of Lung-shan
+  (Ala-shan), 10,500 to 11,600 ft. in altitude. It belongs to the middle
+  basin of the three great depressions into which Potanin divides the
+  Gobi as a whole. "Topographically," says Przhevalsky, "it is a
+  perfectly level plain, which in all probability once formed the bed of
+  a huge lake or inland sea." The data upon which he bases this
+  conclusion are the level area of the region as a whole, the hard
+  saline clay and the sand-strewn surface, and lastly the salt lakes
+  which occupy its lowest parts. For hundreds of miles there is nothing
+  to be seen but bare sands; in some places they continue so far without
+  a break that the Mongols call them Tyngheri (i.e. sky). These vast
+  expanses are absolutely waterless, nor do any oases relieve the
+  unbroken stretches of yellow sand which alternate with equally vast
+  areas of saline clay or, nearer the foot of the mountains, with barren
+  shingle. Although on the whole a level country with a general altitude
+  of 3300 to 5000 ft., this section, like most other parts of the Gobi,
+  is crowned by a chequered network of hills and broken ranges going up
+  1000 ft. higher. The vegetation is confined to a few varieties of
+  bushes and a dozen kinds of grasses, the most conspicuous being saxaul
+  and _Agriophyllum gobicum_[7] (a grass). The others include prickly
+  convolvulus, field wormwood, acacia, _Inula ammophila_, _Sophora
+  flavescens_, _Convolvulus Ammani_, _Peganum_ and _Astragalus_, but all
+  dwarfed, deformed and starved. The fauna consists of little else
+  except antelopes, the wolf, fox, hare, hedgehog, marten, numerous
+  lizards and a few birds, e.g. the sand-grouse, lark, stonechat,
+  sparrow, crane, _Podoces Hendersoni_, _Otocorys albigula_ and
+  _Galerita cristata_.[8] The only human inhabitants of Ala-shan are the
+  Torgod Mongols.
+
+  _Ordos._--East of the desert of Ala-shan, and only separated from it
+  by the Hwang-ho, is the desert of Ordos or Ho-tau, "a level steppe,
+  partly bordered by low hills. The soil is altogether sandy or a
+  mixture of clay and sand, ill adapted for agriculture. The absolute
+  height of this country is between 3000 and 3500 ft., so that Ordos
+  forms an intermediate step in the descent to China from the Gobi,
+  separated from the latter by the mountain ranges lying on the N. and
+  E. of the Hwang-ho or Yellow river."[9] Towards the south Ordos rises
+  to an altitude of over 5000 ft., and in the W., along the right bank
+  of the Hwang-ho, the Arbus or Arbiso Mountains, which overtop the
+  steppe by some 3000 ft., serve to link the Ala-shan Mountains with the
+  In-shan. The northern part of the great loop of the river is filled
+  with the sands of Kuzupchi, a succession of dunes, 40 to 50 ft. high.
+  Amongst them in scattered patches grow the shrub _Hedysarum_ and the
+  trees _Calligonium Tragopyrum_ and _Pugionium cornutum_. In some
+  places these sand-dunes approach close to the great river, in others
+  they are parted from it by a belt of sand, intermingled with clay,
+  which terminates in a steep escarpment, 50 ft. and in some localities
+  100 ft. above the river. This belt is studded with little mounds (7 to
+  10 ft. high), mostly overgrown with wormwood (_Artemisia campestris_)
+  and the Siberian pea-tree (_Caragana_); and here too grows one of the
+  most characteristic plants of Ordos, the liquorice root (_Glycyrrhiza
+  uralensis_). Eventually the sand-dunes cross over to the left bank of
+  the Hwang-ho, and are threaded by the beds of dry watercourses, while
+  the level spaces amongst them are studded with little mounds (3 to 6
+  ft. high), on which grow stunted _Nitraria Scoberi_ and _Zygophyllum_.
+  Ordos, which was anciently known as Ho-nan ("the country south of the
+  river") and still farther back in time as Ho-tau, was occupied by the
+  Hiong-nu in the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D., but was almost depopulated
+  during and after the Dungan revolt of 1869. North of the big loop of
+  the Hwang-ho Ordos is separated from the central Gobi by a succession
+  of mountain chains, the Kara-naryn-ula, the Sheiten-ula, and the
+  In-shan Mountains, which link on to the south end of the Great Khingan
+  Mountains. The In-shan Mountains, which stretch from 108° to 112° E.,
+  have a wild Alpine character and are distinguished from other
+  mountains in the S.E. of Mongolia by an abundance of both water and
+  vegetation. In one of their constituent ranges, the bold Munni-ula, 70
+  m. long and nearly 20 m. wide, they attain elevations of 7500 to 8500
+  ft., and have steep flanks, slashed with rugged gorges and narrow
+  glens. Forests begin on them at 5300 ft. and wild flowers grow in
+  great profusion and variety in summer, though with a striking lack of
+  brilliancy in colouring. In this same border range there is also a
+  much greater abundance and variety of animal life, especially amongst
+  the avifauna.
+
+  _Eastern Gobi._--Here the surface is extremely diversified, although
+  there are no great differences in vertical elevation. Between Urga
+  (48° N. and 107° E.) and the little lake of Iren-dubasu-nor (111° 50'
+  E. and 43° 45' N.) the surface is greatly eroded, and consists of
+  broad flat depressions and basins separated by groups of flat-topped
+  mountains of relatively low elevation (500 to 600 ft.), through which
+  archaic rocks crop out as crags and isolated rugged masses. The floors
+  of the depressions lie mostly between 2900 and 3200 ft. above
+  sea-level. Farther south, between Iren-dubasu-nor and the Hwang-ho
+  comes a region of broad tablelands alternating with flat plains, the
+  latter ranging at altitudes of 3300 to 3600 ft. and the former at 3500
+  to 4000 ft. The slopes of the plateaus are more or less steep, and are
+  sometimes penetrated by "bays" of the lowlands. As the border-range of
+  the Khingan is approached the country steadily rises up to 4500 ft.
+  and then to 5350 ft. Here small lakes frequently fill the depressions,
+  though the water in them is generally salt or brackish. And both here,
+  and for 200 m. south of Urga, streams are frequent, and grass grows
+  more or less abundantly. There is, however, through all the central
+  parts, until the bordering mountains are reached, an utter absence of
+  trees and shrubs. Clay and sand are the predominant formations, the
+  watercourses, especially in the north, being frequently excavated 6 to
+  8 ft. deep, and in many places in the flat, dry valleys or depressions
+  farther south beds of loess, 15 to 20 ft. thick, are exposed. West of
+  the route from Urga to Kalgan the country presents approximately the
+  same general features, except that the mountains are not so
+  irregularly scattered in groups but have more strongly defined
+  strikes, mostly E. to W., W.N.W. to E.S.E., and W.S.W. to E.N.E. The
+  altitudes too are higher, those of the lowlands ranging from 3300 to
+  5600 ft., and those of the ranges from 650 to 1650 ft. higher, though
+  in a few cases they reach altitudes of 8000 ft. above sea-level. The
+  elevations do not, however, as a rule form continuous chains, but make
+  up a congeries of short ridges and groups rising from a common base
+  and intersected by a labyrinth of ravines, gullies, glens and basins.
+  But the tablelands, built up of the horizontal red deposits of the
+  Han-hai (Obruchev's Gobi formation) which are characteristic of the
+  southern parts of eastern Mongolia, are absent here or occur only in
+  one locality, near the Shara-muren river, and are then greatly
+  intersected by gullies or dry watercourses.[10] Here there is,
+  however, a great dearth of water, no streams, no lakes, no wells, and
+  precipitation falls but seldom. The prevailing winds blow from the W.
+  and N.W. and the pall of dust overhangs the country as in the
+  Takla-makan and the desert of Lop. Characteristic of the flora are
+  wild garlic, _Kalidium gracile_, wormwood, saxaul, _Nitraria Scoberi_,
+  _Caragana_, _Ephedra_, saltwort and _dirisun_ (_Lasiagrostis
+  splendens_).
+
+  This great desert country of Gobi is crossed by several trade routes,
+  some of which have been in use for thousands of years. Among the most
+  important are those from Kalgan on the frontier of China to Urga (600
+  m.), from Su-chow (in Kan-suh) to Hami (420 m.) from Hami to Peking
+  (1300 m.), from Kwei-hwa-cheng (or Kuku-khoto) to Hami and Barkul, and
+  from Lanchow (in Kan-suh) to Hami.
+
+  _Climate._--The climate of the Gobi is one of great extremes, combined
+  with rapid changes of temperature, not only at all seasons of the year
+  but even within 24 hours (as much as 58° F.). For instance, at Urga
+  (3770 ft.) the annual mean is 27.5° F., the January mean -15.7°, and
+  the July mean 63.5°, the extremes being 100.5° and -44.5°; while at
+  Sivantse (3905 ft.) the annual mean is 37°, the January mean 2.3°, and
+  the July mean 66.3°, the range being from a recorded maximum of 93° to
+  a recorded minimum of -53°. Even in southern Mongolia the thermometer
+  goes down as low as -27°, and in Ala-shan it rises day after day in
+  July as high as 99°. Although the south-east monsoons reach the S.E.
+  parts of the Gobi, the air generally throughout this region is
+  characterized by extreme dryness, especially during the winter. Hence
+  the icy sandstorms and snowstorms of spring and early summer. The
+  rainfall at Urga for the year amounts to only 9.7 in.
+
+  _Sands of the Gobi Deserts._--With regard to the origin of the masses
+  of sand out of which the dunes and chains of dunes (_barkhans_) are
+  built up in the several deserts of the Gobi, opinions differ. While
+  some explorers consider them to be the product of marine, or at any
+  rate lacustrine, denudation (the Central Asian Mediterranean),
+  others--and this is not only the more reasonable view, but it is the
+  view which is gaining most ground--consider that they are the products
+  of the aerial denudation of the border ranges (e.g. Nan-shan,
+  Karlyk-tagh, &c.), and more especially of the terribly wasted ranges
+  and chains of hills, which, like the gaunt fragments of montane
+  skeletal remains, lie littered all over the swelling uplands and
+  tablelands of the Gobi, and that they have been transported by the
+  prevailing winds to the localities in which they are now accumulated,
+  the winds obeying similar transportation laws to the rivers and
+  streams which carry down sediment in moister parts of the world.
+  Potanin points out[11] that "there is a certain amount of regularity
+  observable in the distribution of the sandy deserts over the vast
+  uplands of central Asia. Two agencies are represented in the
+  distribution of the sands, though what they really are is not quite
+  clear; and of these two agencies one prevails in the north-west, the
+  other in the south-east, so that the whole of Central Asia may be
+  divided into two regions, the dividing line between them being drawn
+  from north-east to south-west, from Urga via the eastern end of the
+  Tian-shan to the city of Kashgar. North-west of this line the sandy
+  masses are broken up into detached and disconnected areas, and are
+  almost without exception heaped up around the lakes, and consequently
+  in the lowest parts of the several districts in which they exist.
+  Moreover, we find also that these sandy tracts always occur on the
+  western or south-western shores of the lakes; this is the case with
+  the lakes of Balkash, Ala-kul, Ebi-nor, Ayar-nor (or Telli-nor),
+  Orku-nor, Zaisan-nor, Ulungur-nor, Ubsa-nor, Durga-nor and Kara-nor
+  lying E. of Kirghiz-nor. South-east of the line the arrangement of the
+  sand is quite different. In that part of Asia we have three gigantic
+  but disconnected basins. The first, lying farthest east, is embraced
+  on the one side by the ramifications of the Kentei and Khangai
+  Mountains and on the other by the In-shan Mountains. The second or
+  middle division is contained between the Altai of the Gobi and the
+  Ala-shan. The third basin, in the west, lies between the Tian-shan and
+  the border ranges of western Tibet.... The deepest parts of each of
+  these three depressions occur near their northern borders; towards
+  their southern boundaries they are all alike very much higher....
+  However, the sandy deserts are not found in the low-lying tracts but
+  occur on the higher uplands which foot the southern mountain ranges,
+  the In-shan and the Nan-shan. Our maps show an immense expanse of sand
+  south of the Tarim in the western basin; beginning in the
+  neighbourhood of the city of Yarkent (Yarkand), it extends eastwards
+  past the towns of Khotan, Keriya and Cherchen to Sa-chow. Along this
+  stretch there is only one locality which forms an exception to the
+  rule we have indicated, namely, the region round the lake of Lop-nor.
+  In the middle basin the widest expanse of sand occurs between the
+  Edzin-gol and the range of Ala-shan. On the south it extends nearly as
+  far as a line drawn through the towns of Lian-chow, Kan-chow and
+  Kao-tai at the foot of the Nan-shan; but on the south it does not
+  approach anything like so far as the latitude (42° N.) of the lake of
+  Ghashiun-nor. Still farther east come the sandy deserts of Ordos,
+  extending south-eastward as far as the mountain range which separates
+  Ordos from the (Chinese) provinces of Shan-si and Shen-si. In the
+  eastern basin drift-sand is encountered between the district of Ude in
+  the north (44° 30' N.) and the foot of the In-shan in the south." In
+  two regions, if not in three, the sands have overwhelmed large tracts
+  of once cultivated country, and even buried the cities in which men
+  formerly dwelt. These regions are the southern parts of the desert of
+  Takla-makan (where Sven Hedin and M. A. Stein[12] have discovered the
+  ruins under the desert sands), along the N. foot of the Nan-shan, and
+  probably in part (other agencies having helped) in the north of the
+  desert of Lop, where Sven Hedin discovered the ruins of Lou-lan and of
+  other towns or villages. For these vast accumulations of sand are
+  constantly in movement; though the movement is slow, it has
+  nevertheless been calculated that in the south of the Takla-makan the
+  sand-dunes travel bodily at the rate of roughly something like 160 ft.
+  in the course of a year. The shape and arrangement of the individual
+  sand-dunes, and of the barkhans, generally indicate from which
+  direction the predominant winds blow. On the windward side of the dune
+  the slope is long and gentle, while the leeward side is steep and in
+  outline concave like a horse-shoe. The dunes vary in height from 30 up
+  to 300 ft., and in some places mount as it were upon one another's
+  shoulders, and in some localities it is even said that a third tier is
+  sometimes superimposed.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--See N. M. Przhevalsky, _Mongolia, the Tangut Country,
+  &c._ (Eng. trans., ed. by Sir H. Yule, London, 1876), and _From Kulja
+  across the Tian Shan to Lob Nor_ (Eng. trans, by Delmar Morgan,
+  London, 1879); G. N. Potanin, _Tangutsko-Tibetskaya Okraina Kitaya i
+  Centralnaya Mongoliya, 1884-1886_ (1893, &c.); M. V. Pjevtsov, _Sketch
+  of a Journey to Mongolia_ (in Russian, Omsk, 1883); G. E.
+  Grum-Grzhimailo, _Opisanie Puteshestviya v Sapadniy Kitai_
+  (1898-1899); V. A. Obruchev, _Centralnaya Asiya, Severniy Kitai i
+  Nan-schan, 1892-1894_ (1900-1901); V. I. Roborovsky and P. K. Kozlov,
+  _Trudy Ekspeditsiy Imp. Russ. Geog. Obshchestva Po Centralnoy Asiy,
+  1893-1895_ (1900, &c.); Roborovsky, _Trudy Tibetskoi Ekspeditsiy,
+  1889-1890_; Sven Hedin, _Scientific Results of a Journey in Central
+  Asia, 1899-1902_ (6 vols., 1905-1907); Futterer, _Durch Asien_ (1901,
+  &c.); K. Bogdanovich, _Geologicheskiya Isledovaniya v Vostochnom
+  Turkestane_ and _Trudiy Tibetskoy Ekspeditsiy, 1889-1890_; L. von
+  Loczy, _Die wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse der Reise des Grafen
+  Széchenyi in Ostasien, 1877-1880_ (1883); Ney Elias, in _Journ. Roy.
+  Geog. Soc._ (1873); C. W. Campbell's "Journeys in Mongolia," in
+  _Geographical Journal_ (Nov. 1903); Pozdnievym, _Mongolia and the
+  Mongols_ (in Russian, St Petersburg, 1897 &c.); Deniker's summary of
+  Kozlov's latest journeys in _La Géographie_ (1901, &c.); F. von
+  Richthofen, _China_ (1877).     (J. T. Be.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Cf. G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, _Opisaniye Puteshestviya_, i. 381-417.
+
+  [2] Quoted in Sven Hedin, _Scientific Results_, ii. 499.
+
+  [3] _Op. cit._ ii. 499-500.
+
+  [4] Przhevalsky, _Iz Zayana cherez Hami v Tibet na Vershovya Shaltoy
+    Reki_, pp. 84-91.
+
+  [5] Futterer, _Durch Asien_, i. pp. 206-211.
+
+  [6] G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, _Opisanie Puteshestviya v Sapadniy Kitai_,
+    ii. p. 127.
+
+  [7] Its seeds are pounded by the Mongols to flour and mixed with
+    their tea.
+
+  [8] Przhevalsky, _Mongolia_ (Eng. trans. ed. by Sir H. Yule).
+
+  [9] Przhevalsky, _op. cit._ p. 183.
+
+  [10] Obruchev. in _Izvestia_ of Russ. Geogr. Soc. (1895).
+
+  [11] In _Tangutsko-Tibetskaya Okraina Kitaya i Centralnaya
+    Mongoliya_, i. pp. 96, &c.
+
+  [12] See _Sand-buried Cities of Khotan_ (London, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+GOBLET, RENÉ (1828-1905), French politician, was born at
+Aire-sur-la-Lys, in the Pas de Calais, on the 26th of November 1828, and
+was educated for the law. Under the Second Empire, he helped to found a
+Liberal journal, _Le Progrès de la Somme_, and in July 1871 was sent by
+the department of the Somme to the National Assembly, where he took his
+place on the extreme left. He failed to secure election in 1876, but
+next year was returned for Amiens. He held a minor government office in
+1879, and in 1882 became minister of the interior in the Freycinet
+cabinet. He was minister of education, fine arts and religion in Henri
+Brisson's first cabinet in 1885, and again under Freycinet in 1886, when
+he greatly increased his reputation by an able defence of the
+government's education proposals. Meanwhile his extreme independence and
+excessive candour had alienated him from many of his party, and all
+through his life he was frequently in conflict with his political
+associates, from Gambetta downwards. On the fall of the Freycinet
+cabinet in December he formed a cabinet in which he reserved for himself
+the portfolios of the interior and of religion. The Goblet cabinet was
+unpopular from the outset, and it was with difficulty that anybody could
+be found to accept the ministry of foreign affairs, which was finally
+given to M. Flourens. Then came what is known as the Schnaebele
+incident, the arrest on the German frontier of a French official named
+Schnaebele, which caused immense excitement in France. For some days
+Goblet took no definite decision, but left Flourens, who stood for
+peace, to fight it out with General Boulanger, then minister of war, who
+was for the despatch of an ultimatum. Although he finally intervened on
+the side of Flourens, and peace was preserved, his weakness in face of
+the Boulangist propaganda became a national danger. Defeated on the
+budget in May 1887, his government resigned; but he returned to office
+next year as foreign minister in the radical administration of Charles
+Floquet. He was defeated at the polls by a Boulangist candidate in 1889,
+and sat in the senate from 1891 to 1893, when he returned to the popular
+chamber. In association with MM. E. Lockroy, Ferdinand Sarrien and P. L.
+Peytral he drew up a republican programme which they put forward in the
+_Petite République française_. At the elections of 1898 he was defeated,
+and thenceforward took little part in public affairs. He died in Paris
+on the 13th of September 1905.
+
+
+
+
+GOBLET, a large type of drinking-vessel, particularly one shaped like a
+cup, without handles, and mounted on a shank with a foot. The word is
+derived from the O. Fr. _gobelet_, diminutive of _gobel_, _gobeau_,
+which Skeat takes to be formed from Low Lat. _cupellus_, cup, diminutive
+of _cupa_, tub, cask (see DRINKING-VESSELS).
+
+
+
+
+GOBY. The gobies (_Gobius_) are small fishes readily recognized by their
+ventrals (the fins on the lower surface of the chest) being united into
+one fin, forming a suctorial disk, by which these fishes are enabled to
+attach themselves in every possible position to a rock or other firm
+substances. They are essentially coast-fishes, inhabiting nearly all
+seas, but disappearing towards the Arctic and Antarctic Oceans. Many
+enter, or live exclusively in, such fresh waters as are at no great
+distance from the sea. Nearly 500 different kinds are known. The largest
+British species, _Gobius capito_, occurring in the rock-pools of
+Cornwall, measures 10 in. _Gobius alcocki_, from brackish and fresh
+waters of Lower Bengal, is one of the very smallest of fishes, not
+measuring over 16 millimetres (= 7 lines). The males are usually more
+brilliantly coloured than the females, and guard the eggs, which are
+often placed in a sort of nest made of the shell of some bivalve or of
+the carapace of a crab, with the convexity turned upwards and covered
+with sand, the eggs being stuck to the inner surface of this roof.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Gobius lentiginosus_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--United Ventrals of Goby.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Periophthalmus koelreuteri_.]
+
+Close allies of the gobies are the walking fish or jumping fish
+(_Periophthalmus_), of which various species are found in great numbers
+on the mud flats at the mouths of rivers in the tropics, skipping about
+by means of the muscular, scaly base of their pectoral fins, with the
+head raised and bearing a pair of strongly projecting versatile eyes
+close together.
+
+
+
+
+GOCH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the Niers, 8
+m. S. of Cleves at the junction of the railways Cologne-Zevenaar and
+Boxtel-Wesel. Pop. (1905) 10,232. It has a Protestant and a Roman
+Catholic church and manufactures of brushes, plush goods, cigars and
+margarine. In the middle ages it was the seat of a large trade in linen.
+Goch became a town in 1231 and belonged to the dukes of Gelderland and
+later to the dukes of Cleves.
+
+
+
+
+GOD, the common Teutonic word for a personal object of religious
+worship. It is thus, like the Gr. [Greek: theos] and Lat. _deus_,
+applied to all those superhuman beings of the heathen mythologies who
+exercise power over nature and man and are often identified with some
+particular sphere of activity; and also to the visible material objects,
+whether an image of the supernatural being or a tree, pillar, &c. used
+as a symbol, an idol. The word "god," on the conversion of the Teutonic
+races to Christianity, was adopted as the name of the one Supreme Being,
+the Creator of the universe, and of the Persons of the Trinity. The _New
+English Dictionary_ points out that whereas the old Teutonic type of the
+word is neuter, corresponding to the Latin _numen_, in the Christian
+applications it becomes masculine, and that even where the earlier
+neuter form is still kept, as in Gothic and Old Norwegian, the
+construction is masculine. Popular etymology has connected the word with
+"good"; this is exemplified by the corruption of "God be with you" into
+"good-bye." "God" is a word common to all Teutonic languages. In Gothic
+it is _Guth_; Dutch has the same form as English; Danish and Swedish
+have _Gud_, German _Gott_. According to the _New English Dictionary_,
+the original may be found in two Aryan roots, both of the form _gheu_,
+one of which means "to invoke," the other "to pour" (cf. Gr. [Greek:
+cheein]); the last is used of sacrificial offerings. The word would thus
+mean the object either of religious invocation or of religious worship
+by sacrifice. It has been also suggested that the word might mean a
+"molten image" from the sense of "pour."
+
+  See RELIGION; HEBREW RELIGION; THEISM, &c.
+
+
+
+
+GODALMING, a market-town and municipal borough in the Guildford
+parliamentary division of Surrey, England, 34 m. S.W. of London by the
+London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 8748. It is beautifully
+situated on the right bank of the Wey, which is navigable thence to the
+Thames, and on the high road between London and Portsmouth. Steep hills,
+finely wooded, enclose the valley. The chief public buildings are the
+church of SS. Peter and Paul, a cruciform building of mixed
+architecture, but principally Early English and Perpendicular; the
+town-hall, Victoria hall, and market-house, and a technical institute
+and school of science and art. Charterhouse School, one of the principal
+English public schools, originally founded in 1611, was transferred from
+Charterhouse Square, London, to Godalming in 1872. It stands within
+grounds 92 acres in extent, half a mile north of Godalming, and consists
+of spacious buildings in Gothic style, with a chapel, library and hall,
+besides boarding-houses, masters' houses and sanatoria. (See
+CHARTERHOUSE.) Godalming has manufactures of paper, leather, parchment
+and hosiery, and some trade in corn, malt, bark, hoops and timber; and
+the Bargate stone, of which the parish church is built, is still
+quarried. The borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
+Area, 812 acres.
+
+Godalming (Godelminge) belonged to King Alfred, and was a royal manor at
+the time of Domesday. The manor belonged to the see of Salisbury in the
+middle ages, but reverted to the crown in the time of Henry VIII.
+Godalming was incorporated by Elizabeth in 1574, when the borough
+originated. The charter was confirmed by James I. in 1620, and a fresh
+charter was granted by Charles II. in 1666. The borough was never
+represented in parliament. The bishop of Salisbury in 1300 received the
+grant of a weekly market to be held on Mondays: the day was altered to
+Wednesday by Elizabeth's charter. The bishop's grant included a fair at
+the feast of St Peter and St Paul (29th of June). Another fair at
+Candlemas (2nd of February) was granted by Elizabeth. The market is
+still held. The making of cloth, particularly Hampshire kerseys, was the
+staple industry of Godalming in the middle ages, but it began to decay
+early in the 17th century and by 1850 was practically extinct. As in
+other cases, dyeing was subsidiary to the cloth industry. Tanning,
+introduced in the 15th century, survives. The present manufacture of
+fleecy hosiery dates from the end of the 18th century.
+
+
+
+
+GODARD, BENJAMIN LOUIS PAUL (1849-1895); French composer, was born in
+Paris, on the 18th of August 1849. He studied at the Conservatoire, and
+competed for the Prix de Rome without success in 1866 and 1867. He began
+by publishing a number of songs, many of which are charming, such as "Je
+ne veux pas d'autres choses," "Ninon," "Chanson de Florian," also a
+quantity of piano pieces, some chamber music, including several violin
+sonatas, a trio for piano and strings, a quartet for strings, a violin
+concerto and a second work of the same kind entitled "Concerto
+Romantique." Godard's chance arrived in the year 1878, when with his
+dramatic cantata, _Le Tasse_, he shared with M. Théodore Dubois the
+honour of winning the musical competition instituted by the city of
+Paris. From that time until his death Godard composed a surprisingly
+large number of works, including four operas, _Pedro de Zalamea_,
+produced at Antwerp in 1884; _Jocelyn_, given in Paris at the Théâtre du
+Château d'Eau, in 1888; _Dante_, played at the Opéra Comique two years
+later; and _La Vivandière_, left unfinished and partly scored by another
+hand. This last work was heard at the Opéra Comique in 1895, and has
+been played in England by the Carl Rosa Opera Company. His other works
+include the "Symphonie légendaire," "Symphonie gothique," "Diane" and
+various orchestral works. Godard's productivity was enormous, and his
+compositions are, for this reason only, decidedly unequal. He was at his
+best in works of smaller dimensions, and has left many exquisite songs.
+Among his more ambitious works the "Symphonie légendaire" may be singled
+out as being one of the most distinctive. He had a decided
+individuality, and his premature death at Cannes on the 10th of January
+1895 was a loss to French art.
+
+
+
+
+GODAVARI, a river of central and western India. It flows across the
+Deccan from the Western to the Eastern Ghats; its total length is 900
+m., the estimated area of its drainage basin, 112,200 sq. m. Its
+traditional source is on the side of a hill behind the village of
+Trimbak in Nasik district, Bombay, where the water runs into a
+reservoir from the lips of an image. But according to popular legend it
+proceeds from the same ultimate source as the Ganges, though
+underground. Its course is generally south-easterly. After passing
+through Nasik district, it crosses into the dominions of the nizam of
+Hyderabad. When it again strikes British territory it is joined by the
+Pranhita, with its tributaries the Wardha, the Penganga and Wainganga.
+For some distance it flows between the nizam's dominions and the Upper
+Godavari district, and receives the Indravati, the Tal and the Sabari.
+The stream has here a channel varying from 1 to 2 m. in breadth,
+occasionally broken by alluvial islands. Parallel to the river stretch
+long ranges of hills. Below the junction of the Sabari the channel
+begins to contract. The flanking hills gradually close in on both sides,
+and the result is a magnificent gorge only 200 yds. wide through which
+the water flows into the plain of the delta, about 60 m. from the sea.
+The head of the delta is at the village of Dowlaishweram, where the main
+stream is crossed by the irrigation anicut. The river has seven mouths,
+the largest being the Gautami Godavari. The Godavari is regarded as
+peculiarly sacred, and once every twelve years the great bathing
+festival called _Pushkaram_ is held on its banks at Rajahmundry.
+
+The upper waters of the Godavari are scarcely utilized for irrigation,
+but the entire delta has been turned into a garden of perennial crops by
+means of the anicut at Dowlaishweram, constructed by Sir Arthur Cotton,
+from which three main canals are drawn off. The river channel here is 3½
+m. wide. The anicut is a substantial mass of stone, bedded in lime
+cement, about 2¼ m. long, 130 ft. broad at the base, and 12 ft. high.
+The stream is thus pent back so as to supply a volume of 3000 cubic ft.
+of water per second during its low season, and 12,000 cubic ft. at time
+of flood. The main canals have a total length of 493 m., irrigating
+662,000 acres, and all navigable; and there are 1929 m. of distributary
+channels. In 1864 water-communication was opened between the deltas of
+the Godavari and Kistna. Rocky barriers and rapids obstruct navigation
+in the upper portion of the Godavari. Attempts have been made to
+construct canals round these barriers with little success, and the
+undertaking has been abandoned.
+
+
+
+
+GODAVARI, a district of British India, in the north-east of the Madras
+presidency. It was remodelled in 1907-1908, when part of it was
+transferred to Kistna district. Its present area is 5634 sq. m. Its
+territory now lies mainly east of the Godavari river, including the
+entire delta, with a long narrow strip extending up its valley. The apex
+of the delta is at Dowlaishweram, where a great dam renders the waters
+available for irrigation. Between this point and the coast there is a
+vast extent of rice fields. Farther inland, and enclosing the valley of
+the great river, are low hills, steep and forest-clad. The north-eastern
+part, known as the Agency tract, is occupied by spurs of the Eastern
+Ghats. The coast is low, sandy and swampy, the sea very shallow, so that
+vessels must lie nearly 5 m. from Cocanada, the chief port. The Sabari
+is the principal tributary of the Godavari within the district. The
+Godavari often rises in destructive floods. The population of the
+present area in 1901 was 1,445,961. In the old district the increase
+during the last decade was 11%. The chief towns are Cocanada and
+Rajahmundry. The forests are of great value; coal is known, and graphite
+is worked. The population is principally occupied in agriculture, the
+principal crops being rice, oil-seeds, tobacco and sugar. The cigars
+known in England as Lunkas are partly made from tobacco grown on
+_lankas_ or islands in the river Godavari. Sugar (from the juice of the
+palmyra palm) and rum are made by European processes at Samalkot. The
+administrative headquarters are now at Cocanada, the chief seaport; but
+Rajahmundry, at the head of the delta, is the old capital. A large but
+decreasing trade is conducted at Cocanada, rice being shipped to
+Mauritius and Ceylon, and cotton and oil-seeds to Europe. Rice-cleaning
+mills have been established here and at other places. The district is
+traversed by the main line of the East Coast railway, with a branch to
+Cocanada; the iron girder bridge of forty-two spans over the Godavari
+river near Rajahmundry was opened in 1900. There is a government college
+at Rajahmundry, with a training college attached, and an aided college
+at Cocanada.
+
+The Godavari district formed part of the Andhra division of Dravida, the
+north-west portion being subject to the Orissa kings, and the
+south-western belonging to the Vengi kingdom. For centuries it was the
+battlefield on which various chiefs fought for independence with varying
+success till the beginning of the 16th century, when the whole country
+may be said to have passed under Mahommedan power. At the conclusion of
+the struggle with the French in the Carnatic, Godavari with the Northern
+Circars was conquered by the English, and finally ceded by imperial
+_sanad_ in 1765. The district was constituted in 1859, by the
+redistribution of the territory comprising the former districts of
+Guntur, Rajahmundry and Masulipatam, into what are now the Kistna and
+Godavari districts.
+
+  See H. Morris, _District Manual_ (1878); _District Gazetteer_ (1906).
+
+
+
+
+GODEFROY (GOTHOFREDUS), a French noble family, which numbered among its
+members several distinguished jurists and historians. The family claimed
+descent from Symon Godefroy, who was born at Mons about 1320 and was
+lord of Sapigneulx near Berry-au-bac, now in the department of Aisne.
+
+DENIS GODEFROY (Dionysius Gothofredus) (1549-1622), jurist, son of Léon
+Godefroy, lord of Guignecourt, was born in Paris on the 17th of October
+1549. He was educated at the Collège de Navarre, and studied law at
+Louvain, Cologne and Heidelberg, returning to Paris in 1573. He embraced
+the reformed religion, and in 1579 left Paris, where his abilities and
+connexions promised a brilliant career, to establish himself at Geneva.
+He became professor of law there, received the freedom of the city in
+1580; and in 1587 became a member of the Council of the Two Hundred.
+Henry IV. induced him to return to France by making him _grand bailli_
+of Gex, but no sooner had he installed himself than the town was sacked
+and his library burnt by the troops of the duke of Savoy. In 1591 he
+became professor of Roman law at Strassburg, where he remained until
+April 1600, when in response to an invitation from Frederick IV.,
+elector palatine, he removed to Heidelberg. The difficulties of his
+position led to his return to Strassburg for a short time, but in
+November 1604 he definitely settled at Heidelberg. He was made head of
+the faculty of law in the university, and was from time to time employed
+on missions to the French court. His repeated refusal of offers of
+advancement in his own country was due to his Calvinism. He died at
+Strassburg on the 7th of September 1622, having left Heidelberg before
+the city was sacked by the imperial troops in 1621. His most important
+work was the _Corpus juris civilis_, originally published at Geneva in
+1583, which went through some twenty editions, the most valuable of them
+being that printed by the Elzevirs at Amsterdam in 1633 and the Leipzig
+edition of 1740.
+
+  Lists of his other learned works may be found in Senebier's _Hist.
+  litt. de Genève_, vol. ii., and in Nicéron's _Mémoires_, vol. xvii.
+  Some of his correspondence with his learned friends, with his kinsman
+  President de Thou, Isaac Casaubon, Jean Jacques Grynaeus and others,
+  is preserved in the libraries of the British Museum, of Basel and
+  Paris.
+
+His eldest son, THEODORE GODEFROY (1580-1649), was born at Geneva on the
+14th of July 1580. He abjured Calvinism, and was called to the bar in
+Paris. He became historiographer of France in 1613, and was employed
+from time to time on diplomatic missions. He was employed at the
+congress of Münster, where he remained after the signing of peace in
+1648 as chargé d'affaires until his death on the 5th of October of the
+next year. His most important work is _Le Cérémonial de France ..._
+(1619), a work which became a classic on the subject of royal
+ceremonial, and was re-edited by his son in an enlarged edition in 1649.
+
+  Besides his printed works he made vast collections of historical
+  material which remains in MS. and fills the greater part of the
+  Godefroy collection of over five hundred portfolios in the Library of
+  the Institute in Paris. These were catalogued by Ludovic Lalanne in
+  the _Annuaire Bulletin_ (1865-1866 and 1892) of the _Société de
+  l'histoire de France_.
+
+
+The second son of Denis, JACQUES GODEFROY (1587-1652), jurist, was born
+at Geneva on the 13th of September 1587. He was sent to France in 1611,
+and studied law and history at Bourges and Paris. He remained faithful
+to the Calvinist persuasion, and soon returned to Geneva, where he
+became active in public affairs. He was secretary of state from 1632 to
+1636, and syndic or chief magistrate in 1637, 1641, 1645 and 1649. He
+died on the 23rd of June 1652. In addition to his civic and political
+work he lectured on law, and produced, after thirty years of labour, his
+edition of the _Codex Theodosianus_. This code formed the principal,
+though not the only, source of the legal systems of the countries formed
+from the Western Empire. Godefroy's edition was enriched with a
+multitude of important notes and historical comments, and became a
+standard authority on the decadent period of the Western Empire. It was
+only printed thirteen years after his death under the care of his friend
+Antoine Marville at Lyons (4 vols. 1665), and was reprinted at Leipzig
+(6 vols.) in 1736-1745. Of his numerous other works the most important
+was the reconstruction of the twelve tables of early Roman law.
+
+  See also the dictionary of Moreri, Nicéron's _Mémoires_ (vol. 17) and
+  a notice in the _Bibliothèque universelle de Genève_ (Dec. 1837).
+
+DENIS GODEFROY (1615-1681), eldest son of Théodore, succeeded his father
+as historiographer of France, and re-edited various chronicles which had
+been published by him. He was entrusted by Colbert with the care and
+investigation of the records concerning the Low Countries preserved at
+Lille, where great part of his life was spent. He was also the historian
+of the reigns of Charles VII. and Charles VIII.
+
+Other members of the family who attained distinction in the same branch
+of learning were the two sons of Denis Godefroy--Denis (1653-1719), also
+an historian, and Jean, sieur d'Aumont (1656-1732), who edited the
+letters of Louis XII., the memoirs of Marguerite de Valois, of Castelnau
+and Pierre de l'Estoile, and left some useful material for the history
+of the Low Countries; Jean Baptiste Achille Godefroy, sieur de Maillart
+(1697-1759), and Denis Joseph Godefroy, sieur de Maillart (1740-1819),
+son and grandson of Jean Godefroy, who were both officials at Lille, and
+left valuable historical documents which have remained in MS.
+
+  For further details see _Les Savants Godefroy_ (Paris, 1873) by the
+  marquis de Godefroy-Ménilglaise, son of Denis Joseph Godefroy.
+
+
+
+
+GODESBERG, a spa of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the left
+bank of the Rhine, almost opposite Königswinter, and 4 m. S. of Bonn, on
+the railway to Coblenz. It is a fashionable summer resort, and contains
+numerous pretty villas, the residences of merchants from Cologne,
+Elberfeld, Crefeld and other Rhenish manufacturing centres. It has an
+Evangelical and three Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue and several
+educational establishments. Its chalybeate springs annually attract a
+large number of visitors, and the pump-room, baths and public grounds
+are arranged on a sumptuous scale. On a conical basalt hill, close by,
+are the ruins, surmounted by a picturesque round tower, of Godesberg
+castle. Built by Archbishop Dietrich I. of Cologne in the 13th century,
+it was destroyed by the Bavarians in 1583.
+
+  See Dennert, _Godesberg, eine Perle des Rheins_ (Godesberg, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+GODET, FRÉDÉRIC LOUIS (1812-1900), Swiss Protestant theologian, was born
+at Neuchâtel on the 25th of October 1812. After studying theology at
+Neuchâtel, Bonn and Berlin, he was in 1850 appointed professor of
+theology at Neuchâtel. From 1851 to 1866 he also held a pastorate. In
+1873 he became one of the founders of the free Evangelical Church of
+Neuchâtel, and professor in its theological faculty. He died there on
+the 29th of October 1900. A conservative scholar, Godet was the author
+of some of the most noteworthy French commentaries published in recent
+times.
+
+  His commentaries are on the Gospel of St John (2 vols., 1863-1865; 3rd
+  ed., 1881-1888; Eng. trans. 1886, &c.); St Luke (2 vols., 1871; 3rd
+  ed., 1888; Eng. trans. 1875, &c.); the Epistle to the Romans (2 vols.,
+  1879-1880; 2nd ed., 1883-1890; Eng. trans., 1880, &c.); Corinthians (2
+  vols., 1886-1887; Eng. trans. 1886, &c.). His other works include
+  _Études bibliques_ (2 vols., 1873-1874; 4th ed., 1889; Eng. trans.
+  1875 f.), and _Introduction au Nouveau Testament_ (1893 f.; Eng.
+  trans., 1894, &c.); _Lectures in Defence of the Christian Faith_ (Eng.
+  trans. 4th ed., 1900).
+
+
+
+
+GODFREY, SIR EDMUND BERRY (1621-1678), English magistrate and
+politician, younger son of Thomas Godfrey (1586-1664), a member of an
+old Kentish family, was born on the 23rd of December 1621. He was
+educated at Westminster school and at Christ Church, Oxford, and after
+entering Gray's Inn became a dealer in wood. His business prospered. He
+was made a justice of the peace for the city of Westminster, and in
+September 1666 was knighted as a reward for his services as magistrate
+and citizen during the great plague in London; but in 1669 he was
+imprisoned for a few days for instituting the arrest of the king's
+physician, Sir Alexander Fraizer (d. 1681), who owed him money. The
+tragic events in Godfrey's life began in September 1678 when Titus Oates
+and two other men appeared before him with written information about the
+_Popish Plot_, and swore to the truth of their statements. During the
+intense excitement which followed the magistrate expressed a fear that
+his life was in danger, but took no extra precautions for safety. On the
+12th of October he did not return home as usual, and on the 17th his
+body was found on Primrose Hill, Hampstead. Medical and other evidence
+made it certain that he had been murdered, and the excited populace
+regarded the deed as the work of the Roman Catholics. Two committees
+investigated the occurrence without definite result, but in December
+1678 a certain Miles Prance, who had been arrested for conspiracy,
+confessed that he had shared in the murder. According to Prance the deed
+was instigated by some Roman Catholic priests, three of whom witnessed
+the murder, and was committed in the courtyard of Somerset House, where
+Godfrey was strangled by Robert Green, Lawrence Hill and Henry Berry,
+the body being afterwards taken to Hampstead. The three men were
+promptly arrested; the evidence of the informer William Bedloe, although
+contradictory, was similar on a few points to that of Prance, and in
+February 1679 they were hanged. Soon afterwards, however, some doubt was
+cast upon this story; a war of words ensued between Prance and others,
+and it was freely asserted that Godfrey had committed suicide. Later the
+falsehood of Prance's confession was proved and Prance pleaded guilty to
+perjury; but the fact remains that Godfrey was murdered. Godfrey was an
+excellent magistrate, and was very charitable both in public and in
+private life. Mr John Pollock, in the _Popish Plot_ (London, 1903),
+confirms the view that the three men, Green, Hill and Berry, were
+wrongfully executed, and thinks the murder was committed by some Jesuits
+aided by Prance. Godfrey was feared by the Jesuits because he knew,
+through Oates, that on the 24th of April 1678 a Jesuit congregation had
+met at the residence of the duke of York to concert plans for the king's
+murder. He concludes thus: "The success of Godfrey's murder as a
+political move is indubitable. The duke of York was the pivot of the
+Roman Catholic scheme in England, and Godfrey's death saved both from
+utter ruin." On the other hand Mr Alfred Marks in his _Who killed Sir E.
+B. Godfrey?_ (1905) maintains that suicide was the cause of Godfrey's
+death.
+
+  See the article OATES, TITUS, also R. Tuke, _Memoirs of the Life and
+  Death of Sir Edmondbury Godfrey_ (London, 1682); and G. Burnet,
+  _History of my Own Time; The Reign of Charles II._, edited by O. Airy
+  (Oxford, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+GODFREY OF BOUILLON (c. 1060-1100), a leader in the First Crusade, was
+the second son of Eustace II., count of Boulogne, by his marriage with
+Ida, daughter of Duke Godfrey II. of Lower Lorraine. He was designated
+by Duke Godfrey as his successor; but the emperor Henry IV. gave him
+only the mark of Antwerp, in which the lordship of Bouillon was included
+(1076). He fought for Henry, however, both on the Elster and in the
+siege of Rome; and he was invested in 1082 with the duchy of Lower
+Lorraine. Lorraine had been penetrated by Cluniac influences, and
+Godfrey would seem to have been a man of notable piety. Accordingly,
+though he had himself served as an imperialist, and though the Germans
+in general had little sympathy with the Crusaders (_subsannabant ...
+quasi delirantes_), Godfrey, nevertheless, when the call came "to
+follow Christ," almost literally sold all that he had, and followed.
+Along with his brothers Eustace and Baldwin (the future Baldwin I. of
+Jerusalem) he led a German contingent, some 40,000 strong, along
+"Charlemagne's road," through Hungary to Constantinople, starting in
+August 1096, and arriving at Constantinople, after some difficulties in
+Hungary, in November. He was the first of the crusading princes to
+arrive, and on him fell the duty of deciding what the relations of the
+princes to the eastern emperor Alexius were to be. Eventually, after
+several disputes and some fighting, he did homage to Alexius in January
+1097; and his example was followed by the other princes. From this time
+until the beginning of 1099 Godfrey appears as one of the minor princes,
+plodding onwards, and steadily fighting, while men like Bohemund and
+Raymund, Baldwin and Tancred were determining the course of events.
+
+In 1099 he came once more to the front. The mass of the crusaders became
+weary of the political factions which divided some of their leaders; and
+Godfrey, who was more of a pilgrim than a politician, becomes the
+natural representative of this feeling. He was thus able to force the
+reluctant Raymund to march southward to Jerusalem; and he took a
+prominent part in the siege, his division being the first to enter when
+the city was captured. It was natural therefore that, when Raymund of
+Provence refused the offered dignity, Godfrey should be elected ruler of
+Jerusalem (July 22, 1099). He assumed the title not of king, but of
+"advocate"[1] of the Holy Sepulchre. The new dignity proved still more
+onerous than honourable; and during his short reign of a year Godfrey
+had to combat the Arabs of Egypt, and the opposition of Raymund and the
+patriarch Dagobert. He was successful In repelling the Egyptian attack
+at the battle of Ascalon (August 1099); but he failed, owing to
+Raymund's obstinacy and greed, to acquire the town of Ascalon after the
+battle. Left alone, at the end of the autumn, with an army of some 2000
+men, Godfrey was yet able, in the spring of 1100, probably with the aid
+of new pilgrims, to exact tribute from towns like Acre, Ascalon, Arsuf
+and Caesarea. But already, at the end of 1099 Dagobert, archbishop of
+Pisa, had been substituted as patriarch for Arnulf (who had been acting
+as vicar) by the influence of Bohemund; and Dagobert, whose vassal
+Godfrey had at once piously acknowledged himself, seems to have forced
+him to an agreement in April 1100, by which he promised Jerusalem and
+Jaffa to the patriarch, in case he should acquire in their place Cairo
+or some other town, or should die without issue. Thus were the
+foundations of a theocracy laid in Jerusalem; and when Godfrey died
+(July 1100) he left the question to be decided, whether a theocracy or a
+monarchy should be the government of the Holy Land.
+
+Because he had been the first ruler in Jerusalem Godfrey was idolized in
+later saga. He was depicted as the leader of the crusades, the king of
+Jerusalem, the legislator who laid down the assizes of Jerusalem. He was
+none of these things. Bohemund was the leader of the crusades; Baldwin
+was first king; the assizes were the result of a gradual development. In
+still other ways was the figure of Godfrey idealized by the grateful
+tradition of later days; but in reality he would seem to have been a
+quiet, pious, hard-fighting knight, who was chosen to rule in Jerusalem
+because he had no dangerous qualities, and no obvious defects.
+
+  LITERATURE.--The narrative of Albert of Aix may be regarded as
+  presenting the Lotharingian point of view, as the _Gesta_ presents the
+  Norman, and Raymund of Agiles the Provençal. The career of Godfrey has
+  been discussed in modern times by R. Röhricht, _Die Deutschen im
+  heiligen Lande_, Band ii., and _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges,
+  passim_ (Innsbruck, 1901).     (E. Br.)
+
+_Romances._--Godfrey was the principal hero of two French _chansons de
+geste_ dealing with the Crusade, the _Chanson d'Antioche_ (ed. P. Paris,
+2 vols., 1848) and the _Chanson de Jérusalem_ (ed. C. Hippeau, 1868),
+and other poems, containing less historical material, were subsequently
+added. In addition the parentage and early exploits of Godfrey were made
+the subject of legend. His grandfather was said to be Helias, knight of
+the Swan, one of the brothers whose adventures are well known, though
+with some variation, in the familiar fairy tale of "The Seven Swans."
+Helias, drawn by the swan, one day disembarked at Nijmwegen, and
+reconquered her territory for the duchess of Bouillon. Marrying her
+daughter he exacted a promise that his wife should not inquire into his
+origin. The tale, which is almost identical with the Lohengrin legend,
+belongs to the class of the Cupid and Psyche narratives. See LOHENGRIN.
+
+  See also C. Hippeau, _Le Chevalier au cygne_ (Paris, 2 vols.,
+  1874-1877); H. Pigeonneau, _Le Cycle de la croisade et de la famille
+  de Bouillon_ (1877); W. Golther, "Lohengrin," in _Roman. Forsch._
+  (vol. v., 1889); _Hist. litt. de la France_, vol. xxii. pp. 350-402;
+  the English romance of _Helyas, Knyghte of the Swanne_ was printed by
+  W. Copland about 1550.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] An "advocate" was a layman who had been invested with part of an
+    ecclesiastic estate, on condition that he defended the rest, and
+    exercised the blood-ban in lieu of the ecclesiastical owner (see
+    ADVOCATE, sec. _Advocatus ecclesiae_).
+
+
+
+
+GODFREY OF VITERBO (c. 1120-c. 1196), chronicler, was probably an
+Italian by birth, although some authorities assert that he was a Saxon.
+He evidently passed some of his early life at Viterbo, where also he
+spent his concluding days, but he was educated at Bamberg, gaining a
+good knowledge of Latin. About 1140 he became chaplain to the German
+king, Conrad III.; but the greater part of his life was spent as
+secretary (_notarius_) in the service of the emperor Frederick I., who
+appears to have thoroughly trusted him, and who employed him on many
+diplomatic errands. Incessantly occupied, he visited Sicily, France and
+Spain, in addition to many of the German cities, in the emperor's
+interests, and was by his side during several of the Italian campaigns.
+Both before and after Frederick's death in 1190 he enjoyed the favour of
+his son, the emperor Henry VI., for whom he wrote his _Speculum regum_,
+a work of very little value. Godfrey also wrote _Memoria seculorum_, or
+_Liber memorialis_, a chronicle dedicated to Henry VI., which professes
+to record the history of the world from the creation until 1185. It is
+written partly in prose and partly in verse. A revision of this work was
+drawn up by Godfrey himself as _Pantheon_, or _Universitatis libri qui
+chronici appellantur_. The author borrowed from Otto of Freising, but
+the earlier part of his chronicle is full of imaginary occurrences.
+_Pantheon_ was first printed in 1559, and extracts from it are published
+by L. A. Muratori in the _Rerum Italicarum scriptores_, tome vii.
+(Milan, 1725). The only part of Godfrey's work which is valuable is the
+_Gesta Friderici I._, verses relating events in the emperor's career
+from 1155 to 1180. Concerned mainly with affairs in Italy, the poem
+tells of the sieges of Milan, of Frederick's flight to Pavia in 1167, of
+the treaty with Pope Alexander III. at Venice, and of other stirring
+episodes with which the author was intimately acquainted, and many of
+which he had witnessed. Attached to the _Gesta Friderici_ is the _Gesta
+Heinrici VI._, a shorter poem which is often attributed to Godfrey,
+although W. Wattenbach and other authorities think it was not written by
+him. The _Memoria seculorum_ was very popular during the middle ages,
+and has been continued by several writers.
+
+  Godfrey's works are found in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_, Band
+  xxii. (Hanover, 1872). The _Gesta Friderici I. et Heinrici VI._ is
+  published separately with an introduction by G. Waitz (Hanover, 1872).
+  See also H. Ulmann, _Gotfried von Viterbo_ (Göttingen, 1863), and W.
+  Wattenbach, _Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen_, Band ii. (Berlin, 1894).
+       (A. W. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+GODHRA, a town of British India, administrative headquarters of the
+Panch Mahals district of Bombay, and also of the Rewa Kantha political
+agency; situated 52 m. N.E. of Baroda on the railway from Anand to
+Ratlam. Pop. (1901) 20,915. It has a trade in timber from the
+neighbouring forests.
+
+
+
+
+GODIN, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRÉ (1817-1888), French socialist, was born on
+the 26th of January 1817 at Esquehéries (Aisne). The son of an artisan,
+he entered an iron-works at an early age, and at seventeen made a tour
+of France as journeyman. Returning to Esquehéries in 1837, he started a
+small factory for the manufacture of castings for heating-stoves. The
+business increased rapidly, and for the purpose of railway facilities
+was transferred to Guise in 1846. At the time of Godin's death in 1888
+the annual output was over four millions of francs (£160,000), and in
+1908 the employees numbered over 2000 and the output was over £280,000.
+An ardent disciple of Fourier, he advanced a considerable sum of money
+towards the disastrous Fourierist experiment of V. P. Considérant (q.v.)
+in Texas. He profited, however, by its failure, and in 1859 started the
+_familistère_ or community settlement of Guise on more carefully laid
+plans. It comprises, in addition to the workshops, three large
+buildings, four storeys high, capable of housing all the work-people,
+each family having two or three rooms. Attached to each building is a
+vast central court, covered with a glass roof, under which the children
+can play in all weathers. There are also crèches, nurseries, hospital,
+refreshment rooms and recreation rooms of various kinds, stores for the
+purchase of groceries, drapery and every necessity, and a large theatre
+for concerts and dramatic entertainments. In 1880 the whole was turned
+into a co-operative society, with provision by which it eventually
+became the property of the workers. In 1871 Godin was elected deputy for
+Aisne, but retired in 1876 to devote himself to the management of the
+_familistère_. In 1882 he was created a knight of the legion of honour.
+
+  Godin was the author of _Solutions sociales_ (1871); _Les Socialistes
+  et les droits du travail_ (1874); _Mutualité sociale_ (1880); _La
+  République du travail et la réforme parlementaire_ (1889). See
+  Bernardot, _Le Familistère de Guise et son fondateur_ (Paris, 1887);
+  Fischer, _Die Familistère Godin's_ (Berlin, 1890); Lestelle, _Étude
+  sur le familistère de Guise_ (Paris, 1904); D. F. P., _Le Familistère
+  illustré, résultats de vingt ans d'association_, 1880-1900 (Eng.
+  trans., _Twenty-eight years of co-partnership at Guise_, by A.
+  Williams, 1908).
+
+
+
+
+GODIVA, a Saxon lady, who, according to the legend, rode naked through
+the streets of Coventry to gain from her husband a remission of the
+oppressive toll imposed on his tenants. The story is that she was the
+beautiful wife of Leofric, earl of Mercia and lord of Coventry. The
+people of that city suffering grievously under the earl's oppressive
+taxation, Lady Godiva appealed again and again to her husband, who
+obstinately refused to remit the tolls. At last, weary of her
+entreaties, he said he would grant her request if she would ride naked
+through the streets of the town. Lady Godiva took him at his word, and
+after issuing a proclamation that all persons should keep within doors
+or shut their windows, she rode through, clothed only in her long hair.
+One person disobeyed her proclamation, a tailor, ever afterwards known
+as Peeping Tom. He bored a hole in his shutters that he might see Godiva
+pass, and is said to have been struck blind. Her husband kept his word
+and abolished the obnoxious taxes.
+
+The oldest form of the legend makes Godiva pass through Coventry market
+from one end to the other when the people were assembled, attended only
+by two soldiers, her long hair down so that none saw her, "apparentibus
+cruribus tamen candidissimis." This version is given in _Flores
+historiarum_ by Roger of Wendover, who quoted from an earlier writer.
+The later story, with its episode of Peeping Tom, has been evolved by
+later chroniclers. Whether the lady Godiva of this story is the Godiva
+or Godgifu of history is undecided. That a lady of this name existed in
+the early part of the 11th century is certain, as evidenced by several
+ancient documents, such as the Stow charter, the Spalding charter and
+the Domesday survey, though the spelling of the name varies
+considerably. It would appear from _Liber Eliensis_ (end of 12th
+century) that she was a widow when Leofric married her in 1040. In or
+about that year she aided in the founding of a monastery at Stow,
+Lincolnshire. In 1043 she persuaded her husband to build and endow a
+Benedictine monastery at Coventry. Her mark, "[cross] Ego Godiva
+Comitissa diu istud desideravi," was found on the charter given by her
+brother, Thorold of Bucknall--sheriff of Lincolnshire--to the
+Benedictine monastery of Spalding in 1051; and she is commemorated as
+benefactress of other monasteries at Leominster, Chester, Wenlock,
+Worcester and Evesham. She probably died a few years before the Domesday
+survey (1085-1086), and was buried in one of the porches of the abbey
+church. Dugdale (1656) says that a window, with representations of
+Leofric and Godiva, was placed in Trinity Church, Coventry, about the
+time of Richard II. The Godiva procession, a commemoration of the
+legendary ride instituted on the 31st of May 1678 as part of Coventry
+fair, was celebrated at intervals until 1826. From 1848 to 1887 it was
+revived, and recently further attempts have been made to popularize the
+pageant. The wooden effigy of Peeping Tom which, since 1812, has looked
+out on the world from a house at the north-west corner of Hertford
+Street, Coventry, represents a man in armour, and was probably an image
+of St George. It was removed from another part of the town to its
+present position.
+
+
+
+
+GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE (1831-1902), American publicist, was born in
+Moyne, county Wicklow, Ireland, on the 2nd of October 1831. His father,
+James Godkin, was a Presbyterian minister and a journalist, and the son,
+after graduating in 1851 at Queen's College, Belfast, and studying law
+in London, was in 1853-1855 war correspondent for the London _Daily
+News_ in Turkey and Russia, being present at the capture of Sevastopol,
+and late in 1856 went to America and wrote letters to the same journal,
+giving his impressions of a tour of the southern states of the American
+Union. He studied law in New York City, was admitted to the bar in 1859,
+travelled in Europe in 1860-1862, wrote for the London _News_ and the
+New York _Times_ in 1862-1865, and in 1865 founded in New York City the
+_Nation_, a weekly projected by him long before, for which Charles Eliot
+Norton gained friends in Boston and James Miller McKim (1810-1874) in
+Philadelphia, and which Godkin edited until the end of the year 1899. In
+1881 he sold the _Nation_ to the New York _Evening Post_, and became an
+associate editor of the _Post_, of which he was editor-in-chief in
+1883-1899, succeeding Carl Schurz. In the 'eighties he engaged in a
+controversy with Goldwin Smith over the Irish question. Under his
+leadership the _Post_ broke with the Republican party in the
+presidential campaign of 1884, when Godkin's opposition to Blaine did
+much to create the so-called Mugwump party (see MUGWUMP), and his organ
+became thoroughly independent, as was seen when it attacked the
+Venezuelan policy of President Cleveland, who had in so many ways
+approximated the ideal of the _Post_ and _Nation_. He consistently
+advocated currency reform, the gold basis, a tariff for revenue only,
+and civil service reform, rendering the greatest aid to the last cause.
+His attacks on Tammany Hall were so frequent and so virulent that in
+1894 he was sued for libel because of biographical sketches of certain
+leaders in that organization--cases which never came up for trial. His
+opposition to the war with Spain and to imperialism was able and
+forcible. He retired from his editorial duties on the 30th of December
+1899, and sketched his career in the _Evening Post_ of that date.
+Although he recovered from a severe apoplectic stroke early in 1900, his
+health was shattered, and he died in Greenway, Devonshire, England, on
+the 21st of May 1902. Godkin shaped the lofty and independent policy of
+the _Post_ and the _Nation_, which had a small but influential and
+intellectual class of readers. But as editor he had none of the personal
+magnetism of Greeley, for instance, and his superiority to the influence
+of popular feeling made Charles Dudley Warner style the Nation the
+"weekly judgment day." He was an economist of the school of Mill, urged
+the necessity of the abstraction called "economic man," and insisted
+that socialism put in practice would not improve social and economic
+conditions in general. In politics he was an enemy of sentimentalism and
+loose theories in government. He published _A History of Hungary, A.D.
+300-1850_ (1856), _Government_ (1871, in the American Science Series),
+_Reflections and Comments_ (1895), _Problems of Modern Democracy_ (1896)
+and _Unforeseen Tendencies of Democracy_ (1898).
+
+  See _Life and Letters of E. L. Godkin_, edited by Rollo Ogden (2
+  vols., New York, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+GODMANCHESTER, a municipal borough in the southern, parliamentary
+division of Huntingdonshire, England, on the right bank of the Ouse, 1
+m. S.S.E. of Huntingdon, on a branch of the Great Eastern railway. Pop.
+(1901) 2017. It has a beautiful Perpendicular church (St Mary's) and an
+agricultural trade, with flour mills. The town is governed by a mayor, 4
+aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 4907 acres.
+
+A Romano-British village occupied the site of Godmanchester. The town
+(_Gumencestre, Gomecestre_) belonged to the king before the Conquest and
+at the time of the Domesday survey. In 1213 King John granted the manor
+to the men of the town at a fee-farm of £120 yearly, and confirmation
+charters were granted by several succeeding kings, Richard II. in
+1391-1392 adding exemption from toll, pannage, &c. James I. granted an
+incorporation charter in 1605 under the title of bailiffs, assistants
+and commonalty, but under the Municipal Reform Act of 1835 the
+corporation was changed to a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
+Godmanchester was formerly included for parliamentary purposes in the
+borough of Huntingdon, which has ceased to be separately represented
+since 1885. The incorporation charter of 1605 recites that the burgesses
+are chiefly engaged in agriculture, and grants them a fair, which still
+continues every year on Tuesday in Easter week.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Huntingdon_; Robert Fox, _The History of
+  Godmanchester_ (1831).
+
+
+
+
+GÖDÖLLÖ, a market town of Hungary, in the county of
+Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kiskun, 23 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900)
+5875. Gödöllö is the summer residence of the Hungarian royal family, and
+the royal castle, built in the second half of the 18th century by Prince
+Anton Grassalkovich, was, with the beautiful domain, presented by the
+Hungarian nation to King Francis Joseph I. after the coronation in 1867.
+In its park there are a great number of stags and wild boars. Gödöllö is
+a favourite summer resort of the inhabitants of Budapest. In its
+vicinity is the famous place of pilgrimage Mária-Besnyö, with a fine
+Franciscan monastery, which contains the tombs of the Grassalkovich
+family.
+
+
+
+
+GODOLPHIN, SIDNEY GODOLPHIN, EARL OF (c. 1645-1712), was a cadet of an
+ancient family of Cornwall. At the Restoration he was introduced into
+the royal household by Charles II., with whom he had previously become a
+favourite, and he also at the same period entered the House of Commons
+as member for Helston. Although he very seldom addressed the House, and,
+when he did so, only in the briefest manner, he gradually acquired a
+reputation as its chief if not its only financial authority. In March
+1679 he was appointed a member of the privy council, and in the
+September following he was promoted, along with Viscount Hyde
+(afterwards earl of Rochester) and the earl of Sunderland, to the chief
+management of affairs. Though he voted for the Exclusion Bill in 1680,
+he was continued in office after the dismissal of Sunderland, and in
+September 1684 he was created Baron Godolphin of Rialton, and succeeded
+Rochester as first lord of the treasury. After the accession of James
+II. he was made chamberlain to the queen, and, along with Rochester and
+Sunderland, enjoyed the king's special confidence. In 1687 he was named
+commissioner of the treasury. He was one of the council of five
+appointed by King James to represent him in London, when he went to join
+the army after the landing of William, prince of Orange, in England,
+and, along with Halifax and Nottingham, he was afterwards appointed a
+commissioner to treat with the prince. On the accession of William,
+though he only obtained the third seat at the treasury board, he had
+virtually the chief control of affairs. He retired in March 1690, but
+was recalled on the November following and appointed first lord. While
+holding this office he for several years continued, in conjunction with
+Marlborough, a treacherous intercourse with James II., and is said even
+to have anticipated Marlborough in disclosing to James intelligence
+regarding the intended expedition against Brest. Godolphin was not only
+a Tory by inheritance, but had a romantic admiration for the wife of
+James II. He also wished to be safe whatever happened, and his treachery
+in this case was mostly due to caution. After Fenwick's confession in
+1696 regarding the attempted assassination of William III., Godolphin,
+who was compromised, was induced to tender his resignation; but when the
+Tories came into power in 1700, he was again appointed lord treasurer
+and retained office for about a year. Though not a favourite with Queen
+Anne, he was, after her accession, appointed to his old office, on the
+strong recommendation of Marlborough. He also in 1704 received the
+honour of knighthood, and in December 1706 he was created Viscount
+Rialton and earl of Godolphin. Though a Tory he had an active share in
+the intrigues which gradually led to the predominance of the Whigs in
+alliance with Marlborough. The influence of the Marlboroughs with the
+queen was, however, gradually supplanted by that of Mrs Masham and
+Harley, earl of Oxford, and with the fortunes of the Marlboroughs those
+of Godolphin were indissolubly united. The services of both were so
+appreciated by the nation that they were able for a time to regard the
+loss of the queen's favour with indifference, and even in 1708 to
+procure the expulsion of Harley from office; but after the Tory reaction
+which followed the impeachment of Dr Sacheverel, who abused Godolphin
+under the name of Volpone, the queen made use of the opportunity to take
+the initiatory step towards delivering herself from the irksome thraldom
+of Marlborough by abruptly dismissing Godolphin from office on the 7th
+of August 1710. He died on the 15th of September 1712.
+
+Godolphin owed his rise to power and his continuance in it under four
+sovereigns chiefly to his exceptional mastery of financial matters; for
+if latterly he was in some degree indebted for his promotion to the
+support of Marlborough, he received that support mainly because
+Marlborough recognized that for the prosecution of England's foreign
+wars his financial abilities were an indispensable necessity. He was
+cool, reserved and cautious, but his prudence was less associated with
+high sagacity than traceable to the weakness of his personal antipathies
+and prejudices, and his freedom from political predilections. Perhaps it
+was his unlikeness to Marlborough in that moral characteristic which so
+tainted Marlborough's greatness that rendered possible between them a
+friendship so intimate and undisturbed: he was, it would appear,
+exceptionally devoid of the passion of avarice; and so little advantage
+did he take of his opportunities of aggrandizement that, though his
+style of living was unostentatious,--and in connexion with his favourite
+pastimes of horse-racing, card-playing and cock-fighting he gained
+perhaps more than he lost,--all that he left behind him did not,
+according to the duchess of Marlborough, amount to more than £12,000.
+
+Godolphin married Margaret Blagge, the pious lady whose life was written
+by Evelyn, on the 16th of May 1675, and married again after her death in
+1678. His son and successor, Francis (1678-1766), held various offices
+at court, and was lord privy seal from 1735 to 1740. He married
+Henrietta Churchill (d. 1733), daughter of the duke of Marlborough, who
+in 1722 became in her own right duchess of Marlborough. He died without
+male issue in January 1766, when the earldom became extinct, and the
+estates passed to Thomas Osborne, 4th duke of Leeds, the husband of the
+earl's daughter Mary, whose descendant is the present representative of
+the Godolphins.
+
+  A life of Godolphin was published in 1888 in London by the Hon. H.
+  Elliot.
+
+
+
+
+GODOY, ALVAREZ DE FARIA, RIOS SANCHEZ Y ZARZOSA, MANUEL DE (1767-1851),
+duke of El Alcudia and prince of the Peace, Spanish royal favourite and
+minister, was born at Badajoz on the 12th of May 1767. His father, Don
+José de Godoy, was the head of a very ancient but impoverished family of
+nobles in Estremadura. His mother, whose maiden name was Maria Antonia
+Alvarez de Faria, belonged to a Portuguese noble family. Manuel boasts
+in his memoirs that he had the best masters, but it is certain that he
+received only the very slight education usually given at that time to
+the sons of provincial nobles. In 1784 he entered the Guardia de Corps,
+a body of gentlemen who acted as the immediate body-guard of the king.
+His well-built and stalwart person, his handsome foolish face, together
+with a certain geniality of character which he must have possessed,
+earned him the favour of Maria Luisa of Parma, the princess of Asturias,
+a coarse, passionate woman who was much neglected by her husband, who on
+his part cared for nothing but hunting.
+
+When King Charles III. died in 1788, Godoy's fortune was soon made. The
+princess of Asturias, now queen, understood how to manage her husband
+Charles IV. Godoy says in his memoirs that the king, who had been
+carefully kept apart from affairs during his father's life, and who
+disliked his father's favourite minister Floridablanca, wished to have a
+creature of his own. This statement is no doubt true as far as it goes.
+But it requires to be completed by the further detail that the queen put
+her lover in her husband's way, and that the king was guided by them,
+when he thought he was ruling for himself through a subservient
+minister. In some respects King Charles was obstinate, and Godoy is
+probably right in saying that he never was an absolute "viceroy," and
+that he could not always secure the removal of colleagues whom he knew
+to be his enemies. He could only rule by obeying. Godoy adopted without
+scruple this method of pushing his fortunes. When the king was set on a
+particular course, he followed it; the execution was left to him and the
+queen. His pliability endeared him to his master, whose lasting
+affection he earned. In practice he commonly succeeded in inspiring the
+wishes which he then proceeded to gratify. From the very beginning of
+the new reign he was promoted in the army with scandalous rapidity, made
+duke of El Alcudia, and in 1792 minister under the premiership of
+Aranda, whom he succeeded in displacing by the close of the year.
+
+His official life is fairly divided by himself into three periods. From
+1792 to 1798 he was premier. In the latter year his unpopularity and the
+intrigues of the French government, which had taken a dislike to him,
+led to his temporary retirement, without, however, any diminution of the
+king's personal favour. He asserts that he had no wish to return to
+office, but letters sent by him to the queen show that he begged for
+employment. They are written in a very unpleasant mixture of gush and
+vulgar familiarity. In 1801 he returned to office, and until 1807 he was
+the executant of the disastrous policy of the court. The third period of
+his public life is the last year, 1807-1808, when he was desperately
+striving for his place between the aggressive intervention of Napoleon
+on the one hand, and the growing hatred of the nation, organized behind,
+and about, the prince of Asturias, Ferdinand. On the 17th of March 1808
+a popular outbreak at Aranjuez drove him into hiding. When driven out by
+hunger and thirst he was recognized and arrested. By Ferdinand's order
+he was kept in prison, till Napoleon demanded that he should be sent to
+Bayonne. Here he rejoined his master and mistress. He remained with them
+till Charles IV. died at Rome in 1819, having survived his queen. The
+rest of Godoy's life was spent in poverty and obscurity. After the death
+of Ferdinand VII., in 1833, he returned to Madrid, and endeavoured to
+secure the restoration of his property confiscated in 1808. Part of it
+was the estate of the Soto de Roma, granted by the cortes to the duke of
+Wellington. He failed, and during his last years lived on a small
+pension granted him by Louis Philippe. He died in Paris on the 4th of
+October 1851.
+
+As a favourite Godoy is remarkable for the length of his hold on the
+affection of his sovereigns, and for its completeness. Latterly he was
+supported rather by the husband than by the wife. He got rid of Aranda
+by adopting, in order to please the king, a policy which tended to bring
+on war with France. When the war proved disastrous, he made the peace of
+Basel, and was created prince of the Peace for his services. Then he
+helped to make war with England, and the disasters which followed only
+made him dearer to the king. Indeed it became a main object with Charles
+IV. to protect "Manuelito" from popular hatred, and if possible secure
+him a principality. The queen endured his infidelities to her, which
+were flagrant. The king arranged a marriage for him with Doña Teresa de
+Bourbon, daughter of the infante Don Luis by a morganatic marriage,
+though he was probably already married to Doña Josefa Tudó, and
+certainly continued to live with her. Godoy, in his memoirs, lays claim
+to have done much for Spanish agriculture and industry, but he did
+little more than issue proclamations and appoint officers. His
+intentions may have been good, but the policy of his government was
+financially ruinous. In his private life he was not only profligate and
+profuse, but childishly ostentatious. The best that can be said for him
+is that he was good-natured, and did his best to restrain the
+Inquisition and the purely reactionary parties.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Godoy's _Memoirs_ were published in Spanish, English and
+  French in 1836. A general account of his career will be found in the
+  _Mémoires sur la Révolution d'Espagne_, by the Abbé de Pradt (1816).
+
+
+
+
+GODROON, or GADROON (Fr. _godron_, of unknown etymology), in
+architecture, a convex decoration (said to be derived from raised work
+on linen) applied in France to varieties of the bead and reel, in which
+the bead is often carved with ornament. In England the term is
+constantly used by auctioneers to describe the raised convex decorations
+under the bowl of stone or terra-cotta vases. The godroons radiate from
+the vertical support of the vase and rise half-way up the bowl.
+
+
+
+
+GODWIN, FRANCIS (1562-1633), English divine, son of Thomas Godwin,
+bishop of Bath and Wells, was born at Hannington, Northamptonshire, in
+1562. He was elected student of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1578, took his
+bachelor's degree in 1580, and that of master in 1583. After holding two
+Somersetshire livings he was in 1587 appointed subdean of Exeter. In
+1590 he accompanied William Camden on an antiquarian tour through Wales.
+He was created bachelor of divinity in 1593, and doctor in 1595. In 1601
+he published his _Catalogue of the Bishops of England since the first
+planting of the Christian Religion in this Island_, a work which
+procured him in the same year the bishopric of Llandaff. A second
+edition appeared in 1615, and in 1616 he published an edition in Latin
+with a dedication to King James, who in the following year conferred
+upon him the bishopric of Hereford. The work was republished, with a
+continuation by William Richardson, in 1743. In 1616 Godwin published
+_Rerum Anglicarum, Henrico VIII., Edwardo VI. et Maria regnantibus,
+Annales_, which was afterwards translated and published by his son
+Morgan under the title _Annales of England_ (1630). He is also the
+author of a somewhat remarkable story, published posthumously in 1638,
+and entitled _The Man in the Moone, or a Discourse of a Voyage thither,
+by Domingo Gonsales_, written apparently some time between the years
+1599 and 1603. In this production Godwin not only declares himself a
+believer in the Copernican system, but adopts so far the principles of
+the law of gravitation as to suppose that the earth's attraction
+diminishes with the distance. The work, which displays considerable
+fancy and wit, was translated into French, and was imitated in several
+important particulars by Cyrano de Bergerac, from whom (if not from
+Godwin direct) Swift obtained valuable hints in writing of Gulliver's
+voyage to Laputa. Another work of Godwin's, _Nuncius inanimatus
+Utopiae_, originally published in 1629 and again in 1657, seems to have
+been the prototype of John Wilkins's _Mercury, or the Secret and Swift
+Messenger_, which appeared in 1641. He died, after a lingering illness,
+in April 1633.
+
+
+
+
+GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (1759-1797), English miscellaneous writer,
+was born at Hoxton, on the 27th of April 1759. Her family was of Irish
+extraction, and Mary's grandfather, who was a respectable manufacturer
+in Spitalfields, realized the property which his son squandered. Her
+mother, Elizabeth Dixon, was Irish, and of good family. Her father,
+Edward John Wollstonecraft, after dissipating the greater part of his
+patrimony, tried to earn a living by farming, which only plunged him
+into deeper difficulties, and he led a wandering, shifty life. The
+family roamed from Hoxton to Edmonton, to Essex, to Beverley in
+Yorkshire, to Laugharne, Pembrokeshire, and back to London again.
+
+After Mrs Wollstonecraft's death in 1780, soon followed by her husband's
+second marriage, the three daughters, Mary, Everina and Eliza, sought to
+earn their own livelihood. The sisters were all clever women--Mary and
+Eliza far above the average--but their opportunities of culture had been
+few. Mary, the eldest, went in the first instance to live with her
+friend Fanny Blood, a girl of her own age, whose father, like
+Wollstonecraft, was addicted to drink and dissipation. As long as she
+lived with the Bloods, Mary helped Mrs Blood to earn money by taking in
+needlework, while Fanny painted in watercolours. Everina went to live
+with her brother Edward, and Eliza made a hasty and, as it proved,
+unhappy marriage with a Mr Bishop. A legal separation was afterwards
+obtained, and the sisters, together with Fanny Blood, took a house,
+first at Islington, afterwards at Newington Green, and opened a school,
+which was carried on with indifferent success for nearly two years.
+During their residence at Newington Green, Mary was introduced to Dr
+Johnson, who, as Godwin tells us, "treated her with particular kindness
+and attention."
+
+In 1785 Fanny Blood married Hugh Skeys, a merchant, and went with him to
+Lisbon, where she died in childbed after sending for Mary to nurse her.
+"The loss of Fanny," as she said in a letter to Mrs Skeys's brother,
+George Blood, "was sufficient of itself to have cast a cloud over my
+brightest days.... I have lost all relish for pleasure, and life seems a
+burden almost too heavy to be endured." Her first novel, _Mary, a
+Fiction_ (1788), was intended to commemorate her friendship with Fanny.
+After closing the school at Newington Green, Mary became governess in
+the family of Lord Kingsborough, in Ireland. Her pupils were much
+attached to her, especially Margaret King, afterwards Lady Mountcashel;
+and indeed, Lady Kingsborough gave the reason for dismissing her after
+one year's service that the children loved their governess better than
+their mother. Mary now resolved to devote herself to literary work, and
+she was encouraged by Johnson, the publisher in St Paul's churchyard,
+for whom she acted as literary adviser. She also undertook translations,
+chiefly from the French. _The Elements of Morality_ (1790) from the
+German of Salzmann, illustrated by Blake, an old-fashioned book for
+children, and Lavater's _Physiognomy_ were among her translations. Her
+_Original Stories from Real Life_ were published in 1791, and, with
+illustrations by Blake, in 1796. In 1792 appeared _A Vindication of the
+Rights of Woman_, the work with which her name is always associated.
+
+It is not among the least oddities of this book that it is dedicated to
+M. Talleyrand Périgord, late bishop of Autun. Mary Wollstonecraft still
+believed him to be sincere, and working in the same direction as
+herself. In the dedication she states the "main argument" of the work,
+"built on this simple principle that, if woman be not prepared by
+education to become the companion of man, she will stop the progress of
+knowledge, for truth must be common to all, or it will be inefficacious
+with respect to its influence or general practice." In carrying out this
+argument she used great plainness of speech, and it was this that caused
+all, or nearly all, the outcry. For she did not attack the institution
+of marriage, nor assail orthodox religion; her book was really a plea
+for equality of education, passing into one for state education and for
+the joint education of the sexes. It was a protest against the
+assumption that woman was only the plaything of man, and she asserted
+that intellectual companionship was the chief, as it is the lasting,
+happiness of marriage. She thus directly opposed the teaching of
+Rousseau, of whom she was in other respects an ardent disciple.
+
+Mrs Wollstonecraft, as she now styled herself, desired to watch the
+progress of the Revolution in France, and went to Paris in 1792. Godwin,
+in his memoir of his wife, considers that the change of residence may
+have been prompted by the discovery that she was becoming attached to
+Henry Fuseli, but there is little to confirm this surmise; indeed, it
+was first proposed that she should go to Paris in company with him and
+his wife, nor was there any subsequent breach in their friendship. She
+remained in Paris during the Reign of Terror, when communication with
+England was difficult or almost impossible. Some time in the spring or
+summer of 1793 Captain Gilbert Imlay, an American, became acquainted
+with Mary--an acquaintance which ended in a more intimate connexion.
+There was no legal ceremony of marriage, and it is doubtful whether such
+a marriage would have been valid at the time; but she passed as Imlay's
+wife, and Imlay himself terms her in a legal document, "Mary Imlay, my
+best friend and wife." In August 1793 Imlay was called to Havre on
+business, and was absent for some months, during which time most of the
+letters published after her death by Godwin were written. Towards the
+end of the year she joined Imlay at Havre, and there in the spring of
+1794 she gave birth to a girl, who received the name of Fanny, in
+memory of the dear friend of her youth. In this year she published the
+first volume of a never completed _Historical and Moral View of the
+French Revolution_. Imlay became involved in a multitude of
+speculations, and his affection for Mary and their child was already
+waning. He left Mary for some months at Havre. In June 1795, after
+joining him in England, Mary left for Norway on business for Imlay. Her
+letters from Norway, divested of all personal details, were afterwards
+published. She returned to England late in 1795, and found letters
+awaiting her from Imlay, intimating his intention to separate from her,
+and offering to settle an annuity on her and her child. For herself she
+rejected this offer with scorn: "From you," she wrote, "I will not
+receive anything more. I am not sufficiently humbled to depend on your
+beneficence." They met again, and for a short time lived together, until
+the discovery that he was carrying on an intrigue under her own roof
+drove her to despair, and she attempted to drown herself by leaping from
+Putney bridge, but was rescued by watermen. Imlay now completely
+deserted her, although she continued to bear his name.
+
+In 1796, when Mary Wollstonecraft was living in London, supporting
+herself and her child by working, as before, for Mr Johnson, she met
+William Godwin. A friendship sprang up between them,--a friendship, as
+he himself says, which "melted into love." Godwin states that "ideas
+which he is now willing to denominate prejudices made him by no means
+willing to conform to the ceremony of marriage"; but these prejudices
+were overcome, and they were married at St Pancras church on the 29th of
+March 1797. And now Mary had a season of real calm in her stormy
+existence. Godwin, for once only in his life, was stirred by passion,
+and his admiration for his wife equalled his affection. But their
+happiness was of short duration. The birth of her daughter Mary,
+afterwards the wife of Percy Bysshe Shelley, on the 30th of August 1797,
+proved fatal, and Mrs Godwin died on the 10th of September following.
+She was buried in the churchyard of Old St Pancras, but her remains were
+afterwards removed by Sir Percy Shelley to the churchyard of St Peter's,
+Bournemouth.
+
+  Her principal published works are as follows:--_Thoughts on the
+  Education of Daughters, ..._ (1787); _The Female Reader_ (selections)
+  (1789); _Original Stories from Real Life_ (1791); _An Historical and
+  Moral View of the Origin and Progress of the French Revolution, and
+  the effects it has produced in Europe_, vol. i. (no more published)
+  (1790); _Vindication of the Rights of Woman_ (1792); _Vindication of
+  the Rights of Man_ (1793); _Mary, a Fiction_ (1788); _Letters written
+  during a Short Residence in Sweden, Norway and Denmark_ (1796);
+  _Posthumous Works_ (4 vols., 1798). It is impossible to trace the many
+  articles contributed by her to periodical literature.
+
+  A memoir of her life was published by Godwin in 1798. A large portion
+  of C. Kegan Paul's work, _William Godwin, his Friends and
+  Contemporaries_, was devoted to her, and an edition of the _Letters to
+  Imlay_ (1879), of which the first edition was published by Godwin, is
+  prefaced by a somewhat fuller memoir. See also E. Dowden, _The French
+  Revolution and English Literature_ (1897) pp. 82 et seq.; E. R.
+  Pennell, _Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin_ (1885), in the Eminent Women
+  Series; E. R. Clough, _A Study of Mary Wollstonecraft and the Rights
+  of Woman_ (1898); an edition of her _Original Stories_ (1906), with
+  William Blake's illustrations and an introduction by E. V. Lucas; and
+  the _Love Letters of Mary Wollstonecraft to Gilbert Imlay_ (1908),
+  with an introduction by Roger Ingpen.
+
+
+
+
+GODWIN, WILLIAM, (1756-1836), English political and miscellaneous
+writer, son of a Nonconformist minister, was born on the 3rd of March
+1756, at Wisbeach in Cambridgeshire. His family came on both sides of
+middle-class people, and it was probably only as a joke that Godwin, a
+stern political reformer and philosophical radical, attempted to trace
+his pedigree to a time before the Norman conquest and the great earl
+Godwine. Both parents were strict Calvinists. The father died young, and
+never inspired love or much regret in his son; but in spite of wide
+differences of opinion, tender affection always subsisted between
+William Godwin and his mother, until her death at an advanced age.
+
+William Godwin was educated for his father's profession at Hoxton
+Academy, where he was under Andrew Kippis the biographer and Dr Abraham
+Rees of the _Cyclopaedia_, and was at first more Calvinistic than his
+teachers, becoming a Sandemanian, or follower of John Glas (q.v.), whom
+he describes as "a celebrated north-country apostle who, after Calvin
+had damned ninety-nine in a hundred of mankind, has contrived a scheme
+for damning ninety-nine in a hundred of the followers of Calvin." He
+then acted as a minister at Ware, Stowmarket and Beaconsfield. At
+Stowmarket the teachings of the French philosophers were brought before
+him by a friend, Joseph Fawcet, who held strong republican opinions. He
+came to London in 1782, still nominally a minister, to regenerate
+society with his pen--a real enthusiast, who shrank theoretically from
+no conclusions from the premises which he laid down. He adopted the
+principles of the Encyclopaedists, and his own aim was the complete
+overthrow of all existing institutions, political, social and religious.
+He believed, however, that calm discussion was the only thing needful to
+carry every change, and from the beginning to the end of his career he
+deprecated every approach to violence. He was a philosophic radical in
+the strictest sense of the term.
+
+His first published work was an anonymous _Life of Lord Chatham_ (1783).
+Under the inappropriate title _Sketches of History_ (1784) he published
+under his own name six sermons on the characters of Aaron, Hazael and
+Jesus, in which, though writing in the character of an orthodox
+Calvinist, he enunciates the proposition "God Himself has no right to be
+a tyrant." Introduced by Andrew Kippis, he began to write in 1785 for
+the _Annual Register_ and other periodicals, producing also three novels
+now forgotten. The "Sketches of English History" written for the _Annual
+Register_ from 1785 onward still deserve study. He joined a club called
+the "Revolutionists," and associated much with Lord Stanhope, Horne
+Tooke and Holcroft. His clerical character was now completely dropped.
+
+In 1793 Godwin published his great work on political science, _The
+Inquiry concerning Political Justice, and its Influence on General
+Virtue and Happiness_. Although this work is little known and less read
+now, it marks a phase in English thought. Godwin could never have been
+himself a worker on the active stage of life. But he was none the less a
+power behind the workers, and for its political effect, _Political
+Justice_ takes its place with Milton's _Areopagitica_, with Locke's
+_Essay on Education_ and with Rousseau's _Émile_. By the words
+"political justice" the author meant "the adoption of any principle of
+morality and truth into the practice of a community," and the work was
+therefore an inquiry into the principles of society, of government and
+of morals. For many years Godwin had been "satisfied that monarchy was a
+species of government unavoidably corrupt," and from desiring a
+government of the simplest construction, he gradually came to consider
+that "government by its very nature counteracts the improvement of
+original mind." Believing in the perfectibility of the race, that there
+are no innate principles, and therefore no original propensity to evil,
+he considered that "our virtues and our vices may be traced to the
+incidents which make the history of our lives, and if these incidents
+could be divested of every improper tendency, vice would be extirpated
+from the world." All control of man by man was more or less intolerable,
+and the day would come when each man, doing what seems right in his own
+eyes, would also be doing what is in fact best for the community,
+because all will be guided by principles of pure reason. But all was to
+be done by discussion, and matured change resulting from discussion.
+Hence, while Godwin thoroughly approved of the philosophic schemes of
+the precursors of the Revolution, he was as far removed as Burke himself
+from agreeing with the way in which they were carried out. So logical
+and uncompromising a thinker as Godwin could not go far in the
+discussion of abstract questions without exciting the most lively
+opposition in matters of detailed opinion. An affectionate son, and ever
+ready to give of his hard-earned income to more than one ne'er-do-well
+brother, he maintained that natural relationship had no claim on man,
+nor was gratitude to parents or benefactors any part of justice or
+virtue. In a day when the penal code was still extremely severe, he
+argued gravely against all punishments, not only that of death. Property
+was to belong to him who most wanted it; accumulated property was a
+monstrous injustice. Hence marriage, which is law, is the worst of all
+laws, and as property the worst of all properties. A man so passionless
+as Godwin could venture thus to argue without suspicion that he did so
+only to gratify his wayward desires. Portions of this treatise, and only
+portions, found ready acceptance in those minds which were prepared to
+receive them. Perhaps no one received the whole teaching of the book.
+But it gave cohesion and voice to philosophic radicalism; it was the
+manifesto of a school without which liberalism of the present day had
+not been. Godwin himself in after days modified his communistic views,
+but his strong feeling for individualism, his hatred of all restrictions
+on liberty, his trust in man, his faith in the power of reason remained;
+it was a manifesto which enunciated principles modifying action, even
+when not wholly ruling it.
+
+In May 1794 Godwin published the novel of _Caleb Williams, or Things as
+they are_, a book of which the political object is overlooked by many
+readers in the strong interest of the story. The book was dramatized by
+the younger Colman as _The Iron Chest_. It is one of the few novels of
+that time which may be said still to live.[1] A theorist who lived
+mainly in his study, Godwin yet came forward boldly to stand by
+prisoners arraigned of high treason in that same year--1794. The danger
+to persons so charged was then great, and he deliberately put himself
+into this same danger for his friends. But when his own trial was
+discussed in the privy council, Pitt sensibly held that _Political
+Justice_, the work on which the charge could best have been founded, was
+priced at three guineas, and could never do much harm among those who
+had not three shillings to spare.
+
+From this time Godwin became a notable figure in London society, and
+there was scarcely an important person in politics, on the Liberal side,
+in literature, art or science, who does not appear familiarly in the
+pages of Godwin's singular diary. For forty-eight years, beginning in
+1788, and continuing to the very end of his life, Godwin kept a record
+of every day, of the work he did, the books he read, the friends he saw.
+Condensed in the highest degree, the diary is yet easy to read when the
+style is once mastered, and it is a great help to the understanding of
+his cold, methodical, unimpassioned character. He carried his method
+into every detail of life, and lived on his earnings with extreme
+frugality. Until he made a large sum by the publication of _Political
+Justice_, he lived on an average of £120 a year.
+
+In 1797, the intervening years having been spent in strenuous literary
+labour, Godwin married Mary Wollstonecraft (see GODWIN, MARY
+WOLLSTONECRAFT). Since both held the same views regarding the slavery of
+marriage, and since they only married at all for the sake of possible
+offspring, the marriage was concealed for some time, and the happiness
+of the avowed married life was very brief; his wife's death on the 10th
+of September left Godwin prostrated by affliction, and with a charge for
+which he was wholly unfit--his infant daughter Mary, and her stepsister,
+Fanny Imlay, who from that time bore the name of Godwin. His unfitness
+for the cares of a family, far more than love, led him to contract a
+second marriage with Mary Jane Clairmont in 1801. She was a widow with
+two children, one of whom, Clara Mary Jane Clairmont, became the
+mistress of Lord Byron. The second Mrs Godwin was energetic and
+painstaking, but a harsh stepmother; and it may be doubted whether the
+children were not worse off under her care than they would have been
+under Godwin's neglect.
+
+The second novel which proceeded from Godwin's pen was called _St Leon_,
+and published in 1799. It is chiefly remarkable for the beautiful
+portrait of Marguerite, the heroine, drawn from the character of his own
+wife. His opinions underwent a change in the direction of theism,
+influenced, he says, by his acquaintance with Coleridge. He also became
+known to Wordsworth and Lamb. Study of the Elizabethan dramatists led to
+the production in 1800 of the _Tragedy of Antonio_. Kemble brought it
+out at Drury Lane, but the failure of this attempt made him refuse
+_Abbas, King of Persia_, which Godwin offered him in the next year. He
+was more successful with his _Life of Chaucer_, for which he received
+£600.
+
+The events of Godwin's life were few. Under the advice of the second Mrs
+Godwin, and with her active co-operation, he carried on business as a
+bookseller under the pseudonym of Edward Baldwin, publishing several
+useful school books and books for children, among them Charles and Mary
+Lamb's _Tales from Shakespeare_. But the speculation was unsuccessful,
+and for many years Godwin struggled with constant pecuniary
+difficulties, for which more than one subscription was raised by the
+leaders of the Liberal party and by literary men. He became bankrupt in
+1822, but during the following years he accomplished one of his best
+pieces of work, _The History of the Commonwealth_, founded on pamphlets
+and original documents, which still retains considerable value. In 1833
+the government of Earl Grey conferred upon him the office known as
+yeoman usher of the exchequer, to which were attached apartments in
+Palace Yard, where he died on the 7th of April 1836.
+
+In his own time, by his writings and by his conversation, Godwin had a
+great power of influencing men, and especially young men. Though his
+character would seem, from much which is found in his writings, and from
+anecdotes told by those who still remember him, to have been
+unsympathetic, it was not so understood by enthusiastic young people,
+who hung on his words as those of a prophet. The most remarkable of
+these was Percy Bysshe Shelley, who in the glowing dawn of his genius
+turned to Godwin as his teacher and guide. The last of the long series
+of young men who sat at Godwin's feet was Edward Lytton Bulwer,
+afterwards Lord Lytton, whose early romances were formed after those of
+Godwin, and who, in _Eugene Aram_, succeeded to the story as arranged,
+and the plan to a considerable extent sketched out, by Godwin, whose age
+and failing health prevented him from completing it. Godwin's character
+appears in the worst light in connexion with Shelley. His early
+correspondence with Shelley, which began in 1811, is remarkable for its
+genuine good sense and kindness; but when Shelley carried out the
+principles of the author of _Political Justice_ in eloping with Mary
+Godwin, Godwin assumed a hostile attitude that would have been
+unjustifiable in a man of ordinary views, and was ridiculous in the
+light of his professions. He was not, moreover, too proud to accept
+£1000 from his son-in-law, and after the reconciliation following on
+Shelley's marriage in 1816, he continued to demand money until Shelley's
+death. His character had no doubt suffered under his long embarrassments
+and his unhappy marriage.
+
+  Godwin's more important works are--_The Inquiry concerning Political
+  Justice, and its Influence on General Virtue and Happiness_ (1793);
+  _Things as they are, or the Adventures of Caleb Williams_ (1794); _The
+  Inquirer, a series of Essays_ (1797); _Memoirs of the Author of the
+  Rights of Woman_ (1798); _St Leon, a Tale of the Sixteenth Century_
+  (1799); _Antonio, a Tragedy_ (1800); _The Life of Chaucer_ (1803);
+  _Fleetwood, a Novel_ (1805); _Faulkner, a Tragedy_ (1807); _Essay on
+  Sepulchres_ (1809); _Lives of Edward and John Philips, the Nephews of
+  Milton_ (1815); _Mandeville, a Tale of the Times of Cromwell_ (1817);
+  _Of Population, an answer to Malthus_ (1820); _History of the
+  Commonwealth_ (1824-1828); _Cloudesley, a Novel_ (1830); _Thoughts on
+  Man, a series of Essays_ (1831); _Lives of the Necromancers_ (1834). A
+  volume of essays was also collected from his papers and published in
+  1873, as left for publication by his daughter Mrs Shelley. Many other
+  short and anonymous works proceeded from his ever busy pen, but many
+  are irrecoverable, and all are forgotten. Godwin's life was published
+  in 1876 in two volumes, under the title _William Godwin, his Friends
+  and Contemporaries_, by C. Kegan Paul. The best estimate of his
+  literary position is that given by Sir Leslie Stephen in his _English
+  Thought in the 18th Century_ (ii. 264-281; ed., 1902). See also the
+  article on William Godwin in W. Hazlitt's _The Spirit of the Age_
+  (1825), and "Godwin and Shelley" in Sir L. Stephen's _Hours in a
+  Library_ (vol. iii., ed. 1892).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For an analysis of _Caleb Williams_ see the chapter on "Theorists
+    of Revolution" in Professor E. Dowden's _The French Revolution and
+    English Literature_ (1897).
+
+
+
+
+GODWIN-AUSTEN, ROBERT ALFRED CLOYNE (1808-1884), English geologist, the
+eldest son of Sir Henry E. Austen, was born on the 17th of March 1808.
+He was educated at Oriel College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow in
+1830. He afterwards entered Lincoln's Inn. In 1833 he married the only
+daughter and heiress of General Sir Henry T. Godwin, K.C.B., and he took
+the additional name of Godwin by Royal licence in 1854. At Oxford as a
+pupil of William Buckland he became deeply interested in geology, and
+soon afterwards becoming acquainted with De la Beche, he was inspired by
+that great master, and assisted him by making a geological map of the
+neighbourhood of Newton Abbot, which was embodied in the Geological
+Survey map. He also published an elaborate memoir "On the Geology of the
+South-East of Devonshire" (_Trans. Geol. Soc._ ser. 2, vol. viii.). His
+attention was next directed to the Cretaceous rocks of Surrey, his
+home-county, his estates being situated at Chilworth and Shalford near
+Guildford. Later he dealt with the superficial accumulations bordering
+the English Channel, and with the erratic boulders of Selsea. In 1855 he
+brought before the Geological Society of London his celebrated paper "On
+the possible Extension of the Coal-Measures beneath the South-Eastern
+part of England," in which he pointed out on well-considered theoretical
+grounds the likelihood of coal-measures being some day reached in that
+area. In this article he also advocated the freshwater origin of the Old
+Red Sandstone, and discussed the relations of that formation, and of the
+Devonian, to the Silurian and Carboniferous. He was elected F.R.S. in
+1849, and in 1862 he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological
+Society of London, on which occasion he was styled by Sir R. I.
+Murchison "pre-eminently the physical geographer of bygone periods." He
+died at Shalford House near Guildford on the 25th of November 1884.
+
+His son, Lieut-Colonel HENRY HAVERSHAM GODWIN-AUSTEN (b. 1834), entered
+the army in 1851, and served for many years on the Trigonometrical
+Survey of India, retiring in 1877. He gave much attention to geology,
+but is more especially distinguished for his researches on the natural
+history of India and as the author of _The Land and Freshwater Mollusca
+of India_ (1882-1887).
+
+
+
+
+GODWINE (d. 1053), son of Wulfnoth, earl of the West-Saxons, the leading
+Englishman in the first half of the 11th century. His birth and origin
+are utterly uncertain; but he rose to power early in Canute's reign and
+was an earl in 1018. He received in marriage Gytha, a connexion of the
+king's, and in 1020 became earl of the West-Saxons. On the death of
+Canute in 1035 he joined with Queen Emma in supporting the claim of
+Hardicanute, the son of Canute and Emma, to the crown of his father, in
+opposition to Leofric and the northern party who supported Harold
+Harefoot (see HARDICANUTE). While together they held Wessex for
+Hardicanute, the ætheling Ælfred, son of Emma by her former husband
+Æthelred II., landed in England in the hope of winning back his father's
+crown; but falling into the hands of Godwine, he and his followers were
+cruelly done to death. On the death of Hardicanute in 1042 Godwine was
+foremost in promoting the election of Edward (the Confessor) to the
+vacant throne. He was now the first man in the kingdom, though his power
+was still balanced by that of the other great earls, Leofric of Mercia
+and Siward of Northumberland. His sons Sweyn and Harold were promoted to
+earldoms; and his daughter Eadgyth was married to the king (1045). His
+policy was strongly national in opposition to the marked Normanizing
+tendencies of the king. Between him and Edward's foreign favourites,
+particularly Robert of Jumièges, there was deadly feud. The appointment
+of Robert to the archbishopric of Canterbury in 1051 marks the decline
+of Godwine's power; and in the same year a series of outrages committed
+by one of the king's foreign favourites led to a breach between the king
+and the earl, which culminated in the exile of the latter with all his
+family (see EDWARD THE CONFESSOR). But next year Godwine returned in
+triumph; and at a great meeting held outside London he and his family
+were restored to all their offices and possessions, and the archbishop
+and many other Normans were banished. In the following year Godwine was
+smitten with a fit at the king's table, and died three days later on the
+15th of April 1053.
+
+Godwine appears to have had seven sons, three of whom--King Harold,
+Gyrth and Leofwine--were killed at Hastings; two others, Wulfnoth and
+Ælfgar, are of little importance; another was Earl Tostig (q.v.). The
+eldest son was Sweyn, or Swegen (d. 1052), who was outlawed for seducing
+Eadgifu abbess of Leominster. After fighting for the king of Denmark he
+returned to England in 1049, when his murder of his cousin Beorn
+compelled him to leave England for the second time. In 1050, however, he
+regained his earldom, and in 1051 he shared his father's exile. To atone
+for the murder of Beorn, Sweyn went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and on
+the return journey he died on the 29th of September 1052, meeting his
+death, according to one account, at the hands of the Saracens.
+
+
+
+
+GODWIT, a word of unknown origin, the name commonly applied to a
+marsh-bird in great repute, when fattened, for the table, and formerly
+abundant in the fens of Norfolk, the Isle of Ely and Lincolnshire. In
+Turner's days (1544) it was worth three times as much as a snipe, and at
+the same period Belon said of it--"C'est vn Oyseau es delices des
+Françoys." Casaubon, who Latinized its name "_Dei ingenium_"
+(_Ephemerides_, 19th September 1611), was told by the "_ornithotrophaeus_"
+he visited at Wisbech that in London it fetched twenty pence. Its fame as
+a delicacy is perpetuated by many later writers, Ben Jonson among them,
+and Pennant says that in his time (1766) it sold for half-a-crown or five
+shillings. Under the name godwit two perfectly distinct species of British
+birds were included, but that which seems to have been especially prized
+is known to modern ornithologists as the black-tailed godwit, _Limosa
+aegocephala_, formerly called, from its loud cry, a yarwhelp,[1] shrieker
+or barker, in the districts it inhabited. The practice of netting this
+bird in large numbers during the spring and summer, coupled with the
+gradual reclamation of the fens, to which it resorted, has now rendered it
+but a visitor in England; and it probably ceased from breeding regularly
+in England in 1824 or thereabouts, though under favourable conditions it
+may have occasionally laid its eggs for some thirty years later or more
+(Stevenson, _Birds of Norfolk_, ii. 250). This godwit is a species of wide
+range, reaching Iceland, where it is called _Jardraeka_ (= earth-raker),
+in summer, and occurring numerously in India in winter. Its chief
+breeding-quarters seem to extend from Holland eastwards to the south of
+Russia. The second British species is that which is known as the
+bar-tailed godwit, _L. lapponica_, and this seems to have never been more
+than a bird of double passage in the United Kingdom, arriving in large
+flocks on the south coast about the 12th of May, and, after staying a few
+days, proceeding to the north-eastward. It is known to breed in Lapland,
+but its eggs are of great rarity. Towards autumn the young visit the
+English coasts, and a few of them remain, together with some of the other
+species, in favourable situations throughout the winter. One of the local
+names by which the bar-tailed godwit is known to the Norfolk gunners is
+scamell, a word which, in the mouth of Caliban (_Tempest_, II. ii.), has
+been the cause of much perplexity to Shakespearian critics.
+
+The godwits belong to the group _Limicolae_, and are about as big as a
+tame pigeon, but possess long legs, and a long bill with a slight upward
+turn. It is believed that in the genus _Limosa_ the female is larger
+than the male. While the winter plumage is of a sober greyish-brown, the
+breeding-dress is marked by a predominance of bright bay or chestnut,
+rendering the wearer a very beautiful object. The black-tailed godwit,
+though varying a good deal in size, is constantly larger than the
+bar-tailed, and especially longer in the legs. The species may be
+further distinguished by the former having the proximal third of the
+tail-quills pure white, and the distal two-thirds black, with a narrow
+white margin, while the latter has the same feathers barred with black
+and white alternately for nearly their whole length.
+
+America possesses two species of the genus, the very large marbled
+godwit or marlin, _L. fedoa_, easily recognized by its size and the buff
+colour of its axillaries, and the smaller Hudsonian godwit, _L.
+hudsonica_, which has its axillaries of a deep black. This last, though
+less numerous than its congener, seems to range over the whole of the
+continent, breeding in the extreme north, while it has been obtained
+also in the Strait of Magellan and the Falkland Islands. The first seems
+not to go farther southward than the Antilles and the Isthmus of
+Panama.
+
+From Asia, or at least its eastern part, two species have been
+described. One of them, _L. melanuroides_, differs only from _L.
+aegocephala_ in its smaller size, and is believed to breed in Amurland,
+wintering in the islands of the Pacific, New Zealand and Australia. The
+other, _L. uropygialis_, is closely allied to and often mistaken for _L.
+lapponica_, from which it chiefly differs by having the rump barred like
+the tail. This was found breeding in the extreme north of Siberia by Dr
+von Middendorff, and ranges to Australia, whence it was, like the last,
+first described by Gould.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This name seems to have survived in Whelp Moor, near Brandon, in
+    Suffolk.
+
+
+
+
+GOEBEN, AUGUST KARL VON (1816-1880), Prussian general of infantry, came
+of old Hanoverian stock. Born at Stade on the 10th of December 1816, he
+aspired from his earliest years to the Prussian service rather than that
+of his own country, and at the age of seventeen obtained a commission in
+the 24th regiment of Prussian infantry. But there was little scope there
+for the activities of a young and energetic subaltern, and, leaving the
+service in 1836, he entered the Carlist army campaigning in Spain. In
+the five campaigns which he made in the service of Don Carlos he had
+many and various vicissitudes of fortune. He had not fought for two
+months when he fell, severely wounded, into the hands of the Spanish
+Royal troops. After eight months' detention he escaped, but it was not
+long before he was captured again. This time his imprisonment was long
+and painful, and on two occasions he was compelled to draw lots for his
+life with his fellow-captives. When released, he served till 1840 with
+distinction. In that year he made his way back, a beggar without means
+or clothing, to Prussia. The Carlist lieutenant-colonel was glad to be
+re-admitted into the Prussian service as a second lieutenant, but he was
+still young, and few subalterns could at the age of twenty-four claim
+five years' meritorious war service. In a few years we find him serving
+as captain on the Great General Staff, and in 1848 he had the good
+fortune to be transferred to the staff of the IV. army corps, his
+immediate superior being Major von Moltke. The two "coming men" became
+fast friends, and their mutual esteem was never disturbed. In the Baden
+insurrection Goeben served with distinction on the staff of Prince
+William, the future emperor. Staff and regimental duty (as usual in the
+Prussian service) alternated for some years after this, till in 1863 he
+became major-general commanding the 26th infantry brigade. In 1860, it
+should be mentioned, he was present with the Spanish troops in Morocco,
+and took part in the battle of Tetuan.
+
+In the first of Prussia's great wars (1864) he distinguished himself at
+the head of his brigade at Rackebüll and Sonderburg. In the war of 1866
+Lieutenant-General von Goeben commanded the 13th division, of which his
+old brigade formed part, and, in this higher sphere, once more displayed
+the qualities of a born leader and skilful tactician. He held almost
+independent command with conspicuous success in the actions of Dermbach,
+Laufach, Kissingen, Aschaffenburg, Gerchsheim, Tauber-Bischofsheim and
+Würzburg. The mobilization of 1870 placed him at the head of the VIII.
+(Rhineland) army corps, forming part of the First Army under Steinmetz.
+It was his resolute and energetic leading that contributed mainly to the
+victory of Spicheren (6th August), and won the only laurels gained on
+the Prussian right wing at Gravelotte (18th August). Under Manteuffel
+the VIII. corps took part in the operations about Amiens and Bapaume,
+and on the 8th of January 1871 Goeben succeeded that general in the
+command of the First Army, with which he had served throughout the
+campaign as a corps commander. A fortnight later he had brought the war
+in northern France to a brilliant conclusion, by the decisive victory of
+St Quentin (18th and 19th January 1871). The close of the Franco-German
+War left Goeben one of the most distinguished men in the victorious
+army. He was colonel of the 28th infantry, and had the grand cross of
+the Iron Cross. He commanded the VIII. corps at Coblenz until his death
+in 1880.
+
+General von Goeben left many writings. His memoirs are to be found in
+his works _Vier Jahre in Spanien_ (Hanover, 1841), _Reise- und
+Lagerbriefe aus Spanien und vom spanischen Heere in Marokko_ (Hanover,
+1863) and in the Darmstadt _Allgemeine Militärzeitung_. The former
+French port (Queuleu) at Metz was renamed Goeben after him, and the 28th
+infantry bears his name. A statue of Goeben by Schaper was erected at
+Coblenz in 1884.
+
+  See G. Zernin, _Das Leben des Generals August von Goeben_ (2 vols.,
+  Berlin, 1895-1897); H. Barth, _A. von Goeben_ (Berlin, 1906); and, for
+  his share in the war of 1870-71; H. Kunz, _Der Feldzug im N. und N.W.
+  Frankreichs 1870-1871_ (Berlin, 1889), and the 14th Monograph of the
+  Great General Staff (1891).
+
+
+
+
+GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE (1836-1909), Dutch orientalist, was born in
+Friesland in 1836. He devoted himself at an early age to the study of
+oriental languages and became especially proficient in Arabic, under the
+guidance of Dozy and Juynboll, to whom he was afterwards an intimate
+friend and colleague. He took his degree of doctor at Leiden in 1860,
+and then studied for a year in Oxford, where he examined and collated
+the Bodleian MSS. of Idrisi (part being published in 1866, in
+collaboration with R. P. Dozy, as _Description de l'Afrique et de
+l'Espagne_). About the same time he wrote _Mémoires de l'histoire et de
+la géographie orientales_, and edited _Expugnatio regionum_. In 1883, on
+the death of Dozy, he became Arabic professor at Leiden, retiring in
+1906. He died on the 17th of May 1909. Though perhaps not a teacher of
+the first order, he wielded a great influence during his long
+professoriate not only over his pupils, but over theologians and eastern
+administrators who attended his lectures, and his many editions of
+Arabic texts have been of the highest value to scholars, the most
+important being his great edition of Tabari. Though entirely averse from
+politics, he took a keen interest in the municipal affairs of Leiden and
+made a special study of elementary education. He took the leading part
+in the International Congress of Orientalists at Algiers in 1905. He was
+a member of the Institut de France, was awarded the German Order of
+Merit, and received an honorary doctorate of Cambridge University. At
+his death he was president of the newly formed International Association
+of Academies of Science. Among his chief works are _Fragmenta
+historicorum Arabicorum_ (1869-1871); _Diwan of Moslim ibn al-Walid_
+(1875); _Bibliotheca geographorum Arabicorum_ (1870-1894); _Annals of
+Tabari_ (1879-1901); edition of Ibn Qutaiba's biographies (1904); of the
+travels of Ibn Jubaye (1907, 5th vol. of Gibb Memorial). He was also the
+chief editor of the _Encyclopaedia of Islam_ (vols. i.-iii.), and
+contributed many articles to periodicals. He wrote for the 9th and the
+present edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_.
+
+
+
+
+GOES, DAMIÃO DE (1502-1574), Portuguese humanist, was born of a
+patrician family at Alemquer, in February 1502. Under King John III. he
+was employed abroad for many years from 1523 on diplomatic and
+commercial missions, and he travelled over the greater part of Europe.
+He was intimate with the leading scholars of the time, was acquainted
+with Luther and other Protestant divines, and in 1532 became the pupil
+and friend of Erasmus. Goes took his degree at Padua in 1538 after a
+four years' course. In 1537, at the instance of his friend Cardinal
+Sadoleto, he undertook to mediate between the Church and the Lutherans,
+but failed through the attitude of the Protestants. He married in
+Flanders a rich and noble Dutch lady, D. Joanna de Hargen, and settled
+at Louvain, then the literary centre of the Low Countries, where he was
+living in 1542 when the French besieged the town. He was given the
+command of the defending forces, and saved Louvain, but was taken
+prisoner and confined for nine months in France, till he obtained his
+freedom by a heavy ransom. He was rewarded, however, by a grant of arms
+from Charles V. He finally returned to Portugal in 1545, with a view of
+becoming tutor to the king's son, but he failed to obtain this post,
+owing to the denunciations of Father Simon Rodriguez, provincial of the
+Jesuits, who accused Goes of favouring the Lutheran doctrines and of
+being a disciple of Erasmus. Nevertheless in 1548 he was appointed chief
+keeper of the archives and royal chronicler, and at once introduced some
+much-needed reforms into the administration of his office.
+
+In 1558 he was given a commission to write a history of the reign of
+King Manoel, a task previously confided to João de Barros, but
+relinquished by him. It was an onerous undertaking for a conscientious
+historian, since it was necessary to expose the miseries as well as
+relate the glories of the period, and so to offend some of the most
+powerful families. Goes had already written a _Chronicle_ of Prince John
+(afterwards John II.), and when, after more than eight years' labour, he
+produced the First Part of his _Chronicle_ of King Manoel (1566), a
+chorus of attacks greeted it, the edition was destroyed, and he was
+compelled to issue a revised version. He brought out the three other
+parts in 1566-1567, though chapters 23 to 27 of the Third Part were so
+mutilated by the censorship that the printed text differs largely from
+the MS. Hitherto Goes, notwithstanding his Liberalism, had escaped the
+Inquisition, though in 1540 his _Fides, religio, moresque Aethiopum_ had
+been prohibited by the chief inquisitor, Cardinal D. Henrique; but the
+denunciation of Father Rodriguez in 1545, which had been vainly renewed
+in 1550, was now brought into action, and in 1571 he was arrested to
+stand his trial. There seems to be no doubt that the Inquisition made
+itself on this occasion, as on others, the instrument of private enmity;
+for eighteen months Goes lay ill in prison, and then he was condemned,
+though he had lived for thirty years as a faithful Catholic, and the
+worst that could be proved against him was that in his youth he had
+spoken against Indulgences, disbelieved in auricular confession, and
+consorted with heretics. He was sentenced to a term of reclusion, and
+his property was confiscated to the crown. After he had abjured his
+errors in private, he was sent at the end of 1572 to do penance at the
+monastery of Batalha. Later he was allowed to return home to Alemquer,
+where he died on the 30th of January 1574. He was buried in the church
+of Nossa Senhora da Varzea.
+
+Damião de Goes was a man of wide culture and genial and courtly manners,
+a skilled musician and a good linguist. He wrote both Portuguese and
+Latin with classic strength and simplicity, and his style is free from
+affectation and rhetorical ornaments. His portrait by Albrecht Dürer
+shows an open, intelligent face, and the record of his life proves him
+to have been upright and fearless. His prosperity doubtless excited
+ill-will, but above all, his ideas, advanced for Portugal, his foreign
+ways, outspokenness and honesty contributed to the tragedy of his end,
+at a time when the forces of ignorant reaction held the ascendant. He
+had, it may be presumed, given some umbrage to the court by condemning,
+in the _Chronicle of King Manoel_, the royal ingratitude to
+distinguished public servants, though he received a pension and other
+rewards for that work, and he had certainly offended the nobility by his
+administration of the archive office and by exposing false genealogical
+claims in his _Nobiliario_. He paid the penalty for telling the truth,
+as he knew it, in an age when an historian had to choose between
+flattery of the great and silence. The _Chronicle of King Manoel_ was
+the first official history of a Portuguese reign to be written in a
+critical spirit, and Damião de Goes has the honour of having been the
+first Portuguese royal chronicler to deserve the name of an historian.
+
+  His Portuguese works include _Chronica do felicissimo rei Dom Emanuel_
+  (parts i. and ii., Lisbon, 1566, parts iii. and iv., ib. 1567). Other
+  editions appeared in Lisbon in 1619 and 1749 and in Coimbra in 1790.
+  _Chronica do principe Dom Joam_ (Lisbon, 1558), with subsequent
+  editions in 1567 and 1724 in Lisbon and in 1790 in Coimbra. _Livro de
+  Marco Tullio Ciceram chamado Catam Mayor_ (Venice, 1538). This is a
+  translation of Cicero's _De senectute_. His Latin works, published
+  separately, comprise: (1) _Legatio magni imperatoris Presbiteri
+  Joannis, &c._ (Antwerp, 1532); (2) _Legatio Davidis Ethiopiae regis,
+  &c._ (Bologna, 1533); (3) _Commentarii rerum gestarum in India_
+  (Louvain, 1539); (4) _Fides, religio, moresque Aethiopum_ (Louvain,
+  1540), incorporating Nos. (1) and (2); (5) _Hispania_ (Louvain, 1542);
+  (6) _Aliquot epistolae Sadoleti Bembi et aliorum clarissimorum
+  virorum, &c._ (Louvain, 1544); (7) _Damiani a Goes equitis Lusitani
+  aliquot opuscula_ (Louvain, 1544); (8) _Urbis Lovaniensis obsidia_
+  (Lisbon, 1546); (9) _De bello Cambaico ultimo_ (Louvain, 1549); (10)
+  _Urbis Olisiponensis descriptio_ (Evora, 1554); (11) _Epistola ad
+  Hieronymum Cardosum_ (Lisbon, 1556). Most of the above went through
+  several editions, and many were afterwards included with new works in
+  such collections as No. (7), and seven sets of _Opuscula_ appeared,
+  all incomplete. Nos. (3), (4) and (5) suffered mutilation in
+  subsequent editions, at the hands of the censors, because they
+  offended against religious orthodoxy or family pride.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--(A) Joaquim de Vasconcellos, _Goesiana_ (5 vols.), with
+  the following sub-titles: (1) _O Retrato de Albrecht Dürer_ (Porto,
+  1879); (2) _Bibliographia_ (Porto, 1879), which describes 67 numbers
+  of books by Goes; (3) As Variantes das Chronicus Portuguezas (Porto,
+  1881); (4) _Damião de Goes: Novos Estudos_ (Porto, 1897); (5) _As
+  Cartas Latinas_--in the press (1906). Snr. Vasconcellos only printed a
+  very limited number of copies of these studies for distribution among
+  friends, so that they are rare. (B) Guilherme J. C. Henriques,
+  _Ineditos Goesianos_, vol. i. (Lisbon, 1896), vol. ii. (containing the
+  proceedings at the trial by the Inquisition) (Lisbon, 1898). (C) A. P.
+  Lopes de Mendonça, _Damião de Goes e a Inquisição de Portugal_
+  (Lisbon, 1859). (D) Dr Sousa Viterbo, _Damião de Goes e D. Antonio
+  Pinheiro_ (Coimbra, 1895). (E) Dr Theophilo Braga, _Historia da
+  Universidade de Coimbra_ (Lisbon, 1892), i. 374-380. (F) Menendez y
+  Pelayo, _Historia de los Heter. Españoles_, ii. 129-143.     (E. Pr.)
+
+
+
+
+GOES, HUGO VAN DER (d. 1482), a painter of considerable celebrity at
+Ghent, was known to Vasari, as he is known to us, by a single picture in
+a Florentine monastery. At a period when the family of the Medici had
+not yet risen from the rank of a great mercantile firm to that of a
+reigning dynasty, it employed as an agent at the port of Bruges Tommaso
+Portinari, a lineal descendant, it was said, of Folco, the father of
+Dante's Beatrix. Tommaso, at that time patron of a chapel in the
+hospital of Santa Maria Nuova at Florence, ordered an altar-piece of
+Hugo van der Goes, and commanded him to illustrate the sacred theme of
+"Quem genuit adoravit." In the centre of a vast triptych, comprising
+numerous figures of life size, Hugo represented the Virgin kneeling in
+adoration before the new-born Christ attended by Shepherds and Angels.
+On the wings he portrayed Tommaso and his two sons in prayer under the
+protection of Saint Anthony and St Matthew, and Tommaso's wife and two
+daughters supported by St Margaret and St Mary Magdalen. The triptych,
+which has suffered much from decay and restoring, was for over 400 years
+at Santa Maria Nuova, and is now in the Uffizi Gallery. Imposing because
+composed of figures of unusual size, the altar-piece is more remarkable
+for portrait character than for charms of ideal beauty.
+
+There are also small pieces in public galleries which claim to have been
+executed by Van der Goes. One of these pictures in the National Gallery
+in London is more nearly allied to the school of Memling than to the
+triptych of Santa Maria Nuova; another, a small and very beautiful "John
+the Baptist," at the Pinakothek of Munich, is really by Memling; whilst
+numerous fragments of an altar-piece in the Belvedere at Vienna, though
+assigned to Hugo, are by his more gifted countryman of Bruges. Van der
+Goes, however, was not habitually a painter of easel pieces. He made his
+reputation at Bruges by producing coloured hangings in distemper. After
+he settled at Ghent, and became a master of his gild in 1465, he
+designed cartoons for glass windows. He also made decorations for the
+wedding of Charles the Bold and Margaret of York in 1468, for the
+festivals of the Rhetoricians and papal jubilees on repeated occasions,
+for the solemn entry of Charles the Bold into Ghent in 1470-1471, and
+for the funeral of Philip the Good in 1474. The labour which he expended
+on these occasions might well add to his fame without being the less
+ephemeral. About the year 1475 he retired to the monastery of Rouge
+Cloître near Ghent, where he took the cowl. There, though he still clung
+to his profession, he seems to have taken to drinking, and at one time
+to have shown decided symptoms of insanity. But his superiors gradually
+cured him of his intemperance, and he died in the odour of sanctity in
+1482.
+
+
+
+
+GOES, a town in the province of Zeeland, Holland, on the island of South
+Beveland, 11½ m. by rail E. of Middelburg. Pop. (1900) 6919. It is
+connected by a short canal with the East Scheldt, and has a good harbour
+(1819) defended by a fort. The principal buildings are the interesting
+Gothic church (1423) and the picturesque old town hall (restored 1771).
+There are various educational and charitable institutions. Goes has
+preserved for centuries its prosperous position as the market-town of
+the island. The chief industries are boat-building, brewing,
+book-binding and cigar-making. The town had its origin in the castle of
+Oostende, built here by the noble family of Borssele. It received a
+charter early in the 15th century from the countess Jacoba of Holland,
+who frequently stayed at the castle.
+
+
+
+
+GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON (1749-1832), German poet, dramatist and
+philosopher, was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 28th of August 1749.
+He came, on his father's side, of Thuringian stock, his
+great-grandfather, Hans Christian Goethe, having been a farrier at
+Artern-on-the-Unstrut, about the middle of the 17th century. Hans
+Christian's son, Friedrich Georg, was brought up to the trade of a
+tailor, and in this capacity settled in Frankfort in 1686. A second
+marriage, however, brought him into possession of the Frankfort inn,
+"Zum Weidenhof," and he ended his days as a well-to-do innkeeper. His
+son, Johann Kaspar, the poet's father (1710-1782), studied law at
+Leipzig, and, after going through the prescribed courses of practical
+training at Wetzlar, travelled in Italy. He hoped, on his return to
+Frankfort, to obtain an official position in the government of the free
+city, but his personal influence with the authorities was not
+sufficiently strong. In his disappointment he resolved never again to
+offer his services to his native town, and retired into private life, a
+course which his ample means facilitated. In 1742 he acquired, as a
+consolation for the public career he had missed, the title of
+_kaiserlicher Rat_, and in 1748 married Katharina Elisabeth (1731-1808),
+daughter of the _Schultheiss_ or _Bürgermeister_ of Frankfort, Johann
+Wolfgang Textor. The poet was the eldest son of this union. Of the later
+children only one, Cornelia, born in 1750, survived the years of
+childhood; she died as the wife of Goethe's friend, J. G. Schlosser, in
+1777. The best elements in Goethe's genius came from his mother's side;
+of a lively, impulsive disposition, and gifted with remarkable
+imaginative power, Frau Rat was the ideal mother of a poet; moreover,
+being hardly eighteen at the time of her son's birth, she was herself
+able to be the companion of his childhood. From his father, whose stern,
+somewhat pedantic nature repelled warmer feelings on the part of the
+children, Goethe Inherited that "holy earnestness" and stability of
+character which brought him unscathed through temptations and passions,
+and held the balance to his all too powerful imagination.
+
+Unforgettable is the picture which the poet subsequently drew of his
+childhood spent in the large house with its many nooks and crannies, in
+the Grosse Hirschgraben at Frankfort. Books, pictures, objects of art,
+antiquities, reminiscences of Rat Goethe's visit to Italy, above all a
+marionette theatre, kindled the child's quick intellect and imagination.
+His training was conducted in its early stages by his father, and was
+later supplemented by tutors. Meanwhile the varied and picturesque life
+of Frankfort was in itself an education. In 1759, during the Seven
+Years' War, the French, as Maria Theresa's allies, occupied the town,
+and, much to the irritation of Goethe's father, who was a stanch
+partisan of Frederick the Great, a French lieutenant, Count Thoranc, was
+quartered on the Goethe household. The foreign occupation also led to
+the establishment of a French troupe of actors, and to their
+performances the boy, through his grandfather's influence, had free
+access. Goethe has also recorded his memories of another picturesque
+event, the coronation of the emperor Joseph II. in the Frankfort Römer
+or town hall in 1764; but these memories were darkened by being
+associated in his mind with the tragic dénouement of his first love
+affair. The object of this passion was a certain Gretchen, who seems to
+have taken advantage of the boy's interest in her to further the
+dishonest ends of one of her friends. The discovery of the affair and
+the investigation that followed cooled Goethe's ardour and caused him to
+turn his attention seriously to the studies which were to prepare him
+for the university. Meanwhile the literary instinct had begun to show
+itself; we hear of a novel in letters--a kind of linguistic exercise, in
+which the characters carried on the correspondence in different
+languages--of a prose epic on the subject of Joseph, and various
+religious poems of which one, _Die Höllenfahrt Christi_, found its way
+in a revised form into the poet's complete works.
+
+In October 1765, Goethe, then a little over sixteen, left Frankfort for
+Leipzig, where a wider and, in many respects, less provincial life
+awaited him. He entered upon his university studies with zeal, but his
+own education in Frankfort had not been the best preparation for the
+scholastic methods which still dominated the German universities; of his
+professors, only Gellert seems to have won his interest, and that
+interest was soon exhausted. The literary beginnings he had made in
+Frankfort now seemed to him amateurish and trivial; he felt that he had
+to turn over a new leaf, and, under the guidance of E. W. Behrisch, a
+genial, original comrade, he learned the art of writing those light
+Anacreontic lyrics which harmonized with the tone of polite Leipzig
+society. Artificial as this poetry is, Goethe was, nevertheless,
+inspired by a real passion in Leipzig, namely, for Anna Katharina
+Schönkopf, the daughter of a wine-merchant at whose house he dined. She
+is the "Annette" after whom the recently discovered collection of lyrics
+was named, although it must be added that neither these lyrics nor the
+_Neue Lieder_, published in 1770, express very directly Goethe's
+feelings for Käthchen Schönkopf. To his Leipzig student-days belong also
+two small plays in Alexandrines, _Die Laune des Verliebten_, a pastoral
+comedy in one act, which reflects the lighter side of the poet's love
+affair, and _Die Mitschuldigen_ (published in a revised form, 1769), a
+more sombre picture, in which comedy is incongruously mingled with
+tragedy. In Leipzig Goethe also had time for what remained one of the
+abiding interests of his life, for art; he regarded A. F. Oeser
+(1717-1799), the director of the academy of painting in the
+Pleissenburg, who had given him lessons in drawing, as the teacher who
+in Leipzig had influenced him most. His art studies were also furthered
+by a short visit to Dresden. His stay in Leipzig came, however, to an
+abrupt conclusion; the distractions of student life proved too much for
+his strength; a sudden haemorrhage supervened, and he lay long ill,
+first in Leipzig, and, after it was possible to remove him, at home in
+Frankfort. These months of slow recovery were a time of serious
+introspection for Goethe. He still corresponded with his Leipzig
+friends, but the tone of his letters changed; life had become graver and
+more earnest for him. He pored over books on occult philosophy; he
+busied himself with alchemy and astrology. A friend of his mother's,
+Susanne Katharina von Klettenberg, who belonged to pietist circles in
+Frankfort, turned the boy's thoughts to religious mysticism. On his
+recovery his father resolved that he should complete his legal studies
+at Strassburg, a city which, although then outside the German empire,
+was, in respect of language and culture, wholly German. From the first
+moment Goethe set foot in the narrow streets of the Alsatian capital, in
+April 1770, the whole current of his thought seemed to change. The
+Gothic architecture of the Strassburg minster became to him the symbol
+of a national and German ideal, directly antagonistic to the French
+tastes and the classical and rationalistic atmosphere that prevailed in
+Leipzig. The second moment of importance in Goethe's Strassburg period
+was his meeting with Herder, who spent some weeks in Strassburg
+undergoing an operation of the eye. In this thinker, who was his senior
+by five years, Goethe found the master he sought; Herder taught him the
+significance of Gothic architecture, revealed to him the charm of
+nature's simplicity, and inspired him with enthusiasm for Shakespeare
+and the _Volkslied_. Meanwhile Goethe's legal studies were not
+neglected, and he found time to add to knowledge of other subjects,
+notably that of medicine. Another factor of importance in Goethe's
+Strassburg life was his love for Friederike Brion, the daughter of an
+Alsatian village pastor in Sesenheim. Even more than Herder's precept
+and example, this passion showed Goethe how trivial and artificial had
+been the Anacreontic and pastoral poetry with which he had occupied
+himself in Leipzig; and the lyrics inspired by Friederike, such as
+_Kleine Blumen, kleine Blätter_ and _Wie herrlich leuchtet mir die
+Natur!_ mark the beginning of a new epoch in German lyric poetry. The
+idyll of Sesenheim, as described in _Dichtung und Wahrheit_, is one of
+the most beautiful love-stories in the literature of the world. From the
+first, however, it was clear that Friederike Brion could never become
+the wife of the Frankfort patrician's son; an unhappy ending to the
+romance was unavoidable, and, as is to be seen in passionate outpourings
+like the _Wanderers Sturmlied_, and in the bitter self-accusations of
+_Clavigo_, it left deep wounds on the poet's sensitive soul.
+
+To Strassburg we owe Goethe's first important drama, _Götz von
+Berlichingen_, or, as it was called in its earliest form, _Geschichte
+Gottfriedens von Berlichingen dramatisiert_ (not published until 1831).
+Revised under the now familiar title, it appeared in 1773, after
+Goethe's return to Frankfort. In estimating this drama we must bear in
+mind Goethe's own Strassburg life, and the turbulent spirit of his own
+age, rather than the historical facts, which the poet found in the
+autobiography of his hero published in 1731. The latter supplied only
+the rough materials; the Götz von Berlichingen whom Goethe drew, with
+his lofty ideals of right and wrong, and his enthusiasm for freedom, is
+a very different personage from the unscrupulous robber-knight of the
+16th century, the rough friend of Franz von Sickingen and of the
+revolting peasants. Still less historical justification is to be found
+for the vacillating Weisslingen in whom Goethe executed poetic justice
+on himself as the lover of Friederike, or in the women of the play, the
+gentle Maria, the heartless Adelheid. But there is genial, creative
+power in the very subjectivity of these characters, and a vigorous
+dramatic life, which is irresistible in its appeal. With _Götz von
+Berlichingen_, Shakespeare's art first triumphed on the German stage,
+and the literary movement known as _Sturm und Drang_ was inaugurated.
+
+Having received his degree in Strassburg, Goethe returned home in August
+1771, and began his initiation into the routine of an advocate's
+profession. In the following year, in order to gain insight into another
+side of his calling, he spent four months at Wetzlar, where the imperial
+law-courts were established. But Goethe's professional duties had only a
+small share in the eventful years which lay between his return from
+Strassburg and that visit to Weimar at the end of 1775, which turned the
+whole course of his career, and resulted in his permanent attachment to
+the Weimar court. Goethe's life in Frankfort was a round of stimulating
+literary intercourse; in J. H. Merck (1741-1791), an army official in
+the neighbouring town of Darmstadt, he found a friend and mentor, whose
+irony and common-sense served as a corrective to his own exuberance of
+spirits. Wetzlar brought new friends and another passion, that for
+Charlotte Buff, the daughter of the _Amtmann_ there--a love-story which
+has been immortalized in _Werthers Leiden_--and again the young poet's
+nature was obsessed by a love which was this time strong enough to bring
+him to the brink of that suicide with which the novel ends. A visit to
+the Rhine, where new interests and the attractions of Maximiliane von
+Laroche, a daughter of Wieland's friend, the novelist Sophie von
+Laroche, brought partial healing; his intense preoccupation with
+literary work on his return to Frankfort did the rest. In 1775 Goethe
+was attracted by still another type of woman, Lili Schönemann, whose
+mother was the widow of a wealthy Frankfort banker. A formal betrothal
+took place, and the beauty of the lyrics which Lili inspired leaves no
+room for doubt that here was a passion no less genuine than that for
+Friederike or Charlotte. But Goethe--more worldly wise than on former
+occasions--felt instinctively that the gay, social world in which Lili
+moved was not really congenial to him. A visit to Switzerland in the
+summer of 1775 may not have weakened his interest in her, but it at
+least allowed him to regard her objectively; and, without tragic
+consequences on either side, the passion was ultimately allowed to yield
+to the dictates of common-sense. Goethe's departure for Weimar in
+November made the final break less difficult.
+
+The period from 1771 to 1775 was, in literary respects, the most
+productive of the poet's life. It had been inaugurated with _Götz von
+Berlichingen_, and a few months later this tragedy was followed by
+another, _Clavigo_, hardly less convincing in its character-drawing, and
+reflecting even more faithfully than the former the experiences Goethe
+had gone through in Strassburg. Again poetic justice is effected on the
+unfortunate hero who has chosen his own personal advancement in
+preference to his duty to the woman he loves; more pointedly than in
+_Götz_ is the moral enforced by Clavigo's worldly friend Carlos, that
+the ground of Clavigo's tragic end lies not so much in the defiance of a
+moral law as in the hero's vacillation and want of character. With _Die
+Leiden des jungen Werthers_ (1774), the literary precipitate of the
+author's own experiences in Wetzlar, Goethe succeeded in attracting, as
+no German had done before him, the attention of Europe. Once more it was
+the gospel that the world belongs to the strong, which lay beneath the
+surface of this romance. This, however, was not the lesson which was
+drawn from it by Goethe's contemporaries; they shed tears of sympathy
+over the lovelorn youth whose burden becomes too great for him to bear.
+While _Götz_ inaugurated the manlier side of the _Sturm und Drang_
+literature, _Werther_ was responsible for its sentimental excesses. And
+to the sentimental rather than to the heroic side belongs also _Stella_,
+"a drama for lovers," in which the poet again reproduced, if with less
+fidelity than in _Werther_, certain aspects of his own love troubles. A
+lighter vein is to be observed in various dramatic satires written at
+this time, such as _Götter_, _Helden und Wieland_ (1774), _Hanswursts
+Hochzeit_, _Fastnachtsspiel vom Pater Brey_, _Satyros_, and in the
+_Singspiele_, _Erwin und Elmire_ (1775) and _Claudine von Villa Bella_
+(1776); while in the _rankfurter Gelehrte Anzeiger_ (1772-1773), Goethe
+drove home the principles of the new movement of _Sturm und Drang_ in
+terse and pointed criticism. The exuberance of the young poet's genius
+is also to be seen in the many unfinished fragments of this period; at
+one time we find him occupied with dramas on _Caesar_ and _Mahomet_, at
+another with an epic on _Der ewige Jude_, and again with a tragedy on
+_Prometheus_, of which a magnificent fragment has passed into his works.
+Greatest of all the torsos of this period, however, was the
+dramatization of _Faust_. Thanks to a manuscript copy of the play in its
+earliest form--discovered as recently as 1887--we are now able to
+distinguish how much of this tragedy was the immediate product of the
+_Sturm und Drang_, and to understand the intentions with which the young
+poet began his masterpiece. Goethe's hero changed with the author's
+riper experience and with his new conceptions of man's place and duties
+in the world, but the Gretchen tragedy was taken over into the finished
+poem, practically unaltered, from the earliest _Faust_ of the _Sturm und
+Drang_. With these wonderful scenes, the most intensely tragic in all
+German literature, Goethe's poetry in this period reaches its climax.
+Still another important work, however, was conceived, and in large
+measure written at this time, the drama of _Egmont_, which was not
+published until 1788. This work may, to some extent, be regarded as
+supplementary to _Faust_; it presents the lighter, more cheerful and
+optimistic side of Goethe's philosophy in these years; Graf Egmont, the
+most winning and fascinating of the poet's heroes, is endowed with that
+"demonic" power over the sympathies of men and women, which Goethe
+himself possessed in so high a degree. But _Egmont_ depends for its
+interest almost solely on two characters, Egmont himself and Klärchen,
+Gretchen's counterpart; regarded as a drama, it demonstrates the
+futility of that defiance of convention and rules with which the _Sturm
+und Drang_ set out. It remained for Goethe, in the next period of his
+life, to construct on classic models a new vehicle for German dramatic
+poetry.
+
+In December 1774 the young "hereditary prince" of Weimar, Charles
+Augustus, passing through Frankfort on his way to Paris, came into
+personal touch with Goethe, and invited the poet to visit Weimar when,
+in the following year, he took up the reins of government. In October
+1775 the invitation was repeated, and on the 7th of November of that
+year Goethe arrived in the little Saxon capital which was to remain his
+home for the rest of his life. During the first few months in Weimar the
+poet gave himself up to the pleasures of the moment as unreservedly as
+his patron; indeed, the Weimar court even looked upon him for a time as
+a tempter who led the young duke astray. But the latter, although
+himself a mere stripling, had implicit faith in Goethe, and a firm
+conviction that his genius could be utilized in other fields besides
+literature. Goethe was not long in Weimar before he was entrusted with
+responsible state duties, and events soon justified the duke's
+confidence. Goethe proved the soul of the Weimar government, and a
+minister of state of energy and foresight. He interested himself in
+agriculture, horticulture and mining, which were of paramount importance
+to the welfare of the duchy, and out of these interests sprang his own
+love for the natural sciences, which took up so much of his time in
+later years. The inevitable love-interest was also not wanting. As
+Friederike had fitted into the background of Goethe's Strassburg life,
+Lotte into that of Wetzlar, and Lili into the gaieties of Frankfort, so
+now Charlotte von Stein, the wife of a Weimar official, was the
+personification of the more aristocratic ideals of Weimar society. We
+possess only the poet's share of his correspondence with Frau von Stein,
+but it is possible to infer from it that, of all Goethe's loves, this
+was intellectually the most worthy of him. Frau von Stein was a woman of
+refined literary taste and culture, seven years older than he and the
+mother of seven children. There was something more spiritual, something
+that partook rather of the passionate friendships of the 18th century
+than of love in Goethe's relations with her. Frau von Stein dominated
+the poet's life for twelve years, until his journey to Italy in
+1786-1788. Of other events of this period the most notable were two
+winter journeys, the first in 1777, to the Harz Mountains, the second,
+two years later, to Switzerland--journeys which gave Goethe scope for
+that introspection and reflection for which his Weimar life left him
+little time. On the second of these journeys he revisited Friederike in
+Sesenheim, saw Lili, who had married and settled in Strassburg, and made
+the personal acquaintance of Lavater in Zürich.
+
+The literary results of these years cannot be compared with those of the
+preceding period; they are virtually limited to a few wonderful lyrics,
+such as _Wanderers Nachtlied_, _An den Mond_, _Gesang der Geister über
+den Wassern_, or ballads, such as _Der Erlkönig_, a charming little
+drama, _Die Geschwister_ (1776), in which the poet's relations to both
+Lili and Frau von Stein seem to be reflected, a dramatic satire, _Der
+Triumph der Empfindsamkeit_ (1778), and a number of _Singspiele_, _Lila_
+(1777), _Die Fischerin_, _Scherz, List und Rache_, and _Jery und Bätely_
+(1780). But greater works were in preparation. A religious epic, _Die
+Geheimnisse_, and a tragedy _Elpenor_, did not, it is true, advance much
+further than plans; but in 1777, under the influence of the theatrical
+experiments at the Weimar court, Goethe conceived and in great measure
+wrote a novel of the theatre, which was to have borne the title _Wilhelm
+Meisters theatralische Sendung_; and in 1779 himself took part in a
+representation before the court at Ettersburg, of his drama _Iphigenie
+auf Tauris_. This _Iphigenie_ was, however, in prose; in the following
+year Goethe remoulded it in iambics, but it was not until he went to
+Rome that the drama finally received the form in which we know it.
+
+In September, 1786 Goethe set out from Karlsbad--secretly and
+stealthily, his plan known only to his servant--on that memorable
+journey to Italy, to which he had looked forward with such intense
+longing; he could not cross the Alps quickly enough, so impatient was he
+to set foot in Italy. He travelled by way of Munich, the Brenner and
+Lago di Garda to Verona and Venice, and from thence to Rome, where he
+arrived on the 29th of October 1786. Here he gave himself up
+unreservedly to the new impressions which crowded on him, and he was
+soon at home among the German artists in Rome, who welcomed him warmly.
+In the spring of 1787 he extended his journey as far as Naples and
+Sicily, returning to Rome in June 1787, where he remained until his
+final departure for Germany on the 2nd of April 1788. It is difficult to
+exaggerate the importance of Goethe's Italian journey. He himself
+regarded it as a kind of climax to his life; never before had he
+attained such complete understanding of his genius and mission in the
+world; it afforded him a vantage-ground from which he could renew the
+past and make plans for the future. In Weimar he had felt that he was no
+longer in sympathy with the _Sturm und Drang_, but it was Italy which
+first taught him clearly what might take the place of that movement in
+German poetry. To the modern reader, who may well be impressed by
+Goethe's extraordinary receptivity, it may seem strange that his
+interests in Italy were so limited; for, after all, he saw comparatively
+little of the art treasures of Italy. He went to Rome in Winckelmann's
+footsteps; it was the antique he sought, and his interest in the artists
+of the Renaissance was virtually restricted to their imitation of
+classic models. This search for the classic ideal is reflected in the
+works he completed or wrote under the Italian sky. The calm beauty of
+Greek tragedy is seen in the new iambic version of _Iphigenie auf
+Tauris_ (1787); the classicism of the Renaissance gives the ground-tone
+to the wonderful drama of _Torquato Tasso_ (1790), in which the conflict
+of poetic genius with the prosaic world is transmuted into imperishable
+poetry. Classic, too, in this sense, were the plans of a drama on
+_Iphigenie auf Delphos_ and of an epic, _Nausikaa_. Most interesting of
+all, however, is the reflection of the classic spirit in works already
+begun in earlier days, such as _Egmont_ and _Faust_. The former drama
+was finished in Italy and appeared in 1788, the latter was brought a
+step further forward, part of it being published as a _Fragment_ in
+1790.
+
+Disappointment in more senses than one awaited Goethe on his return to
+Weimar. He came back from Italy with a new philosophy of life, a
+philosophy at once classic and pagan, and with very definite ideas of
+what constituted literary excellence. But Germany had not advanced; in
+1788 his countrymen were still under the influence of that _Sturm und
+Drang_ from which the poet had fled. The times seemed to him more out of
+joint than ever, and he withdrew into himself. Even his relations to the
+old friends were changed. Frau von Stein had not known of his flight to
+Italy until she received a letter from Rome; but he looked forward to
+her welcome on his return. The months of absence, however, the change he
+had undergone, and doubtless those lighter loves of which the _Römische
+Elegien_ bear evidence, weakened the Weimar memories; if he left Weimar
+as Frau von Stein's lover he returned only as her friend; and she
+naturally resented the change. Goethe, meanwhile, satisfied to continue
+the freer customs to which he had adapted himself in Rome, found a new
+mistress in Christiane Vulpius (1765-1816), the least interesting of all
+the women who attracted him. But Christiane gradually filled up a gap in
+the poet's life; she gave him, quietly, unobtrusively, without making
+demands on him, the comforts of a home. She was not accepted by court
+society; it did not matter to her that even Goethe's intimate friends
+ignored her; and she, who had suited the poet's whim when he desired to
+shut himself off from all that might dim the recollection of Italy,
+became with the years an indispensable helpmate to him. On the birth in
+1789 of his son, Goethe had some thought of legalizing his relations
+with Christiane, but this intention was not realized until 1806, when
+the invasion of Weimar by the French made him fear for both life and
+property.
+
+The period of Goethe's life which succeeded his return from Italy was
+restless and unsettled; relieved of his state duties, he returned in
+1790 to Venice, only to be disenchanted with the Italy he had loved so
+intensely a year or two before. A journey with the duke of Weimar to
+Breslau followed, and in 1792 he accompanied his master on that campaign
+against France which ended so ingloriously for the German arms at Valmy.
+In later years Goethe published his account both of this _Campagne in
+Frankreich_ and of the _Belagerung von Mainz_, at which he was also
+present in 1793. His literary work naturally suffered under these
+distractions. _Tasso_, and the edition of the _Schriften_ in which it
+was to appear, had still to be completed on his return from Italy; the
+_Römische Elegien_, perhaps the most Latin of all his works, were
+published in 1795, and the _Venetianische Epigramme_, the result of the
+second visit to Italy, in 1796. The French Revolution, in which all
+Europe was engrossed, was in Goethe's eyes only another proof that the
+passing of the old régime meant the abrogation of all law and order, and
+he gave voice to his antagonism to the new democratic principles in the
+dramas _Der Grosskophta_ (1792), _Der Bürgergeneral_ (1793), and in the
+unfinished fragments _Die Aufgeregten_ and _Das Mädchen von Oberkirch_.
+The spirited translation of the epic of _Reinecke Fuchs_ (1794) he took
+up as a relief and an antidote to the social disruption of the time. Two
+new interests, however, strengthened the ties between Goethe and
+Weimar,--ties which the Italian journey had threatened to sever: his
+appointment in 1791 as director of the ducal theatre, a post which he
+occupied for twenty-two years, and his absorption in scientific studies.
+In 1790 he published his important _Versuch, die Metamorphose der
+Pflanzen zu erklären_, which was an even more fundamental achievement
+for the new science of comparative morphology than his discovery some
+six years earlier of the existence of a formation in the human jaw-bone
+analogous to the intermaxillary bone in apes; and in 1791 and 1792
+appeared two parts of his _Beiträge zur Optik_.
+
+Meanwhile, however, Goethe had again taken up the novel of the theatre
+which he had begun years before, with a view to finishing it and
+including it in the edition of his _Neue Schriften_ (1792-1800).
+_Wilhelm Meisters theatralische Sendung_ became _Wilhelm Meisters
+Lehrjahre_; the novel of purely theatrical interests was widened out to
+embrace the history of a young man's apprenticeship to life. The change
+of plan explains, although it may not exculpate, the formlessness and
+loose construction of the work, its extremes of realistic detail and
+poetic allegory. A hero, who was probably originally intended to
+demonstrate the failure of the vacillating temperament when brought face
+to face with the problems of art, proved ill-adapted to demonstrate
+those precepts for the guidance of life with which the _Lehrjahre_
+closes; unstable of purpose, Wilhelm Meister is not so much an
+illustration of the author's life-philosophy as a lay-figure on which he
+demonstrates his views. _Wilhelm Meister_ is a work of extraordinary
+variety, ranging from the commonplace realism of the troupe of strolling
+players to the poetic romanticism of Mignon and the harper; its flashes
+of intuitive criticism and its weighty apothegms add to its value as a
+_Bildungsroman_ in the best sense of that word. Of all Goethe's works,
+this exerted the most immediate and lasting influence on German
+literature; it served as a model for the best fiction of the next thirty
+years.
+
+In completing _Wilhelm Meister_, Goethe found a sympathetic and
+encouraging critic in Schiller, to whom he owed in great measure his
+renewed interest in poetry. After years of tentative approaches on
+Schiller's part, years in which that poet concealed even from himself
+his desire for a friendly understanding with Goethe, the favourable
+moment arrived; it was in June 1794, when Schiller was seeking
+collaborators for his new periodical _Die Horen_; and his invitation
+addressed to Goethe was the beginning of a friendship which continued
+unbroken until the younger poet's death. The friendship of Goethe and
+Schiller, of which their correspondence is a priceless record, had its
+limitations; it was purely intellectual in character, a certain barrier
+of personal reserve being maintained to the last. But for the literary
+life of both poets the gain was incommensurable. As far as actual work
+was concerned, Goethe went his own way as he had always been accustomed
+to do; but the mere fact that he devoted himself with increasing
+interest to literature was due to Schiller's stimulus. It was Schiller,
+too, who induced him to undertake those studies on the nature of epic
+and dramatic poetry which resulted in the epic of _Hermann und Dorothea_
+and the fragment of the _Achilleis_; without the friendship there would
+have been no _Xenien_ and no ballads, and it was his younger friend's
+encouragement which induced Goethe to betake himself once more to the
+"misty path" of _Faust_, and bring the first part of that drama to a
+conclusion.
+
+Goethe's share in the _Xenien_ (1796) may be briefly dismissed. This
+collection of distichs, written in collaboration with Schiller, was
+prompted by the indifference and animosity of contemporary criticism,
+and its disregard for what the two poets regarded as the higher
+interests of German poetry. The _Xenien_ succeeded as a retaliation on
+the critics, but the masterpieces which followed them proved in the long
+run much more effective weapons against the prevailing mediocrity. Prose
+works like the _Unterhaltungen deutscher Ausgewanderten_ (1795) were
+unworthy of the poet's genius, and the translation of Benvenuto
+Cellini's _Life_ (1796-1797) was only a translation. But in 1798
+appeared _Hermann und Dorothea_, one of Goethe's most perfect poems. It
+is indeed remarkable--when we consider by how much reflection and
+theoretic discussion the composition of the poem was preceded and
+accompanied--that it should make upon the reader so simple and "naïve"
+an impression; in this respect it is the triumph of an art that conceals
+art. Goethe has here taken a simple story of village life, mirrored in
+it the most pregnant ideas of his time, and presented it with a skill
+which may well be called Homeric; but he has discriminated with the
+insight of genius between the Homeric method of reproducing the heroic
+life of primitive Greece and the same method as adapted to the
+commonplace happenings of 18th-century Germany. In this respect he was
+undoubtedly guided by a forerunner who has more right than he to the
+attribute "naïve," by J. H. Voss, the author of _Luise_. Hardly less
+imposing in their calm, placid perfection are the poems with which, in
+friendly rivalry, Goethe seconded the more popular ballads of his
+friend; _Der Zauberlehrling_, _Der Gott und die Bayadere_, _Die Braut
+von Korinth_, _Alexis und Dora_, _Der neue Pausias_ and _Die schöne
+Müllerin_--a cycle of poems in the style of the _Volkslied_--are among
+the masterpieces of Goethe's poetry. On the other hand, even the
+friendship with Schiller did not help him to add to his reputation as a
+dramatist. _Die natürliche Tochter_ (1803), in which he began to embody
+his ideas of the Revolution on a wide canvas, proved impossible on the
+stage, and the remaining dramas, which were to have formed a trilogy,
+were never written. Goethe's classic principles, when applied to the
+swift, direct art of the theatre, were doomed to failure, and _Die
+natürliche Tochter_, notwithstanding its good theoretic intention,
+remains the most lifeless and shadowy of all his dramas. Even less in
+touch with the living present were the various prologues and
+_Festspiele_, such as _Paläophron und Neoterpe_ (1800), _Was wir
+bringen_ (1802), which in these years he composed for the Weimar
+theatre.
+
+Goethe's classicism brought him into inevitable antagonism with the new
+Romantic movement which had been inaugurated in 1798 by the _Athenaeum_,
+edited by the brothers Schlegel. The sharpness of the conflict was,
+however, blunted by the fact that, without exception, the young Romantic
+writers looked up to Goethe as its master; they modelled their fiction
+on _Wilhelm Meister_; they regarded his lyrics as the high-water mark of
+German poetry; Goethe, Novalis declared, was the "Statthalter of poetry
+on earth." With regard to painting and sculpture, however, Goethe felt
+that a protest was necessary, if the insidious ideas propounded in works
+like Wackenroder's _Herzensergiessungen_ were not to do irreparable
+harm, by bringing back the confusion of the _Sturm und Drang_; and, as a
+rejoinder to the Romantic theories, Goethe, in conjunction with his
+friend Heinrich Meyer (1760-1832), published from 1798 to 1800 an art
+review, _Die Propyläen_. Again, in _Winckelmann und seine Zeit_ (1805)
+Goethe vigorously defended the classical ideals of which Winckelmann had
+been the founder. But in the end he proved himself the greatest enemy to
+the strict classic doctrine by the publication in 1808 of the completed
+first part of _Faust_, a work which was accepted by contemporaries as a
+triumph of Romantic art. _Faust_ is a patchwork of many colours. With
+the aid of the vast body of _Faust_ literature which has sprung up in
+recent years, and the many new documents bearing on its history--above
+all, the so-called _Urfaust_, to which reference has already been
+made--we are able now to ascribe to their various periods the component
+parts of the work; it is possible to discriminate between the _Sturm und
+Drang_ hero of the opening scenes and of the Gretchen tragedy--the
+contemporary of Götz and Clavigo--and the superimposed Faust of calmer
+moral and intellectual ideals--a Faust who corresponds to Hermann and
+Wilhelm Meister. In its original form the poem was the dramatization of
+a specific and individualized story; in the years of Goethe's friendship
+with Schiller it was extended to embody the higher strivings of
+18th-century humanism; ultimately, as we shall see, it became, in the
+second part, a vast allegory of human life and activity. Thus the
+elements of which _Faust_ is composed were even more difficult to blend
+than were those of _Wilhelm Meister_; but the very want of uniformity is
+one source of the perennial fascination of the tragedy, and has made it
+in a peculiar degree the national poem of the German people, the mirror
+which reflects the national life and poetry from the outburst of _Sturm
+und Drang_ to the well-weighed and tranquil classicism of Goethe's old
+age.
+
+The third and final period of Goethe's long life may be said to have
+begun after Schiller's death. He never again lost touch with literature
+as he had done in the years which preceded his friendship with
+Schiller; but he stood in no active or immediate connexion with the
+literary movement of his day. His life moved on comparatively
+uneventfully. Even the Napoleonic régime of 1806-1813 disturbed but
+little his equanimity. Goethe, the cosmopolitan _Weltbürger_ of the 18th
+century, had himself no very intense feelings of patriotism, and, having
+seen Germany flourish as a group of small states under enlightened
+despotisms, he had little confidence in the dreamers of 1813 who hoped
+to see the glories of Barbarossa's empire revived. Napoleon, moreover,
+he regarded not as the scourge of Europe, but as the defender of
+civilization against the barbarism of the Slavs; and in the famous
+interview between the two men at Erfurt the poet's admiration was
+reciprocated by the French conqueror. Thus Goethe had no great sympathy
+for the war of liberation which kindled young hearts from one end of
+Germany to the other; and when the national enthusiasm rose to its
+highest pitch he buried himself in those optical and morphological
+studies, which, with increasing years, occupied more and more of his
+time and interest.
+
+The works and events of the last twenty-five years of Goethe's life may
+be briefly summarized. In 1805, as we have seen, he suffered an
+irreparable loss in the death of Schiller; in 1806, Christiane became
+his legal wife, and to the same year belongs the magnificent tribute to
+his dead friend, the _Epilog zu Schillers Glocke_. Two new friendships
+about this time kindled in the poet something of the juvenile fire and
+passion of younger days. Bettina von Arnim came into personal touch with
+Goethe in 1807, and her _Briefwechsel Goethes mit einem Kinde_
+(published in 1835) is, in its mingling of truth and fiction, one of the
+most delightful products of the Romantic mind; but the episode was of
+less importance for Goethe's life than Bettina would have us believe. On
+the other hand, his interest in Minna Herzlieb, foster-daughter of the
+publisher Frommann in Jena, was of a warmer nature, and has left its
+traces on his sonnets.
+
+In 1808, as we have seen, appeared the first part of _Faust_, and in
+1809 it was followed by _Die Wahlverwandtschaften_. The novel, hardly
+less than the drama, effected a change in the public attitude towards
+the poet. Since the beginning of the century the conviction had been
+gaining ground that Goethe's mission was accomplished, that the day of
+his leadership was over; but here were two works which not merely
+re-established his ascendancy, but proved that the old poet was in
+sympathy with the movement of letters, and keenly alive to the change of
+ideas which the new century had brought in its train. The intimate
+psychological study of four minds, which forms the subject of the
+_Wahlverwandtschaften_, was an essay in a new type of fiction, and
+pointed out the way for developments of the German novel after the
+stimulus of _Wilhelm Meister_ had exhausted itself. Less important than
+_Die Wahlverwandtschaften_ was _Pandora_ (1810), the final product of
+Goethe's classicism, and the most uncompromisingly classical and
+allegorical of all his works. And in 1810, too, appeared his treatise on
+_Farbenlehre_. In the following year the first volume of his
+autobiography was published under the title _Aus meinem Leben, Dichtung
+und Wahrheit_. The second and third volumes of this work followed in
+1812 and 1814; the fourth, bringing the story of his life up to the
+close of the Frankfort period in 1833, after his death. Goethe felt,
+even late in life, too intimately bound up with Weimar to discuss in
+detail his early life there, and he shrank from carrying his biography
+beyond the year 1775. But a number of other publications--descriptions
+of travel, such as the _Italienische Reise_ (1816-1817), the materials
+for a continuation of _Dichtung und Wahrheit_ collected in _Tag- und
+Jahreshefte_ (1830)--have also to be numbered among the writings which
+Goethe has left us as documents of his life. Meanwhile no less valuable
+biographical materials were accumulating in his diaries, his voluminous
+correspondence and his conversations, as recorded by J. P. Eckermann,
+the chancellor Müller and F. Soret. Several periodical publications,
+_Über Kunst und Altertum_ (1816-1832), _Zur Naturwissenschaft überhaupt_
+(1817-1824). _Zur Morphologie_ (1817-1824), bear witness to the
+extraordinary breadth of Goethe's interests in these years. Art,
+science, literature--little escaped his ken--and that not merely in
+Germany: English writers, Byron, Scott and Carlyle, Italians like
+Manzoni, French scientists and poets, could all depend on friendly words
+of appreciation and encouragement from Weimar.
+
+In _West-östlicher Diwan_ (1819), a collection of lyrics--matchless in
+form and even more concentrated in expression than those of earlier
+days--which were suggested by a German translation of Hafiz, Goethe had
+another surprise in store for his contemporaries. And, again, it was an
+actual passion--that for Marianne von Willemer, whom he met in 1814 and
+1815--which rekindled in him the lyric fire. Meanwhile the years were
+thinning the ranks of Weimar society: Wieland, the last of Goethe's
+greater literary contemporaries, died in 1813, his wife in 1816,
+Charlotte von Stein in 1827 and Duke Charles Augustus in 1828. Goethe's
+retirement from the direction of the theatre in 1817 meant for him a
+break with the literary life of the day. In 1822 a passion for a young
+girl, Ulrike von Levetzow, whom he met at Marienbad, inspired the fine
+_Trilogie der Leidenschaft_, and between 1821 and 1829 appeared the
+long-expected and long-promised continuation of _Wilhelm Meister,
+Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre_. The latter work, however, was a
+disappointment: perhaps it could not have been otherwise. Goethe had
+lost the thread of his romance and it was difficult for him to resume
+it. Problems of the relation of the individual to society and industrial
+questions were to have formed the theme of the _Wanderjahre_; but since
+the French Revolution these problems had themselves entered on a new
+phase and demanded a method of treatment which it was not easy for the
+old poet to learn. Thus his intentions were only partially carried out,
+and the volumes were filled out by irrelevant stories, which had been
+written at widely different periods.
+
+But the crowning achievement of Goethe's literary life was the
+completion of _Faust_. The poem had accompanied him from early manhood
+to the end and was the repository for the fullest "confession" of his
+life; it is the poetic epitome of his experience. The second part is, in
+form, far removed from the impressive realism of the _Urfaust_. It is a
+phantasmagory; a drama the actors in which are not creatures of flesh
+and blood, but the shadows of an unreal world of allegory. The lover of
+Gretchen had, as far as poetic continuity is concerned, disappeared with
+the close of the first part. In the second part it is virtually a new
+Faust who, at the hands of a new Mephistopheles, goes out into a world
+that is not ours. Yet behind these unconvincing shadows of an imperial
+court with its financial difficulties, of the classical
+_Walpurgisnacht_, of the fantastic creation of the Homunculus, the noble
+Helena episode and the impressive mystery-scene of the close, where the
+centenarian Faust finally triumphs over the powers of evil, there lies a
+philosophy of life, a ripe wisdom born of experience, such as no
+European poet had given to the world since the Renaissance. _Faust_ has
+been well called the "divine comedy" of 18th-century humanism.
+
+The second part of _Faust_ forms a worthy close to the life of Germany's
+greatest man of letters, who died in Weimar on the 22nd of March 1832.
+He was the last of those universal minds which have been able to compass
+all domains of human activity and knowledge; for he stood on the brink
+of an era of rapidly expanding knowledge which has made for ever
+impossible the universality of interest and sympathy which distinguished
+him. As a poet, his fame has undergone many vicissitudes since his
+death, ranging from the indifference of the "Young German" school to the
+enthusiastic admiration of the closing decades of the 19th century--an
+enthusiasm to which we owe the Weimar _Goethe-Gesellschaft_ (founded in
+1885) and a vast literature dealing with the poet's life and work; but
+the fact of his being Germany's greatest poet and the master of her
+classical literature has never been seriously put in question. The
+intrinsic value of his poetic work, regarded apart from his personality,
+is smaller in proportion to its bulk than is the case with many lesser
+German poets and with the greatest poets of other literatures. But
+Goethe was a type of literary man hitherto unrepresented among the
+leading writers of the world's literature; he was a poet whose supreme
+greatness lay in his subjectivity. Only a small fraction of Goethe's
+work was written in an impersonal and objective spirit, and sprang from
+what might be called a conscious artistic impulse; by far the
+larger--and the better--part is the immediate reflex of his feelings and
+experiences.
+
+It is as a lyric poet that Goethe's supremacy is least likely to be
+challenged; he has given his nation, whose highest literary expression
+has in all ages been essentially lyric, its greatest songs. No other
+German poet has succeeded in attuning feeling, sentiment and thought so
+perfectly to the music of words as he; none has expressed so fully that
+spirituality in which the quintessence of German lyrism lies. Goethe's
+dramas, on the other hand, have not, in the eyes of his nation,
+succeeded in holding their own beside Schiller's; but the reason is
+rather because Goethe, from what might be called a wilful obstinacy,
+refused to be bound by the conventions of the theatre, than because he
+was deficient in the cunning of the dramatist. For, as an interpreter of
+human character in the drama, Goethe is without a rival among modern
+poets, and there is not one of his plays that does not contain a few
+scenes or characters which bear indisputable testimony to his mastery.
+_Faust_ is Germany's most national drama, and it remains perhaps for the
+theatre of the future to prove itself capable of popularizing
+psychological masterpieces like _Tasso_ and _Iphigenie_. It is as a
+novelist that Goethe has suffered most by the lapse of time. The
+_Sorrows of Werther_ no longer moves us to tears, and even _Wilhelm
+Meister_ and _Die Wahlverwandtschaften_ require more understanding for
+the conditions under which they were written than do _Faust_ or
+_Egmont_. Goethe could fill his prose with rich wisdom, but he was only
+the perfect artist in verse.
+
+Little attention is nowadays paid to Goethe's work in other fields, work
+which he himself in some cases prized more highly than his poetry. It is
+only as an illustration of his many-sidedness and his manifold activity
+that we now turn to his work as a statesman, as a theatre-director, as a
+practical political economist. His art-criticism is symptomatic of a
+phase of European taste which tried in vain to check the growing
+individualism of Romanticism. His scientific studies and discoveries
+awaken only an historical interest. We marvel at the obstinacy with
+which he, with inadequate mathematical knowledge, opposed the Newtonian
+theory of light and colour; and at his championship of "Neptunism," the
+theory of aqueous origin, as opposed to "Vulcanism," that of igneous
+origin of the earth's crust. Of far-reaching importance was, on the
+other hand, his foreshadowing of the Darwinian theory in his works on
+the metamorphosis of plants and on animal morphology. Indeed, the
+deduction to be drawn from Goethe's contributions to botany and anatomy
+is that he, as no other of his contemporaries, possessed that type of
+scientific mind which, in the 19th century, has made for progress; he
+was Darwin's predecessor by virtue of his enunciation of what has now
+become one of the commonplaces of natural science--organic evolution.
+Modern, too, was the outlook of the aging poet on the changing social
+conditions of the age, wonderfully sympathetic his attitude towards
+modern industry, which steam was just beginning to establish on a new
+basis, and towards modern democracy. The Europe of his later years was
+very different from the idyllic and enlightened autocracy of the 18th
+century, in which he had spent his best years and to which he had
+devoted his energies; yet Goethe was at home in it.
+
+From the philosophic movement, in which Schiller and the Romanticists
+were so deeply involved, Goethe stood apart. Comparatively early in life
+he had found in Spinoza the philosopher who responded to his needs;
+Spinoza taught him to see in nature the "living garment of God," and
+more he did not seek or need to know. As a convinced realist he took his
+standpoint on nature and experience, and could afford to look on
+objectively at the controversies of the metaphysicians. Kant he by no
+means ignored, and under Schiller's guidance he learned much from him;
+but of the younger thinkers, only Schelling, whose mystic
+nature-philosophy was a development of Spinoza's ideas, touched a
+sympathetic chord in his nature. As a moralist and a guide to the
+conduct of life--an aspect of Goethe's work which Carlyle, viewing him
+through the coloured glasses of Fichtean idealism, emphasized and
+interpreted not always justly--Goethe was a powerful force on German
+life in years of political and intellectual depression. It is difficult
+even still to get beyond the maxims of practical wisdom he scattered so
+liberally through his writings, the lessons to be learned from _Meister_
+and _Faust_, or even that calm, optimistic fatalism which never deserted
+Goethe, and was so completely justified by the tenor of his life. If the
+philosophy of Spinoza provided the poet with a religion which made
+individual creeds and dogmas unnecessary and impossible, so Leibnitz's
+doctrine of predestinism supplied the foundations for his faith in the
+divine mission of human life.
+
+This many-sided activity is a tribute to the greatness of Goethe's mind
+and personality; we may regard him merely as the embodiment of his
+particular age, or as a poet "for all time"; but with one opinion all
+who have felt the power of Goethe's genius are in agreement--the opinion
+which was condensed in Napoleon's often cited words, uttered after the
+meeting at Erfurt: _Voilà un homme!_ Of all modern men, Goethe is the
+most universal type of genius. It is the full, rich humanity of his life
+and personality--not the art behind which the artist disappears, or the
+definite pronouncements of the thinker or the teacher--that constitutes
+his claim to a place in the front rank of men of letters. His life was
+his greatest work.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(a) _Collected Works, Diaries, Correspondence,
+  Conversations_. The following authorized editions of Goethe's writings
+  appeared in the poet's lifetime: _Schriften_ (8 vols., Leipzig,
+  1787-1790); _Neue Schriften_ (7 vols., Berlin, 1792-1800); _Werke_ (13
+  vols., Stuttgart, 1806-1810); _Werke_ (20 vols., Stuttgart,
+  1815-1819); to which six volumes were added in 1820-1822; Werke
+  (Vollständige Ausgabe letzter Hand) (40 vols., Stuttgart, 1827-1830).
+  Goethe's _Nachgelassene Werke_ appeared as a continuation of this
+  edition in 15 volumes (Stuttgart, 1832-1834), to which five volumes
+  were added in 1842. These were followed by several editions of
+  Goethe's _Sämtliche Werke_, mostly in forty volumes, published by
+  Cotta of Stuttgart. The first critical edition with notes was
+  published by Hempel, Berlin, in thirty-six volumes, 1868-1879; that in
+  Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_, vols. 82-117 (1882-1897) is
+  also important. In 1887 the monumental Weimar edition, which is now
+  approaching completion, began to appear; it is divided into four
+  sections: I. _Werke_ (c. 56 vols.); II. _Naturwissenschaftliche Werke_
+  (12 vols.); III. _Tagebücher_ (13 vols.); IV. _Briefe_ (c. 45 vols.).
+  Of other recent editions the most noteworthy are: Sämtliche Werke
+  (Jubiläums-Ausgabe), edited by E. von der Hellen (40 vols., Stuttgart,
+  1902 ff.); _Werke_, edited by K. Heinemann (30 vols., Leipzig, 1900
+  ff.), and the cheap edition of the _Sämtliche Werke_, edited by L.
+  Geiger (44 vols., Leipzig, 1901). There are also innumerable editions
+  of selected works; reference need only be made here to the useful
+  collection of the early writings and letters published by S. Hirzel
+  with an introduction by M. Bernays, _Der junge Goethe_ (3 vols.,
+  Leipzig, 1875, 2nd ed., 1887). A French translation of Goethe's
+  _Oeuvres complètes_, by J. Porchat, appeared in 9 vols., at Paris, in
+  1860-1863. There is, as yet, no uniform English edition, but Goethe's
+  chief works have all been frequently translated and a number of them
+  will be found in Bohn's standard library.
+
+  The definitive edition of Goethe's diaries and letters is that forming
+  Sections III. and IV. of the Weimar edition. Collections of selected
+  letters based on the Weimar edition have been published by E. von der
+  Hellen (6 vols., 1901 ff.), and by P. Stein (8 vols., 1902 ff.). Of
+  the many separate collections of Goethe's correspondence mention may
+  be made of the _Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Goethe_, edited by
+  Goethe himself (1828-1829; 4th ed., 1881; also several cheap reprints.
+  English translation by L. D. Schmitz, 1877-1879); _Briefwechsel
+  zwischen Goethe und Zelter_ (6 vols., 1833-1834; reprint in Reclam's
+  _Universalbibliothek_, 1904; English translation by A. D. Coleridge,
+  1887); _Bettina von Arnim, Goethes Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde_
+  (1835; 4th ed., 1890; English translation, 1838); _Briefe von und an
+  Goethe_, edited by F. W. Riemer (1846); _Goethes Briefe an Frau von
+  Stein_, edited by A. Schöll (1848-1851; 3rd ed. by J. Wahle,
+  1899-1900); _Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und K. F. von Reinhard_
+  (1850); _Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Knebel_ (2 vols., 1851);
+  _Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Staatsrat Schultz_ (1853);
+  _Briefwechsel des Herzogs Karl August mit Goethe_ (2 vols., 1863);
+  _Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Kaspar Graf von Sternberg_ (1866);
+  _Goethes naturwissenschaftliche Korrespondenz_, and _Goethes
+  Briefwechsel mit den Gebrüdern von Humboldt_, edited by F. T.
+  Bratranek (1874-1876); _Goethes und Carlyles Briefwechsel_ (1887),
+  also in English; _Goethe und die Romantik_, edited by C. Schüddekopf
+  and O. Walzel (2 vols., 1898-1899); _Goethe und Lavater_, edited by H.
+  Funck (1901); _Goethe und Österreich_, edited by A. Sauer (2 vols.,
+  1902-1903). Besides the correspondence with Schiller and Zelter,
+  Bonn's library contains a translation of _Early and Miscellaneous_
+  _Letters_, by E. Bell (1884). The chief collections of Goethe's
+  conversations are: J. P. Eckermann, _Gespräche mit Goethe_ (1836; vol.
+  iii., also containing conversations with Soret, 1848; 7th ed. by H.
+  Düntzer, 1899; also new edition by L. Geiger, 1902; English
+  translation by J. Oxenford, 1850). The complete conversations with
+  Soret have been published in German translation by C. A. H. Burkhardt
+  (1905); _Goethes Unterhaltungen mit dem Kanzler F. von Müller_ (1870).
+  Goethe's collected _Gespräche_ were published by W. von Biedermann in
+  10 vols. (1889-1896).
+
+  (b) _Biography._--Goethe's autobiography, _Aus meinem Leben: Dichtung
+  und Wahrheit_, appeared in three parts between 1811 and 1814, a fourth
+  part, bringing the history of his life as far as his departure for
+  Weimar in 1775, in 1833 (English translation by J. Oxenford, 1846); it
+  is supplemented by other biographical writings, as the _Italienische
+  Reise, Aus einer Reise in die Schweiz im Jahre 1797_; _Aus einer Reise
+  am Rhein, Main und Neckar in den Jahren 1814 und 1815, Tag- und
+  Jahreshefte_, &c., and especially by his diaries and correspondence.
+  The following are the more important biographies: H. Döring, _Goethes
+  Leben_ (1828; subsequent editions, 1833, 1849, 1856); H. Viehoff,
+  _Goethes Leben_ (4 vols., 1847-1854; 5th ed., 1887); J. W. Schäfer,
+  _Goethes Leben_ (2 vols., 1851; 3rd ed., 1877); G. H. Lewes, _The Life
+  and Works of Goethe_ (2 vols., 1855; 2nd ed., 1864; 3rd ed., 1875;
+  cheap reprint, 1906; the German translation by J. Frese is in its 18th
+  edition, 1900; a shorter biography was published by Lewes in 1873
+  under the title _The Story of Goethe's Life)_; W. Mézières, _W.
+  Goethe, les oeuvres expliquées par la vie_ (1872-1873); A. Bossert,
+  _Goethe_ (1872-1873); K. Goedeke, _Goethes Leben und Schriften_ (1874;
+  2nd ed., 1877); H. Grimm, _Goethe: Vorlesungen_ (1876; 8th ed., 1903;
+  English translation, 1880); A. Hayward, _Goethe_ (1878); H. H.
+  Boyesen, _Goethe and Schiller, their Lives and Works_ (1879); H.
+  Düntzer, _Goethes Leben_ (1880; 2nd ed., 1883; English translation,
+  1883); A. Baumgartner, _Goethe, sein Leben und seine Werke_ (1885); J.
+  Sime, _Life of Goethe_ (1888); K. Heinemann, _Goethes Leben und Werke_
+  (1889; 3rd ed., 1903); R. M. Meyer, _Goethe_ (1894; 3rd ed., 1904); A.
+  Bielschowsky, _Goethe, sein Leben und seine Werke_ (vol. i., 1895; 5th
+  ed., 1904; vol. ii., 1903; English translation by W. A. Cooper, 1905
+  ff.); G. Witkowsky, Goethe (1899); H. G. Atkins, _J. W. Goethe_
+  (1904); P. Hansen and R. Meyer, _Goethe, hans Liv og Vaerker_ (1906).
+
+  Of writings on special periods and aspects of Goethe's life the more
+  important are as follows (the titles are arranged as far as possible
+  in the chronological sequence of the poet's life): H. Düntzer,
+  _Goethes Stammbaum_ (1894); K. Heinemann, _Goethes Mutter_ (1891; 6th
+  ed., 1900); P. Bastier, _La Mère de Goethe_ (1902); _Briefe der Frau
+  Rat_ (2 vols., 2nd ed., 1905); F. Ewart, _Goethes Vater_ (1899); G.
+  Witkowski, _Cornelia die Schwester Goethes_ (1903); P. Besson,
+  _Goethe, sa soeur et ses amies_ (1898); H. Düntzer, _Frauenbilder aus
+  Goethes Jugendzeit_ (1852); W. von Biedermann, _Goethe und Leipzig_
+  (1865); P. F. Lucius, _Friederike Brion_ (1878; 3rd ed., 1904); A.
+  Bielschowsky, _Friederike Brion_ (1880); F. E. von Durckheim, _Lili's
+  Bild geschichtlich entworfen_ (1879; 2nd ed., 1894); W. Herbst,
+  _Goethe in Wetzlar_ (1881); A. Diezmann, _Goethe und die lustige Zeit
+  in Weimar_ (1857; 2nd ed., 1901); H. Düntzer, _Goethe und Karl August_
+  (1859-1864; 2nd ed., 1888); also, by the same author, _Aus Goethes
+  Freundeskreise_ (1868) and _Charlotte von Stein_ (2 vols., 1874); J.
+  Haarhuus, _Auf Goethes Spuren in Italien_ (1896-1898); O. Harnack,
+  _Zur Nachgeschichte der italienischen Reise_ (1890); H. Grimm,
+  _Schiller und Goethe_ (_Essays_, 1858; 3rd ed., 1884); G. Berlit,
+  _Goethe und Schiller im persönlichen Verkehre, nach brieflichen
+  Mitteilungen von H. Voss_ (1895); E. Pasqué, _Goethes Theaterleitung
+  in Weimar_ (2 vols., 1863); C. A. H. Burkhards, _Das Repertoire des
+  weimarischen Theaters unter Goethes Leitung_ (1891); J. Wahle, _Das
+  Weimarer Hoftheater unter Goethes Leitung_ (1892); O. Harnack, _Goethe
+  in der Epoche seiner Vollendung_ (2nd ed., 1901); J. Barbey
+  d'Aurevilly, _Goethe et Diderot_ (1880); A Fischer, _Goethe und
+  Napoleon_ (1899; 2nd ed., 1900); R. Steig, _Goethe und die Gebrüder
+  Grimm_ (1892).
+
+  (c) _Criticism._--H. G. Graef, _Goethe über seine Dichtungen_ (1901
+  ff.); J. W. Braun, _Goethe im Urteile seiner Zeitgenossen_ (3 vols.,
+  1883-1885); T. Carlyle, _Essays on Goethe_ (1828-1832); X. Marmier,
+  _Études sur Goethe_ (1835); W. von Biedermann, _Goethe-Forschungen_
+  (1879, 1886); J. Minor and A. Sauer, _Studien zur Goethe-Philologie_
+  (1880); H. Düntzer, _Abhandlungen zu Goethes Leben und Werken_ (1881);
+  A. Schöll, _Goethe in Hauptzügen seines Lebens und Wirkens_ (1882); V.
+  Hehn, _Gedanken über Goethe_ (1884; 4th ed., 1900); W. Scherer,
+  _Aufsätze über Goethe_ (1886); J. R. Seeley, _Goethe reviewed after
+  Sixty Years_ (1894); E. Dowden, _New Studies in Literature_ (1895); É.
+  Rod, _Essai sur Goethe_ (1898); A. Luther, _Goethe, sechs Vorträge_
+  (1905); R. Saitschik, _Goethes Charakter_ (1898); W. Bode, _Goethes
+  Lebenskunst_ (1900; 2nd ed., 1902); by the same, _Goethes Ästhetik_
+  (1901); T. Vollbehr, _Goethe und die bildende Kunst_ (1895); E.
+  Lichtenberger, _Études sur les poésies lyriques de Goethe_ (1878); T.
+  Achelis, _Grundzüge der Lyrik Goethes_ (1900); B. Litzmann, _Goethes
+  Lyrik_ (1903); R. Riemann, _Goethes Romantechnik_ (1901); R. Virchow,
+  _Goethe als Naturforscher_ (1861); E. Caro, _La Philosophie de Goethe_
+  (1866; 2nd ed., 1870); R. Steiner, _Goethes Weltanschauung_ (1897); F.
+  Siebeck, _Goethe als Denker_ (1902); F. Baldensperger, Goethe en
+  France (1904); S. Waetzoldt, _Goethe und die Romantik_ (1888).
+
+  More special treatises dealing with individual works are the
+  following: W. Scherer, _Aus Goethes Frühzeit_ (1879); R. Weissenfels,
+  _Goethe in Sturm und Drang_, vol. i. (1894); W. Wilmanns,
+  _Quellenstudien zu Goethes Götz von Berlichingen_ (1874); J.
+  Baechtold, _Goethes Götz von Berlichingen in dreifacher Gestalt_
+  (1882); J. W. Appell, _Werther und seine Zeit_ (1855; 4th ed., 1896);
+  E. Schmidt, _Richardson, Rousseau und Goethe_ (1875); M. Herrmann,
+  _Das Jahrmarktsfest zu Plundersweilen_ (1900); E. Schmidt, Goethes
+  Faust in ursprünglicher Gestalt (1887; 5th ed., 1901); J. Collin,
+  _Goethes Faust in seiner ältesten Gestalt_ (1896); H. Hettner,
+  _Goethes Iphigenie in ihrem Verhältnis zur Bildungsgeschichte des
+  Dichters_ (1861; in _Kleine Schriften_, 1884); K. Fischer, _Goethes
+  Iphigenie_ (1888); F. T. Bratranek, _Goethes Egmont und Schillers
+  Wallenstein_ (1862); C. Schuchardt, _Goethes italienische Reise_
+  (1862); H. Düntzer, _Iphigenie auf Tauris; die drei ältesten
+  Bearbeitungen_ (1854); F. Kern, _Goethes Tasso_ (1890); J. Schubart,
+  _Die philosophischen Grundgedanken in Goethes Wilhelm Meister_ (1896);
+  E. Boas, _Schiller und Goethe in Xenienkampf_ (1851); E. Schmidt and
+  B. Suphan, _Xenien 1796, nach den Handschriften_ (1893); W. von
+  Humboldt, _Ästhetische Versuche: Hermann und Dorothea_ (1799); V.
+  Hehn, _Über Goethes Hermann und Dorothea_ (1893); A. Fries, _Quellen
+  und Komposition der Achilleis_ (1901); K. Alt, _Studien zur
+  Entstehungsgeschichte von Dichtung und Wahrheit_ (1898); A. Jung,
+  _Goethes Wanderjahre und die wichtigsten Fragen des 19. Jahrhunderts_
+  (1854); F. Kreyssig, _Vorlesungen über Goethes Faust_ (1866); the
+  editions of _Faust_ by G. von Loeper (2 vols., 1879), and K. J.
+  Schröer (2 vols., 3rd and 4th ed., 1898-1903); K. Fischer, _Goethes
+  Faust_ (3 vols., 1893, 1902, 1903); O. Pniower, _Goethes Faust,
+  Zeugnisse und Excurse zu seiner Entstehungsgeschichte_ (1899); J.
+  Minor, _Goethes Faust, Entstehungsgeschichte und Erklärung_ (2 vols.,
+  1901).
+
+  (d) _Bibliographical Works, Goethe-Societies, &c._--L. Unflad, _Die
+  Goethe-Literatur in Deutschland_ (1878); S. Hirzel, _Verzeichnis einer
+  Goethe-Bibliothek_ (1884), to which G. von Loeper and W. von
+  Biedermann have supplied supplements. F. Strehlke, _Goethes Briefe:
+  Verzeichnis unter Angabe der Quelle_ (1882-1884); _British Museum
+  Catalogue of Printed Books: Goethe_ (1888); Goedeke's _Grundriss zur
+  Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung_ (2nd ed., vol. iv. 1891); and the
+  bibliographies in the _Goethe-Jahrbuch_ (since 1880). Also K. Hoyer,
+  _Zur Einführung in die Goethe-Literatur_ (1904). On Goethe in England
+  see E. Oswald, _Goethe in England and America_ (1899; 2nd ed., 1909);
+  W. Heinemann, _A Bibliographical List of the English Translations and
+  Annotated Editions of Goethe's Faust_ (1886). Reference may also be
+  made here to F. Zarncke's _Verzeichnis der Originalaufnahmen von
+  Goethes Bildnissen_ (1888).
+
+  _A Goethe-Gesellschaft_ was founded at Weimar in 1885, and numbers
+  over 2800 members; its publications include the annual
+  _Goethe-Jahrbuch_ (since 1880), and a series of _Goethe-Schriften_. A
+  _Goethe-Verein_ has existed in Vienna since 1887, and an English
+  Goethe society, which has also issued several volumes of publications,
+  since 1886.     (J. G. R.)
+
+_Goethe's Descendants._--Goethe's only son, AUGUST, born on the 25th of
+December 1789 at Weimar, married in 1817 Ottilie von Pogwisch
+(1796-1872), who had come as a child to Weimar with her mother (_née_
+Countess Henckel von Donnersmarck). The marriage was a very unhappy one,
+the husband having no qualities that could appeal to a woman who,
+whatever the censorious might say of her moral character, was
+distinguished to the last by a lively intellect and a singular charm.
+August von Goethe, whose sole distinction was his birth and his position
+as grand-ducal chamberlain, died in Italy, on the 27th of October 1830,
+leaving three children; WALTHER WOLFGANG, born on April 9, 1818, died on
+April 15, 1885; WOLFGANG MAXIMILIAN, born on September 18, 1820, died on
+January 20, 1883; ALMA, born on October 22, 1827, died on September 29,
+1844.
+
+Of Walther von Goethe little need be said. In youth he had musical
+ambitions, studied under Mendelssohn and Weinlig at Leipzig, under Loewe
+at Stettin, and afterwards at Vienna. He published a few songs of no
+great merit, and had at his death no more than the reputation among his
+friends of a kindly and accomplished man.
+
+Wolfgang or, as he was familiarly called, Wolf von Goethe, was by far
+the more gifted of the two brothers, and his gloomy destiny by so much
+the more tragic. A sensitive and highly imaginative boy, he was the
+favourite of his grandfather, who made him his constant companion. This
+fact, instead of being to the boy's advantage, was to prove his bane.
+The exalted atmosphere of the great man's ideas was too rarefied for the
+child's intellectual health, and a brain well fitted to do excellent
+work in the world was ruined by the effort to live up to an impossible
+ideal. To maintain himself on the same height as his grandfather, and to
+make the name of Goethe illustrious in his descendants also, became
+Wolfgang's ambition; and his incapacity to realize this, very soon borne
+in upon him, paralyzed his efforts and plunged him at last into bitter
+revolt against his fate and gloomy isolation from a world that seemed to
+have no use for him but as a curiosity. From the first, too, he was
+hampered by wretched health; at the age of sixteen he was subjected to
+one of those terrible attacks of neuralgia which were to torment him to
+the last; physically and mentally alike he stood in tragic contrast with
+his grandfather, in whose gigantic personality the vigour of his race
+seems to have been exhausted.
+
+From 1839 to 1845 Wolfgang studied law at Bonn, Jena, Heidelberg and
+Berlin, taking his degree of _doctor juris_ at Heidelberg in 1845.
+During this period he had made his first literary efforts. His
+_Studenten-Briefe_ (Jena, 1842), a medley of letters and lyrics, are
+wholly conventional. This was followed by _Der Mensch und die
+elementarische Natur_ (Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1845), in three parts
+(_Beiträge_): (1) an historical and philosophical dissertation on the
+relations of mankind and the "soul of nature," largely influenced by
+Schelling, (2) a dissertation on the juridical side of the question, _De
+fragmento Vegoiae_, being the thesis presented for his degree, (3) a
+lyrical drama, _Erlinde_. In this last, as in his other poetic attempts,
+Wolfgang showed a considerable measure of inherited or acquired ability,
+in his wealth of language and his easy mastery of the difficulties of
+rhythm and rhyme. But this was all. The work was characteristic of his
+self-centred isolation: ultra-romantic at a time when Romanticism was
+already an outworn fashion, remote alike from the spirit of the age and
+from that of Goethe. The cold reception it met with shattered at a blow
+the dream of Wolfgang's life; henceforth he realized that to the world
+he was interesting mainly as "Goethe's grandson," that anything he might
+achieve would be measured by that terrible standard, and he hated the
+legacy of his name.
+
+The next five years he spent in Italy and at Vienna, tormented by facial
+neuralgia. Returning to Weimar in 1850, he was made a chamberlain by the
+grand-duke, and in 1852, his health being now somewhat restored, he
+entered the Prussian diplomatic service and went as attaché to Rome. The
+fruit of his long years of illness was a slender volume of lyrics,
+_Gedichte_ (Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1851), good in form, but seldom
+inspired, and showing occasionally the influence of a morbid sensuality.
+In 1854 he was appointed secretary of legation; but the aggressive
+ultramontanism of the Curia became increasingly intolerable to his
+overwrought nature, and in 1856 he was transferred, at his own request,
+as secretary of legation to Dresden. This post he resigned in 1859, in
+which year he was raised to the rank of _Freiherr_ (baron). In 1866 he
+received the title of councillor of legation; but he never again
+occupied any diplomatic post.
+
+The rest of his life he devoted to historical research, ultimately
+selecting as his special subject the Italian libraries up to the year
+1500. The outcome of all his labours was, however, only the first part
+of _Studies and Researches in the Times and Life of Cardinal Bessarion_,
+embracing the period of the council of Florence (privately printed at
+Jena, 1871), a catalogue of the MSS. in the monastery of Sancta Justina
+at Padua (Jena, 1873), and a mass of undigested material, which he
+ultimately bequeathed to the university of Jena.
+
+In 1870 Ottilie von Goethe, who had resided mainly at Vienna, returned
+to Weimar and took up her residence with her two sons in the Goethehaus.
+So long as she lived, her small salon in the attic storey of the great
+house was a centre of attraction for many of the most illustrious
+personages in Europe. But after her death in 1872 the two brothers lived
+in almost complete isolation. The few old friends, including the
+grand-duke Charles Alexander, who continued regularly to visit the
+house, were entertained with kindly hospitality by Baron Walther;
+Wolfgang refused to be drawn from his isolation even by the advent of
+royalty. "Tell the empress," he cried on one occasion, "that I am not a
+wild beast to be stared at!" In 1879, his increasing illness
+necessitating the constant presence of an attendant, he went to live at
+Leipzig, where he died.
+
+Goethe's grandsons have been so repeatedly accused of having displayed a
+dog-in-the-manger temper in closing the Goethehaus to the public and
+the Goethe archives to research, that the charge has almost universally
+come to be regarded as proven. It is true that the house was closed and
+access to the archives only very sparingly allowed until Baron Walther's
+death in 1885. But the reason for this was not, as Herr Max Hecker
+rather absurdly suggests, Wolfgang's jealousy of his grandfather's
+oppressive fame, but one far more simple and natural. From one cause or
+another, principally Ottilie von Goethe's extravagance, the family was
+in very straitened circumstances; and the brothers, being thoroughly
+unbusinesslike, believed themselves to be poorer than they really
+were.[1] They closed the Goethehaus and the archives, because to have
+opened them would have needed an army of attendants.[2] If they deserve
+any blame it is for the pride, natural to their rank and their
+generation, which prevented them from charging an entrance fee, an
+expedient which would not only have made it possible for them to give
+access to the house and collections, but would have enabled them to save
+the fabric from falling into the lamentable state of disrepair in which
+it was found after their death. In any case, the accusation is
+ungenerous. With an almost exaggerated _Pietät_ Goethe's descendants
+preserved his house untouched, at great inconvenience to themselves, and
+left it, with all its treasures intact, to the nation. Had they been the
+selfish misers they are sometimes painted, they could have realized a
+fortune by selling its contents.
+
+  _Wolf Goethe_ (Weimar, 1889) is a sympathetic appreciation by Otto
+  Mejer, formerly president of the Lutheran consistory in Hanover. See
+  also Jenny v. Gerstenbergk, _Ottilie von Goethe und ihre Söhne Walther
+  und Wolf_ (Stuttgart, 1901), and the article on Maximilian Wolfgang
+  von Goethe by Max F. Hecker in _Allgem. deutsche Biographie_, Bd. 49,
+  _Nachträge_ (Leipzig, 1904).     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] After Walther's death upwards of £10,000 in bonds, &c., were
+    discovered put away and forgotten in escritoires and odd corners.
+
+  [2] This was the reason given by Baron Walther himself to the
+    writer's mother, an old friend of Frau von Goethe, who lived with her
+    family in the Goethehaus for some years after 1871.
+
+
+
+
+GOETZ, HERMANN (1840-1876), German musical composer, was born at
+Königsberg in Prussia, on the 17th of December 1840, and began his
+regular musical studies at the comparatively advanced age of seventeen.
+He entered the music-school of Professor Stern at Berlin, and studied
+composition chiefly under Ulrich and Hans von Bülow. In 1863 he was
+appointed organist at Winterthur in Switzerland, where he lived in
+obscurity for a number of years, occupying himself with composition
+during his leisure hours. One of his works was an opera, _The Taming of
+the Shrew_, the libretto skilfully adapted from Shakespeare's play.
+After much delay it was produced at Mannheim (in October 1874), and its
+success was as instantaneous as it has up to the present proved lasting.
+It rapidly made the round of the great German theatres, and spread its
+composer's fame over all the land. But Goetz did not live to enjoy this
+happy result for long. In December 1876 he died at Zürich from overwork.
+A second opera, _Francesco da Rimini_, on which he was engaged, remained
+a fragment; but it was finished according to his directions, and was
+performed for the first time at Mannheim a few months after the
+composer's death on the 4th of December 1876. Besides his dramatic work,
+Goetz also wrote various compositions for chamber-music, of which a trio
+(Op. 1) and a quintet (Op. 16) have been given with great success at the
+London Monday Popular Concerts. Still more important is the _Symphony in
+F_. As a composer of comic opera Goetz lacks the sprightliness and
+artistic _savoir faire_ so rarely found amongst Germanic nations. His
+was essentially a serious nature, and passion and pathos were to him
+more congenial than humour. The more serious sides of the subject are
+therefore insisted upon more successfully than Katherine's ravings and
+Petruchio's eccentricities. There are, however, very graceful passages,
+e.g. the singing lesson Bianca receives from her disguised lover.
+Goetz's style, although influenced by Wagner and other masters, shows
+signs of a distinct individuality. The design of his music is
+essentially of a polyphonic character, and the working out and
+interweaving of his themes betray the musician of high scholarship. But
+breadth and beautiful flow of melody also were his, as is seen in the
+symphony, and perhaps still more in the quintet for pianoforte and
+strings above referred to. The most important of Goetz's posthumous
+works are a setting of the 137th Psalm for soprano solo, chorus and
+orchestra, a "Spring" overture (Op. 15), and a pianoforte sonata for
+four hands (Op. 17).
+
+
+
+
+GOFFE (or GOUGH), WILLIAM (fl. 1642-1660), English parliamentarian, son
+of Stephen Goffe, puritan rector of Stanmer in Essex, began life as an
+apprentice to a London salter, a zealous parliamentarian, but on the
+outbreak of the civil war he joined the army and became captain in
+Colonel Harley's regiment of the new model in 1645. He was imprisoned in
+1642 for his share in the petition to give the control of the militia to
+the parliament. By his marriage with Frances, daughter of General Edward
+Whalley, he became connected with Oliver Cromwell's family and one of
+his most faithful followers. He was a member of the deputation which on
+the 6th of July 1647 brought up the charge against the eleven members.
+He was active in bringing the king to trial and signed the death
+warrant. In 1649 he received the honorary degree of M.A. at Oxford. He
+distinguished himself at Dunbar, commanding a regiment there and at
+Worcester. He assisted in the expulsion of Barebone's parliament in
+1653, took an active part in the suppression of Penruddock's rising in
+July 1654, and in October 1655 was appointed major-general for
+Berkshire, Sussex and Hampshire. Meanwhile he had been elected member
+for Yarmouth in the parliament of 1654 and for Hampshire in that of
+1656. He supported the proposal to bestow a royal title upon Cromwell,
+who greatly esteemed him, was included in the newly-constituted House of
+Lords, obtained Lambert's place as major-general of the Foot, and was
+even thought of as a fit successor to Cromwell. As a member of the
+committee of nine appointed in June 1658 on public affairs, he was
+witness to the protector's appointment of Richard Cromwell as his
+successor. He supported the latter during his brief tenure of power and
+his fall involved his own loss of influence. In November 1659 he took
+part in the futile mission sent by the army to Monk in Scotland, and at
+the Restoration escaped with his father-in-law General Edward Whalley to
+Massachusetts. Goffe's political aims appear not to have gone much
+beyond fighting "to pull down Charles and set up Oliver"; and he was no
+doubt a man of deep religious feeling, who acted throughout according to
+a strict sense of duty as he conceived it. He was destined to pass the
+rest of his life in exile, separated from his wife and children, dying,
+it is supposed, about 1679.
+
+
+
+
+GOFFER, to give a fluted or crimped appearance to anything, particularly
+to linen or lace frills or trimmings by means of heated irons of a
+special shape, called goffering-irons or tongs. "Goffering," or the
+French term _gaufrage_, is also used of the wavey or crimped edging in
+certain forms of porcelain, and also of the stamped or embossed
+decorations on the edges of the binding of books. The French word
+_gaufre_, from which the English form is adapted, means a thin cake
+marked with a pattern like a honeycomb, a "wafer," which is
+etymologically the same word. _Waufre_ appears in the phrase _un fer à
+waufres_, an iron for baking cakes on (quotation of 1433 in J. B.
+Roquefort's _Glossaire de la langue romane_). The word is Teutonic, cf.
+Dutch _wafel_, Ger. _Waffel_, a form seen in "waffle," the name given to
+the well-known batter-cakes of America. The "wafer" was so called from
+its likeness to a honeycomb, _Wabe_, ultimately derived from the root
+_wab_-, to weave, the cells of the comb appearing to be woven together.
+
+
+
+
+GOG (possibly connected with the Gentilic _Gagaya_, "of the land of
+Gag," used in Amarna Letters i. 38, as a synonym for "barbarian," or
+with Ass. _Gagu_, a ruler of the land of _Sahi_, N. of Assyria, or with
+_Gyges_, Ass. _Gugu_, a king of Lydia), a Hebrew name found in Ezek.
+xxxviii.-xxxix. and in Rev. xx., and denoting an antitheocratic power
+that is to manifest itself in the world immediately before the final
+dispensation. In the later passage, Gog and Magog are spoken of as
+co-ordinate; in the earlier, Gog is given as the name of the person or
+people and Magog as that of the land of origin. Magog is perhaps a
+contracted form of Mat-gog, _mat_ being the common Assyrian word for
+"land." The passages are, however, intimately related and both depend
+upon Gen. x. 2, though here Magog alone is mentioned. He is the second
+"son" of Japhet, and the order of the names here and in Ezekiel xxxviii.
+2, indicates a locality between Cappadocia and Media, i.e. in Armenia.
+According to Josephus, who is followed by Jerome, the Scythians were
+primarily intended by this designation; and this plausible opinion has
+been generally followed. The name [Greek: Skythai], it is to be
+observed, however, is often but a vague word for any or all of the
+numerous and but partially known tribes of the north; and any attempt to
+assign a more definite locality to Magog can only be very hesitatingly
+made. According to some, the Maiotes about the Palus Maeotis are meant;
+according to others, the Massagetae; according to Kiepert, the
+inhabitants of the northern and eastern parts of Armenia. The imagery
+employed in Ezekiel's prophetic description was no doubt suggested by
+the Scythian invasion which about the time of Josiah, 630 B.C., had
+devastated Asia (Herodotus i. 104-106; Jer. iv. 3-vi. 30). Following on
+this description, Gog figures largely in Jewish and Mahommedan as well
+as in Christian eschatology. In the district of Astrakhan a legend is
+still to be met with, to the effect that Gog and Magog were two great
+races, which Alexander the Great subdued and banished to the inmost
+recesses of the Caucasus, where they are meanwhile kept in by the terror
+of twelve trumpets blown by the winds, but whence they are destined
+ultimately to make their escape and destroy the world.
+
+The legends that attach themselves to the gigantic effigies (dating from
+1708 and replacing those destroyed in the Great Fire) of Gog and Magog
+in Guildhall, London, are connected only remotely, if at all, with the
+biblical notices. According to the _Recuyell des histoires de Troye_,
+Gog and Magog were the survivors of a race of giants descended from the
+thirty-three wicked daughters of Diocletian; after their brethren had
+been slain by Brute and his companions, Gog and Magog were brought to
+London (Troy-novant) and compelled to officiate as porters at the gate
+of the royal palace. It is known that effigies similar to the present
+existed in London as early as the time of Henry V.; but when this legend
+began to attach to them is uncertain. They may be compared with the
+giant images formerly kept at Antwerp (Antigomes) and Douai (Gayant).
+According to Geoffrey of Monmouth (_Chronicles_, i. 16), Goëmot or
+Goëmagot (either corrupted from or corrupted into "Gog and Magog") was a
+giant who, along with his brother Corineus, tyrannized in the western
+horn of England until slain by foreign invaders.
+
+
+
+
+GOGO, or GOGHA, a town of British India in Ahmedabad district, Bombay,
+193 m. N.W. of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 4798. About ¾ m. east of the town is
+an excellent anchorage, in some measure sheltered by the island of
+Piram, which lies still farther east. The natives of this place are
+reckoned the best sailors in India; and ships touching here may procure
+water and supplies, or repair damages. The anchorage is a safe refuge
+during the south-west monsoon, the bottom being a bed of mud and the
+water always smooth. Gogo has lost its commercial importance and has
+steadily declined in population and trade since the time of the American
+Civil War, when it was an important cotton-mart.
+
+
+
+
+GOGOL, NIKOLAI VASILIEVICH (1809-1852), Russian novelist, was born in
+the province of Poltava, in South Russia, on the 31st of March 1809.
+Educated at the Niezhin gymnasium, he there started a manuscript
+periodical, "The Star," and wrote several pieces including a tragedy,
+_The Brigands_. Having completed his course at Niezhin, he went in 1829
+to St Petersburg, where he tried the stage but failed. Next year he
+obtained a clerkship in the department of appanages, but he soon gave it
+up. In literature, however, he found his true vocation. In 1829 he
+published anonymously a poem called _Italy_, and, under the pseudonym of
+V. Alof, an idyll, _Hans Kuchel Garten_, which he had written while
+still at Niezhin. The idyll was so ridiculed by a reviewer that its
+author bought up all the copies he could secure, and burnt them in a
+room which he hired for the purpose at an inn. Gogol then fell back upon
+South Russian popular literature, and especially the tales of Cossackdom
+on which his boyish fancy had been nursed, his father having occupied
+the post of "regimental secretary," one of the honorary officials in
+the Zaporogian Cossack forces.
+
+In 1830 he published in a periodical the first of the stories which
+appeared next year under the title of _Evenings in a Farm near Dikanka:
+by Rudy Panko_. This work, containing a series of attractive pictures of
+that Little-Russian life which lends itself to romance more readily than
+does the monotony of "Great-Russian" existence, immediately obtained a
+great success--its light and colour, its freshness and originality being
+hailed with enthusiasm by the principal writers of the day in Russia.
+Whereupon Gogol planned, not only a history of Little-Russia, but also
+one of the middle ages, to be completed in eight or nine volumes. This
+plan he did not carry out, though it led to his being appointed to a
+professorship in the university of St Petersburg, a post in which he met
+with small success and which he resigned in 1835. Meanwhile he had
+published his _Arabesques_, a collection of essays and stories; his
+_Taras Bulba_, the chief of the _Cossack Tales_ translated into English
+by George Tolstoy; and a number of novelettes, which mark his transition
+from the romantic to the realistic school of fiction, such as the
+admirable sketch of the tranquil life led in a quiet country house by
+two kindly specimens of _Old-world Gentlefolks_, or the description of
+the petty miseries endured by an ill-paid clerk in a government office,
+the great object of whose life is to secure the "cloak" from which his
+story takes its name. To the same period belongs his celebrated comedy,
+the _Revizor_, or government inspector. His aim in writing it was to
+drag into light "all that was bad in Russia," and to hold it up to
+contempt. And he succeeded in rendering contemptible and ludicrous the
+official life of Russia, the corruption universally prevailing
+throughout the civil service, the alternate arrogance and servility of
+men in office. The plot of the comedy is very simple. A traveller who
+arrives with an empty purse at a provincial town is taken for an
+inspector whose arrival is awaited with fear, and he receives all the
+attentions and bribes which are meant to propitiate the dreaded
+investigator of abuses. The play appeared on the stage in the spring of
+1836, and achieved a full success, in spite of the opposition attempted
+by the official classes whose malpractices it exposed. The aim which
+Gogol had in view when writing the _Revizor_ he afterwards fully
+attained in his great novel, _Mertvuiya Dushi_, or Dead Souls, the first
+part of which appeared in 1842. The hero of the story is an adventurer
+who goes about Russia making fictitious purchases of "dead souls," i.e.
+of serfs who have died since the last census, with the view of pledging
+his imaginary property to the government. But his adventures are merely
+an excuse for drawing a series of pictures, of an unfavourable kind, of
+Russian provincial life, and of introducing on the scene a number of
+types of Russian society. Of the force and truth with which these
+delineations are executed the universal consent of Russian critics in
+their favour may be taken as a measure. From the French version of the
+story a general idea of its merits may be formed, and some knowledge of
+its plot and its principal characters may be gathered from the English
+adaptation published in 1854, as an original work, under the title of
+_Home Life in Russia_. But no one can fully appreciate Gogol's merits as
+a humorist who is not intimate with the language in which he wrote as
+well as with the society which he depicted.
+
+In 1836 Gogol for the first time went abroad. Subsequently he spent a
+considerable amount of time out of Russia, chiefly in Italy, where much
+of his _Dead Souls_ was written. His residence there, especially at
+Rome, made a deep impression on his mind, which, during his later years,
+turned towards mysticism. The last works which he published, his
+_Confession_ and _Correspondence with Friends_, offer a painful contrast
+to the light, bright, vigorous, realistic, humorous writings which had
+gained and have retained for him his immense popularity in his native
+land. Asceticism and mystical exaltation had told upon his nervous
+system, and its feeble condition showed itself in his literary
+compositions. In 1848 he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and on his
+return settled down at Moscow, where he died on the 3rd of March 1852.
+
+  See _Materials for the Biography of Gogol_ (in Russian) (1897), by
+  Shenrok; "Illness and Death of Gogol," by N. Bazhenov, _Russkaya
+  Muisl_, January 1902.     (W. R. S.-R.)
+
+
+
+
+GOGRA, or GHAGRA, a river of northern India. It is an important
+tributary of the Ganges, bringing down to the plains more water than the
+Ganges itself. It rises in Tibet near Lake Manasarowar, not far from the
+sources of the Brahmaputra and the Sutlej, passes through Nepal where it
+is known as the Kauriala, and after entering British territory becomes
+the most important waterway in the United Provinces. It joins the Ganges
+at Chapra after a course of 600 m. Its tributary, the Rapti, also has
+considerable commercial importance. The Gogra has the alternative name
+of Sarju, and in its lower course is also known as the Deoha.
+
+
+
+
+GOHIER, LOUIS JÉRÔME (1746-1830), French politician, was born at
+Semblançay (Indre-et-Loire) on the 27th of February 1746, the son of a
+notary. He was called to the bar at Rennes, and practised there until he
+was sent to represent the town in the states-general. In the Legislative
+Assembly he represented Ille-et-Vilaine. He took a prominent part in the
+deliberations; he protested against the exaction of a new oath from
+priests (Nov. 22, 1791), and demanded the sequestration of the
+emigrants' property (Feb. 7, 1792). He was minister of justice from
+March 1793 to April 1794, and in June 1799 he succeeded Treilhard in the
+Directory, where he represented the republican interest. His wife was
+intimate with Josephine Bonaparte, and when Bonaparte suddenly returned
+from Egypt in October 1799 he repeatedly protested his friendship for
+Gohier, who was then president of the Directory, and tried in vain to
+gain him over. After the _coup d'état_ of the 18th Brumaire (Nov. 9,
+1799), he refused to abdicate his functions, and sought out Bonaparte at
+the Tuileries "to save the republic," as he boldly expressed it. He was
+escorted to the Luxembourg, and on his release he retired to his estate
+at Eaubonne. In 1802 Napoleon made him consul-general at Amsterdam, and
+on the union of the Netherlands with France he was offered a similar
+post in the United States. His health did not permit of his taking up a
+new appointment, and he died at Eaubonne on the 29th of May 1830.
+
+  His _Mémoires d'un vétéran irréprochable de la Révolution_ was
+  published in 1824, his report on the papers of the civil list
+  preparatory to the trial of Louis XVI. is printed in Le _Procès de
+  Louis XVI_ (Paris, an III) and elsewhere, while others appear in the
+  _Moniteur_.
+
+
+
+
+GÖHRDE, a forest of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover,
+immediately W. of the Elbe, between Wittenberg and Lüneburg. It has an
+area of about 85 sq. m. and is famous for its oaks, beeches and game
+preserves. It is memorable for the victory gained here, on the 16th of
+September 1813, by the allies, under Wallmoden, over the French forces
+commanded by Pecheur. The hunting-box situated in the forest was built
+in 1689 and was restored by Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover. It is
+known to history on account of the constitution of Göhrde, promulgated
+here in 1719.
+
+
+
+
+GOITO, a village of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Mantua, from
+which it is 11 m. N.W., on the road to Brescia. Pop. (village) 737;
+(commune) 5712. It is situated on the right bank of the Mincio near the
+bridge. Its position has given it a certain military importance in
+various campaigns and it has been repeatedly fortified as a bridge-head.
+The Piedmontese forces won two actions (8th of April and 30th of May
+1848) over the Austrians here.
+
+
+
+
+GOITRE (from Lat. _guttur_, the throat; synonyms, Bronchocele,
+Derbyshire Neck), a term applied to a swelling in the front of the neck
+caused by enlargement of the thyroid gland. This structure, which lies
+between the skin and the anterior surface of the windpipe, and in health
+is not large enough to give rise to any external prominence (except in
+the pictures of certain artists), is liable to variations in size, more
+especially in females, a temporary enlargement of the gland being not
+uncommon at the catamenial periods, as well as during pregnancy. In
+goitre the swelling is conspicuous and is not only unsightly but may
+occasion much discomfort from its pressure upon the windpipe and other
+important parts of the neck. J. L. Alibert recorded cases of goitre
+where the tumour hung down over the breast, or reached as low as the
+middle of the thigh.
+
+Goitre usually appears in early life, often from the eighth to the
+twelfth year; its growth is at first slow, but after several years of
+comparative quiescence a sudden increase is apt to occur. In the earlier
+stages the condition of the gland is simply an enlargement of its
+constituent parts, which retain their normal soft consistence; but in
+the course of time other changes supervene, and it may become cystic, or
+acquire hardness from increase of fibrous tissue or from calcareous
+deposits. Occasionally the enlargement is uniform, but more commonly one
+of the lobes, generally the right, is the larger. In rare instances the
+disease is limited to the isthmus which connects the two lobes of the
+gland. The growth is unattended with pain, and is not inconsistent with
+good health.
+
+Goitre is a marked example of an endemic disease. There are few parts of
+the world where it is not found prevailing in certain localities, these
+being for the most part valleys and elevated plains in mountainous
+districts (see CRETINISM). The malady is generally ascribed to the use
+of drinking water impregnated with the salts of lime and magnesia, in
+which ingredients the water of goitrous districts abounds. But in
+localities not far removed from those in which goitre prevails, and
+where the water is of the same chemical composition, the disease may be
+entirely unknown. The disease may be the result of a combination of
+causes, among which local telluric or malarial influences concur with
+those of the drinking water. Goitre is sometimes cured by removal of the
+individual from the district where it prevails, and it is apt to be
+acquired by previously healthy persons who settle in goitrous
+localities; and it is only in such places that the disease exhibits
+hereditary tendencies.
+
+In the early stages, change of air, especially to the seaside, is
+desirable, and small doses of iron and of iodine should be given; if
+this fails small doses of thyroid extract should be tried. If palliative
+measures prove unsuccessful, operation must be undertaken for the
+removal of one lateral lobe and the isthmus of the tumour. This may be
+done under chloroform or after the subcutaneous injection of cocaine. If
+chloroform is used, it must be given very sparingly, as the breathing is
+apt to become seriously embarrassed during the operation. After the
+successful performance of the operation great improvement takes place,
+the remaining part of the gland slowly decreasing in size. The whole of
+the gland must not be removed during the operation, lest the strange
+disease known as Myxoedema should be produced (see METABOLIC DISEASES).
+
+In _exophthalmic goitre_ the bronchocele is but one of three phenomena,
+which together constitute the disease, viz. palpitation of the heart,
+enlargement of the thyroid gland, and protrusion of the eyeballs. This
+group of symptoms is known by the name of "Graves's disease" or "Von
+Basedow's disease"--the physicians by whom the malady was originally
+described. Although occasionally observed in men, this affection occurs
+chiefly in females, and in comparatively early life. It is generally
+preceded by impoverishment of blood, and by nervous or hysterical
+disorders, and it is occasionally seen in cases of organic heart
+disease. It has been suddenly developed as the effect of fright or of
+violent emotion. The first symptom is usually the palpitation of the
+heart, which is aggravated by slight exertion, and may be so severe as
+not only to shake the whole frame but even to be audible at some
+distance. A throbbing is felt throughout the body, and many of the
+larger blood-vessels are, like the heart, seen to pulsate strongly. The
+enlargement of the thyroid is gradual, and rarely increases to any great
+size, thus differing from the commoner form of goitre. The enlarged
+gland is of soft consistence, and communicates a thrill to the touch
+from its dilated and pulsating blood-vessels. Accompanying the goitre a
+remarkable change is observed in the eyes, which attract attention by
+their prominence, and by the startled expression thus given to the
+countenance. In extreme cases the eyes protrude from their sockets to
+such a degree that the eyelids cannot be closed, and injury may thus
+arise to the constantly exposed eyeballs. Apart from such risk, however,
+the vision is rarely affected. It occasionally happens that in undoubted
+cases of the disease one or other of the three above-named phenomena is
+absent, generally either the goitre or the exophthalmos. The palpitation
+of the heart is the most constant symptom. Sleeplessness, irritability,
+disorders of digestion, diarrhoea and uterine derangements, are frequent
+accompaniments. It is a serious disease and, if unchecked, may end
+fatally. Some cases are improved by general hygienic measures, others by
+electric treatment, or by the administration of animal extracts or of
+sera. Some cases, on the other hand, may be considered suitable for
+operative treatment.     (E. O.*)
+
+
+
+
+GOKAK, a town of British India, in the Belgaum district of Bombay, 8 m.
+from a station on the Southern Mahratta railway. Pop. (1901) 9860. It
+contains old temples with inscriptions, and is known for a special
+industry of modelled toys. About 4 m. N.W. are the Gokak Falls, where
+the Ghatprabha throws itself over a precipice 170 ft. high. Close by,
+the water has been impounded for a large reservoir, which supplies not
+only irrigation but also motive power for a cotton-mill employing 2000
+hands.
+
+
+
+
+GOKCHA, (GÖK-CHAI; Armenian _Sevanga_; ancient _Haosravagha_), the
+largest lake of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of Erivan, in
+40° 9' to 40° 38' N. and 45° 1' to 45° 40' E. Its altitude is 6345 ft.,
+it is of triangular shape, and measures from north-west to south-east 45
+m., its greatest width being 25 m., and its maximum depth 67 fathoms.
+Its area is 540 sq. m. It is surrounded by barren mountains of volcanic
+origin, 12,000 ft. high. Its outflow is the Zanga, a left bank tributary
+of the Aras (_Araxes_); it never freezes, and its level undergoes
+periodical oscillations. It contains four species of _Salmonidae_, and
+two of _Cyprinidae_, which are only met with in the drainage area of
+this lake. A lava island in the middle is crowned by an Armenian
+monastery.
+
+
+
+
+GOLCONDA, a fortress and ruined city of India, in the Nizam's Dominions,
+5 m. W. of Hyderabad city. In former times Golconda was the capital of a
+large and powerful kingdom of the Deccan, ruled by the Kutb Shahi
+dynasty which was founded in 1512 by a Turkoman adventurer on the
+downfall of the Bahmani dynasty, but the city was subdued by Aurangzeb
+in 1687, and annexed to the Delhi empire. The fortress of Golconda,
+situated on a rocky ridge of granite, is extensive, and contains many
+enclosures. It is strong and in good repair, but is commanded by the
+summits of the enormous and massive mausolea of the ancient kings about
+600 yds. distant. These buildings, which are now the chief
+characteristics of the place, form a vast group, situated in an arid,
+rocky desert. They have suffered considerably from the ravages of time,
+but more from the hand of man, and nothing but the great solidity of
+their walls has preserved them from utter ruin. These tombs were erected
+at a great expense, some of them being said to have cost as much as
+£150,000. Golconda fort is now used as the Nizam's treasury, and also as
+the state prison. Golconda has given its name in English literature to
+the diamonds which were found in other parts of the dominions of the
+Kutb Shahi dynasty, not near Golconda itself.
+
+
+
+
+GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1), 197.2(O = 16)], a metallic
+chemical element, valued from the earliest ages on account of the
+permanency of its colour and lustre. Gold ornaments of great variety and
+elaborate workmanship have been discovered on sites belonging to the
+earliest known civilizations, Minoan, Egyptian, Assyrian, Etruscan (see
+JEWELRY, PLATE, EGYPT, CRETE, AEGEAN CIVILIZATION, NUMISMATICS), and in
+ancient literature gold is the universal symbol of the highest purity
+and value (cf. passages in the Old Testament, e.g. Ps. xix. 10 "More to
+be desired are they than gold, yea, than much fine gold"). With regard
+to the history of the metallurgy of gold, it may be mentioned that,
+according to Pliny, mercury was employed in his time both as a means of
+separating the precious metals and for the purposes of gilding.
+Vitruvius also gives a detailed account of the means of recovering gold,
+by amalgamation, from cloth into which it had been woven.
+
+_Physical Properties._--Gold has a characteristic yellow colour, which
+is, however, notably affected by small quantities of other metals; thus
+the tint is sensibly lowered by small quantities of silver, and
+heightened by copper. When the gold is finely divided, as in "purple of
+Cassius," or when it is precipitated from solutions, the colour is
+ruby-red, while in very thin leaves it transmits a greenish light. It is
+nearly as soft as lead and softer than silver. When pure, it is the most
+malleable of all metals (see GOLDBEATING). It is also extremely ductile;
+a single grain may be drawn into a wire 500 ft. in length, and an ounce
+of gold covering a silver wire is capable of being extended more than
+1300 m. The presence of minute quantities of cadmium, lead, bismuth,
+antimony, arsenic, tin, tellurium and zinc renders gold brittle,
+1/2000th part of one of the three metals first named being sufficient to
+produce that quality. Gold can be readily welded cold; the finely
+divided metal, in the state in which it is precipitated from solution,
+may be compressed between dies into disks or medals. The specific
+gravity of gold obtained by precipitation from solution by ferrous
+sulphate is from 19.55 to 20.72. The specific gravity of cast gold
+varies from 18.29 to 19.37, and by compression between dies the specific
+gravity may be raised from 19.37 to 19.41; by annealing, however, the
+previous density is to some extent recovered, as it is then found to be
+19.40. The melting-point has been variously given, the early values
+ranging from 1425° C. to 1035° C. Using improved methods, C. T. Heycock
+and F. H. Neville determined it to be 1061.7° C.; Daniel Berthelot gives
+1064° C., while Jaquerod and Perrot give 1066.1-1067.4° C. At still
+higher temperatures it volatilizes, forming a reddish vapour. Macquer
+and Lavoisier showed that when gold is strongly heated, fumes arise
+which gild a piece of silver held in them. Its volatility has also been
+studied by L. Eisner, and, in the presence of other metals, by Napier
+and others. The volatility is barely appreciable at 1075°; at 1250° it
+is four times as much as at 1100°. Copper and zinc increase the
+volatility far more than lead, while the greatest volatility is induced,
+according to T. Kirke Rose, by tellurium. It has also been shown that
+gold volatilizes when a gold-amalgam is distilled. Gold is dissipated by
+sending a powerful charge of electricity through it when in the form of
+leaf or thin wire. The electric conductivity is given by A. Matthiessen
+as 73 at 0° C., pure silver being 100; the value of this coefficient
+depends greatly on the purity of the metal, the presence of a few
+thousandths of silver lowering it by 10%. Its conductivity for heat has
+been variously given as 103 (C. M. Despretz), 98 (F. Crace-Calvert and
+R. Johnson), and 60 (G. H. Wiedemann and R. Franz), pure silver being
+100. Its specific heat is between 0.0298 (Dulong and Petit) and 0.03244
+(Regnault). Its coefficient of expansion for each degree between 0° and
+100° C. is 0.000014661, or for gold which has been annealed 0.000015136
+(Laplace and Lavoisier). The spark spectrum of gold has been mapped by
+A. Kirchhoff, R. Thalén, Sir William Huggins and H. Krüss; the brightest
+lines are 6277, 5960, 5955 and 5836 in the orange and yellow, and 5230
+and 4792 in the green and blue.
+
+_Chemical Properties._--Gold is permanent in both dry and moist air at
+ordinary or high temperatures. It is insoluble in hydrochloric, nitric
+and sulphuric acids, but dissolves in _aqua regia_--a mixture of
+hydrochloric and nitric acids--and when very finely divided in a heated
+mixture of strong sulphuric acid and a little nitric acid; dilution with
+water, however, precipitates the metal as a violet or brown powder from
+this solution. The metal is soluble in solutions of chlorine, bromine,
+thiosulphates and cyanides; and also in solutions which generate
+chlorine, such as mixtures of hydrochloric acid with nitric acid,
+chromic acid, antimonious acid, peroxides and nitrates, and of nitric
+acid with a chloride. Gold is also attacked when strong sulphuric acid
+is submitted to electrolysis with a gold positive pole. W. Skey showed
+that in substances which contain small quantities of gold the precious
+metal may be removed by the solvent action of iodine or bromine in
+water. Filter paper soaked with the clear, solution is burnt, and the
+presence of gold is indicated by the purple colour of the ash. In
+solution minute quantities of gold may be detected by the formation of
+"purple of Cassius," a bluish-purple precipitate thrown down by a
+mixture of ferric and stannous chlorides.
+
+The atomic weight of gold was first determined with accuracy by
+Berzelius, who deduced the value 195.7 (H = 1) from the amount of
+mercury necessary to precipitate it from the chloride, and 195.2 from
+the ratio between gold and potassium chloride in potassium aurichloride,
+KAuCl4. Later determinations were made by Sir T. E. Thorpe and A. P.
+Laurie, Krüss and J. W. Mallet. Thorpe and Laurie converted potassium
+auribromide into a mixture of metallic gold and potassium bromide by
+careful heating. The relation of the gold to the potassium bromide, as
+well as the amounts of silver and silver bromide which are equivalent to
+the potassium bromide, were determined. The mean value thus adduced was
+195.86. Krüss worked with the same salt, and obtained the value 195.65;
+while Mallet, by analyses of gold chloride and bromide, and potassium
+auribromide, obtained the value 195.77.
+
+_Occlusion of Gas by Gold._--T. Graham showed that gold is capable of
+occluding by volume 0.48% of hydrogen, 0.20% of nitrogen, 0.29% of
+carbon monoxide, and 0.16% of carbon dioxide. Varrentrapp pointed out
+that "cornets" from the assay of gold may retain gas if they are not
+strongly heated.
+
+_Occurrence and Distribution._--Gold is found in nature chiefly in the
+metallic state, i.e. as "native gold," and less frequently in
+combination with tellurium, lead and silver. These are the only certain
+examples of natural combinations of the metal, the minute, though
+economically valuable, quantity often found in pyrites and other
+sulphides being probably only present in mechanical suspension. The
+native metal crystallizes in the cubic system, the octahedron being the
+commonest form, but other and complex combinations have been observed.
+Owing to the softness of the metal, large crystals are rarely well
+defined, the points being commonly rounded. In the irregular crystalline
+aggregates branching and moss-like forms are most common, and in
+Transylvania thin plates or sheets with diagonal structures are found.
+More characteristic, however, than the crystallized are the irregular
+forms, which, when large, are known as "nuggets" or "pepites," and when
+in pieces below ¼ to ½ oz. weight as gold dust, the larger sizes being
+distinguished as coarse or nuggety gold, and the smaller as gold dust
+proper. Except in the larger nuggets, which may be more or less angular,
+or at times even masses of crystals, with or without associated quartz
+or other rock, gold is generally found bean-shaped or in some other
+flattened form, the smallest particles being scales of scarcely
+appreciable thickness, which, from their small bulk as compared with
+their surface, subside very slowly when suspended in water, and are
+therefore readily carried away by a rapid current. These form the "float
+gold" of the miner. The physical properties of native gold are generally
+similar to that of the melted metal.
+
+  Of the minerals containing gold the most important are sylvanite or
+  graphic tellurium (Ag, Au) Te2, with 24 to 26%; calaverite, AuTe2,
+  with 42%; nagyagite or foliate tellurium (Pb, Au)16 Sb3(S, Te)24, with
+  5 to 9% of gold; petzite, (Ag, Au)2Te, and white tellurium. These are
+  confined to a few localities, the oldest and best known being those of
+  Nagyag and Offenbanya in Transylvania; they have also been found at
+  Red Cloud, Colorado, in Calaveras county, California, and at Perth and
+  Boulder, West Australia. The minerals of the second class, usually
+  spoken of as "auriferous," are comparatively numerous. Prominent among
+  these are galena and iron pyrites, the former being almost invariably
+  gold-bearing. Iron pyrites, however, is of greater practical
+  importance, being in some districts exceedingly rich, and, next to the
+  native metal, is the most prolific source of gold. Magnetic pyrites,
+  copper pyrites, zinc blende and arsenical pyrites are other and less
+  important examples, the last constituting the gold ore formerly worked
+  in Silesia. A native gold amalgam is found as a rarity in California,
+  and bismuth from South America is sometimes rich in gold. Native
+  arsenic and antimony are also very frequently found to contain gold
+  and silver.
+
+  The association and distribution of gold may be considered under two
+  different heads, namely, as it occurs in mineral veins--"reef gold,"
+  and in alluvial or other superficial deposits which are derived from
+  the waste of the former--"alluvial gold." Four distinct types of reef
+  gold deposits may be distinguished: (1) Gold may occur disseminated
+  through metalliferous veins, generally with sulphides and more
+  particularly with pyrites. These deposits seem to be the primary
+  sources of native gold. (2) More common are the auriferous
+  quartz-reefs--veins or masses of quartz containing gold in flakes
+  visible to the naked eye, or so finely divided as to be invisible. (3)
+  The "banket" formation, which characterizes the goldfields of South
+  Africa, consists of a quartzite conglomerate throughout which gold is
+  very finely disseminated. (4) The siliceous sinter at Mount Morgan,
+  Queensland, which is obviously associated with hydrothermal action, is
+  also gold-bearing. The genesis of the last three types of deposit is
+  generally assigned to the simultaneous percolation of solutions of
+  gold and silica, the auriferous solution being formed during the
+  disintegration of the gold-bearing metalliferous veins. But there is
+  much uncertainty as to the mechanism of the process; some authors hold
+  that the soluble chloride is first formed, while others postulate the
+  intervention of a soluble aurate.
+
+  In the alluvial deposits the associated minerals are chiefly those of
+  great density and hardness, such as platinum, osmiridium and other
+  metals of the platinum group, tinstone, chromic, magnetic and brown
+  iron ores, diamond, ruby and sapphire, zircon, topaz, garnet, &c.
+  which represent the more durable original constituents of the rocks
+  whose distintegration has furnished the detritus.
+
+_Statistics of Gold Production._--The supply of gold, and also its
+relation to the supply of silver, has, among civilized nations, always
+been of paramount importance in the economic questions concerning money
+(see MONEY and BIMETALLISM); in this article a summary of the modern
+gold-producing areas will be given, and for further details reference
+should be made to the articles on the localities named. The chief
+sources of the European supply during the middle ages were the mines of
+Saxony and Austria, while Spain also contributed. The supplies from
+Mexico and Brazil were important during the 16th and 17th centuries.
+Russia became prominent in 1823, and for fourteen years contributed the
+bulk of the supply. The United States (California) after 1848, and
+Australia after 1851, were responsible for enormous increases in the
+total production, which has been subsequently enhanced by discoveries in
+Canada, South Africa, India, China and other countries.
+
+  TABLE I.
+
+  +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |   Period. |     Oz.   |  Period.  |    Oz.    |
+  +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  | 1801-1810 |   590,750 | 1856-1860 | 6,350,180 |
+  | 1811-1820 |   380,300 | 1861-1865 | 5,951,770 |
+  | 1821-1830 |   472,400 | 1866-1870 | 6,169,660 |
+  | 1831-1840 |   674,200 | 1871-1875 | 5,487,400 |
+  | 1841-1850 | 1,819,600 | 1876-1880 | 5,729,300 |
+  | 1851-1855 | 6,350,180 |     --    |     --    |
+  +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+The average annual world's production for certain periods from 1801 to
+1880 in ounces is given in Table I. The average production of the five
+years 1881-1885 was the smallest since the Australian and Californian
+mines began to be worked in 1848-1849; the minimum 4,614,588 oz.,
+occurred in 1882. It was not until after 1885 that the annual output of
+the world began to expand. Of the total production in 1876, 5,016,488
+oz., almost the whole was derived from the United States, Australasia
+and Russia. Since then the proportion furnished by these countries has
+been greatly lowered by the supplies from South Africa, Canada, India
+and China. The increase of production has not been uniform, the greater
+part having occurred most notably since 1895. Among the regions not
+previously important as gold-producers which now contribute to the
+annual output, the most remarkable are the goldfields of South Africa
+(Transvaal and Rhodesia, the former of which were discovered in 1885).
+India likewise has been added to the list, its active production having
+begun at about the same time as that of South Africa. The average annual
+product of India for the period 1886 to 1899 inclusive was £698,208, and
+its present annual product averages about 550,000 oz., or about
+£2,200,000, obtained almost wholly from the free-milling quartz veins of
+the Colar goldfields in Mysore, southern India. In 1900 the output was
+valued at £1,891,804, in 1905 at £2,450,536, and in 1908 at £2,270,000.
+Canada, too, assumed an important rank, having contributed in 1900
+£5,583,300; but the output has since steadily declined to £1,973,000 in
+1908. The great increase during the few years preceding 1899 was due to
+the development of the goldfields of the North-Western Territory,
+especially British Columbia. From the district of Yukon (Klondike, &c.)
+£2,800,000 was obtained in 1899, wholly from alluvial workings, but the
+progress made since has been slower than was expected by sanguine
+people. It is, however, probable that the North-Western Territory will
+continue to yield gold in important quantities for some time to come.
+
+The output of the United States increased from £7,050,000 in 1881 to
+£16,085,567 in 1900, £17,916,000 in 1905, and to £20,065,000 in 1908.
+This increase was chiefly due to the exploitation of new goldfields. The
+fall in the price of silver stimulated the discovery and development of
+gold deposits, and many states formerly regarded as characteristically
+silver districts have become important as gold producers. Colorado is a
+case in point, its output having increased from about £600,000 in 1880
+to £6,065,000 in 1900; it was £5,139,800 in 1905. Somewhat more than
+one-half of the Colorado gold is obtained from the Cripple Creek
+district. Other states also showed a largely augmented product. On the
+other hand, the output of California, which was producing over
+£3,000,000 per annum in 1876, has fallen off, the average annual output
+from 1876 to 1900 being £2,800,000; in 1905 the yield was £3,839,000.
+This decrease was largely caused by the practical suspension for many
+years of the hydraulic mining operations, in preparation for which
+millions of dollars had been expended in deep tunnels, flumes, &c., and
+the active continuance of which might have been expected to yield some
+£2,000,000 of gold annually. This interruption, due to the practical
+prohibition of the industry by the United States courts, on the ground
+that it was injuring, through the deposit of tailings, agricultural
+lands and navigable streams, was lessened, though not entirely removed,
+by compromises and regulations which permit, under certain restrictions,
+the renewed exploitation of the ancient river-beds by the hydraulic
+method. On the other hand, the progressive reduction of mining and
+metallurgical costs effected by improved transportation and machinery,
+and the use of high explosives, compressed air, electric-power
+transmission, &c., resulted in California (as elsewhere) in a notable
+revival of deep mining. This was especially the case on the "Mother
+Lode," where highly promising results were obtained. Not only is
+vein-material formerly regarded as unremunerative now extracted at a
+profit, but in many instances increased gold-values have been
+encountered below zones of relative barrenness, and operators have been
+encouraged to make costly preparations for really deep mining--more than
+3000 ft. below the surface. The gold product of California, therefore,
+may be fairly expected to maintain itself, and, indeed, to show an
+advance. Alaska appeared in the list of gold-producing countries in
+1886, and gradually increased its annual output until 1897, when the
+country attracted much attention with a production valued at over
+£500,000; the opening up of new workings has increased this figure
+immensely, from about £1,400,000 in 1901 to £3,006,500 in 1905. The
+Alaska gold was derived almost wholly from the large low-grade quartz
+mines of Douglas Island prior to 1899, but in that year an important
+district was discovered at Cape Nome, on the north-western coast. The
+result of a few months' working during that year was more than £500,000
+of gold, and a very much larger annual output may reasonably be
+anticipated in the future; in 1905 it was about £900,000. The gold
+occurs in alluvial deposits designated as gulch-, bar-, beach-, tundra-
+and bench-placers. The tundra is a coastal plain, swampy and covered
+with undergrowth and underlaid by gravel. The most interesting and, thus
+far, the most productive are the beach deposits, similar to those on the
+coast of Northern California. These occur in a strip of comparatively
+fine gravel and sand, 150 yds. wide, extending along the shore. The gold
+is found in stratified layers, with "ruby" and black sand. The "ruby"
+sand consists chiefly of fine garnets and magnetites, with a few
+rose-quartz grains. Further exploration of the interior will probably
+result in the discovery of additional gold districts.
+
+Mexico, from a gold production of £200,000 in 1891, advanced to about
+£1,881,800 in 1900 and to about £3,221,000 in 1905. Of this increase, a
+considerable part was derived from gold-quartz mining, though much was
+also obtained as a by-product in the working of the ores of other
+metals. The product of Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Brazil,
+Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador amounted in 1900 to
+£2,481,000 and to £2,046,000 in 1905.
+
+In 1876 Australasia produced £7,364,000, of which Victoria contributed
+£3,084,000. The annual output of Victoria declined until the year 1892,
+when it began to increase rapidly, but not to its former level, the
+values for 1900 and 1905 being £3,142,000 and £3,138,000. There has been
+an important increase in Queensland, which advanced from £1,696,000 in
+1876 to £2,843,000 in 1900, and subsequently declined to £2,489,000 in
+1905. There has been no increase, and, indeed, no large fluctuation
+until quite recently in the output of New Zealand, which averaged
+£1,054,000 per annum from 1876 to 1898, but the production of the two
+years 1900 and 1905 rose to £1,425,459 and £2,070,407 respectively. By
+far the most important addition to the Australasian product has come
+from West Australia, which began its production in 1887--about the time
+of the inception of mining at Witwatersrand ("the Rand") in South
+Africa--and by continuous increase, which assumed large proportions
+towards the close of the 19th century, was £6,426,000 in 1899,
+£6,179,000 in 1900, and £8,212,000 in 1905. The total Australasian
+production in 1908 was valued at £14,708,000.
+
+Undoubtedly the greatest of the gold discoveries made in the latter half
+of the 19th century was that of the Witwatersrand district in the
+Transvaal. By reason of its unusual geological character and great
+economic importance this district deserves a more extended description.
+The gold occurs in conglomerate beds, locally known as "banket." There
+are several series of parallel beds, interstratified with quartzite and
+schist, the most important being the "main reef" series. The gold in
+this conglomerate reef is partly of detrital origin and partly of the
+genetic character of ordinary vein-gold. The formation is noted for its
+regularity as regards both the thickness and the gold-tenor of the
+ore-bearing reefs, in which respect it is unparalleled in the geology of
+the auriferous formations. The gold carries, on an average, £2 per ton,
+and is worked by ordinary methods of gold-mining, stamp-milling and
+cyaniding. In 1899, 5762 stamps were in operation, crushing 7,331,446
+tons of ore, and yielding £15,134,000, equivalent to 25.5% of the
+world's production. Of this, 80% came from within 12 m. of Johannesburg.
+After September 1899 operations were suspended, almost entirely owing to
+the Boer War, but on the 2nd of May 1901 they were started again. In
+1905 the yield was valued at £20,802,074, and in 1909 at £30,925,788. So
+certain is the ore-bearing formation that engineers in estimating its
+auriferous contents feel justified in assuming, as a factor in their
+calculations, a vertical extension limited only by the lowest depths at
+which mining is feasible. On such a basis they arrived at more than
+£600,000,000 as the available gold contained in the Witwatersrand
+conglomerates. This was a conservative estimate, and was made before the
+full extent of the reefs was known; in 1904 Lionel Phillips stated that
+the main reef series had been proved for 61 m., and he estimated the
+gold remaining to be mined to be worth £2,500,000,000. Deposits similar
+to the Witwatersrand banket occur in Zululand, and also on the Gold
+Coast of Africa. In Rhodesia, the country lying north of the Transvaal,
+where gold occurs in well-defined quartz-veins, there is unquestionable
+evidence of extensive ancient workings. The economic importance of the
+region generally has been fully proved. Rhodesia produced £386,148 in
+1900 and £722,656 in 1901, in spite of the South African War; the
+product for 1905 was valued at £1,480,449, and for 1908 at £2,526,000.
+
+The gold production of Russia has been remarkably constant, averaging
+£4,899,262 per annum; the gold is derived chiefly from placer workings
+in Siberia.
+
+The gold production of China was estimated for 1899 at £1,328,238 and
+for 1900 at £860,000; it increased in 1901 to about £1,700,000, to fall
+to £340,000 in 1905; in 1906 and 1907 it recovered to about £1,000,000.
+
+  TABLE II.--_Gold Production of Certain Countries, 1881-1908 (in oz.)._
+
+  +------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+----------+-----------+-----------+------------+
+  |      |  Austral- |           |          |         |          |           |  United   |            |
+  | Year.|   asia.   |  Africa.  |  Canada. |  India. |  Mexico. |  Russia.  |  States.  |   Totals.  |
+  +------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+----------+-----------+-----------+------------+
+  | 1881 | 1,475,161 |     ..    |   52,483 |    ..   |   41,545 | 1,181,853 | 1,678,612 |  4,976,980 |
+  | 1882 | 1,438,067 |     ..    |   52,000 |    ..   |   45,289 | 1,154,613 | 1,572,187 |  4,825,794 |
+  | 1883 | 1,333,849 |     ..    |   46,150 |    ..   |   46,229 | 1,132,219 | 1,451,250 |  4,614,588 |
+  | 1884 | 1,352,761 |     ..    |   46,000 |    ..   |   57,227 | 1,055,642 | 1,489,950 |  4,902,889 |
+  | 1885 | 1,309,804 |     ..    |   53,987 |    ..   |   46,941 | 1,225,738 | 1,538,325 |  5,002,584 |
+  | 1886 | 1,257,670 |     ..    |   66,061 |    ..   |   29,702 |   922,226 | 1,693,125 |  5,044,363 |
+  | 1887 | 1,290,202 |    28,754 |   59,884 |  15,403 |   39,861 |   971,656 | 1,596,375 |  5,061,490 |
+  | 1888 | 1,344,002 |   240,266 |   53,150 |  35,034 |   47,117 | 1,030,151 | 1,604,841 |  5,175,623 |
+  | 1889 | 1,540,607 |   366,023 |   62,658 |  78,649 |   33,862 | 1,154,076 | 1,587,000 |  5,611,245 |
+  | 1890 | 1,453,172 |   497,817 |   55,625 | 107,273 |   37,104 | 1,134,590 | 1,588,880 |  5,726,966 |
+  | 1891 | 1,518,690 |   729,268 |   45,022 | 131,776 |   48,375 | 1,168,764 | 1,604,840 |  6,287,591 |
+  | 1892 | 1,638,238 | 1,210,869 |   43,905 | 164,141 |   54,625 | 1,199,809 | 1,597,098 |  7,102,172 |
+  | 1893 | 1,711,892 | 1,478,477 |   44,853 | 207,152 |   63,144 | 1,345,224 | 1,739,323 |  7,772,585 |
+  | 1894 | 2,020,180 | 2,024,164 |   50,411 | 210,412 |  217,688 | 1,167,455 | 1,910,813 |  8,813,848 |
+  | 1895 | 2,170,505 | 2,277,640 |   92,440 | 257,830 |  290,250 | 1,397,767 | 2,254,760 |  9,814,505 |
+  | 1896 | 2,185,872 | 2,280,892 |  136,274 | 323,501 |  314,437 | 1,041,794 | 2,568,132 |  9,950,861 |
+  | 1897 | 2,547,704 | 2,832,776 |  294,582 | 350,585 |  362,812 | 1,124,511 | 2,774,935 | 11,420,068 |
+  | 1898 | 3,137,644 | 3,876,216 |  669,445 | 376,431 |  411,187 | 1,231,791 | 3,118,398 | 13,877,806 |
+  | 1899 | 3,837,181 | 3,532,488 |1,031,563 | 418,869 |  411,187 | 1,072,333 | 3,437,210 | 14,837,775 |
+  | 1900 | 3,555,506 |   419,503 |1,348,720 | 456,444 |  435,375 |   974,537 | 3,829,897 | 12,315,135 |
+  | 1901 | 3,719,080 |   439,704 |1,167,216 | 454,527 |  497,527 | 1,105,412 | 3,805,500 | 12,698,089 |
+  | 1902 | 3,946,374 | 1,887,773 |1,003,355 | 463,824 |  491,156 | 1,090,053 | 3,870,000 | 14,313,660 |
+  | 1903 | 4,315,538 | 3,289,409 |  911,118 | 552,873 |  516,524 | 1,191,582 | 3,560,000 | 15,852,620 |
+  | 1904 | 4,245,744 | 4,156,084 |  793,350 | 556,097 |  609,781 | 1,199,857 | 3,892,480 | 16,790,351 |
+  | 1905 | 4,159,220 | 5,477,841 |  700,863 | 576,889 |  779,181 | 1,063,883 | 4,265,742 | 18,360,945 |
+  | 1906 | 3,984,538 | 6,449,749 |  581,709 | 525,527 |  896,615 | 1,087,056 | 4,565,333 | 19,620,272 |
+  | 1907 | 3,659,693 | 7,270,464 |  399,844 | 495,965 |  903,672 | 1,282,635 | 4,374,827 | 19,988,144 |
+  | 1908 | 3,557,705 | 7,983,348 |  462,467 | 504,309 |1,182,445 | 1,497,076 | 4,659,360 | 21,529,300 |
+  +------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+----------+-----------+-----------+------------+
+
+  _Alloys._--Gold forms alloys with most metals, and of these many are
+  of great importance in the arts. The alloy with mercury--gold
+  amalgam--is so readily formed that mercury is one of the most powerful
+  agents for extracting the precious metal. With 10% of gold present the
+  amalgam is fluid, and with 12.5% pasty, while with 13% it consists of
+  yellowish-white crystals. Gold readily alloys with silver and copper
+  to form substances in use from remote times for money, jewelry and
+  plate. Other metals which find application in the metallurgy of gold
+  by virtue of their property of extracting the gold as an alloy are
+  lead, which combines very readily when molten, and which can
+  afterwards be separated by cupellation, and copper, which is separated
+  from the gold by solution in acids or by electrolysis; molten lead
+  also extracts gold from the copper-gold alloys. The relative amount of
+  gold in an alloy is expressed in two ways: (1) as "fineness," i.e. the
+  amount of gold in 1000 parts of alloy; (2) as "carats," i.e. the
+  amount of gold in 24 parts of alloy. Thus, pure gold is 1000 "fine" or
+  24 carat. In England the following standards are used for plate and
+  jewelry: 375, 500, 625, 750 and 916.6, corresponding to 9, 12, 15, 18
+  and 22 carats, the alloying metals being silver and copper in varying
+  proportions. In France three alloys of the following standards are
+  used for jewelry, 920, 840 and 750. A greenish alloy used by
+  goldsmiths contains 70% of silver and 30% of gold. "Blue gold" is
+  stated to contain 75% of gold and 25% of iron. The Japanese use for
+  ornament an alloy of gold and silver, the standard of which varies
+  from 350 to 500, the colour of the precious metal being developed by
+  "pickling" in a mixture of plum-juice, vinegar and copper sulphate.
+  They may be said to possess a series of bronzes, in which gold and
+  silver replace tin and zinc, all these alloys being characterized by
+  patina having a wonderful range of tint. The common alloy,
+  Shi-ya-ku-Do, contains 70% of copper and 30% of gold; when exposed to
+  air it becomes coated with a fine black patina, and is much used in
+  Japan for sword ornaments. Gold wire may be drawn of any quality, but
+  it is usual to add 5 to 9 dwts. of copper to the pound. The "solders"
+  used for red gold contain 1 part of copper and 5 of gold; for light
+  gold, 1 part of copper, 1 of silver and 4 of gold.
+
+  _Gold and Silver._--Electrum is a natural alloy of gold and silver.
+  Matthiessen observed that the density of alloys, the composition of
+  which varies from AuAg6 to Au6Ag, is greater than that calculated from
+  the densities of the constituent metals. These alloys are harder, more
+  fusible and more sonorous than pure gold. The alloys of the formulae
+  AuAg, AuAg2, AuAg4 and AuAg20 are perfectly homogeneous, and have been
+  studied by Levol. Molten alloys containing more than 80% of silver
+  deposit on cooling the alloy AuAg9, little gold remaining in the
+  mother liquor.
+
+  _Gold and Zinc._--When present in small quantities zinc renders gold
+  brittle, but it may be added to gold in larger quantities without
+  destroying the ductility of the precious metal; Péligot proved that a
+  triple alloy of gold, copper and zinc, which contains 5.8% of the
+  last-named, is perfectly ductile. The alloy of 11 parts gold and 1
+  part of zinc is, however, stated to be brittle.
+
+  _Gold and Tin._--Alchorne showed that gold alloyed with 1/37th part of
+  tin is sufficiently ductile to be rolled and stamped into coin,
+  provided the metal is not annealed at a high temperature. The alloys
+  of tin and gold are hard and brittle, and the combination of the
+  metals is attended with contraction; thus the alloy SnAu has a density
+  14.243, instead of 14.828 indicated by calculation. Matthiessen and
+  Bose obtained large crystals of the alloy Au2Sn5, having the colour of
+  tin, which changed to a bronze tint by oxidation.
+
+  _Gold and Iron._--Hatchett found that the alloy of 11 parts gold and 1
+  part of iron is easily rolled without annealing. In these proportions
+  the density of the alloy is less than the mean of its constituent
+  metals.
+
+  _Gold and Palladium._--These metals are stated to alloy in all
+  proportions. According to Chenevix, the alloy composed of equal parts
+  of the two metals is grey, is less ductile than its constituent metals
+  and has the specific gravity 11.08. The alloy of 4 parts of gold and 1
+  part of palladium is white, hard and ductile. Graham showed that a
+  wire of palladium alloyed with from 24 to 25 parts of gold does not
+  exhibit the remarkable retraction which, in pure palladium, attends
+  its loss of occluded hydrogen.
+
+  _Gold and Platinum._--Clarke states that the alloy of equal parts of
+  the two metals is ductile, and has almost the colour of gold.
+
+  _Gold and Rhodium._--Gold alloyed with ¼th or 1/5th of rhodium is,
+  according to Wollaston, very ductile, infusible and of the colour of
+  gold.
+
+  _Gold and Iridium._--Small quantities of iridium do not destroy the
+  ductility of gold, but this is probably because the metal is only
+  disseminated through the mass, and not alloyed, as it falls to the
+  bottom of the crucible in which the gold is fused.
+
+  _Gold and Nickel._--Eleven parts of gold and 1 of nickel yield an
+  alloy resembling brass.
+
+  _Gold and Cobalt._--Eleven parts of gold and 1 of cobalt form a
+  brittle alloy of a dull yellow colour.
+
+  _Compounds._--Aurous oxide, Au2O, is obtained by cautiously adding
+  potash to a solution of aurous bromide, or by boiling mixed solutions
+  of auric chloride and mercurous nitrate. It forms a dark-violet
+  precipitate which dries to a greyish-violet powder. When freshly
+  prepared it dissolves in cold water to form an indigo-coloured
+  solution with a brownish fluorescence of colloidal aurous oxide; it is
+  insoluble in hot water. This oxide is slightly basic. Auric oxide,
+  Au2O3, is a brown powder, decomposed into its elements when heated to
+  about 250° or on exposure to light. When a concentrated solution of
+  auric chloride is treated with caustic potash, a brown precipitate of
+  auric hydrate, Au(OH)3, is obtained, which, on heating, loses water to
+  form auryl hydrate, AuO(OH), and auric oxide, Au2O3. It functions
+  chiefly as an acidic oxide, being less basic than aluminium oxide, and
+  forming no stable oxy-salts. It dissolves in alkalis to form
+  well-defined crystalline salts; potassium aurate, KAuO2·3H2O, is very
+  soluble in water, and is used in electro-gilding. With concentrated
+  ammonia auric oxide forms a black, highly explosive compound of the
+  composition AuN2H3·3H2O, named "fulminating gold"; this substance is
+  generally considered to be Au(NH2)NH·3H2O, but it may be an ammine of
+  the formula [Au(NH3)2(OH)2]OH. Other oxides, e.g. Au2O2, have been
+  described.
+
+  Aurous chloride, AuCl, is obtained as a lemon-yellow, amorphous
+  powder, insoluble in water, by heating auric chloride to 185°. It
+  begins to decompose into gold and chlorine at 185°, the decomposition
+  being complete at 230°; water decomposes it into gold and auric
+  chloride. Auric chloride, or gold trichloride, AuCl3, is a dark
+  ruby-red or reddish-brown, crystalline, deliquescent powder obtained
+  by dissolving the metal in aqua regia. It is also obtained by
+  carefully evaporating a solution of the metal in chlorine water. The
+  gold chloride of commerce, which is used in photography, is really a
+  hydrochloride, chlorauric or aurichloric acid, HAuCl4·3H2O, and is
+  obtained in long yellow needles by crystallizing the acid solution.
+  Corresponding to this acid, a series of salts, named chloraurates or
+  aurichlorides, are known. The potassium salt is obtained by
+  crystallizing equivalent quantities of potassium and auric chlorides.
+  Light-yellow monoclinic needles of 2KAuCl4·H2O are deposited from
+  warm, strongly acid solutions, and transparent rhombic tables of
+  KAuCl4·2H2O from neutral solutions. By crystallizing an aqueous
+  solution, red crystals of AuCl3·2H2O are obtained. Auric chloride
+  combines with the hydrochlorides of many organic bases--amines,
+  alkaloids, &c.--to form characteristic compounds. Gold dichloride,
+  probably Au2Cl4, = Au·AuCl4, aurous chloraurate, is said to be
+  obtained as a dark-red mass by heating finely divided gold to
+  140°-170° in chlorine. Water decomposes it into gold and auric
+  chloride. The bromides and iodides resemble the chlorides. Aurous
+  bromide, AuBr, is a yellowish-green powder obtained by heating the
+  tribromide to 140°; auric bromide, AuBr3, forms reddish-black or
+  scarlet-red leafy crystals, which dissolve in water to form a
+  reddish-brown solution, and combines with bromides to form bromaurates
+  corresponding to the chloraurates. Aurous iodide, AuI, is a
+  light-yellow, sparingly soluble powder obtained, together with free
+  iodine, by adding potassium iodide to auric chloride; auric iodide,
+  AuI3, is formed as a dark-green powder at the same time, but it
+  readily decomposes to aurous iodide and iodine. Aurous iodide is also
+  obtained as a green solid by acting upon gold with iodine. The
+  iodaurates correspond to the chlor- and bromaurates; the potassium
+  salt, KAuI4, forms highly lustrous, intensely black, four-sided
+  prisms.
+
+  Aurous cyanide, AuCN, forms yellow, microscopic, hexagonal tables,
+  insoluble in water, and is obtained by the addition of hydrochloric
+  acid to a solution of potassium aurocyanide, KAu(CN)2. This salt is
+  prepared by precipitating a solution of gold in _aqua regia_ by
+  ammonia, and then introducing the well-washed precipitate into a
+  boiling solution of potassium cyanide. The solution is filtered and
+  allowed to cool, when colourless rhombic pyramids of the aurocyanide
+  separate. It is also obtained in the action of potassium cyanide on
+  gold in the presence of air, a reaction utilized in the
+  MacArthur-Forrest process of gold extraction (see below). Auric
+  cyanide, Au(CN)3, is not certainly known; its double salts, however,
+  have been frequently described. Potassium auricyanide, 2KAu(CN)4·3H2O,
+  is obtained as large, colourless, efflorescent tablets by
+  crystallizing concentrated solutions of auric chloride and potassium
+  cyanide. The acid, auricyanic acid, 2HAu(CN)4·3H2O, is obtained by
+  treating the silver salt (obtained by precipitating the potassium salt
+  with silver nitrate) with hydrochloric acid; it forms tabular
+  crystals, readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether.
+
+  Gold forms three sulphides corresponding to the oxides; they readily
+  decompose on heating. Aurous sulphide, Au2S, is a brownish-black
+  powder formed by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a solution of
+  potassium aurocyanide and then acidifying. Sodium aurosulphide,
+  NaAuS·4H2O, is prepared by fusing gold with sodium sulphide and
+  sulphur, the melt being extracted with water, filtered in an
+  atmosphere of nitrogen, and evaporated in a vacuum over sulphuric
+  acid. It forms colourless, monoclinic prisms, which turn brown on
+  exposure to air. This method of bringing gold into solution is
+  mentioned by Stahl in his _Observationes Chymico-Physico-Medicae_; he
+  there remarks that Moses probably destroyed the golden calf by burning
+  it with sulphur and alkali (Ex. xxxii. 20). Auric sulphide, Au2S3, is
+  an amorphous powder formed when lithium aurichloride is treated with
+  dry sulphuretted hydrogen at -10°. It is very unstable, decomposing
+  into gold and sulphur at 200°.
+
+  Oxy-salts of gold are almost unknown, but the sulphite and
+  thiosulphate form double salts. Thus by adding acid sodium sulphite
+  to, or by passing sulphur dioxide at 50° into, a solution of sodium
+  aurate, the salt, 3Na2SO3·Au2SO3·3H2O is obtained, which, when
+  precipitated from its aqueous solution by alcohol, forms a purple
+  powder, appearing yellow or green by reflected light. Sodium
+  aurothiosulphate, 3Na2S2O3·Au2S2O3·4H2O, forms colourless needles; it
+  is obtained in the direct action of sodium thiosulphate on gold in the
+  presence of an oxidizing agent, or by the addition of a dilute
+  solution of auric chloride to a sodium thiosulphate solution.
+
+
+_Mining and Metallurgy._
+
+The various deposits of gold may be divided into two classes--"veins"
+and "placers." The vein mining of gold does not greatly differ from that
+of similar deposits of metals (see MINERAL DEPOSITS). In the placer or
+alluvial deposits, the precious metal is found usually in a water-worn
+condition imbedded in earthy matter, and the method of working all such
+deposits is based on the disintegration of the earthy matter by the
+action of a stream of water, which washes away the lighter portions and
+leaves the denser gold. In alluvial deposits the richest ground is
+usually found in contact with the "bed rock"; and, when the overlying
+cover of gravel is very thick, or, as sometimes happens, when the older
+gravel is covered with a flow of basalt, regular mining by shafts and
+levels, as in what are known as tunnel-claims, may be required to reach
+the auriferous ground.
+
+The extraction of gold may be effected by several methods; we may
+distinguish the following leading types:
+
+1. By simple washing, i.e. dressing auriferous sands, gravels, &c.;
+
+2. By amalgamation, i.e. forming a gold amalgam, afterwards removing the
+mercury by distillation;
+
+3. By chlorination, i.e. forming the soluble gold chloride and then
+precipitating the metal;
+
+4. By the cyanide process, i.e. dissolving the gold in potassium cyanide
+solution, and then precipitating the metal;
+
+5. Electrolytically, generally applied to the solutions obtained in
+processes (3) and (4).
+
+  1. _Extraction of Gold by Washing._--In the early days of gold-washing
+  in California and Australia, when rich alluvial deposits were common
+  at the surface, the most simple appliances sufficed. The most
+  characteristic is the "pan," a circular dish of sheet-iron or "tin,"
+  with sloping sides about 13 or 14 in. in diameter. The pan, about
+  two-thirds filled with the "pay dirt" to be washed, is held in the
+  stream or in a hole filled with water. The larger stones having been
+  removed by hand, gyratory motion is given to the pan by a combination
+  of shaking and twisting movements so as to keep its contents
+  suspended in the stream of water, which carries away the bulk of the
+  lighter material, leaving the heavy minerals, together with any gold
+  which may have been present. The washing is repeated until enough of
+  the enriched sand is collected, when the gold is finally recovered by
+  careful washing or "panning out" in a smaller pan. In Mexico and South
+  America, instead of the pan, a wooden dish or trough, known as
+  "batea," is used.
+
+  The "cradle" is a simple appliance for treating somewhat larger
+  quantities, and consists essentially of a box, mounted on rockers, and
+  provided with a perforated bottom of sheet iron in which the "pay
+  dirt" is placed. Water is poured on the dirt, and the rocking motion
+  imparted to the cradle causes the finer particles to pass through the
+  perforated bottom on to a canvas screen, and thence to the base of the
+  cradle, where the auriferous particles accumulate on transverse bars
+  of wood, called "riffles."
+
+  The "tom" is a sort of cradle with an extended sluice placed on an
+  incline of about 1 in 12. The upper end contains a perforated riddle
+  plate which is placed directly over the riffle box, and under certain
+  circumstances mercury may be placed behind the riffles. Copper plates
+  amalgamated with mercury are also used when the gold is very fine, and
+  in some instances amalgamated silver coins have been used for the same
+  purpose. Sometimes the stuff is disintegrated with water in a
+  "puddling machine," which was used, especially in Australia, when the
+  earthy matters are tenacious and water scarce. The machine frequently
+  resembles a brickmaker's wash-mill, and is worked by horse or steam
+  power.
+
+  In workings on a larger scale, where the supply of water is abundant,
+  as in California, sluices were generally employed. They are shallow
+  troughs about 12 ft. long, about 16 to 20 in. wide and 1 ft. in depth.
+  The troughs taper slightly so that they can be joined in series, the
+  total length often reaching several hundred feet. The incline of the
+  sluice varies with the conformation of the ground and the tenacity of
+  the stuff to be washed, from 1 in 16 to 1 in 8. A rectangular trough
+  of boards, whose dimensions depend chiefly on the size of the planks
+  available, is set up on the higher part of the ground at one side of
+  the claim to be worked, upon trestles or piers of rough stone-work, at
+  such an inclination that the stream may carry off all but the largest
+  stones, which are kept back by a grating of boards about 2 in. apart.
+  The gravel is dug by hand and thrown in at the upper end, the stones
+  kept back being removed at intervals by two men with four-pronged
+  steel forks. The floor of the sluice is laid with riffles made of
+  strips of wood 2 in. square laid parallel to the direction of the
+  current, and at other points with boards having transverse notches
+  filled with mercury. These were known originally as Hungarian riffles.
+
+  In larger plant the upper ends of the sluices are often cut in rock or
+  lined with stone blocks, the grating stopping the larger stones being
+  known as a "grizzly." In order to save very fine and especially rusty
+  particles of gold, so-called "under-current sluices" are used; these
+  are shallow wooden tanks, 50 sq. yds. and upwards in area, which are
+  placed somewhat below the main sluice, and communicate with it above
+  and below, the entry being protected by a grating so that only the
+  finer material is admitted. These are paved with stone blocks or lined
+  with mercury riffles, so that from the greatly reduced velocity of
+  flow, due to the sudden increase of surface, the finer particles of
+  gold may collect. In order to save finely divided gold, amalgamated
+  copper plates are sometimes placed in a nearly level position, at a
+  considerable distance from the head of the sluice, the gold which is
+  retained in it being removed from time to time. Sluices are often made
+  double, and they are usually cleaned up--that is, the deposit rich in
+  gold is removed from them--once a week.
+
+  The "pan" is now only used by prospectors, while the "cradle" and
+  "tom" are practically confined to the Chinese; the sluice is
+  considered to be the best contrivance for washing gold gravels.
+
+2. _The Amalgamation Process._--This method is employed to extract gold
+from both alluvial and reef deposits: in the first case it is combined
+with "hydraulic mining," i.e. disintegrating auriferous gravels by
+powerful jets of water, and the sluice system described above; in the
+second case the vein stuff is prepared by crushing and the amalgamation
+is carried out in mills.
+
+  Hydraulic mining has for the most part been confined to the country of
+  its invention, California, and the western territories of America,
+  where the conditions favourable for its use are more fully developed
+  than elsewhere--notably the presence of thick banks of gravel that
+  cannot be utilized by other methods, and abundance of water, even
+  though considerable work may be required at times to make it
+  available. The general conditions to be observed in such workings may
+  be briefly stated as follows: (1) The whole of the auriferous gravel,
+  down to the "bed rock," must be removed,--that is, no selection of
+  rich or poor parts is possible; (2) this must be accomplished by the
+  aid of water alone, or at times by water supplemented by blasting; (3)
+  the conglomerate must be mechanically disintegrated without
+  interrupting the whole system; (4) the gold must be saved without
+  interrupting the continuous flow of water; and (5) arrangements must
+  be made for disposing of the vast masses of impoverished gravel.
+
+  The water is brought from a ditch on the high ground, and through a
+  line of pipes to the distributing box, whence the branch pipes
+  supplying the jets diverge. The stream issues through a nozzle,
+  termed a "monitor" or "giant," which is fitted with a ball and socket
+  joint, so that the direction of the jet may be varied through
+  considerable angles by simply moving a handle. The material of the
+  bank being loosened by blasting and the cutting action of the water,
+  crumbles into holes, and the superincumbent mass, often with large
+  trees and stones, falls into the lower ground. The stream, laden with
+  stones and gravel, passes into the sluices, where the gold is
+  recovered in the manner already described. Under the most advantageous
+  conditions the loss of gold may be estimated at 15 or 20%, the amount
+  recovered representing a value of about two shillings per ton of
+  gravel treated. The loss of mercury is about the same, from 5 to 6
+  cwt. being in constant use per mile of sluice.
+
+  In working auriferous river-beds, dredges have been used with
+  considerable success in certain parts of New Zealand and on the
+  Pacific slope in America. The dredges used in California are almost
+  exclusively of the endless-chain bucket or steam-shovel pattern. Some
+  dredges have a capacity under favourable conditions of over 2000 cub.
+  yds. of gravel daily. The gravel is excavated as in the ordinary form
+  of endless-chain bucket dredge and dumped on to the deck of the
+  dredge. It then passes through screens and grizzlies to retain the
+  coarse gravel, the finer material passing on to sluice boxes provided
+  with riffles, supplied with mercury. There are belt conveyers for
+  discharging the gravel and tailings at the end of the vessel remote
+  from the buckets. The water necessary to the process is pumped from
+  the river; as much as 2000 gallons per minute is used on the larger
+  dredges.
+
+  The dressing or mechanical preparation of vein stuff containing gold
+  is generally similar to that of other ores (see ORE-DRESSING), except
+  that the precious metal should be removed from the waste substances as
+  quickly as possible, even although other minerals of value that are
+  subsequently recovered may be present. In all cases the quartz or
+  other vein stuff must be reduced to a very fine powder as a
+  preliminary to further operations. This may be done in several ways,
+  e.g. either (1) by the Mexican crusher or _arrastra_, in which the
+  grinding is effected upon a bed of stone, over which heavy blocks of
+  stone attached to cross arms are dragged by the rotation of the arms
+  about a central spindle, or (2) by the Chilean mill or _trapiche_,
+  also known as the edge-runner, where the grinding stones roll upon the
+  floor, at the same time turning about a central upright--contrivances
+  which are mainly used for the preparation of silver ores; but by far
+  the largest proportion of the gold quartz of California, Australia and
+  Africa is reduced by (3) the stamp mill, which is similar in principle
+  to that used in Europe for the preparation of tin and other ores.
+
+  The stamp mill was first used in California, and its use has since
+  spread over the whole world. In the mills of the Californian type the
+  stamp is a cylindrical iron pestle faced with a chilled cast iron
+  shoe, removable so that it can be renewed when necessary, attached to
+  a round iron rod or lifter, the whole weighing from 600 to 900 lb.;
+  stamps weighing 1320 lb. are in use in the Transvaal. The lift is
+  effected by cams acting on the under surface of tappets, and formed by
+  cylindrical boxes keyed on to the stems of the lifter about one-fourth
+  of their length from the top. As, however, the cams, unlike those of
+  European stamp mills, are placed to one side of the stamp, the latter
+  is not only lifted but turned partly round on its own axis, whereby
+  the shoes are worn down uniformly. The height of lift may be between 4
+  and 18 in., and the number of blows from 30 to over 100 per minute.
+  The stamps are usually arranged in batteries of five; the order of
+  working is usually 1, 4, 2, 5, 3, but other arrangements, e.g. 1, 3,
+  5, 2, 4, and 1, 5, 2, 4, 3, are common. The stuff, previously broken
+  to about 2-in. lumps in a rock-breaker, is fed in through an aperture
+  at the back of the "battery box," a constant supply of water is
+  admitted from above, and mercury in a finely divided state is added at
+  frequent intervals. The discharge of the comminuted material takes
+  place through an aperture, which is covered by a thin steel plate
+  perforated with numerous slits about 1/50th in. broad and ½ in. long,
+  a certain volume being discharged at every blow and carried forward by
+  the flushing water over an apron or table in front, covered by copper
+  plates filled with mercury. Similar plates are often used to catch any
+  particles of gold that may be thrown back, while the main operation is
+  so conducted that the bulk of the gold may be reduced to the state of
+  amalgam by bringing the two metals into intimate contact under the
+  stamp head, and remain in the battery. The tables in front are laid at
+  an incline of about 8° and are about 13 ft. long; they collect from 10
+  to 15% of the whole gold; a further quantity is recovered by leading
+  the sands through a gutter about 16 in. broad and 120 ft. long, also
+  lined with amalgamated copper plates, after the pyritic and other
+  heavy minerals have been separated by depositing in catch pits and
+  other similar contrivances.
+
+  When the ore does not contain any considerable amount of free gold
+  mercury is not, as a rule, used during the crushing, but the
+  amalgamation is carried out in a separate plant. Contrivances of the
+  most diverse constructions have been employed. The most primitive is
+  the rubbing together of the concentrated crushings with mercury in
+  iron mortars. Barrel amalgamation, i.e. mixing the crushings with
+  mercury in rotating barrels, is rarely used, the process being
+  wasteful, since the mercury is specially apt to be "floured" (see
+  below).
+
+  At Schemnitz, Kerpenyes, Kreuzberg and other localities in Hungary,
+  quartz vein stuff containing a little gold, partly free and partly
+  associated with pyrites and galena, is, after stamping in mills,
+  similar to those described above, but without rotating stamps, passed
+  through the so-called "Hungarian gold mill" or "quick-mill." This
+  consists of a cast-iron pan having a shallow cylindrical bottom
+  holding mercury, in which a wooden muller, nearly of the same shape as
+  the inside of the pan, and armed below with several projecting blades,
+  is made to revolve by gearing wheels. The stuff from the stamps is
+  conveyed to the middle of the muller, and is distributed over the
+  mercury, when the gold subsides, while the quartz and lighter
+  materials are guided by the blades to the circumference and are
+  discharged, usually into a second similar mill, and subsequently pass
+  over blanket tables, i.e. boards covered with canvas or sacking, the
+  gold and heavier particles becoming entangled in the fibres. The
+  action of this mill is really more nearly analogous to that of a
+  centrifugal pump, as no grinding action takes place in it. The amalgam
+  is cleaned out periodically--fortnightly or monthly--and after
+  filtering through linen bags to remove the excess of mercury, it is
+  transferred to retorts for distillation (see below).
+
+  Many other forms of pan-amalgamators have been devised. The Laszlo is
+  an improved Hungarian mill, while the Piccard is of the same type. In
+  the Knox and Boss mills, which are also employed for the amalgamation
+  of silver ores, the grinding is effected between flat horizontal
+  surfaces instead of conical or curved surfaces as in the previously
+  described forms.
+
+  One of the greatest difficulties in the treatment of gold by
+  amalgamation, and more particularly in the treatment of pyrites,
+  arises from the so-called "sickening" or "flouring" of the mercury;
+  that is, the particles, losing their bright metallic surfaces, are no
+  longer capable of coalescing with or taking up other metals. Of the
+  numerous remedies proposed the most efficacious is perhaps sodium
+  amalgam. It appears that amalgamation is often impeded by the tarnish
+  found on the surface of the gold when it is associated with sulphur,
+  arsenic, bismuth, antimony or tellurium. Henry Wurtz in America (1864)
+  and Sir William Crookes in England (1865) made independently the
+  discovery that, by the addition of a small quantity of sodium to the
+  mercury, the operation is much facilitated. It is also stated that
+  sodium prevents both the "sickening" and the "flouring" of the mercury
+  which is produced by certain associated minerals. The addition of
+  potassium cyanide has been suggested to assist the amalgamation and to
+  prevent "flouring," but Skey has shown that its use is attended with
+  loss of gold.
+
+  _Separation of Gold from the Amalgam._--The amalgam is first pressed
+  in wetted canvas or buckskin in order to remove excess of mercury.
+  Lumps of the solid amalgam, about 2 in. in diameter, are introduced
+  into an iron vessel provided with an iron tube that leads into a
+  condenser containing water. The distillation is then effected by
+  heating to dull redness. The amalgam yields about 30 to 40% of gold.
+  Horizontal cylindrical retorts, holding from 200 to 1200 lb. of
+  amalgam, are used in the larger Californian mills, pot retorts being
+  used in the smaller mills. The bullion left in the retorts is then
+  melted in black-lead crucibles, with the addition of small quantities
+  of suitable fluxes, e.g. nitre, sodium carbonate, &c.
+
+  The extraction of gold from auriferous minerals by fusion, except as
+  an incident in their treatment for other metals, is very rarely
+  practised. It was at one time proposed to treat the concentrated black
+  iron obtained in the Ural gold washings, which consists chiefly of
+  magnetite, as an iron ore, by smelting it with charcoal for auriferous
+  pig-iron, the latter metal possessing the property of dissolving gold
+  in considerable quantity. By subsequent treatment with sulphuric acid
+  the gold could be recovered. Experiments on this point were made by
+  Anossow in 1835, but they have never been followed in practice.
+
+  Gold in galena or other lead ores is invariably recovered in the
+  refining or treatment of the lead and silver obtained. Pyritic ores
+  containing copper are treated by methods analogous to those of the
+  copper smelter. In Colorado the pyritic ores containing gold and
+  silver in association with copper are smelted in reverberatory
+  furnaces for regulus, which, when desilverized by Ziervogel's method,
+  leaves a residue containing 20 or 30 oz. of gold per ton. This is
+  smelted with rich gold ores, notably those containing tellurium, for
+  white metal or regulus; and by a following process of partial
+  reduction analogous to that of selecting in copper smelting, "bottoms"
+  of impure copper are obtained in which practically all the gold is
+  concentrated. By continuing the treatment of these in the ordinary way
+  of refining, poling and granulating, all the foreign matters other
+  than gold, copper and silver are removed, and, by exposing the
+  granulated metal to a high oxidizing heat for a considerable time the
+  copper may be completely oxidized while the precious metals are
+  unaltered. Subsequent treatment with sulphuric acid renders the copper
+  soluble in water as sulphate, and the final residue contains only gold
+  and silver, which is parted or refined in the ordinary way. This
+  method of separating gold from copper, by converting the latter into
+  oxide and sulphate, is also used at Oker in the Harz.
+
+_Extraction by Means of Aqueous Solutions._--Many processes have been
+suggested in which the gold of auriferous deposits is converted into
+products soluble in water, from which solutions the gold may be
+precipitated. Of these processes, two only are of special importance,
+viz. the chlorination or Plattner process, in which the metal is
+converted into the chloride, and the cyanide or MacArthur-Forrest
+process, in which it is converted into potassium aurocyanide.
+
+  (3) _Chlorination or Plattner Process._--In this process moistened
+  gold ores are treated with chlorine gas, the resulting gold chloride
+  dissolved out with water, and the gold precipitated with ferrous
+  sulphate, charcoal, sulphuretted hydrogen or otherwise. The process
+  originated in 1848 with C. F. Plattner, who suggested that the
+  residues from certain mines at Reichenstein, in Silesia, should be
+  treated with chlorine after the arsenical products had been extracted
+  by roasting. It must be noticed, however, that Percy independently
+  made the same discovery, and stated his results at the meeting of the
+  British Association (at Swansea) in 1849, but the Report was not
+  published until 1852. The process was introduced in 1858 by Deetken at
+  Grass Valley, California, where the waste minerals, principally
+  pyrites from tailings, had been worked for a considerable time by
+  amalgamation. The process is rarely applied to ores direct;
+  free-milling ores are generally amalgamated, and the tailings and
+  slimes, after concentration, operated upon. Three stages in the
+  process are to be distinguished: (i) calcination, to convert all the
+  metals, except gold and silver, into oxides, which are unacted upon by
+  chlorine; (ii.) chlorinating the gold and lixiviating the product;
+  (iii.) precipitating the gold.
+
+  The calcination, or roasting, is conducted at a low temperature in
+  some form of reverberatory furnace. Salt is added in the roasting to
+  convert any lime, magnesia or lead which may be present, into the
+  corresponding chlorides. The auric chloride is, however, decomposed at
+  the elevated temperature into finely divided metallic gold, which is
+  then readily attacked by the chlorine gas. The high volatility of gold
+  in the presence of certain metals must also be considered. According
+  to Egleston the loss may be from 40 to 90% of the total gold present
+  in cupriferous ores according to the temperature and duration of
+  calcination. The roasted mineral, slightly moistened, is introduced
+  into a vat made of stoneware or pitched planks, and furnished with a
+  double bottom. Chlorine, generally prepared by the interaction of
+  pyrolusite, salt and sulphuric acid, is led from a suitable generator
+  beneath the false bottom, and rises through the moistened ore, which
+  rests on a bed of broken quartz; the gold is thus converted into a
+  soluble chloride, which is afterwards removed by washing with water.
+  Both fixed and rotating vats are employed, the chlorination proceeding
+  more rapidly in the latter case; rotating barrels are sometimes used.
+  There have also been introduced processes in which the chlorine is
+  generated in the chloridizing vat, the reagents used being dilute
+  solutions of bleaching powder and an acid. Munktell's process is of
+  this type. In the Thies process, used in many districts in the United
+  States, the vats are rotating barrels made, in the later forms, of
+  iron lined with lead, and provided with a filter formed of a finely
+  perforated leaden grating running from one end of the barrel to the
+  other, and rigidly held in place by wooden frames. Chlorine is
+  generated within the barrel from sulphuric acid and chloride of lime.
+  After charging, the barrel is rotated, and when the chlorination is
+  complete the contents are emptied on a filter of quartz or some
+  similar material, and the filtrate led to settling tanks.
+
+  After settling the solution is run into the precipitating tanks. The
+  precipitants in use are: ferrous sulphate, charcoal and sulphuretted
+  hydrogen, either alone or mixed with sulphur dioxide; the use of
+  copper and iron sulphides has been suggested, but apparently these
+  substances have achieved no success.
+
+  In the case of ferrous sulphate, prepared by dissolving iron in dilute
+  sulphuric acid, the reaction follows the equation AuCl3 + 3FeSO4 =
+  FeCl3 + Fe2(SO4)3 + Au. At the same time any lead, calcium, barium and
+  strontium present are precipitated as sulphates; it is therefore
+  advantageous to remove these metals by the preliminary addition of
+  sulphuric acid, which also serves to keep any basic iron salts in
+  solution. The precipitation is carried out in tanks or vats made with
+  wooden sides and a cement bottom. The solutions are well mixed by
+  stirring with wooden poles, and the gold allowed to settle, the time
+  allowed varying from 12 to 72 hours. The supernatant liquid is led
+  into settling tanks, where a further amount of gold is deposited, and
+  is then filtered through sawdust or sand, the sawdust being afterwards
+  burnt and the gold separated from the ashes and the sand treated in
+  the chloridizing vat. The precipitated gold is washed, treated with
+  salt and sulphuric acid to remove iron salts, roughly dried by
+  pressing in cloths or on filter paper, and then melted with salt,
+  borax and nitre in graphite crucibles. Thus prepared it has a fineness
+  of 800-960, the chief impurities usually being iron and lead.
+
+  Charcoal is used as the precipitant at Mount Morgan, Australia. Its
+  use was proposed as early as 1818 and 1819 by Hare and Henry; Percy
+  advocated it in 1869, and Davis adopted it on the large scale at a
+  works in Carolina in 1880. The action is not properly understood; it
+  may be due to the reducing gases (hydrogen, hydrocarbons, &c.) which
+  are invariably present in wood charcoal. The process consists
+  essentially in running the solution over layers of charcoal, the
+  charcoal being afterwards burned. It has been found that the reaction
+  proceeds faster when the solution is heated.
+
+  Precipitation with sulphur dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen proceeds
+  much more rapidly, and has been adopted at many works. Sulphur
+  dioxide, generated by burning sulphur, is forced into the solution
+  under pressure, where it interacts with any free chlorine present to
+  form hydrochloric and sulphuric acids. Sulphuretted hydrogen, obtained
+  by treating iron sulphide or a coarse matte with dilute sulphuric
+  acid, is forced in similarly. The gold is precipitated as the
+  sulphide, together with any arsenic, antimony, copper, silver and lead
+  which may be present. The precipitate is collected in a filter-press,
+  and then roasted in muffle furnaces with nitre, borax and sodium
+  carbonate. The fineness of the gold so obtained is 900 to 950.
+
+  4. _Cyanide Process._--This process depends upon the solubility of
+  gold in a dilute solution of potassium cyanide in the presence of air
+  (or some other oxidizing agent), and the subsequent precipitation of
+  the gold by metallic zinc or by electrolysis. The solubility of gold
+  in cyanide solutions was known to K. W. Scheele in 1782; and M.
+  Faraday applied it to the preparation of extremely thin films of the
+  metal. L. Eisner recognized, in 1846, the part played by the
+  atmosphere, and in 1879 Dixon showed that bleaching powder, manganese
+  dioxide, and other oxidizing agents, facilitated the solution. S. B.
+  Christy (_Trans. A.I.M.E._, 1896, vol. 26) has shown that the solution
+  is hastened by many oxidizing agents, especially sodium and manganese
+  dioxides and potassium ferricyanide. According to G. Bodländer (_Zeit.
+  f. angew. Chem._, 1896, vol. 19) the rate of solution in potassium
+  cyanide depends upon the subdivision of the gold--the finer the
+  subdivision the quicker the solution,--and on the concentration of the
+  solution--the rate increasing until the solution contains 0.25% of
+  cyanide, and remaining fairly stationary with increasing
+  concentration. The action proceeds in two stages; in the first
+  hydrogen peroxide and potassium aurocyanide are formed, and in the
+  second the hydrogen peroxide oxidizes a further quantity of gold and
+  potassium cyanide to aurocyanide, thus (1) 2Au + 4KCN + O2 + 2H2O =
+  2KAu(CN)2 + 4KOH + H2O2; (2) 2Au + 4KCN + 2H2O2 = 2KAu(CN)2 + 4KOH.
+  The end reaction may be written 4Au + 8KCN + 2H2O + O2 = 4KAu(CN)2 +
+  4KOH.
+
+  The commercial process was patented in 1890 by MacArthur and Forrest,
+  and is now in use all over the world. It is best adapted for
+  free-milling ores, especially after the bulk of the gold has been
+  removed by amalgamation. It has been especially successful in the
+  Transvaal. In the Witwatersrand the ore, which contains about 9 dwts.
+  of gold to the metric ton (2000 lb.), is stamped and amalgamated, and
+  the slimes and tailings, containing about 3½ dwts. per ton, are
+  cyanided, about 2 dwts. more being thus extracted. The total cost per
+  ton of ore treated is about 6s., of which the cyaniding costs from 2s.
+  to 4s.
+
+  The process embraces three operations: (1) Solution of the gold; (2)
+  precipitation of the gold; (3) treatment of the precipitate.
+
+  The ores, having been broken and ground, generally in tube mills,
+  until they pass a 150 to 200-mesh sieve, are transferred to the
+  leaching vats, which are constructed of wood, iron or masonry; steel
+  vats, coated inside and out with pitch, of circular section and
+  holding up to 1000 tons, have come into use. The diameter is generally
+  26 ft., but may be greater; the best depth is considered to be a
+  quarter of the diameter. The vats are fitted with filters made of
+  coco-nut matting and jute cloth supported on wooden frames. The
+  leaching is generally carried out with a strong, medium, and with a
+  weak liquor, in the order given; sometimes there is a preliminary
+  leaching with a weak liquor. The strengths employed depend also upon
+  the mode of precipitation adopted, stronger solutions (up to 0.25%
+  KCN) being used when zinc is the precipitant. For electrolytic
+  precipitation the solution may contain up to 0.1% KCN. The liquors are
+  run off from the vats to the electrolysing baths or precipitating
+  tanks, and the leached ores are removed by means of doors in the sides
+  of the vats into wagons. In the Transvaal the operation occupies 3½ to
+  4 days for fine sands, and up to 14 days for coarse sands; the
+  quantity of cyanide per ton of tailings varies from 0.26 to 0.28 lb.,
+  for electrolytic precipitation, and 0.5 lb. for zinc precipitation.
+
+  The precipitation is effected by zinc in the form of bright turnings,
+  or coated with lead, or by electrolysis. According to Christy, the
+  precipitation with zinc follows equations 1 or 2 according as
+  potassium cyanide is present or not:
+
+  (1) 4KAu(CN)2 + 4Zn + 2H2O = 2Zn(CN)2 + K2Zn(CN)4 + Zn(OK)2 + 4H + 4Au;
+
+  (2) 2KAu(CN)2 + 3Zn + 4KCN + 2H2O = 2K2Zn(CN)4 + Zn(OK)2 + 4H + 2Au;
+
+  one part of zinc precipitating 3.1 parts of gold in the first case,
+  and 2.06 in the second. It may be noticed that the potassium zinc
+  cyanide is useless in gold extraction, for it neither dissolves gold
+  nor can potassium cyanide be regenerated from it.
+
+  The precipitating boxes, generally made of wood but sometimes of
+  steel, and set on an incline, are divided by partitions into
+  alternately wide and narrow compartments, so that the liquor travels
+  upwards in its passage through the wide divisions and downwards
+  through the narrow divisions. In the wider compartments are placed
+  sieves having sixteen holes to the square inch and bearing zinc
+  turnings. The gold and other metals are precipitated on the under
+  surfaces of the turnings and fall to the bottom of the compartment as
+  a black slime. The slime is cleaned out fortnightly or monthly, the
+  zinc turnings being cleaned by rubbing and the supernatant liquor
+  allowed to settle in the precipitating boxes or in separate vessels.
+  The slime so obtained consists of finely divided gold and silver
+  (5-50%), zinc (30-60%), lead (10%), carbon (10%), together with tin,
+  copper, antimony, arsenic and other impurities of the zinc and ores.
+  After well washing with water, the slimes are roughly dried in
+  bag-filters or filter-presses, and then treated with dilute sulphuric
+  acid, the solution being heated by steam. This dissolves out the zinc.
+  Lime is added to bring down the gold, and the sediment, after washing
+  and drying, is fused in graphite crucibles.
+
+  5. _Electrolytic Processes._--The electrolytic separation of the gold
+  from cyanide solutions was first practised in the Transvaal. The
+  process, as elaborated by Messrs. Siemens and Halske, essentially
+  consists in the electrolysis of weak solutions with iron or steel
+  plate anodes, and lead cathodes, the latter, when coated with gold,
+  being fused and cupelled. Its advantages over the zinc process are
+  that the deposited gold is purer and more readily extracted, and that
+  weaker solutions can be employed, thereby effecting an economy in
+  cyanide.
+
+  In the process employed at the Worcester Works in the Transvaal, the
+  liquors, containing about 150 grains of gold per ton and from 0.08 to
+  0.01% of cyanide, are treated in rectangular vats in which is placed a
+  series of iron and leaden plates at intervals of 1 in. The cathodes,
+  which are sheets of thin lead foil weighing 1½ lb. to the sq. yd., are
+  removed monthly, their gold content being from 0.5 to 10%, and after
+  folding are melted in reverberatory furnaces to ingots containing 2 to
+  4% of gold. Cupellation brings up the gold to about 900 fine. Many
+  variations of the electrolytic process as above outlined have been
+  suggested. S. Cowper Coles has suggested aluminium cathodes; Andreoli
+  has recommended cathodes of iron and anodes of lead coated with lead
+  peroxide, the gold being removed from the iron cathodes by a brief
+  immersion in molten lead; in the Pelatan-Cerici process the gold is
+  amalgamated at a mercury cathode (see also below).
+
+_Refining or Parting of Gold._--Gold is almost always silver-bearing,
+and it may be also noticed that silver generally contains some gold.
+Consequently the separation of these two metals Is one of the most
+important metallurgical processes. In addition to the separation of the
+silver the operation extends to the elimination of the last traces of
+lead, tin, arsenic, &c. which have resisted the preceding cupellation.
+
+  The "parting" of gold and silver is of considerable antiquity. Thus
+  Strabo states that in his time a process was employed for refining and
+  purifying gold in large quantities by cementing or burning it with an
+  aluminous earth, which, by destroying the silver, left the gold in a
+  state of purity. Pliny shows that for this purpose the gold was placed
+  on the fire in an earthen vessel with treble its weight of salt, and
+  that it was afterwards again exposed to the fire with two parts of
+  salt and one of argillaceous rock, which, in the presence of moisture,
+  effected the decomposition of the salt; by this means the silver
+  became converted into chloride.
+
+  The methods of parting can be classified into "dry," "wet" and
+  electrolytic methods. In the "dry" methods the silver is converted
+  into sulphide or chloride, the gold remaining unaltered; in the "wet"
+  methods the silver is dissolved by nitric acid or boiling sulphuric
+  acid; and in the electrolytic processes advantage is taken of the fact
+  that under certain current densities and other circumstances silver
+  passes from an anode composed of a gold-silver alloy to the cathode
+  more readily than gold. Of the dry methods only F. B. Miller's
+  chlorine process is of any importance, this method, and the wet
+  process of refining by sulphuric acid, together with the electrolytic
+  process, being the only ones now practised.
+
+  The conversion of silver into the sulphide may be effected by heating
+  with antimony sulphide, litharge and sulphur, pyrites, or with sulphur
+  alone. The antimony, or _Guss und Fluss_, method was practised up till
+  1846 at the Dresden mint; it is only applicable to alloys containing
+  more than 50% of gold. The fusion results in the formation of a
+  gold-antimony alloy, from which the antimony is removed by an
+  oxidizing fusion with nitre. The sulphur and litharge, or
+  _Pfannenschmied_, process was used to concentrate the gold in an alloy
+  in order to make it amenable to "quartation," or parting with nitric
+  acid. Fusion with sulphur was used for the same purpose as the
+  Pfannenschmied process. It was employed in 1797 at the St Petersburg
+  mint.
+
+  The conversion of the silver into the chloride may be effected by
+  means of salt--the "cementation" process--or other chlorides, or by
+  free chlorine--Miller's process. The first process consists
+  essentially in heating the alloy with salt and brickdust; the latter
+  absorbs the chloride formed, while the gold is recovered by washing.
+  It is no longer employed. The second process depends upon the fact
+  that, if chlorine be led into the molten alloy, the base metals and
+  the silver are converted into chlorides. It was proposed in 1838 by
+  Lewis Thompson, but it was only applied commercially after Miller's
+  improvements in 1867, when it was adopted at the Sydney mint. Sir W.
+  C. Roberts-Austen introduced it at the London mint; and it has also
+  been used at Pretoria. It is especially suitable to gold containing
+  little silver and base metals--a character of Australian gold--but it
+  yields to the sulphuric acid and electrolytic methods in point of
+  economy.
+
+  The separation of gold from silver in the wet way may be effected by
+  nitric acid, sulphuric acid or by a mixture of sulphuric acid and
+  _aqua regia_.
+
+  Parting by nitric acid is of considerable antiquity, being mentioned
+  by Albertus Magnus (13th cent.), Biringuccio (1540) and Agricola
+  (1556). It is now rarely practised, although in some refineries both
+  the nitric acid and the sulphuric acid processes are combined, the
+  alloy being first treated with nitric acid. It used to be called
+  "quartation" or "inquartation," from the fact that the alloy best
+  suited for the operation of refining contained 3 parts of silver to 1
+  of gold. The operation may be conducted in vessels of glass or
+  platinum, and each pound of granulated metal is treated with a pound
+  and a quarter of nitric acid of specific gravity 1.32. The method is
+  sometimes employed in the assay of gold.
+
+  Refining by sulphuric acid, the process usually adopted for separating
+  gold from silver, was first employed on the large scale by d'Arcet in
+  Paris in 1802, and was introduced into the Mint refinery, London, by
+  Mathison in 1829. It is based upon the facts that concentrated hot
+  sulphuric acid converts silver and copper into soluble sulphates
+  without attacking the gold, the silver sulphate being subsequently
+  reduced to the metallic state by copper plates with the formation of
+  copper sulphate. It is applicable to any alloy, and is the best method
+  for parting gold with the exception of the electrolytic method.
+
+  The process embraces four operations: (1) the preparation of an alloy
+  suitable for parting; (2) the treatment with sulphuric acid; (3) the
+  treatment of the residue for gold; (4) the treatment of the solution
+  for silver.
+
+  It is necessary to remove as completely as possible any lead, tin,
+  bismuth, antimony, arsenic and tellurium, impurities which impair the
+  properties of gold and silver, by an oxidizing fusion, e.g. with
+  nitre. Over 10% of copper makes the parting difficult; consequently in
+  such alloys the percentage of copper is diminished by the addition of
+  silver free from copper, or else the copper is removed by a chemical
+  process. Other undesirable impurities are the platinum metals, special
+  treatment being necessary when these substances are present. The
+  alloy, after the preliminary refining, is granulated by being poured,
+  while molten, in a thin stream into cold water which is kept well
+  agitated.
+
+  The acid treatment is generally carried out in cast iron pots;
+  platinum vessels used to be employed, while porcelain vessels are only
+  used for small operations, e.g. for charges of 190 to 225 oz. as at
+  Oker in the Harz. The pots, which are usually cylindrical with a
+  hemispherical bottom, may hold as much as 13,000 to 16,000 oz. of
+  alloy. They are provided with lids, made either of lead or of wood
+  lined with lead, which have openings to serve for the introduction of
+  the alloy and acid, and a vent tube to lead off the vapours evolved
+  during the operation. The bullion with about twice its weight of
+  sulphuric acid of 66° Bé is placed in the pot, and the whole gradually
+  heated. Since the action is sometimes very violent, especially when
+  the bullion is treated in the granulated form (it is steadier when
+  thin plates are operated upon), it is found expedient to add the acid
+  in several portions. The heating is continued for 4 to 12 hours
+  according to the amount of silver present; the end of the reaction is
+  known by the absence of any hissing. Generally the reaction mixture is
+  allowed to cool, and the residue, which settles to the bottom of the
+  pot, consists of gold together with copper, lead and iron sulphates,
+  which are insoluble in strong sulphuric acid; silver sulphate may also
+  separate if present in sufficient quantity and the solution be
+  sufficiently cooled. The solution is removed by ladles or by siphons,
+  and the residue is leached out with boiling water; this removes the
+  sulphates. A certain amount of silver is still present and, according
+  to M. Pettenkofer, it is impossible to remove all the silver by means
+  of sulphuric acid. Several methods are in use for removing the silver.
+  Fusion with an alkaline bisulphate converts the silver into the
+  sulphate, which may be extracted by boiling with sulphuric acid and
+  then with water. Another process consists in treating a mixture of the
+  residue with one-quarter of its weight of calcined sodium sulphate
+  with sulphuric acid, the residue being finally boiled with a large
+  quantity of acid. Or the alloy is dissolved in _aqua regia_, the
+  solution filtered from the insoluble silver chloride, and the gold
+  precipitated by ferrous chloride.
+
+  The silver present in the solution obtained in the sulphuric acid
+  boiling is recovered by a variety of processes. The solution may be
+  directly precipitated with copper, the copper passing into solution as
+  copper sulphate, and the silver separating as a mud, termed "cement
+  silver." Or the silver sulphate may be separated from the solution by
+  cooling and dilution, and then mixed with iron clippings, the
+  interaction being accompanied with a considerable evolution of heat.
+  Or Gutzkow's method of precipitating the metal with ferrous sulphate
+  may be employed.
+
+  The electrolytic parting of gold and silver has been shown to be more
+  economical and free from the objections--such as the poisonous
+  fumes--of the sulphuric acid process. One process depends upon the
+  fact that, with a suitable current density, if a very dilute solution
+  of silver nitrate be electrolysed between an auriferous silver anode
+  and a silver cathode, the silver of the anode is dissolved out and
+  deposited at the cathode, the gold remaining at the anode. The silver
+  is quite free from gold, and the gold after boiling with nitric acid
+  has a fineness of over 999.
+
+  Gold is left in the anode slime when copper or silver are refined by
+  the usual processes, but if the gold preponderate in the anode these
+  processes are inapplicable. A cyanide bath, as used in electroplating,
+  would dissolve the gold, but is not suitable for refining, because
+  other metals (silver, copper, &c.) passing with gold into the solution
+  would deposit with it. Bock, however, in 1880 (_Berg- und
+  hüttenmännische Zeitung_, 1880, p. 411) described a process used at
+  the North German Refinery in Hamburg for the refining of gold
+  containing platinum with a small proportion of silver, lead or
+  bismuth, and a subsequent patent specification (1896) and a paper by
+  Wohlwill (_Zeits. f. Elektrochem._, 1898, pp. 379, 402, 421) have
+  thrown more light upon the process. The electrolyte is gold chloride
+  (2.5-3 parts of pure gold per 100 of solution) mixed with from 2 to 6%
+  of the strongest hydrochloric acid to render the gold anodes readily
+  soluble, which they are not in the neutral chloride solution. The bath
+  is used at 65° to 70° C. (150° to 158° F.), and if free chlorine be
+  evolved, which is known at once by its pungent smell, the temperature
+  is raised, or more acid is added, to promote the solubility of the
+  gold. The bath is used with a current-density of 100 ampères per sq.
+  ft. at 1 volt (or higher), with electrodes about 1.2 in. apart. In
+  this process all the anode metals pass into solution except iridium
+  and other refractory metals of that group, which remain as metals, and
+  silver, which is converted into insoluble chloride; lead and bismuth
+  form chloride and oxychloride respectively, and these dissolve until
+  the bath is saturated with them, and then precipitate with the silver
+  in the tank. But if the gold-strength of the bath be maintained, only
+  gold is deposited at the cathode--in a loose powdery condition from
+  pure solutions, but in a smooth detachable deposit from impure
+  liquors. Under good conditions the gold should contain 99.98% of the
+  pure metal. The tank is of porcelain or glazed earthenware, the
+  electrodes for impure solutions are ½ in. apart (or more with pure
+  solutions), and are on the multiple system, and the potential
+  difference at the terminals of the bath is 1 volt. A high
+  current-density being employed, the turn-over of gold is rapid--an
+  essential factor of success when the costliness of the metal is taken
+  into account. Platinum and palladium dissolved from the anode
+  accumulate in the solution, and are removed at intervals of, say, a
+  few months by chemical precipitation. It is essential that the bath
+  should not contain more than 5% of palladium, or some of this metal
+  will deposit with the gold. The slimes are treated chemically for the
+  separation of the metals contained in them.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Standard works on the metallurgy of gold are the
+  treatises of T. Kirke Rose and of M. Eissler. The cyanide process is
+  especially treated by M. Eissler, _Cyanide Process for the Extraction
+  of Gold_, which pays particular attention to the Witwatersrand
+  methods; Alfred James, _Cyanide Practice_; H. Forbes Julian and Edgar
+  Smart, _Cyaniding Gold and Silver Ores_. Gold milling is treated by
+  Henry Louis, _A Handbook of Gold Milling_; C. G. Warnford Lock, _Gold
+  Milling_; T. A. Rickard, _Stamp Milling of Gold Ores_. Gold dredging
+  is treated by Captain C. C. Longridge in _Gold Dredging_, and
+  hydraulic mining is discussed by the same author in his _Hydraulic
+  Mining_. For operations in special districts see J. M. Maclaren,
+  _Gold_ (1908); J. H. Curle, _Gold Mines of the World_; Africa: F. H.
+  Hatch and J. A. Chalmers, _Gold Mines of the Rand_; S. J. Truscott,
+  _Witwatersrand Goldfields Banket and Mining Practice_; Australasia: D.
+  Clark, _Australian Mining and Metallurgy_; Karl Schmeisser,
+  _Goldfields of Australasia_; A. G. Charleton, _Gold Mining and Milling
+  in Western Australia_; India: F. H. Hatch, _The Kolar Gold-Field_.
+
+
+
+
+GOLD AND SILVER THREAD. Under this heading some general account may be
+given of gold and silver strips, threads and gimp used in connexion with
+varieties of weaving, embroidery and twisting and plaiting or lace work.
+To this day, in many oriental centres where it seems that early
+traditions of the knowledge and the use of fabrics wholly or partly
+woven, ornamented, and embroidered with gold and silver have been
+maintained, the passion for such brilliant and costly textiles is still
+strong and prevalent. One of the earliest mentions of the use of gold in
+a woven fabric occurs in the description of the ephod made for Aaron
+(Exod. xxxix. 2, 3), "And he made the ephod of gold, blue, and purple,
+and scarlet, and fine twined linen. And they did beat the gold into thin
+plates, and cut it into wires (strips), to work it in the blue, and in
+the purple, and in the scarlet, and in the fine linen, with cunning
+work." This is suggestive of early Syrian or Arabic in-darning or
+weaving with gold strips or tinsel. In both the _Iliad_ and the
+_Odyssey_ allusion is frequently made to inwoven and embroidered golden
+textiles. Assyrian sculpture gives an elaborately designed ornament upon
+the robe of King Assur-nasir-pal (884 B.C.) which was probably an
+interweaving of gold and coloured threads, and testifies to the
+consummate skill of Assyrian or Babylonian workers at that date. From
+Assyrian and Babylonian weavers the conquering Persians of the time of
+Darius derived their celebrity as weavers and users of splendid stuffs.
+Herodotus describes the corselet given by Amasis king of Egypt to the
+Minerva of Lindus and how it was inwoven or embroidered with gold.
+Darius, we are told, wore a war mantle on which were figured (probably
+inwoven) two golden hawks as if pecking at each other. Alexander the
+Great is said to have found Eastern kings and princes arrayed in robes
+of gold and purple. More than two hundred years later than Alexander the
+Great was the king of Pergamos (the third bearing the name Attalus) who
+gave much attention to working in metals and is mentioned by Pliny as
+having invented weaving with gold, hence the historic Attalic cloths.
+There are several references in Roman writings to costumes and stuffs
+woven and embroidered with gold threads and the Graeco-Roman
+_chryso-phrygium_ and the Roman _auri-phrygium_ are evidences not only
+of Roman work with gold threads but also of its indebtedness to Phrygian
+sources. The famous tunics of Agrippina and those of Heliogabalus are
+said to have been of tissues made entirely with gold threads, whereas
+the robes which Marcus Aurelius found in the treasury of Hadrian, as
+well as the costumes sold at the dispersal of the wardrobe of Commodus,
+were different in character, being of fine linen and possibly even of
+silken stuffs inwoven or embroidered with gold threads. The same
+description is perhaps correct of the reputedly splendid hangings with
+which King Dagobert decorated the early medieval oratory of St Denis.
+Reference to these and many such stuffs is made by the respectively
+contemporary or almost contemporary writers; and a very full and
+interesting work by Monsieur Francisque Michel (Paris, 1852) is still a
+standard book for consultation in respect of the history of silk, gold
+and silver stuffs.
+
+From indications such as these, as well as those of later date, one sees
+broadly that the art of weaving and embroidering with gold and silver
+threads passed from one great city to another, travelling as a rule
+westward. Babylon, Tarsus, Bagdad, Damascus, the islands of Cyprus and
+Sicily, Constantinople, Venice and southern Spain appear successively in
+the process of time as famous centres of these much-prized manufactures.
+During the middle ages European royal personages and high ecclesiastical
+dignitaries used cloth and tissues of gold and silver for their state
+and ceremonial robes, as well as for costly hangings and decoration; and
+various names--ciclatoun, tartarium, naques or nac, baudekin or
+baldachin (Bagdad) and tissue--were applied to textiles in the making of
+which gold threads were almost always introduced in combination with
+others. The thin flimsy paper known as tissue paper is so called because
+it originally was placed between the folds of gold "tissue" (or weaving)
+to prevent the contiguous surfaces from fraying each other. Under the
+articles dealing with carpets, embroidery, lace and tapestry will be
+found notices of the occasional use in such productions of gold and
+silver threads. Of early date in the history of European weaving are
+rich stuffs produced in Southern Spain by Moors, as well as by Saracenic
+and Byzantine weavers at Palermo and Constantinople in the 12th century,
+in which metallic threads were freely used. Equally esteemed at about
+the same period were corresponding stuffs made in Cyprus, whilst for
+centuries later the merchants in such fabrics eagerly sought for and
+traded in Cyprus gold and silver threads. Later the actual manufacture
+of them was not confined to Cyprus, but was also carried on by Italian
+thread and trimming makers from the 14th century onwards. For the most
+part the gold threads referred to were of silver gilt. In rare instances
+of middle-age Moorish or Arabian fabrics the gold threads are made with
+strips of parchment or paper gilt and still rarer are instances of the
+use of real gold wire.
+
+In India the preparation of varieties of gold and silver threads is an
+ancient and important art. The "gold wire" of the manufacturer has been
+and is as a rule silver wire gilt, the silver wire being, of course,
+composed of pure silver. The wire is drawn by means of simple
+draw-plates, with rude and simple appliances, from rounded bars of
+silver, or gold-plated silver, as the case may be. The wire is flattened
+into strip, tinsel or ribbon-like form, by passing fourteen or fifteen
+strands simultaneously, over a fine, smooth, round-topped anvil and
+beating each as it passes with a heavy hammer having a slightly convex
+surface. Such strips or tinsel of wire so flattened are woven into
+Indian _soniri_, tissue or cloth of gold, the web or warp being composed
+entirely of golden strips, and _ruperi_, similar tissue of silver. Other
+gold and silver threads suitable for use in embroidery, pillow and
+needlepoint lace making, &c., consist of fine strips of flattened wire
+wound round cores of orange (in the case of silver, white) silk thread
+so as to completely cover them. Wires flattened or partially flattened
+are also twisted into exceedingly fine spirals and much used for heavy
+embroideries. Spangles for embroideries, &c., are made from spirals of
+comparatively stout wire, by cutting them down ring by ring, laying each
+C-like ring on an anvil, and by a smart blow with a hammer flattening it
+out into a thin round disk with a slit extending from the centre to one
+edge. The demand for many kinds of loom-woven and embroidered gold and
+silver work in India is immense, and the variety of textiles so
+ornamented is also very great, chief amongst which are the golden or
+silvery tinsel fabrics known as kincobs.
+
+Amongst Western communities the demand for gold and silver embroideries
+and braid lace now exists chiefly in connexion with naval, military and
+other uniforms, masonic insignia, court costumes, public and private
+liveries, ecclesiastical robes and draperies, theatrical dresses, &c.
+
+The proportions of gold and silver in the gold thread for the woven
+braid lace or ribbon trade varies, but in all cases the proportion of
+gold is exceedingly small. An ordinary gold braid wire is drawn from a
+bar containing 90 parts of silver and 7 of copper, and plated with 3 of
+gold. On an average each ounce troy of a bar so plated is drawn into
+1500 yds. of wire; and therefore about 16 grains of gold cover 1 m. of
+wire.     (A. S. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GOLDAST AB HAIMINSFELD, MELCHIOR (1576-1635), Swiss writer, an
+industrious though uncritical collector of documents relating to the
+medieval history and Constitution of Germany, was born on the 6th of
+January 1576 (some say 1578), of poor Protestant parents, near
+Bischofszell, in the Swiss Canton of Thurgau. His university career,
+first at Ingolstadt (1585-1586), then at Altdorf near Nuremberg
+(1597-1598), was cut short by his poverty, from which he suffered all
+his life, and which was the main cause of his wanderings. In 1598 he
+found a rich protector in the person of Bartholomaeus Schobinger, of St
+Gall, by whose liberality he was enabled to study at St Gall (where he
+first became interested in medieval documents, which abound in the
+conventual library) and elsewhere in Switzerland. Before his patron's
+death (1604) he became (1603) secretary to Henry, duke of Bouillon, with
+whom he went to Heidelberg and Frankfort. But in 1604 he entered the
+service of the Baron von Hohensax, then the possessor of the precious
+MS. volume of old German poems, returned from Paris to Heidelberg in
+1888, and, partially published by Goldast. Soon he was back in
+Switzerland, and by 1606 in Frankfort, earning his living by preparing
+and correcting books for the press. In 1611 he was appointed councillor
+at the court of Saxe-Weimar, and in 1615 he entered the service of the
+count of Schaumburg at Bückeburg. In 1624 he was forced by the war to
+retire to Bremen; there in 1625 he deposited his library in that of the
+town (his books were bought by the town in 1646, but many of his MSS.
+passed to Queen Christina of Sweden, and hence are now in the Vatican
+library), he himself returning to Frankfort. In 1627 he became
+councillor to the emperor and to the archbishop-elector of Trèves, and
+in 1633 passed to the service of the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt. He
+died at Giessen early in 1635.
+
+His immense industry is shown by the fact that his biographer,
+Senckenburg, gives a list of 65 works published or written by him, some
+extending to several substantial volumes. Among the more important are
+his _Paraeneticorum veterum pars i._ (1604), which contained the old
+German tales of _Kunig Tyrol von Schotten_, the _Winsbeke_ and the
+_Winsbekin; Suevicarum rerum scriptores_ (Frankfort, 1605, new edition,
+1727); _Rerum Alamannicarum scriptores_ (Frankfort, 1606, new edition by
+Senckenburg, 1730); _Constitutiones imperiales_ (Frankfort, 1607-1613, 4
+vols.); _Monarchia s. Romani imperii_ (Hanover and Frankfort, 1612-1614,
+3 vols.); _Commentarii de regni Bohemiae juribus_ (Frankfort, 1627, new
+edition by Schmink, 1719). He also edited De Thou's _History_
+(1609-1610) and Willibald Pirckheimer's works (1610). In 1688 a volume
+of letters addressed to him by his learned friends was published.
+
+  _Life_ by Senckenburg, prefixed to his 1730 work. See also R. von
+  Raumer's _Geschichte d. germanischen Philologie_ (Munich, 1870).
+       (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GOLDBEATING.--The art of goldbeating is of great antiquity, being
+referred to by Homer; and Pliny (_N.H._ 33. 19) states that 1 oz. of
+gold was extended to 750 leaves, each leaf being four fingers (about 3
+in.) square; such a leaf is three times as thick as the ordinary leaf
+gold of the present time. In all probability the art originated among
+the Eastern nations, where the working of gold and the use of gold
+ornaments have been distinguishing characteristics from the most remote
+periods. On Egyptian mummy cases specimens of original leaf-gilding are
+met with, where the gold is so thin that it resembles modern gilding
+(q.v.). The minimum thickness to which gold can be beaten is not known
+with certainty. According to Mersenne (1621) 1 oz. was spread out over
+105 sq. ft.; Réaumur (1711) obtained 146½ sq. ft.; other values are 189
+sq. ft. and 300 sq. ft. Its malleability is greatly diminished by the
+presence of other metals, even in very minute quantity. In practice the
+average degree of tenuity to which the gold is reduced is not nearly so
+great as the last example quoted above. A "book of gold" containing 25
+leaves measuring each 3¼ in., equal to an area of 264 sq. in., generally
+weighs from 4 to 5 grains.
+
+The gold used by the goldbeater is variously alloyed, according to the
+colour required. Fine gold is commonly supposed to be incapable of being
+reduced to thin leaves. This, however, is not the case, although its use
+for ordinary purposes is undesirable on account of its greater cost. It
+also adheres on one part of a leaf touching another, thus causing a
+waste of labour by the leaves being spoiled; but for work exposed to the
+weather it is much preferable, as it is more durable, and does not
+tarnish or change colour. The external gilding on many public buildings,
+e.g. the Albert Memorial in Kensington Gardens, London, is done with
+pure gold. The following is a list of the principal classes of leaf
+recognized and ordinarily prepared by British beaters, with the
+proportions of alloy per oz. they contain.
+
+    +---------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |               |Proportion |Proportion |Proportion |
+    | Name of leaf. | of gold.  | of Silver.| of Copper.|
+    +---------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |               |  Grains.  |  Grains.  |  Grains.  |
+    | Red           |  456-460  |     ..    |  20-24    |
+    | Pale red      |    464    |     ..    |    16     |
+    | Extra deep    |    456    |     12    |    12     |
+    | Deep          |    444    |     24    |    12     |
+    | Citron        |    440    |     30    |    10     |
+    | Yellow        |    408    |     72    |    ..     |
+    | Pale yellow   |    384    |     96    |    ..     |
+    | Lemon         |    360    |    120    |    ..     |
+    | Green or pale |    312    |    168    |    ..     |
+    | White         |    240    |    240    |    ..     |
+    +---------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+  The process of goldbeating is as follows: The gold, having been
+  alloyed according to the colour desired, is melted in a crucible at a
+  higher temperature than is simply necessary to fuse it, as its
+  malleability is improved by exposure to a greater heat; sudden cooling
+  does not interfere with its malleability, gold differing in this
+  respect from some other metals. It is then cast into an ingot, and
+  flattened, by rolling between a pair of powerful smooth steel rollers,
+  into a ribbon of 1½ in. wide and 10 ft. in length to the oz. After
+  being flattened it is annealed and cut into pieces of about 6½ grs.
+  each, or about 75 per oz., and placed between the leaves of a "cutch,"
+  which is about ½ in. thick and 3½ in. square, containing about 180
+  leaves of a tough paper. Formerly fine vellum was used for this
+  purpose, and generally still it is interleaved in the proportion of
+  about one of vellum to six of paper. The cutch is beaten on for about
+  20 minutes with a 17-lb. hammer, which rebounds by the elasticity of
+  the skin, and saves the labour of lifting, by which the gold is spread
+  to the size of the cutch; each leaf is then taken out, and cut into
+  four pieces, and put between the skins of a "shoder," 4½ in. square
+  and ¾ in. thick, containing about 720 skins, which have been worn out
+  in the finishing or "mould" process. The shoder requires about two
+  hours' beating upon with a 9-lb. hammer. As the gold will spread
+  unequally, the shoder is beaten upon after the larger leaves have
+  reached the edges. The effect of this is that the margins of larger
+  leaves come out of the edges in a state of dust. This allows time for
+  the smaller leaves to reach the full size of the shoder, thus
+  producing a general evenness of size in the leaves. Each leaf is again
+  cut into four pieces, and placed between the leaves of a "mould,"
+  composed of about 950 of the finest gold-beaters' skins, 5 in. square
+  and ¾ in. thick, the contents of one shoder filling three moulds. The
+  material has now reached the last and most difficult stage of the
+  process; and on the fineness of the skin and judgment of the workman
+  the perfection and thinness of the leaf of gold depend. During the
+  first hour the hammer is allowed to fall principally upon the centre
+  of the mould. This causes gaping cracks upon the edges of the leaves,
+  the sides of which readily coalesce and unite without leaving any
+  trace of the union after being beaten upon. At the second hour, when
+  the gold is about the 150,000th part of an inch in thickness, it for
+  the first time permits the transmission of the rays of light. Pure
+  gold, or gold but slightly alloyed, transmits green rays; gold highly
+  alloyed with silver transmits pale violet rays. The mould requires in
+  all about four hours' beating with a 7-lb. hammer, when the ordinary
+  thinness for the gold leaf of commerce will be reached. A single ounce
+  of gold will at this stage be extended to 75 × 4 × 4 = 1200 leaves,
+  which will trim to squares of about 3¼ in. each. The finished leaf is
+  then taken out of the mould, and the rough edges are trimmed off by
+  slips of the ratan fixed in parallel grooves of an instrument called a
+  waggon, the leaf being laid upon a leathern cushion. The leaves thus
+  prepared are placed into "books" capable of holding 25 leaves each,
+  which have been rubbed over with red ochre to prevent the gold
+  clinging to the paper. Dentist gold is gold leaf carried no farther
+  than the cutch stage, and should be perfectly pure gold.
+
+  By the above process also silver is beaten, but not so thin, the
+  inferior value of the metal not rendering it commercially desirable to
+  bestow so much labour upon it. Copper, tin, zinc, palladium, lead,
+  cadmium, platinum and aluminium can be beaten into thin leaves, but
+  not to the same extent as gold or silver.
+
+The fine membrane called goldbeater's skin, used for making up the
+shoder and mould, is the outer coat of the caecum or blind gut of the
+ox. It is stripped off in lengths about 25 or 30 in., and freed from fat
+by dipping in a solution of caustic alkali and scraping with a blunt
+knife. It is afterwards stretched on a frame; two membranes are glued
+together, treated with a solution of aromatic substances or camphor in
+isinglass, and subsequently coated with white of egg. Finally they are
+cut into squares of 5 or 5½ in.; and to make up a mould of 950 pieces
+the gut of about 380 oxen is required, about 2½ skins being got from
+each animal. A skin will endure about 200 beatings in the mould, after
+which it is fit for use in the shoder alone.
+
+  The dryness of the cutch, shoder and mould is a matter of extreme
+  delicacy. They require to be hot-pressed every time they are used,
+  although they may be used daily, to remove the moisture which they
+  acquire from the atmosphere, except in extremely frosty weather, when
+  they acquire so little moisture that a difficulty arises from their
+  over-dryness, whereby the brilliancy of the gold is diminished, and it
+  spreads very slowly under the hammer. On the contrary, if the cutch or
+  shoder be damp, the gold will become pierced with innumerable
+  microscopic holes; and in the moulds in its more attenuated state it
+  will become reduced to a pulverulent state. This condition is more
+  readily produced in alloyed golds than in fine gold. It is necessary
+  that each skin of the mould should be rubbed over with calcined gypsum
+  each time the mould may be used, in order to prevent the adhesion of
+  the gold to the surface of the skin in beating.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia,[1] 14
+m. by rail S.W. of Liegnitz, on the Katzbach, an affluent of the Oder.
+Pop. (1905) 6804. The principal buildings are an old church dating from
+the beginning of the 13th century, the Schwabe-Priesemuth institution,
+completed in 1876, for the board and education of orphans, and the
+classical school or gymnasium (founded in 1524 by Duke Frederick II. of
+Liegnitz), which in the 17th century enjoyed great prosperity, and
+numbered Wallenstein among its pupils. The chief manufactures are
+woollen cloth, flannel, gloves, stockings, leather and beer, and there
+is a considerable trade in corn and fruit. Goldberg owes its origin and
+name to a gold mine in the neighbourhood, which, however, has been
+wholly abandoned since the time of the Hussite wars. The town obtained
+civic rights in 1211. It suffered heavily from the Tatars in 1241, from
+the plague in 1334, from the Hussites in 1428, and from the Saxon,
+Imperial and Swedish forces during the Thirty Years' War. On the 27th of
+May 1813 a battle took place near it between the French and the
+Russians; and on the 23rd and the 27th of August of the same year
+fights between the allies and the French.
+
+  See Sturm, _Geschichte der Stadt Goldberg in Schlesien_ (1887).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Goldberg is also the name of a small town in the grand-duchy of
+    Mecklenburg-Schwerin.
+
+
+
+
+GOLD COAST, that portion of the Guinea Coast (West Africa) which extends
+from Assini upon the west to the river Volta on the east. It derives its
+name from the quantities of grains of gold mixed with the sand of the
+rivers traversing the district. The term Gold Coast is now generally
+identified with the British Gold Coast colony. This extends from 3° 7'
+W. to 1° 14' E., the length of the coast-line being about 370 m. It is
+bounded W. by the Ivory Coast colony (French), E. by Togoland (German).
+On the north the British possessions, including Ashanti (q.v.) and the
+Northern Territories, extend to the 11th degree of north latitude. The
+frontier separating the colony from Ashanti (fixed by order in council,
+22nd of October 1906) is in general 130 m. from the coast, but in the
+central portion of the colony the southern limits of Ashanti project
+wedge-like to the confluence of the rivers Ofin and Prah, which point is
+but 60 m. from the sea at Cape Coast. The combined area of the Gold
+Coast, Ashanti and the Northern Territories, is about 80,000 sq. m.,
+with a total population officially estimated in 1908 at 2,700,000; the
+Gold Coast colony alone has an area of 24,200 sq. m., with a population
+of over a million, of whom about 2000 are Europeans.
+
+[Map: Gold Coast and Hinterland.]
+
+  _Physical features._--Though the lagoons common to the West African
+  coast are found both at the western and eastern extremities of the
+  colony (Assini in the west and Kwitta in the east) the greater part of
+  the coast-line is of a different character. Cape Three Points (4° 44'
+  40" N. 2° 5' 45" W.) juts boldly into the sea, forming the most
+  southerly point of the colony. Thence the coast trends E. by N., and
+  is but slightly indented. The usually low sandy beach is, however,
+  diversified by bold, rocky headlands. The flat belt of country does
+  not extend inland any considerable distance, the spurs of the great
+  plateau which forms the major part of West Africa advancing in the
+  east, in the Akwapim district, near to the coast. Here the hills reach
+  an altitude of over 2000 ft. Out of the level plain rise many isolated
+  peaks, generally of conical formation. Numerous rivers descend from
+  the hills, but bars of sand block their mouths, and the Gold Coast
+  possesses no harbours. Great Atlantic rollers break unceasingly upon
+  the shore. The chief rivers are the Volta (q.v.), the Ankobra and the
+  Prah. The Ankobra or Snake river traverses auriferous country, and
+  reaches the sea some 20 m. west of Cape Three Points. It has a course
+  of about 150 m., and is navigable in steam launches for about 80 m.
+  The Prah ("Busum Prah," sacred river) is regarded as a fetish stream
+  by the Fanti and Ashanti. One of its sub-tributaries has its rise near
+  Kumasi. The Prah rises in the N.E. of the colony and flows S.W. Some
+  60 m. from its mouth it is joined by the Ofin, which comes from the
+  north-west. The united stream flows S. and reaches the sea in 1° 35'
+  W. As a waterway the river, which has a course of 400 m., is almost
+  useless, owing to the many cataracts in its course. Another river is
+  the Tano, which for some distance in its lower course forms the
+  boundary between the colony and the Ivory Coast.
+
+  _Geology._--Cretaceous rocks occur at intervals along the coast belt,
+  but are mostly hidden under an extensive development of superficial
+  deposits. Basalt occurs at Axim. Inland is a broad belt of sandstone
+  and marl with an occasional band of auriferous conglomerate, best
+  known and most extensively worked for gold in the Wasaw district.
+  Though the conglomerates bear some resemblance to the "Banket" of
+  South Africa they are most probably of more recent date. The alluvial
+  silts and gravels also carry gold.
+
+  _Climate._--The climate on the coast is hot, moist and unhealthy,
+  especially for Europeans. The mean temperature in the shade in the
+  coast towns is 78° to 80° F. Fevers and dysentery are the diseases
+  most to be dreaded by the European. The native inhabitants, although
+  they enjoy tolerable health and live to an average age, are subject in
+  the rainy season to numerous chest complaints. There are two wet
+  seasons. From April to August are the greater rains, whilst in October
+  and November occur the "smalls" or second rains. From the end of
+  December to March the dry harmattan wind blows from the Sahara. In
+  consequence of the prevalence of the sea-breeze from the south-west
+  the western portion of the colony, up to the mouth of the Sekum river
+  (a small stream to the west of Accra), is called the windward
+  district, the eastward portion being known as the leeward. The
+  rainfall at Accra, in the leeward district, averages 27 in. in the
+  year, but at places in the windward district is much greater,
+  averaging 79 in. at Axim.
+
+  _Flora._--The greater part (probably three-fourths) of the colony is
+  covered with primeval forest. Here the vegetation is so luxuriant that
+  for great distances the sky is shut out from view. As a result of the
+  struggle to reach the sunlight the forest growths are almost entirely
+  vertical. The chief trees are silk cottons, especially the bombax, and
+  gigantic hard-wood trees, such as the African mahogany, ebony, odum
+  and camwood. The bombax rises for over 100 ft., a straight column-like
+  shaft, 25 to 30 ft. in circumference, and then throws out horizontally
+  a large number of branches. The lowest growth in the forest consists
+  of ferns and herbaceous plants. Of the ferns some are climbers
+  reaching 30 to 40 ft. up the stems of the trees they entwine.
+  Flowering plants are comparatively rare; they include orchids and a
+  beautiful white lily. The "bush" or intermediate growth is made up of
+  smaller trees, the rubber vine and other creepers, some as thick as
+  hawsers, bamboos and sensitive mimosa, and has a height of from 30 to
+  60 ft. The creepers are found not only in the bush, but on the ground
+  and hanging from the branches of the highest trees. West of the Prah
+  the forest comes down to the edge of the Atlantic. East of that river
+  the coast land is covered with bushes 5 to 12 ft. high, occasional
+  large trees and groves of oil palms. Still farther east, by Accra, are
+  numerous arborescent Euphorbias, and immediately west of the lower
+  Volta forests of oil palms and grassy plains with fan palms. Behind
+  all these eastern regions is a belt of thin forest country before the
+  denser forest is reached. In the north-east are stretches of
+  orchard-like country with wild plum, shea-butter and kola trees,
+  baobabs, dwarf date and fan palms. The cotton and tobacco plants grow
+  wild. At the mouths of the rivers and along the lagoons the mangrove
+  is the characteristic tree. There are numerous coco-nut palms along
+  the coast. The fruit trees and plants also include the orange,
+  pine-apple, mango, papaw, banana and avocado or alligator pear.
+
+  _Fauna._--The fauna includes leopards, panthers, hyenas, Potto lemurs,
+  jackals, antelopes, buffaloes, wild-hogs and many kinds of monkey,
+  including the chimpanzee and the _Colobus vellerosus_, whose skin,
+  with long black silky hair, is much prized in Europe. The elephant has
+  been almost exterminated by ivory hunters. The snakes include pythons,
+  cobras, horned and puff adders and the venomous water snake. Among the
+  lesser denizens of the forest are the squirrel and porcupine.
+  Crocodiles and in fewer numbers manatees and otters frequent the
+  rivers and lagoons and hippopotami are found in the Volta. Lizards of
+  brilliant hue, tortoises and great snails are common. Birds, which are
+  not very numerous, include parrots and hornbills, kingfishers,
+  ospreys, herons, crossbills, curlews, woodpeckers, doves, pigeons,
+  storks, pelicans, swallows, vultures and the spur plover (the
+  last-named rare). Shoals of herrings frequent the coast, and the other
+  fish include mackerel, sole, skate, mullet, bonito, flying fish,
+  fighting fish and shynose. Sharks abound at the mouths of all the
+  rivers, edible turtle are fairly common, as are the sword fish,
+  dolphin and sting ray (with poisonous caudal spine). Oysters are
+  numerous on rocks running into the sea and on the exposed roots of
+  mangrove trees. Insect life is multitudinous; beetles, spiders, ants,
+  fireflies, butterflies and jiggers abound. The earthworm is rare. The
+  mosquitos include the _Culex_ or ordinary kind, the _Anopheles_, which
+  carry malarial fever, and the _Stegomyia_, a striped white and black
+  mosquito which carries yellow-fever.
+
+  _Inhabitants._--The natives are all of the Negro race. The most
+  important tribe is the Fanti (q.v.), and the Fanti language is
+  generally understood throughout the colony. The Fanti and Ashanti are
+  believed to have a common origin. It is certain that the Fanti came
+  originally from the north and conquered many of the coast tribes, who
+  anciently had owned the rule of the king of Benin. The districts in
+  general are named after the tribes inhabiting them. Those in the
+  western part of the colony are mainly of Fanti stock; the Accra and
+  allied tribes inhabit the eastern portion and are believed to be the
+  aboriginal inhabitants. The Akim (Akem), who occupy the north-east
+  portion of the colony, have engaged in gold-digging from time
+  immemorial. The capital of their country is Kibbi. The Akwapim
+  (Aquapem), southern neighbours of the Akim, are extensively engaged in
+  agriculture and in trade. The Accra, a clever race, are to be found in
+  all the towns of the West African coast as artisans and sailors. They
+  are employed by the interior tribes as middlemen and interpreters. On
+  the right bank of the Volta occupying the low marshy land near the sea
+  are the Adangme. The Krobos live in little villages in the midst of
+  the palm tree woods which grow round about the Kroboberg, an eminence
+  about 1000 ft. high. Their country lies between that of the Akim and
+  the Adangme. In the west of the colony is the Ahanta country, formerly
+  an independent kingdom. The inhabitants were noted for their skill in
+  war. They are one of the finest and most intelligent of the tribes of
+  Accra stock. The Apollonia, a kindred race, occupy the coast region
+  nearest the Ivory Coast.
+
+
+    Native Languages.
+
+  The Tshi, Tchwi or Chi language,[1] which is that spoken on the Gold
+  Coast, belongs to the great prefix-pronominal group. It comprises many
+  dialects, which may, however, be reduced to two classes or types. Akan
+  dialects are spoken in Assini, Amanahia (Apollonia), Awini, Ahanta,
+  Wasaw, Tshuforo (Juffer or Tufel), and Denkyera in the west, and in
+  Asen, Akim, and Akwapim in the east, as well as in the different parts
+  of Ashanti. Fanti dialects are spoken, not only in Fanti proper, but
+  in Afutu or the country round Cape Coast, in Abora, Agymako, Akomfi,
+  Gomoa and Agona. The difference between the two types is not very
+  great; a Fanti, for example, can converse without much difficulty with
+  a native of Akwapim or Ashanti, his language being in fact a
+  deteriorated form of the same original. Akim is considered the finest
+  and purest of all the Akan dialects. The Akwapim, which is based on
+  the Akim but has imbibed Fanti influences, has been made the
+  book-language by the Basel missionaries. They had reduced it to
+  writing before 1850. About a million people in all, it is estimated,
+  speak dialects of the Tshi.
+
+  The south-eastern corner of the Gold Coast is occupied by another
+  language known as the Ga or Accra, which comprises the Ga proper and
+  the Adangme and Krobo dialects. Ga proper is spoken by about 40,000
+  people, including the inhabitants of Ga and Kinka (i.e. Accra, in
+  Tshi, Nkran and Kankan), Osu (i.e. Christiansborg), La, Tessi, Ningua
+  and numerous inland villages. It has been reduced to writing by the
+  missionaries. The Adangme and Krobo dialects are spoken by about
+  80,000 people. They differ very considerably from Ga proper, but books
+  printed in Ga can be used by both the Krobo and Adangme natives.
+  Another language known as Guan is used in parts of Akwapim and in Anum
+  beyond the Volta; but not much is known either about it or the Obutu
+  tongue spoken in a few towns in Agona, Gomoa and Akomfi.
+
+
+    Religion and education.
+
+  Fetishism (q.v.) is the prevailing religion of all the tribes. Belief
+  in a God is universal, as also is a belief in a future state.
+  Christianity and Mahommedanism are both making progress. The natives
+  professing Christianity number about 40,000. A Moravian mission was
+  started at Christiansborg about 1736; the Basel mission (Evangelical)
+  was begun in 1828, the missionaries combining manual training and farm
+  labour with purely religious work; the Wesleyans started a mission
+  among the Fanti in 1835, and the Anglican and Roman Catholic Churches
+  are also represented, as well as the Bremen Missionary Society.
+  Elementary education is chiefly in the hands of the Wesleyan, Basel,
+  Bremen and Roman Catholic missions, who have schools at many towns
+  along the coast and in the interior. There are also government and
+  Mahommedan schools. The natives generally are extremely intelligent.
+  They obtain easily the means of subsistence, and are disinclined to
+  unaccustomed labour, such as working in mines. They are keen traders.
+  The native custom of burying the dead under the floors of the houses
+  prevailed until 1874, when it was prohibited by the British
+  authorities.
+
+  _Towns._--Unlike the other British possessions on the west coast of
+  Africa, the colony has many towns along the shore, this being due to
+  the multiplicity of traders of rival nations who went thither in quest
+  of gold. Beginning at the west, Newtown, on the Assini or Eyi lagoon,
+  is just within the British frontier. The first place of importance
+  reached is Axim (pop., 1901, 2189), the site of an old Dutch fort
+  built near the mouth of the Axim river, and in the pre-railway days
+  the port of the gold region. Rounding Cape Three Points, whose
+  vicinity is marked by a line of breakers nearly 2½ m. long, Dixcove is
+  reached. Twenty miles farther east is Sekondi (q.v.), (pop. about
+  5000), the starting-point of the railway to the goldfields and Kumasi.
+  Elmina (q.v.), formerly one of the most important posts of European
+  settlement, is reached some distance after passing the mouth of the
+  Prah. Eight miles east of Elmina is Cape Coast (q.v.), pop. (1901)
+  28,948. Anamabo is 9 m. farther east. Here, in 1807, a handful of
+  English soldiers made a heroic and successful defence of its fort
+  against the whole Ashanti host. Saltpond, towards the end of the 19th
+  century, diverted to itself the trade formerly done by Anamabo, from
+  which it is distant 9 m. Saltpond is a well-built, flourishing town,
+  and is singular in possessing no ancient fort. Between Anamabo and
+  Saltpond is Kormantine (Cormantyne), noted as the place whence the
+  English first exported slaves from this coast. Hence the general name
+  Coromantynes given in the West Indies to slaves from the Gold Coast.
+  Eighty miles from Cape Coast is Accra (q.v.) (pop. 17,892), capital of
+  the colony. (Winnebah is passed 30 m. before Accra is reached. It is
+  an old town noted for the manufacture of canoes.) There is no station
+  of much importance in the 60 m. between Accra and the Volta, on the
+  right bank of which river, near its mouth, is the town of Addah (pop.
+  13,240). Kwitta (pop. 3018) lies beyond the Volta not far from the
+  German frontier. Of the inland towns Akropong, the residence of the
+  king of Akwapim, is one of the best known. It is 39 m. N.E. of Accra,
+  stands on a ridge 1400 ft. above sea-level, and is a healthy place for
+  European residents. At Akropong are the headquarters of the Basel
+  Missionary Society. Akuse is a large town on the banks of the Volta.
+  Tarkwa is the centre of the gold mining industry in the Wasaw
+  district. Its importance dates from the beginning of the 20th century.
+  Accra, Cape Coast and Sekondi possess municipal government.
+
+  _Agriculture and Trade._--The soil is everywhere very fertile and the
+  needs of the people being few there is little incentive to work. The
+  forests alone supply an inexhaustible source of wealth, notably in the
+  oil palm. Among vegetable products cultivated are cocoa, cotton,
+  Indian corn, yams, cassava, peas, peppers, onions, tomatoes,
+  groundnuts (_Arachis hypogaea_), Guinea corn (_Sorghum vulgare_) and
+  Guinea grains (_Amomum grana-paradisi_). The most common article of
+  cultivation is, however, the kola nut (_Sterculia acuminata_), the
+  favourite substitute in West Africa for the betel nut. In 1890 efforts
+  were made by the establishment of a government botanical station at
+  Aburi in the Accra district to induce the natives to improve their
+  methods of cultivation and to enlarge the number of their crops. This
+  resulted in the formation of hundreds of cocoa plantations, chiefly in
+  the district immediately north of Accra. Subsequently the cultivation
+  of the plant extended to every district of the colony. The industry
+  had been founded in 1879 by a native of Accra, but it was not until
+  1901, as the result of the government's fostering care, that the
+  export became of importance. In that year the quantity exported
+  slightly exceeded 2,000,000 lb. and fetched £42,000. In 1907 the
+  quantity exported was nearly 21,000,000 lb. and in value exceeded
+  £515,000. In 1904 efforts were begun by the government and the British
+  Cotton Growing Association in co-operation to foster the growing of
+  cotton for export and by 1907 the cotton industry had become firmly
+  established. Tobacco and coffee are grown at some of the Basel
+  missionary stations.
+
+  The chief exports are gold, palm oil and palm kernels, cocoa, rubber,
+  timber (including mahogany) and kola nuts. Of these articles the gold
+  and rubber are shipped chiefly to England, whilst Germany, France and
+  America, take the palm products and groundnuts. The rubber comes
+  chiefly from Ashanti. The imports consist of cotton goods, rum, gin
+  and other spirits, rice, sugar, tobacco, beads, machinery, building
+  materials and European goods generally.
+
+  The value of the trade increased from £1,628,309 in 1896 to £4,055,351
+  in 1906. In the last named year the imports were valued at £2,058,839
+  and the exports at £1,996,412. While the value of imports had remained
+  nearly stationary since 1902 the value of exports had nearly trebled
+  in that period. In the five years 1903-1907 the total trade increased
+  from £3,063,486 to £5,007,869. Great Britain and British colonies take
+  66% of the exports and supply over 60% of the imports. In both import
+  and export trade Germany is second, followed by France and the United
+  States. Specie is included in these totals, over a quarter of a
+  million being imported in 1904.
+
+  Fishing is carried on extensively along the coast, and salted and
+  sun-dried fish from Addah and Kwitta districts find a ready sale
+  inland. Cloths are woven by the natives from home-grown and imported
+  yarn; the making of canoes, from the silk-cotton trees, is a
+  flourishing industry, and salt from the lagoons near Addah is roughly
+  prepared. There are also native artificers in gold and other metals,
+  the workmanship in some cases being of conspicuous merit. Odum wood is
+  largely used in building and for cabinet work.
+
+  _Gold Mining._--Gold is found in almost every part of the colony, but
+  only in a few districts in paying quantities. Although since the
+  discovery of the coast gold had been continuously exported to Europe
+  from its ports, it was not until the last twenty years of the 19th
+  century that efforts were made to extract gold according to modern
+  methods. The richness of the Tarkwa main reef was first discovered by
+  a French trader, M. J. Bennat, about 1880. During the period 1880 to
+  1900 the value of the gold exported varied from a minimum of £32,000
+  to a maximum (1889) of £103,000. The increased interest shown in the
+  industry led to the construction of a railway (see below) to the chief
+  goldfields, whereby the difficulties of transport were largely
+  overcome. Consequent upon the taking up of a number of concessions, a
+  concessions ordinance was issued in August 1900. This was followed in
+  1901 by the grant of 2825 concessions, and a "boom" in the West
+  African market on the London stock exchange. Many concessions were
+  speedily abandoned, and in 1901 the export of gold dropped to its
+  lowest point, 6162 oz., worth £22,186, but in 1902 a large company
+  began crushing ore and the output of gold rose to 26,911 oz., valued
+  at £96,880. In 1907 the export was 292,125 oz., worth £1,164,676. It
+  should be noted that one of the principal gold mines is not in the
+  colony proper, but at Obuassi in Ashanti. Underground labour is
+  performed mainly by Basas and Krumen from Liberia. Of native tribes
+  the Apollonia have proved the best for underground work, as they have
+  mining traditions dating from Portuguese times. A good deal of
+  alluvial gold is obtained by dredging apparatus. The use of dredging
+  apparatus is modern, but the natives have worked the alluvial soil and
+  the sand of the seashore for generations to get the gold they contain.
+
+  _Communications._--The colony possesses a railway, built and owned by
+  the government, which serves the gold mines, and has its sea terminus
+  at Sekondi. Work was begun in August 1898, but owing to the
+  disturbance caused by the Ashanti rising of 1900 the rails only
+  reached Tarkwa (39 m.) in May 1901. Thence the line is carried to
+  Kumasi, the distance to Obuassi (124 m.) being completed by December
+  1902, whilst the first train entered the Ashanti capital on the 1st of
+  October 1903. The total length of the line is 168 m. The cost of
+  construction was £1,820,000. The line has a gauge 3 ft. 6 in. There is
+  a branch line, 20 m. long, from Tarkwa N.W. to Prestea on the Ankobra
+  river. Another railway, built 1907-10, 35 m. in length, runs from
+  Accra to Mangoase, in the centre of the chief cocoa plantations. An
+  extension to Kumasi has been surveyed.
+
+  Tortuous bush tracks are the usual means of internal communication.
+  These are kept in fair order in the neighbourhood of government
+  stations. There is a well-constructed road 141 m. long from Cape Coast
+  to Kumasi, and roads connecting neighbouring towns are maintained by
+  the government. Systematic attempts to make use of the upper Volta as
+  a means of conveying goods to the interior were first tried in 1900.
+  The rapids about 60 m. from the mouth of the river effectually prevent
+  boats of large size passing up the stream. Where railways or canoes
+  are not available goods are generally carried on the heads of porters,
+  60 lb. being a full load. Telegraphs, introduced in 1882, connect all
+  the important towns in the colony, and a line starting at Cape Coast
+  stretches far inland, via Kumasi to Wa in the Northern Territories.
+  Accra and Sekondi are in telegraphic communication with Europe, the
+  Ivory Coast, Lagos and the Cape of Good Hope. There is regular and
+  frequent steamship communication with Europe by British, Belgian and
+  German lines.
+
+  _Administration, Revenue, &c._--The country is governed as a crown
+  colony, the governor being assisted by a legislative council composed
+  of officials and nominated unofficial members. Laws, called
+  ordinances, are enacted by the governor with the advice and consent of
+  this council. The law of the colony is the common law and statutes of
+  general application in force in England in 1874, modified by local
+  ordinances passed since that date. The governor is also governor of
+  Ashanti and the Northern Territories, but in those dependencies the
+  legislative council has no authority.
+
+  Native laws and customs--which are extremely elaborate and
+  complicated--are not interfered with "except when repugnant to natural
+  justice." Those relating to land tenure and succession may be thus
+  summarized. Individual tenure is not unknown, but most land is held by
+  the tribe or by the family in common, each member having the right to
+  select a part of the common land for his own use. Permanent alienation
+  can only take place with the unanimous consent of the family and is
+  uncommon, but long leases are granted. Succession is through the
+  female, i.e. when a man dies his property goes to his sister's
+  children. The government of the tribes is by their own kings and
+  chiefs under the supervision of district commissioners. Slavery has
+  been abolished in the colony. In the Northern Territories the dealing
+  in slaves is unlawful, neither can any person be put in pawn for debt;
+  nor will any court give effect to the relations between master and
+  slave except in so far as those relations may be in accordance with
+  the English laws relating to master and servant.
+
+  For administrative purposes the colony is divided into three provinces
+  under provincial commissioners, and each province is subdivided into
+  districts presided over by commissioners, who exercise judicial as
+  well as executive functions. The supreme court consists of a chief
+  justice and three puisne judges. The defence of the colony is
+  entrusted to the Gold Coast regiment of the West African Frontier
+  Force, a force of natives controlled by the Colonial Office but
+  officered from the British army. There is also a corps of volunteers
+  (formed 1892).
+
+  The chief source of revenue is the customs and (since 1902) railway
+  receipts, whilst the heaviest items of expenditure are transport
+  (including railways) and mine surveys, medical and sanitary services,
+  and maintenance of the military force. The revenue, which in the
+  period 1894-1898 averaged £244,559 yearly, rose in 1898-1903 to an
+  average of £556,316 a year. For the five years 1903-1907 the average
+  annual revenue was £647,557 and the average annual expenditure
+  £615,696. Save for municipal purposes there is no direct taxation in
+  the colony and no poor-houses exist. There is a public debt of
+  (December 1907) £2,206,964. It should be noted that the expenditure on
+  Ashanti and the Northern Territories is included in the Gold Coast
+  budget.
+
+_History._--It is a debated question whether the Gold Coast was
+discovered by French or by Portuguese sailors. The evidence available is
+insufficient to prove the assertion, of which there is no contemporary
+record, that a company of Norman merchants established themselves about
+1364 at a place they named La Mina (Elmina), and that they traded with
+the natives for nearly fifty years, when the enterprise was abandoned.
+It is well established that a Portuguese expedition under Diogo
+d'Azambuja, accompanied probably by Christopher Columbus, took
+possession of (or founded) Elmina in 1481-1482. By the Portuguese it was
+called variously São Jorge da Mina or Ora del Mina--the mouth of the
+(gold) mines. That besides alluvial washings they also worked the gold
+mines was proved by discoveries in the latter part of the 19th century.
+The Portuguese remained undisturbed in their trade until the
+Reformation, when the papal bull which had given the country, with many
+others, to Portugal ceased to have a binding power. English ships in
+1553 brought back from Guinea gold to the weight of 150 lb. The fame of
+the Gold Coast thereafter attracted to it adventurers from almost every
+European nation. The English were followed by French, Danes,
+Brandenburgers, Dutch and Swedes. The most aggressive were the Dutch,
+who from the end of the 16th century sought to oust the Portuguese from
+the Gold Coast, and in whose favour the Portuguese did finally withdraw
+in 1642, in return for the withdrawal on the part of the Dutch of their
+claims to Brazil. The Dutch henceforth made Elmina their headquarters on
+the coast. Traces of the Portuguese occupation, which lasted 160 years,
+are still to be found, notably in the language of the natives. Such
+familiar words as palaver, fetish, caboceer and dash (i.e. a gift) have
+all a Portuguese origin.
+
+
+  Appearance of the English.
+
+An English company built a fort at Kormantine previously to 1651, and
+some ten years later Cape Coast Castle was built. The settlements made
+by the English provoked the hostility of the Dutch and led to war
+between England and Holland, during which Admiral de Ruyter destroyed
+(1664-1665) all the English forts save Cape Coast castle. The treaty of
+Breda in 1667 confirmed the Dutch in the possession of their conquests,
+but the English speedily opened other trading stations. Charles II. in
+1672 granted a charter to the Royal African Company, which built forts
+at Dixcove, Sekondi, Accra, Whydah and other places, besides repairing
+Cape Coast Castle. At this time the trade both in slaves and gold was
+very great, and at the beginning of the 18th century the value of the
+gold exported annually was estimated by Willem Bosman, the chief Dutch
+factor at Elmina, to be over £200,000. The various European traders were
+constantly quarrelling among themselves and exercised scarcely any
+control over the natives. Piracy was rife along the coast, and was not
+indeed finally stamped out until the middle of the 19th century. The
+Royal African Company, which lost its monopoly of trade with England in
+1700, was succeeded by another, the African Company of Merchants, which
+was constituted in 1750 by act of parliament and received an annual
+subsidy from government. The slave trade was then at its height and some
+10,000 negroes were exported yearly. Many of the slaves were prisoners
+of war sold to the merchants by the Ashanti, who had become the chief
+native power. The abolition of the slave trade (1807) crippled the
+company, which was dissolved in 1821, when the crown took possession of
+the forts.
+
+
+  Danish and Dutch forts purchased.
+
+Since the beginning of the 19th century the British had begun to
+exercise territorial rights in the towns where they held forts, and in
+1817 the right of the British to control the natives living in the coast
+towns was recognized by Ashanti. In 1824 the first step towards the
+extension of British authority beyond the coast region was taken by
+Governor Sir Charles M'Carthy, who incited the Fanti to rise against
+their oppressors, the Ashanti. (The Fanti's country had been conquered
+by the Ashanti in 1807.) Sir Charles and the Fanti army were defeated,
+the governor losing his life, but in 1826 the English gained a victory
+over the Ashanti at Dodowah. At this period, however, the home
+government, disgusted with the Gold Coast by reason of the perpetual
+disturbances in the protectorate and the trouble it occasioned,
+determined to abandon the settlements, and sent instructions for the
+forts to be destroyed and the Europeans brought home. The merchants,
+backed by Major Rickets, 2nd West India regiments, the administrator,
+protested, and as a compromise the forts were handed over to a committee
+of merchants (Sept. 1828), who were given a subsidy of £4000 a year. The
+merchants secured (1830) as their administrator Mr George Maclean--a
+gentleman with military experience on the Gold Coast and not engaged in
+trade. To Maclean is due the consolidation of British interests in the
+interior. He concluded, 1831, a treaty with the Ashanti advantageous to
+the Fanti, whilst with very inadequate means he contrived to extend
+British influence over the whole region of the present colony. In the
+words of a Fanti trader Maclean understood the people, "he settled
+things quietly with them and the people also loved him."[2] Complaints
+that Maclean encouraged slavery reached England, but these were
+completely disproved, the governor being highly commended on his
+administration by the House of Commons Committee. It was decided,
+nevertheless, that the Colonial Office should resume direct control of
+the forts, which was done in 1843, Maclean continuing to direct native
+affairs until his death in 1847. The jurisdiction of England on the Gold
+Coast was defined by the bond of the 6th of March 1844, an agreement
+with the native chiefs by which the crown received the right of trying
+criminals, repressing human sacrifice, &c. The limits of the
+protectorate inland were not defined. The purchase of the Danish forts
+in 1850, and of the Dutch forts and territory in 1871, led to the
+consolidation of the British power along the coast; and the Ashanti war
+of 1873-74 resulted in the extension of the area of British influence.
+Since that time the colony has been chiefly engaged in the development
+of its material resources, a development accompanied by a slow but
+substantial advance in civilization among the native population. (For
+further historical information see ASHANTI.)
+
+For a time the Gold Coast formed officially a limb of the "West African
+Settlements" and was virtually a dependency of Sierra Leone. In 1874 the
+settlements on the Gold Coast and Lagos were created a separate crown
+colony, this arrangement lasting until 1886 when Lagos was cut off from
+the Gold Coast administration.
+
+
+_Northern Territories._
+
+The Northern Territories of the Gold Coast form a British protectorate
+to the north of Ashanti. They are bounded W. and N.--where 11° N. is the
+frontier line except at the eastern extremity--by the French colonies of
+the Ivory Coast and Upper Senegal and Niger, E. by the German colony of
+Togoland. The southern frontier, separating the protectorate from
+Ashanti, is the Black Volta to a point a little above its junction with
+the White Volta. Thence the frontier turns south and afterwards east so
+as to include the Brumasi district in the protectorate, the frontier
+gaining the main Volta below Yeji. The Territories include nearly all
+the country from the meridian of Greenwich to 3° W. and between 8° and
+11° N., and cover an area of about 33,000 sq. m.
+
+Lying north of the great belt of primeval forest which extends parallel
+to the Guinea coast, the greater part of the protectorate consists of
+open country, well timbered, and much of it presenting a park-like
+appearance. There are also large stretches of grassy plains, and in the
+south-east an area of treeless steppe. The flora and fauna resemble
+those of Ashanti. The country is well watered, the Black Volta forming
+the west and southern frontier for some distance, while the White Volta
+traverses its central regions. Both rivers, and also the united stream,
+contain rapids which impede but do not prevent navigation (see VOLTA).
+The climate is much healthier than that of the coast districts, and the
+fever experienced is of a milder type. The rainfall is less than on the
+coast; the dry season lasts from November (when the harmattan begins to
+blow) to March. The mean temperature at Gambaga is 80° F., the mean
+annual rainfall 43 in. The inhabitants were officially estimated in 1907
+to number "at least 1,000,000." The Dagomba, Dagarti, Grunshi, Kangarga,
+Moshi and Zebarima, Negro or Negroid tribes, constitute the bulk of the
+people, and Fula, Hausa and Yoruba have settled as traders or cattle
+raisers. A large number of the natives are Moslems, the rest are fetish
+worshippers. The tribal organization is maintained by the British
+authorities, who found comparatively little difficulty in putting an end
+to slave-raiding and gaining the confidence of the chiefs. Trained by
+British officers, the natives make excellent soldiers.
+
+  _Agriculture and Trade._--The chief crops are maize, guinea-corn,
+  millet, yams, rice, beans, groundnuts, tobacco and cotton. Cotton is
+  grown in most parts of the protectorate, the soil and climate in many
+  districts being very suitable for its cultivation. Rubber is found in
+  the north-western regions. When the protectorate was assumed by Great
+  Britain the Territories were singularly destitute of fruit trees. The
+  British have introduced the orange, citron, lime, guava, mango and
+  soursop, and among plants the banana, pine-apple and papaw. A large
+  number of vegetables and flowers have also been introduced by the
+  administration.
+
+  Stock-raising is carried on extensively, and besides oxen and sheep
+  there are large numbers of horses and donkeys in the Territories. The
+  chief exports are cattle, _dawa-dawa_ (a favourite flavouring matter
+  for soup among the Ashanti and other tribes) and shea-butter--the
+  latter used in cooking and as an illuminant. The principal imports are
+  kola-nuts, salt and cotton goods. A large proportion of the European
+  goods imported is German and comes through Togoland. The
+  administration levies a tax on traders' caravans, and in return
+  ensures the safety of the roads. This tax is the chief local source of
+  revenue. The revenue and expenditure of the Territories, as well as
+  statistics of trade, are included in those of the Gold Coast.
+
+  Gold exists in quartz formation, chiefly in the valley of the Black
+  Volta, and is found equally on the British and French sides of the
+  frontier.
+
+  _Towns._--The headquarters of the administration are at Tamale (or
+  Tamari), a town in the centre of the Dagomba country east of the White
+  Volta and 200 m. N.E. of Kumasi. Its inhabitants are keen traders, and
+  it forms a distributing centre for the whole protectorate. Gambaga, an
+  important commercial centre and from 1897 to 1907 the seat of
+  government, is in Mamprusi, the north-east corner of the protectorate
+  and is 85 m. N.N.E. of Tamale. A hundred and forty miles due south of
+  Gambaga is Salaga. This town is situated on the caravan route from the
+  Hausa states to Ashanti, and has a considerable trade in kola-nuts,
+  shea-butter and salt. On the White Volta, midway between Gambaga and
+  Salaga, is the thriving town of Daboya. On the western frontier are
+  Bole (Baule) and Wa. They carry on an extensive trade with Bontuku,
+  the capital of Jaman, and other places in the Ivory Coast colony. In
+  all the towns the population largely consists of aliens--Hausa,
+  Ashanti, Mandingos, &c.
+
+  _Communications._--Lack of easy communication with the sea hinders the
+  development of the country. The ancient caravan routes have been,
+  however, supplemented by roads built by the British, who have further
+  organized a service of boats on the Volta. Large cargo boats, chiefly
+  laden with salt, ascend that river from Addah to Yeji and Daboya. From
+  Yeji, the port of Salaga, a good road, 150 m. long, has been made to
+  Gambaga. There is also a river service from Yeji to Longoro on the
+  Black Volta, the port of Kintampo, in northern Ashanti. There is a
+  complete telegraphic system connecting the towns of the protectorate
+  with Kumasi and the Gold Coast ports.
+
+_History._--It was not until the last quarter of the 19th century that
+the country immediately north of Ashanti became known to Europeans. The
+first step forward was made by Monsieur M. J. Bonnat (one of the Kumasi
+captives, see ASHANTI) who, ascending the Volta, reached Salaga
+(1875-1876). In 1882 Captain R. La Trobe Lonsdale, an officer in British
+colonial service, went farther, visiting Yendi in the north and Bontuku
+in the west. Two years later Captain Brandon Kirby made his way to
+Kintampo. In 1887-1889 Captain L. G. Binger, a French officer, traversed
+the country from north to south. Thereafter the whole region was visited
+by British, French and German political missions. Prominent among the
+British agents was Mr George E. Ferguson, a native of West Africa, who
+had previously explored northern Ashanti. Between 1892 and 1897 Ferguson
+concluded several treaties guarding British interests. In 1897
+Lieutenant Henderson and Ferguson occupied Wa, where they were attacked
+by the _sofas_ of Samory (see SENEGAL, § 3). Henderson, who had gone to
+the _sofa_ camp to parley, was held prisoner for some time, while
+Ferguson was killed. Meantime negotiations were opened in Europe to
+settle the spheres of influence of the respective countries. (The
+Anglo-French agreement of 1889 had fixed the boundaries of the
+hinterlands of the French colony of the Ivory Coast and the British
+colony of the Gold Coast as far as 9° N. only.) A period of considerable
+tension, arising from the proximity of British and French troops in the
+disputed territory, was ended by the signature of a convention in Paris
+(14th of June 1898), in which the western and northern boundaries were
+defined. The British abandoned their claim to the important town and
+district of Wagadugu in the north. In the following year (14th of
+November 1899) an agreement defining the eastern frontier was concluded
+with Germany. Previously a square block of territory to the north of 8°
+N. had been regarded as neutral, both by Britain and Germany. This was
+in virtue of an arrangement made in 1888. By the 1899 convention the
+neutral zone was parcelled out between the two powers. The delimitation
+of the frontiers agreed upon took place during 1900-1904.
+
+In 1897 the Northern Territories were constituted a separate district of
+the Gold Coast hinterland, and were placed in charge of a chief
+commissioner. Colonel H. P. Northcott (killed in the Boer War,
+1899-1902) was the first commissioner and commandant of the troops. He
+was succeeded by Col. A. H. Morris. In 1901 the Territories were made a
+distinct administration, under the jurisdiction of the governor of the
+Gold Coast colony. The government was at first of a semi-military
+character, but in 1907 a civilian staff was appointed to carry on the
+administration, and a force of armed constabulary replaced the troops
+which had been stationed in the protectorate and which were then
+disbanded. The prosperity of the country under British administration
+has been marked.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A good summary of the condition and history of the
+  colony to the close of the 19th century will be found in vol. 3, "West
+  Africa," of the _Historical Geography of the British Empire_ by C. P.
+  Lucas (2nd ed., Oxford, 1900). For current information see the _Gold
+  Coast Civil Service List_ (London, yearly), the annual Blue Books
+  published in the colony, and the annual _Report_ issued by the
+  Colonial Office, London. For fuller information consult the _Report
+  from the Select Committee on Africa_ (_Western Coast_) (London, 1865),
+  a mine of valuable information; _The Gold Coast, Past and Present_, by
+  G. Macdonald (London, 1898); _History of the Gold Coast and Ashanti_,
+  by C. C. Reindorf, a native pastor (Basel, 1895); _A History of the
+  Gold Coast_, by Col. A. B. Ellis (London, 1893); _Wanderings in West
+  Africa_ (London, 1863) and _To the Gold Coast for Gold_ (London,
+  1883), both by Sir Richard Burton. Of the earlier books the most
+  notable are _The Golden Coast or a Description of Guinney together
+  with a relation of such persons as got wonderful estates by their
+  trade thither_ (London, 1665), and _A New and Accurate Description of
+  the Coast of Guinea_ written (in Dutch) by Willem Bosman, chief factor
+  for the Dutch at Elmina (Eng. trans., 2nd ed., 1721). For a complete
+  survey of the Gold Coast under Dutch control see "Die Niederländisch
+  West-Indische Compagnie an der Gold-Küste" by J. G. Doorman in _Tijds
+  Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenk_, vol. 40 (1898). For ethnography,
+  religion, law, &c., consult _The Land of Fetish_ (London, 1883) and
+  _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the West Coast of Africa_ (London,
+  1887), both by Col. A. B. Ellis; _Fanti Customary Law_ (2nd ed.,
+  London, 1904) and _Fanti Law Report_ (London, 1904), both by J. M.
+  Sarbah. The _Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa_ by Sir Alfred
+  Moloney (London, 1887) contains a comprehensive list of economic
+  plants. See also _Report on Economic Agriculture on the Gold Coast_
+  (Colonial Office Reports, No. 110, 1890), and _Papers relating to the
+  Construction of Railways in ... the Gold Coast_ (London, 1904). The
+  best map is that of Major F. G. Guggisberg, over 70 sheets, scale 1 :
+  125,000 (London, 1907-1909). There is a War Office map on the scale 1
+  : 1,000,000 in one sheet. See also the works quoted under ASHANTI.
+
+  For the Northern Territories see L. G. Binger, _Du Niger au Golfe de
+  Guinée_ (Paris, 1892), a standard authority; H. P. Northcott, _Report
+  on the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast_ (War Office, London,
+  1899), a valuable compilation summarizing the then available
+  information. Annual _Reports_ on the protectorate are issued by the
+  British Colonial Office. A map on the scale of 1 : 1,000,000 is issued
+  by the War Office.     (F. R. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] This name appears in a great variety of forms--Kwi, Ekwi, Okwi,
+    Oji, Odschi, Otsui, Tyi, Twi, Tschi, Chwee or Chee.
+
+  [2] Blue Book on _Africa_ (_Western Coast_) (1865), p. 233.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDEN, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county, Colorado,
+U.S.A., on Clear Creek (formerly called the Vasquez fork of the South
+Platte), about 14 m. W. by N. of Denver. Pop. (1900) 2152; (1910) 2477.
+Golden is a residential suburb of Denver, served by the Colorado &
+Southern, the Denver & Intermountain (electric), and the Denver &
+North-Western Electric railways. It is about 5700 ft. above sea-level.
+About 600 ft. above the city is Castle Rock, with an amusement park, and
+W. of Golden is Lookout Mountain, a natural park of 3400 acres. About 1
+m. S. of the city is a state industrial school for boys, and in Golden
+is the Colorado State School of Mines (opened 1874), which offers
+courses in mining engineering and metallurgical engineering. The
+Independent Pyritic Smelter is at Golden, and among the city's
+manufactures are pottery, firebrick and tile, made from clays found near
+by, and flour. There are deposits of coal, copper and gold in the
+vicinity. Truck-farming and the growing of fruit are important
+industries in the neighbourhood. The first settlement here was a gold
+mining camp, established in 1859, and named in honour of Tom Golden, one
+of the pioneer prospectors. The village was laid out in 1860, and Golden
+was incorporated as a town in 1865 and was chartered as a city in 1870.
+Golden was made the capital of Colorado Territory in 1862, and several
+sessions (or parts of sessions) of the Assembly were held here between
+1864 and 1868, when the seat of government was formally established at
+Denver; the territorial offices of Colorado, however, were at Golden
+only in 1866-1867.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDEN BULL (Lat. _Bulla Aurea_), the general designation of any charter
+decorated with a golden seal or _bulla_, either owing to the intrinsic
+importance of its contents, or to the rank and dignity of the bestower
+or the recipient. The custom of thus giving distinction to certain
+documents is said to be of Byzantine origin, though if this be the case
+it is somewhat strange that the word employed as an equivalent for
+golden bull in Byzantine Greek should be the hybrid [Greek:
+chrysoboullon] (cf. Codinus Curopalates, [Greek: ho megas logothetês
+diatattei ta para tou basileôs apostellomena prostagmata kai
+chrysoboulla pros te Hrêgas, Soultanas, kai toparchous]; and Anna
+Comnena, Alexiad, lib. iii. [Greek: dia Xpusobouliou logou]; lib. viii.,
+[Greek: chrysoboulon logon]). In Germany a Golden Bull is mentioned
+under the reign of Henry I. the Fowler in Chronica Cassin. ii. 31, and
+the oldest German example, if it be genuine, dates from 983. At first
+the golden seal was formed after the type of a solid coin, but at a
+later date, while the golden surface presented to the eye was greatly
+increased, the seal was really composed of two thin metal plates filled
+in with wax. The number of golden bulls issued by the imperial chancery
+must have been very large; the city of Frankfort, for example, preserves
+no fewer than eight.
+
+The name, however, has become practically restricted to a few documents
+of unusual political importance, the golden bull of the Empire, the
+golden bull of Brabant, the golden bull of Hungary and the golden bull
+of Milan--and of these the first is undoubtedly _the_ Golden Bull _par
+excellence_. The main object of the Golden Bull was to provide a set of
+rules for the election of the German kings, or kings of the Romans, as
+they are called in this document. Since the informal establishment of
+the electoral college about a century before (see ELECTORS), various
+disputes had taken place about the right of certain princes to vote at
+the elections, these and other difficulties having arisen owing to the
+absence of any authoritative ruling. The spiritual electors, it is true,
+had exercised their votes without challenge, but far different was the
+case of the temporal electors. The families ruling in Saxony and in
+Bavaria had been divided into two main branches and, as the German
+states had not yet accepted the principles of primogeniture, it was
+uncertain which member of the divided family should vote. Thus, both the
+prince ruling in Saxe-Lauenburg and the prince ruling in Saxe-Wittenberg
+claimed the vote, and the two branches of the family of Wittelsbach, one
+settled in Bavaria and the other in the Rhenish palatinate, were
+similarly at variance, while the duke of Bavaria also claimed the vote
+at the expense of the king of Bohemia. Moreover, there had been several
+disputed and double elections to the German crown during the past
+century. In more than one instance a prince, chosen by a minority of the
+electors, had claimed to exercise the functions of king, and as often
+civil war had been the result. Under these circumstances the emperor
+Charles IV. determined by an authoritative pronouncement to make such
+proceedings impossible in the future, and at the same time to add to his
+own power and prestige, especially in his capacity as king of Bohemia.
+
+Having arranged various disputes in Germany, and having in April 1355
+secured his coronation in Rome, Charles gave instructions for the bull
+to be drawn up. It is uncertain who is responsible for its actual
+composition. The honour has been assigned to Bartolo of Sassoferrato,
+professor of law at Pisa and Perugia, to the imperial secretary, Rudolph
+of Friedberg, and even to the emperor himself, but there is no valid
+authority for giving it to any one of the three in preference to the
+others. In its first form the bull was promulgated at the diet of
+Nuremberg on the 10th of January 1356, but it was not accepted by the
+princes until some modifications had been introduced, and in its final
+form it was issued at the diet of Metz on the 25th of December
+following.
+
+The text of the Golden Bull consists of a prologue and of thirty-one
+chapters. Some lines of verse invoking the aid of Almighty God are
+followed by a rhetorical statement of the evils which arise from discord
+and division, illustrations being taken from Adam, who was divided from
+obedience and thus fell, and from Helen of Troy who was divided from her
+husband. The early chapters are mainly concerned with details of the
+elaborate ceremonies which are to be observed on the occasion of an
+election. The number of electors is fixed at seven, the duke of
+Saxe-Wittenberg, not the duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, receiving the Saxon
+vote, and the count palatine, not the duke of Bavaria, obtaining the
+vote of the Wittelsbachs. The electors were arranged in order of
+precedence thus: the archbishops of Mainz, of Trier and of Cologne, the
+king of Bohemia, _qui inter electores laicos ex regiae dignitatis
+fastigio jure et merito obtinet primatiam_, the count palatine of the
+Rhine, the duke of Saxony and the margrave of Brandenburg. The three
+archbishops were respectively arch-chancellors of the three principal
+divisions of the Empire, Germany, Arles and Italy, and the four secular
+electors each held an office in the imperial household, the functions of
+which they were expected to discharge on great occasions. The king of
+Bohemia was the arch-cupbearer, the count palatine was the arch-steward
+(_dapifer_), the duke of Saxony was arch-marshal, and the margrave of
+Brandenburg was arch-chamberlain. The work of summoning the electors and
+of presiding over their deliberations fell to the archbishop of Mainz,
+but if he failed to discharge this duty the electors were to assemble
+without summons within three months of the death of a king. Elections
+were to be held at Frankfort; they were to be decided by a majority of
+votes, and the subsequent coronation at Aix-la-Chapelle was to be
+performed by the archbishop of Cologne. During a vacancy in the Empire
+the work of administering the greater part of Germany was entrusted to
+the count palatine of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony being responsible,
+however, for the government of Saxony, or rather for the districts _ubi
+Saxonica jura servantur_.
+
+The chief result of the bull was to add greatly to the power of the
+electors; for, to quote Bryce (_Holy Roman Empire_), it "confessed and
+legalized the independence of the electors and the powerlessness of the
+crown." To these princes were given sovereign rights in their dominions,
+which were declared indivisible and were to pass according to the rule
+of primogeniture. Except in extreme cases, there was to be no appeal
+from the sentences of their tribunals, and they were confirmed in the
+right of coining money, of taking tolls, and in other privileges, while
+conspirators against their lives were to suffer the penalties of
+treason. One clause gave special rights and immunities to the king of
+Bohemia, who, it must be remembered, at this time was Charles himself,
+and others enjoined the observance of the public peace. Provision was
+made for an annual meeting of the electors, to be held at Metz four
+weeks after Easter, when matters _pro bono et salute communi_ were to be
+discussed. This arrangement, however, was not carried out, although the
+electors met occasionally. Another clause forbade the cities to receive
+_Pfahlbürger_, i.e. forbade them to take men dwelling outside their
+walls under their protection. It may be noted that there is no admission
+whatever that the election of a king needs confirmation from the pope.
+
+The Golden Bull was thus a great victory for the electors, but it
+weakened the position of the German king and was a distinct humiliation
+for the other princes and for the cities. The status of those rulers who
+did not obtain the electoral privilege was lowered by this very fact,
+and the regulations about the _Pfahlbürger_, together with the
+prohibition of new leagues and associations, struck a severe blow at the
+cities. The German kings were elected according to the conditions laid
+down in the bull until the dissolution of the Empire in 1806. At first
+the document was known simply as the Lex Carolina; but gradually the
+name of the Book with the Golden Bull came into use, and the present
+elliptical title was sufficiently established by 1417 to be officially
+employed in a charter by King Sigismund. The original autograph was
+committed to the care of the elector of Mainz, and it was preserved in
+the archives at Mainz till 1789. Official transcripts were probably
+furnished to each of the seven electors at the time of the promulgation,
+and before long many of the other members of the Empire secured copies
+for themselves. The transcript which belonged to the elector of Trier is
+preserved in the state archives at Stuttgart, that of the elector of
+Cologne in the court library at Darmstadt, and that of the king of
+Bohemia in the imperial archives at Vienna. Berlin, Munich and Dresden
+also boast the possession of an electoral transcript; and the town of
+Kitzingen has a contemporary copy in its municipal archives. There
+appears, however, to be good reason to doubt the genuineness of most of
+these so-called original transcripts. But perhaps the best known example
+is that of Frankfort-on-Main, which was procured from the imperial
+chancery in 1366, and is adorned with a golden seal like the original.
+Not only was it regularly quoted as the indubitable authority in regard
+to the election of the emperors in Frankfort itself, but it was from
+time to time officially consulted by members of the Empire.
+
+  The manuscript consists of 43 leaves of parchment of medium quality,
+  each measuring about 10-1/8 in. in height by 7-1/8 in breadth. The
+  seal is of the plate and wax type. On the obverse appears a figure of
+  the emperor seated on his throne, with the sceptre in his right hand
+  and the globe in his left; a shield, with the crowned imperial eagle,
+  occupies the space on the one side of the throne, and a corresponding
+  shield, with the crowned Bohemian lion with two tails, occupies the
+  space on the other side; and round the margin runs the legend,
+  _Karolus quartus divina favente clementia, Romanorum imperator semper
+  Augustus et Boëmiae rex_. On the reverse is a castle, with the words
+  _Aurea Roma_ on the gate, and the circumscription reads, _Roma caput
+  mundi regit orbis frena rotundi_. The original Latin text of the bull
+  was printed at Nuremberg by Friedrich Creussner in 1474, and a second
+  edition by Anthonius Koburger (d. 1532) appeared at the same place in
+  1477. Since that time it has been frequently reprinted from various
+  manuscripts and collections. M. Goldast gave the Palatine text,
+  compared with those of Bohemia and Frankfort, in his _Collectio
+  constitutionum et legum imperialium_ (Frankfort, 1613). Another is to
+  be found in _De comitiis imperii_ of O. Panvinius, and a third, of
+  unknown history, is prefixed to the _Codex recessuum Imperii_ (Mainz,
+  1599, and again 1615). The Frankfort text appeared in 1742 as _Aurea
+  Bulla secundum exemplar originale Frankfurtense_, edited by W. C.
+  Multz, and the text is also found in J. J. Schmauss, Corpus juris
+  publici, edited by R. von Hommel (Leipzig, 1794), and in the
+  _Ausgewählte Urkunden zur Erläuterung der Verfassungsgeschichte
+  Deutschlands im Mittelalter_, edited by W. Altmann and E. Bernheim
+  (Berlin, 1891, and again 1895). German translations, none of which,
+  however, had any official authority, were published at Nuremberg about
+  1474, at Venice in 1476, and at Strassburg in 1485. Among the earlier
+  commentators on the document are H. Canisius and J. Limnaeus who wrote
+  _In Auream Bullam_ (Strassburg, 1662). The student will find a good
+  account of the older literature on the subject in C. G. Biener's
+  _Commentarii de origine et progressu legum juriumque Germaniae_
+  (1787-1795). See also J. D. von Olenschläger, _Neue Erläuterungen der
+  Guldenen Bulle_ (Frankfort and Leipzig, 1766); H. G. von Thulemeyer,
+  _De Bulla Aurea, Argentea_, &c. (Heidelberg, 1682); J. St Pütter,
+  _Historische Entwickelung der heutigen Staatsverfassung des teutschen
+  Reichs_ (Göttingen, 1786-1787), and O. Stobbe, _Geschichte der
+  deutschen Rechtsquellen_ (Brunswick, 1860-1864). Among the more modern
+  works may be mentioned: E. Nerger, _Die Goldne Bulle nach ihrem
+  Ursprung_ (Göttingen, 1877), O. Hahn, _Ursprung und Bedeutung der
+  Goldnen Bulle_ (Breslau, 1903); and M. G. Schmidt, _Die
+  staatsrechtliche Anwendung der Goldnen Bulle_ (Halle, 1894). There is
+  a valuable contribution to the subject in the _Quellensammlung zur
+  Geschichte der deutschen Reichsverfassung_, edited by K. Zeumer
+  (Leipzig, 1904), and another by O. Harnack in his _Das Kurfürsten
+  Kollegium bis zur Mitte des 14ten Jahrhunderts_ (Giessen, 1883). There
+  is an English translation of the bull in E. F. Henderson's _Select
+  Historical Documents of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1903).
+       (A. W. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+GOLDEN-EYE, a name indiscriminately given in many parts of Britain to
+two very distinct species of ducks, from the rich yellow colour of their
+irides. The commonest of them--the _Anas fuligula_ of Linnaeus and
+_Fuligula cristata_ of most modern ornithologists--is, however, usually
+called by English writers the tufted duck, while "golden-eye" is
+reserved in books for the _A. clangula_ and _A. glaucion_ of Linnaeus,
+who did not know that the birds he so named were but examples of the
+same species, differing only in age or sex; and to this day many fowlers
+perpetuate a like mistake, deeming the "Morillon," which is the female
+or young male, distinct from the "Golden-eye" or "Rattle-wings" (as from
+its noisy flight they oftener call it), which is the adult male. This
+species belongs to the group known as diving ducks, and is the type of
+the very well-marked genus _Clangula_ of later systematists, which,
+among other differences, has the posterior end of the sternum prolonged
+so as to extend considerably over, and, we may not unreasonably suppose,
+protect the belly--a character possessed in a still greater degree by
+the mergansers (_Merginae_), while the males also exhibit in the
+extraordinarily developed bony labyrinth of their trachea and its midway
+enlargement another resemblance to the members of the same subfamily.
+The golden-eye, _C. glaucion_ of modern writers, has its home in the
+northern parts of both hemispheres, whence in winter it migrates
+southward; but as it is one of the ducks that constantly resorts to
+hollow trees for the purpose of breeding it hardly transcends the limit
+of the Arctic forests on either continent. So well known is this habit
+to the people of the northern districts of Scandinavia, that they very
+commonly devise artificial nest-boxes for its accommodation and their
+own profit. Hollow logs of wood are prepared, the top and bottom closed,
+and a hole cut in the side. These are affixed to the trunks of living
+trees in suitable places, at a convenient distance from the ground, and,
+being readily occupied by the birds in the breeding season, are
+regularly robbed, first of the numerous eggs, and finally of the down
+they contain, by those who have set them up.
+
+The adult male golden-eye is a very beautiful bird, mostly black above,
+but with the head, which is slightly crested, reflecting rich green
+lights, a large oval white patch under each eye and elongated white
+scapulars; the lower parts are wholly white and the feet bright orange,
+except the webs, which are dusky. In the female and young male, dark
+brown replaces the black, the cheek-spots are indistinct and the
+elongated white scapulars wanting. The golden-eye of North America has
+been by some authors deemed to differ, and has been named _C.
+americana_, but apparently on insufficient grounds. North America,
+however, has, in common with Iceland, a very distinct species, _C.
+islandica_, often called Barrow's duck, which is but a rare straggler to
+the continent of Europe, and never, so far as known, to Britain. In
+Iceland and Greenland it is the only habitual representative of the
+genus, and it occurs from thence to the Rocky Mountains. In
+breeding-habits it differs from the commoner species, not placing its
+eggs in tree-holes; but how far this difference is voluntary may be
+doubted, for in the countries it frequents trees are wanting. It is a
+larger and stouter bird, and in the male the white cheek-patches take a
+more crescentic form, while the head is glossed with purple rather than
+green, and the white scapulars are not elongated. The New World also
+possesses a third and still more beautiful species of the genus in _C.
+albeola_, known in books as the buffel-headed duck, and to American
+fowlers as the "spirit-duck" and "butter-ball"--the former name being
+applied from its rapidity in diving, and the latter from its exceeding
+fatness in autumn. This is of small size, but the lustre of the feathers
+in the male is most brilliant, exhibiting a deep plum-coloured gloss on
+the head. It breeds in trees, and is supposed to have occurred more than
+once in Britain.     (A. N.)
+
+
+
+
+GOLDEN FLEECE, in Greek mythology, the fleece of the ram on which
+Phrixus and Helle escaped, for which see ARGONAUTS. For the modern
+order of the Golden Fleece, see KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY, section _Orders
+of Knighthood_.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDEN HORDE, the name of a body of Tatars who in the middle of the 13th
+century overran a great portion of eastern Europe and founded in Russia
+the Tatar empire of khanate known as the Empire of the Golden Horde or
+Western Kipchaks. They invaded Europe about 1237 under the leadership of
+Batu Khan, a younger son of Juji, eldest son of Jenghiz Khan, passed
+over Russia with slaughter and destruction, and penetrated into Silesia,
+Poland and Hungary, finally defeating Henry II., duke of Silesia, at
+Liegnitz in the battle known as the Wahlstatt on the 9th of April 1241.
+So costly was this victory, however, that Batu, finding he could not
+reduce Neustadt, retraced his steps and established himself in his
+magnificent tent (whence the name "golden") on the Volga. The new
+settlement was known as _Sir Orda_ ("Golden Camp," whence "Golden
+_Horde_"). Very rapidly the powers of Batu extended over the Russian
+princes, and so long as the khanate remained in the direct descent from
+Batu nothing occurred to check the growth of the empire. The names of
+Batu's successors are Sartak (1256), Bereke (Baraka) (1256-1266),
+Mangu-Timur (1266-1280), Tuda Mangu (1280-1287). (?) Tula Bugha
+(1287-1290), Toktu (1290-1312), Uzbeg (1312-1340), Tin-Beg (1340),
+Jani-Beg (1340-1357). The death of Jani-Beg, however, threw the empire
+into confusion. Birdi-Beg (Berdi-Beg) only reigned for two years, after
+which two rulers, calling themselves sons of Jani-Beg occupied the
+throne during one year. From that time (1359) till 1378 no single ruler
+held the whole empire under control, various members of the other
+branches of the old house of Juji assuming the title. At last in 1378
+Toktamish, of the Eastern Kipchaks, succeeded in ousting all rivals, and
+establishing himself as ruler of eastern and western Kipchak. For a
+short time the glory of the Golden Horde was renewed, until it was
+finally crushed by Timur in 1395.
+
+  See further MONGOLS and RUSSIA; Sir Henry Howorth's _History of the
+  Mongols_; S. Lane-Poole's _Mohammadan Dynasties_ (1894), pp. 222-231;
+  for the relations of the various descendants of Jenghiz, see Stockvis,
+  _Manuel d'histoire_, vol. i. chap. ix. table 7.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDEN ROD, in botany, the popular name for _Solidago virgaurea_
+(natural order Compositae), a native of Britain and widely distributed
+in the north temperate region. It is an old-fashioned border-plant
+flowering from July to September, with an erect, sparingly-branched stem
+and small bright-yellow clustered heads of flowers. It grows well in
+common soil and is readily propagated by division in the spring or
+autumn.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDEN ROSE (_rosa aurea_), an ornament made of wrought gold and set
+with gems, generally sapphires, which is blessed by the pope on the
+fourth (_Laetare_) Sunday of Lent, and usually afterwards sent as a mark
+of special favour to some distinguished individual, to a church, or a
+civil community. Formerly it was a single rose of wrought gold, coloured
+red, but the form finally adopted is a thorny branch with leaves and
+flowers, the petals of which are decked with gems, surmounted by one
+principal rose. The origin of the custom is obscure. From very early
+times popes have given away a rose on the fourth Sunday of Lent, whence
+the name Dominica Rosa, sometimes given to this feast. The practice of
+blessing and sending some such symbol (e.g. _eulogiae_) goes back to the
+earliest Christian antiquity, but the use of the rose itself does not
+seem to go farther back than the 11th century. According to some
+authorities it was used by Leo IX. (1049-1054), but in any case Pope
+Urban II. sent one to Fulk of Anjou during the preparations for the
+first crusade. Pope Urban V., who sent a golden rose to Joanna of Naples
+in 1366, is alleged to have been the first to determine that one should
+be consecrated annually. Beginning with the 16th century there went
+regularly with the rose a letter relating the reasons why it was sent,
+and reciting the merits and virtues of the receiver. When the change was
+made from the form of the simple rose to the branch is uncertain. The
+rose sent by Innocent IV. in 1244 to Count Raymond Berengar IV. of
+Provence was a simple flower without any accessory ornamentation, while
+the one given by Benedict XI. in 1303 or 1304 to the church of St
+Stephen at Perugia consisted of a branch garnished with five open and
+two closed roses enriched with a sapphire, the whole having a value of
+seventy ducats. The value of the gift varied according to the character
+or rank of the recipient. John XXII. gave away some weighing 12 oz., and
+worth from £250 to £325. Among the recipients of this honour have been
+Henry VI. of England, 1446; James III. of Scotland, on whom the rose
+(made by Jacopo Magnolio) was conferred by Innocent VIII., James IV. of
+Scotland; Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony, who received a rose
+from Leo X. in 1518; Henry VIII. of England, who received three, the
+last from Clement VII. in 1524 (each had nine branches, and rested on
+different forms of feet, one on oxen, the second on acorns, and the
+third on lions); Queen Mary, who received one in 1555 from Julius III.;
+the republic of Lucca, so favoured by Pius IV., in 1564; the Lateran
+Basilica by Pius V. three years later; the sanctuary of Loreto by
+Gregory XIII. in 1584; Maria Theresa, queen of France, who received it
+from Clement IX. in 1668; Mary Casimir, queen of Poland, from Innocent
+XI. in 1684 in recognition of the deliverance of Vienna by her husband,
+John Sobieski; Benedict XIII. (1726) presented one to the cathedral of
+Capua, and in 1833 it was sent by Gregory XVI. to the church of St
+Mark's, Venice. In more recent times it was sent to Napoleon III. of
+France, the empress Eugénie, and the queens Isabella II., Christina
+(1886) and Victoria (1906) of Spain. The gift of the golden rose used
+almost invariably to accompany the coronation of the king of the Romans.
+If in any particular year no one is considered worthy of the rose, it is
+laid up in the Vatican.
+
+Some of the most famous Italian goldsmiths have been employed in making
+the earlier roses; and such intrinsically valuable objects have, in
+common with other priceless historical examples of the goldsmiths' art,
+found their way to the melting-pot. It is, therefore, not surprising
+that the number of existing historic specimens is very small. These
+include one of the 14th century in the Cluny Museum, Paris, believed to
+have been sent by Clement V. to the prince-bishop of Basel; another
+conferred in 1458 on his native city of Siena by Pope Pius II.; and the
+rose bestowed upon Siena by Alexander VII., a son of that city, which is
+depicted in a procession in a fresco in the Palazzo Pubblico at Siena.
+The surviving roses of more recent date include that presented by
+Benedict XIII. to Capua cathedral; the rose conferred on the empress
+Caroline by Pius VII., 1819, at Vienna; one of 1833 (Gregory XVI.) at St
+Mark's, Venice; and Pope Leo XIII.'s rose sent to Queen Christina of
+Spain, which is at Madrid.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Angelo Rocca, _Aurea Rosa_, &c. (1719); Busenelli, _De
+  Rosa Aurea. Epistola_ (1759); Girbal, _La Rosa de oro_ (Madrid, 1820);
+  C. Joret, _La Rose d'or dans l'antiquité et au moyen âge_ (Paris,
+  1892), pp. 432-435; Eugène Muntz in _Revue d'art chrétien_ (1901),
+  series v. vol. 12 pp. 1-11; De F. Mely, _Le Trésor de Chartres_
+  (1886); Marquis de Mac Swiney Mashanaglass, _Le Portugal et le Saint
+  Siège: Les Roses d'or envoyées par les Papes aux rois de Portugal au
+  XVI^e siècle_ (1904); Sir C. Young, _Ornaments and Gift consecrated by
+  the Roman Pontiffs: the Golden Rose, the Cap and Swords presented to
+  Sovereigns of England and Scotland_ (1864).     (J. T. S.*; E. A. J.)
+
+
+
+
+GOLDEN RULE, the term applied in all European languages to the rule of
+conduct laid down in the New Testament (Matthew vii. 12 and Luke vi.
+31). "whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to
+them, for this is the law and the prophets." This principle has often
+been stated as the fundamental precept of social morality. It is
+sometimes put negatively or passively, "do not that to another which
+thou wouldst not have done to thyself" (cf. Hobbes, _Leviathan_, xv. 79,
+xvii. 85), but it should be observed that in this form it implies merely
+abstention from evil doing. In either form the precept in ordinary
+application is part of a hedonistic system of ethics, the criterion of
+action being strictly utilitarian in character.
+
+  See H. Sidgwick, _History of Ethics_ (5th ed., 1902), p. 167; James
+  Seth, _Ethical Principles_, p. 97 foll.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDFIELD, a town and the county-seat of Esmeralda county, Nevada,
+U.S.A., about 170 m. S.E. of Carson City. Pop. (1910, U.S. census) 4838.
+It is served by the Tonopah & Groldfield, Las Vegas & Tonopah, and
+Tonopah & Tidewater railways. The town lies in the midst of a desert
+abounding in high-grade gold ores, and is essentially a mining camp. The
+discovery of gold at Tonopah, about 28 m. N. of Goldfield, in 1900 was
+followed by its discovery at Goldfield in 1902 and 1903; in 1904 the
+Goldfield district produced about 800 tons of ore, which yielded
+$2,300,000 worth of gold, or 30% of that of the State. This remarkable
+production caused Goldfield to grow rapidly, and it soon became the
+largest town in the state. In addition to the mines, there are large
+reduction works. In 1907 Goldfield became the county-seat. The gold
+output in 1907 was $8,408,396; in 1908, $4,880,251. Soon after mining on
+an extensive scale began, the miners organized themselves as a local
+branch of the Western Federation of Miners, and in this branch were
+included many labourers in Goldfield other than miners. Between this
+branch and the mine-owners there arose a series of more or less serious
+differences, and there were several set strikes--in December 1906 and
+January 1907, for higher wages; in March and April 1907, because the
+mine-owners refused to discharge carpenters who were members of the
+American Federation of Labour, but did not belong to the Western
+Federation of Miners or to the Industrial Workers of the World
+affiliated with it, this last organization being, as a result of the
+strike, forced out of Goldfield; in August and September 1907, because a
+rule was introduced at some of the mines requiring miners to change
+their clothing before entering and after leaving the mines,--a rule made
+necessary, according to the operators, by the wholesale stealing (in
+miners' parlance, "high-grading") of the very valuable ore (some of it
+valued at as high as $20 a pound); and in November and December 1907,
+because some of the mine-owners, avowedly on account of the hard times,
+adopted a system of paying in cashier's checks. Excepting occasional
+attacks upon non-union workmen, or upon persons supposed not to be in
+sympathy with the miners' union, there had been no serious disturbance
+in Goldfield; but in December 1907, Governor Sparks, at the instance of
+the mine-owners, appealed to President Roosevelt to send Federal troops
+to Goldfield, on the ground that the situation there was ominous, that
+destruction of life and property seemed probable, and that the state had
+no militia and would be powerless to maintain order. President Roosevelt
+thereupon (December 4th) ordered General Frederick Funston, commanding
+the Division of California, at San Francisco, to proceed with 300
+Federal troops to Goldfield. The troops arrived in Goldfield on the 6th
+of December, and immediately afterwards the mine-owners reduced wages
+and announced that no members of the Western Federation of Miners would
+thereafter be employed in the mines. President Roosevelt, becoming
+convinced that conditions had not warranted Governor Sparks's appeal for
+Federal assistance, but that the immediate withdrawal of the troops
+might nevertheless lead to serious disorders, consented that they should
+remain for a short time on condition that the state should immediately
+organize an adequate militia or police force. Accordingly, a special
+meeting of the legislature was immediately called, a state police force
+was organized, and on the 7th of March 1908 the troops were withdrawn.
+Thereafter work was gradually resumed in the mines, the contest having
+been won by the mine-owners.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDFINCH (Ger. _Goldfink_[1]), the _Fringilla carduelis_ of Linnaeus
+and the _Carduelis elegans_ of later authors, an extremely well-known
+bird found over the greater parts of Europe and North Africa, and
+eastwards to Persia and Turkestan. Its gay plumage is matched by its
+sprightly nature; and together they make it one of the most favourite
+cage-birds among all classes. As a songster it is indeed surpassed by
+many other species, but its docility and ready attachment to its master
+or mistress make up for any defect in its vocal powers. In some parts of
+England the trade in goldfinches is very considerable. In 1860 Mr Hussey
+reported (_Zool._, p. 7144) the average annual captures near Worthing to
+exceed 11,000 dozens--nearly all being cock-birds; and a witness before
+a committee of the House of Commons in 1873 stated that, when a boy, he
+could take forty dozens in a morning near Brighton. In these districts
+and others the number has become much reduced, owing doubtless in part
+to the fatal practice of catching the birds just before or during the
+breeding-season; but perhaps the strongest cause of their growing
+scarcity is the constant breaking-up of waste lands, and the extirpation
+of weeds (particularly of the order _Compositae_) essential to the
+improved system of agriculture; for in many parts of Scotland, East
+Lothian for instance, where goldfinches were once as plentiful as
+sparrows, they are now only rare stragglers, and yet there they have not
+been thinned by netting. Though goldfinches may occasionally be observed
+in the coldest weather, incomparably the largest number leave Britain in
+autumn, returning in spring, and resorting to gardens and orchards to
+breed, when the lively song of the cock, and the bright yellow wings of
+both sexes, quickly attract notice. The nest is a beautifully neat
+structure, often placed at no great height from the ground, but
+generally so well hidden by the leafy bough on which it is built as not
+to be easily found, until, the young being hatched, the constant visits
+of the parents reveal its site. When the broods leave the nest they move
+into the more open country, and frequenting pastures, commons, heaths
+and downs, assemble in large flocks towards the end of summer. Eastward
+of the range of the present species its place is taken by its congener
+_C. caniceps_, which is easily recognized by wanting the black hood and
+white ear-coverts of the British bird. Its home seems to be in Central
+Asia, but it moves southward in winter, being common at that season in
+Cashmere, and is not unfrequently brought for sale to Calcutta. The
+position of the genus _Carduelis_ in the family _Fringillidae_ is not
+very clear. Structurally it would seem to have some relation to the
+siskins (_Chrysomitris_), though the members of the two groups have very
+different habits, and perhaps its nearest kinship lies with the
+hawfinches (_Coccothraustes_). See FINCH.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The more common German name, however, is _Distelfink_
+    (Thistle-Finch) or _Stieglitz_.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDFISH (_Cyprinus_ or _Carassius auratus_), a small fish belonging to
+the Cyprinid family, a native of China but naturalized in other
+countries. In the wild state its colours do not differ from those of a
+Crucian carp, and like that fish it is tenacious of life and easily
+domesticated. Albinos seem to be rather common; and as in other fishes
+(for instance, the tench, carp, eel, flounder), the colour of most of
+these albinos is a bright orange or golden yellow; occasionally even
+this shade of colour is lost, the fish being more or less pure white or
+silvery. The Chinese have domesticated these albinos for a long time,
+and by careful selection have succeeded in propagating all those strange
+varieties, and even monstrosities, which appear in every domestic
+animal. In some individuals the dorsal fin is only half its normal
+length, in others entirely absent; in others the anal fin has a double
+spine; in others all the fins are of nearly double the usual length. The
+snout is frequently malformed, giving the head of the fish an appearance
+similar to that of a bull-dog. The variety most highly prized has an
+extremely short snout, eyes which almost wholly project beyond the
+orbit, no dorsal fin, and a very long three- or four-lobed caudal fin
+(Telescope-fish).
+
+[Illustration: Telescope-fish.]
+
+The domestication of the goldfish by the Chinese dates back from the
+highest antiquity, and they were introduced into Japan at the beginning
+of the 16th century; but the date of their importation into Europe is
+still uncertain. The great German ichthyologist, M. E. Bloch, thought he
+could trace it back in England to the reign of James I., whilst other
+authors fix the date at 1691. It appears certain that they were brought
+to France, only much later, as a present to Mme de Pompadour, although
+the de Goncourts, the historians of the mistresses of Louis XV., have
+failed to trace any records of this event. The fish has since spread
+over a considerable part of Europe, and in many places it has reverted
+to its wild condition. In many parts of south-eastern Asia, in
+Mauritius, in North and South Africa, in Madagascar, in the Azores, it
+has become thoroughly acclimatized, and successfully competes with the
+indigenous fresh-water fishes. It will not thrive in rivers; in large
+ponds it readily reverts to the coloration of the original wild stock.
+It flourishes best in small tanks and ponds, in which the water is
+constantly changing and does not freeze; in such localities, and with a
+full supply of food, which consists of weeds, crumbs of bread, bran,
+worms, small crustaceans and insects, it attains to a length of from 6
+to 12 in., breeding readily, sometimes at different times of the same
+year.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDFUSS, GEORG AUGUST (1782-1848), German palaeontologist, born at
+Thurnau near Bayreuth on the 18th of April 1782, was educated at
+Erlangen, where he graduated Ph.D. in 1804 and became professor of
+zoology in 1818. He was subsequently appointed professor of zoology and
+mineralogy in the university of Bonn. Aided by Count G. Münster he
+issued the important _Petrefacta Germaniae_ (1826-1844), a work which
+was intended to illustrate the invertebrate fossils of Germany, but it
+was left incomplete after the sponges, corals, crinoids, echinids and
+part of the mollusca had been figured. Goldfuss died at Bonn on the 2nd
+of October 1848.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE DASHWOOD TAUBMAN (1846-   ), English administrator,
+the founder of Nigeria, was born on the 20th of May 1846 at the Nunnery
+in the Isle of Man, being the youngest son of Lieut.-Colonel John
+Taubman Goldie-Taubman, speaker of the House of Keys, by his second wife
+Caroline, daughter of John E. Hoveden of Hemingford, Cambridgeshire. Sir
+George resumed his paternal name, Goldie, by royal licence in 1887. He
+was educated at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and for about two
+years held a commission in the Royal Engineers. He travelled in all
+parts of Africa, gaining an extensive knowledge of the continent, and
+first visited the country of the Niger in 1877. He conceived the idea of
+adding to the British empire the then little known regions of the lower
+and middle Niger, and for over twenty years his efforts were devoted to
+the realization of this conception. The method by which he determined to
+work was the revival of government by chartered companies within the
+empire--a method supposed to be buried with the East India Company. The
+first step was to combine all British commercial interests in the Niger,
+and this he accomplished in 1879 when the United African Company was
+formed. In 1881 Goldie sought a charter from the imperial government
+(the 2nd Gladstone ministry). Objections of various kinds were raised.
+To meet them the capital of the company (renamed the National African
+Company) was increased from £125,000 to £1,000,000, and great energy was
+displayed in founding stations on the Niger. At this time French
+traders, encouraged by Gambetta, established themselves on the lower
+river, thus rendering it difficult for the company to obtain territorial
+rights; but the Frenchmen were bought out in 1884, so that at the Berlin
+conference on West Africa in 1885 Mr Goldie, present as an expert on
+matters relating to the river, was able to announce that on the lower
+Niger the British flag alone flew. Meantime the Niger coast line had
+been placed under British protection. Through Joseph Thomson, David
+Mclntosh, D. W. Sargent, J. Flint, William Wallace, E. Dangerfield and
+numerous other agents, over 400 political treaties--drawn up by
+Goldie--were made with the chiefs of the lower Niger and the Hausa
+states. The scruples of the British government being overcome, a charter
+was at length granted (July 1886), the National African Company
+becoming the Royal Niger Company, with Lord Aberdare as governor and
+Goldie as vice-governor. In 1895, on Lord Aberdare's death, Goldie
+became governor of the company, whose destinies he had guided
+throughout.
+
+The building up of Nigeria as a British state had to be carried on in
+face of further difficulties raised by French travellers with political
+missions, and also in face of German opposition. From 1884 to 1890,
+Prince Bismarck was a persistent antagonist, and the strenuous efforts
+he made to secure for Germany the basin of the lower Niger and Lake Chad
+were even more dangerous to Goldie's schemes of empire than the
+ambitions of France. Herr E. R. Flegel, who had travelled in Nigeria
+during 1882-1884 under the auspices of the British company, was sent out
+in 1885 by the newly-formed German Colonial Society to secure treaties
+for Germany, which had established itself at Cameroon. After Flegel's
+death in 1886 his work was continued by his companion Dr Staudinger,
+while Herr Hoenigsberg was despatched to stir up trouble in the occupied
+portions of the Company's territory,--or, as he expressed it, "to burst
+up the charter." He was finally arrested at Onitsha, and, after trial by
+the company's supreme court at Asaba, was expelled the country. Prince
+Bismarck then sent out his nephew, Herr von Puttkamer, as German
+consul-general to Nigeria, with orders to report on this affair, and
+when this report was published in a White Book, Bismarck demanded heavy
+damages from the company. Meanwhile Bismarck maintained constant
+pressure on the British government to compel the Royal Niger Company to
+a division of spheres of influence, whereby Great Britain would have
+lost a third, and the most valuable part, of the company's territory.
+But he fell from power in March 1890, and in July following Lord
+Salisbury concluded the famous "Heligoland" agreement with Germany.
+After this event the aggressive action of Germany in Nigeria entirely
+ceased, and the door was opened for a final settlement of the
+Nigeria-Cameroon frontiers. These negotiations, which resulted in an
+agreement in 1893, were initiated by Goldie as a means of arresting the
+advance of France into Nigeria from the direction of the Congo. By
+conceding to Germany a long but narrow strip of territory between
+Adamawa and Lake Chad, to which she had no treaty claims, a barrier was
+raised against French expeditions, semi-military and semi-exploratory,
+which sought to enter Nigeria from the east. Later French efforts at
+aggression were made from the western or Dahomeyan side, despite an
+agreement concluded with France in 1890 respecting the northern
+frontier.
+
+The hostility of certain Fula princes led the company to despatch, in
+1897, an expedition against the Mahommedan states of Nupé and Illorin.
+This expedition was organized and personally directed by Goldie and was
+completely successful. Internal peace was thus secured, but in the
+following year the differences with France in regard to the frontier
+line became acute, and compelled the intervention of the British
+government. In the negotiations which ensued Goldie was instrumental in
+preserving for Great Britain the whole of the navigable stretch of the
+lower Niger. It was, however, evidently impossible for a chartered
+company to hold its own against the state-supported protectorates of
+France and Germany, and in consequence, on the 1st of January 1900, the
+Royal Niger Company transferred its territories to the British
+government for the sum of £865,000. The ceded territory together with
+the small Niger Coast Protectorate, already under imperial control, was
+formed into the two protectorates of northern and southern Nigeria (see
+further NIGERIA).
+
+In 1903-1904, at the request of the Chartered Company of South Africa,
+Goldie visited Rhodesia and examined the situation in connexion with the
+agitation for self-government by the Rhodesians. In 1902-1903 he was one
+of the royal commissioners who inquired into the military preparations
+for the war in South Africa (1899-1902) and into the operations up to
+the occupation of Pretoria, and in 1905-1906 was a member of the royal
+commission which investigated the methods of disposal of war stores
+after peace had been made. In 1905 he was elected president of the Royal
+Geographical Society and held that office for three years. In 1908 he
+was chosen an alderman of the London County Council. Goldie was created
+K.C.M.G. in 1887, and a privy councillor in 1898. He became an F.R.S.,
+honorary D.C.L. of Oxford University (1897) and honorary LL.D. of
+Cambridge (1897). He married in 1870 Matilda Catherine (d. 1898),
+daughter of John William Elliott of Wakefield.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDING, ARTHUR (c. 1536-c. 1605), English translator, son of John
+Golding of Belchamp St Paul and Halsted, Essex, one of the auditors of
+the exchequer, was born probably in London about 1536. His half-sister,
+Margaret, married John de Vere, 16th earl of Oxford. In 1549 he was
+already in the service of Protector Somerset, and the statement that he
+was educated at Queen's College, Cambridge, lacks corroboration. He
+seems to have resided for some time in the house of Sir William Cecil,
+in the Strand, with his nephew, the poet, the 17th earl of Oxford, whose
+receiver he was, for two of his dedications are dated from Cecil House.
+His chief work is his translation of Ovid. _The Fyrst Fower Bookes of P.
+Ovidius Nasos worke, entitled Metamorphosis, translated oute of Latin
+into Englishe meter_ (1565), was supplemented in 1567 by a translation
+of the fifteen books. Strangely enough the translator of Ovid was a man
+of strong Puritan sympathies, and he translated many of the works of
+Calvin. To his version of the _Metamorphoses_ he prefixed a long
+metrical explanation of his reasons for considering it a work of
+edification. He sets forth the moral which he supposes to underlie
+certain of the stories, and shows how the pagan machinery may be brought
+into line with Christian thought. It was from Golding's pages that many
+of the Elizabethans drew their knowledge of classical mythology, and
+there is little doubt that Shakespeare was well acquainted with the
+book. Golding translated also the _Commentaries_ of Caesar (1565),
+Calvin's commentaries on the Psalms (1571), his sermons on the Galatians
+and Ephesians, on Deuteronomy and the book of Job, Theodore Beza's
+_Tragedie of Abrahams Sacrifice_ (1577) and the _De Beneficiis_ of
+Seneca (1578). He completed a translation begun by Sidney from Philippe
+de Mornay, _A Worke concerning the Trewnesse of the Christian Religion_
+(1604). His only original work is a prose _Discourse_ on the earthquake
+of 1580, in which he saw a judgment of God on the wickedness of his
+time. He inherited three considerable estates in Essex, the greater part
+of which he sold in 1595. The last trace we have of Golding is contained
+in an order dated the 25th of July 1605, giving him licence to print
+certain of his works.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDINGEN (Lettish, _Kuldiga_), a town of Russia, in the government of
+Courland, 55 m. by rail N.E. of Libau, and on Windau river, in 56° 58'
+N. and 22° E. Pop. (1897) 9733. It has woollen mills, needle and match
+factories, breweries and distilleries, a college for teachers, and ruins
+of a castle of the Teutonic Knights, built in 1248 and used in the 17th
+century as the residence of the dukes of Courland.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDMARK, KARL (1832-   ), Hungarian composer, was born at
+Keszthely-am-Plattensee, in Hungary, on the 18th of May 1832. His
+father, a poor cantor in the local Jewish synagogue, was unable to
+assist to any extent financially in the development of his son's
+talents. Yet in the household much music was made, and on a cheap violin
+and home-made flute, constructed by Goldmark himself from reeds cut from
+the riverbank, the future composer gave rein to his musical ideas. His
+talent was fostered by the village schoolmaster, by whose aid he was
+able to enter the music-school of the Oedenburger Verein. Here he
+remained but a short time, his success at a school concert finally
+determining his parents to allow him to devote himself entirely to
+music. In 1844, then, he went to Vienna, where Jansa took up his cause
+and eventually obtained for him admission to the conservatorium. For two
+years Goldmark worked under Jansa at the violin, and on the outbreak of
+the revolution, after studying all the orchestral instruments he
+obtained an engagement in the orchestra at Raab. There, on the
+capitulation of Raab, he was to have been shot for a spy, and was only
+saved at the eleventh hour by the happy arrival of a former colleague.
+In 1850 Goldmark left Raab for Vienna, where from his friend Mittrich he
+obtained his first real knowledge of the classics. There, too, he
+devoted himself to composition. In 1857 Goldmark, who was then engaged
+in the Karl-theater band, gave a concert of his own works with such
+success that his first quartet attracted very general attention. Then
+followed the "Sakuntala" and "Penthesilea" overtures, which show how
+Wagner's influence had supervened upon his previous domination by
+Mendelssohn, and the delightful "Ländliche Hochzeit" symphony, which
+carried his fame abroad. Goldmark's reputation was now made, and very
+largely increased by the production at Vienna in 1875 of his first and
+best opera, _Die Königin von Saba_. Over this opera he spent seven
+years. Its popularity is still almost as great as ever. It was followed
+in November 1886, also at Vienna, by _Merlin_, much of which has been
+rewritten since then. A third opera, a version of Dickens's _Cricket on
+the Hearth_, was given by the Royal Carl Rosa Company in London in 1900.
+Goldmark's chamber music has not made much lasting impression, but the
+overtures "Im Frühling," "Prometheus Bound," and "Sapho" are fairly well
+known. A "programme" seems essential to him. In opera he is most
+certainly at his best, and as an orchestral colourist he ranks among the
+very highest.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDONI, CARLO (1707-1793), Italian dramatist, the real founder of
+modern Italian comedy, was born at Venice, on the 25th of February 1707,
+in a fine house near St Thomas's church. His father Giulio was a native
+of Modena. The first playthings of the future writer were puppets which
+he made dance; the first books he read were plays,--among others, the
+comedies of the Florentine Cicognini. Later he received a still stronger
+impression from the _Mandragora_ of Machiavelli. At eight years old he
+had tried to sketch a play. His father, meanwhile, had taken his degree
+in medicine at Rome and fixed himself at Perugia, where he made his son
+join him; but, having soon quarrelled with his colleagues in medicine,
+he departed for Chioggia, leaving his son to the care of a philosopher,
+Professor Caldini of Rimini. The young Goldoni soon grew tired of his
+life at Rimini, and ran away with a Venetian company of players. He
+began to study law at Venice, then went to continue the same pursuit at
+Pavia, but at that time he was studying the Greek and Latin comic poets
+much more and much better than books about law. "I have read over
+again," he writes in his own _Memoirs_, "the Greek and Latin poets, and
+I have told to myself that I should like to imitate them in their style,
+their plots, their precision; but I would not be satisfied unless I
+succeeded in giving more interest to my works, happier issues to my
+plots, better drawn characters and more genuine comedy." For a satire
+entitled _Il Colosso_, which attacked the honour of several families of
+Pavia, he was driven from that town, and went first to study with the
+jurisconsult Morelli at Udine, then to take his degree in law at Modena.
+After having worked some time as clerk in the chanceries of Chioggia and
+Feltre, his father being dead, he went to Venice, to exercise there his
+profession as a lawyer. But the wish to write for the stage was always
+strong in him, and he tried to do so; he made, however, a mistake in his
+choice, and began with a tragedy, _Amalasunta_, which was represented at
+Milan and proved a failure. In 1734 he wrote another tragedy,
+_Belisario_, which, though not much better, chanced nevertheless to
+please the public. This first success encouraged him to write other
+tragedies, some of which were well received; but the author himself saw
+clearly that he had not yet found his proper sphere, and that a radical
+dramatic reform was absolutely necessary for the stage. He wished to
+create a characteristic comedy in Italy, to follow the example of
+Molière, and to delineate the realities of social life in as natural a
+manner as possible. His first essay of this kind was _Momolo Cortesan_
+(Momolo the Courtier), written in the Venetian dialect, and based on his
+own experience. Other plays followed--some interesting from their
+subject, others from the characters; the best of that period are--_Le
+Trentadue Disgrazie d' Arlecchino_, _La Notte critica_, _La Bancarotta_,
+_La Donna di Garbo_. Having, while consul of Genoa at Venice, been
+cheated by a captain of Ragusa, he founded on this his play
+_L'Impostore_. At Leghorn he made the acquaintance of the comedian
+Medebac, and followed him to Venice, with his company, for which he
+began to write his best plays. Once he promised to write sixteen
+comedies in a year, and kept his word; among the sixteen are some of his
+very best, such as _Il Caffè_, _Il Bugiardo_, _La Pamela_. When he left
+the company of Medebac, he passed over to that maintained by the
+patrician Vendramin, continuing to write with the greatest facility. In
+1761 he was called to Paris, and before leaving Venice he wrote _Una
+delle ultime sere di Carnevale_ (One of the Last Nights of Carnival), an
+allegorical comedy in which he said good-bye to his country. At the end
+of the representation of this play, the theatre resounded with applause,
+and with shouts expressive of good wishes. Goldoni, at this proof of
+public sympathy, wept as a child. At Paris, during two years, he wrote
+comedies for the Italian actors; then he taught Italian to the royal
+princesses; and for the wedding of Louis XVI. and of Marie Antoinette he
+wrote in French one of his best comedies, _Le Bourru bienfaisant_, which
+was a great success. When he retired from Paris to Versailles, the king
+made him a gift of 6000 francs, and fixed on him an annual pension of
+1200 francs. It was at Versailles he wrote his _Memoirs_, which occupied
+him till he reached his eightieth year. The Revolution deprived him all
+at once of his modest pension, and reduced him to extreme misery; he
+dragged on his unfortunate existence till 1793, and died on the 6th of
+February. The day after, on the proposal of André Chénier, the
+Convention agreed to give the pension back to the poet; and as he had
+already died, a reduced allowance was granted to his widow.
+
+  The best comedies of Goldoni are: _La Donna di Garbo_, _La Bottega di
+  Caffè_, _Pamela nubile_, _Le Baruffe chiozzotte_, _I Rusteghi_,
+  _Todero Brontolon_, _Gli Innamorati_, _Il Ventaglio_, _Il Bugiardo_,
+  _La Casa nova_, _Il Burbero benefico_, _La Locandiera_. A collected
+  edition (Venice, 1788) was republished at Florence in 1827. See P. G.
+  Molmenti, _Carlo Goldoni_ (Venice, 1875); Rabany, _Carlo Goldoni_
+  (Paris, 1896). The _Memoirs_ were translated into English by John
+  Black (Boston, 1877). with preface by W. D. Howells.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDS, a Mongolo-Tatar people, living on the Lower Amur in south-eastern
+Siberia. Their chief settlements are on the right bank of the Amur and
+along the Sungari and Usuri rivers. In physique they are typically
+Mongolic. Like the Chinese they wear a pigtail, and from them, too, have
+learnt the art of silk embroidery. The Golds live almost entirely on
+fish, and are excellent boatmen. They keep large herds of swine and
+dogs, which live, like themselves, on fish. Geese, wild duck, eagles,
+bears, wolves and foxes are also kept in menageries. There is much
+reverence paid to the eagles, and hence the Manchus call the Golds
+"Eaglets." Their religion is Shamanism.
+
+  See L. Schrenck, _Die Völker des Amurlandes_ (St Petersburg, 1891);
+  Laufer, "The Amoor Tribes," in _American Anthropologist_ (New York,
+  1900); E. G. Ravenstein, _The Russians on the Amur_ (1861).
+
+
+
+
+GOLDSBORO, a city and the county-seat of Wayne county, North Carolina,
+U.S.A., on the Neuse river, about 50 m. S.E. of Raleigh. Pop. (1890)
+4017; (1900) 5877 (2520 negroes); (1910) 6107. It is served by the
+Southern, the Atlantic Coast Line and the Norfolk & Southern railways.
+The surrounding country produces large quantities of tobacco, cotton and
+grain, and trucking is an important industry, the city being a
+distributing point for strawberries and various kinds of vegetables. The
+city's manufactures include cotton goods, knit goods, cotton-seed oil,
+agricultural implements, lumber and furniture. Goldsboro is the seat of
+the Eastern insane asylum (for negroes) and of an Odd Fellows' orphan
+home. The municipality owns and operates its water-works and
+electric-lighting plant. Goldsboro was settled in 1838, and was first
+incorporated in 1841. In the campaign of 1865 Goldsboro was the point of
+junction of the Union armies under generals Sherman and Schofield,
+previous to the final advance to Greensboro.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDSCHMIDT, HERMANN (1802-1866), German painter and astronomer, was the
+son of a Jewish merchant, and was born at Frankfort on the 17th of June
+1802. He for ten years assisted his father in his business; but, his
+love of art having been awakened while journeying in Holland, he in 1832
+began the study of painting at Munich under Cornelius and Schnorr, and
+in 1836 established himself at Paris, where he painted a number of
+pictures of more than average merit, among which may be mentioned the
+"Cumaean Sibyl" (1844); an "Offering to Venus" (1845); a "View of Rome"
+(1849); the "Death of Romeo and Juliet" (1857); and several Alpine
+landscapes. In 1847 he began to devote his attention to astronomy; and
+from 1852 to 1861 he discovered fourteen asteroids between Mars and
+Jupiter, on which account he received the grand astronomical prize from
+the Academy of Sciences. His observations of the protuberances on the
+sun, made during the total eclipse on the 10th of July 1860, are
+included in the work of Mädler on the eclipse, published in 1861.
+Goldschmidt died at Fontainebleau on the 26th of August 1866.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDSMID, the name of a family of Anglo-Jewish bankers sprung from Aaron
+Goldsmid (d. 1782), a Dutch merchant who settled in England about 1763.
+Two of his sons, Benjamin Goldsmid (c. 1753-1808) and Abraham Goldsmid
+(c. 1756-1810), began business together about 1777 as bill-brokers in
+London, and soon became great powers in the money market, during the
+Napoleonic war, through their dealings with the government. Abraham
+Goldsmid was in 1810 joint contractor with the Barings for a government
+loan, but owing to a depreciation of the scrip he was forced into
+bankruptcy and committed suicide. His brother, in a fit of depression,
+had similarly taken his own life two years before. Both were noted for
+their public and private generosity, and Benjamin had a part in founding
+the Royal Naval Asylum. Benjamin left four sons, the youngest being
+Lionel Prager Goldsmid; Abraham a daughter, Isabel.
+
+Their nephew, Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, Bart. (1778-1859), was born in
+London, and began in business with a firm of bullion brokers to the Bank
+of England and the East India Company. He amassed a large fortune, and
+was made Baron da Palmeira by the Portuguese government in 1846 for
+services rendered In settling a monetary dispute between Portugal and
+Brazil, but he is chiefly known for his efforts to obtain the
+emancipation of the Jews in England and for his part in founding
+University College, London. The Jewish Disabilities Bill, first
+introduced in Parliament by Sir Robert Grant in 1830, owed its final
+passage to Goldsmid's energetic work. He helped to establish the
+University College hospital in 1834, serving as its treasurer for
+eighteen years, and also aided in the efforts to obtain reform in the
+English penal code. Moreover he assisted by his capital and his
+enterprise to build part of the English southern railways and also the
+London docks. In 1841 he became the first Jewish baronet, the honour
+being conferred upon him by Lord Melbourne. He had married his cousin
+Isabel (see above), and their second son was Sir Francis Henry Goldsmid,
+Bart. (1808-1878), born in London, and called to the bar at Lincoln's
+Inn in 1833 (the first Jew to become an English barrister; Q.C. 1858).
+After the passing of the Jewish Disabilities Bill, in which he had aided
+his father with a number of pamphlets that attracted great attention, he
+entered Parliament in 1860 (having succeeded to the baronetcy) as member
+for Reading, and represented that constituency until his death. He was
+strenuous on behalf of the Jewish religion, and the founder of the great
+Jews' Free School. He was a munificent contributor to charities and
+especially to the endowment of University College. He, like his father,
+married a cousin, and, dying without issue, was succeeded in the
+baronetcy by his nephew Sir Julian Goldsmid, Bart. (1838-1896), son of
+Frederick David Goldsmid (1812-1866), long M.P. for Honiton. Sir Julian
+was for many years in Parliament, and his wealth, ability and influence
+made him a personage of considerable importance. He was eventually made
+a privy councillor. He had eight daughters, but no son, and his entailed
+property passed to his relation, Mr d'Avigdor, his house in Piccadilly
+being converted into the Isthmian Club.
+
+Another distinguished member of the same family, Sir Frederic John
+Goldsmid (1818-1908), son of Lionel Prager Goldsmid (see above), was
+educated at King's College, London, and entering the Madras army in 1839
+served in the China War of 1840-41, with the Turkish troops in eastern
+Crimea in 1855-56, and was given political employment by the Indian
+government. He received the thanks of the commander-in-chief and of the
+war office for services during the Egyptian campaign, and was retired a
+major-general in 1875. Sir Frederic Goldsmid's name is, however,
+associated less with military service than with much valuable work in
+exploration and in surveying, for which he repeatedly received the
+thanks of government. From 1865 to 1870 he was director-general of the
+Indo-European telegraph, and carried through the telegraph convention
+with Persia; and between 1870 and 1872, as commissioner, he settled with
+Persia the difficult questions of the Perso-Baluch and Perso-Afghan
+boundaries. In the course of his work he had to travel extensively, and
+he followed this up by various responsible missions connected with
+emigration questions. In 1881-1882 he was in Egypt, as controller of the
+Daira Sanieh, and doing other miscellaneous military work; and in 1883
+he went to the Congo, on behalf of the king of the Belgians, as one of
+the organizers of the new state, but had to return on account of
+illness. From his early years he had made studies of several Eastern
+languages, and he ranked among the foremost Orientalists of his day. In
+1886 he was president of the geographical section of the British
+Association meeting held at Birmingham. He had married in 1849, and had
+two sons and four daughters. In 1871 he was made a K.C.S.I. Besides
+important contributions to the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia
+Britannica_ and many periodicals, he wrote an excellent and
+authoritative biography of Sir James Outram (2 vols., 1880).
+
+A sister of the last-named married Henry Edward Goldsmid (1812-1855), an
+eminent Indian civil servant, son of Edward Goldsmid; his reform of the
+revenue system in Bombay, and introduction of a new system, established
+after his death, through his reports in 1840-1847, and his devoted
+labour in land-surveys, were of the highest importance to western India,
+and established his memory there as a public benefactor.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDSMITH, LEWIS (c. 1763-1846), Anglo-French publicist, of
+Portuguese-Jewish extraction, was born near London about 1763. Having
+published in 1801 _The Crimes of Cabinets, or a Review of the Plans and
+Aggressions for Annihilating the Liberties of France, and the
+Dismemberment of her Territories_, an attack on the military policy of
+Pitt, he moved, in 1802, from England to Paris. Talleyrand introduced
+him to Napoleon, who arranged for him to establish in Paris an English
+tri-weekly, the _Argus_, which was to review English affairs from the
+French point of view. According to his own account, he was in 1803
+entrusted with a mission to obtain from the head of the French royal
+family, afterwards Louis XVIII., a renunciation of his claims to the
+throne of France, in return for the throne of Poland. The offer was
+declined, and Goldsmith says that he then received instructions to
+kidnap Louis and kill him if he resisted, but, instead of executing
+these orders, he revealed the plot. He was, nevertheless, employed by
+Napoleon on various other secret service missions till 1807, when his
+Republican sympathies began to wane. In 1809 he returned to England,
+where he was at first imprisoned but soon released; and he became a
+notary in London. In 1811, being now violently anti-republican, he
+founded a Sunday newspaper, the _Anti-Gallican Monitor_ and
+_Anti-Corsican Chronicle_, subsequently known as the _British Monitor_,
+in which he denounced the French Revolution. In 1811 he proposed that a
+public subscription should be raised to put a price on Napoleon's head,
+but this suggestion was strongly reprobated by the British government.
+In the same year he published _Secret History of the Cabinet of
+Bonaparte and Recueil des manifestes, or a Collection of the Decrees of
+Napoleon Bonaparte_, and in 1812 _Secret History of Bonaparte's
+Diplomacy_. Goldsmith alleged that in the latter year he was offered
+£200,000 by Napoleon to discontinue his attacks. In 1815 he published
+_An Appeal to the Governments of Europe on the Necessity of bringing
+Napoleon Bonaparte to a Public Trial_. In 1825 he again settled down in
+Paris, and in 1832 published his _Statistics of France_. His only child,
+Georgiana, became, in 1837, the second wife of Lord Lyndhurst. He died
+in Paris on the 6th of January 1846.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDSMITH, OLIVER (1728-1774), English poet, playwright, novelist and
+man of letters, came of a Protestant and Saxon family which had long
+been settled in Ireland. He is usually said to have been born at Pallas
+or Pallasmore, Co. Longford; but recent investigators have contended,
+with much show of probability, that his true birthplace was Smith-Hill
+House, Elphin, Roscommon, the residence of his mother's father, the Rev.
+Oliver Jones. His father, Charles Goldsmith, lived at Pallas, supporting
+with difficulty his wife and children on what he could earn, partly as a
+curate and partly as a farmer.
+
+While Oliver was still a child his father was presented to the living of
+Kilkenny West, in the county of West Meath. This was worth about £200 a
+year. The family accordingly quitted their cottage at Pallas for a
+spacious house on a frequented road, near the village of Lissoy. Here
+the boy was taught his letters by a relative and dependent, Elizabeth
+Delap, and was sent in his seventh year to a village school kept by an
+old quartermaster on half-pay, who professed to teach nothing but
+reading, writing and arithmetic, but who had an inexhaustible fund of
+stories about ghosts, banshees and fairies, about the great Rapparee
+chiefs, Baldearg O'Donnell and galloping Hogan, and about the exploits
+of Peterborough and Stanhope, the surprise of Monjuich and the glorious
+disaster of Brihuega. This man must have been of the Protestant
+religion; but he was of the aboriginal race, and not only spoke the
+Irish language, but could pour forth unpremeditated Irish verses. Oliver
+early became, and through life continued to be, a passionate admirer of
+the Irish music, and especially of the compositions of Carolan, some of
+the last notes of whose harp he heard. It ought to be added that Oliver,
+though by birth one of the Englishry, and though connected by numerous
+ties with the Established Church, never showed the least sign of that
+contemptuous antipathy with which, in his days, the ruling minority in
+Ireland too generally regarded the subject majority. So far indeed was
+he from sharing in the opinions and feelings of the caste to which he
+belonged that he conceived an aversion to the Glorious and Immortal
+Memory, and, even when George III. was on the throne, maintained that
+nothing but the restoration of the banished dynasty could save the
+country.
+
+From the humble academy kept by the old soldier Goldsmith was removed in
+his ninth year. He went to several grammar-schools, and acquired some
+knowledge of the ancient languages. His life at this time seems to have
+been far from happy. He had, as appears from the admirable portrait of
+him by Reynolds at Knole, features harsh even to ugliness. The small-pox
+had set its mark on him with more than usual severity. His stature was
+small, and his limbs ill put together. Among boys little tenderness is
+shown to personal defects; and the ridicule excited by poor Oliver's
+appearance was heightened by a peculiar simplicity and a disposition to
+blunder which he retained to the last. He became the common butt of boys
+and masters, was pointed at as a fright in the play-ground, and flogged
+as a dunce in the schoolroom. When he had risen to eminence, those who
+had once derided him ransacked their memory for the events of his early
+years, and recited repartees and couplets which had dropped from him,
+and which, though little noticed at the time, were supposed, a quarter
+of a century later, to indicate the powers which produced the _Vicar of
+Wakefield_ and the _Deserted Village_.
+
+On the 11th of June 1744, being then in his sixteenth year, Oliver went
+up to Trinity College, Dublin, as a sizar. The sizars paid nothing for
+food and tuition, and very little for lodging; but they had to perform
+some menial services from which they have long been relieved. Goldsmith
+was quartered, not alone, in a garret of what was then No. 35 in a range
+of buildings which has long since disappeared. His name, scrawled by
+himself on one of its window-panes is still preserved in the college
+library. From such garrets many men of less parts than his have made
+their way to the woolsack or to the episcopal bench. But Goldsmith,
+while he suffered all the humiliations, threw away all the advantages of
+his situation. He neglected the studies of the place, stood low at the
+examinations, was turned down to the bottom of his class for playing the
+buffoon in the lecture-room, was severely reprimanded for pumping on a
+constable, and was caned by a brutal tutor for giving a ball in the
+attic storey of the college to some gay youths and damsels from the
+city.
+
+While Oliver was leading at Dublin a life divided between squalid
+distress and squalid dissipation, his father died, leaving a mere
+pittance. In February 1749 the youth obtained his bachelor's degree,
+and left the university. During some time the humble dwelling to which
+his widowed mother had retired was his home. He was now in his
+twenty-first year; it was necessary that he should do something; and his
+education seemed to have fitted him to do nothing but to dress himself
+in gaudy colours, of which he was as fond as a magpie, to take a hand at
+cards, to sing Irish airs, to play the flute, to angle in summer and to
+tell ghost stories by the fire in winter. He tried five or six
+professions in turn without success. He applied for ordination; but, as
+he applied in scarlet clothes, he was speedily turned out of the
+episcopal palace. He then became tutor in an opulent family, but soon
+quitted his situation in consequence of a dispute about pay. Then he
+determined to emigrate to America. His relations, with much
+satisfaction, saw him set out for Cork on a good horse, with £30 in his
+pocket. But in six weeks he came back on a miserable hack, without a
+penny, and informed his mother that the ship in which he had taken his
+passage, having got a fair wind while he was at a party of pleasure, had
+sailed without him. Then he resolved to study the law. A generous uncle,
+Mr Contarine, advanced £50. With this sum Goldsmith went to Dublin, was
+enticed into a gaming-house and lost every shilling. He then thought of
+medicine. A small purse was made up; and in his twenty-fourth year he
+was sent to Edinburgh. At Edinburgh he passed eighteen months in nominal
+attendance on lectures, and picked up some superficial information about
+chemistry and natural history. Thence he went to Leiden, still
+pretending to study physic. He left that celebrated university, the
+third university at which he had resided, in his twenty-seventh year,
+without a degree, with the merest smattering of medical knowledge, and
+with no property but his clothes and his flute. His flute, however,
+proved a useful friend. He rambled on foot through Flanders, France and
+Switzerland, playing tunes which everywhere set the peasantry dancing,
+and which often procured for him a supper and a bed. He wandered as far
+as Italy. His musical performances, indeed, were not to the taste of the
+Italians; but he contrived to live on the alms which he obtained at the
+gates of convents. It should, however, be observed that the stories
+which he told about this part of his life ought to be received with
+great caution; for strict veracity was never one of his virtues; and a
+man who is ordinarily inaccurate in narration is likely to be more than
+ordinarily inaccurate when he talks about his own travels. Goldsmith,
+indeed, was so regardless of truth as to assert in print that he was
+present at a most interesting conversation between Voltaire and
+Fontenelle, and that this conversation took place at Paris. Now it is
+certain that Voltaire never was within a hundred leagues of Paris during
+the whole time which Goldsmith passed on the continent.
+
+In February 1756 the wanderer landed at Dover, without a shilling,
+without a friend and without a calling. He had indeed, if his own
+unsupported evidence may be trusted, obtained a doctor's degree on the
+continent; but this dignity proved utterly useless to him. In England
+his flute was not in request; there were no convents; and he was forced
+to have recourse to a series of desperate expedients. There is a
+tradition that he turned strolling player. He pounded drugs and ran
+about London with phials for charitable chemists. He asserted, upon one
+occasion, that he had lived "among the beggars in Axe Lane." He was for
+a time usher of a school, and felt the miseries and humiliations of this
+situation so keenly that he thought it a promotion to be permitted to
+earn his bread as a bookseller's hack; but he soon found the new yoke
+more galling than the old one, and was glad to become an usher again. He
+obtained a medical appointment in the service of the East India Company;
+but the appointment was speedily revoked. Why it was revoked we are not
+told. The subject was one on which he never liked to talk. It is
+probable that he was incompetent to perform the duties of the place.
+Then he presented himself at Surgeons' Hall for examination, as "mate to
+an hospital." Even to so humble a post he was found unequal. Nothing
+remained but to return to the lowest drudgery of literature. Goldsmith
+took a room in a tiny square off Ludgate Hill, to which he had to climb
+from Sea-coal Lane by a dizzy ladder of flagstones called Breakneck
+Steps. Green Arbour Court and the ascent have long disappeared. Here, at
+thirty, the unlucky adventurer sat down to toil like a galley slave.
+Already, in 1758, during his first bondage to letters, he had translated
+Marteilhe's remarkable _Memoirs of a Protestant, Condemned to the
+Galleys of France for his Religion_. In the years that now succeeded he
+sent to the press some things which have survived, and many which have
+perished. He produced articles for reviews, magazines and newspapers;
+children's books, which, bound in gilt paper and adorned with hideous
+woodcuts, appeared in the window of Newbery's once far-famed shop at the
+corner of Saint Paul's churchyard; _An Inquiry into the State of Polite
+Learning in Europe_, which, though of little or no value, is still
+reprinted among his works; a volume of essays entitled _The Bec; a Life
+of Beau Nash_; a superficial and incorrect, but very readable, _History
+of England_, in a series of letters purporting to be addressed by a
+nobleman to his son; and some very lively and amusing sketches of London
+Society in another series of letters purporting to be addressed by a
+Chinese traveller to his friends. All these works were anonymous; but
+some of them were well known to be Goldsmith's; and he gradually rose in
+the estimation of the booksellers for whom he drudged. He was, indeed,
+emphatically a popular writer. For accurate research or grave
+disquisition he was not well qualified by nature or by education. He
+knew nothing accurately; his reading had been desultory; nor had he
+meditated deeply on what he had read. He had seen much of the world; but
+he had noticed and retained little more of what he had seen than some
+grotesque incidents and characters which had happened to strike his
+fancy. But, though his mind was very scantily stored with materials, he
+used what materials he had in such a way as to produce a wonderful
+effect. There have been many greater writers; but perhaps no writer was
+ever more uniformly agreeable. His style was always pure and easy, and,
+on proper occasions, pointed and energetic. His narratives were always
+amusing, his descriptions always picturesque, his humour rich and
+joyous, yet not without an occasional tinge of amiable sadness. About
+everything that he wrote, serious or sportive, there was a certain
+natural grace and decorum, hardly to be expected from a man a great part
+of whose life had been passed among thieves and beggars, street-walkers
+and merryandrews, in those squalid dens which are the reproach of great
+capitals.
+
+As his name gradually became known, the circle of his acquaintance
+widened. He was introduced to Johnson, who was then considered as the
+first of living English writers; to Reynolds, the first of English
+painters; and to Burke, who had not yet entered parliament, but had
+distinguished himself greatly by his writings and by the eloquence of
+his conversation. With these eminent men Goldsmith became intimate. In
+1763 he was one of the nine original members of that celebrated
+fraternity which has sometimes been called the Literary Club, but which
+has always disclaimed that epithet, and still glories in the simple name
+of the Club.
+
+By this date Goldsmith had quitted his miserable dwelling at the top of
+Breakneck Steps, and, after living for some time at No. 6 Wine Office
+Court, Fleet Street, had moved into the Temple. But he was still often
+reduced to pitiable shifts, the most popular of which is connected with
+the sale of his solitary novel, the _Vicar of Wakefield_. Towards the
+close of 1764(?) his rent is alleged to have been so long in arrear that
+his landlady one morning called in the help of a sheriff's officer. The
+debtor, in great perplexity, despatched a messenger to Johnson; and
+Johnson, always friendly, though often surly, sent back the messenger
+with a guinea, and promised to follow speedily. He came, and found that
+Goldsmith had changed the guinea, and was railing at the landlady over a
+bottle of Madeira. Johnson put the cork into the bottle, and entreated
+his friend to consider calmly how money was to be procured. Goldsmith
+said that he had a novel ready for the press. Johnson glanced at the
+manuscript, saw that there were good things in it, took it to a
+bookseller, sold it for £60 and soon returned with the money. The rent
+was paid; and the sheriff's officer withdrew. (Unfortunately, however,
+for this time-honoured version of the circumstances, it has of late
+years been discovered that as early as October 1762 Goldsmith had
+already sold a third of the _Vicar_ to one Benjamin Collins of
+Salisbury, a printer, by whom it was eventually printed for F. Newbery,
+and it is difficult to reconcile this fact with Johnson's narrative.)
+
+But before the _Vicar of Wakefield_ appeared in 1766, came the great
+crisis of Goldsmith's literary life. In Christmas week 1764 he published
+a poem, entitled the _Traveller_. It was the first work to which he had
+put his name, and it at once raised him to the rank of a legitimate
+English classic. The opinion of the most skilful critics was that
+nothing finer had appeared in verse since the fourth book of the
+_Dunciad_. In one respect the _Traveller_ differs from all Goldsmith's
+other writings. In general his designs were bad, and his execution good.
+In the _Traveller_ the execution, though deserving of much praise, is
+far inferior to the design. No philosophical poem, ancient or modern,
+has a plan so noble, and at the same time so simple. An English
+wanderer, seated on a crag among the Alps, near the point where three
+great countries meet, looks down on the boundless prospect, reviews his
+long pilgrimage, recalls the varieties of scenery, of climate, of
+government, of religion, of national character, which he has observed,
+and comes to the conclusion, just or unjust, that our happiness depends
+little on political institutions, and much on the temper and regulation
+of our own minds.
+
+While the fourth edition of the _Traveller_ was on the counters of the
+booksellers, the _Vicar of Wakefield_ appeared, and rapidly obtained a
+popularity which has lasted down to our own time, and which is likely to
+last as long as our language. The fable is indeed one of the worst that
+ever was constructed. It wants, not merely that probability which ought
+to be found in a tale of common English life, but that consistency which
+ought to be found even in the wildest fiction about witches, giants and
+fairies. But the earlier chapters have all the sweetness of pastoral
+poetry, together with all the vivacity of comedy. Moses and his
+spectacles, the vicar and his monogamy, the sharper and his cosmogony,
+the squire proving from Aristotle that relatives are related, Olivia
+preparing herself for the arduous task of converting a rakish lover by
+studying the controversy between Robinson Crusoe and Friday, the great
+ladies with their scandal about Sir Tomkyn's amours and Dr Burdock's
+verses, and Mr Burchell with his "Fudge," have caused as much harmless
+mirth as has ever been caused by matter packed into so small a number of
+pages. The latter part of the tale is unworthy of the beginning. As we
+approach the catastrophe, the absurdities lie thicker and thicker, and
+the gleams of pleasantry become rarer and rarer.
+
+The success which had attended Goldsmith as a novelist emboldened him to
+try his fortune as a dramatist. He wrote the _Good Natur'd Man_, a piece
+which had a worse fate than it deserved. Garrick refused to produce it
+at Drury Lane. It was acted at Covent Garden in January 1768, but was
+coldly received. The author, however, cleared by his benefit nights, and
+by the sale of the copyright, no less than £500, five times as much as
+he had made by the _Traveller_ and the _Vicar of Wakefield_ together.
+The plot of the _Good Natur'd Man_ is, like almost all Goldsmith's
+plots, very ill constructed. But some passages are exquisitely
+ludicrous,--much more ludicrous indeed than suited the taste of the town
+at that time. A canting, mawkish play, entitled _False Delicacy_, had
+just been produced, and sentimentality was all the mode. During some
+years more tears were shed at comedies than at tragedies; and a
+pleasantry which moved the audience to anything more than a grave smile
+was reprobated as low. It is not strange, therefore, that the very best
+scene in the _Good Natur'd Man_, that in which Miss Richland finds her
+lover attended by the bailiff and the bailiff's follower in full court
+dresses, should have been mercilessly hissed, and should have been
+omitted after the first night, not to be restored for several years.
+
+In May 1770 appeared the _Deserted Village_. In mere diction and
+versification this celebrated poem is fully equal, perhaps superior, to
+the _Traveller_; and it is generally preferred to the _Traveller_ by
+that large class of readers who think, with Bayes in the _Rehearsal_,
+that the only use of a plot is to bring in fine things. More discerning
+judges, however, while they admire the beauty of the details, are
+shocked by one unpardonable fault which pervades the whole. The fault
+which we mean is not that theory about wealth and luxury which has so
+often been censured by political economists. The theory is indeed false;
+but the poem, considered merely as a poem, is not necessarily the worse
+on that account. The finest poem in the Latin language--indeed, the
+finest didactic poem in any language--was written in defence of the
+silliest and meanest of all systems of natural and moral philosophy. A
+poet may easily be pardoned for reasoning ill; but he cannot be pardoned
+for describing ill, for observing the world in which he lives so
+carelessly that his portraits bear no resemblance to the originals, for
+exhibiting as copies from real life monstrous combinations of things
+which never were and never could be found together. What would be
+thought of a painter who should mix August and January in one landscape,
+who should introduce a frozen river into a harvest scene? Would it be a
+sufficient defence of such a picture to say that every part was
+exquisitely coloured, that the green hedges, the apple-trees loaded with
+fruit, the waggons reeling under the yellow sheaves, and the sun-burned
+reapers wiping their foreheads were very fine, and that the ice and the
+boys sliding were also very fine? To such a picture the _Deserted
+Village_ bears a great resemblance. It is made up of incongruous parts.
+The village in its happy days is a true English village. The village in
+its decay is an Irish village. The felicity and the misery which
+Goldsmith has brought close together belong to two different countries
+and to two different stages in the progress of society. He had assuredly
+never seen in his native island such a rural paradise, such a seat of
+plenty, content and tranquillity, as his Auburn. He had assuredly never
+seen in England all the inhabitants of such a paradise turned out of
+their homes in one day and forced to emigrate in a body to America. The
+hamlet he had probably seen in Kent; the ejectment he had probably seen
+in Münster; but by joining the two, he has produced something which
+never was and never will be seen in any part of the world.
+
+In 1773 Goldsmith tried his chance at Covent Garden with a second play,
+_She Stoops to Conquer_. The manager was, not without great difficulty,
+induced to bring this piece out. The sentimental comedy still reigned,
+and Goldsmith's comedies were not sentimental. The _Good Natur'd Man_
+had been too funny to succeed; yet the mirth of the _Good Natur'd Man_
+was sober when compared with the rich drollery of _She Stoops to
+Conquer_, which is, in truth, an incomparable farce in five acts. On
+this occasion, however, genius triumphed. Pit, boxes and galleries were
+in a constant roar of laughter. If any bigoted admirer of Kelly and
+Cumberland ventured to hiss or groan, he was speedily silenced by a
+general cry of "turn him out," or "throw him over." Later generations
+have confirmed the verdict which was pronounced on that night.
+
+While Goldsmith was writing the _Deserted Village_ and _She Stoops to
+Conquer_, he was employed on works of a very different kind--works from
+which he derived little reputation but much profit. He compiled for the
+use of schools a _History of Rome_, by which he made £250; a _History of
+England_, by which he made £500; a _History of Greece_, for which he
+received £250; a _Natural History_, for which the booksellers covenanted
+to pay him 800 guineas. These works he produced without any elaborate
+research, by merely selecting, abridging and translating into his own
+clear, pure and flowing language, what he found in books well known to
+the world, but too bulky or too dry for boys and girls. He committed
+some strange blunders, for he knew nothing with accuracy. Thus, in his
+_History of England_, he tells us that Naseby is in Yorkshire; nor did
+he correct this mistake when the book was reprinted. He was very nearly
+hoaxed into putting into the _History of Greece_ an account of a battle
+between Alexander the Great and Montezuma. In his _Animated Nature_ he
+relates, with faith and with perfect gravity, all the most absurd lies
+which he could find in books of travels about gigantic Patagonians,
+monkeys that preach sermons, nightingales that repeat long
+conversations. "If he can tell a horse from a cow," said Johnson, "that
+is the extent of his knowledge of zoology." How little Goldsmith was
+qualified to write about the physical sciences is sufficiently proved by
+two anecdotes. He on one occasion denied that the sun is longer in the
+northern than in the southern signs. It was vain to cite the authority
+of Maupertuis. "Maupertuis!" he cried, "I understand those matters
+better than Maupertuis." On another occasion he, in defiance of the
+evidence of his own senses, maintained obstinately, and even angrily,
+that he chewed his dinner by moving his upper jaw.
+
+Yet, ignorant as Goldsmith was, few writers have done more to make the
+first steps in the laborious road to knowledge easy and pleasant. His
+compilations are widely distinguished from the compilations of ordinary
+bookmakers. He was a great, perhaps an unequalled, master of the arts of
+selection and condensation. In these respects his histories of Rome and
+of England, and still more his own abridgments of these histories, well
+deserved to be studied. In general nothing is less attractive than an
+epitome; but the epitomes of Goldsmith, even when most concise, are
+always amusing; and to read them is considered by intelligent children
+not as a task but as a pleasure.
+
+Goldsmith might now be considered as a prosperous man. He had the means
+of living in comfort, and even in what to one who had so often slept in
+barns and on bulks must have been luxury. His fame was great and was
+constantly rising. He lived in what was intellectually far the best
+society of the kingdom, in a society in which no talent or
+accomplishment was wanting, and in which the art of conversation was
+cultivated with splendid success. There probably were never four talkers
+more admirable in four different ways than Johnson, Burke, Beauclerk and
+Garrick; and Goldsmith was on terms of intimacy with all the four. He
+aspired to share in their colloquial renown, but never was ambition more
+unfortunate. It may seem strange that a man who wrote with so much
+perspicuity, vivacity and grace should have been, whenever he took a
+part in conversation, an empty, noisy, blundering rattle. But on this
+point the evidence is overwhelming. So extraordinary was the contrast
+between Goldsmith's published works and the silly things which he said,
+that Horace Walpole described him as an inspired idiot. "Noll," said
+Garrick, "wrote like an angel, and talked like poor Poll." Charnier
+declared that it was a hard exercise of faith to believe that so foolish
+a chatterer could have really written the _Traveller_. Even Boswell
+could say, with contemptuous compassion, that he liked very well to hear
+honest Goldsmith run on. "Yes, sir," said Johnson, "but he should not
+like to hear himself." Minds differ as rivers differ. There are
+transparent and sparkling rivers from which it is delightful to drink as
+they flow; to such rivers the minds of such men as Burke and Johnson may
+be compared. But there are rivers of which the water when first drawn is
+turbid and noisome, but becomes pellucid as crystal and delicious to the
+taste, if it be suffered to stand till it has deposited a sediment; and
+such a river is a type of the mind of Goldsmith. His first thoughts on
+every subject were confused even to absurdity, but they required only a
+little time to work themselves clear. When he wrote they had that time,
+and therefore his readers pronounced him a man of genius; but when he
+talked he talked nonsense and made himself the laughing-stock of his
+hearers. He was painfully sensible of his inferiority in conversation;
+he felt every failure keenly; yet he had not sufficient judgment and
+self-command to hold his tongue. His animal spirits and vanity were
+always impelling him to try to do the one thing which he could not do.
+After every attempt he felt that he had exposed himself, and writhed
+with shame and vexation; yet the next moment he began again.
+
+His associates seem to have regarded him with kindness, which, in spite
+of their admiration of his writings, was not unmixed with contempt. In
+truth, there was in his character much to love, but very little to
+respect. His heart was soft even to weakness; he was so generous that
+he quite forgot to be just; he forgave injuries so readily that he might
+be said to invite them, and was so liberal to beggars that he had
+nothing left for his tailor and his butcher. He was vain, sensual,
+frivolous, profuse, improvident. One vice of a darker shade was imputed
+to him, envy. But there is not the least reason to believe that this bad
+passion, though it sometimes made him wince and utter fretful
+exclamations, ever impelled him to injure by wicked arts the reputation
+of any of his rivals. The truth probably is that he was not more
+envious, but merely less prudent, than his neighbours. His heart was on
+his lips. All those small jealousies, which are but too common among men
+of letters, but which a man of letters who is also a man of the world
+does his best to conceal, Goldsmith avowed with the simplicity of a
+child. When he was envious, instead of affecting indifference, instead
+of damning with faint praise, instead of doing injuries slyly and in the
+dark, he told everybody that he was envious. "Do not, pray, do not, talk
+of Johnson in such terms," he said to Boswell; "you harrow up my very
+soul." George Steevens and Cumberland were men far too cunning to say
+such a thing. They would have echoed the praises of the man whom they
+envied, and then have sent to the newspapers anonymous libels upon him.
+Both what was good and what was bad in Goldsmith's character was to his
+associates a perfect security that he would never commit such villainy.
+He was neither ill-natured enough, nor long-headed enough, to be guilty
+of any malicious act which required contrivance and disguise.
+
+Goldsmith has sometimes been represented as a man of genius, cruelly
+treated by the world, and doomed to struggle with difficulties, which at
+last broke his heart. But no representation can be more remote from the
+truth. He did, indeed, go through much sharp misery before he had done
+anything considerable in literature. But after his name had appeared on
+the title-page of the _Traveller_, he had none but himself to blame for
+his distresses. His average income, during the last seven years of his
+life, certainly exceeded £400 a year, and £400 a year ranked, among the
+incomes of that day, at least as high as £800 a year would rank at
+present. A single man living in the Temple, with £400 a year, might then
+be called opulent. Not one in ten of the young gentlemen of good
+families who were studying the law there had so much. But all the wealth
+which Lord Clive had brought from Bengal and Sir Lawrence Dundas from
+Germany, joined together, would not have sufficed for Goldsmith. He
+spent twice as much as he had. He wore fine clothes, gave dinners of
+several courses, paid court to venal beauties. He had also, it should be
+remembered, to the honour of his heart, though not of his head, a
+guinea, or five, or ten, according to the state of his purse, ready for
+any tale of distress, true or false. But it was not in dress or
+feasting, in promiscuous amours or promiscuous charities, that his chief
+expense lay. He had been from boyhood a gambler, and at once the most
+sanguine and the most unskilful of gamblers. For a time he put off the
+day of inevitable ruin by temporary expedients. He obtained advances
+from booksellers by promising to execute works which he never began. But
+at length this source of supply failed. He owed more than £2000; and he
+saw no hope of extrication from his embarrassments. His spirits and
+health gave way. He was attacked by a nervous fever, which he thought
+himself competent to treat. It would have been happy for him if his
+medical skill had been appreciated as justly by himself as by others.
+Notwithstanding the degree which he pretended to have received on the
+continent, he could procure no patients. "I do not practise," he once
+said; "I make it a rule to prescribe only for my friends." "Pray, dear
+Doctor," said Beauclerk, "alter your rule; and prescribe only for your
+enemies." Goldsmith, now, in spite of this excellent advice, prescribed
+for himself. The remedy aggravated the malady. The sick man was induced
+to call in real physicians; and they at one time imagined that they had
+cured the disease. Still his weakness and restlessness continued. He
+could get no sleep. He could take no food. "You are worse," said one of
+his medical attendants, "than you should be from the degree of fever
+which you have. Is your mind at ease?" "No; it is not," were the last
+recorded words of Oliver Goldsmith. He died on the 4th of April 1774, in
+his forty-sixth year. He was laid in the churchyard of the Temple; but
+the spot was not marked by any inscription and is now forgotten. The
+coffin was followed by Burke and Reynolds. Both these great men were
+sincere mourners. Burke, when he heard of Goldsmith's death, had burst
+into a flood of tears. Reynolds had been so much moved by the news that
+he had flung aside his brush and palette for the day.
+
+A short time after Goldsmith's death, a little poem appeared, which
+will, as long as our language lasts, associate the names of his two
+illustrious friends with his own. It has already been mentioned that he
+sometimes felt keenly the sarcasm which his wild blundering talk brought
+upon him. He was, not long before his last illness, provoked into
+retaliating. He wisely betook himself to his pen; and at that weapon he
+proved himself a match for all his assailants together. Within a small
+compass he drew with a singularly easy and vigorous pencil the
+characters of nine or ten of his intimate associates. Though this little
+work did not receive his last touches, it must always be regarded as a
+masterpiece. It is impossible, however, not to wish that four or five
+likenesses which have no interest for posterity were wanting to that
+noble gallery, and that their places were supplied by sketches of
+Johnson and Gibbon, as happy and vivid as the sketches of Burke and
+Garrick.
+
+Some of Goldsmith's friends and admirers honoured him with a cenotaph in
+Westminster Abbey. Nollekens was the sculptor, and Johnson wrote the
+inscription. It is much to be lamented that Johnson did not leave to
+posterity a more durable and a more valuable memorial of his friend. A
+life of Goldsmith would have been an inestimable addition to the Lives
+of the Poets. No man appreciated Goldsmith's writings more justly than
+Johnson; no man was better acquainted with Goldsmith's character and
+habits; and no man was more competent to delineate with truth and spirit
+the peculiarities of a mind in which great powers were found in company
+with great weaknesses. But the list of poets to whose works Johnson was
+requested by the booksellers to furnish prefaces ended with Lyttelton,
+who died in 1773. The line seems to have been drawn expressly for the
+purpose of excluding the person whose portrait would have most fitly
+closed the series. Goldsmith, however, has been fortunate in his
+biographers.     (M.)
+
+  Goldsmith's life has been written by Prior (1837), by Washington
+  Irving (1844-1849), and by John Forster (1848, 2nd ed. 1854). The
+  diligence of Prior deserves great praise; the style of Washington
+  Irving is always pleasing; but the highest place must, in justice, be
+  assigned to the eminently interesting work of Forster. Subsequent
+  biographies are by William Black (1878), and Austin Dobson (1888,
+  American ed. 1899). The above article by Lord Macaulay has been
+  slightly revised for this edition by Mr Austin Dobson, as regards
+  questions of fact for which there has been new evidence.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDSTÜCKER, THEODOR (1821-1872), German Sanskrit scholar, was born of
+Jewish parents at Königsberg on the 18th of January 1821, and, after
+attending the gymnasium of that town, entered the university in 1836 as
+a student of Sanskrit. In 1838 he removed to Bonn, and, after graduating
+at Königsberg in 1840, proceeded to Paris; in 1842 he edited a German
+translation of the _Prabodha Chandrodaya_. From 1847 to 1850 he resided
+at Berlin, where his talents and scholarship were recognized by
+Alexander von Humboldt, but where his advanced political views caused
+the authorities to regard him with suspicion. In the latter year he
+removed to London, where in 1852 he was appointed professor of Sanskrit
+in University College. He now worked on a new Sanskrit dictionary, of
+which the first instalment appeared in 1856. In 1861 he published his
+chief work: _Panini: his place in Sanskrit Literature_; and he was one
+of the founders and chief promoters of the Sanskrit Text Society; he was
+also an active member of the Philological Society, and of other learned
+bodies. He died in London on the 6th of March 1872.
+
+  As _Literary Remains_ some of his writings were published in two
+  volumes (London, 1879), but his papers were left to the India Office
+  with the request that they were not to be published until 1920.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDWELL, THOMAS (d. 1585), English ecclesiastic, began his career as
+vicar of Cheriton in 1531, after graduating M.A. at All Souls College,
+Oxford. He became chaplain to Cardinal Pole and lived with him at Rome,
+was attainted in 1539, but returned to England on Mary's accession, and
+in 1555 became bishop of St Asaph, a diocese which he did much to win
+back to the old faith. On the death of Mary, Goldwell escaped from
+England and in 1561 became superior of the Theatines at Naples. He was
+the only English bishop at the council of Trent, and in 1562 was again
+attainted. In the following year he was appointed vicar-general to Carlo
+Borromeo, archbishop of Milan. He died in Rome in 1585, the last of the
+English bishops who had refused to accept the Reformation.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ (1850-   ), Jewish Hungarian orientalist, was born in
+Stuhlweissenburg on the 22nd of June 1850. He was educated at the
+universities of Budapest, Berlin, Leipzig and Leiden, and became privat
+docent at Budapest in 1872. In the next year, under the auspices of the
+Hungarian government, he began a journey through Syria, Palestine and
+Egypt, and took the opportunity of attending lectures of Mahommedan
+sheiks in the mosque of el-Azhar in Cairo. He was the first Jewish
+scholar to become professor in the Budapest University (1894), and
+represented the Hungarian government and the Academy of Sciences at
+numerous international congresses. He received the large gold medal at
+the Stockholm Oriental Congress in 1889. He became a member of several
+Hungarian and other learned societies, was appointed secretary of the
+Jewish community in Budapest. He was made Litt. D. of Cambridge (1904)
+and LL.D. of Aberdeen (1906). His eminence in the sphere of scholarship
+is due primarily to his careful investigation of pre-Mahommedan and
+Mahommedan law, tradition, religion and poetry, in connexion with which
+he published a large number of treatises, review articles and essays
+contributed to the collections of the Hungarian Academy.
+
+  Among his chief works are: _Beiträge zur Literaturgeschichte der
+  Schi'a_ (1874); _Beiträge zur Geschichte der Sprachgelehrsamkeit bei
+  den Arabern_ (Vienna, 1871-1873); _Der Mythos bei den Hebräern und
+  seine geschichtliche Entwickelung_ (Leipzig, 1876; Eng. trans., R.
+  Martineau, London, 1877); _Muhammedanische Studien_ (Halle, 1889-1890,
+  2 vols.); _Abhandlungen zur arabischen Philologie_ (Leiden, 1896-1899,
+  2 vols.); _Buch v. Wesen d. Seele_ (ed. 1907).
+
+
+
+
+GOLETTA [LA GOULETTE], a town on the Gulf of Tunis in 36° 50' N. 10° 19'
+E., a little south of the ruins of Carthage, and on the north side of
+the ship canal which traverses the shallow Lake of Tunis and leads to
+the city of that name. Built on the narrow strip of sand which separates
+the lake from the gulf, Goletta is defended by a fort and battery. The
+town contains a summer palace of the bey, the old seraglio, arsenal and
+customhouse, and many villas, gardens and pleasure resorts, Goletta
+being a favourite place for sea-bathing. A short canal, from which the
+name of the town is derived (Arab. _Halk-el-Wad_, "throat of the
+canal"), 40 ft. broad and 8½ ft. deep, divides the town and affords
+communication between the ship canal and a dock or basin, 1082 ft. long
+and 541 ft. broad. An electric tramway which runs along the north bank
+of the ship canal connects Goletta with the city of Tunis (q.v.). Pop.
+(1907) about 5000, mostly Jews and Italian fishermen.
+
+Beyond Cape Carthage, 5 m. N. of Goletta, is La Marsa, a summer resort
+overlooking the sea. The bey has a palace here, and the French
+resident-general, the British consul, other officials, and many
+Tunisians have country-houses, surrounded by groves of olive trees.
+
+Before the opening of the ship canal in 1893 Goletta, as the port of
+Tunis, was a place of considerable importance. The basin at the Goletta
+end of the canal now serves as a subsidiary harbour to that of Tunis.
+The most stirring events in the history of the town are connected with
+the Turkish conquest of the Barbary states. Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa
+having made himself master of Tunis and its port, Goletta was attacked
+in 1535 by the emperor Charles V., who seized the pirate's fleet, which
+was sheltered in the small canal, his arsenal, and 300 brass cannon. The
+Turks regained possession in 1574. (See TUNISIA: _History_.)
+
+
+
+
+GOLF (in its older forms GOFF, GOUFF or GOWFF, the last of which gives
+the genuine old pronunciation), a game which probably derives its name
+from the Ger. _kolbe_, a club--in Dutch, _kolf_--which last is nearly in
+sound identical and might suggest a Dutch origin,[1] which many pictures
+and other witnesses further support.
+
+_History._--One of the most ancient and most interesting of the pictures
+in which the game is portrayed is the tailpiece to an illuminated _Book
+of Hours_ made at Bruges at the beginning of the 16th century. The
+original is in the British Museum. The players, three in number, have
+but one club apiece. The heads of the clubs are steel or steel covered.
+They play with a ball each. That which gives this picture a peculiar
+interest over the many pictures of Dutch schools that portray the game
+in progress is that most of them show it on the ice, the putting being
+at a stake. In this _Book of Hours_ they are putting at a hole in the
+turf, as in our modern golf. It is scarcely to be doubted that the game
+is of Dutch origin, and that it has been in favour since very early
+days. Further than that our knowledge does not go. The early Dutchmen
+played golf, they painted golf, but they did not write it.
+
+It is uncertain at what date golf was introduced into Scotland, but in
+1457 the popularity of the game had already become so great as seriously
+to interfere with the more important pursuit of archery. In March of
+that year the Scottish parliament "decreted and ordained that
+_wapinshawingis_ be halden be the lordis and baronis spirituale and
+temporale, four times in the zeir; and that the fute-ball and _golf be
+utterly cryit down, and nocht usit_; and that the bowe-merkis be maid at
+ilk paroche kirk a pair of buttis, and _schuttin be usit ilk Sunday_."
+Fourteen years afterwards, in May 1471, it was judged necessary to pass
+another act "anent wapenshawings," and in 1491 a final and evidently
+angry fulmination was issued on the general subject, with pains and
+penalties annexed. It runs thus--"Futeball and Golfe forbidden. Item, it
+is statut and ordainit that in na place of the realme there be usit
+fute-ball, _golfe, or uther sik unprofitabill sportis_," &c. This, be it
+noted, is an edict of James IV.; and it is not a little curious
+presently to find the monarch himself setting an ill example to his
+commons, by practice of this "unprofitabill sport," as is shown by
+various entries in the accounts of the lord high treasurer of Scotland
+(1503-1506).
+
+About a century later, the game again appears on the surface of history,
+and it is quite as popular as before. In the year 1592 the town council
+of Edinburgh "ordanis proclamation to be made threw this burgh, that na
+inhabitants of the samyn be seen at ony pastymes within or without the
+toun, upoun the Sabboth day, sic as golfe, &c."[2] The following year
+the edict was re-announced, but with the modification that the
+prohibition was "in tyme of sermons."
+
+Golf has from old times been known in Scotland as "The _Royal and
+Ancient_ Game of Goff." Though no doubt Scottish monarchs handled the
+club before him, James IV. is the first who figures formally in the
+golfing record. James V. was also very partial to the game distinctively
+known as "royal"; and there is some scrap of evidence to show that his
+daughter, the unhappy Mary Stuart, was a golfer. It was alleged by her
+enemies that, as showing her shameless indifference to the fate of her
+husband, a very few days after his murder, she "was seen playing _golf_
+and pallmall in the fields beside Seton."[3] That her son, James VI.
+(afterwards James I. of England), was a golfer, tradition confidently
+asserts, though the evidence which connects him with the personal
+practice of the game is slight. Of the interest he took in it we have
+evidence in his act--already alluded to--"anent _golfe ballis_,"
+prohibiting their importation, except under certain restrictions.
+Charles I. (as his brother Prince Henry had been[4]) was devotedly
+attached to the game. Whilst engaged in it on the links of Leith, in
+1642, the news reached him of the Irish rebellion of that year. He had
+not the equanimity to finish his match, but returned precipitately and
+in much agitation to Holyrood.[5] Afterwards, while prisoner to the
+Scots army at Newcastle, he found his favourite diversion in "the royal
+game." "The King was nowhere treated with more honour than at Newcastle,
+as he himself confessed, both he and his train having liberty to go
+abroad and play at goff in the Shield Field, without the walls."[6] Of
+his son, Charles II., as a golfer, nothing whatever is ascertained, but
+James II. was a known devotee.[7] After the Restoration, James, then
+duke of York, was sent to Edinburgh in 1681/2 as commissioner of the
+king to parliament, and an historical monument of his prowess as a
+golfer remains there to this day in the "Golfer's Land," as it is still
+called, 77 Canongate. The duke having been challenged by two English
+noblemen of his suite, to play a match against them, for a very large
+stake, along with any Scotch ally he might select, chose as his partner
+one "Johne Patersone," a shoemaker. The duke and the said Johne won
+easily, and half of the large stake the duke made over to his humble
+coadjutor, who therewith built himself the house mentioned above. In
+1834 William IV. became patron of the St Andrews Golf Club (St Andrews
+being then, as now, the most famous seat of the game), and approved of
+its being styled "The _Royal and Ancient_ Golf Club of St Andrews." In
+1837, as further proof of royal favour, he presented to it a magnificent
+gold medal, which "should be challenged and played for annually"; and in
+1838 the queen dowager, duchess of St Andrews, became patroness of the
+club, and presented to it a handsome gold medal--"The Royal
+Adelaide"--with a request that it should be worn by the captain, as
+president, on all public occasions. In June 1863 the prince of Wales
+(afterwards Edward VII.) signified his desire to become patron of the
+club, and in the following September was elected captain by acclamation.
+His engagements did not admit of his coming in person to undertake the
+duties of the office, but his brother Prince Leopold (the duke of
+Albany), having in 1876 done the club the honour to become its captain,
+twice visited the ancient city in that capacity.
+
+In more recent days, golf has become increasingly popular in a much
+wider degree. In 1880 the man who travelled about England with a set of
+golf clubs was an object of some astonishment, almost of alarm, to his
+fellow-travellers. In those days the commonest of questions in regard to
+the game was, "You have to be a fine rider, do you not, to play golf?"
+so confounded was it in the popular mind with the game of polo. At
+Blackheath a few Scotsmen resident in London had long played golf. In
+1864 the Royal North Devon Club was formed at Westward Ho, and this was
+the first of the seaside links discovered and laid out for golf in
+England. In 1869 the Royal Liverpool Club established itself in
+possession of the second English course of this quality at Hoylake, in
+Cheshire. A golf club was formed in connexion with the London Scottish
+Volunteers corps, which had its house on the Putney end of Wimbledon
+Common on Putney Heath; and, after making so much of a start, the
+progress of the game was slow, though steady, for many years. A few more
+clubs were formed; the numbers of golfers grew; but it could not be said
+that the game was yet in any sense popular in England. All at once, for
+no very obvious reason, the qualities of the ancient Scottish game
+seemed to strike home, and from that moment its popularity has been
+wonderfully and increasingly great. The English links that rose into
+most immediate favour was the fine course of the St George's Golf Club,
+near Sandwich, on the coast of Kent. To the London golfer it was the
+first course of the first class that was reasonably accessible, and the
+fact made something like an epoch in English golf. A very considerable
+increase, it is true, in the number of English golfers and English golf
+clubs had taken place before the discovery for golfing purposes of the
+links at Sandwich. Already there was a chain of links all round the
+coast, besides numerous inland courses; but since 1890 their increase
+has been extraordinary, and the number which has been formed in the
+colonies and abroad is very large also, so that in the _Golfer's Year
+Book_ for 1906 a space of over 300 pages was allotted to the Club
+Directory alone, each page containing, on a rough average, six clubs. To
+compute the average membership of these clubs is very difficult. There
+is not a little overlapping, in the sense that a member of one club will
+often be a member of several others; but probably the average may be
+placed at something like 200 members for each club.
+
+The immense amount of golf-playing that this denotes, the large industry
+in the making of clubs and balls, in the upkeep of links, in the actual
+work of club-carrying by the caddies, and in the instruction given by
+the professional class, is obvious. Golf has taken a strong hold on the
+affections of the people in many parts of Ireland, and the fashion for
+golf in England has reacted strongly on Scotland itself, the ancient
+home of the game, where since 1880 golfers have probably increased in
+the ratio of forty to one. Besides the industry that such a growth of
+the game denotes in the branches immediately connected with it, as
+mentioned above, there is to be taken into further account the visiting
+population that it brings to all lodging-houses and hotels within reach
+of a tolerable golf links, so that many a fishing village has risen into
+a moderate watering-place by virtue of no other attractions than those
+which are offered by its golf course. Therefore to the Briton, golf has
+developed from something of which he had a vague idea--as of
+"curling"--to something in the nature of an important business, a
+business that can make towns and has a considerable effect on the
+receipts of railway companies.
+
+Moreover, ladies have learned to play golf. Although this is a crude and
+brief sentence, it does not state the fact too widely nor too forcibly,
+for though it is true that before 1885 many played on the short links of
+St Andrews, North Berwick, Westward Ho and elsewhere, still it was
+virtually unknown that they should play on the longer courses, which
+till then had been in the undisputed possession of the men. At many
+places women now have their separate links, at others they play on the
+same course as the men. But even where links are set apart for women,
+they are far different from the little courses that used to be assigned
+to them. They are links only a little less formidable in their bunkers,
+a little less varied in their features than those of men. The ladies
+have their annual championship, which they play on the long links of the
+men, sometimes on one, sometimes on another, but always on courses of
+the first quality, demanding the finest display of golfing skill.
+
+The claim that England made to a golfing fellowship with Scotland was
+conceded very strikingly by the admission of three English greens, first
+those of Hoylake and of Sandwich, and in 1909 Deal, into the exclusive
+list of the links on which the open championship of the game is decided.
+Before England had so fully assimilated Scotland's game this great
+annual contest was waged at St Andrews, Musselburgh and Prestwick in
+successive years. Now the ancient green of Musselburgh, somewhat worn
+out with length of hard and gallant service, and moreover, as a
+nine-holes course inadequately accommodating the numbers who compete in
+the championships to-day, has been superseded by the course at Muirfield
+as a championship arena.
+
+While golf had been making itself a force in the southern kingdom, the
+professional element--men who had learned the game from childhood, had
+become past-masters, were capable of giving instruction, and also of
+making clubs and balls and looking after the greens on which golf was
+played--had at first been taken from the northern side of the Border.
+But when golf had been started long enough in England for the little
+boys who were at first employed as "caddies"--in carrying the players'
+clubs--to grow to sufficient strength to drive the ball as far as their
+masters, it was inevitable that out of the number who thus began to play
+in their boyhood some few should develop an exceptional talent for the
+game. This, in fact, actually happened, and English golfers, both of the
+amateur and the professional classes, have proved themselves so adept
+at Scotland's game, that the championships in either the Open or the
+Amateur competitions have been won more often by English than by
+Scottish players of late years. Probably in the United Kingdom to-day
+there are as many English as Scottish professional golf players, and
+their relative number is increasing.
+
+Golf also "caught on," to use the American expression, in the United
+States. To the American of 1890 golf was largely an unknown thing. Since
+then, however, golf has become perhaps a greater factor in the life of
+the upper and upper-middle classes in the United States than it ever has
+been in England or Scotland. Golf to the English and the Scots meant
+only one among several of the sports and pastimes that take the man and
+the woman of the upper and upper-middle classes into the country and the
+fresh air. To the American of like status golf came as the one thing to
+take him out of his towns and give him a reason for exercise in the
+country. To-day golf has become an interest all over North America, but
+it is in the Eastern States that it has made most difference in the life
+of the classes with whom it has become fashionable. Westerners and
+Southerners found more excuses before the coming of golf for being in
+the open country air. It is in the Eastern States more especially that
+it has had so much influence in making the people live and take exercise
+out of doors. In a truly democratic spirit the American woman golfer
+plays on a perfect equality with the American man. She does not compete
+in the men's championships; she has championships of her own; but she
+plays, without question, on the same links. There is no suggestion of
+relegating her, as a certain cynical writer in the Badminton volume on
+golf described it, to a waste corner, a kind of "Jews' Quarter," of the
+links. And the Americans have taken up golf in the spirit of a sumptuous
+and opulent people, spending money on magnificent clubhouses beyond the
+finest dreams of the Englishman or the Scot. The greatest success
+achieved by any American golfer fell to the lot of Mr Walter Travis of
+the Garden City club, who in 1904 won the British amateur championship.
+
+So much enthusiasm and so much golf in America have not failed to make
+their influence felt in the United Kingdom. Naturally and inevitably
+they have created a strong demand for professional instruction, both by
+example and by precept, and for professional advice and assistance in
+the laying-out and upkeep of the many new links that have been created
+in all parts of the States, sometimes out of the least promising
+material. By the offer of great prizes for exhibition matches, and of
+wages that are to the British rate on the scale of the dollar to the
+shilling, they have attracted many of the best Scottish and English
+professionals to pay them longer or shorter visits as the case may be,
+and thus a new opening has been created for the energies of the
+professional golfing class.
+
+_The Game._--The game of golf may be briefly defined as consisting in
+hitting the ball over a great extent of country, preferably of that
+sand-hill nature which is found by the seaside, and finally hitting or
+"putting" it into a little hole of some 4 in. diameter cut in the turf.
+The place of the hole is commonly marked by a flag. Eighteen is the
+recognized number of these holes on a full course, and they are at
+varying distances apart, from 100 yds. up to anything between a ¼ and ½
+m. For the various strokes required to achieve the hitting of the ball
+over the great hills, and finally putting it into the small hole, a
+number of different "clubs" has been devised to suit the different
+positions in which the ball may be found and the different directions in
+which it is wished to propel it. At the start for each hole the ball may
+be placed on a favourable position (e.g. "tee'd" on a small mound of
+sand) for striking it, but after that it may not be touched, except with
+the club, until it is hit into the next hole. A "full drive," as the
+farthest distance that the ball can be hit is called, is about 200 yds.
+in length, of which some three-fourths will be traversed in the air, and
+the rest by bounding or running over the ground. It is easily to be
+understood that when the ball is lying on the turf behind a tall
+sand-hill, or in a bunker, a differently-shaped club is required for
+raising it over such an obstacle from that which is needed when it is
+placed on the tee to start with; and again, that another club is needed
+to strike the ball out of a cup or out of heavy grass. It is this
+variety that gives the game its charm. Each player plays with his own
+ball, with no interference from his opponent, and the object of each is
+to hit the ball from the starting-point into each successive hole in the
+fewest strokes. The player who at the end of the round (i.e. of the
+course of eighteen holes) has won the majority of the holes is the
+winner of the round; or the decision may be reached before the end of
+the round by one side gaining more holes than there remain to play. For
+instance, if one player be four holes to the good, and only three holes
+remain to be played, it is evident that the former must be the winner,
+for even if the latter win every remaining hole, he still must be one to
+the bad at the finish.
+
+The British Amateur Championship is decided by a tournament in matches
+thus played, each defeated player retiring, and his opponent passing on
+into the next round. In the case of the Open Championship, and in most
+medal competitions, the scores are differently reckoned--each man's
+total score (irrespective of his relative merit at each hole) being
+reckoned at the finish against the total score of the other players in
+the competition. There is also a species of competition called "bogey"
+play, in which each man plays against a "bogey" score--a score fixed for
+each hole in the round before starting--and his position in the
+competition relatively to the other players is determined by the number
+of holes that he is to the good or to the bad of the "bogey" score at
+the end of the round. The player who is most holes to the good, or
+fewest holes to the bad, wins the competition. It may be mentioned
+incidentally that golf occupies the almost unique position of being the
+only sport in which even a single player can enjoy his game, his
+opponent in this event being "Colonel Bogey"--more often than not a
+redoubtable adversary.
+
+  The links which have been thought worthy, by reason of their
+  geographical positions and their merits, of being the scenes on which
+  the golf championships are fought out, are, as we have already said,
+  three in Scotland--St Andrews, Prestwick and Muirfield--and three in
+  England--Hoylake, Sandwich and Deal. This brief list is very far from
+  being complete as regards links of first-class quality in Great
+  Britain. Besides those named, there are in Scotland--Carnoustie, North
+  Berwick, Cruden Bay, Nairn, Aberdeen, Dornoch, Troon, Machrihanish,
+  South Uist, Islay, Gullane, Luffness and many more. In England there
+  are--Westward Ho, Bembridge, Littlestone, Great Yarmouth, Brancaster,
+  Seaton Carew, Formby, Lytham, Harlech, Burnham, among the seaside
+  ones; while of the inland, some of them of very fine quality, we
+  cannot even attempt a selection, so large is their number and so
+  variously estimated their comparative merits. Ireland has Portrush,
+  Newcastle, Portsalon, Dollymount and many more of the first class; and
+  there are excellent courses in the Isle of Man. In America many fine
+  courses have been constructed. There is not a British colony of any
+  standing that is without its golf course--Australia, India, South
+  Africa, all have their golf championships, which are keenly contested.
+  Canada has had courses at Quebec and Montreal for many years, and the
+  Calcutta Golf Club, curiously enough, is the oldest established (next
+  to the Blackheath Club), the next oldest being the club at Pau in the
+  Basses-Pyrénées.
+
+  The Open Championship of golf was started in 1860 by the Prestwick
+  Club giving a belt to be played for annually under the condition that
+  it should become the property of any who could win it thrice in
+  succession. The following is the list of the champions:--
+
+    1860. W. Park, Musselburgh           174--at Prestwick.
+    1861. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick    163--at Prestwick.
+    1862. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick    163--at Prestwick.
+    1863. W. Park, Musselburgh           168--at Prestwick.
+    1864. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick    160--at Prestwick.
+    1865. A. Strath, St Andrews          162--at Prestwick.
+    1866. W. Park, Musselburgh           169--at Prestwick.
+    1867. Tom Morris, sen., St Andrews   170--at Prestwick.
+    1868. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews   154--at Prestwick.
+    1869. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews   157--at Prestwick.
+    1870. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews   149--at Prestwick.
+
+  Tom Morris, junior, thus won the belt finally, according to the
+  conditions. In 1871 there was no competition; but by 1872 the three
+  clubs of St Andrews, Prestwick and Musselburgh had subscribed for a
+  cup which should be played for over the course of each subscribing
+  club successively, but should never become the property of the winner.
+  In later years the course at Muirfield was substituted for that at
+  Musselburgh, and Hoylake and Sandwich were admitted into the list of
+  championship courses. Up to 1891, inclusive, the play of two rounds,
+  or thirty-six holes, determined the championship, but from 1892 the
+  result has been determined by the play of 72 holes.
+
+  After the interregnum of 1871, the following were the champions:--
+
+    1872. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews    166--at Prestwick.
+    1873. Tom Kidd, St Andrews            179--at St Andrews.
+    1874. Mungo Park, Musselburgh         159--at Musselburgh.
+    1875. Willie Park, Musselburgh        166--at Prestwick.
+    1876. Bob Martin, St Andrews          176--at St Andrews.
+    1877. Jamie Anderson, St Andrews      160--at Musselburgh.
+    1878. Jamie Anderson, St Andrews      157--at Prestwick.
+    1879. Jamie Anderson, St Andrews      170--at St Andrews.
+    1880. Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh      162--at Musselburgh.
+    1881. Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh      170--at Prestwick.
+    1882. Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh      171--at St Andrews.
+    1883. W. Fernie, Dumfries             159--at Musselburgh.
+    1884. Jack Simpson, Carnoustie        160--at Prestwick.
+    1885. Bob Martin, St Andrews          171--at St Andrews.
+    1886. D. Brown, Musselburgh           157--at Musselburgh.
+    1887. Willie Park, jun., Musselburgh  161--at Prestwick.
+    1888. Jack Burns, Warwick             171--at St Andrews.
+    1889. Willie Park, jun., Musselburgh  155--at Musselburgh.
+    1890. Mr John Ball, jun., Hoylake     164--at Prestwick.
+    1891. Hugh Kirkaldy, St Andrews       166--at St Andrews.
+    1892. Mr H. H. Hilton, Hoylake        305--at Muirfield.
+    1893. W. Auchterlonie, St Andrews     322--at Prestwick.
+    1894. J. H. Taylor, Winchester        326--at Sandwich.
+    1895. J. H. Taylor, Winchester        322--at St Andrews.
+    1896. H. Vardon, Scarborough          316--at Muirfield.
+    1897. Mr H. H. Hilton, Hoylake        314--at Hoylake.
+    1898. H. Vardon, Scarborough          307--at Prestwick.
+    1899. H. Vardon, Scarborough          310--at Sandwich.
+    1900. J. H. Taylor, Richmond          309--at St Andrews.
+    1901. J. Braid, Romford               309--at Muirfield.
+    1902. A. Herd, Huddersfield           307--at Hoylake.
+    1903. H. Vardon, Ganton               300--at Prestwick.
+    1904. J. White, Sunningdale           296--at Sandwich.
+    1905. J. Braid, Walton Heath          318--at St Andrews.
+    1906. J. Braid, Walton Heath          300--at Muirfield.
+    1907. Arnaud Massey, La Boulie        312--at Hoylake.
+    1908. J. Braid, Walton Heath          291--at Prestwick.
+    1909. J. H. Taylor, Richmond          295--at Deal.
+    1910. J. Braid, Walton Heath          298--at St Andrews.
+
+  The Amateur Championship is of far more recent institution.
+
+    1886. Mr Horace Hutchinson     at St Andrews.
+    1887. Mr Horace Hutchinson     at Hoylake.
+    1888. Mr John Ball             at Prestwick.
+    1889. Mr J. E. Laidlay         at St Andrews.
+    1890. Mr John Ball             at Hoylake.
+    1891. Mr J. E. Laidlay         at St Andrews.
+    1892. Mr John Ball             at Sandwich.
+    1893. Mr P. Anderson           at Prestwick.
+    1894. Mr John Ball             at Hoylake.
+    1895. Mr L. Balfour-Melville   at St Andrews.
+    1896. Mr F. G. Tait            at Sandwich.
+    1897. Mr J. T. Allan           at Muirfield.
+    1898. Mr John Ball             at Prestwick.
+    1899. Mr F. G. Tait            at Hoylake.
+    1900. Mr H. H. Hilton          at Sandwich.
+    1901. Mr H. H. Hilton          at St Andrews.
+    1902. Mr C. Hutchings          at Hoylake.
+    1903. Mr R. Maxwell            at Muirfield.
+    1904. Mr W. J. Travis          at Sandwich.
+    1905. Mr A. G. Barry           at St Andrews.
+    1906. Mr J. Robb               at Hoylake.
+    1907. Mr John Ball             at St Andrews.
+    1908. Mr E. A. Lassen          at Sandwich.
+    1909. Mr Robert Maxwell        at Muirfield.
+    1910. Mr John Ball             at Hoylake.
+
+  The Ladies' Championship was started in 1893.
+
+    1893. Lady M. Scott            at St Annes.
+    1894. Lady M. Scott            at Littlestone.
+    1895. Lady M. Scott            at Portrush.
+    1896. Miss A. B. Pascoe        at Hoylake.
+    1897. Miss E. C. Orr           at Gullane.
+    1898. Miss L. Thompson         at Yarmouth.
+    1899. Miss M. Hezlet           at Newcastle.
+    1900. Miss R. K. Adair         at Westward Ho.
+    1901. Miss M. A. Graham        at Aberdovy.
+    1902. Miss M. Hezlet           at Deal.
+    1903. Miss R. K. Adair         at Portrush.
+    1904. Miss L. Dod              at Troon.
+    1905. Miss B. Thompson         at Cromer.
+    1906. Mrs Kennion              at Burnham.
+    1907. Miss M. Hezlet           at Newcastle (Co. Down).
+    1908. Miss M. Titterton        at St Andrews.
+    1909. Miss D. Campbell         at Birkdale.
+    1910. Miss Grant Suttie        at Westward Ho.
+
+There have been some slight changes of detail and arrangement as time
+has gone on, in the rules of the game (the latest edition of the Rules
+should be consulted). A new class of golfer has arisen, requiring a code
+of rules framed rather more exactly than the older code. The Scottish
+golfer, who was "teethed" on a golf club, as Mr Andrew Lang has
+described it, imbibed all the traditions of the game with his natural
+sustenance. Very few rules sufficed for him. But when the Englishman,
+and still more the American (less in touch with the traditions), began
+to play golf as a new game, then they began to ask for a code of rules
+that should be lucid and illuminating on every point--an ideal perhaps
+impossible to realize. It was found, at least, that the code put forward
+by the Royal and Ancient Club of St Andrews did not realize it
+adequately. Nevertheless the new golfers were very loyal indeed to the
+club that had ever of old held, by tacit consent, the position of fount
+of golfing legislation. The Royal and Ancient Club was appealed to by
+English golfers to step into the place, analogous to that of the
+Marylebone Cricket Club in cricket, that they were both willing and
+anxious to give it. It was a place that the Club at St Andrews did not
+in the least wish to occupy, but the honour was thrust so insistently
+upon it, that there was no declining. The latest effort to meet the
+demands for some more satisfactory legislation on the thousand and one
+points that continually must arise for decision in course of playing a
+game of such variety as golf, consists of the appointment of a standing
+committee, called the "Rules of Golf Committee." Its members all belong
+to the Royal and Ancient Club; but since this club draws its membership
+from all parts of the United Kingdom, this restriction is quite
+consistent with a very general representation of the views of north,
+south, east and west--from Westward Ho and Sandwich to Dornoch, and all
+the many first-rate links of Ireland--on the committee. Ireland has,
+indeed, some of the best links in the kingdom, and yields to neither
+Scotland nor England in enthusiasm for the game. This committee, after a
+general revision of the rules into the form in which they now stand,
+consider every month, either by meeting or by correspondence, the
+questions that are sent up to it by clubs or by individuals; and the
+committee's answers to these questions have the force of law until they
+have come before the next general meeting of the Royal and Ancient Club
+at St Andrews, which may confirm or may reject them at will. The ladies
+of Great Britain manage otherwise. They have a Golfing Union which
+settles questions for them; but since this union itself accepts as
+binding the answers given by the Rules of Golf Committee, they really
+arrive at the same conclusions by a slightly different path. Nor does
+the American Union, governing the play of men and women alike in the
+States, really act differently. The Americans naturally reserve to
+themselves freedom to make their own rules, but in practice they conform
+to the legislation of Scotland, with the exception of a more drastic
+definition of the status of the amateur player, and certain differences
+as to the clubs used.
+
+A considerable modification has been effected in the implements of the
+game. The tendency of the modern wooden clubs is to be short in the head
+as compared with the clubs of, say, 1880 or 1885. The advantage claimed
+(probably with justice) for this shape is that it masses the weight
+behind the point on which the ball is struck. Better material in the
+wood of the club is a consequence of the increased demand for these
+articles and the increased competition among their makers. Whereas under
+the old conditions a few workers at the few greens then in existence
+were enough to supply the golfing wants, now there is a very large
+industry in golf club and ball making, which not only employs workers in
+the local club-makers' shops all the kingdom over, but is an important
+branch of the commerce of the stores and of the big athletic outfitters,
+both in Great Britain and in the United States. By far the largest
+modification in the game since the change to gutta-percha balls from
+balls of leather-covering stuffed with feathers, is due to the American
+invention of the india-rubber cased balls. Practically it is as an
+American invention that it is still regarded, although the British law
+courts decided, after a lengthy trial (1905), that there had been "prior
+users" of the principle of the balls' manufacture, and therefore that
+the patent of Mr Haskell, by whose name the first balls of the kind
+were called, was not good. It is singular to remark that in the first
+introduction of the gutta-percha balls, superseding the leather and
+feather compositions, they also were called by the name of their first
+maker, "Gourlay." The general mode of manufacture of the rubber-cored
+ball, which is now everywhere in use, is interiorly, a hard core of
+gutta-percha or some other such substance; round this is wound, by
+machinery, india-rubber thread or strips at a high tension, and over all
+is an outer coat of gutta-percha. Some makers have tried to dispense
+with the kernel of hard substance, or to substitute for it kernels of
+some fluid or gelatinous substance, but in general the above is a
+sufficient, though rough, description of the mode of making all these
+balls. Their superiority over the solid gutta-percha lies in their
+superior resiliency. The effect is that they go much more lightly off
+the club. It is not so much in the tee-shots that this superiority is
+observed, as in the second shots, when the ball is lying badly; balls of
+the rubber-cored kind, with their greater liveliness, are more easy to
+raise in the air from a lie of this kind. They also go remarkably well
+off the iron clubs, and thus make the game easier by placing the player
+within an iron shot of the hole at a distance at which he would have to
+use a wooden club if he were playing with a solid gutta-percha ball.
+They also tend to make the game more easy by the fact that if they are
+at all mis-hit they go much better than a gutta-percha ball similarly
+inaccurately struck. As a slight set-off against these qualities, the
+ball, because of the greater liveliness, is not quite so good for the
+short game as the solid ball; but on the whole its advantages distinctly
+overbalance its disadvantages.
+
+When these balls were first put on the market they were sold at two
+shillings each and even, when the supply was quite unequal to the
+demand, at a greater deal higher price, rising to as much as a guinea a
+ball. But the normal price, until about a year after the decision in the
+British courts of law affirming that there was no patent in the balls,
+was always two shillings for the best quality of ball. Subsequently
+there was a reduction down to one shilling for the balls made by many of
+the manufacturing companies, though in 1910 the rise in the price of
+rubber sent up the cost. The rubber-cored ball does not go out of shape
+so quickly as the gutta-percha solid ball and does not show other marks
+of ill-usage with the club so obviously. It has had the effect of making
+the game a good deal easier for the second- and third-class players,
+favouring especially those who were short drivers with the old
+gutta-percha ball. To the best players it has made the least difference,
+nevertheless those who were best with the old ball are also best with
+the new; its effect has merely been to bring the second, third and
+fourth best closer to each other and to the best.
+
+Incidentally, the question of the expense of the game has been touched
+on in this notice of the new balls. There is no doubt that the balls
+themselves tend to a greater economy, not only because of their own
+superior durability but also because, as a consequence of their greater
+resiliency, they are not nearly so hard on the clubs, and the clubs
+themselves being perhaps made of better material than used to be given
+to their manufacture, the total effect is that a man's necessary annual
+expenditure on them is very small indeed even though he plays pretty
+constantly. Four or five rounds are not more than the average of golfers
+will make an india-rubber cored ball last them, so that the outlay on
+the weapons is very moderate. On the other hand the expenditure of the
+clubs on their courses has increased and tends to increase. Demands are
+more insistent than they used to be for a well kept course, for
+perfectly mown greens, renewed teeing grounds and so on, and probably
+the modern golfer is a good deal more luxurious in his clubhouse wants
+than his father used to be. This means a big staff of servants and
+workers on the green, and to meet this a rather heavy subscription is
+required. Such a subscription as five guineas added to a ten or fifteen
+guinea entrance fee is not uncommon, and even this is very moderate
+compared with the subscriptions to some of the clubs in the United
+States, where a hundred dollars a year, or twenty pounds of our money,
+is not unusual. But on the whole golf is a very economical pastime, as
+compared with almost any other sport or pastime which engages the
+attention of Britons, and it is a pastime for all the year round, and
+for all the life of a man or woman.
+
+  _Glossary of Technical Terms used in the Game._
+
+  _Addressing the Ball._--Putting oneself in position to strike the
+  ball.
+
+  _All Square._--Term used to express that the score stands level,
+  neither side being a hole up.
+
+  _Baff._--To strike the ground with the club when playing, and so loft
+  the ball unduly.
+
+  _Baffy._--A short wooden club, with laid-back face, for lofting shots.
+
+  _Bogey._--The number of strokes which a good average player should
+  take to each hole. This imaginary player is usually known as "Colonel
+  Bogey," and plays a fine game.
+
+  _Brassy._--A wooden club with a brass sole.
+
+  _Bulger._--A driver in which the face "bulges" into a convex shape.
+  The head is shorter than in the older-fashioned driver.
+
+  _Bunker._--A sand-pit.
+
+  _Bye._--The holes remaining after one side has become more holes up
+  than remain for play.
+
+  _Caddie._--The person who carries the clubs. Diminutive of "cad"; cf.
+  laddie (from Fr. _cadet_).
+
+  _Cleek._--The iron-headed club that is capable of the farthest drive
+  of any of the clubs with iron heads.
+
+  _Cup._--A depression in the ground causing the ball to lie badly.
+
+  _Dead._--A ball is said to be "dead" when so near the hole that the
+  putting it in in the next stroke is a "dead" certainty. A ball is said
+  to "fall dead" when it pitches with hardly any run.
+
+  _Divot._--A piece of turf cut out in the act of playing, which, be it
+  noted, should always be replaced before the player moves on.
+
+  _Dormy._--One side is said to be "dormy" when it is as many holes to
+  the good as remain to be played--so that it cannot be beaten.
+
+  _Driver._--The longest driving club, used when the ball lies very well
+  and a long shot is needed.
+
+  _Foozle._--Any very badly missed or bungled stroke.
+
+  "_Fore!_"--A cry of warning to people in front.
+
+  _Foursome._--A match in which four persons engage, two on each side
+  playing alternately with the same ball.
+
+  _Green._--(a) The links as a whole; (b) the "putting-greens" around
+  the holes.
+
+  _Grip._--(a) The part of the club-shaft which is held in the hands
+  while playing; (b) the grasp itself--e.g. "a firm grip," "a loose
+  grip," are common expressions.
+
+  _Half-Shot._--A shot played with something less than a full swing.
+
+  _Halved._--A hole is "halved" when both sides have played it in the
+  same number of strokes. A round is "halved" when each side has won and
+  lost the same number of holes.
+
+  _Handicap._--The strokes which a player receives either in match play
+  or competition.
+
+  _Hanging._--Said of a ball that lies on a slope inclining downwards in
+  regard to the direction in which it is wished to drive.
+
+  _Hazard._--A general term for bunker, whin, long grass, roads and all
+  kinds of bad ground.
+
+  _Heel._--To hit the ball on the "heel" of the club, i.e. the part of
+  the face nearest the shaft, and so send the ball to the right, with
+  the same result as from a slice.
+
+  _Honour._--The privilege (which its holder is not at liberty to
+  decline) of striking off first from the tee.
+
+  _Iron._--An iron-headed club intermediate between the cleek and
+  lofting mashie. There are driving irons and lofting irons according to
+  the purposes for which they are intended.
+
+  _Lie._--(a) The angle of the club-head with the shaft (e.g. a "flat
+  lie," "an upright lie"); (b) the position of the ball on the ground
+  (e.g. "a good lie," "a bad lie").
+
+  _Like, The._--The stroke which makes the player's score equal to his
+  opponent's in course of playing a hole.
+
+  _Like-as-we-Lie._--Said when both sides have played the same number of
+  strokes.
+
+  _Line._--The direction in which the hole towards which the player is
+  progressing lies with reference to the present position of his ball.
+
+  _Mashie._--Ah iron club with a short head. The _lofting mashie_ has
+  the blade much laid back, for playing a short lofting shot. The
+  _driving mashie_ has the blade less laid back, and is used for longer,
+  less lofted shots.
+
+  _Match-Play._--Play in which the score is reckoned by holes won and
+  lost.
+
+  _Medal-Play._--Play in which the score is reckoned by the total of
+  strokes taken on the round.
+
+  _Niblick._--A short stiff club with a short, laid back, iron head,
+  used for getting the ball out of a very bad lie.
+
+  _Odd, The._--A stroke more than the opponent has played.
+
+  _Press._--To strive to hit harder than you can hit with accuracy.
+
+  _Pull._--To hit the ball with a pulling movement of the club, so as to
+  make it curve to the left.
+
+  _Putt._--To play the short strokes near the hole (pronounced as in
+  "but").
+
+  _Putter._--The club used for playing the short strokes near the hole.
+  Some have a wooden head, some an iron head.
+
+  _Rub-of-the-Green._--Any chance deflection that the ball receives as
+  it goes along.
+
+  _Run Up._--To send the ball low and close to the ground in approaching
+  the hole--opposite to lofting it up.
+
+  _Scratch Player._--Player who receives no odds in handicap
+  competitions.
+
+  _Slice._--To hit the ball with a cut across it, so that it flies
+  curving to the right.
+
+  _Stance._--(a) The place on which the player has to stand when
+  playing--e.g. "a bad stance," "a good stance," are common expressions;
+  (b) the position relative to each other of the player's feet.
+
+  _Stymie._--When one ball lies in a straight line between another and
+  the hole the first is said to "stymie," or "to be a stymie to" the
+  other--from an old Scottish word given by Jamieson to mean "the
+  faintest form of anything." The idea probably was, the "stymie" only
+  left you the "faintest form" of the hole to aim at.
+
+  _Tee._--The little mound of sand on which the ball is generally placed
+  for the first drive to each hole.
+
+  _Teeing-Ground._--The place marked as the limit, outside of which it
+  is not permitted to drive the ball off. This marked-out ground is also
+  sometimes called "the tee."
+
+  _Top._--To hit the ball above the centre, so that it does not rise
+  much from the ground.
+
+  _Up._--A player is said to be "one up," "two up," &c., when he is so
+  many holes to the good of his opponent.
+
+  _Wrist-Shot._--A shot less in length than a half-shot, but longer than
+  a putt.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature of the game has grown to some
+  considerable bulk. For many years it was practically comprised in the
+  fine work by Mr Robert Clark, _Golf: A Royal and Ancient Game_,
+  together with two handbooks on the game by Mr Chambers and by Mr
+  Forgan respectively, and the _Golfiana Miscellanea_ of Mr Stewart. A
+  small book by Mr Horace Hutchinson, named _Hints on Golf_, was very
+  shortly followed by a much more important work by Sir Walter Simpson,
+  Bart., called _The Art of Golf_, a title which sufficiently explains
+  itself. The Badminton Library book on _Golf_ attempted to collect into
+  one volume the most interesting historical facts known about the game,
+  with _obiter dicta_ and advice to learners, and, on similar didactic
+  lines, books have been written by Mr H. C. S. Everard, Mr Garden Smith
+  and W. Park, the professional player. Mr H. J. Whigham, sometime
+  amateur champion golfer of the United States, has given us a book
+  about the game in that country. _The Book of Golf and Golfers_,
+  compiled, with assistance, by Mr Horace Hutchinson, is in the first
+  place a picture-gallery of famous golfers in their respective
+  attitudes of play. Taylor, Vardon and Braid have each contributed a
+  volume of instruction, and Mr G. W. Beldam has published a book with
+  admirable photographs of players in action, called _Great Golfers:
+  their Methods at a Glance_. A work intended for the use of green
+  committees is among the volumes of the _Country Life_ Library of
+  Sport. Much interesting lore is contained in the _Golfing Annual_, in
+  the _Golfer's Year Book_ and in the pages of _Golf_, which has now
+  become _Golf Illustrated_, a weekly paper devoted to the game. Among
+  works that have primarily a local interest, but yet contain much of
+  historical value about the game, may be cited the _Golf Book of East
+  Lothian_, by the Rev. John Kerr, and the _Chronicle of Blackheath
+  Golfers_, by Mr W. E. Hughes.     (H. G. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] From an enactment of James VI. (then James I. of England),
+    bearing date 1618, we find that a considerable importation of golf
+    balls at that time took place from Holland, and as thereby "na small
+    quantitie of gold and silver is transported zierly out of his Hienes'
+    kingdome of Scoteland" (see letter of His Majesty from Salisbury, the
+    5th of August 1618), he issues a royal prohibition, at once as a wise
+    economy of the national moneys, and a protection to native industry
+    in the article. From this it might almost seem that the game was at
+    that date still known and practised in Holland.
+
+  [2] _Records of the City of Edinburgh_.
+
+  [3] _Inventories of Mary Queen of Scots_, preface, p. lxx. (1863).
+
+  [4] Anonymous author of MS. in the Harleian Library.
+
+  [5] See _History of Leith_, by A. Campbell (1827).
+
+  [6] _Local Records of Northumberland_, by John Sykes (Newcastle,
+    1833).
+
+  [7] Robertson's _Historical Notices of Leith_.
+
+
+
+
+GOLIAD, an unincorporated village and the county-seat of Goliad county,
+Texas, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the San Antonio river, 85 m. S.E. of
+San Antonio. Pop. (1900) about 1700. It is served by the Galveston,
+Harrisburg & San Antonio railway (Southern Pacific System). Situated in
+the midst of a rich farming and stock-raising country, Goliad has flour
+mills, cotton gins and cotton-seed oil mills. Here are the interesting
+ruins of the old Spanish mission of La Bahia, which was removed to this
+point from the Guadaloupe river in 1747. During the struggle between
+Mexico and Spain the Mexican leader Bernardo Gutierrez (1778-1814) was
+besieged here. The name Goliad, probably an anagram of the name of the
+Mexican patriot Hidalgo (1753-1811), was first used about 1829. On the
+outbreak of the Texan War of Liberation Goliad was garrisoned by a small
+force of Mexicans, who surrendered to the Texans in October 1835, and on
+the 20th of December a preliminary "declaration of independence" was
+published here, antedating by several months the official Declaration
+issued at Old Washington, Texas, on the 2nd of March 1836. In 1836, when
+Santa Anna began his advance against the Texan posts, Goliad was
+occupied by a force of about 350 Americans under Colonel James W. Fannin
+(c. 1800-1836), who was overtaken on the Coletta Creek while attempting
+to carry out orders to withdraw from Goliad and to unite with General
+Houston; he surrendered after a sharp fight (March 19-20) in which he
+inflicted a heavy loss on the Mexicans, and was marched back with his
+force to Goliad, where on the morning of the 27th of March they were
+shot down by Santa Anna's orders. Goliad was nearly destroyed by a
+tornado on the 19th of May 1903.
+
+
+
+
+GOLIARD, a name applied to those wandering students (_vagantes_) and
+clerks in England, France and Germany, during the 12th and 13th
+centuries, who were better known for their rioting, gambling and
+intemperance than for their scholarship. The derivation of the word is
+uncertain. It may come from the Lat. _gula_, gluttony (Wright), but was
+connected by them with a mythical "Bishop Golias," also called
+"_archipoëta_" and "_primas_"--especially in Germany--in whose name
+their satirical poems were mostly written. Many scholars have accepted
+Büdinger's suggestion (_Über einige Reste der Vagantenpoesie in
+Österreich_, Vienna, 1854) that the title of Golias goes back to the
+letter of St Bernard to Innocent II., in which he referred to Abelard as
+Goliath, thus connecting the goliards with the keen-witted student
+adherents of that great medieval critic. Giesebrecht and others,
+however, support the derivation of goliard from _gailliard_, a gay
+fellow, leaving "Golias" as the imaginary "patron" of their fraternity.
+
+Spiegel has ingeniously disentangled something of a biography of an
+_archipoëta_ who flourished mainly in Burgundy and at Salzburg from 1160
+to beyond the middle of the 13th century; but the proof of the reality
+of this individual is not convincing. It is doubtful, too, if the
+jocular references to the rules of the "gild" of goliards should be
+taken too seriously, though their aping of the "orders" of the church,
+especially their contrasting them with the mendicants, was too bold for
+church synods. Their satires were almost uniformly directed against the
+church, attacking even the pope. In 1227 the council of Trèves forbade
+priests to permit the goliards to take part in chanting the service. In
+1229 they played a conspicuous part in the disturbances at the
+university of Paris, in connexion with the intrigues of the papal
+legate. During the century which followed they formed a subject for the
+deliberations of several church councils, notably in 1289 when it was
+ordered that "no clerks shall be jongleurs, goliards or buffoons," and
+in 1300 (at Cologne) when they were forbidden to preach or engage in the
+indulgence traffic. This legislation was only effective when the
+"privileges of clergy" were withdrawn from the goliards. Those
+historians who regard the middle ages as completely dominated by ascetic
+ideals, regard the goliard movement as a protest against the spirit of
+the time. But it is rather indicative of the wide diversity in
+temperament among those who crowded to the universities in the 13th
+century, and who found in the privileges of the clerk some advantage and
+attraction in the student life. The goliard poems are as truly
+"medieval" as the monastic life which they despised; they merely voice
+another section of humanity. Yet their criticism was most keenly
+pointed, and marks a distinct step in the criticism of abuses in the
+church.
+
+Along with these satires went many poems in praise of wine and riotous
+living. A remarkable collection of them, now at Munich, from the
+monastery at Benedictbeuren in Bavaria, was published by Schmeller (3rd
+ed., 1895) under the title _Carmina Burana_. Many of these, which form
+the main part of song-books of German students to-day, have been
+delicately translated by John Addington Symonds in a small volume,
+_Wine, Women and Song_ (1884). As Symonds has said, they form a prelude
+to the Renaissance. The poems of "Bishop Golias" were later attributed
+to Walter Mapes, and have been published by Thomas Wright in _The Latin
+Poems commonly attributed to Walter Mapes_ (London, 1841).
+
+The word "goliard" itself outlived these turbulent bands which had given
+it birth, and passed over into French and English literature of the 14th
+century in the general meaning of jongleur or minstrel, quite apart from
+any clerical association. It is thus used in _Piers Plowman_, where,
+however, the _goliard_ still rhymes in Latin, and in Chaucer.
+
+  See, besides the works quoted above, M. Haezner, _Goliardendichtung
+  und die Satire im 13ten Jahrhundert in England_ (Leipzig, 1905);
+  Spiegel, _Die Vaganten und ihr "Orden"_ (Spires, 1892); Hubatsch, _Die
+  lateinischen Vagantenlieder des Mittelalters_ (Görlitz, 1870); and the
+  article in _La grande Encyclopédie_. All of these have bibliographical
+  apparatus.     (J. T. S.*)
+
+
+
+
+GOLIATH, the name of the giant by slaying whom David achieved renown (1
+Sam. xvii.). The Philistines had come up to make war against Saul and,
+as the rival camps lay opposite each other, this warrior came forth day
+by day to challenge to single combat. Only David ventured to respond,
+and armed with a sling and pebbles he overcame Goliath. The Philistines,
+seeing their champion killed, lost heart and were easily put to flight.
+The giant's arms were placed in the sanctuary, and it was his famous
+sword which David took with him in his flight from Saul (1 Sam. xxi.
+1-9). From another passage we learn that Goliath of Gath, "the shaft of
+whose spear was like a weaver's beam," was slain by a certain Elhanan of
+Bethlehem in one of David's conflicts with the Philistines (2 Sam. xxi.
+18-22)--the parallel 1 Chron. xx. 5, avoids the contradiction by reading
+the "brother of Goliath." But this old popular story has probably
+preserved the more original tradition, and if Elhanan is the son of Dodo
+in the list of David's mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 9, 24), the resemblance
+between the two names may have led to the transference. The narratives
+of David's early life point to some exploit by means of which he gained
+the favour of Saul, Jonathan and Israel, but the absence of all
+reference to his achievement in the subsequent chapters (1 Sam. xxi. 11,
+xxix. 5) is evidence of the relatively late origin of a tradition which
+in course of time became one of the best-known incidents in David's life
+(Ps. cxliv., LXX. title, the apocryphal Ps. cli., Ecclus. xlvii. 4).
+
+  See DAVID; SAMUEL (BOOKS) and especially Cheyne, _Aids and Devout
+  Study of Criticism_, pp. 80 sqq., 125 sqq. In the old Egyptian romance
+  of _Sinuhit_ (ascribed to about 2000 B.C.), the story of the slaying
+  of the Bedouin hero has several points of resemblance with that of
+  David and Goliath. See L. B. Paton, _Hist. of Syr. and Pal._, p. 60;
+  A. Jeremias, _Das A. T. im Lichte d. alten Orients_, 2nd ed. pp. 299,
+  491; A. R. S. Kennedy, _Century Bible: Samuel_, p. 122, argues that
+  David's Philistine adversary was originally nameless, in 1 Sam. xvii.
+  he is named only in v. 4.
+
+
+
+
+GOLITSUIN, BORIS ALEKSYEEVICH (1654-1714), Russian statesman, came of a
+princely family, claiming descent from Prince Gedimin of Lithuania.
+Earlier members of the family were Mikhail (d. c. 1552), a famous
+soldier, and his great-grandson Vasily Vasilevich (d. 1619), who was
+sent as ambassador to Poland to offer the Russian crown to Prince
+Ladislaus. Boris became court chamberlain in 1676. He was the young tsar
+Peter's chief supporter when, in 1689, Peter resisted the usurpations of
+his elder sister Sophia, and the head of the loyal council which
+assembled at the Troitsa monastery during the crisis of the struggle.
+Golitsuin it was who suggested taking refuge in that strong fortress and
+won over the boyars of the opposite party. In 1690 he was created a
+boyar and shared with Lev Naruishkin, Peter's uncle, the conduct of home
+affairs. After the death of the tsaritsa Natalia, Peter's mother, in
+1694, his influence increased still further. He accompanied Peter to the
+White Sea (1694-1695); took part in the Azov campaign (1695); and was
+one of the triumvirate who ruled Russia during Peter's first foreign
+tour (1697-1698). The Astrakhan rebellion (1706), which affected all the
+districts under his government, shook Peter's confidence in him, and
+seriously impaired his position. In 1707 he was superseded in the Volgan
+provinces by Andrei Matvyeev. A year before his death he entered a
+monastery. Golitsuin was a typical representative of Russian society of
+the end of the 17th century in its transition from barbarism to
+civilization. In many respects he was far in advance of his age. He was
+highly educated, spoke Latin with graceful fluency, frequented the
+society of scholars and had his children carefully educated according to
+the best European models. Yet this eminent, this superior personage was
+an habitual drunkard, an uncouth savage who intruded upon the
+hospitality of wealthy foreigners, and was not ashamed to seize upon any
+dish he took a fancy to, and send it home to his wife. It was his
+reckless drunkenness which ultimately ruined him in the estimation of
+Peter the Great, despite his previous inestimable services.
+
+  See S. Solovev, _History of Russia_ (Rus.), vol. xiv. (Moscow, 1858);
+  R. N. Bain, _The First Romanovs_ (London, 1905).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GOLITSUIN, DMITRY MIKHAILOVICH (1665-1737), Russian statesman, was sent
+in 1697 to Italy to learn "military affairs"; in 1704 he was appointed
+to the command of an auxiliary corps in Poland against Charles XII.;
+from 1711 to 1718 he was governor of Byelogorod. In 1718 he was
+appointed president of the newly erected _Kammer Kollegium_ and a
+senator. In May 1723 he was implicated in the disgrace of the
+vice-chancellor Shafirov and was deprived of all his offices and
+dignities, which he only recovered through the mediation of the empress
+Catherine I. After the death of Peter the Great, Golitsuin became the
+recognized head of the old Conservative party which had never forgiven
+Peter for putting away Eudoxia and marrying the plebeian Martha
+Skavronskaya. But the reformers, as represented by Alexander Menshikov
+and Peter Tolstoi, prevailed; and Golitsuin remained in the background
+till the fall of Menshikov, 1727. During the last years of Peter II.
+(1728-1730), Golitsuin was the most prominent statesman in Russia and
+his high aristocratic theories had full play. On the death of Peter II.
+he conceived the idea of limiting the autocracy by subordinating it to
+the authority of the supreme privy council, of which he was president.
+He drew up a form of constitution which Anne of Courland, the newly
+elected Russian empress, was forced to sign at Mittau before being
+permitted to proceed to St Petersburg. Anne lost no time in repudiating
+this constitution, and never forgave its authors. Golitsuin was left in
+peace, however, and lived for the most part in retirement, till 1736,
+when he was arrested on suspicion of being concerned in the conspiracy
+of his son-in-law Prince Constantine Cantimir. This, however, was a mere
+pretext, it was for his anti-monarchical sentiments that he was really
+prosecuted. A court, largely composed of his antagonists, condemned him
+to death, but the empress reduced the sentence to lifelong imprisonment
+in Schlüsselburg and confiscation of all his estates. He died in his
+prison on the 14th of April 1737, after three months of confinement.
+
+  See R. N. Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London, 1897).
+       (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GOLITSUIN, VASILY VASILEVICH (1643-1714), Russian statesman, spent his
+early days at the court of Tsar Alexius where he gradually rose to the
+rank of boyar. In 1676 he was sent to the Ukraine to keep in order the
+Crimean Tatars and took part in the Chigirin campaign. Personal
+experience of the inconveniences and dangers of the prevailing system of
+preferment, the so-called _myestnichestvo_, or rank priority, which had
+paralysed the Russian armies for centuries, induced him to propose its
+abolition, which was accomplished by Tsar Theodore III. (1678). The May
+revolution of 1682 placed Golitsuin at the head of the _Posolsky
+Prikaz_, or ministry of foreign affairs, and during the regency of
+Sophia, sister of Peter the Great, whose lover he became, he was the
+principal minister of state (1682-1689) and "keeper of the great seal,"
+a title bestowed upon only two Russians before him, Athonasy
+Orduin-Nashchokin and Artamon Matvyeev. In home affairs his influence
+was insignificant, but his foreign policy was distinguished by the peace
+with Poland in 1683, whereby Russia at last recovered Kiev. By the terms
+of the same treaty, he acceded to the grand league against the Porte,
+but his two expeditions against the Crimea (1687 and 1689), "the First
+Crimean War," were unsuccessful and made him extremely unpopular. Only
+with the utmost difficulty could Sophia get the young tsar Peter to
+decorate the defeated commander-in-chief as if he had returned a victor.
+In the civil war between Sophia and Peter (August-September 1689),
+Golitsuin half-heartedly supported his mistress and shared her ruin. His
+life was spared owing to the supplications of his cousin Boris, but he
+was deprived of his boyardom, his estates were confiscated and he was
+banished successively to Kargopol, Mezen and Kologora, where he died on
+the 21st of April 1714. Golitsuin was unusually well educated. He
+understood German and Greek as well as his mother-tongue, and could
+express himself fluently in Latin. He was a great friend of foreigners,
+who generally alluded to him as "the great Golitsuin."
+
+His brother MIKHAIL (1674-1730) was a celebrated soldier, who is best
+known for his governorship of Finland (1714-1721), where his admirable
+qualities earned the remembrance of the people whom he had conquered.
+And Mikhail's son Alexander (1718-1783) was a diplomat and soldier, who
+rose to be field-marshal and governor of St Petersburg.
+
+  See R. N. Bain, _The First Romanovs_ (London, 1905); A. Brückner,
+  _Fürst Golizin_ (Leipzig, 1887); S. Solovev, _History of Russia_
+  (Rus.), vols. xiii.-xiv. (Moscow, 1858, &c.).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GOLIUS or (GOHL), JACOBUS (1596-1667), Dutch Orientalist, was born at
+the Hague in 1596, and studied at the university of Leiden, where in
+Arabic and other Eastern languages he was the most distinguished pupil
+of Erpenius. In 1622 he accompanied the Dutch embassy to Morocco, and on
+his return he was chosen to succeed Erpenius (1624). In the following
+year he set out on a Syrian and Arabian tour from which he did not
+return until 1629. The remainder of his life was spent at Leiden where
+he held the chair of mathematics as well as that of Arabic. He died on
+the 28th of September 1667.
+
+  His most important work is the _Lexicon Arabico-Latinum_, fol.,
+  Leiden, 1653, which, based on the _Sihah_ of Al-Jauhari, was only
+  superseded by the corresponding work of Freytag. Among his earlier
+  publications may be mentioned editions of various Arabic texts
+  (_Proverbia quaedam Alis, imperatoris Muslemici, et Carmen
+  Tograipoëtae doctissimi, necnon dissertatio quaedam Aben Synae_, 1629;
+  and _Ahmedis Arabsiadae vitae et rerum gestarum Timuri, qui vulgo
+  Tamer, lanes dicitur, historia_, 1636). In 1656 he published a new
+  edition, with considerable additions, of the _Grammatica Arabica_ of
+  Erpenius. After his death, there was found among his papers a
+  _Dictionarium Persico-Latinum_ which was published, with additions, by
+  Edmund Castell in his _Lexicon heptaglotton_ (1669). Golius also
+  edited, translated and annotated the astronomical treatise of Alfragan
+  (_Muhammedis, filii Ketiri Ferganensis, qui vulgo Alfraganus dicitur,
+  elementa astronomica Arabice et Latine_, 1669).
+
+
+
+
+GOLLNOW, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania, on
+the right bank of the Ihna, 14 m. N.N.E. of Stettin, with which it has
+communication by rail and steamer. Pop. (1905) 8539. It possesses two
+Evangelical churches, a synagogue and some small manufactures. Gollnow
+was founded in 1190, and was raised to the rank of a town in 1268. It
+was for a time a Hanse town, and came into the possession of Prussia in
+1720, having belonged to Sweden since 1648.
+
+
+
+
+GOLOSH, or GALOSH (from the Fr. _galoche_, Low Lat. _calopedes_, a
+wooden shoe or clog; an adaptation of the Gr. [Greek: kalopodion], a
+diminutive formed of [Greek: kalon], wood, and [Greek: pous], foot),
+originally a wooden shoe or patten, or merely a wooden sole fastened to
+the foot by a strap or cord. In the middle ages "galosh" was a general
+term for a boot or shoe, particularly one with a wooden sole. In modern
+usage, it is an outer shoe worn in bad weather to protect the inner one,
+and keep the feet dry. Goloshes are now almost universally made of
+rubber, and in the United States they are known as "rubbers" simply, the
+word golosh being rarely if ever used. In the bootmakers' trade, a
+"golosh" is the piece of leather, of a make stronger than, or different
+from that of the "uppers," which runs around the bottom part of a boot
+or shoe, just above the sole.
+
+
+
+
+GOLOVIN, FEDOR ALEKSYEEVICH, COUNT (d. 1706), Russian statesman, learnt,
+like so many of his countrymen in later times, the business of a ruler
+in the Far East. During the regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the
+Great, he was sent to the Amur to defend the new Muscovite fortress of
+Albazin against the Chinese. In 1689 he concluded with the Celestial
+empire the treaty of Nerchinsk, by which the line of the Amur, as far as
+its tributary the Gorbitsa, was retroceded to China because of the
+impossibility of seriously defending it. In Peter's grand embassy to the
+West in 1697 Golovin occupied the second place immediately after Lefort.
+It was his chief duty to hire foreign sailors and obtain everything
+necessary for the construction and complete equipment of a fleet. On
+Lefort's death, in March 1699, he succeeded him as admiral-general. The
+same year he was created the first Russian count, and was also the first
+to be decorated with the newly-instituted Russian order of St Andrew.
+The conduct of foreign affairs was at the same time entrusted to him,
+and from 1699 to his death he was "the premier minister of the tsar."
+Golovin's first achievement as foreign minister was to supplement the
+treaty of Carlowitz, by which peace with Turkey had only been secured
+for three years, by concluding with the Porte a new treaty at
+Constantinople (June 13, 1700), by which the term of the peace was
+extended to thirty years and, besides other concessions, the Azov
+district and a strip of territory extending thence to Kuban were ceded
+to Russia. He also controlled, with consummate ability, the operations
+of the brand-new Russian diplomatists at the various foreign courts. His
+superiority over all his Muscovite contemporaries was due to the fact
+that he was already a statesman, in the modern sense, while they were
+still learning the elements of statesmanship. His death was an
+irreparable loss to the tsar, who wrote upon the despatch announcing it,
+the words "Peter filled with grief."
+
+  See R. N. Bain, _The First Romanovs_ (London, 1905).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GOLOVKIN, GAVRIIL IVANOVICH, COUNT (1660-1734), Russian statesman, was
+attached (1677), while still a lad, to the court of the tsarevitch
+Peter, afterwards Peter the Great, with whose mother Natalia he was
+connected, and vigilantly guarded him during the disquieting period of
+the regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the Great (1682-1689). He
+accompanied the young tsar abroad on his first foreign tour, and worked
+by his side in the dockyards of Saardam. In 1706 he succeeded Golovin in
+the direction of foreign affairs, and was created the first Russian
+grand-chancellor on the field of Poltava (1709). Golovkin held this
+office for twenty-five years. In the reign of Catherine I. he became a
+member of the supreme privy council which had the chief conduct of
+affairs during this and the succeeding reigns. The empress also
+entrusted him with her last will whereby she appointed the young Peter
+II. her successor and Golovkin one of his guardians. On the death of
+Peter II. in 1730 he declared openly in favour of Anne, duchess of
+Courland, in opposition to the aristocratic Dolgorukis and Golitsuins,
+and his determined attitude on behalf of autocracy was the chief cause
+of the failure of the proposed constitution, which would have converted
+Russia into a limited monarchy. Under Anne he was a member of the first
+cabinet formed in Russia, but had less influence in affairs than
+Ostermann and Münnich. In 1707 he was created a count of the Holy Roman
+empire, and in 1710 a count of the Russian empire. He was one of the
+wealthiest, and at the same time one of the stingiest, magnates of his
+day. His ignorance of any language but his own made his intercourse with
+foreign ministers very inconvenient.
+
+  See R. N. Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London, 1897).
+       (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GOLOVNIN, VASILY MIKHAILOVICH (1776-1831), Russian vice-admiral, was
+born on the 20th of April 1776 in the village of Gulynki in the province
+of Ryazan, and received his education at the Cronstadt naval school.
+From 1801 to 1806 he served as a volunteer in the English navy. In 1807
+he was commissioned by the Russian government to survey the coasts of
+Kamchatka and of Russian America, including also the Kurile Islands.
+Golovnin sailed round the Cape of Good Hope, and on the 5th of October
+1809, arrived in Kamchatka. In 1810, whilst attempting to survey the
+coast of the island of Kunashiri, he was seized by the Japanese, and was
+retained by them as a prisoner, until the 13th of October 1813, when he
+was liberated, and in the following year he returned to St Petersburg.
+Soon after this the government planned another expedition, which had for
+its object the circumnavigation of the globe by a Russian ship, and
+Golovnin was appointed to the command. He started from St Petersburg on
+the 7th of September 1817, sailed round Cape Horn, and arrived in
+Kamchatka in the following May. He returned to Europe by way of the Cape
+of Good Hope, and landed at St Petersburg on the 17th of September 1819.
+He died on the 12th of July 1831.
+
+  Golovnin published several works, of which the following are the most
+  important:--_Journey to Kamchatka_ (2 vols., 1819); _Journey Round the
+  World_ (2 vols., 1822); and _Narrative of my Captivity in Japan,
+  1811-1813_ (2 vols., 1816). The last has been translated into French,
+  German and English, the English edition being in three volumes (1824).
+  A complete edition of his works was published at St Petersburg in five
+  volumes in 1864, with maps and charts, and a biography of the author
+  by N. Grech.
+
+
+
+
+GOLTZ, BOGUMIL (1801-1870), German humorist and satirist, was born at
+Warsaw on the 20th of March 1801. After attending the classical schools
+of Marienwerder and Königsberg, he learnt farming on an estate near
+Thorn, and in 1821 entered the university of Breslau as a student of
+philosophy. But he soon abandoned an academical career, and, after
+returning for a while to country life, retired to the small town of
+Gollub, where he devoted himself to literary studies. In 1847 he settled
+at Thorn, "the home of Copernicus," where he died on the 12th of
+November 1870. Goltz is best known to literary fame by his _Buch der
+Kindheit_ (Frankfort, 1847; 4th ed., Berlin, 1877), in which, after the
+style of Jean Paul, and Adalbert Stifter, but with a more modern
+realism, he gives a charming and idyllic description of the impressions
+of his own childhood. Among his other works must be noted _Ein
+Jugendleben_ (1852); _Der Mensch und die Leute_ (1858); _Zur
+Charakteristik und Naturgeschichte der Frauen_ (1859); _Zur Geschichte
+und Charakteristik des deutschen Genius_ (1864), and _Die Weltklugheit
+und die Lebensweisheit_ (1869).
+
+  Goltz's works have not been collected, but a selection will be found
+  in Reclam's _Universalbibliothek_ (ed. by P. Stein, 1901 and 1906).
+  See O. Roquette, _Siebzig Jahre_, i. (1894).
+
+
+
+
+GOLTZ, COLMAR, FREIHERR VON DER (1843-   ), Prussian soldier and
+military writer, was born at Bielkenfeld, East Prussia, on the 12th of
+August 1843, and entered the Prussian infantry in 1861. In 1864 he
+entered the Berlin Military Academy, but was temporarily withdrawn in
+1866 to serve in the Austrian war, in which he was wounded at Trautenau.
+In 1867 he joined the topographical section of the general staff, and at
+the beginning of the Franco-German War of 1870-71 was attached to the
+staff of Prince Frederick Charles. He took part in the battles of
+Vionville and Gravelotte and in the siege of Metz. After its fall he
+served under the Red Prince in the campaign of the Loire, including the
+battles of Orleans and Le Mans. He was appointed in 1871 professor at
+the military school at Potsdam, and the same year was promoted captain
+and placed in the historical section of the general staff. It was then
+he wrote _Die Operationen der II. Armee bis zur Capitulation von Metz_
+and _Die Sieben Tage von Le Mans_, both published in 1873. In 1874 he
+was appointed to the staff of the 6th division, and while so employed
+wrote _Die Operationen der II. Armee an der Loire and Léon Gambetta und
+seine Armeen_, published in 1875 and 1877 respectively. The latter was
+translated into French the same year, and both are impartially written.
+The views expressed in the latter work led to his being sent back to
+regimental duty for a time, but it was not long before he returned to
+the military history section. In 1878 von der Goltz was appointed
+lecturer in military history at the military academy at Berlin, where he
+remained for five years and attained the rank of major. He published, in
+1883, _Rossbach und Jena_ (new and revised edition, _Von Rossbach bis
+Jena und Auerstädt_, 1906), _Das Volk in Waffen_ (English translation
+_The Nation in Arms_), both of which quickly became military classics,
+and during his residence in Berlin contributed many articles to the
+military journals. In June 1883 his services were lent to Turkey to
+reorganize the military establishments of the country. He spent twelve
+years in this work, the result of which appeared in the Greco-Turkish
+War of 1897, and he was made a pasha and in 1895 a _mushir_ or
+field-marshal. On his return to Germany in 1896 he became a
+lieutenant-general and commander of the 5th division, and in 1898, head
+of the Engineer and Pioneer Corps and inspector-general of
+fortifications. In 1900 he was made general of infantry and in 1902
+commander of the I. army corps. In 1907 he was made inspector-general of
+the newly created sixth army inspection established at Berlin, and in
+1908 was given the rank of colonel-general (_Generaloberst_).
+
+  In addition to the works already named and frequent contributions to
+  military periodical literature, he wrote _Kriegführung_ (1895, later
+  edition _Krieg- und Heerführung_, 1901; Eng. trans. _The Conduct of
+  War_); _Der thessalische Krieg_ (Berlin, 1898); _Ein Ausflug nach
+  Macedonien_ (1894); _Anatolische Ausflüge_ (1896); a map and
+  description of the environs of Constantinople; _Von Jena bis Pr.
+  Eylau_ (1907), a most important historical work, carrying on the story
+  of _Rossbach und Jena_ to the peace of Tilsit, &c.
+
+
+
+
+GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK (1558-1617), Dutch painter and engraver, was born in
+1558 at Mülebrecht, in the duchy of Jülich. After studying painting on
+glass for some years under his father, he was taught the use of the
+burin by Dirk Volkertsz Coornhert, a Dutch engraver of mediocre
+attainment, whom he soon surpassed, but who retained his services for
+his own advantage. He was also employed by Philip Galle to engrave a set
+of prints of the history of Lucretia. At the age of twenty-one he
+married a widow somewhat advanced in years, whose money enabled him to
+establish at Haarlem an independent business; but his unpleasant
+relations with her so affected his health that he found it advisable in
+1590 to make a tour through Germany to Italy, where he acquired an
+intense admiration for the works of Michelangelo, which led him to
+surpass that master in the grotesqueness and extravagance of his
+designs. He returned to Haarlem considerably improved in health, and
+laboured there at his art till his death, on the 1st of January 1617.
+Goltzius ought not to be judged chiefly by the works he valued most, his
+eccentric imitations of Michelangelo. His portraits, though mostly
+miniatures, are master-pieces of their kind, both on account of their
+exquisite finish, and as fine studies of individual character. Of his
+larger heads, the life-size portrait of himself is probably the most
+striking example. His "master-pieces," so called from their being
+attempts to imitate the style of the old masters, have perhaps been
+overpraised. In his command of the burin Goltzius is not surpassed even
+by Dürer; but his technical skill is often unequally aided by higher
+artistic qualities. Even, however, his eccentricities and extravagances
+are greatly counterbalanced by the beauty and freedom of his execution.
+He began painting at the age of forty-two, but none of his works in this
+branch of art--some of which are in the imperial collection at
+Vienna--display any special excellences. He also executed a few pieces
+in chiaroscuro.
+
+  His prints amount to more than 300 plates, and are fully described in
+  Bartsch's _Peintre-graveur_, and Weigel's supplement to the same work.
+
+
+
+
+GOLUCHOWSKI, AGENOR, COUNT (1849-   ), Austrian statesman, was born on
+the 25th of March 1849. His father, descended from an old and noble
+Polish family, was governor of Galicia. Entering the diplomatic service,
+the son was in 1872 appointed attaché to the Austrian embassy at Berlin,
+where he became secretary of legation, and thence he was transferred to
+Paris. After rising to the rank of counsellor of legation, he was in
+1887 made minister at Bucharest, where he remained till 1893. In these
+positions he acquired a great reputation as a firm and skilful
+diplomatist, and on the retirement of Count Kalnoky in May 1895 was
+chosen to succeed him as Austro-Hungarian minister for foreign affairs.
+The appointment of a Pole caused some surprise in view of the importance
+of Austrian relations with Russia (then rather strained) and Germany,
+but the choice was justified by events. In his speech of that year to
+the delegations he declared the maintenance of the Triple Alliance, and
+in particular the closest intimacy with Germany, to be the keystone of
+Austrian policy; at the same time he dwelt on the traditional friendship
+between Austria and Great Britain, and expressed his desire for a good
+understanding with all the powers. In pursuance of this policy he
+effected an understanding with Russia, by which neither power was to
+exert any separate influence in the Balkan peninsula, and thus removed a
+long-standing cause of friction. This understanding was formally
+ratified during a visit to St Petersburg on which he accompanied the
+emperor in April 1897. He took the lead in establishing the European
+concert during the Armenian troubles of 1896, and again resisted
+isolated action on the part of any of the great powers during the Cretan
+troubles and the Greco-Turkish War. In November 1897, when the
+Austro-Hungarian flag was insulted at Mersina, he threatened to bombard
+the town if instant reparation were not made, and by his firm attitude
+greatly enhanced Austrian prestige in the East. In his speech to the
+delegations in 1898 he dwelt on the necessity of expanding Austria's
+mercantile marine, and of raising the fleet to a strength which, while
+not vying with the fleets of the great naval powers, would ensure
+respect for the Austrian flag wherever her interests needed protection.
+He also hinted at the necessity for European combination to resist
+American competition. The understanding with Russia in the matter of the
+Balkan States temporarily endangered friendly relations with Italy, who
+thought her interests threatened, until Goluchowski guaranteed in 1898
+the existing order. He further encouraged a good understanding with
+Italy by personal conferences with the Italian foreign minister,
+Tittoni, in 1904 and 1905. Count Lamsdorff visited Vienna in December
+1902, when arrangements were made for concerted action in imposing on
+the sultan reforms in the government of Macedonia. Further steps were
+taken after Goluchowski's interview with the tsar at Mürzsteg in 1903,
+and two civil agents representing the countries were appointed for two
+years to ensure the execution of the promised reforms. This period was
+extended in 1905, when Goluchowski was the chief mover in forcing the
+Porte, by an international naval demonstration at Mitylene, to accept
+financial control by the powers in Macedonia. At the conference
+assembled at Algeciras to settle the Morocco Question, Austria supported
+the German position, and after the close of the conferences the emperor
+William II. telegraphed to Goluchowski: "You have proved yourself a
+brilliant second on the duelling ground and you may feel certain of like
+services from me in similar circumstances." This pledge was redeemed in
+1908, when Germany's support of Austria in the Balkan crisis proved
+conclusive. By the Hungarians, however, Goluchowski was hated; he was
+suspected of having inspired the emperor's opposition to the use of
+Magyar in the Hungarian army, and was made responsible for the slight
+offered to the Magyar deputation by Francis Joseph in September 1905. So
+long as he remained in office there was no hope of arriving at a
+settlement of a matter which threatened the disruption of the Dual
+monarchy, and on the 11th of October 1906 he was forced to resign.
+
+
+
+
+GOMAL, or GUMAL, the name of a river of Afghanistan, and of a mountain
+pass on the Dera Ismail Khan border of the North-West Frontier Province
+of British India. The Gomal river, one of the most important rivers in
+Afghanistan, rises in the unexplored regions to the south-east of
+Ghazni. Its chief tributary is the Zhob. Within the limits of British
+territory the Gomal forms the boundary between the North-West Frontier
+Province and Baluchistan, and more or less between the Pathan and Baluch
+races. The Gomal pass is the most important pass on the Indian frontier
+between the Khyber and the Bolan. It connects Dera Ismail Khan with the
+Gomal valley in Afghanistan, and has formed for centuries the outlet for
+the povindah trade. Until the year 1889 this pass was almost unknown to
+the Anglo-Indian official; but in that year the government of India
+decided that, in order to maintain the safety of the railway as well as
+to perfect communication between Quetta and the Punjab, the Zhob valley
+should, like the Bori valley, be brought under British protection and
+control, and the Gomal pass should be opened. After the Waziristan
+expedition of 1894 Wana was occupied by British troops in order to
+dominate the Gomal and Waziristan; but on the formation of the
+North-West Frontier Province in 1901 it was decided to replace these
+troops by the South Waziristan militia, who now secure the safety of the
+pass.
+
+
+
+
+GOMARUS, FRANZ (1563-1641), Dutch theologian, was born at Bruges on the
+30th of January 1563. His parents, having embraced the principles of the
+Reformation, emigrated to the Palatinate in 1578, in order to enjoy
+freedom to profess their new faith, and they sent their son to be
+educated at Strassburg under Johann Sturm (1507-1589). He remained there
+three years, and then went in 1580 to Neustadt, whither the professors
+of Heidelberg had been driven by the elector-palatine because they were
+not Lutherans. Here his teachers in theology were Zacharius Ursinus
+(1534-1583), Hieronymus Zanchius (1560-1590), and Daniel Tossanus
+(1541-1602). Crossing to England towards the end of 1582, he attended
+the lectures of John Rainolds (1549-1607) at Oxford, and those of
+William Whitaker (1548-1595) at Cambridge. He graduated at Cambridge in
+1584, and then went to Heidelberg, where the faculty had been by this
+time re-established. He was pastor of a Reformed Dutch church in
+Frankfort from 1587 till 1593, when the congregation was dispersed by
+persecution. In 1594 he was appointed professor of theology at Leiden,
+and before going thither received from the university of Heidelberg the
+degree of doctor. He taught quietly at Leiden till 1603, when Jakobus
+Arminius came to be one of his colleagues in the theological faculty,
+and began to teach Pelagian doctrines and to create a new party in the
+university. Gomarus immediately set himself earnestly to oppose these
+views in his classes at college, and was supported by Johann B.
+Bogermann (1570-1637), who afterwards became professor of theology at
+Franeker. Arminius "sought to make election dependent upon faith, whilst
+they sought to enforce absolute predestination as the rule of faith,
+according to which the whole Scriptures are to be interpreted" (J. A.
+Dorner, _History of Protestant Theology_, i. p. 417). Gomarus then
+became the leader of the opponents of Arminius, who from that
+circumstance came to be known as Gomarists. He engaged twice in personal
+disputation with Arminius in the assembly of the estates of Holland in
+1608, and was one of five Gomarists who met five Arminians or
+Remonstrants in the same assembly of 1609. On the death of Arminius
+shortly after this time, Konrad Vorstius (1569-1622), who sympathized
+with his views, was appointed to succeed him, in spite of the keen
+opposition of Gomarus and his friends; and Gomarus took his defeat so
+ill that he resigned his post, and went to Middleburg in 1611, where he
+became preacher at the Reformed church, and taught theology and Hebrew
+in the newly founded _Illustre Schule_. From this place he was called in
+1614 to a chair of theology at Saumur, where he remained four years, and
+then accepted a call as professor of theology and Hebrew to Groningen,
+where he stayed till his death on the 11th of January 1641. He took a
+leading part in the synod of Dort, assembled in 1618 to judge of the
+doctrines of Arminius. He was a man of ability, enthusiasm and learning,
+a considerable Oriental scholar, and also a keen controversialist. He
+took part in revising the Dutch translation of the Old Testament in
+1633, and after his death a book by him, called the _Lyra Davidis_, was
+published, which sought to explain the principles of Hebrew metre, and
+which created some controversy at the time, having been opposed by Louis
+Cappel. His works were collected and published in one volume folio, in
+Amsterdam in 1645. He was succeeded at Groningen in 1643 by his pupil
+Samuel Maresius (1599-1673).
+
+
+
+
+GOMBERVILLE, MARIN LE ROY, SIEUR DU PARC ET DE (1600-1674), French
+novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born at Paris in 1600. At
+fourteen years of age he wrote a volume of verse, at twenty a _Discours
+sur l'histoire_ and at twenty-two a pastoral, _La Carithée_, which is
+really a novel. The persons in it, though still disguised as shepherds
+and shepherdesses, represent real persons for whose identification the
+author himself provides a key. This was followed by a more ambitious
+attempt, _Polexandre_ (5 vols. 1632-1637). The hero wanders through the
+world in search of the island home of the princess Alcidiane. It
+contains much history and geography; the travels of Polexandre extending
+to such unexpected places as Benin, the Canary Islands, Mexico and the
+Antilles, and incidentally we learn all that was then known of Mexican
+history. _Cythérée_ (4 vols.) appeared in 1630-1642, and in 1651 the
+_Jeune Alcidiane_, intended to undo any harm the earlier novels may have
+done, for Gomberville became a Jansenist and spent the last twenty-five
+years of his life in pious retirement. He was one of the earliest and
+most energetic members of the Academy. He died in Paris on the 14th of
+June 1674.
+
+
+
+
+GOMER, the biblical name of a race appearing in the table of nations
+(Gen. x. 2), as the "eldest son" of Japheth and the "father" of
+Ashkenaz, Riphath and Togarmah; and in Ezek. xxxviii. 6 as a companion
+of "the house of Togarmah in the uttermost parts of the north," and an
+ally of Gog; both Gomer and Togarmah being credited with "hordes,"[1]
+E.V., i.e. "bands" or "armies." The "sons" of Gomer are probably tribes
+of north-east Asia Minor and Armenia, and Gomer is identified with the
+Cimmerians. These are referred to in cuneiform inscriptions under the
+Assyrian name _gimmira_ (_gimirrai_) as raiding Asia Minor from the
+north and north-east of the Black Sea, and overrunning Lydia in the 7th
+century B.C. (see CIMMERII, SCYTHIA, LYDIA). They do not seem to have
+made any permanent settlements, unless some such are indicated by the
+fact that the Armenians called Cappadocia _Gamir_. It is, however,
+suggested that this name is borrowed from the Old Testament.[2]
+
+  The name Gomer (Gomer bath Diblaim) was also borne by the unfaithful
+  wife of Hosea, whom he pardoned and took back (Hosea i. 3). Hosea uses
+  these incidents as symbolic of the sin, punishment and redemption of
+  Israel, but there is no need to regard Gomer as a purely imaginary
+  person.     (W. H. Be.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] [Hebrew: agaf] _Agaph_, a word peculiar to Ezekiel, Clarendon
+    Press _Heb. Lex._
+
+  [2] A. Jeremias, _Das A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients_, pp. 145 f.
+
+
+
+
+GOMERA, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part of the Spanish
+archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 15,358; area 144
+sq. m. Gomera lies 20 m. W.S.W. of Teneriffe. Its greatest length is
+about 23 m. The coast is precipitous and the interior mountainous, but
+Gomera has the most wood and is the best watered of the group. The
+inhabitants are very poor. Dromedaries are bred on Gomera in large
+numbers. San Sebastian (3187) is the chief town and a port. It was
+visited by Columbus on his first voyage of discovery in 1492.
+
+
+
+
+GOMEZ, DIOGO (DIEGO) (fl. 1440-1482), Portuguese seaman, explorer and
+writer. We first trace him as a _cavalleiro_ of the royal household; in
+1440 he was appointed receiver of the royal customs--in 1466 judge--at
+Cintra (_juiz das causas e feitorias contadas de Cintra_); on the 5th of
+March 1482 he was confirmed in the last-named office. He wrote,
+especially for the benefit of Martin Behaim, a Latin chronicle of great
+value, dealing with the life and discoveries of Prince Henry the
+Navigator, and divided into three parts: (1) _De prima inventione
+Guineae_; (2) _De insulis primo inventis in mare (sic) Occidentis_; (3)
+_De inventione insularum de Açores_. This chronicle contains the only
+contemporary account of the rediscovery of the Azores by the Portuguese
+in Prince Henry's service, and is also noteworthy for its clear
+ascription to the prince of deliberate scientific and commercial purpose
+in exploration. For, on the one hand, the infante sent out his caravels
+to search for new lands (_ad quaerendas terras_) from his wish to know
+the more distant parts of the western ocean, and in the hope of finding
+islands or _terra firma_ beyond the limits laid down by Ptolemy (_ultra
+descriptionem Tolomei_); on the other hand, his information as to the
+native trade from Tunis to Timbuktu and the Gambia helped to inspire his
+persistent exploration of the West African coast--"to seek those lands
+by way of the sea." Chart and quadrant were used on the prince's
+vessels, as by Gomez himself on reaching the Cape Verde Islands; Henry,
+at the time of Diogo's first voyage, was in correspondence with an Oran
+merchant who kept him informed upon events even in the Gambia
+_hinterland_; and, before the discovery of the Senegal and Cape Verde in
+1445, Gomez' royal patron had already gained reliable information of
+_some_ route to Timbuktu. In the first part of his chronicle Gomez tells
+how, no long time after the disastrous expedition of the Danish nobleman
+"Vallarte" (Adalbert) in 1448, he was sent out in command of three
+vessels along the West African coast, accompanied by one Jacob, an
+Indian interpreter, to be employed in the event of reaching India. After
+passing the Rio Grande, beyond Cape Verde, strong currents checked his
+course; his officers and men feared that they were approaching the
+extremity of the ocean, and he put back to the Gambia. He ascended this
+river a considerable distance, to the negro town of "Cantor," whither
+natives came from "Kukia" and Timbuktu for trade; he gives elaborate
+descriptions of the negro world he had now penetrated, refers to the
+Sierra Leone ("Serra Lyoa") Mountains, sketches the course of this
+range, and says much of Kukia (in the upper Niger basin?), the centre of
+the West African gold trade, and the resort of merchants and caravans
+from Tunis, Fez, Cairo and "all the land of the Saracens." Mahommedanism
+was already dominant at the Cambria estuary, but Gomez seems to have won
+over at least one important chief, with his court, to Christianity and
+Portuguese allegiance. Another African voyage, apparently made in 1462,
+two years after Henry the Navigator's death (though assigned by some to
+1460), resulted in a fresh discovery of the Cape Verde Islands, already
+found by Cadamosto (q.v.). To the island of Santiago Gomez, like his
+Venetian forerunner, claims to have given its present name. His
+narrative is a leading authority on the last illness and death of Prince
+Henry, as well as on the life, achievements and purposes of the latter;
+here alone is recorded what appears to have been the earliest of the
+navigator's exploring ventures, that which under João de Trasto reached
+Grand Canary in 1415.
+
+  Of Gomez' chronicle there is only one MS., viz. _Cod. Hisp._ 27, in
+  the Hof- und Staats-Bibliothek, Munich; the original Latin text was
+  printed by Schmeller "Über Valentim Fernandez Alemão" in the
+  _Abhandlungen der philosoph.-philolog. Kl. der bayerisch. Akademie der
+  Wissenschaften_, vol. iv., part iii. (Munich, 1847); see also Sophus
+  Ruge, "Die Entdeckung der Azoren," pp. 149-180 (esp. 178-179) in the
+  27th _Jahresbericht des Vereins für Erdkunde_ (Dresden, 1901); Jules
+  Mees, _Histoire de la découverte des îles Açores_, pp. 44-45, 125-127
+  (Ghent, 1901); R. H. Major, _Life of Prince Henry the Navigator_, pp.
+  xviii., xix., 64-65, 287-299, 303-305 (London, 1868); C. R. Beazley,
+  _Prince Henry the Navigator_, 289-298, 304-305; and Introduction to
+  Azurara's _Discovery and Conquest of Guinea_, ii., iv., xiv.,
+  xxv.-xxvii., xcii.-xcvi. (London, 1899).     (C. R. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA, GERTRUDIS (1814-1873), Spanish dramatist and poet,
+was born at Puerto Príncipe (Cuba) on the 23rd of March 1814, and
+removed to Spain in 1836. Her _Poesías líricas_ (1841), issued with a
+laudatory preface by Gallego, made a most favourable impression and were
+republished with additional poems in 1850. In 1846 she married a
+diplomatist named Pedro Sabater, became a widow within a year, and in
+1853 married Colonel Domingo Verdugo. Meanwhile she had published _Sab_
+(1839), _Guatimozín_ (1846), and other novels of no great importance.
+She obtained, however, a series of successes on the stage with _Alfonso
+Munio_ (1844), a tragedy in the new romantic manner; with _Saúl_ (1849),
+a biblical drama indirectly suggested by Alfieri; and with _Baltasar_
+(1858), a piece which bears some resemblance to Byron's _Sardanapalus_.
+Her commerce with the world had not diminished her natural piety, and,
+on the death of her second husband, she found so much consolation in
+religion that she had thoughts of entering a convent. She died at Madrid
+on the 2nd of February 1873, full of mournful forebodings as to the
+future of her adopted country. It is impossible to agree with Villemain
+that "le génie de don Luis de Léon et de sainte Thérèse a reparu sous le
+voile funèbre de Gomez de Avellaneda," for she has neither the monk's
+mastery of poetic form nor the nun's sublime simplicity of soul. She has
+a grandiose tragical vision of life, a vigorous eloquence rooted in
+pietistic pessimism, a dramatic gift effective in isolated acts or
+scenes; but she is deficient in constructive power and in intellectual
+force, and her lyrics, though instinct with melancholy beauty, or the
+tenderness of resigned devotion, too often lack human passion and
+sympathy. The edition of her _Obras literarias_ (5 vols., 1869-1871),
+still incomplete, shows a scrupulous care for minute revision uncommon
+in Spanish writers; but her emendations are seldom happy. But she is
+interesting as a link between the classic and romantic schools of
+poetry, and, whatever her artistic shortcomings, she has no rivals of
+her own sex in Spain during the 19th century.
+
+
+
+
+GOMM, SIR WILLIAM MAYNARD (1784-1875), British soldier, was gazetted to
+the 9th Foot at the age of ten, in recognition of the services of his
+father, Lieut.-Colonel William Gomm, who was killed in the attack on
+Guadaloupe (1794). He joined his regiment as a lieutenant in 1799, and
+fought in Holland under the duke of York, and subsequently was with
+Pulteney's Ferrol expedition. In 1803 he became Captain, and shortly
+afterwards qualified as a staff officer at the High Wycombe military
+college. On the general staff he was with Cathcart at Copenhagen, with
+Wellington in the Peninsula, and on Moore's staff at Corunna. He was
+also on Chatham's staff in the disastrous Walcheren expedition of 1809.
+In 1810 he rejoined the Peninsular army as Leith's staff officer, and
+took part in all the battles of 1810, 1811 and 1812, winning his
+majority after Fuentes d'Onor and his lieutenant-colonelcy at Salamanca.
+His careful reconnaissances and skilful leading were invaluable to
+Wellington in the Vittoria campaign, and to the end of the war he was
+one of the most trusted men of his staff. His reward was a transfer to
+the Coldstream Guards and the K.C.B. In the Waterloo campaign he served
+on the staff of the 5th British Division. From the peace until 1839 he
+was employed on home service, becoming colonel in 1829 and major-general
+in 1837. From 1839 to 1842 he commanded the troops in Jamaica. He became
+lieutenant-general in 1846, and was sent out to be commander-in-chief in
+India, arriving only to find that his appointment had been cancelled in
+favour of Sir Charles Napier, whom, however, he eventually succeeded
+(1850-1855). In 1854 he became general and in 1868 field marshal. In
+1872 he was appointed constable of the Tower, and he died in 1875. He
+was twice married, but had no children. His _Letters and Journals_ were
+published by F. C. Carr-Gomm in 1881. Five "Field Marshal Gomm"
+scholarships were afterwards founded in his memory at Keble College,
+Oxford.
+
+
+
+
+GOMPERS, SAMUEL (1850-   ), American labour leader, was born in London
+on the 27th of January 1850. He was put to work in a shoe-factory when
+ten years old, but soon became apprenticed to a cigar-maker, removed to
+New York in 1863, became a prominent member of the International
+Cigar-makers' Union, was its delegate at the convention of the
+Federation of Organized Trade and Labor Unions of the United States and
+Canada, later known as the American Federation of Labor, of which he
+became first president in 1882. He was successively re-elected up to
+1895, when the opposition of the Socialist Labor Party, then attempting
+to incorporate the Federation into itself, secured his defeat; he was
+re-elected in the following year. In 1894 he became editor of the
+Federation's organ, _The American Federationist_.
+
+
+
+
+GOMPERZ, THEODOR (1832-   ), German philosopher and classical scholar,
+was born at Brünn on the 29th of March 1832. He studied at Brünn and at
+Vienna under Herman Bonitz. Graduating at Vienna in 1867 he became
+_Privatdozent_, and subsequently professor of classical philology
+(1873). In 1882 he was elected a member of the Academy of Science. He
+received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy _honoris causa_ from the
+university of Königsberg, and Doctor of Literature from the universities
+of Dublin and Cambridge, and became correspondent for several learned
+societies. His principal works are: _Demosthenes der Staatsmann_ (1864),
+_Philodemi de ira liber_ (1864). _Traumdeutung und Zauberei_ (1866),
+_Herkulanische Studien_ (1865-1866), _Beiträge zur Kritik und Erklärung
+griech. Schriftsteller_ (7 vols., 1875-1900), _Neue Bruchstücke Epikurs_
+(1876), _Die Bruchstücke der griech. Tragiker und Cobets neueste
+kritische Manier_ (1878), _Herodoteische Studien_ (1883), _Ein bisher
+unbekanntes griech. Schriftsystem_ (1884), _Zu Philodems Büchern von der
+Musik_ (1885), _Über den Abschluss des herodoteischen Geschichtswerkes_
+(1886), _Platonische Aufsätze_ (3 vols., 1887-1905), _Zu Heraklits Lehre
+und den Überresten seines Werkes_ (1887), _Zu Aristoteles' Poëtik_ (2
+parts, 1888-1896), _Über die Charaktere Theophrasts_ (1888), _Nachlese
+zu den Bruchstücken der griech. Tragiker_ (1888), _Die Apologie der
+Heilkunst_ (1890), _Philodem und die ästhetischen Schriften der
+herculanischen Bibliothek_ (1891), _Die Schrift vom Staatswesen der
+Athener_ (1891), _Die jüngst entdeckten Überreste einer den Platonischen
+Phädon enthaltenden Papyrusrolle_ (1892), _Aus der Hekale des
+Kallimachos_ (1893), _Essays und Erinnerungen_ (1905). He supervised a
+translation of J. S. Mill's complete works (12 vols., Leipzig,
+1869-1880), and wrote a life (Vienna, 1889) of Mill. His _Griechische
+Denker_: _Geschichte der antiken Philosophie_ (vols. i. and ii.,
+Leipzig, 1893 and 1902) was translated into English by L. Magnus (vol.
+i., 1901).
+
+
+
+
+GONAGUAS ("borderers"), descendants of a very old cross between the
+Hottentots and the Kaffirs, on the "ethnical divide" between the two
+races, apparently before the arrival of the whites in South Africa. They
+have been always a despised race and regarded as outcasts by the Bantu
+peoples. They were threatened with extermination during the Kaffir wars,
+but were protected by the British. At present they live in settled
+communities under civil magistrates without any tribal organization, and
+in some districts could be scarcely distinguished from the other natives
+but for their broken Hottentot-Dutch-English speech.
+
+
+
+
+GONÇALVES DIAS, ANTONIO (1823-1864), Brazilian lyric poet, was born near
+the town of Caxias, in Maranhão. From the university of Coimbra, in
+Portugal, he returned in 1845 to his native province, well-equipped with
+legal lore, but the literary tendency which was strong within him led
+him to try his fortune as an author at Rio de Janeiro. Here he wrote for
+the newspaper press, ventured to appear as a dramatist, and in 1846
+established his reputation by a volume of poems--_Primeiros
+Cantos_--which appealed to the national feelings of his Brazilian
+readers, were remarkable for their autobiographic impress, and by their
+beauty of expression and rhythm placed their author at the head of the
+lyric poets of his country. In 1848 he followed up his success by
+_Segundos Cantos e sextilhas de Frei Antão_, in which, as the title
+indicates, he puts a number of the pieces in the mouth of a simple old
+Dominican friar; and in the following year, in fulfilment of the duties
+of his new post as professor of Brazilian history in the Imperial
+College of Pedro II. at Rio de Janeiro, he published an edition of
+Berredo's _Annaes historicos do Maranhão_ and added a sketch of the
+migrations of the Indian tribes. A third volume of poems, which appeared
+with the title of _Ultimos Cantos_ in 1851, was practically the poet's
+farewell to the service of the muse, for he spent the next eight years
+engaged under government patronage in studying the state of public
+instruction in the north and the educational institutions of Europe. On
+his return to Brazil in 1860 he was appointed a member of an expedition
+for the exploration of the province of Ceará, was forced in 1862 by the
+state of his health to try the effects of another visit to Europe, and
+died in September 1864, the vessel that was carrying him being wrecked
+off his native shores. While in Germany he published at Leipzig a
+complete collection of his lyrical poems, which went through several
+editions, the four first cantos of an epic poem called _Os Tymbiras_
+(1857) and a _Diccionario da lingua Tupy_ (1858).
+
+  A complete edition of the works of Dias has made its appearance at Rio
+  de Janeiro. See Wolf, _Brésil littéraire_ (Berlin, 1863); Innocencio
+  de Silva, _Diccionario bibliographico portuguez_, viii. 157; Sotero
+  dos Reis, _Curso de litteratura portugueza e brazileira_, iv.
+  (Maranhão, 1868); José Verissimo, _Estudos de literatura brazileira,
+  segunda serie_ (Rio, 1901).
+
+
+
+
+GONCHAROV, IVAN ALEXANDROVICH (1812-1891), Russian novelist, was born
+6/18 July 1812, being the son of a rich merchant in the town of
+Simbirsk. At the age of ten he was placed in one of the gymnasiums at
+Moscow, from which he passed, though not without some difficulty on
+account of his ignorance of Greek, into the Moscow University. He read
+many French works of fiction, and published a translation of one of the
+novels of Eugène Sue. During his university career he devoted himself to
+study, taking no interest in the political and Socialistic agitation
+among his fellow-students. He was first employed as secretary to the
+governor of Simbirsk, and afterwards in the ministry of finance at St
+Petersburg. Being absorbed in bureaucratic work, Goncharov paid no
+attention to the social questions then ardently discussed by such men as
+Herzen, Aksakov and Bielinski. He began his literary career by
+publishing translations from Schiller, Goethe and English novelists. His
+first original work was _Obuiknovennaya Istoria_, "A Common Story"
+(1847). In 1856 he sailed to Japan as secretary to Admiral Putiatin for
+the purpose of negotiating a commercial treaty, and on his return to
+Russia he published a description of the voyage under the title of "The
+Frigate _Pallada_." His best work is _Oblomov_ (1857), which exposed the
+laziness and apathy of the smaller landed gentry in Russia anterior to
+the reforms of Alexander II. Russian critics have pronounced this work
+to be a faithful characterization of Russia and the Russians. Dobrolubov
+said of it, "Oblomofka [the country-seat of the Oblomovs] is our
+fatherland: something of Oblomov is to be found in every one of us."
+Peesarev, another celebrated critic, declared that "Oblomovism," as
+Goncharov called the sum total of qualities with which he invested the
+hero of his story, "is an illness fostered by the nature of the Slavonic
+character and the life of Russian society." In 1858 Goncharov was
+appointed a censor, and in 1868 he published another novel called
+_Obreev_. He was not a voluminous writer, and during the latter part of
+his life produced nothing of any importance. His death occurred on 15/27
+September 1891.
+
+
+
+
+GONCOURT, DE, a name famous in French literary history. EDMOND LOUIS
+ANTOINE HUOT DE GONCOURT was born at Nancy on the 26th of May 1822, and
+died at Champrosay on the 16th of July 1896. JULES ALFRED HUOT DE
+GONCOURT, his brother, was born in Paris on the 17th of December 1830,
+and died in Paris on the 20th of June 1870.
+
+Writing always in collaboration, until the death of the younger, it was
+their ambition to be not merely novelists, inventing a new kind of
+novel, but historians; not merely historians, but the historians of a
+particular century, and of what was intimate and what is unknown in it;
+to be also discriminating, indeed innovating, critics of art, but of a
+certain section of art, the 18th century, in France and Japan; and also
+to collect pictures and bibelots, always of the French and Japanese 18th
+century. Their histories (_Portraits intimes du XVIII^e siècle_ (1857),
+_La Femme au XVIII^{e} siècle_ (1862), _La du Barry_ (1878), &c.) are
+made entirely out of documents, autograph letters, scraps of costume,
+engravings, songs, the unconscious self-revelations of the time; their
+three volumes on _L'Art du XVIII^e siècle_ (1859-1875) deal with Watteau
+and his followers in the same scrupulous, minutely enlightening way,
+with all the detail of unpublished documents; and when they came to
+write novels, it was with a similar attempt to give the inner,
+undiscovered, minute truths of contemporary existence, the _inédit_ of
+life. The same morbidly sensitive noting of the _inédit_, of whatever
+came to them from their own sensations of things and people around them,
+gives its curious quality to the nine volumes of the _Journal_,
+1887-1896, which will remain, perhaps, the truest and most poignant
+chapter of human history that they have written. Their novels, _Soeur
+Philomène_ (1861), _Renée Mauperin_ (1864), _Germinie Lacerteux_ (1865),
+_Manette Salomon_ (1865), _Madame Gervaisais_ (1869), and, by Edmond
+alone, _La Fille Elisa_ (1878), _Les Frères Zemganno_ (1879), _La
+Faustin_ (1882), _Chérie_ (1884), are, however, the work by which they
+will live as artists. Learning something from Flaubert, and teaching
+almost everything to Zola, they invented a new kind of novel, and their
+novels are the result of a new vision of the world, in which the very
+element of sight is decomposed, as in a picture of Monet. Seen through
+the nerves, in this conscious abandonment to the tricks of the eyesight,
+the world becomes a thing of broken patterns and conflicting colours,
+and uneasy movement. A novel of the Goncourts is made up of an infinite
+number of details, set side by side, every detail equally prominent.
+While a novel of Flaubert, for all its detail, gives above all things an
+impression of unity, a novel of the Goncourts deliberately dispenses
+with unity in order to give the sense of the passing of life, the heat
+and form of its moments as they pass. It is written in little chapters,
+sometimes no longer than a page, and each chapter is a separate notation
+of some significant event, some emotion or sensation which seems to
+throw sudden light on the picture of a soul. To the Goncourts humanity
+is as pictorial a thing as the world it moves in; they do not search
+further than "the physical basis of life," and they find everything that
+can be known of that unknown force written visibly upon the sudden faces
+of little incidents, little expressive moments. The soul, to them, is a
+series of moods, which succeed one another, certainly without any of the
+too arbitrary logic of the novelist who has conceived of character as a
+solid or consistent thing. Their novels are hardly stories at all, but
+picture-galleries, hung with pictures of the momentary aspects of the
+world. French critics have complained that the language of the Goncourts
+is no longer French, no longer the French of the past; and this is true.
+It is their distinction--the finest of their inventions--that, in order
+to render new sensations, a new vision of things, they invented a new
+language. (A. Sy.)
+
+  In his will Edmond de Goncourt left his estate for the endowment of an
+  academy, the formation of which was entrusted to MM. Alphonse Daudet
+  and Léon Hennique. The society was to consist of ten members, each of
+  whom was to receive an annuity of 6000 francs, and a yearly prize of
+  5000 francs was to be awarded to the author of some work of fiction.
+  Eight of the members of the new academy were nominated in the will.
+  They were: Alphonse Daudet, J. K. Huysmans, Léon Hennique, Octave
+  Mirbeau, the two brothers J. H. Rosny, Gustave Geffroy and Paul
+  Margueritte. On the 19th of January 1903, after much litigation, the
+  academy was constituted, with Elémir Bourges, Lucien Descaves and
+  Léon Daudet as members in addition to those mentioned in de Goncourt's
+  will, the place of Alphonse Daudet having been left vacant by his
+  death in 1897.
+
+  On the brothers de Goncourt see the _Journal des Goncourt_ already
+  cited; also M. A. Belloc (afterwards Lowndes) and M. L. Shedlock,
+  _Edmond and Jules de Goncourt, with Letters and Leaves from their
+  Journals_ (1895); Alidor Delzant, _Les Goncourt_ (1889) which contains
+  a valuable bibliography; _Lettres de Jules de Goncourt_ (1888), with
+  preface by H. Céard; R. Doumic, _Portraits d'écrivains_ (1892); Paul
+  Bourget, _Nouveaux Essais de psychologie contemporaine_ (1886); Émile
+  Zola, _Les Romanciers naturalistes_ (1881). &c.
+
+
+
+
+GONDA, a town and district of British India, in the Fyzabad division of
+the United Provinces. The town is 28 m. N.W. of Fyzabad, and is an
+important junction on the Bengal & North-Western railway. The site on
+which it stands was originally a jungle, in the centre of which was a
+cattle-fold (_Gontha_ or _Gothah_), where the cattle were enclosed at
+night as a protection against wild beasts, and from this the town
+derives its name. Pop. (1901) 15,811. The cantonments were abandoned in
+1863.
+
+The district of Gonda has an area of 2813 sq. m. It consists of a vast
+plain with very slight undulations, studded with groves of mango trees.
+The surface consists of a rich alluvial deposit which is naturally
+divided into three great belts known as the _tarai_ or swampy tract, the
+_uparhar_ or uplands, and the _tarhar_ or wet lowlands, all three being
+marvellously fertile. Several rivers flow through the district, but only
+two, the Gogra and Rapti, are of any commercial importance, the first
+being navigable throughout the year, and the latter during the rainy
+season. The country is dotted with small lakes, the water of which is
+largely used for irrigation. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857, the
+raja of Gonda, after honourably escorting the government treasure to
+Fyzabad, joined the rebels. His estates, along with those of the rani of
+Tulsipur, were confiscated, and conferred as rewards upon the maharajas
+of Balrampur and Ajodhya, who had remained loyal. In 1901 the population
+was 1,403,195, showing a decrease of 4% in one decade. The district is
+traversed by the main line and three branches of the Bengal &
+Northwestern railway.
+
+
+
+
+GONDAL, a native state of India, in the Kathiawar political agency of
+Bombay, situated in the centre of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Its area
+is 1024 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 162,859. The estimated gross revenue is
+about £100,000, and the tribute £7000. Grain and cotton are the chief
+products. The chief, whose title is Thakur Sahib, is a Jadeja Rajput, of
+the same clan as the Rao of Cutch. The Thakur Sahib, Sir Bhagvat Sinhji
+(b. 1865), was educated at the Rajkot college, and afterwards graduated
+in arts and medicine at the university of Edinburgh. He published (in
+English) a _Journal of a Visit to England_ and _A Short History of Aryan
+Medical Science_. In 1892 he received the honorary degree of D.C.L. of
+Oxford University. He was created K.C.I.E. in 1887 and G.C.I.E. in 1897.
+The state has long been conspicuous for its progressive administration.
+It is traversed by a railway connecting it with Bhaunagar, Rajkot and
+the sea-board. The town of Gondal is 23 m. by rail S. of Rajkot; pop.
+(1901) 19,592.
+
+
+
+
+GONDAR, properly GUENDAR, a town of Abyssinia, formerly the capital of
+the Amharic kingdom, situated on a basaltic ridge some 7500 ft. above
+the sea, about 21 m. N.E. of Lake Tsana, a splendid view of which is
+obtained from the castle. Two streams, the Angreb on the east side and
+the Gaha or Kaha on the west, flow from the ridge, and meeting below the
+town, pass onwards to the lake. In the early years of the 20th century
+the town was much decayed, numerous ruins of castles, palaces and
+churches indicating its former importance. It was never a compact city,
+being divided into districts separated from each other by open spaces.
+The chief quarters were those of the Abun-Bed or bishop, the Etchege-Bed
+or chief of the monks, the Debra Berhan or Church of the Light, and the
+Gemp or castle. There was also a quarter for the Mahommedans. Gondar was
+a small village when at the beginning of the 16th century it was chosen
+by the Negus Sysenius (Seged I.) as the capital of his kingdom. His son
+Fasilidas, or A'lem-Seged (1633-1667), was the builder of the castle
+which bears his name. Later emperors built other castles and palaces,
+the latest in date being that of the Negus Yesu II. This was erected
+about 1736, at which time Gondar appears to have been at the height of
+its prosperity. Thereafter it suffered greatly from the civil wars which
+raged in Abyssinia, and was more than once sacked. In 1868 it was much
+injured by the emperor Theodore, who did not spare either the castle or
+the churches. After the defeat of the Abyssinians at Debra Sin in August
+1887 Gondar was looted and fired by the dervishes under Abu Anga.
+Although they held the town but a short time they inflicted very great
+damage, destroying many churches, further damaging the castles and
+carrying off much treasure. The population, estimated by James Bruce in
+1770 at 10,000 families, had dwindled in 1905 to about 7000. Since the
+pacification of the Sudan by the British (1886-1889) there has been some
+revival of trade between Gondar and the regions of the Blue Nile. Among
+the inhabitants are numbers of Mahommedans, and there is a settlement of
+Falashas. Cotton, cloth, gold and silver ornaments, copper wares, fancy
+articles in bone and ivory, excellent saddles and shoes are among the
+products of the local industry.
+
+Unlike any other buildings in Abyssinia, the castles and palaces of
+Gondar resemble, with some modifications, the medieval fortresses of
+Europe, the style of architecture being the result of the presence in
+the country of numbers of Portuguese. The Portuguese were expelled by
+Fasilidas, but his castle was built, by Indian workmen, under the
+superintendence of Abyssinians who had learned something of architecture
+from the Portuguese adventurers, helped possibly by Portuguese still in
+the country. The castle has two storeys, is 90 ft. by 84 ft., has a
+square tower and circular domed towers at the corners. The most
+extensive ruins are a group of royal buildings enclosed in a wall. These
+ruins include the palace of Yesu II., which has several fine chambers.
+Christian Levantines were employed in its construction and it was
+decorated in part with Venetian mirrors, &c. In the same enclosure is a
+small castle attributed to Yesu I. The exterior walls of the castles and
+palaces named are little damaged and give to Gondar a unique character
+among African towns. Of the forty-four churches, all in the circular
+Abyssinian style, which are said to have formerly existed in Gondar or
+its immediate neighbourhood, Major Powell-Cotton found only one intact
+in 1900. This church contained some well-executed native paintings of St
+George and the Dragon, The Last Supper, &c. Among the religious
+observances of the Christians of Gondar is that of bathing in large
+crowds in the Gaha on the Feast of the Baptist, and again, though in
+more orderly fashion, on Christmas day.
+
+  See E. Rüppell, _Reise in Abyssinien_ (Frankfort-on-the-Main,
+  1838-1840); T. von Heuglin, _Reise nach Abessinien_ (Jena, 1868); G.
+  Lejean, _Voyage en Abyssinie_ (Paris, 1872); Achille Raffray, _Afrique
+  orientale; Abyssinie_ (Paris, 1876); P. H. G. Powell-Cotton, _A
+  Sporting Trip through Abyssinia_, chaps. 27-30 (London, 1902); and
+  _Boll. Soc. Geog. Italiana_ for 1909. Views of the castle are given by
+  Heuglin, Raffray and Powell-Cotton.
+
+
+
+
+GONDOKORO, a government station and trading-place on the east bank of
+the upper Nile, in 4° 54' N., 31° 43' E. It is the headquarters of the
+Northern Province of the (British) Uganda protectorate, is 1070 m. by
+river S. of Khartum and 350 m. N.N.W. in a direct line of Entebbe on
+Victoria Nyanza. The station, which is very unhealthy, is at the top of
+a cliff 25 ft. above the river-level. Besides houses for the civil and
+military authorities and the lines for the troops, there are a few huts
+inhabited by Bari, the natives of this part of the Nile. The importance
+of Gondokoro lies in the fact that it is within a few miles of the limit
+of navigability of the Nile from Khartum up stream. From this point the
+journey to Uganda is continued overland.
+
+Gondokoro was first visited by Europeans in 1841-1842, when expeditions
+sent out by Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, ascended the Nile as far as the
+foot of the rapids above Gondokoro. It soon became an ivory and
+slave-trading centre. In 1851 an Austrian Roman Catholic mission was
+established here, but it was abandoned in 1859. It was at Gondokoro that
+J. H. Speke and J. A. Grant, descending the Nile after their discovery
+of its source, met, on the 15th of February 1863, Mr (afterwards Sir)
+Samuel Baker and his wife who were journeying up the river. In 1871
+Baker, then governor-general of the equatorial provinces of Egypt,
+established a military post at Gondokoro which he named Ismailia, after
+the then khedive. Baker made this post his headquarters, but Colonel
+(afterwards General) C. G. Gordon, who succeeded him in 1874, abandoned
+the station on account of its unhealthy site, removing to Lado.
+Gondokoro, however, remained a trading-station. It fell into the hands
+of the Mahdists in 1885. After the destruction of the Mahdist power in
+1898 Gondokoro was occupied by British troops and has since formed the
+northernmost post on the Nile of the Uganda protectorate (see SUDAN;
+NILE; and UGANDA).
+
+
+
+
+GONDOMAR, DIEGO SARMIENTO DE ACUÑA, COUNT OF (1567-1626), Spanish
+diplomatist, was the son of Garcia Sarmiento de Sotomayor, corregidor of
+Granada, and governor of the Canary Islands, by his marriage with Juana
+de Acuña, an heiress. Diego Sarmiento, their eldest son, was born in the
+parish of Gondomar, in the bishopric of Tuy, Galicia, Spain, on the 1st
+of November 1567. He inherited wide estates both in Galicia and in Old
+Castile. In 1583 he was appointed by Philip II. to the military command
+of the Portuguese frontier and sea coast of Galicia. He is said to have
+taken an active part in the repulse of an English coast-raid in 1585,
+and in the defence of the country during the unsuccessful English attack
+on Corunna in 1589. In 1593 he was named corregidor of Toro. In 1603 he
+was sent from court to Vigo to superintend the distribution of the
+treasure brought from America by two galleons which were driven to take
+refuge at Vigo, and on his return was named a member of the board of
+finance. In 1609 he was again employed on the coast of Galicia, this
+time to repel a naval attack made by the Dutch. Although he held
+military commands, and administrative posts, his habitual residence was
+at Valladolid, where he owned the Casa del Sol and was already
+collecting his fine library. He was known as a courtier, and apparently
+as a friend of the favourite, the duke of Lerma. In 1612 he was chosen
+as ambassador in England, but did not leave to take up his appointment
+till May 1613.
+
+His reputation as a diplomatist is based on his two periods of service
+in England from 1613 to 1618 and from 1619 to 1622. The excellence of
+his latinity pleased the literary tastes of James I., whose character he
+judged with remarkable insight. He flattered the king's love of books
+and of peace, and he made skilful use of his desire for a matrimonial
+alliance between the prince of Wales and a Spanish infanta. The
+ambassador's task was to keep James from aiding the Protestant states
+against Spain and the house of Austria, and to avert English attacks on
+Spanish possessions in America. His success made him odious to the
+anti-Spanish and puritan parties. The active part he took in promoting
+the execution of Sir Walter Raleigh aroused particular animosity. He was
+attacked in pamphlets, and the dramatist Thomas Middleton made him a
+principal person in the strange political play _A Game of Chess_, which
+was suppressed by order of the council. In 1617 Sarmiento was created
+count of Gondomar. In 1618 he obtained leave to come home for his
+health, but was ordered to return by way of Flanders and France with a
+diplomatic mission. In 1619 he returned to London, and remained till
+1622, when he was allowed to retire. On his return he was named a member
+of the royal council and governor of one of the king's palaces, and was
+appointed to a complimentary mission to Vienna. Gondomar was in Madrid
+when the prince of Wales--afterwards Charles I.--made his journey there
+in search of a wife. He died at the house of the constable of Castile,
+near Haro in the Rioja, on the 2nd of October 1626.
+
+Gondomar was twice married, first to his niece Beatrix Sarmiento, by
+whom he had no children, and then to his cousin Constanza de Acuña, by
+whom he had four sons and three daughters. The hatred he aroused in
+England, which was shown by constant jeers at the intestinal complaint
+from which he suffered for years, was the best tribute to the zeal with
+which he served his own master. Gondomar collected, both before he came
+to London and during his residence there, a very fine library of
+printed books and manuscripts. Orders for the arrangement, binding and
+storing of his books in his house at Valladolid take a prominent place
+in his voluminous correspondence. In 1785 the library was ceded by his
+descendant and representative the marquis of Malpica to King Charles
+III., and it is now in the Royal Library at Madrid. A portrait of
+Gondomar, attributed to Valazquez, was formerly at Stowe. It was
+mezzotinted by Robert Cooper.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Gondomar's missions to England are largely dealt with in
+  S. R. Gardiner's _History of England_ (London, 1883-1884). In Spanish,
+  Don Pascual de Gayangos wrote a useful biographical introduction to a
+  publication of a few of his letters--_Cinco Cartas politico-literarias
+  de Don Diego Sarmiento de Acuña, Conde de Gondomar_, issued at Madrid
+  1869 by the _Sociedad de Bibliófilos_ of the Spanish Academy; and
+  there is a life in English by F. H. Lyon (1910).     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+GONDOPHARES, or GONDOPHERNES, an Indo-Parthian king who ruled over the
+Kabul valley and the Punjab. By means of his coins his accession may be
+dated with practical certainty at A.D. 21, and his reign lasted for some
+thirty years. He is notable for his association with St Thomas in early
+Christian tradition. The legend is that India fell to St Thomas, who
+showed unwillingness to start until Christ appeared in a vision and
+ordered him to serve King Gondophares and build him a palace. St Thomas
+accordingly went to India and suffered martyrdom there. This legend is
+not incompatible with what is known of the chronology of Gondophares'
+reign.
+
+
+
+
+GONDWANA, the historical name for a large tract of hilly country in
+India which roughly corresponds with the greater part of the present
+Central Provinces. It is derived from the aboriginal tribe of Gonds, who
+still form the largest element in the population and who were at one
+time the ruling power. From the 12th to as late as the 18th century
+three or four Gond dynasties reigned over this region with a degree of
+civilization that seems surprising when compared with the existing
+condition of the people. They built large walled cities, and accumulated
+immense treasures of gold and silver and jewels. On the whole, they
+maintained their independence fairly well against the Mahommedans, being
+subject only to a nominal submission and occasional payment of tribute.
+But when the Mahratta invaders appeared, soon after the beginning of the
+18th century, the Gond kingdoms offered but a feeble resistance and the
+aboriginal population fled for safety to the hills. Gondwana was thus
+included in the dominions of the Bhonsla raja of Nagpur, from whom it
+finally passed to the British in 1853.
+
+The Gonds, who call themselves Koitur or "highlanders," are the most
+numerous tribe of Dravidian race in India. Their total number in 1901
+was 2,286,913, of whom nearly two millions were enumerated in the
+Central Provinces, where they form 20% of the population. They have a
+language of their own, with many dialects, which is intermediate between
+the two great Dravidian languages, Tamil and Telugu. It is unwritten and
+has no literature, except a little provided by the missionaries. More
+than half the Gonds in the Central Provinces have now abandoned their
+own dialects, and have adopted Aryan forms of speech. This indicates the
+extent to which they have become Hinduized. The higher class among them,
+called Raj Gonds, have been definitely admitted into Hinduism as a pure
+cultivating caste; but the great majority still retain the animistic
+beliefs, ceremonial observances and impure customs of food which are
+common to most of the aboriginal tribes of India.
+
+
+
+
+GONFALON (the late French and Italian form, also found in other Romanic
+languages, of _gonfanon_, which is derived from the O.H. Ger.
+_gundfano_, _gund_, war, and _fano_, flag, cf. Mod. Ger. _Fahne_, and
+English "vane"), a banner or standard of the middle ages. It took the
+form of a small pennon attached below the head of a knight's lance, or
+when used in religious processions and ceremonies, or as the banner of a
+city or state or military order, it became a many-streamered rectangular
+ensign, frequently swinging from a cross-bar attached to a pole. This is
+the most frequent use of the word. The title of "gonfalonier," the
+bearer of the gonfalon, was in the middle ages both military and civil.
+It was borne by the counts of Vexin, as leaders of the men of Saint
+Denis, and when the Vexin was incorporated in the kingdom of France the
+title of _Gonfalonier de Sant Denis_ passed to the kings of France, who
+thus became the bearers of the "oriflamme," as the banner of St Denis
+was called. "Gonfalonier" was the title of civic magistrates of various
+degrees of authority in many of the city republics of Italy, notably of
+Florence, Sienna and Lucca. At Florence the functions of the office
+varied. At first the gonfaloniers were the leaders of the various
+military divisions of the inhabitants. In 1293 was created the office of
+gonfalonier of justice, who carried out the orders of the signiory. By
+the end of the 14th century the gonfalonier was the chief of the
+signiory. At Lucca he was the chief magistrate of the republic. At Rome
+two gonfaloniers must be distinguished, that of the church and that of
+the Roman people; both offices were conferred by the pope. The first was
+usually granted to sovereigns, who were bound to defend the church and
+lead her armies. The second bore a standard with the letters S.P.Q.R. on
+any enterprise undertaken in the name of the church and the people of
+Rome, and also at ceremonies, processions, &c. This was granted by the
+pope to distinguished families. Thus the Cesarini held the office till
+the end of the 17th century. The Pamphili held it from 1686 till 1764.
+
+
+
+
+GONG (Chinese, _gong-gong_ or _tam-tam_), a sonorous or musical
+instrument of Chinese origin and manufacture, made in the form of a
+broad thin disk with a deep rim. Gongs vary in diameter from about 20 to
+40 in., and they are made of bronze containing a maximum of 22 parts of
+tin to 78 of copper; but in many cases the proportion of tin is
+considerably less. Such an alloy, when cast and allowed to cool slowly,
+is excessively brittle, but it can be tempered and annealed in a
+peculiar manner. If suddenly cooled from a cherry-red heat, the alloy
+becomes so soft that it can be hammered and worked on the lathe, and
+afterwards it may be hardened by re-heating and cooling it slowly. In
+these properties it will be observed, the alloy behaves in a manner
+exactly opposite to steel, and the Chinese avail themselves of the known
+peculiarities for preparing the thin sheets of which gongs are made.
+They cool their castings of bronze in water, and after hammering out the
+alloy in the soft state, harden the finished gongs by heating them to a
+cherry-red and allowing them to cool slowly. These properties of the
+alloy long remained a secret, said to have been first discovered in
+Europe by Jean Pierre Joseph d'Arcet at the beginning of the 19th
+century. Riche and Champion are said to have succeeded in producing
+tam-tams having all the qualities and timbre of the Chinese instruments.
+The composition of the alloy of bronze used for making gongs is stated
+to be as follows:[1] Copper, 76.52; Tin, 22.43; Lead, 0.62; Zinc, 0.23;
+Iron, 0.18. The gong is beaten with a round, hard, leather-covered pad,
+fitted on a short stick or handle. It emits a peculiarly sonorous sound,
+its complex vibrations bursting into a wave-like succession of tones,
+sometimes shrill, sometimes deep. In China and Japan it is used in
+religious ceremonies, state processions, marriages and other festivals;
+and it is said that the Chinese can modify its tone variously by
+particular ways of striking the disk.
+
+  The gong has been effectively used in the orchestra to intensify the
+  impression of fear and horror in melodramatic scenes. The tam-tam was
+  first introduced into a western orchestra by François Joseph Gossec in
+  the funeral march composed at the death of Mirabeau in 1791. Gaspard
+  Spontini used it in _La Vestale_ (1807), in the finale of act II., an
+  impressive scene in which the high pontiff pronounces the anathema on
+  the faithless vestal. It was also used in the funeral music played
+  when the remains of Napoleon the Great were brought back to France in
+  1840. Meyerbeer made use of the instrument in the scene of the
+  resurrection of the three nuns in _Robert le diable_. Four tam-tams
+  are now used at Bayreuth in _Parsifal_ to reinforce the bell
+  instruments, although there is no indication given in the score (see
+  PARSIFAL). The tam-tam has been treated from its ethnographical side
+  by Franz Heger.[1]     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See _La grande Encyclopédie_, vol. viii. (Paris), "Bronze," p.
+    146a.
+
+  [2] _Alte Metalltrommeln aus Südost-Asien_ (Leipzig, 1902). Bd. i.,
+    Text; Bd. ii., Tafeln.
+
+
+
+
+GÓNGORA Y ARGOTE, LUIS DE (1561-1627), Spanish lyric poet, was born at
+Cordova on the 11th of July 1561. His father, Francisco de Argote, was
+_corregidor_ of that city; the poet early adopted the surname of his
+mother, Leonora de Góngora, who was descended from an ancient family.
+At the age of fifteen he entered as a student of civil and canon law at
+the university of Salamanca; but he obtained no academic distinctions
+and was content with an ordinary pass degree. He was already known as a
+poet in 1585 when Cervantes praised him in the _Galatea_; in this same
+year he took minor orders, and shortly afterwards was nominated to a
+canonry at Cordova. About 1605-1606 he was ordained priest, and
+thenceforth resided principally at Valladolid and Madrid, where, as a
+contemporary remarks, he "noted and stabbed at everything with his
+satirical pen." His circle of admirers was now greatly enlarged; but the
+acknowledgment accorded to his singular genius was both slight and
+tardy. Ultimately indeed, through the influence of the duke of Sandoval,
+he obtained an appointment as honorary chaplain to Philip III., but even
+this slight honour he was not permitted long to enjoy. In 1626 a severe
+illness, which seriously impaired his memory, compelled his retirement
+to Cordova, where he died on the 24th of May 1627. An edition of his
+poems was published almost immediately after his death by Juan Lopez de
+Vicuña; the frequently reprinted edition by Hozes did not appear till
+1633. The collection consists of numerous sonnets, odes, ballads, songs
+for the guitar, and of certain larger poems, such as the _Soledades_ and
+the _Polifemo_. Too many of them exhibit that tortuous elaboration of
+style (_estilo culto_) with which the name of Góngora is inseparably
+associated; but though Góngora has been justly censured for affected
+Latinisms, unnatural transpositions, strained metaphors and frequent
+obscurity, it must be admitted that he was a man of rare genius,--a fact
+cordially acknowledged by those of his contemporaries who were most
+capable of judging. It was only in the hands of those who imitated
+Góngora's style without inheriting his genius that _culteranismo_ became
+absurd. Besides his lyrical poems Góngora is the author of a play
+entitled _Las Firmezas de Isabel_ and of two incomplete dramas, the
+_Comedia venatoria_ and _El Doctor Carlino_. The only satisfactory
+edition of his works is that published by R. Foulché-Delbose in the
+_Bibliotheca Hispanica_.
+
+  See Edward Churton, _Góngora_ (London, 1862, 2 vols.); M. González y
+  Francés, _Góngora racionero_ (Córdoba, 1895); M. González y Francés,
+  _Don Luis de Góngora vindicando su fama ante el propio obispo_
+  (Córdoba, 1899); "Vingt-six Lettres de Góngora" in the _Revue
+  hispanique_, vol. x. pp. 184-225 (Paris, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+GONIOMETER (from Gr. [Greek: gonia], angle, and [Greek: metron],
+measure), an instrument for measuring the angles of crystals; there are
+two kinds--the contact goniometer and the reflecting goniometer.
+Nicolaus Stena in 1669 determined the interfacial angles of quartz
+crystals by cutting sections perpendicular to the edges, the plane
+angles of the sections being then the angles between the faces which are
+perpendicular to the sections. The earliest instrument was the contact
+goniometer devised by Carangeot in 1783.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Contact Goniometer.]
+
+  _The Contact Goniometer_ (or _Hand-Goniometer_).--This consists of two
+  metal rules pivoted together at the centre of a graduated semicircle
+  (fig. 1). The instrument is placed with its plane perpendicular to an
+  edge between two faces of the crystal to be measured, and the rules
+  are brought into contact with the faces; this is best done by holding
+  the crystal up against the light with the edge in the line of sight.
+  The angle between the rules, as read on the graduated semicircle, then
+  gives the angle between the two faces. The rules are slotted, so that
+  they may be shortened and their tips applied to a crystal partly
+  embedded in its matrix. The instrument represented in fig. 1 is
+  practically the same in all its details as that made for Carangeot,
+  and it is employed at the present day for the approximate measurement
+  of large crystals with dull and rough faces. S. L. Penfield (1900) has
+  devised some cheap and simple forms of contact goniometer, consisting
+  of jointed arms and protractors made of cardboard or celluloid.
+
+  _The Reflecting Goniometer._--This is an instrument of far greater
+  precision, and is always used for the accurate measurement of the
+  angles when small crystals with bright faces are available. As a rule,
+  the smaller the crystal the more even are its faces, and when these
+  are smooth and bright they reflect sharply defined images of a bright
+  object. By turning the crystal about an axis parallel to the edge
+  between two faces, the image reflected from a second face may be
+  brought into the same position as that formerly occupied by the image
+  reflected from the first face; the angle through which the crystal has
+  been rotated, as determined by a graduated circle to which the crystal
+  is fixed, is the angle between the normals to the two faces.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Vertical-Circle Goniometer.]
+
+  Several forms of instruments depending on this principle have been
+  devised, the earliest being the vertical-circle goniometer of W. H.
+  Wollaston, made in 1809. This consists of a circle m (fig. 2),
+  graduated to degrees of arc and reading with the vernier h to minutes,
+  which turns with the milled head t about a horizontal axis. The
+  crystal is attached with wax (a mixture of beeswax and pitch) to the
+  holder q, and by means of the pivoted arcs it may be adjusted so that
+  the edge between two faces (a zone-axis) is parallel to, and
+  coincident with, the axis of the instrument. The crystal-holder and
+  adjustment-arcs, together with the milled head s, are carried on an
+  axis which passes through the hollow axis of the graduated circle, and
+  may thus be rotated independently of the circle. In use, the
+  goniometer is placed directly opposite to a window, with its axis
+  parallel to the horizontal window-bars, and as far distant as
+  possible. The eye is placed quite close to the crystal, and the image
+  of an upper window-bar (or better still a slit in a dark screen) as
+  seen in the crystal-face is made to coincide with a lower window-bar
+  (or chalk mark on the floor) as seen directly: this is done by turning
+  the milled head s, the reading of the graduated circle having
+  previously been observed. Without moving the eye, the milled head t,
+  together with the crystal, is then rotated until the image from a
+  second face is brought into the same position; the difference between
+  the first and second readings of the graduated circle will then give
+  the angle between the normals of the two faces.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Horizontal-Circle Goniometer.]
+
+  Several improvements have been made on Wollaston's goniometer. The
+  adjustment-arcs have been modified; a mirror of black glass fixed to
+  the stand beneath the crystal gives a reflected image of the signal,
+  with which the reflection from the crystal can be more conveniently
+  made to coincide; a telescope provided with cross-wires gives greater
+  precision to the direction of the reflected rays of light; and with
+  the telescope a collimator has sometimes been used.
+
+  A still greater improvement was effected by placing the graduated
+  circle in a horizontal position, as in the instruments of E. L. Malus
+  (1810), F. C. von Riese (1829) and J. Babinet (1839). Many forms of
+  the _horizontal-circle goniometer_ have been constructed; they are
+  provided with a telescope and collimator, and in construction are
+  essentially the same as a spectrometer, with the addition of
+  arrangements for adjusting and centring the crystal. The instrument
+  shown in fig. 3 is made by R. Fuess of Berlin. It has four concentric
+  axes, which enable the crystal-holder A, together with the
+  adjustment-arcs B and centring-slides D, to be raised or lowered, or
+  to be rotated independently of the circle H; further, either the
+  crystal-holder or the telescope T may be rotated with the circle,
+  while the other remains fixed. The crystal is placed on the holder
+  and adjusted so that the edge (zone-axis) between two faces is
+  coincident with the axis of the instrument. Light from an incandescent
+  gas-burner passes through the slit of the collimator C, and the image
+  of the slit (signal) reflected from the crystal face is viewed in the
+  telescope. The clamp a and slow-motion screw F enable the image to be
+  brought exactly on the cross-wires of the telescope, and the position
+  of the circle with respect to the vernier is read through the lens.
+  The crystal and the circle are then rotated together until the image
+  from a second face is brought on the cross-wires of the telescope, and
+  the angle through which they have been turned is the angle between the
+  normals to the two faces. While measuring the angles between the faces
+  of crystals the telescope remains fixed by the clamp [beta], but when
+  this is released the instrument may be used as a spectrometer or
+  refractometer for determining, by the method of minimum deviation, the
+  indices of refraction of an artificially cut prism or of a transparent
+  crystal when the faces are suitably inclined to one another.
+
+  With a one-circle goniometer, such as is described above, it is
+  necessary to mount and re-adjust the crystal afresh for the
+  measurement of each zone of faces (i.e. each set of faces intersecting
+  in parallel edges); with very small crystals this operation takes a
+  considerable time, and the minute faces are not readily identified
+  again. Further, in certain cases, it is not possible to measure the
+  angles between zones, nor to determine the position of small faces
+  which do not lie in prominent zones on the crystal. These difficulties
+  have been overcome by the use of a two-circle goniometer or
+  theodolite-goniometer, which as a combination of a vertical-circle
+  goniometer and one with a horizontal-circle was first employed by W.
+  H. Miller in 1874. Special forms have been designed by E. S. Fedorov
+  (1889), V. Goldschmidt (1893). S. Czapski (1893) and F. Stoeber
+  (1898), which differ mainly in the arrangement of the optical parts.
+  In these instruments the crystal is set up and adjusted once for all,
+  with the axis of a prominent zone parallel to the axis of either the
+  horizontal or the vertical circle. As a rule, only in this zone can
+  the angles between the faces be measured directly; the positions of
+  all the other faces, which need be observed only once, are fixed by
+  the simultaneous readings of the two circles. These readings,
+  corresponding to the polar distance and azimuth, or latitude and
+  longitude readings of astronomical telescopes, must be plotted on a
+  projection before the symmetry of the crystal is apparent; and
+  laborious calculations are necessary in order to determine the indices
+  of the faces and the angles between them, and the other constants of
+  the crystal, or to test whether any three faces are accurately in a
+  zone.
+
+  These disadvantages are overcome by adding still another graduated
+  circle to the instrument, with its axis perpendicular to the axis of
+  the vertical circle, thus forming a three-circle goniometer. With such
+  an instrument measurements may be made in any zone or between any two
+  faces without re-adjusting the crystal; further the troublesome
+  calculations are avoided, and, indeed, the instrument may be used for
+  solving spherical triangles. Different forms of three-circle
+  goniometers have been designed by G. F. H. Smith (1899 and 1904), E.
+  S. Fedorov (1900) and J. F. C. Klein (1900). Besides being used as a
+  one-, two-, or three-circle goniometer for the measurement of the
+  interfacial angles of crystals, and as a refractometer for determining
+  refractive indices by the prismatic method or by total reflection,
+  Klein's instrument, which is called a polymeter, is fitted with
+  accessory optical apparatus which enables it to be used for examining
+  a crystal in parallel or convergent polarized light and for measuring
+  the optic axial angle.
+
+  Goniometers of special construction have been devised for certain
+  purposes; for instance, the inverted horizontal-circle goniometer of
+  H. A. Miers (1903) for measuring crystals during their growth in the
+  mother-liquid. A. E. Tutton (1894) has combined a goniometer with
+  lapidaries' appliances for cutting section-plates and prisms from
+  crystals accurately in any desired direction. The instrument commonly
+  employed for measuring the optic axial angle of biaxial crystals is
+  really a combination of a goniometer with a polariscope. For the
+  optical investigation of minute crystals under the microscope, various
+  forms of stage-goniometer with one, two or three graduated circles
+  have been constructed. An ordinary microscope fitted with cross-wires
+  and a rotating graduated stage serves the purpose of a goniometer for
+  measuring the plane angles of a crystal face or section, being the
+  same in principle as the contact goniometer.
+
+  For fuller descriptions of goniometers reference may be made to the
+  text-books of Crystallography and Mineralogy, especially to P. H.
+  Groth, _Physikalische Krystallographie_ (4th ed., Leipzig, 1905). See
+  also C. Leiss, _Die optischen Instrumente der Firma R. Fuess, deren
+  Beschreibung, Justierung und Anwendung_ (Leipzig, 1899).
+       (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GONTAUT, MARIE JOSÉPHINE LOUISE, DUCHESSE DE (1773-1857). was born in
+Paris on the 3rd of August 1773, daughter of Augustin François, comte de
+Montaut-Navailles, who had been governor of Louis XVI. and his two
+brothers when children. The count of Provence (afterwards Louis XVIII.)
+and his wife stood sponsors to Joséphine de Montaut, and she shared the
+lessons given by Madame de Genlis to the Orleans family, with whom her
+mother broke off relations after the outbreak of the Revolution. Mother
+and daughter emigrated to Coblenz in 1792; thence they went to
+Rotterdam, and finally to England, where Joséphine married the marquis
+Charles Michel de Gontaut-Saint-Blacard. They returned to France at the
+Restoration, and resumed their place at court. Madame de Gontaut became
+lady-in-waiting to Caroline, duchess of Berry, and, on the birth of the
+princess Louise (Mlle d'Artois, afterwards duchess of Parma), governess
+to the children of France. Next year the birth of Henry, duke of
+Bordeaux (afterwards known as the comte de Chambord), added to her
+charge the heir of the Bourbons. She remained faithful to his cause all
+her life. Her husband died in 1822, and in 1827 she was created duchesse
+de Gontaut. She followed the exiled royal family in 1830 to Holyrood
+Palace, and then to Prague, but in 1834, owing to differences with
+Pierre Louis, duc de Blacas, who thought her comparatively liberal views
+dangerous for the prince and princess, she received a brusque congé from
+Charles X. Her twin daughters, Joséphine (1796-1844) and Charlotte
+(1796-1818), married respectively Ferdinand de Chabot, prince de Léon
+and afterwards duc de Rohan, and François, comte de Bourbon-Busset. She
+herself wrote in her old age some naïve memoirs, which throw an odd
+light on the pretensions of the "governess of the children of France."
+She died in Paris in 1857.
+
+  See her _Memoirs_ (Eng. ed., 2 vols., 1894), and _Lettres inédites_
+  (1895).
+
+
+
+
+GONVILE, EDMUND (d. 1351), founder of Gonville Hall, now Gonville and
+Caius College, at Cambridge, England, is thought to have been the son of
+William de Gonvile, and the brother of Sir Nicholas Gonvile. In 1320 he
+was rector of Thelnetham, Suffolk, and steward there for William, earl
+Warren and the earl of Lancaster. Six years later he was rector of
+Rushworth, and in 1342 rector of Terrington St John and commissioner for
+the marshlands of Norfolk. In this year he founded and endowed a
+collegiate church at Rushworth, suppressed in 1541. The foundation of
+Gonville Hall at Cambridge was effected by a charter granted by Edward
+III. in 1348. It was called, officially, the Hall of the Annunciation of
+the Blessed Virgin, but was usually known as Gunnell or Gonville Hall.
+Its original site was in Free-school Lane, where Corpus Christi College
+now stands. Gonvile apparently wished it to be devoted to training for
+theological study, but after his death the foundation was completed by
+William Bateman, bishop of Norwich and founder of Trinity Hall, on a
+different site and with considerably altered statutes. (See also CAIUS,
+JOHN.)
+
+
+
+
+GONZAGA, an Italian princely family named after the town where it
+probably had its origin. Its known history begins with the 13th century,
+when Luigi I. (1267-1360), after fierce struggles supplanted his
+brother-in-law Rinaldo (nicknamed Passerino) Bonacolsi as lord of Mantua
+in August 1328, with the title of captain-genera, and afterwards of
+vicar-general of the empire, adding the designation of count of
+Mirandola and Concordia, which fief the Gonzagas held from 1328 to 1354.
+In July 1335 his son Guido, with the help of Filippino and Feltrino
+Gonzaga, wrested Reggio from the Scaligeri and held it until 1371. Luigi
+was succeeded by Guido (d. 1369); the latter's son Luigi II. came next
+in succession (d. 1382), and then Giovan Francesco I. (d. 1407), who,
+although at one time allied with the treacherous Gian Galeazzo Visconti,
+incurred the latter's enmity and all but lost his estates and his life
+in consequence; eventually he joined the Florentines and Bolognese,
+enemies of Visconti. He promoted commerce and wisely developed the
+prosperity of his dominions. His son Giovan Francesco II. (d. 1444)
+succeeded him under the regency of his uncle Carlo Malatesta and the
+protection of the Venetians. He became a famous general, and was
+rewarded for his services to the emperor Sigismund with the title of
+marquess of Mantua for himself and his descendants (1432), an
+investiture which legitimatized the usurpations of the house of Gonzaga.
+His son Luigi III. "il Turco" (d. 1478) likewise became a celebrated
+soldier, and was also a learned and liberal prince, a patron of
+literature and the arts. His son Federigo I. (d. 1484) followed in his
+father's footsteps, and served under various foreign sovereigns,
+including Bona of Savoy and Lorenzo de' Medici; subsequently he upheld
+the rights of the house of Este against Pope Sixtus IV. and the
+Venetians, whose ambitious claims were a menace to his own dominions of
+Ferrara and Mantova. His son Giovan Francesco III. (d. 1519) continued
+the military traditions of the family, and commanded the allied Italian
+forces against Charles VIII. at the battle of Fornovo; he afterwards
+fought in the kingdom of Naples and in Tuscany, until captured by the
+Venetians in 1509. On his liberation he adopted a more peaceful and
+conciliatory policy, and with the help of his wife, the famous Isabella
+d'Este, he promoted the fine arts and letters, collecting pictures,
+statues and other works of art with intelligent discrimination. He was
+succeeded by his son Federigo II. (d. 1540), captain-general of the
+papal forces. After the peace of Cambrai (1529) his ally and protector,
+the emperor Charles V., raised his title to that of duke of Mantua in
+1530; in 1536 the emperor decided the controversy for the succession of
+Monferrato between Federigo and the house of Savoy in favour of the
+former. His son Francesco I. succeeded him, and, being a minor, was
+placed under the regency of his uncle Cardinal Ercole; he was
+accidentally drowned in 1550, leaving his possessions to his brother
+Guglielmo. The latter was an extravagant spendthrift, but having subdued
+a revolt in Monferrato was presented with that territory by the emperor
+Maximilian II. At his death in 1587 he was succeeded by his son Vincenzo
+I. (d. 1612), who was more addicted to amusements than to warfare. Then
+followed in succession his sons Francesco II. (d. 1612), Ferdinando (d.
+1626), and Vincenzo II. (d. 1627), all three incapable and dissolute
+princes. The last named appointed as his successor Charles, the son of
+Henriette, the heiress of the French family of Nevers-Rethel, who was
+only able to take possession of the ducal throne after a bloody
+struggle; his dominions were laid waste by foreign invasions and he
+himself was reduced to the sorest straits. He died in 1637, leaving his
+possessions to his grandson Charles (Carlo) II. under the regency of the
+latter's mother Maria Gonzaga, which lasted until 1647. Charles died in
+consequence of his own profligacy and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand
+Charles (Ferdinando Carlo), who was likewise for some years under the
+regency of his mother Isabella of Austria. Ferdinand Charles, another
+extravagant and dissolute prince, acquired the county of Guastalla by
+marriage in 1678, but lost it soon afterwards; he involved his country
+in useless warfare, with the result that in 1708 Austria annexed the
+duchy. On the 5th of July of the same year he died in Venice, and with
+him the Gonzagas of Mantua came to an end.
+
+Of the cadet branches of the house one received the lordship of Bozzolo,
+another the counties of Novellara and Bagnolo, a third, of which the
+founder was Ferrante I. (d. 1557), retained the county of Guastalla,
+raised to a duchy in 1621, and came to an end with the death of Giuseppe
+Maria on the 16th of August 1746.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--S. Maffei, _Annali di Mantova_ (Tortona, 1675); G.
+  Veronesi, _Quadro storico della Mirandola_ (Modena, 1847); T. Affò,
+  _Storia di Guastalla_ (Guastalla, 1875, 4 vols.); Alessandro Luzio, _I
+  Precattori d'Isabella d'Este_ (Ancona, 1887); A. Luzio and R. Renier,
+  "Francesco Gonzaga alla battaglia di Fornovo (1495). secondo i
+  documenti Mantovani" (in _Archivio storico italiano_, ser. v. vol.
+  vi., 205-246); _id._, _Mantova e Urbino, Isabella d'Este e Elisabeth
+  Gonzaga nette relazioni famigliari e nelle vicende politiche_ (Turin,
+  1893); L. G., Pélissier, "Les Relations de François de Gonzague,
+  marquis de Mantoue, avec Ludovico Sforza et Louis XII" (in _Annales de
+  la faculté de Lettres de Bordeaux_, 1893); Antonino Bertolotti,
+  "Lettere del duca di Savoia Emanuele Filiberto a Guglielmo Gonzaga,
+  duca di Mantova" (_Arch. stor. it._, ser. v., vol. ix. pp. 250-283);
+  Edmondo Solari, _Lettere inedite del card. Gasparo Contarini nel
+  carteggio del card. Ercole Gonzaga_ (Venice, 1904); Arturo Segrè, _Il
+  Richiamo di Don Ferrante Gonzaga dal governo di Milano, e sue
+  conseguenze_ (Turin, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+GONZAGA, THOMAZ ANTONIO (1744-1809), Portuguese poet, was a native of
+Oporto and the son of a Brazilian-born judge. He spent a part of his
+boyhood at Bahia, where his father was _disembargador_ of the appeal
+court, and returning to Portugal he went to the university of Coimbra
+and took his law degree at the age of twenty-four. He remained on there
+for some years and compiled a treatise of natural law on regalist lines,
+dedicating it to Pombal, but the fall of the marquis led him to leave
+Coimbra and become a candidate for a magistracy, and in 1782 he obtained
+the posts of _ouvidor_ and _provedor_ of the goods of deceased and
+absent persons at Villa Rica in the province of Minas Geraes in Brazil.
+In 1786 he was named _disembargador_ of the appeal court at Bahia, and
+three years later, as he was about to marry a young lady of position, D.
+Maria de Seixas Brandão, the _Marilia_ of his verses, he suddenly found
+himself arrested on the charge of being the principal author of a
+Republican conspiracy in Minas. Conducted to Rio, he was imprisoned in a
+fortress and interrogated, but constantly asserted his innocence.
+However, his friendship with the conspirators compromised him in the
+eyes of his absolutist judges, who, on the ground that he had known of
+the plot and not denounced it, sentenced him in April 1792 to perpetual
+exile in Angola, with the confiscation of his property. Later, this
+penalty was commuted into one of ten years of exile to Mozambique, with
+a death sentence if he should return to America. After having spent
+three years in prison, Gonzaga sailed in May 1792 for Mozambique and
+shortly after his arrival a violent fever almost ended his life. A
+wealthy Portuguese gentleman, married to a lady of colour, charitably
+received him into his house, and when the poet recovered, he married
+their young daughter who had nursed him through the attack. He lived in
+exile until his death, practising advocacy at intervals, but his last
+years were embittered by fits of melancholia, deepening into madness,
+which were brought on by the remembrance of his misfortunes. His
+reputation as a poet rests on a little volume of bucolics entitled
+_Marilia_, which includes all his published verses and is divided into
+two parts, corresponding with those of his life. The first extends to
+his imprisonment and breathes only love and pleasure, while the main
+theme of the second part, written in prison, is his _saudade_ for
+_Marilia_ and past happiness. Gonzaga borrowed his forms from the best
+models, Anacreon and Theocritus, but the matter, except for an
+occasional imitation of Petrarch, the natural, elegant style and the
+harmonious metrification, are all his own. The booklet comprises the
+most celebrated collection of erotic poetry dedicated to a single person
+in the Portuguese tongue; indeed its popularity is so great as to exceed
+its intrinsic merit.
+
+  Twenty-nine editions had appeared up to 1854, but the Paris edition of
+  1862 in 2 vols, is in every way the best, although the authenticity of
+  the verses in its 3rd part, which do not relate to _Marilia_, is
+  doubtful. A popular edition of the first two parts was published in
+  1888 (Lisbon, Corazzi). A French version of _Marilia_ by Monglave and
+  Chalas appeared in Paris in 1825, an Italian by Vegezzi Ruscalla at
+  Turin in 1844, a Latin by Dr Castro Lopes at Rio in 1868, and there is
+  a Spanish one by Vedia.
+
+  See Innocencio da Silva, _Diccionario bibliographico portuguez_, vol.
+  vii. p. 320, also Dr T. Braga, _Filinto Elysio e os Dissidentas da
+  Arcadia_ (Oporto, 1901).     (E. Pr.)
+
+
+
+
+GONZÁLEZ-CARVAJAL, TOMAS JOSÉ (1753-1834), Spanish, poet and statesman,
+was born at Seville in 1753. He studied at the university of Seville,
+and took the degree of LL.D. at Madrid. He obtained an office in the
+financial department of the government; and in 1795 was made intendant
+of the colonies which had just been founded in Sierra Morena and
+Andalusia. During 1809-1811 he held an intendancy in the patriot army.
+He became, in 1812, director of the university of San Isidro; but having
+offended the government by establishing a chair of international law, he
+was imprisoned for five years (1815-1820). The revolution of 1820
+reinstated him, but the counter-revolution of three years later forced
+him into exile. After four years he was allowed to return, and he died,
+in 1834, a member of the supreme council of war. González-Carvajal
+enjoyed European fame as author of metrical translations of the poetical
+books of the Bible. To fit himself for this work he commenced the study
+of Hebrew at the age of fifty-four. He also wrote other works in verse
+and prose, avowedly taking Luis de Leon as his model.
+
+  See biographical notice in _Biblioteca de Rivadeneyra_, vol. lxvii.,
+  _Poetas del siglo 18_.
+
+
+
+
+GONZALO DE BERCEO (c. 1180-c. 1246), the earliest Castilian poet whose
+name is known to us, was born at Berceo, a village in the neighbourhood
+of Calahorra in the province of Logroño. In 1221 he became a deacon and
+was attached, as a secular priest, to the Benedictine monastery of San
+Millan de la Cogolla, in the diocese of Calahorra. His name is to be
+met with in a number of documents between the years 1237 and 1246. He
+wrote upwards of 13,000 verses, all on devotional subjects. His best
+work is a life of St Oria; others treat of the life of St Millan, of St
+Dominic of Silos, of the Sacrifice of the Mass, the Martyrdom of St
+Laurence, the visible signs preceding the Last Judgment, the Praises of
+Our Lady, the Miracles of Our Lady and the Lamentations of the Virgin on
+the Passion of her Son. He writes in the common tongue, the _roman
+paladino_, and his claim to the name of poet rests on his use of the
+_cuaderna via_ (single-rhymed quatrains, each verse being of fourteen
+syllables). Sometimes, however, he takes the more modest title of
+_juglar_ (_jongleur_), when claiming payment for his poems. His literary
+attainments are not great, and he lacks imagination and animation of
+style, but he has a certain eloquence, and in speaking of the Virgin and
+the saints a certain charm, while his verse bears at times the imprint
+of a passionate devotion, recalling the lyrical style of the great
+Spanish mystics. There is, however, a very strong popular element in his
+writings, which explains his long vogue. The great majority of his
+legends of the Virgin are obviously borrowed from the collection of a
+Frenchman, Gautier de Coinci; but he has succeeded in making this
+material entirely his own by reason of a certain conciseness and a
+realism in detail which make his work far superior to the tedious and
+colourless narrative of his model.
+
+  His _Poesías_ are in the _Biblioteca de autores españoles_ of
+  Rivadeneyra, vol. lvii. (1864); _La Vida de San Domingo de Silos_ has
+  been edited by J. D. FitzGerald (Paris, 1904; see the _Bibliothèque de
+  l'École des Hautes Études_, part 149); see also F. Fernandez y
+  Gonzalez in the _Razón_ (vol. i., Madrid, 1860); N. Hergueta,
+  "Documentos referentes a Gonzalo de Berceo," in the _Revista de
+  archivos_, (3rd series, Feb.-March, 1904, pp. 178-179).     (P. A.)
+
+
+
+
+GOOCH, SIR DANIEL, Bart. (1816-1889), English mechanical engineer, was
+born at Bedlington, in Northumberland, on the 16th of August 1816. At
+the age of fifteen, having shown a taste for mechanics, he was put to
+work at the Tredegar Ironworks, Monmouthshire. In 1834 he went to
+Warrington, where, at the Vulcan foundry, under Robert Stephenson, he
+acquired the principles of locomotive design. Subsequently, after
+passing a year at Dundee, he was engaged by the Stephensons at their
+Gateshead works, where he seems to have conceived that predilection for
+the broad gauge for which he was afterwards distinguished, through
+having to design some engines for a 6-foot gauge in Russia and noticing
+the advantages it offered in allowing greater space for the machinery,
+&c., as compared with the standard gauge favoured by Stephenson. In
+1837, on I. K. Brunel's recommendation, he was appointed locomotive
+superintendent to the Great Western railway at a time when the engines
+possessed by the railway were very poor and inefficient. He soon
+improved this state of affairs, and gradually provided his employers
+with locomotives which were unsurpassed for general excellence and
+economy of working. One of the most famous, the "Lord of the Isles," was
+awarded a gold medal at the Great Exhibition of 1851, and when, thirty
+years afterwards, it was withdrawn from active service it had run more
+than three-quarters of a million miles, all with its original boiler. In
+1864 he left the Great Western and interested himself in the problem of
+laying a telegraph cable across the Atlantic. At this time the "Great
+Eastern" was in the hands of the bondholders, of whom he himself was one
+of the most important, and it occurred to him that she might
+advantageously be utilized in the enterprise. Accordingly, at his
+instance she was chartered by the Telegraph Construction Company, of
+which also he was a director, and in 1865 was employed in the attempt to
+lay a cable, Gooch himself superintending operations. The cable,
+however, broke in mid-ocean, and the attempt was a failure. Next year it
+was renewed with more success, for not only was a new cable safely put
+in place, but the older one was picked up and spliced, so that there
+were two complete lines between England and America. For this
+achievement Gooch was created a baronet. Meanwhile the Great Western
+railway had fallen on evil days, being indeed on the verge of
+bankruptcy, when in 1866 the directors appealed to him to accept the
+chairmanship of the board and undertake the rehabilitation of the
+company. He agreed to the proposal, and was so successful in restoring
+its prosperity that in 1889, at the last meeting over which he presided,
+a dividend was declared at the rate of 7½%. Under his administration the
+system was greatly enlarged and consolidated by the absorption of
+various smaller lines, such as the Bristol and Exeter and the Cornwall
+railways; and his appreciation of its strategic value caused him to be a
+strenuous supporter of the construction of the Severn Tunnel. His death
+occurred on the 15th of October 1889 at his residence, Clewer Park, near
+Windsor.
+
+
+
+
+GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827), English writer on medical, religious and
+classical subjects, was born on the 25th of May 1764 at Epping, Essex.
+After attending a school at Romsey kept by his father, the Rev. Peter
+Good, who was a Nonconformist minister, he was, at about the age of
+fifteen, apprenticed to a surgeon-apothecary at Gosport. In 1783 he went
+to London to prosecute his medical studies, and in the autumn of 1784 he
+began to practise as a surgeon at Sudbury in Suffolk. In 1793 he removed
+to London, where he entered into partnership with a surgeon and
+apothecary. But the partnership was soon dissolved, and to increase his
+income he began to devote attention to literary pursuits. Besides
+contributing both in prose and verse to the _Analytical_ and _Critical
+Reviews_ and the _British_ and _Monthly Magazines_, and other
+periodicals, he wrote a large number of works relating chiefly to
+medical and religious subjects. In 1794 he became a member of the
+British Pharmaceutical Society, and in that connexion, and especially by
+the publication of his work, _A History of Medicine_ (1795), he did much
+to effect a greatly needed reform in the profession of the apothecary.
+In 1820 he took the diploma of M.D. at Marischal College, Aberdeen. He
+died at Shepperton, Middlesex, on the 2nd of January 1827. Good was not
+only well versed in classical literature, but was acquainted with the
+principal European languages, and also with Persian, Arabic and Hebrew.
+His prose works display wide erudition; but their style is dull and
+tedious. His poetry never rises above pleasant and well-versified
+commonplace. His translation of Lucretius, _The Nature of Things_
+(1805-1807), contains elaborate philological and explanatory notes,
+together with parallel passages and quotations from European and Asiatic
+authors.
+
+
+
+
+GOOD FRIDAY (probably "God's Friday"), the English name for the Friday
+before Easter, kept as the anniversary of the Crucifixion. In the Greek
+Church it has been or is known as [Greek: pascha [staurôsimon],
+paraskeuê, paraskeuê megalê] or [Greek: hagia, sôtêria] or [Greek: ta
+sôtêria, hêmepa tou staurou], while among the Latins the names of most
+frequent occurrence are Pascha Crucis, Dies Dominicae Passionis,
+Parasceve, Feria Sexta Paschae, Feria Sexta Major in Hierusalem, Dies
+Absolutionis. It was called Long Friday by the Anglo-Saxons[1] and
+Danes, possibly in allusion to the length of the services which marked
+the day. In Germany it is sometimes designated Stiller Freitag (compare
+Greek, [Greek: hêbdomas apraktos]; Latin, _hebdomas inofficiosa, non
+laboriosa_), but more commonly Charfreitag. The etymology of this last
+name has been much disputed, but there seems now to be little doubt that
+it is derived from the Old High German _chara_, meaning suffering or
+mourning.
+
+The origin of the custom of a yearly commemoration of the Crucifixion is
+somewhat obscure. It may be regarded as certain that among Jewish
+Christians it almost imperceptibly grew out of the old habit of annually
+celebrating the Passover on the 14th of Nisan, and of observing the
+"days of unleavened bread" from the 15th to the 21st of that month. In
+the Gentile churches, on the other hand, it seems to be well established
+that originally no yearly cycle of festivals was known at all. (See
+EASTER.)
+
+From its earliest observance, the day was marked by a specially rigorous
+fast, and also, on the whole, by a tendency to greater simplicity in the
+services of the church. Prior to the 4th century there is no evidence of
+non-celebration of the eucharist on Good Friday; but after that date the
+prohibition of communion became common. In Spain, indeed, it became
+customary to close the churches altogether as a sign of mourning; but
+this practice was condemned by the council of Toledo (633). In the Roman
+Catholic Church the Good Friday ritual at present observed is marked by
+many special features, most of which can be traced back to a date at
+least prior to the close of the 8th century (see the Ordo Romanus in
+Muratori's _Liturg. Rom. Vet._). The altar and officiating clergy are
+draped in black, this being the only day on which that colour is
+permitted. Instead of the epistle, sundry passages from Hosea, Habakkuk,
+Exodus and the Psalms are read. The gospel for the day consists of the
+history of the Passion as recorded by St John. This is often sung in
+plain-chaunt by three priests, one representing the "narrator," the
+other two the various characters of the story. The singing of this is
+followed by bidding prayers for the peace and unity of the church, for
+the pope, the clergy, all ranks and conditions of men, the sovereign,
+for catechumens, the sick and afflicted, heretics and schismatics, Jews
+and heathen. Then follows the "adoration of the cross" (a ceremony
+derived from the church of Jerusalem and said to date back to near the
+time of Helena's "invention of the cross"); the hymns _Pange lingua_ and
+_Vexilla regis_ are sung, and then follows the "Mass of the
+Presanctified." The name is derived from the fact that it is celebrated
+with elements consecrated the day before, the liturgy being omitted on
+this day. The priest merely places the Sacrament on the altar, censes
+it, elevates and breaks the host, and communicates, the prayers and
+responses interspersed being peculiar to the day. This again is followed
+by vespers, with a special anthem; after which the altar is stripped in
+silence. In many Roman Catholic countries--in Spain, for example--it is
+usual for the faithful to spend much time in the churches in meditation
+on the "seven last words" of the Saviour; no carriages are driven
+through the streets; the bells and organs are silent; and in every
+possible way it is sought to deepen the impression of a profound and
+universal grief. In the Greek Church also the Good Friday fast is
+excessively strict; as in the Roman Church, the Passion history is read
+and the cross adored; towards evening a dramatic representation of the
+entombment takes place, amid open demonstrations of contempt for Judas
+and the Jews. In Lutheran churches the organ is silent on this day, and
+altar, font and pulpit are draped in black, as indeed throughout Holy
+Week. In the Church of England the history of the Passion from the
+gospel according to John is also read; the collects for the day are
+based upon the bidding prayers which are found in the Ordo Romanus. The
+"three hours" service, borrowed from Roman Catholic usage and consisting
+of prayers, addresses on the "seven last words from the cross" and
+intervals for meditation and silent prayer, has become very popular in
+the Anglican Church, and the observance of the day is more marked than
+formerly among Nonconformist bodies, even in Scotland.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See Johnson's _Collection of Ecclesiastical Laws_ (vol. i., anno
+    957): "Housel ought not to be hallowed on Long Friday, because Christ
+    suffered for us on that day."
+
+
+
+
+GOODMAN, GODFREY (1583-1656), bishop of Gloucester, was born at Ruthin,
+Denbighshire, and educated at Westminster and Cambridge. He took orders
+in 1603, and in 1606 obtained the living of Stapleford Abbots, Essex,
+which he held together with several other livings. He was canon of
+Windsor from 1617 and dean of Rochester 1620-1621, and became bishop of
+Gloucester in 1625. From this time his tendencies towards Roman
+Catholicism constantly got him into trouble. He preached an
+unsatisfactory sermon at court in 1626, and in 1628 incurred charges of
+introducing popery at Windsor. In 1633 he secured the see of Hereford by
+bribery, but Archbishop Laud persuaded the king to refuse his consent.
+In 1638 he was said to be converted to Rome, and two years later he was
+imprisoned for refusing to sign the new canons denouncing popery and
+affirming the divine right of kings. He afterwards signed and was
+released on bail, but next year the bishops who had signed were all
+imprisoned in the Tower, by order of parliament, on the charge of
+treason. After eighteen weeks' imprisonment Goodman was allowed to
+return to his diocese. About 1650 he settled in London, where he died a
+confessed Roman Catholic. His best known book is _The Fall of Man_
+(London, 1616).
+
+
+
+
+GOODRICH, SAMUEL GRISWOLD (1793-1860), American author, better known
+under the pseudonym of "Peter Parley," was born, the son of a
+Congregational minister, at Ridgefield, Connecticut, on the 19th of
+August 1793. He was largely self-educated, became an assistant in a
+country store at Danbury, Conn., in 1808, and at Hartford, Conn., in
+1811, and from 1816 to 1822 was a bookseller and publisher at Hartford.
+He visited Europe in 1823-1824, and in 1826 removed to Boston, where he
+continued in the publishing business, and from 1828 to 1842 he published
+an illustrated annual, the _Token_, to which he was a frequent
+contributor both in prose and verse. A selection from these
+contributions was published in 1841 under the title _Sketches from a
+Student's Window_. The _Token_ also contained some of the earliest work
+of Nathaniel Hawthorne, N. P. Willis, Henry W. Longfellow and Lydia
+Maria Child. In 1841 he established _Merry's Museum_, which he continued
+to edit till 1854. In 1827 he began, under the name of "Peter Parley,"
+his series of books for the young, which embraced geography, biography,
+history, science and miscellaneous tales. Of these he was the sole
+author of only a few, but in 1857 he wrote that he was "the author and
+editor of about 170 volumes," and that about seven millions had been
+sold. In 1857 he published _Recollections of a Lifetime_, which contains
+a list both of the works of which he was the author or editor and of the
+spurious works published under his name. By his writings and
+publications he amassed a large fortune. He was chosen a member of the
+Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1836, and of the state Senate
+in 1837, his competitor in the last election being Alexander H. Everett,
+and in 1851-1853 he was consul at Paris, where he remained till 1855,
+taking advantage of his stay to have several of his works translated
+into French. After his return to America he published, in 1859,
+_Illustrated History of the Animal Kingdom_. He died, in New York, on
+the 9th of May 1860.
+
+His brother, CHARLES AUGUSTUS GOODRICH (1790-1862), a Congregational
+clergyman, published various ephemeral books, and helped to compile some
+of the "Peter Parley" series.
+
+
+
+
+GOODRICH, or GOODRICKE, THOMAS (d. 1554), English ecclesiastic, was a
+son of Edward Goodrich of East Kirkby, Lincolnshire, and was educated at
+Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, afterwards becoming a fellow of Jesus
+College in the same university. He was among the divines consulted about
+the legality of Henry VIII.'s marriage with Catherine of Aragon, became
+one of the royal chaplains about 1530, and was consecrated bishop of Ely
+in 1534. He was favourable to the Reformation, helped in 1537 to draw up
+the _Institution of a Christian Man_ (known as the _Bishops' Book_), and
+translated the Gospel of St John for the revised New Testament. On the
+accession of Edward VI. in 1547 the bishop was made a privy councillor,
+and took a conspicuous part in public affairs during the reign. "A busy
+secular spirited man," as Burnet calls him, he was equally opposed to
+the zealots of the "old" and the "new religion." He assisted to compile
+the First Prayer Book of Edward VI., was one of the commissioners for
+the trial of Bishop Gardiner, and in January 1551-1552 succeeded Rich as
+lord high chancellor. This office he continued to hold during the nine
+days' reign of "Queen Jane" (Lady Jane Grey); but he continued to make
+his peace with Queen Mary, conformed to the restored religion, and,
+though deprived of the chancellorship, was allowed to keep his bishopric
+until his death on the 10th of May 1554.
+
+  See the _Dict. Nat. Biog._, where further authorities are cited.
+
+
+
+
+GOODSIR, JOHN (1814-1867), Scottish anatomist, born at Anstruther, Fife,
+on the 20th of March 1814, was the son of Dr John Goodsir, and grandson
+of Dr John Goodsir of Largo. He was educated at the burgh and
+grammar-schools of his native place and at the university of St Andrews.
+In 1830 he was apprenticed to a surgeon-dentist in Edinburgh, where he
+studied anatomy under Robert Knox, and in 1835 he joined his father in
+practice at Anstruther. Three years later he communicated to the British
+Association a paper on the pulps and sacs of the human teeth, his
+researches on the whole process of dentition being at this time
+distinguished by their completeness; and about the same date, on the
+nomination of Edward Forbes, he was elected to the famous coterie called
+the "Universal Brotherhood of the Friends of Truth," which comprised
+artists, scholars, naturalists and others, whose relationship became a
+potent influence in science. With Forbes he worked at marine zoology,
+but human anatomy, pathology and morphology formed his chief study. In
+1840 he moved to Edinburgh, where in the following year he was appointed
+conservator of the museum of the College of Surgeons, in succession to
+William Macgillivray. Much of his reputation rested on his knowledge of
+the anatomy of tissues. In his lectures in the theatre of the college in
+1842-1843 he evidenced the largeness of his observation of cell-life,
+both physiologically and pathologically, insisting on the importance of
+the cell as a centre of nutrition, and pointing out that the organism is
+subdivided into a number of departments. R. Virchow recognized his
+indebtedness to these discoveries by dedicating his _Cellular
+Pathologie_ to Goodsir, as "one of the earliest and most acute observers
+of cell-life." In 1843 Goodsir obtained the post of curator in the
+university of Edinburgh; the following year he was appointed
+demonstrator of anatomy, and in 1845 curator of the entire museum. A
+year later he was elected to the chair of anatomy in the university, and
+devoted all his energies to anatomical research and teaching.
+
+Human myology was his strong point; no one had laboured harder at the
+dissecting-table; and he strongly emphasized the necessity of practice
+as a means of research. He believed that anatomy, physiology and
+pathology could never be properly advanced without daily consideration
+and treatment of disease. In 1848 he became a fellow of the Royal
+College of Surgeons, and in the same year he joined the Highland and
+Agricultural Society, acting as chairman of the veterinary department,
+and advising on strictly agricultural matters. In 1847 he delivered a
+series of systematic lectures on the comparative anatomy of the
+invertebrata; and, about this period, as member of an aesthetic club, he
+wrote papers on the natural principles of beauty, the aesthetics of the
+ugly, of smell, the approbation or disapprobation of sounds, &c. Owing
+to the failing health of Professor Robert Jameson, Goodsir was induced
+to deliver the course of lectures on natural history during the summer
+of 1853.
+
+The lectures were long remembered for their brilliancy, but the infinite
+amount of thought and exertion which they cost broke down the health of
+the lecturer. Goodsir, nevertheless, persevered in his labours, writing
+in 1855 on organic electricity, in 1856 on morphological subjects, and
+afterwards on the structure of organized forms. His speculations in the
+latter domain gave birth to his theory of a triangle as the mathematical
+figure upon which nature had built up both the organic and inorganic
+worlds, and he hoped to complete this triangle theory of formation and
+law as the greatest of his works. In his lectures on the skull and brain
+he held the doctrine that symmetry of brain had more to do with the
+higher faculties than bulk or form. He died at Wardie, near Edinburgh,
+on the 6th of March 1867, in the same cottage in which his friend Edward
+Forbes died. His anatomical lectures were remarkable for their solid
+basis of fact; and no one in Britain took so wide a field for survey or
+marshalled so many facts for anatomical tabulation and synthesis.
+
+  See _Anatomical Memoirs of John Goodsir, F.R.S., edited by W. Turner,
+  with Memoir by H. Lonsdale_ (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1868), in which
+  Goodsir's lectures, addresses and writings are epitomized; _Proc. Roy.
+  Soc._ vol. iv. (1868); _Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin._ vol. ix. (1868).
+
+
+
+
+GOODWILL, in the law of property, a term of somewhat vague significance.
+It has been defined as every advantage which has been acquired in
+carrying on a business, whether connected with the premises in which the
+business has been carried on, or with the name of the firm by whom it
+has been conducted (_Churton_ v. _Douglas_, 1859, Johns, 174). Goodwill
+may be either professional or trade. Professional goodwill usually takes
+the form of the recommendation by a retiring professional man, doctor,
+solicitor, &c., to his clients of the successor or purchaser coupled
+generally with an undertaking not to compete with him. Trade goodwill
+varies with the nature of the business with which it is connected, but
+there are two rights which, whatever the nature of the business may be,
+are invariably associated with it, viz. the right of the purchaser to
+represent himself as the owner of the business, and the right to
+restrain competition. For the purposes of the Stamp Act, the goodwill of
+a business is property, and the proper duty must be paid on the
+conveyance of such. (See also PARTNERSHIP; PATENTS.)
+
+
+
+
+GOODWIN, JOHN (c. 1594-1665), English Nonconformist divine, was born in
+Norfolk and educated at Queens' College, Cambridge, where he was elected
+fellow in 1617. He was vicar of St Stephen's, Coleman Street, London,
+from 1633 to 1645, when he was ejected by parliament for his attacks on
+Presbyterianism, especially in his [Greek: Theomachia](1644). He
+thereupon established an independent congregation, and put his literary
+gifts at Oliver Cromwell's service. In 1648 he justified the proceedings
+of the army against the parliament ("Pride's Purge") in a pamphlet
+_Might and Right Well Met_, and in 1649 defended the proceedings against
+Charles I. (to whom he had offered spiritual advice) in [Greek:
+Hubristodikai]. At the Restoration this tract, with some that Milton had
+written to Monk in favour of a republic, was publicly burnt, and Goodwin
+was ordered into custody, though finally indemnified. He died in 1665.
+Among his other writings are _Anti-Cavalierisme_ (1642), a translation
+of the _Stratagemata Satanae_ of Giacomo Aconcio, the Elizabethan
+advocate of toleration, tracts against Fifth-Monarchy Men, Cromwell's
+"Triers" and Baptists, and _Redemption Redeemed, containing a thorough
+discussion of ... election, reprobation and the perseverance of the
+saints_ (1651, reprinted 1840). Goodwin's strongly Arminian tendencies
+brought him into conflict with Robert Baillie, professor of divinity of
+Glasgow, George Kendall, the Calvinist prebendary of Exeter, and John
+Owen (q.v.), who replied to _Redemption Redeemed_ in _The Doctrine of
+the Saints' Perseverance_, paying a high tribute to his opponent's
+learning and controversial skill. Goodwin answered all three in the
+_Triumviri_ (1658). John Wesley in later days held him in much esteem
+and published an abridged edition of his _Imputatio fidei_, a work on
+justification that had originally appeared in 1642.
+
+  _Life_ by T. Jackson (London, 1839).
+
+
+
+
+GOODWIN, NATHANIEL CARL (1857-   ), American actor, was born in Boston
+on the 25th of July 1857. While clerk in a large shop he studied for the
+stage, and made his first appearance in 1873 in Boston in Stuart
+Robson's company as the newsboy in Joseph Bradford's _Law_. He made an
+immediate success by his imitations of popular actors. A hit in the
+burlesque _Black-eyed Susan_ led to his taking part in Rice and
+Goodwin's _Evangeline_ company. It was at this time that he married
+Eliza Weathersby (d. 1887), an English actress with whom he played in B.
+E. Woollf's _Hobbies_. It was not until 1889, however, that Nat
+Goodwin's talent as a comedian of the "legitimate" type began to be
+recognized. From that time he appeared in a number of plays designed to
+display his drily humorous method, such as Brander Matthews' and George
+H. Jessop's _A Gold Mine_, Henry Guy Carleton's _A Gilded Fool_ and
+_Ambition_, Clyde Fitch's _Nathan Hale_, H. V. Esmond's _When we were
+Twenty-one_, &c. Till 1903 he was associated in his performances with
+his third wife, the actress Maxine Elliott (b. 1873), whom he married in
+1898; this marriage was dissolved in 1908.
+
+
+
+
+GOODWIN, THOMAS (1600-1680), English Nonconformist divine, was born at
+Rollesby, Norfolk, on the 5th of October 1600, and was educated at
+Christ's College, Cambridge, where in 1616 he graduated B.A. In 1619 he
+removed to Catharine Hall, where in 1620 he was elected fellow. In 1625
+he was licensed a preacher of the university; and three years afterwards
+he became lecturer of Trinity Church, to the vicarage of which he was
+presented by the king in 1632. Worried by his bishop, who was a zealous
+adherent of Laud, he resigned all his preferments and left the university
+in 1634. He lived for some time in London, where in 1638 he married the
+daughter of an alderman; but in the following year he withdrew to
+Holland, and for some time was pastor of a small congregation of English
+merchants and refugees at Arnheim. Returning to London soon after Laud's
+impeachment by the Long Parliament, he ministered for some years to the
+Independent congregation meeting at Paved Alley Church, Lime Street, in
+the parish of St Dunstan's-in-the-East, and rapidly rose to considerable
+eminence as a preacher; in 1643 he was chosen a member of the Westminster
+Assembly, and at once identified himself with the Congregational party,
+generally referred to in contemporary documents as "the dissenting
+brethren." He frequently preached by appointment before the Commons, and
+in January 1650 his talents and learning were rewarded by the House with
+the presidentship of Magdalen College, Oxford, a post which he held until
+the Restoration. He rose into high favour with the protector, and was one
+of his intimate advisers, attending him on his death-bed. He was also a
+commissioner for the inventory of the Westminster Assembly, 1650, and for
+the approbation of preachers, 1653, and together with John Owen (q.v.)
+drew up an amended Westminster Confession in 1658. From 1660 until his
+death on the 23rd of February 1680 he lived in London, and devoted
+himself exclusively to theological study and to the pastoral charge of
+the Fetter Lane Independent Church.
+
+  The works published by Goodwin during his lifetime consist chiefly of
+  sermons printed by order of the House of Commons; but he was also
+  associated with Philip Nye and others in the preparation of the
+  _Apologeticall Narration_ (1643). His collected writings, which
+  include expositions of the Epistle to the Ephesians and of the
+  Apocalypse, were published in five folio volumes between 1681 and
+  1704, and were reprinted in twelve 8vo volumes (Edin., 1861-1866).
+  Characterized by abundant yet one-sided reading, remarkable at once
+  for the depth and for the narrowness of their observation and
+  spiritual experience, often admirably thorough in their workmanship,
+  yet in style intolerably prolix--they fairly exemplify both the merits
+  and the defects of the special school of religious thought to which
+  they belong. Calamy's estimate of Goodwin's qualities may be quoted as
+  both friendly and just. "He was a considerable scholar and an eminent
+  divine, and had a very happy faculty in descanting upon Scripture so
+  as to bring forth surprising remarks, which yet generally tended to
+  illustration." A memoir, derived from his own papers, by his son
+  (Thomas Goodwin, "the younger," 1650?-1716?, Independent minister at
+  London and Pinner, and author of the _History of the Reign of Henry
+  V._) is prefixed to the fifth volume of his collected works; as a
+  "patriarch and Atlas of Independency" he is also noticed by Anthony
+  Wood in the _Athenae Oxonienses_. An amusing sketch, from Addison's
+  point of view, of the austere and somewhat fanatical president of
+  Magdalen is preserved in No. 494 of the _Spectator_.
+
+
+
+
+GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON (1831-   ), American classical scholar, was born
+in Concord, Massachusetts, on the 9th of May 1831. He graduated at
+Harvard in 1851, studied in Germany, was tutor in Greek at Harvard in
+1856-1860, and Eliot professor of Greek there from 1860 until his
+resignation in 1901. He became an overseer of Harvard in 1903. In
+1882-1883 he was the first director of the American School for Classical
+Studies at Athens. Goodwin edited the _Panegyricus_ of Isocrates (1864)
+and Demosthenes _On The Crown_ (1901); and assisted in preparing the
+seventh edition of Liddell and Scott's _Greek-English Lexicon_. He
+revised an English version by several writers of _Plutarch's Morals_ (5
+vols., 1871; 6th ed., 1889), and published the Greek text with literal
+English version of Aeschylus' _Agamemnon_ (1906) for the Harvard
+production of that play in June 1906. As a teacher he did much to raise
+the tone of classical reading from that of a mechanical exercise to
+literary study. But his most important work was his _Syntax of the Moods
+and Tenses of the Greek Verb_ (1860), of which the seventh revised
+edition appeared in 1877 and another (enlarged) in 1890. This was "based
+in part on Madvig and Krüger," but, besides making accessible to
+American students the works of these continental grammarians, it
+presented original matter, including a "radical innovation in the
+classification of conditional sentences," notably the "distinction
+between particular and general suppositions." Goodwin's _Greek Grammar_
+(elementary edition, 1870; enlarged 1879; revised and enlarged 1892)
+gradually superseded in most American schools the _Grammar_ of Hadley
+and Allen. Both the _Moods and Tenses_ and the _Grammar_ in later
+editions are largely dependent on the theories of Gildersleeve for
+additions and changes. Goodwin also wrote a few elaborate syntactical
+studies, to be found in _Harvard Studies in Classical Philology_, the
+twelfth volume of which was dedicated to him upon the completion of
+fifty years as an alumnus of Harvard and forty-one years as Eliot
+professor.
+
+
+
+
+GOODWIN SANDS, a dangerous line of shoals at the entrance to the Strait
+of Dover from the North Sea, about 6 m. from the Kent coast of England,
+from which they are separated by the anchorage of the Downs. For this
+they form a shelter. They are partly exposed at low water, but the sands
+are shifting, and in spite of lights and bell-buoys the Goodwins are
+frequently the scene of wrecks, while attempts to erect a lighthouse or
+beacon have failed. Tradition finds in the Goodwins the remnant of an
+island called Lomea, which belonged to Earl Godwine in the first half of
+the 11th century, and was afterwards submerged, when the funds devoted
+to its protection were diverted to build the church steeple at Tenterden
+(q.v.). Four lightships mark the limits of the sands, and also signal by
+rockets to the lifeboat stations on the coast when any vessel is in
+distress on the sands. Perhaps the most terrible catastrophe recorded
+here was the wreck of thirteen ships of war during a great storm in
+November 1703.
+
+
+
+
+GOODWOOD, a mansion in the parish of Boxgrove, in the Chichester
+parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 4 m. N.E. of Chichester. It
+was built from designs of Sir William Chambers with additions by Wyatt,
+after the purchase of the property by the first duke of Richmond in
+1720. The park is in a hilly district, and is enriched with magnificent
+trees of many varieties, including some huge cedars. In it is a building
+containing a Roman slab recording the construction of a temple to
+Minerva and Neptune at Chichester. There is mention of a British
+tributary prince named Cogidubnus, who perhaps served also as a Roman
+official. A reference to early Christianity in Britain has been
+erroneously read into this inscription. On the racecourse a famous
+annual meeting, dating from 1802, is held in July. The parish church of
+SS. Mary and Blaize, Boxgrove, is almost entirely a rich specimen of
+Early English work.
+
+
+
+
+GOODYEAR, CHARLES (1800-1860), American inventor, was born at New Haven,
+Connecticut, on the 29th of December 1800, the son of Amasa Goodyear, an
+inventor (especially of farming implements) and a pioneer in the
+manufacture of hardware in America. The family removed to Naugatuck,
+Conn., when Charles was a boy; he worked in his father's button factory
+and studied at home until 1816, when he apprenticed himself to a firm of
+hardware merchants in Philadelphia. In 1821 he returned to Connecticut
+and entered into a partnership with his father at Naugatuck, which
+continued till 1830, when it was terminated by business reverses.
+Already he was interested in an attempt to discover a method of
+treatment by which india-rubber could be made into merchandizable
+articles that would stand extremes of heat and cold. To the solution of
+this problem the next ten years of his life were devoted. With ceaseless
+energy and unwavering faith in the successful outcome of his labours, in
+the face of repeated failures and hampered by poverty, which several
+times led him to a debtor's prison, he persevered in his endeavours. For
+a time he seemed to have succeeded with a treatment (or "cure") of the
+rubber with _aqua fortis_. In 1836 he secured a contract for the
+manufacture by this process of mail bags for the U.S. government, but
+the rubber fabric was useless at high temperatures. In 1837 he met and
+worked with Nathaniel Hayward (1808-1865), who had been an employee of a
+rubber factory in Roxbury and had made experiments with sulphur mixed
+with rubber. Goodyear bought from Hayward the right to use this
+imperfect process. In 1839, by dropping on a hot stove some india-rubber
+mixed with sulphur, he discovered accidentally the process for the
+vulcanization of rubber. Two years more passed before he could find any
+one who had faith enough in his discovery to invest money in it. At
+last, in 1844, by which time he had perfected his process, his first
+patent was granted, and in the subsequent years more than sixty patents
+were granted to him for the application of his original process to
+various uses. Numerous infringements had to be fought in the courts, the
+decisive victory coming in 1852 in the case of _Goodyear_ v. _Day_, in
+which his rights were defended by Daniel Webster and opposed by Rufus
+Choate. In 1852 he went to England, where articles made under his
+patents had been displayed at the International Exhibition of 1851, but
+he was unable to establish factories there. In France a company for the
+manufacture of vulcanized rubber by his process failed, and in December
+1855 he was arrested and imprisoned for debt in Paris. Owing to the
+expense of the litigation in which he was engaged and to bad business
+management, he profited little from his inventions. He died in New York
+City on the 1st of July 1860. He wrote an account of his discovery
+entitled _Gum-Elastic and its Varieties_ (2 vols., New Haven,
+1853-1855).
+
+  See also B. K. Peirce, _Trials of an Inventor, Life and Discoveries of
+  Charles Goodyear_ (New York, 1866); James Parton, _Famous Americans of
+  Recent Times_ (Boston, 1867); and Herbert L. Terry, _India Rubber and
+  its Manufacture_ (New York, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+GOOGE, BARNABE (1540-1594), English poet, son of Robert Googe, recorder
+of Lincoln, was born on the 11th of June 1540 at Alvingham,
+Lincolnshire. He studied at Christ's College, Cambridge, and at New
+College, Oxford, but does not seem to have taken a degree at either
+university. He afterwards removed to Staple's Inn, and was attached to
+the household of his kinsman, Sir William Cecil. In 1563 he became a
+gentleman pensioner to Queen Elizabeth. He was absent in Spain when his
+poems were sent to the printer by a friend, L. Blundeston. Googe then
+gave his consent, and they appeared in 1563 as _Eglogs, Epytaphes, and
+Sonettes_. There is extant a curious correspondence on the subject of
+his marriage with Mary Darrell, whose father refused Googe's suit on the
+ground that she was bound by a previous contract. The matter was decided
+by the intervention of Sir William Cecil with Archbishop Parker, and the
+marriage took place in 1564 or 1565. Googe was provost-marshal of the
+court of Connaught, and some twenty letters of his in this capacity are
+preserved in the record office. He died in February 1594. He was an
+ardent Protestant, and his poetry is coloured by his religious and
+political views. In the third "Eglog," for instance, he laments the
+decay of the old nobility and the rise of a new aristocracy of wealth,
+and he gives an indignant account of the sufferings of his
+co-religionists under Mary. The other eclogues deal with the sorrows of
+earthly love, leading up to a dialogue between Corydon and Cornix, in
+which the heavenly love is extolled. The volume includes epitaphs on
+Nicholas Grimald, John Bale and on Thomas Phaer, whose translation of
+Virgil Googe is uncritical enough to prefer to the versions of Surrey
+and of Gavin Douglas. A much more charming pastoral than any of those
+contained in this volume, "Phyllida was a fayer maid" (_Tottel's
+Miscellany_) has been ascribed to Barnabe Googe. He was one of the
+earliest English pastoral poets, and the first who was inspired by
+Spanish romance, being considerably indebted to the _Diana Enamorada_ of
+Montemayor.
+
+  His other works include a translation from Marcellus Palingenius (said
+  to be an anagram for Pietro Angelo Manzolli) of a satirical Latin
+  poem, _Zodiacus vitae_ (Venice, 1531?), in twelve books, under the
+  title of _The Zodyake of Life_ (1560); _The Popish Kingdome, or reign
+  of Antichrist_ (1570), translated from Thomas Kirchmayer or
+  Naogeorgus; _The Spiritual Husbandrie_ from the same author, printed
+  with the last; _Foure Bookes of Husbandrie_ (1577), collected by
+  Conradus Heresbachius; and _The Proverbes of ... Lopes de Mendoza_
+  (1579).
+
+
+
+
+GOOLE, a market town and port in the Osgoldcross parliamentary division
+of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, at the confluence of the Don
+and the Ouse, 24 m. W. by S. from Hull, served by the North Eastern,
+Lancashire & Yorkshire, Great Central and Asholme joint railways. Pop.
+of urban district (1901) 16,576. The town owes its existence to the
+construction of the Knottingley canal in 1826 by the Aire and Calder
+Navigation Company, after which, in 1829, Goole was made a bonding port.
+Previously it had been an obscure hamlet. The port was administratively
+combined with that of Hull in 1885. It is 47 m. from the North Sea
+(mouth of the Humber), and a wide system of inland navigation opens from
+it. There are eight docks supplied with timber ponds, quays, warehouses
+and other accommodation. The depth of water is 21 or 22 ft. at high
+water, spring tides. Chief exports are coal, stone, woollen goods and
+machinery; imports, butter, fruit, indigo, logwood, timber and wool.
+Industries include the manufacture of alum, sugar, rope and agricultural
+instruments, and iron-founding. Ship-building is also carried on, and
+there is a large dry dock and a patent slip for repairing vessels.
+Passenger steamship services are worked in connexion with the Lancashire
+& Yorkshire railway to Amsterdam, Antwerp, Bruges, Copenhagen, Rotterdam
+and other north European ports. The handsome church of St John the
+Evangelist, with a lofty tower and spire, dates from 1844.
+
+
+
+
+GOOSE (a common Teut. word, O. Eng. _gós_, pl. _gés_, Ger. _Gans_, O.
+Norse _gás_, from Aryan root, _ghans_, whence Sans. _hansá_, Lat.
+_anser_ (for _hanser_), Gr. [Greek: chên], &c.), the general English
+name for a considerable number of birds, belonging to the family
+_Anatidae_ of modern ornithologists, which are mostly larger than ducks
+and less than swans. Technically the word goose is reserved for the
+female, the male being called gander (A.-S. _gandra_).
+
+The most important species of goose, and the type of the genus _Anser_,
+is undoubtedly that which is the origin of the well-known domestic race
+(see POULTRY), the _Anser ferus_ or _A. cinereus_ of most naturalists,
+commonly called in English the grey or grey lag[1] goose, a bird of
+exceedingly wide range in the Old World, apparently breeding where
+suitable localities are to be found in most European countries from
+Lapland to Spain and Bulgaria. Eastwards it extends to China, but does
+not seem to be known in Japan. It is the only species indigenous to the
+British Islands, and in former days bred abundantly in the English
+Fen-country, where the young were caught in large numbers and kept in a
+more or less reclaimed condition with the vast flocks of tame-bred geese
+that at one time formed so valuable a property to the dwellers in and
+around the Fens. It is impossible to determine when the wild grey lag
+goose ceased from breeding in England, but it certainly did so towards
+the end of the 18th century, for Daniell mentions (_Rural Sports_, iii.
+242) his having obtained two broods in one season. In Scotland this
+goose continues to breed sparingly in several parts of the Highlands and
+in certain of the Hebrides, the nests being generally placed in long
+heather, and the eggs seldom exceeding five or six in number. It is most
+likely the birds reared here that are from time to time obtained in
+England, for at the present day the grey lag goose, though once so
+numerous, is, and for many years has been, the rarest species of those
+that habitually resort to the British Islands. The domestication of this
+species, as Darwin remarks (_Animals and Plants under Domestication_, i.
+287), is of very ancient date, and yet scarcely any other animal that
+has been tamed for so long a period, and bred so largely in captivity,
+has varied so little. It has increased greatly in size and fecundity,
+but almost the only change in plumage is that tame geese commonly lose
+the browner and darker tints of the wild bird, and are more or less
+marked with white--being often indeed wholly of that colour.[2] The most
+generally recognized breeds of domestic geese are those to which the
+distinctive names of Emden and Toulouse are applied; but a singular
+breed, said to have come from Sevastopol, was introduced into western
+Europe about the year 1856. In this the upper plumage is elongated,
+curled and spirally twisted, having their shaft transparent, and so thin
+that it often splits into fine filaments, which, remaining free for an
+inch or more, often coalesce again;[3] while the quills are aborted, so
+that the birds cannot fly.
+
+The other British species of typical geese are the bean-goose (_A.
+segetum_), the pink-footed (_A. brachyrhynchus_) and the white-fronted
+(_A. albifrons_). On the continent of Europe, but not yet recognized as
+occurring in Britain, is a small form of the last (_A. erythropus_)
+which is known to breed in Lapland. All these, for the sake of
+discrimination, may be divided into _two_ groups--(1) those having the
+"nail" at the tip of the bill white, or of a very pale flesh colour, and
+(2) those in which this "nail" is black. To the former belong the grey
+lag goose, as well as _A. albifrons_ and _A. erythropus_, and to the
+latter the other two. _A. albifrons_ and _A. erythropus_, which differ
+little but in size,--the last being not much bigger than a mallard
+(_Anas boschas_),--may be readily distinguished from the grey lag goose
+by their bright orange legs and their mouse-coloured upper wing-coverts,
+to say nothing of their very conspicuous white face and the broad black
+bars which cross the belly, though the last two characters are
+occasionally observable to some extent in the grey lag goose, which has
+the bill and legs flesh-coloured, and the upper wing-coverts of a
+bluish-grey. Of the second group, with the black "nail," _A. segetum_
+has the bill long, black at the base and orange in the middle; the feet
+are also orange, and the upper wing-coverts mouse-coloured, as in _A.
+albifrons_ and _A. erythropus_, while _A. brachyrhynchus_ has the bill
+short, bright pink in the middle, and the feet also pink, the upper
+wing-coverts being nearly of the same bluish-grey as in the grey lag
+goose. Eastern Asia possesses in _A. grandis_ a third species of this
+group, which chiefly differs from _A. segetum_ in its larger size. In
+North America there is only one species of typical goose, and that
+belongs to the white-"nailed" group. It very nearly resembles _A.
+albifrons_, but is larger, and has been described as distinct under the
+name of _A. gambeli_. Central Asia and India possess in the bar-headed
+goose (_A. indicus_) a bird easily distinguished from any of the
+foregoing by the character implied by its English name; but it is
+certainly somewhat abnormal, and, indeed, under the name of _Eulabia_,
+has been separated from the genus _Anser_, which has no other member
+indigenous to the Indian Region, nor any at all to the Ethiopian,
+Australian or Neotropical Regions.
+
+America possesses by far the greatest wealth of Anserine forms. Beside
+others, presently to be mentioned, its northern portions are the home of
+all the species of snow-geese belonging to the genus _Chen_. The first
+of these is _C. hyperboreus_, the snow-goose proper, a bird of large
+size, and when adult of a pure white, except the primaries, which are
+black. This has long been deemed a visitor to the Old World, and
+sometimes in considerable numbers, but the later discovery of a smaller
+form, _C. albatus_, scarcely differing except in size, throws some doubt
+on the older records, especially since examples which have been obtained
+in the British Islands undoubtedly belong to this lesser bird, and it
+would be satisfactory to have the occurrence in the Old World of the
+true _C. hyperboreus_ placed on a surer footing. So nearly allied to the
+species last named as to have been often confounded with it, is the
+blue-winged goose, _C. coerulescens_, which is said never to attain a
+snowy plumage. Then we have a very small species, long ago described as
+distinct by Samuel Hearne, the Arctic traveller, but until 1861
+discredited by ornithologists. Its distinctness has now been fully
+recognized, and it has received, somewhat unjustly, the name of _C.
+rossi_. Its face is adorned with numerous papillae, whence it has been
+removed by Elliot to a separate genus, _Exanthemops_, and for the same
+reason it has long been known to the European residents in the fur
+countries as the "horned wavey"--the last word being a rendering of a
+native name, _Wawa_, which signifies goose. Finally, there appears to
+belong to this section, though it has been frequently referred to
+another (_Chloephaga_), and has also been made the type of a distinct
+genus (_Philacte_), the beautiful emperor goose, _P. canagica_, which is
+almost peculiar to the Aleutian Islands, though straying to the
+continent in winter, and may be recognized by the white edging of its
+remiges.
+
+The southern portions of the New World are inhabited by about half a
+dozen species of geese not nearly akin to the foregoing, and separated
+as the genus _Chloephaga_. The most noticeable of them are the rock or
+kelp goose, _C. antarctica_, and the upland goose, _C. magellanica_. In
+both of these the sexes are totally unlike in colour, but in others a
+greater similarity obtains.[4] Formerly erroneously associated with the
+birds of this group comes one which belongs to the northern hemisphere,
+and is common to the Old World as well as the New. It contains the geese
+which have received the common names of bernacles or brents,[5] and the
+scientific appellations of _Bernicla_ and _Branta_--for the use of
+either of which much may be said by nomenclaturists. All the species of
+this section are distinguished by their general dark sooty colour,
+relieved in some by white of greater or less purity, and by way of
+distinction from the members of the genus _Anser_, which are known as
+grey geese, are frequently called by fowlers black geese. Of these, the
+best known both in Europe and North America is the brent-goose--the
+_Anas bernicla_ of Linnaeus, and the _B. torquata_ of many modern
+writers--a truly marine bird, seldom (in Europe at least) quitting
+salt-water, and coming southwards in vast flocks towards autumn,
+frequenting bays and estuaries on the British coasts, where it lives
+chiefly on sea-grass (_Zostera maritima_). It is known to breed in
+Spitsbergen and in Greenland. A form which is by some ornithologists
+deemed a good species, and called by them _B. nigricans_, occurs chiefly
+on the Pacific coast of North America. In it the black of the neck,
+which in the common brent terminates just above the breast, extends over
+most of the lower parts. The true bernacle-goose,[6] the _B. leucopsis_
+of most authors, is but a casual visitor to North America, but is said
+to breed in Iceland, and occasionally in Norway. Its usual _incunabula_,
+however, still form one of the puzzles of the ornithologist, and the
+difficulty is not lessened by the fact that it will breed freely in
+semi-captivity, while the brent-goose will not. From the latter the
+bernacle-goose is easily distinguished by its larger size and white
+cheeks. Hutchins's goose (_B. Hutchinsi_) seems to be its true
+representative in the New World. In this the face is dark, but a white
+crescentic or triangular patch extends from the throat on either side
+upwards behind the eye. Almost exactly similar in coloration to the
+last, but greatly superior in size, and possessing 18 rectrices, while
+all the foregoing have but 16, is the common wild goose of America, _B.
+canadensis_, which, for more than two centuries has been introduced into
+Europe, where it propagates so freely that it has been included by
+nearly all the ornithologists of this quarter of the globe as a member
+of its fauna. An allied form, by some deemed a species, is _B.
+leucopareia_, which ranges over the western part of North America, and,
+though having 18 rectrices, is distinguished by a white collar round the
+lower part of the neck. The most diverse species of this group of geese
+are the beautiful _B. ruficollis_, a native of north-eastern Asia, which
+occasionally strays to western Europe, and has been obtained more than
+once in Britain, and that which is peculiar to the Hawaian archipelago,
+_B. sandvicensis_.
+
+The largest living goose is that called the Chinese, Guinea or
+swan-goose, _Cygnopsis cygnoides_, and this is the stock whence the
+domestic geese of several eastern countries have sprung. It may often be
+seen in English parks, and it is found to cross readily with the common
+tame goose, the offspring being fertile, and Blyth has said that these
+crosses are very abundant in India. The true home of the species is in
+eastern Siberia or Mongolia. It is distinguished by its long smooth
+neck, marked dorsally by a chocolate streak. The reclaimed form is
+usually distinguished by the knob at the base of the bill, but the
+evidence of many observers shows that this is not found in the wild
+race. Of this bird there is a perfectly white breed.
+
+We have next to mention a very curious form, _Cereopsis
+novae-hollandiae_, which is peculiar to Australia, and is a more
+terrestrial type of goose than any other now existing. Its short,
+decurved bill and green cere give it a very peculiar expression, and its
+almost uniform grey plumage, bearing rounded black spots, is also
+remarkable. It bears captivity well, breeding in confinement, but is now
+seldom seen. It appears to have been formerly very abundant in many
+parts of Australia, from which it has of late been exterminated. Some of
+its peculiarities seem to have been still more exaggerated in a bird
+that is wholly extinct, the _Cnemiornis calcitrans_ of New Zealand, the
+remains of which were described in full by Sir R. Owen in 1873 (_Trans.
+Zool. Society_, ix. 253). Among the first portions of this singular bird
+that were found were the _tibiae_, presenting an extraordinary
+development of the _patella_, which, united with the shank-bone, gave
+rise to the generic name applied. For some time the affinity of the
+owner of this wonderful structure was in doubt, but all hesitation was
+dispelled by the discovery of a nearly perfect skeleton, now in the
+British Museum, which proved the bird to be a goose, of great size, and
+unable, from the shortness of its wings, to fly. In correlation with
+this loss of power may also be noted the dwindling of the keel of the
+sternum. Generally, however, its osteological characters point to an
+affinity to _Cereopsis_, as was noticed by Dr Hector (_Trans. New Zeal.
+Institute_, vi. 76-84), who first determined its Anserine character.
+
+Birds of the genera _Chenalopex_ (the Egyptian and Orinoco geese),
+_Plectropterus_, _Sarcidiornis_, _Chlamydochen_ and some others, are
+commonly called geese. It seems uncertain whether they should be grouped
+with the _Anserinae_. The males of all, like those of the
+above-mentioned genus _Chloëphaga_, appear to have that curious
+enlargement at the junction of the bronchial tubes and the trachea which
+is so characteristic of the ducks or _Anatinae_.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The meaning and derivation of this word _lag_ had long been a
+    puzzle until Skeat suggested (_Ibis_, 1870, p. 301) that it signified
+    late, last, or slow, as in _laggard_, a loiterer, _lagman_, the last
+    man, _lagteeth_, the posterior molar or "wisdom" teeth (as the last
+    to appear), and _lagclock_, a clock that is behind time. Thus the
+    grey lag goose is the grey goose which in England when the name was
+    given was not migratory but _lagged_ behind the other wild species at
+    the season when they betook themselves to their northern
+    breeding-quarters. In connexion with this word, however, must be
+    noticed the curious fact mentioned by Rowley (_Orn. Miscell._, iii.
+    213), that the flocks of tame geese in Lincolnshire are urged on by
+    their drivers with the cry of "lag'em, lag'em."
+
+  [2] From the times of the Romans white geese have been held in great
+    estimation, and hence, doubtless, they have been preferred as
+    breeding stock, but the practice of plucking geese alive, continued
+    for so many centuries, has not improbably also helped to perpetuate
+    this variation, for it is well known to many bird-keepers that a
+    white feather is often produced in place of one of the natural colour
+    that has been pulled out.
+
+  [3] In some English counties, especially Norfolk and Lincoln, it was
+    no uncommon thing formerly for a man to keep a stock of a thousand
+    geese, each of which might be reckoned to rear on an average seven
+    goslings. The flocks were regularly taken to pasture and water, just
+    as sheep are, and the man who tended them was called the gooseherd,
+    corrupted into gozzerd. The birds were plucked five times in the
+    year, and in autumn the flocks were driven to London or other large
+    markets. They travelled at the rate of about a mile an hour, and
+    would get over nearly 10 m. in the day. For further particulars the
+    reader may be referred to Pennant's _British Zoology_; Montagu's
+    _Ornithological Dictionary_; Latham's _General History of Birds_; and
+    Rowley's _Ornithological Miscellany_ (iii. 206-215), where some
+    account also may be found of the goose-fatting at Strassburg.
+
+  [4] See Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Society (1876), pp. 361-369.
+
+  [5] The etymology of these two words is exceedingly obscure. The
+    ordinary spelling bernicle seems to be wrong, if we may judge from
+    the analogy of the French _Bernache_. In both words the _e_ should be
+    sounded as _a_.
+
+  [6] The old fable, perhaps still believed by the uneducated in some
+    parts of the world, was that bernacle-geese were produced from the
+    barnacles (_Lepadidae_) that grow on timber exposed to salt-water.
+
+
+
+
+GOOSE (GAME OF), an ancient French game, said to have been derived from
+the Greeks, very popular at the close of the middle ages. It was played
+on a piece of card-board upon which was drawn a fantastic scroll, called
+the _jardin de l'Oie_ (goose-garden), divided into 63 spaces marked with
+certain emblems, such as dice, an inn, a bridge, a labyrinth, &c. The
+emblem inscribed on 1 and 63, as well as every ninth space between, was
+a goose. The object was to land one's counter in number 63, the number
+of spaces moved through being determined by throwing two dice. The
+counter was advanced or retired according to the space on which it was
+placed. For instance if it rested on the inn it must remain there until
+each adversary, of which there might be several, had played twice; if it
+rested on the _death's head_ the player must begin over again; if it
+went beyond 63 it must be retired a certain number of spaces. The game
+was usually played for a stake, and special fines were exacted for
+resting on certain spaces. At the end of the 18th century a variation of
+the game was called the _jeu de la Révolution Française_.
+
+
+
+
+GOOSEBERRY, _Ribes Grossularia_, a well-known fruit-bush of northern and
+central Europe, placed in the same genus of the natural order to which
+it gives name (Ribesiaceae) as the closely allied currants. It forms a
+distinct section _Grossularia_, the members of which differ from the
+true currents chiefly in their spinous stems, and in their flowers
+growing on short footstalks, solitary, or two or three together, instead
+of in racemes.
+
+The wild gooseberry is a small, straggling bush, nearly resembling the
+cultivated plant,--the branches being thickly set with sharp spines,
+standing out singly or in diverging tufts of two or three from the bases
+of the short spurs or lateral leaf shoots, on which the bell-shaped
+flowers are produced, singly or in pairs, from the groups of rounded,
+deeply-crenated 3- or 5-lobed leaves. The fruit is smaller than in the
+garden kinds, but is often of good flavour; it is generally hairy, but
+in one variety smooth, constituting the _R. Uva-crispa_ of writers; the
+colour is usually green, but plants are occasionally met with having
+deep purple berries. The gooseberry is indigenous in Europe and western
+Asia, growing naturally in alpine thickets and rocky woods in the lower
+country, from France eastward, perhaps as far as the Himalaya. In
+Britain it is often found in copses and hedgerows and about old ruins,
+but has been so long a plant of cultivation that it is difficult to
+decide upon its claim to a place in the native flora of the island.
+Common as it is now on some of the lower slopes of the Alps of Piedmont
+and Savoy, it is uncertain whether the Romans were acquainted with the
+gooseberry, though it may possibly be alluded to in a vague passage of
+Pliny: the hot summers of Italy, in ancient times as at present, would
+be unfavourable to its cultivation. Abundant in Germany and France, it
+does not appear to have been much grown there in the middle ages, though
+the wild fruit was held in some esteem medicinally for the cooling
+properties of its acid juice in fevers; while the old English name,
+_Fea-berry_, still surviving in some provincial dialects, indicates that
+it was similarly valued in Britain, where it was planted in gardens at a
+comparatively early period. William Turner describes the gooseberry in
+his _Herball_, written about the middle of the 16th century, and a few
+years later it is mentioned in one of Thomas Tusser's quaint rhymes as
+an ordinary object of garden culture. Improved varieties were probably
+first raised by the skilful gardeners of Holland, whose name for the
+fruit, _Kruisbezie_, may have been easily corrupted into the present
+English vernacular word.[1] Towards the end of the 18th century the
+gooseberry became a favourite object of cottage-horticulture, especially
+in Lancashire, where the working cotton-spinners have raised numerous
+varieties from seed, their efforts having been chiefly directed to
+increasing the size of the fruit. Of the many hundred sorts enumerated
+in recent horticultural works, few perhaps equal in flavour some of the
+older denizens of the fruit-garden, such as the "old rough red" and
+"hairy amber." The climate of the British Islands seems peculiarly
+adapted to bring the gooseberry to perfection, and it may be grown
+successfully even in the most northern parts of Scotland; indeed, the
+flavour of the fruit is said to improve with increasing latitude. In
+Norway even, the bush flourishes in gardens on the west coast nearly up
+to the Arctic circle, and it is found wild as far north as 63°. The dry
+summers of the French and German plains are less suited to it, though it
+is grown in some hilly districts with tolerable success. The gooseberry
+in the south of England will grow well in cool situations, and may be
+sometimes seen in gardens near London flourishing under the partial
+shade of apple trees; but in the north it needs full exposure to the sun
+to bring the fruit to perfection. It will succeed in almost any soil,
+but prefers a rich loam or black alluvium, and, though naturally a plant
+of rather dry places, will do well in moist land, if drained.
+
+The varieties are most easily propagated by cuttings planted in the
+autumn, which root rapidly, and in a few years form good fruit-bearing
+bushes. Much difference of opinion prevails regarding the mode of
+pruning this valuable shrub; it is probable that in different situations
+it may require varying treatment. The fruit being borne on the lateral
+spurs, and on the shoots of the last year, it is the usual practice to
+shorten the side branches in the winter, before the buds begin to
+expand; some reduce the longer leading shoots at the same time, while
+others prefer to nip off the ends of these in the summer while they are
+still succulent. When large fruit is desired, plenty of manure should
+be supplied to the roots, and the greater portion of the berries picked
+off while still small. If standards are desired, the gooseberry may be
+with advantage grafted or budded on stocks of some other species of
+_Ribes_, _R. aureum_, the ornamental golden currant of the flower
+garden, answering well for the purpose. The giant gooseberries of the
+Lancashire "fanciers" are obtained by the careful culture of varieties
+specially raised with this object, the growth being encouraged by
+abundant manuring, and the removal of all but a very few berries from
+each plant. Single gooseberries of nearly 2 oz. in weight have been
+occasionally exhibited; but the produce of such fanciful horticulture is
+generally insipid. The bushes at times suffer much from the ravages of
+the caterpillars of the gooseberry or magpie moth, _Abraxas
+grossulariata_, which often strip the branches of leaves in the early
+summer, if not destroyed before the mischief is accomplished. The most
+effectual way of getting rid of this pretty but destructive insect is to
+look over each bush carefully, and pick off the larvae by hand; when
+larger they may be shaken off by striking the branches, but by that time
+the harm is generally done--the eggs are laid on the leaves of the
+previous season. Equally annoying in some years is the smaller larva of
+the V-moth, _Halias vanaria_, which often appears in great numbers, and
+is not so readily removed. The gooseberry is sometimes attacked by the
+grub of the gooseberry sawfly, _Nematus ribesii_, of which several
+broods appear in the course of the spring and summer, and are very
+destructive. The grubs bury themselves in the ground to pass into the
+pupal state; the first brood of flies, hatched just as the bushes are
+coming into leaf in the spring, lay their eggs on the lower side of the
+leaves, where the small greenish larvae soon after emerge. For the
+destruction of the first broods it has been recommended to syringe the
+bushes with tar-water; perhaps a very weak solution of carbolic acid
+might prove more effective. The powdered root of white hellebore is said
+to destroy both this grub and the caterpillars of the gooseberry moth
+and V-moth; infusion of foxglove, and tobacco-water, are likewise tried
+by some growers. If the fallen leaves are carefully removed from the
+ground in the autumn and burnt, and the surface of the soil turned over
+with the fork or spade, most eggs and chrysalids will be destroyed.
+
+The gooseberry was introduced into the United States by the early
+settlers, and in some parts of New England large quantities of the green
+fruit are produced and sold for culinary use in the towns; but the
+excessive heat of the American summer is not adapted for the healthy
+maturation of the berries, especially of the English varieties. Perhaps
+if some of these, or those raised in the country, could be crossed with
+one of the indigenous species, kinds might be obtained better fitted for
+American conditions of culture, although the gooseberry does not readily
+hybridize. The attacks of the American gooseberry mildew have largely
+contributed to the failure of the crop in America.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--A Fungal Disease of the Gooseberry (_Aecidium
+Grossulariae_.)
+
+1, Leaf showing patches of cluster-cups on surface; 2, Fruit, showing
+same; 3, Cluster-cups much enlarged.]
+
+Occasionally the gooseberry is attacked by the fungus till recently
+called _Aecidium Grossulariae_, which forms little cups with white torn
+edges clustered together on reddish spots on the leaves or fruits (fig.
+1). It has recently been discovered that the spores contained in these
+cups will not reproduce the disease on the gooseberry, but infect
+species of _Carex_ (sedges) on which they produce a fungus of a totally
+different appearance. This stage in the life-history of the parasite
+gives its name to the whole fungus, so that it is now known as _Puccinia
+Pringsheimiana_. Both _uredospores_ and _teleutospores_ are formed on
+the sedge, and the latter live through the winter and produce the
+disease on the gooseberry in the succeeding year. In cases where the
+disease proves troublesome the sedges in the neighbourhood should be
+destroyed.
+
+[Illustration: From George Massee's _Text-Book of Plant Diseases_, by
+permission of Duckworth & Co.
+
+FIG. 2.--Gooseberry Mildew (Microsphaeria Grossulariae.)
+
+1, Leaf attacked by the fungus; 2, Fructification or _perithecium_; the
+end of one of its numerous appendages is shown more highly magnified in
+3, 4, 5, spore sacs (_asci_) from the _perithecium_, containing spores.]
+
+A much more prevalent disease is that caused by _Microsphaeria
+Grossulariae_. This is a mildew growing on the surface of the leaf and
+sending suckers into the epidermis. The white mycelium gives the leaves
+of the plant the appearance of having been whitewashed (fig. 2).
+Numerous white spores are produced in the summer which are able to
+germinate immediately, and later small blackish fruits (_perithecia_)
+are produced that pass uninjured through the winter liberating the
+spores they contain in the spring, which infect the young developing
+leaves of the bush. In bad cases the plants are greatly injured but
+frequently little harm is done. Attacked plants should be sprayed with
+potassium sulphide.
+
+[Illustration: From the _Journal of the Board of Agriculture_ (May
+1907), by permission of the Dept. of Agriculture and Technical
+Instruction for Ireland.
+
+FIG. 3A.--American Gooseberry Mildew (_Sphaerotheca mors-uvae_). Plant
+with leaves and fruit attacked by the fungus.]
+
+An allied fungus, _Sphaerotheca mors-uvae_, of much greater virulence,
+has recently appeared in England, causing the disease known as "American
+gooseberry mildew" (fig. 3A). In the main the mode of attack is similar
+to that of the last-mentioned, but not only are the leaves attacked, but
+the tips of the young shoots and the fruits become covered by the
+cobweb-like mycelium, the attack frequently resulting in the death of
+the shoots and the destruction of the fruits. After a time the mycelium
+becomes rusty brown and produces the winter form of the fungus. Through
+the winter the shoots are covered thickly with the brown mycelium and in
+the spring the spores contained in the perithecia germinate and start
+the infection anew, as in the case of the European mildew. This fungus
+has recently been the subject of legislation, and when it appears in a
+district strong repressive measures are called for. In bad cases the
+attacked bushes should be destroyed, while in milder attacks frequent
+spraying with potassium sulphide and the pruning off and immediate
+destruction by fire of all the young shoots showing the mildew should be
+resorted to.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3B.--1, Fructification (_perithecium_) bursting,
+ascus containing spores protruding; 2, Ascus with spores more highly
+magnified.]
+
+The gooseberry, when ripe, yields a fine wine by the fermentation of the
+juice with water and sugar, the resulting sparkling liquor retaining
+much of the flavour of the fruit. By similarly treating the juice of the
+green fruit, picked just before it ripens, an effervescing wine is
+produced, nearly resembling some kinds of champagne, and, when skilfully
+prepared, far superior to much of the liquor sold under that name.
+Brandy has been made from ripe gooseberries by distillation; by exposing
+the juice with sugar to the acetous fermentation a good vinegar may be
+obtained. The gooseberry, when perfectly ripe, contains a large quantity
+of sugar, most abundant in the red and amber varieties; in the former it
+amounts to from 6 to upwards of 8%. The acidity of the fruit is chiefly
+due to malic acid.
+
+Several other species of the sub-genus produce edible fruit, though none
+have as yet been brought under economic culture. Among them may be
+noticed _R. oxyacanthoides_ and _R. Cynosbati_, abundant in Canada and
+the northern parts of the United States, and _R. gracile_, common along
+the Alleghany range. The group is a widely distributed one in the north
+temperate zone,--one species is found in Europe extending to the
+Caucasus and North Africa (Atlas Mountains), five occur in Asia and
+nineteen in North America, the range extending southwards to Mexico and
+Guatemala.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The first part of the word has been usually treated as an
+    etymological corruption either of this Dutch word or the allied Ger.
+    _Krausbeere_, or of the earlier forms of the Fr. _groseille_. The
+    _New English Dictionary_ takes the obvious derivation from "goose"
+    and "berry" as probable; "the grounds on which plants and fruits have
+    received names associating them with animals are so commonly
+    inexplicable, that the want of appropriateness in the meaning affords
+    no sufficient ground for assuming that the word is an etymologizing
+    corruption." Skeat (_Etym. Dict._, 1898) connects the French, Dutch
+    and German words, and finds the origin in the M.H.G. _krus_, curling,
+    crisped, applied here to the hairs on the fruit. The French word was
+    latinized as _grossularia_ and confused with _groseus_, thick, fat.
+
+
+
+
+GOOTY, a town and hill fortress in southern India, in the Anantapur
+district of Madras, 48 m. E. of Bellary. Pop. (1901) 9682. The town is
+surrounded by a circle of rocky hills, connected by a wall. On the
+highest of these stands the citadel, 2100 ft. above sea-level and 1000
+ft. above the surrounding country. Here was the stronghold of Morari Rao
+Ghorpade, a famous Mahratta warrior and ally of the English, who was
+ultimately starved into surrender by Hayder Ali in 1775.
+
+
+
+
+GOPHER (_Testudo polyphemus_), the only living representative on the
+North American continent of the genus _Testudo_ of the family
+_Testudinidae_ or land tortoises; it occurs in the south-eastern parts
+of the United States, from Florida in the south to the river Savannah in
+the north. Its carapace, which is oblong and remarkably compressed,
+measures from 12-18 in. in extreme length, the shields which cover it
+being grooved, and of a yellow-brown colour. It is characterized by the
+shape of the front lobe of the plastron, which is bent upwards and
+extends beyond the carapace. The gopher abounds chiefly in the forests,
+but occasionally visits the open plains, where it does great damage,
+especially to the potato crops, on which it feeds. It is a nocturnal
+animal, remaining concealed by day in its deep burrow, and coming forth
+at night to feed. The eggs, five in number, almost round and 1½ in. in
+diameter, are laid in a separate cavity near the entrance. The flesh of
+the gopher or mungofa, as it is also called, is considered excellent
+eating.
+
+The name "gopher" is more commonly applied to certain small rodent
+mammals, particularly the pocket-gopher.
+
+
+
+
+GÖPPINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, on the
+right bank of the Fils, 22 m. E.S.E. of Stuttgart on the railway to
+Friedrichshafen. Pop. (1905) 20,870. It possesses a castle built, partly
+with stones from the ruined castle of Hohenstaufen, by Duke Christopher
+of Württemberg in the 16th century and now used as public offices, two
+Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a synagogue, a classical
+school, and a modern school. The manufactures are considerable and
+include linen and woollen cloth, leather, glue, paper and toys. There
+are machine shops and tanneries in the town. Three m. N. of the town are
+the ruins of the castle of Hohenstaufen. Göppingen originally belonged
+to the house of Hohenstaufen, and in 1270 came into possession of the
+counts of Württemberg. It was surrounded by walls in 1129, and was
+almost entirely rebuilt after a fire in 1782.
+
+  See Pfeiffer, _Beschreibung und Geschichte der Stadt Göppingen_
+  (1885).
+
+
+
+
+GORAKHPUR, a city, district and division of the United Provinces of
+British India. The city is situated on the left bank of the river Rapti.
+Pop. (1901) 64,148. It is believed to have been founded about 1400 A.D.
+It is the civil headquarters of the district and was formerly a military
+cantonment. It consists of a number of adjacent village sites, sometimes
+separated by cultivated land, and most of the inhabitants are
+agriculturists.
+
+The DISTRICT OF GORAKHPUR has an area of 4535 sq. m. It lies immediately
+south of the lower Himalayan slopes, but itself forms a portion of the
+great alluvial plain. Only a few sandhills break the monotony of its
+level surface, which is, however, intersected by numerous rivers studded
+with lakes and marshes. In the north and centre dense forests abound,
+and the whole country has a verdant appearance. The principal rivers are
+the Rapti, the Gogra, the Gandak and Little Gandak, the Kuana, the
+Rohin, the Ami and the Gunghi. Tigers are found in the north, and many
+other wild animals abound throughout the district. The lakes are well
+stocked with fish. The district is not subject to very intense heat,
+from which it is secured by its vicinity to the hills and the moisture
+of its soil. Dust-storms are rare, and cool breezes from the north,
+rushing down the gorges of the Himalayas, succeed each short interval of
+warm weather. The climate is, however, relaxing. The southern and
+eastern portions are as healthy as most parts of the province, but the
+_tarai_ and forest-tracts are still subject to malaria.
+
+Gautama Buddha, the founder of the religion bearing his name, was born,
+and died near the boundaries of the district. From the beginning of the
+6th century the country was the scene of a continuous struggle between
+the Bhars and their Aryan antagonists, the Rathors. About 900 the
+Domhatars or military Brahmans appeared, and expelled the Rathors from
+the town of Gorakhpur, but they also were soon driven back by other
+invaders. During the 15th and 16th centuries, after the district had
+been desolated by incessant war, the descendants of the various
+conquerors held parts of the territory, and each seems to have lived
+quite isolated, as no bridges or roads attest any intercourse with each
+other. Towards the end of the 16th century Mussulmans occupied Gorakhpur
+town, but they interfered very little with the district, and allowed it
+to be controlled by the native rajas. In the middle of the 18th century
+a formidable foe, the Banjaras from the west, so weakened the power of
+the rajas that they could not resist the fiscal exactions of the Oudh
+officials, who plundered the country to a great extent. The district
+formed part of the territory ceded by Oudh to the British under the
+treaty of 1801. During the Mutiny it was lost for a short time, but
+under the friendly Gurkhas the rebels were driven out. The population in
+1901 was 2,957,074, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. The district
+is traversed by the main line and several branches of the Bengal &
+North-Western railway, and the Gandak, the Gogra and the Rapti are
+navigable.
+
+The DIVISION has an area of 9534 sq. m. The population in 1901 was
+6,333,012, giving an average density of 664 persons per sq. m., being
+more than one to every acre, and the highest for any large tract in
+India.
+
+
+
+
+GORAL, the native name of a small Himalayan rough-haired and
+cylindrical-horned ruminant classed in the same group as the chamois.
+Scientifically this animal is known as _Urotragus_ (or _Cemas_) _goral_;
+and the native name is now employed as the designation of all the other
+members of the same genus. In addition to certain peculiarities in the
+form of the skull, gorals are chiefly distinguished from serows (q.v.)
+by not possessing a gland below the eye, nor a corresponding depression
+in the skull. Several species are known, ranging from the Himalaya to
+Burma, Tibet and North China. Of these, the two Himalayan gorals (_U.
+goral_ and _U. bedfordi_) are usually found in small parties, but less
+commonly in pairs. They generally frequent grassy hills, or rocky ground
+clothed with forest; in fine weather feeding only in the mornings and
+evenings, but when the sky is cloudy grazing throughout the day.
+
+
+
+
+GORAMY, or GOURAMY (_Osphromenus olfax_), reputed to be one of the
+best-flavoured freshwater fishes in the East Indian archipelago. Its
+original home is Java, Sumatra, Borneo and several other East Indian
+islands, but thence it has been transported to and acclimatized in
+Penang, Malacca, Mauritius and even Cayenne. Being an almost omnivorous
+fish and tenacious of life, it seems to recommend itself particularly
+for acclimatization in other tropical countries; and specimens kept in
+captivity become as tame as carps. It attains the size of a large
+turbot. Its shape is flat and short, the body covered with large scales;
+the dorsal and anal fins are provided with numerous spines, and the
+ventral fins produced into long filaments. Like _Anabas_, the climbing
+perch, it possesses a suprabranchial accessory respiratory organ.
+
+[Illustration: Goramy.]
+
+
+
+
+GÖRBERSDORF, a village and climatic health resort of Germany, in the
+Prussian province of Silesia, romantically situated in a deep and
+well-wooded valley of the Waldenburg range, 1900 ft. above the sea, 60
+m. S.W. of Breslau by the railway to Friedland and 3 m. from the
+Austrian frontier. Pop. 700. It has four large sanatoria for
+consumptives, the earliest of which was founded in 1854 by Hermann
+Brehmer (1826-1889).
+
+
+
+
+GORBODUC, a mythical king of Britain. He gave his kingdom away during
+his lifetime to his two sons, Ferrex and Porrex. The two quarrelled and
+the younger stabbed the elder. Their mother, loving the latter most,
+avenged his death by murdering her son, and the people, horrified at her
+act, revolted and murdered both her and King Gorboduc. This legend was
+the subject of the earliest regular English tragedy which in 1561 was
+played before Queen Elizabeth in the Inner Temple hall. It was written
+by Thomas Sackville, Lord Buckhurst and Thomas Norton in collaboration.
+Under the title of _Gorboduc_ it was published first very corruptly in
+1565, and in better form as _The Tragedy of Ferrex and Porrex_ in 1570.
+
+
+
+
+GORCHAKOV, or GORTCHAKOFF, a noble Russian family, descended from
+Michael Vsevolodovich, prince of Chernigov, who, in 1246, was
+assassinated by the Mongols. PRINCE ANDREY IVANOVICH (1768-1855),
+general in the Russian army, took a conspicuous part in the final
+campaigns against Napoleon. ALEXANDER IVANOVICH (1769-1825) served with
+distinction under his relative Suvarov in the Turkish Wars, and took
+part as a general officer in the Italian and Swiss operations of 1799,
+and in the war against Napoleon in Poland in 1806-1807 (battle of
+Heilsberg). PETR DMITRIEVICH (1790-1868) served under Kamenski and
+Kutusov in the campaign against Turkey, and afterwards against France in
+1813-1814. In 1820 he suppressed an insurrection in the Caucasus, for
+which service he was raised to the rank of major-general. In 1828-1829
+he fought under Wittgenstein against the Turks, won an action at Aidos,
+and signed the treaty of peace at Adrianople. In 1839 he was made
+governor of Eastern Siberia, and in 1851 retired into private life. When
+the Crimean War broke out he offered his services to the emperor
+Nicholas, by whom he was appointed general of the VI. army corps in the
+Crimea. He commanded the corps in the battles of Alma and Inkerman. He
+retired in 1855 and died at Moscow, on the 18th of March 1868.
+
+PRINCE MIKHAIL DMITRIEVICH (1795-1861), brother of the last named,
+entered the Russian army in 1807 and took part in the campaigns against
+Persia in 1810, and in 1812-1815 against France. During the
+Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829 he was present at the sieges of Silistria
+and Shumla. After being appointed, in 1830, a general officer, he was
+present in the campaign in Poland, and was wounded at the battle of
+Grochow, on the 25th of February 1831. He also distinguished himself at
+the battle of Ostrolenka and at the taking of Warsaw. For these services
+he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general. In 1846 he was
+nominated military governor of Warsaw. In 1849 he commanded the Russian
+artillery in the war against the Hungarians, and in 1852 he visited
+London as a representative of the Russian army at the funeral of the
+duke of Wellington. At this time he was chief of the staff of the
+Russian army and adjutant-general to the tsar. Upon Russia declaring war
+against Turkey in 1853, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the
+troops which occupied Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1854 he crossed the
+Danube and besieged Silistria, but was superseded in April by Prince
+Paskevich, who, however, resigned on the 8th of June, when Gorchakov
+resumed the command. In July the siege of Silistria was raised, and the
+Russian armies recrossed the Danube; in August they withdrew to Russia.
+In 1855 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian forces in the
+Crimea in place of Prince Menshikov. Gorchakov's defence of Sevastopol,
+and final retreat to the northern part of the town, which he continued
+to defend till peace was signed in Paris, were conducted with skill and
+energy. In 1856 he was appointed governor-general of Poland in
+succession to Prince Paskevich. He died at Warsaw on the 30th of May
+1861, and was buried, in accordance with his own wish, at Sevastopol.
+
+PRINCE GORCHAKOV, ALEXANDER MIKHAILOVICH (1798-1883). Russian statesman,
+cousin of Princes Petr and Mikhail Gorchakov, was born on the 16th of
+July 1798, and was educated at the lyceum of Tsarskoye Selo, where he
+had the poet Pushkin as a school-fellow. He became a good classical
+scholar, and learnt to speak and write in French with facility and
+elegance. Pushkin in one of his poems described young Gorchakov as
+"Fortune's favoured son," and predicted his success. On leaving the
+lyceum Gorchakov entered the foreign office under Count Nesselrode. His
+first diplomatic work of importance was the negotiation of a marriage
+between the grand duchess Olga and the crown prince Charles of
+Württemberg. He remained at Stuttgart for some years as Russian minister
+and confidential adviser of the crown princess. He foretold the outbreak
+of the revolutionary spirit in Germany and Austria, and was credited
+with counselling the abdication of Ferdinand in favour of Francis
+Joseph. When the German confederation was re-established in 1850 in
+place of the parliament of Frankfort, Gorchakov was appointed Russian
+minister to the diet. It was here that he first met Prince Bismarck,
+with whom he formed a friendship which was afterwards renewed at St
+Petersburg. The emperor Nicholas found that his ambassador at Vienna,
+Baron Meyendorff, was not a sympathetic instrument for carrying out his
+schemes in the East. He therefore transferred Gorchakov to Vienna, where
+the latter remained through the critical period of the Crimean War.
+Gorchakov perceived that Russian designs against Turkey, supported by
+Great Britain and France, were impracticable, and he counselled Russia
+to make no more useless sacrifices, but to accept the bases of a
+pacification. At the same time, although he attended the Paris
+conference of 1856, he purposely abstained from affixing his signature
+to the treaty of peace after that of Count Orlov, Russia's chief
+representative. For the time, however, he made a virtue of necessity,
+and Alexander II., recognizing the wisdom and courage which Gorchakov
+had exhibited, appointed him minister of foreign affairs in place of
+Count Nesselrode. Not long after his accession to office Gorchakov
+issued a circular to the foreign powers, in which he announced that
+Russia proposed, for internal reasons, to keep herself as free as
+possible from complications abroad, and he added the now historic
+phrase, "_La Russie ne boude pas; elle se recueille_." During the Polish
+insurrection Gorchakov rebuffed the suggestions of Great Britain,
+Austria and France for assuaging the severities employed in quelling it,
+and he was especially acrid in his replies to Earl Russell's despatches.
+In July 1863 Gorchakov was appointed chancellor of the Russian empire
+expressly in reward for his bold diplomatic attitude towards an
+indignant Europe. The appointment was hailed with enthusiasm in Russia,
+and at that juncture Prince Chancellor Gorchakov was unquestionably the
+most powerful minister in Europe.
+
+An _approchement_ now began between the courts of Russia and Prussia;
+and in 1863 Gorchakov smoothed the way for the occupation of Holstein by
+the Federal troops. This seemed equally favourable to Austria and
+Prussia, but it was the latter power which gained all the substantial
+advantages; and when the conflict arose between Austria and Prussia in
+1866, Russia remained neutral and permitted Prussia to reap the fruits
+and establish her supremacy in Germany. When the Franco-German War of
+1870-71 broke out Russia answered for the neutrality of Austria. An
+attempt was made to form an anti-Prussian coalition, but it failed in
+consequence of the cordial understanding between the German and Russian
+chancellors. In return for Russia's service in preventing the aid of
+Austria from being given to France, Gorchakov looked to Bismarck for
+diplomatic support in the Eastern Question, and he received an
+instalment of the expected support when he successfully denounced the
+Black Sea clauses of the treaty of Paris. This was justly regarded by
+him as an important service to his country and one of the triumphs of
+his career, and he hoped to obtain further successes with the assistance
+of Germany, but the cordial relations between the cabinets of St
+Petersburg and Berlin did not subsist much longer. In 1875 Bismarck was
+suspected of a design of again attacking France, and Gorchakov gave him
+to understand, in a way which was not meant to be offensive, but which
+roused the German chancellor's indignation, that Russia would oppose any
+such scheme. The tension thus produced between the two statesmen was
+increased by the political complications of 1875-1878 in south-eastern
+Europe, which began with the Herzegovinian insurrection and culminated
+at the Berlin congress. Gorchakov hoped to utilize the complications in
+such a way as to recover, without war, the portion of Bessarabia ceded
+by the treaty of Paris, but he soon lost control of events, and the
+Slavophil agitation produced the Russo-Turkish campaign of 1877-78. By
+the preliminary peace of San Stefano the Slavophil aspirations seemed to
+be realized, but the stipulations of that peace were considerably
+modified by the congress of Berlin (13th June to 13th July 1878), at
+which the aged chancellor held nominally the post of first
+plenipotentiary, but left to the second plenipotentiary, Count Shuvalov,
+not only the task of defending Russian interests, but also the
+responsibility and odium for the concessions which Russia had to make to
+Great Britain and Austria. He had the satisfaction of seeing the lost
+portion of Bessarabia restored to his country by the Berlin treaty, but
+at the cost of greater sacrifices than he anticipated. After the
+congress he continued to hold the post of minister for foreign affairs,
+but lived chiefly abroad, and resigned formally in 1882, when he was
+succeeded by M. de Giers. He died at Baden-Baden on the 11th of March
+1883. Prince Gorchakov devoted himself entirely to foreign affairs, and
+took no part in the great internal reforms of Alexander II.'s reign. As
+a diplomatist he displayed many brilliant qualities--adroitness in
+negotiation, incisiveness in argument and elegance in style. His
+statesmanship, though marred occasionally by personal vanity and love of
+popular applause, was far-seeing and prudent. In the latter part of his
+career his main object was to raise the prestige of Russia by undoing
+the results of the Crimean War, and it may fairly be said that he in
+great measure succeeded.     (D. M. W.)
+
+
+
+
+GORDIAN, or GORDIANUS, the name of three Roman emperors. The first,
+Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus (A.D. 159-238),
+an extremely wealthy man, was descended from the Gracchi and Trajan,
+while his wife was the great-granddaughter of Antoninus Pius. While he
+gained unbounded popularity by his magnificent games and shows, his
+prudent and retired life did not excite the suspicion of Caracalla, in
+whose honour he wrote a long epic called _Antoninias_. Alexander Severus
+called him to the dangerous honours of government in Africa, and during
+his proconsulship occurred the usurpation of Maximin. The universal
+discontent roused by the oppressive rule of Maximin culminated in a
+revolt in Africa in 238, and Gordian reluctantly yielded to the popular
+clamour and assumed the purple. His son, Marcus Antonius Gordianus
+(192-238), was associated with him in the dignity. The senate confirmed
+the choice of the Africans, and most of the provinces gladly sided with
+the new emperors; but, even while their cause was so successful abroad,
+they had fallen before the sudden inroad of Cappellianus, legatus of
+Numidia and a supporter of Maximin. They had reigned only thirty-six
+days. Both the Gordians had deserved by their amiable character their
+high reputation; they were men of great accomplishments, fond of
+literature, and voluminous authors; but they were rather intellectual
+voluptuaries than able statesmen or powerful rulers. Having embraced the
+cause of Gordian, the senate was obliged to continue the revolt against
+Maximin, and appointed Pupienus Maximus and Caelius Balbinus, two of its
+noblest and most esteemed members, as joint emperors. At their
+inauguration a sedition arose, and the popular outcry for a Gordian was
+appeased by the association with them of M. Antonius Gordianus Pius
+(224-244), grandson of the elder Gordian, then a boy of thirteen.
+Maximin forthwith invaded Italy, but was murdered by his own troops
+while besieging Aquileia, and a revolt of the praetorian guards, to
+which Pupienus and Balbinus fell victims, left Gordian sole emperor. For
+some time he was under the control of his mother's eunuchs, till
+Timesitheus,[1] his father-in-law and praefect of the praetorian guard,
+persuaded him to assert his independence. When the Persians under Shapur
+(Sapor) I. invaded Mesopotamia, the young emperor opened the temple of
+Janus for the last time recorded in history, and marched in person to
+the East. The Persians were driven back over the Euphrates and defeated
+in the battle of Resaena (243), and only the death of Timesitheus (under
+suspicious circumstances) prevented an advance into the enemy's
+territory. Philip the Arabian, who succeeded Timesitheus, stirred up
+discontent in the army, and Gordian was murdered by the mutinous
+soldiers in Mesopotamia.
+
+  See lives of the Gordians by Capitolinus in the _Scriptores historiae
+  Augustae_; Herodian vii. viii.; Zosimus i. 16, 18; Ammianus
+  Marcellinus, xxiii. 5; Eutropius ix. 2; Aurelius Victor, _Caesares_,
+  27; article SHAPUR (I.); Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_, i. 2619 f.
+  (von Rohden).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For this name see footnote to SHAPUR.
+
+
+
+
+GORDIUM, an ancient city of Phrygia situated on the Persian "Royal road"
+from Pessinus to Ancyra, and not far from the Sangarius. It lies
+opposite the village Pebi, a little north of the point where the
+Constantinople-Angora railway crosses the Sangarius. It is not to be
+confused with Gordiou-kome, refounded as Juliopolis, a Bithynian town on
+a small tributary of the Sangarius, about 47 m. in an air-line N.W. of
+Gordium. According to the legend, Gordium was founded by Gordius, a
+Phrygian peasant who had been called to the throne by his countrymen in
+obedience to an oracle of Zeus commanding them to select the first
+person that rode up to the temple of the god in a wagon. The king
+afterwards dedicated his car to the god, and another oracle declared
+that whoever succeeded in untying the strangely entwined knot of cornel
+bark which bound the yoke to the pole should reign over all Asia.
+Alexander the Great, according to the story, cut the knot by a stroke of
+his sword. Gordium was captured and destroyed by the Gauls soon after
+189 B.C. and disappeared from history. In imperial times only a small
+village existed on the site. Excavations made in 1900 by two German
+scholars, G. and A. Koerte, revealed practically no remains later than
+the middle of the 6th century B.C. (when Phrygia fell under Persian
+power).
+
+  See _Jahrbuch des Instituts_, Ergänzungsheft v. (1904).
+       (J. G. C. A.)
+
+
+
+
+GORDON, the name of a Scottish family, no fewer than 157 main branches
+of which are traced by the family historians. A laird of Gorden, in
+Berwickshire, near the English border, is said to have fallen in the
+battle of the Standard (1138). The families of the two sons ascribed to
+him by tradition, Richard Gordon of Gordon and Adam Gordon of Huntly,
+were united by the marriage of their great-grandchildren Alicia and Sir
+Adam, whose grandson Sir Adam (killed at Halidon Hill, 1333) at first
+took the English side in the Scottish struggle for independence, and is
+the first member of the family definitely to emerge into history. He was
+justiciar of Scotland in 1310, but after Bannockburn he attached himself
+to Robert Bruce, who granted him in 1318 the lordship of Strathbogie in
+Aberdeenshire, to which Gordon gave the name of Huntly from a village on
+the Gordon estate in Berwickshire. He had two sons, Adam and William.
+The younger son, laird of Stitchel in Roxburghshire, was the ancestor of
+William de Gordon of Stitchel and Lochinvar, founder of the Galloway
+branch of the family represented in the Scottish peerage by the dormant
+viscounty of Kenmure (q.v.), created in 1633; most of the Irish and
+Virginian Gordons are offshoots of this stock. The elder son, Adam,
+inherited the Gordon-Huntly estates. He had two grandsons, Sir John (d.
+1394) and Sir Adam (slain at Homildon Hill, 1403). Sir John had two
+illegitimate sons, Jock of Scurdargue, the ancestor of the earls of
+Aberdeen, and Tam of Ruthven. From these two stocks most of the northern
+Gordon families are derived. Sir Adam's daughter and heiress, Elizabeth,
+married Sir Alexander Seton, and with her husband was confirmed in 1408
+in the possession of the barony of Gordon and Huntly in Berwickshire and
+of the Gordon lands in Aberdeen. The Seton-Gordons are their
+descendants. Their son Alexander was created earl of Huntly (see HUNTLY,
+EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF), probably in 1445; and his heirs became dukes
+of Gordon, George Gordon (c. 1650-1716), 4th marquess of Huntly, being
+created duke of Gordon in 1684. He had been educated in a French
+Catholic seminary, and served in the French army in the campaigns of
+1673 to 1675. Under James II. he was made keeper of Edinburgh Castle on
+account of his religion, but he refused to support James's efforts to
+impose Roman Catholicism on his subjects. He offered little active
+resistance when the castle was besieged by William III.'s forces. After
+his submission he was more than once imprisoned on suspicion of Jacobite
+leanings, and was ordered by George I. to reside on parole in Edinburgh.
+For some time before his death he was separated from his wife Elizabeth
+Howard, daughter of the 6th duke of Norfolk. His son Alexander, 2nd duke
+of Gordon (c. 1678-1728). joined the Old Pretender, but gained the royal
+pardon after the surrender of Gordon Castle in 1716. Of his children by
+his wife Henrietta Mordaunt, second daughter of Charles Mordaunt, earl
+of Peterborough, Cosmo George (c. 1720-1752) succeeded as 3rd duke; Lord
+Lewis Gordon (d. 1754) took an active part in the Jacobite rising of
+1745; and General Lord Adam Gordon (c. 1726-1801) became commander of
+the forces in Scotland in 1782, and governor of Edinburgh Castle in
+1786. Lord George Gordon (q.v.) was a younger son of the 3rd duke.
+
+The title, with the earldom of Norwich and the barony of Gordon Huntly,
+became extinct on the death of George, 5th duke (1770-1836), a
+distinguished soldier who raised the corps now known as the 2nd
+battalion of the Gordon Highlanders. The marquessate of Huntly passed to
+his cousin and heir-male, George, 5th earl of Aboyne. Lady Charlotte
+Gordon, sister of and co-heiress with the 5th duke, married Charles
+Lennox, 4th duke of Richmond, whose son took the name of Gordon-Lennox.
+The dukedom of Gordon was revived in 1876 in favour of the 6th duke of
+Richmond, who thenceforward was styled duke of Richmond and Gordon. Adam
+Gordon of Aboyne (d. 1537) took the courtesy title of earl of Sutherland
+in right of his wife Elizabeth, countess of Sutherland in her own right,
+sister of the 9th earl. The lawless and turbulent Gordons of Gight were
+the maternal ancestors of Lord Byron.
+
+Among the many soldiers of fortune bearing the name of Gordon was
+Colonel John Gordon, one of the murderers of Wallenstein. Patrick Gordon
+(1635-1699) was born at Auchleuchries in Aberdeenshire, entered the
+service of Charles X. of Sweden in 1651 and served against the Poles. He
+changed sides more than once before he found his way to Moscow in 1661
+and took service under the tsar Alexis. He became general in 1687; in
+1688 he helped to secure Peter the Great's ascendancy; and later he
+crushed the revolt of the Streltzi. His diary was published in German (3
+vols., 1849-1853, Moscow and St Petersburg), and selections from the
+English original by the Spalding Club (Aberdeen, 1859).
+
+The Gordons fill a considerable place in Scottish legend and ballad.
+"Captain Car," or "Edom (Adam) of Gordon" describes an incident in the
+struggle between the Forbeses and Gordons in Aberdeenshire in 1571; "The
+Duke of Gordon's Daughter" has apparently no foundation in fact, though
+"Geordie" of the ballad is sometimes said to have been George, 4th earl
+of Huntly; "The Fire of Frendraught" goes back to a feud (1630) between
+James Crichton of Frendraught and William Gordon of Rothiemay; the
+"Gallant Gordons Gay" figure in "Chevy Chase"; William Gordon of
+Earlston, the Covenanter, appears in "Bothwell Bridge" &c.
+
+  See William Gordon (of old Aberdeen), _The History of the Ancient,
+  Noble, and Illustrious House of Gordon_ (2 vols., Edinburgh,
+  1726-1727), of which _A Concise History of the ... House of Gordon_,
+  by C. A. Gordon (Aberdeen, 1754) is little more than an abridgment;
+  _The Records of Aboyne, 1230-1681_, edited by Charles, 11th marquess
+  of Huntly, &c. (New Spalding Club, Aberdeen, 1894); _The Gordon Book_,
+  ed. J. M. Bulloch (1902); _The House of Gordon_, ed. J. M. Bulloch
+  (Aberdeen, vol. i., 1903); and Mr Bulloch's _The First Duke of Gordon_
+  (1909).
+
+
+
+
+GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY (1833-1870), Australian poet, was born at Fayal, in
+the Azores, in 1833, the son of a retired Indian officer who taught
+Hindustani at Cheltenham College. Young Gordon was educated there and at
+Merton College, Oxford, but a youthful indiscretion led to his being
+sent in 1853 to South Australia, where he joined the mounted police. He
+then became a horsebreaker, but on his father's death he inherited a
+fortune and obtained a seat in the House of Assembly. At this time he
+had the reputation of being the best non-professional steeplechase rider
+in the colony. In 1867 he moved to Victoria and set up a livery stable
+at Ballarat. Two volumes of poems, _Sea Spray and Smoke Drift_ and
+_Ashtaroth_, were published in this year, and two years later he gave up
+his business and settled at New Brighton, near Melbourne. A third volume
+of poetry, _Bush Ballads and Galloping Rhymes_, appeared in 1870. It
+brought him more praise than emolument, and, thoroughly discouraged by
+his failure to make good his claim to some property in Scotland to which
+he believed himself entitled, he committed suicide on the 24th of June
+1870. His reputation rose after his death, and he became the best known
+and most widely popular of Australian poets. Much of Gordon's poetry
+might have been written in England; when, however, it is really local,
+it is vividly so; his genuine feeling frequently kindles into passion;
+his versification is always elastic and sonorous, but sometimes too
+reminiscent of Swinburne. His compositions are almost entirely lyrical,
+and their merit is usually in proportion to the degree in which they
+partake of the character of the ballad.
+
+  Gordon's poems were collected and published in 1880 with a
+  biographical introduction by Marcus Clarke.
+
+
+
+
+GORDON, ALEXANDER (c. 1692-c. 1754), Scottish antiquary, is believed to
+have been born in Aberdeen in 1692. He is the "Sandy Gordon" of Scott's
+_Antiquary_. Of his parentage and early history nothing is known. He
+appears to have distinguished himself in classics at Aberdeen
+University, and to have made a living at first by teaching languages and
+music. When still young he travelled abroad, probably in the capacity of
+tutor. He returned to Scotland previous to 1726, and devoted himself to
+antiquarian work. In 1726 appeared the _Itinerarium Septentrionale_, his
+greatest and best-known work. He was already the friend of Sir John
+Clerk, of Penicuik, better known as Baron Clerk (a baron of the
+exchequer); and the baron and Roger Gale (vice-president of the Society
+of Antiquaries) are the "two gentlemen, the honour of their age and
+country," whose letters were published, without their consent it
+appears, as an appendix to the _Itinerarium_. Subsequently Gordon was
+appointed secretary to the Society for the Encouragement of Learning,
+with an annual salary of £50. Resigning this post, or, as there seems
+reason for believing, being dismissed for carelessness in his accounts,
+he succeeded Dr Stukeley as secretary to the Society of Antiquaries, and
+also acted for a short time as secretary to the Egyptian Club, an
+association composed of gentlemen who had visited Egypt. In 1741 he
+accompanied James Glen (afterwards governor), to South Carolina. Through
+his influence Gordon, besides receiving a grant of land in South
+Carolina, became registrar of the province and justice of the peace, and
+filled several other offices. From his will, dated the 22nd of August
+1754, it appears he had a son Alexander and a daughter Frances, to whom
+he bequeathed most of his property, among which were portraits of
+himself and of friends painted by his own hand.
+
+  See Sir Daniel Wilson, _Alexander Gordon, the Antiquary_; and his
+  Papers in the _Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland_,
+  with Additional Notes and an Appendix of Original Letters by Dr David
+  Laing (_Proc. Soc. of Antiq. of Scot._ x. 363-382).
+
+
+
+
+GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE (1833-1885), British soldier and administrator,
+fourth son of General H. W. Gordon, Royal Artillery, was born at
+Woolwich on the 28th of January 1833. He received his early education at
+Taunton school, and was given a cadetship in the Royal Military Academy,
+Woolwich, in 1848. He was commissioned as second lieutenant in the corps
+of Royal Engineers on the 23rd of June 1852. After passing through a
+course of instruction at the Royal Engineers' establishment, Chatham, he
+was promoted lieutenant in 1854, and was sent to Pembroke dock to assist
+in the construction of the fortifications then being erected for the
+defence of Milford Haven. The Crimean War broke out shortly afterwards,
+and Gordon was ordered on active service, and landed at Balaklava on the
+1st of January 1855. The siege of Sevastopol was in progress, and he had
+his full share of the arduous work in the trenches. He was attached to
+one of the British columns which assaulted the Redan on the 18th of
+June, and was also present at the capture of that work on the 8th of
+September. He took part in the expedition to Kinburn, and then returned
+to Sevastopol to superintend a portion of the demolition of the Russian
+dockyard. After peace with Russia had been concluded, Gordon was
+attached to an international commission appointed to delimit the new
+boundary, as fixed by treaty, between Russia and Turkey in Bessarabia;
+and on the conclusion of this work he was ordered to Asia Minor on
+similar duty, with reference to the eastern boundary between the two
+countries. While so employed Gordon took the opportunity to make himself
+well acquainted with the geography and people of Armenia, and the
+knowledge of dealing with eastern nations then gained was of great use
+to him in after life.
+
+
+  In China.
+
+He returned to England towards the end of 1858, and was then selected
+for the appointment of adjutant and field-works instructor at the Royal
+Engineers' establishment, and took up his new duties at Chatham after
+promotion to the rank of captain in April 1859. But his stay in England
+was brief, for in 1860 war was declared against China, and Gordon was
+ordered out there, arriving at Tientsin in September. He was too late
+for the attack on the Taku forts, but was present at the occupation of
+Peking and destruction of the Summer Palace. He remained with the
+British force of occupation in northern China until April 1862, when the
+British troops, under the command of General Staveley, proceeded to
+Shanghai, in order to protect the European settlement at that place
+from the Taiping rebels. The Taiping revolt, which had some remarkable
+points of similarity with the Mahdist rebellion in the Sudan, had
+commenced in 1850 in the province of Kwangsi. The leader, Hung Sin
+Tsuan, a semi-political, semi-religious enthusiast, assumed the title of
+Tien Wang, or Heavenly King, and by playing on the feelings of the lower
+class of people gradually collected a considerable force. The Chinese
+authorities endeavoured to arrest him, but the imperialist troops were
+defeated. The area of revolt extended northwards through the provinces
+of Hunan and Hupeh, and down the valley of the Yangtsze-kiang as far as
+the great city of Nanking, which was captured by the rebels in 1853.
+Here the Tien Wang established his court, and while spending his own
+time in heavenly contemplation and earthly pleasures, sent the assistant
+Wangs on warlike expeditions through the adjacent provinces. For some
+years a constant struggle was maintained between the Chinese imperialist
+troops and the Taipings, with varying success on both sides. The latter
+gradually advanced eastwards, and approaching the important city of
+Shanghai, alarmed the European inhabitants, who subscribed to raise a
+mixed force of Europeans and Manila men for the defence of the town.
+This force, which was placed under the command of an American, Frederick
+Townsend Ward (1831-1862), took up a position in the country west of
+Shanghai to check the advance of the rebels. Fighting continued round
+Shanghai for about two years, but Ward's force was not altogether
+successful, and when General Staveley arrived from Tientsin affairs were
+in a somewhat critical condition. He decided to clear the district of
+rebels within a radius of 30 m. from Shanghai, and Gordon was attached
+to his staff as engineer officer. A French force, under the command of
+Admiral Prôtet, co-operated with Staveley and Ward, with his little
+army, also assisted. Kahding, Singpo and other towns were occupied, and
+the country was fairly cleared of rebels by the end of 1862. Ward was,
+unfortunately, killed in the assault of Tseki, and his successor,
+Burgevine, having had a quarrel with the Chinese authorities, Li Hung
+Chang, the governor of the Kiang-su province, requested General Staveley
+to appoint a British officer to command the contingent. Staveley
+selected Gordon, who had been made a brevet-major in December 1862 for
+his previous services, and the nomination was approved by the British
+government. The choice was judicious as further events proved. In March
+1863 Gordon proceeded to Sungkiang to take command of the force, which
+had received the name of "The Ever-Victorious Army," an encouraging
+though somewhat exaggerated title, considering its previous history.
+Without waiting to reorganize his troops he marched at once to the
+relief of Chansu, a town 40 m. north-west of Shanghai, which was
+invested by the rebels. The relief was successfully accomplished, and
+the operation established Gordon in the confidence of his troops. He
+then reorganized his force, a matter of no small difficulty, and
+advanced against Quinsan, which was captured, though with considerable
+loss. Gordon then marched through the country, seizing town after town
+from the rebels until at length the great city of Suchow was invested by
+his army and a body of Chinese imperialist troops. The city was taken on
+the 29th of November, and after its capture Gordon had a serious dispute
+with Li Hung Chang, as the latter had beheaded certain of the rebel
+leaders whose lives the former had promised to spare if they
+surrendered. This action, though not opposed to Chinese ethics, was so
+opposed to Gordon's ideas of honour that he withdrew his force from
+Suchow and remained inactive at Quinsan until February 1864. He then
+came to the conclusion that the subjugation of the rebels was more
+important than his dispute with Li, and visited the latter in order to
+arrange for further operations. By mutual consent no allusion was made
+to the death of the Wangs. This was a good example of one of Gordon's
+marked characteristics, that, though a man of strong personal feelings,
+he was always prepared to subdue them for the public benefit. He
+declined, however, to take any decoration or reward from the emperor for
+his services at the capture of Suchow. After the meeting with Li Hung
+Chang the "Ever-Victorious Army" again advanced and took a number of
+towns from the rebels, ending with Chanchufu, the principal military
+position of the Taipings. This fell in May, when Gordon returned to
+Quinsan and disbanded his force. In June the Tien Wang, seeing his cause
+was hopeless, committed suicide, and the capture of Nanking by the
+imperialist troops shortly afterwards brought the Taiping revolt to a
+conclusion. The suppression of this serious movement was undoubtedly due
+in great part to the skill and energy of Gordon, who had shown
+remarkable qualities as a leader of men. The emperor promoted him to the
+rank of Titu, the highest grade in the Chinese army, and also gave him
+the Yellow Jacket, the most important decoration in China. He wished to
+give him a large sum of money, but this Gordon refused. He was promoted
+lieutenant-colonel for his Chinese services, and made a Companion of the
+Bath. Henceforth he was often familiarly spoken of as "Chinese" Gordon.
+
+Gordon was appointed on his return to England Commanding Royal Engineer
+at Gravesend, where he was employed in superintending the erection of
+forts for the defence of the Thames. He devoted himself with energy to
+his official duties, and his leisure hours to practical philanthropy.
+All the acts of kindness which he did for the poor during the six years
+he was stationed at Gravesend will never be fully known. In October 1871
+he was appointed British representative on the international commission
+which had been constituted after the Crimean War to maintain the
+navigation of the mouth of the river Danube, with headquarters at
+Galatz. During 1872 Gordon was sent to inspect the British military
+cemeteries in the Crimea, and when passing through Constantinople on his
+return to Galatz he made the acquaintance of Nubar Pasha, prime minister
+of Egypt, who sounded him as to whether he would take service under the
+khedive. Nothing further was settled at the time, but the following year
+he received a definite offer from the khedive, which he accepted with
+the consent of the British government, and proceeded to Egypt early in
+1874. He was then a colonel in the army, though still only a captain in
+the corps of Royal Engineers.
+
+To understand the object of the appointment which Gordon accepted in
+Egypt, it is necessary to give a few facts with reference to the Sudan.
+In 1820-22 Nubia, Sennar and Kordofan had been conquered by Egypt, and
+the authority of the Egyptians was subsequently extended southward,
+eastward to the Red Sea and westward over Darfur (conquered by Zobeir
+Pasha in 1874). One result of the Egyptian occupation of the country was
+that the slave trade was largely developed, especially in the White Nile
+and Bahr-el-Ghazal districts. Captains Speke and Grant, who had
+travelled through Uganda and came down the White Nile in 1863, and Sir
+Samuel Baker, who went up the same river as far as Albert Nyanza,
+brought back harrowing tales of the misery caused by the slave-hunters.
+Public opinion was considerably moved, and in 1869 the khedive Ismail
+decided to send an expedition up the White Nile, with the double object
+of limiting the evils of the slave trade and opening up the district to
+commerce. The command of the expedition was given to Sir Samuel Baker,
+who reached Khartum in February 1870, but, owing to the obstruction of
+the river by the sudd or grass barrier, did not reach Gondokoro, the
+centre of his province, for fourteen months. He met with great
+difficulties, and when his four years' service came to an end little had
+been effected beyond establishing a few posts along the Nile and placing
+some steamers on the river. It was to succeed Baker as governor of the
+equatorial regions that the khedive asked for Gordon's services, having
+come to the conclusion that the latter was the most likely person to
+bring the affair to a satisfactory conclusion. After a short stay in
+Cairo, Gordon proceeded to Khartum by way of Suakin and Berber, a route
+which he ever afterwards regarded as the best mode of access to the
+Sudan. From Khartum he proceeded up the White Nile to Gondokoro, where
+he arrived in twenty-four days, the sudd, which had proved such an
+obstacle to Baker, having been removed since the departure of the latter
+by the Egyptian governor-general. Gordon remained in the equatorial
+provinces until October 1876, and then returned to Cairo. The two years
+and a half thus spent in Central Africa was a time of incessant toil. A
+line of stations was established from the Sobat confluence on the White
+Nile to the frontier of Uganda--to which country he proposed to open a
+route from Mombasa--and considerable progress was made in the
+suppression of the slave trade. The river and Lake Albert were mapped by
+Gordon and his staff, and he devoted himself with wonted energy to
+improving the condition of the people. Greater results might have been
+obtained but for the fact that Khartum and the whole of the Sudan north
+of the Sobat were in the hands of an Egyptian governor, independent of
+Gordon, and not too well disposed towards his proposals for diminishing
+the slave trade. On arriving in Cairo Gordon informed the khedive of his
+reasons for not wishing to return to the Sudan, but did not definitely
+resign the appointment of governor of the equatorial provinces. But on
+reaching London he telegraphed to the British consul-general in Cairo,
+asking him to let the khedive know that he would not go back to Egypt.
+Ismail Pasha, feeling, no doubt, that Gordon's resignation would injure
+his prestige, wrote to him saying that he had promised to return, and
+that he expected him to keep his word. Upon this Gordon, to whom the
+keeping of a promise was a sacred duty, decided to return to Cairo, but
+gave an assurance to some friends that he would not go back to the Sudan
+unless he was appointed governor-general of the entire country. After
+some discussion the khedive agreed, and made him governor-general of the
+Sudan, inclusive of Darfur and the equatorial provinces.
+
+
+  Governor-General
+
+One of the most important questions which Gordon had to take up on his
+appointment was the state of the political relations between Egypt and
+Abyssinia, which had been in an unsatisfactory condition for some years.
+The dispute centred round the district of Bogos, lying not far inland
+from Massawa, which both the khedive and King John of Abyssinia claimed
+as belonging to their respective dominions. War broke out in 1875, when
+an Egyptian expedition was despatched to Abyssinia, and was completely
+defeated by King John near Gundet. A second and larger expedition, under
+Prince Hassan, the son of the khedive, was sent the following year from
+Massawa. The force was routed by the Abyssinians at Gura, but Prince
+Hassan and his staff got back to Massawa. Matters then remained quiet
+until March 1877, when Gordon proceeded to Massawa to endeavour to make
+peace with King John. He went up to Bogos, and had an interview with
+Walad Michael, an Abyssinian chief and the hereditary ruler of Bogos,
+who had joined the Egyptians with a view to raiding on his own account.
+Gordon, with his usual powers of diplomacy, persuaded Michael to remain
+quiet, and wrote to the king proposing terms of peace. But he received
+no reply at that time, as John, feeling pretty secure on the Egyptian
+frontier after his two successful actions against the khedive's troops,
+had gone southwards to fight with Menelek, king of Shoa. Gordon, seeing
+that the Abyssinian difficulty could wait for a few months, proceeded to
+Khartum. Here he took up the slavery question, and proposed to issue
+regulations making the registration of slaves compulsory, but his
+proposals were not approved by the Cairo government. In the meantime an
+insurrection had broken out in Darfur, and Gordon proceeded to that
+province to relieve the Egyptian garrisons, which were considerably
+stronger than the force he had available, the insurgents also being far
+more numerous than his little army. On coming up with the main body of
+rebels he saw that diplomacy gave a better chance of success than
+fighting, and, accompanied only by an interpreter, rode into the enemy's
+camp to discuss the situation. This bold move, which probably no one but
+Gordon would have attempted, proved quite successful, as part of the
+insurgents joined him, and the remainder retreated to the south. The
+relief of the Egyptian garrisons was successfully accomplished, and
+Gordon visited the provinces of Berber and Dongola, whence he had again
+to return to the Abyssinian frontier to treat with King John. But no
+satisfactory settlement was arrived at, and Gordon came back to Khartum
+in January 1878. There he had scarcely a week's rest when the khedive
+summoned him to Cairo to assist in settling the financial affairs of
+Egypt. He reached Cairo in March, and was at once appointed by Ismail as
+president of a commission of inquiry into the finances, on the
+understanding that the European commissioners of the debt, who were the
+representatives of the bondholders, and whom Ismail regarded as
+interested parties, should not be members of the commission. Gordon
+accepted the post on these terms, but the consuls-general of the
+different powers refused to agree to the constitution of the commission,
+and it fell to the ground, as the khedive was not strong enough to carry
+his point. The attempt of the latter to utilize Gordon as a counterpoise
+to the European financiers having failed, Ismail fell into the hands of
+his creditors, and was deposed by the sultan in the following year in
+favour of his son Tewfik. After the conclusion of the financial episode,
+Gordon proceeded to the province of Harrar, south of Abyssinia, and,
+finding the administration in a bad condition, dismissed Raouf Pasha,
+the governor. He then returned to Khartum, and in 1879 went again into
+Darfur to pursue the slave traders, while his subordinate, Gessi Pasha,
+fought them with great success in the Bahr-el-Ghazal district and killed
+Suleiman, their leader and a son of Zobeir. This put an end to the
+revolt, and Gordon went back to Khartum. Shortly afterwards he went down
+to Cairo, and when there was requested by the new khedive to pay a visit
+to King John and make a definite treaty of peace with Abyssinia. Gordon
+had an interesting interview with the king, but was not able to do much,
+as the king wanted great concessions from Egypt, and the khedive's
+instructions were that nothing material was to be conceded. The matter
+ended by Gordon being made a prisoner and sent back to Massawa. Thence
+he returned to Cairo and resigned his Sudan appointment. He was
+considerably exhausted by the three years' incessant work, during which
+he had ridden no fewer than 8500 m. on camels and mules, and was
+constantly engaged in the task of trying to reform a vicious system of
+administration.
+
+
+  1880-1884.
+
+In March 1880 Gordon visited the king of the Belgians at Brussels, and
+King Leopold suggested that he should at some future date take charge of
+the Congo Free State. In April the government of the Cape Colony
+telegraphed to him offering the position of commandant of the Cape local
+forces, but he declined the appointment. In May the marquess of Ripon,
+who had been given the post of governor-general of India, asked Gordon
+to go with him as private secretary. This he agreed to do, but a few
+days later, feeling that he was not suitable for the position, asked
+Lord Ripon to release him. The latter refused to do so, and Gordon
+accompanied him to India, but definitely resigned his post on Lord
+Ripon's staff shortly afterwards. Hardly had he resigned when he
+received a telegram from Sir Robert Hart, inspector-general of customs
+in China, inviting him to go to Peking. He started at once and arrived
+at Tientsin in July, where he met Li Hung Chang, and learnt that affairs
+were in a critical condition, and that there was risk of war with
+Russia. Gordon proceeded to Peking and used all his influence in favour
+of peace. His arguments, which were given with much plainness of speech,
+appear to have convinced the Chinese government, and war was avoided.
+Gordon returned to England, and in April 1881 exchanged with a brother
+officer, who had been ordered to Mauritius as Commanding Royal Engineer,
+but who for family reasons was unable to accept the appointment. He
+remained in Mauritius until the March following, when, on promotion to
+the rank of major-general, he had to vacate the position of Commanding
+Royal Engineer. Just at the same time the Cape ministry telegraphed to
+him to ask if he would go to the Cape to consult with the government as
+regards settling affairs in Basutoland. The telegram stated that the
+position of matters was grave, and that it was of the utmost importance
+that the colony should secure the services of someone of proved ability,
+firmness and energy. Gordon sailed at once for the Cape, and saw the
+governor, Sir Hercules Robinson, Mr Thos. Scanlen, the premier, and Mr.
+J. X. Merriman, a member of the ministry, who, for political reasons,
+asked him not to go to Basutoland, but to take the appointment of
+commandant of the colonial forces at King William's Town. After a few
+months, which were spent in reorganizing the colonial forces, Gordon was
+requested to go up to Basutoland to try to arrange a settlement with the
+chief Masupha, one of the most powerful of the Basuto leaders. Greatly
+to his surprise, at the very time he was with Masupha, Mr. J. W. Sauer,
+a member of the Cape government, was taking steps to induce Lerethodi,
+another chief, to advance against Masupha. This not only placed Gordon
+in a position of danger, but was regarded by him as an act of treachery.
+He advised Masupha not to deal with the Cape government until the
+hostile force was withdrawn, and resigned his appointment. He considered
+that the Basuto difficulty was due to the bad system of administration
+by the Cape government. That Gordon's views were correct is proved by
+the fact that a few years later Basutoland was separated from Cape
+Colony and placed directly under the imperial government. After his
+return to England from the Cape, being unemployed, Gordon decided to go
+to Palestine, a country he had long desired to visit. Here he remained
+for a year, and devoted his time to the study of Biblical history and of
+the antiquities of Jerusalem. The king of the Belgians then asked him to
+take charge of the Congo Free State, and he accepted the mission and
+returned to London to make the necessary preparations. But a few days
+after his arrival he was requested by the British government to proceed
+immediately to the Sudan. To understand the reasons for this, it is
+necessary briefly to recapitulate the course of events in that country
+since Gordon had left it in 1879.
+
+After his resignation of the post of governor-general, Raouf Pasha, an
+official of the ordinary type, who, as already mentioned, had been
+dismissed by Gordon for misgovernment in 1878, was appointed to succeed
+him. As Raouf was instructed to increase the receipts and diminish the
+expenditure, the system of government naturally reverted to the old
+methods, which Gordon had endeavoured to improve. The fact that justice
+and firmness were succeeded by injustice and weakness tended naturally
+to the outbreak of revolt, and unfortunately there was a leader ready to
+head a rebellion--one Mahommed Ahmed, already known for some years as a
+holy man, who was insulted by an Egyptian official, and retiring with
+some followers to the island of Abba on the White Nile, proclaimed
+himself as the mahdi, a successor of the prophet. Raouf endeavoured to
+take him prisoner but without success, and the revolt spread rapidly.
+Raouf was recalled, and succeeded by Abdel Kader Pasha, a much stronger
+governor, who had some success, but whose forces were quite insufficient
+to cope with the rebels. The Egyptian government was too busily engaged
+in suppressing Arabi's revolt to be able to send any help to Abdel
+Kader, and in September 1882, when the British troops entered Cairo, the
+position in the Sudan was very perilous. Had the British government
+listened to the representations then made to them, that, having
+conquered Egypt, it was imperative at once to suppress the revolt in the
+Sudan, the rebellion could have been crushed, but unfortunately Great
+Britain would do nothing herself, while the steps she allowed Egypt to
+take ended in the disaster to Hicks Pasha's expedition. Then, in
+December 1883, the British government saw that something must be done,
+and ordered Egypt to abandon the Sudan. But abandonment was a policy
+most difficult to carry out, as it involved the withdrawal of thousands
+of Egyptian soldiers, civilian employés and their families. Abdel Kader
+Pasha was asked to undertake the work, and he agreed on the
+understanding that he would be supported, and that the policy of
+abandonment was not to be announced. But the latter condition was
+refused, and he declined the task. The British government then asked
+General Gordon to proceed to Khartum to report on the best method of
+carrying out the evacuation. The mission was highly popular in England.
+Sir Evelyn Baring (Lord Cromer) was, however, at first opposed to
+Gordon's appointment. His objections were overcome, and Gordon received
+his instructions in London on the 18th of January 1884, and started at
+once for Cairo, accompanied by Lieut.-Colonel J. D. H. Stewart.
+
+
+  At Khartum.
+
+  Death.
+
+At Cairo he received further instructions from Sir Evelyn Baring, and
+was appointed by the khedive as governor-general, with executive powers.
+Travelling by Korosko and Berber, he arrived at Khartum on the 18th of
+February, and was well received by the inhabitants, who believed that he
+had come to save the country from the rebels. Gordon at once commenced
+the task of sending the women and children and the sick and wounded to
+Egypt, and about two thousand five hundred had been removed before the
+mahdi's forces closed upon Khartum. At the same time he was impressed
+with the necessity of making some arrangement for the future government
+of the country, and asked for the help of Zobeir (q.v.), who had great
+influence in the Sudan, and had been detained in Cairo for some years.
+This request was made on the very day Gordon reached Khartum, and was in
+accordance with a similar proposal he had made when at Cairo. But, after
+delays which involved the loss of much precious time, the British
+government refused (13th of March) to sanction the appointment, because
+Zobeir had been a notorious slave-hunter. With this refusal vanished all
+hope of a peaceful retreat of the Egyptian garrisons. Wavering tribes
+went over to the mahdi. The advance of the rebels against Khartum was
+combined with a revolt in the eastern Sudan, and the Egyptian troops in
+the vicinity of Suakin met with constant defeat. At length a British
+force was sent to Suakin under the command of General Sir Gerald Graham,
+and routed the rebels in several hard-fought actions. Gordon telegraphed
+to Sir Evelyn Baring urging that the road from Suakin to Berber should
+be opened by a small force. But this request, though strongly supported
+by Baring and the British military authorities in Cairo, was refused by
+the government in London. In April General Graham and his forces were
+withdrawn from Suakin, and Gordon and the Sudan were seemingly abandoned
+to their fate. The garrison of Berber, seeing that there was no chance
+of relief, surrendered a month later and Khartum was completely
+isolated. Had it not been for the presence of Gordon the city would also
+soon have fallen, but with an energy and skill that were almost
+miraculous, he so organized the defence that Khartum held out until
+January 1885. When it is remembered that Gordon was of a different
+nationality and religion to the garrison and population, that he had
+only one British officer to assist him, and that the town was badly
+fortified and insufficiently provided with food, it is just to say that
+the defence of Khartum is one of the most remarkable episodes in
+military history. The siege commenced on the 18th of March, but it was
+not until August that the British government under the pressure of
+public opinion decided to take steps to relieve Gordon. General
+Stephenson, who was in command of the British troops in Egypt, wished to
+send a brigade at once to Dongola, but he was overruled, and it was not
+until the beginning of November that the British relief force was ready
+to start from Wadi Haifa under the command of Lord Wolseley. The force
+reached Korti towards the end of December, and from that place a column
+was despatched across the Bayuda desert to Metemma on the Nile. After
+some severe fighting in which the leader of the column, Sir Herbert
+Stewart, was mortally wounded, the force reached the river on the 20th
+of January, and the following day four steamers, which had been sent
+down by Gordon to meet the British advance, and which had been waiting
+for them for four months, reported to Sir Charles Wilson, who had taken
+command after Sir Herbert Stewart was wounded. On the 24th Wilson
+started with two of the steamers for Khartum, but on arriving there on
+the 28th he found that the place had been captured by the rebels and
+Gordon killed two days before. A belief has been entertained that Wilson
+might have started earlier and saved the town, but this is quite
+groundless. In the first place, Wilson could not have started sooner
+than he did; and in the second, even if he had been able to do so, it
+would have made no difference, as the rebels could have taken Khartum
+any time they pleased after the 5th of January, when the provisions were
+exhausted. Another popular notion, that the capture of the place was due
+to treachery on the part of the garrison, is equally without foundation.
+The attack was made at a point in the fortifications where the rampart
+and ditch had been destroyed by the rising of the Nile, and when the
+mahdi's troops entered the soldiers were too weak to make any effectual
+resistance. Gordon himself expected the town to fall before the end of
+December, and it is really difficult to understand how he succeeded in
+holding out until the 26th of January. Writing on the 14th of December
+he said, "Now, mark this, if the expeditionary force--and I ask for no
+more than two hundred men--does not come in ten days, the town may fall,
+and I have done my best for the honour of my country." He had indeed
+done his best, and far more than could have been regarded as possible.
+To understand what he went through during the latter months of the
+siege, it is only necessary to read his own journal, a portion of which,
+dating from 10th September to 14th December 1884, was fortunately
+preserved and published.
+
+Gordon was not an author, but he wrote many short memoranda on subjects
+that interested him, and a considerable number of these have been
+utilized, especially in the work by his brother, Sir Henry Gordon,
+entitled _Events in the Life of Charles George Gordon, from its
+Beginning to its End_. He was a voluminous letter-writer, and much of
+his correspondence has been published. His character was remarkable, and
+the influence he had over those with whom he came in contact was very
+striking. His power to command men of non-European races was probably
+unique. He had no fear of death, and cared but little for the opinion of
+others, adhering tenaciously to the course he believed to be right in
+the face of all opposition. Though not holding to outward forms of
+religion, he was a truly religious man in the highest sense of the word,
+and was a constant student of the Bible. To serve God and to do his duty
+were the great objects of his life, and he died as he had lived,
+carrying out the work that lay before him to the best of his ability.
+The last words of his last letter to his sister, written when he knew
+that death was very near, sum up his character: "I am quite happy, thank
+God, and, like Lawrence, I have _tried_ to do my duty."[1]
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_The Journals of Major-General Gordon at Khartoum_
+  (1885); Lord Cromer, _Modern Egypt_ (2 vols., 1908); F. R. Wingate,
+  _Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan_ (1891); the _British Parliamentary
+  Paper on Egypt_ (1884-1885); C. G. Gordon, _Reflections in Palestine_
+  (1884); edited by D. C. Boulger, _General Gordon's Letters from the
+  Crimea, the Danube, and Armenia_ (1884); edited by G. B. Hill,
+  _Colonel Gordon in Central Africa_ (1881); _Letters of General C. G.
+  Gordon to his Sister_ (1888); H. W. Gordon, _Events in the Life of C.
+  G. Gordon_ (1886); Commander L. Brine, _The Taeping Rebellion in
+  China_ (1862); A. Wilson, _Gordon's Campaigns and the Taeping
+  Rebellion_ (1868); D. C. Boulger, _Life of Gordon_ (1896); A. Egmont
+  Hake, _The Story of Chinese Gordon_ (1st vol. 1884, 2nd vol. 1885);
+  Colonel Sir W. F. Butler, _Charles George Gordon_ (1889); Archibald
+  Forbes, _Chinese Gordon_ (1884); edited by A. Egmont Hake, _Events in
+  the Taeping Rebellion_ (1891); S. Mossman, _General Gordon's Diary in
+  China_ (1885); Lieutenant T. Lister, R.E., _With Gordon in the Crimea_
+  (1891); Lieutenant-General Sir G. Graham, _Last Words with Gordon_
+  (1887); "War Correspondent," _Why Gordon Perished_ (1896).
+       (C. M. W.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] With this estimate of Gordon's character may be contrasted those
+    of Lord Cromer (the most severe of Gordon's critics), and of Lord
+    Morley of Blackburn; in their strictures as in their praise they help
+    to explain both the causes of the extraordinary influence wielded by
+    Gordon over all sorts and conditions of men and also his
+    difficulties. Lord Cromer's criticism, it should be remembered, does
+    not deal with Gordon's career as a whole but solely with his last
+    mission to the Sudan; Lord Morley's is a more general judgment.
+
+    Lord Cromer (_Modern Egypt_, vol. i., ch. xxvii., p. 565-571) says:
+    "We may admire, and for my own part I do very much admire General
+    Gordon's personal courage, his disinterestedness and his chivalrous
+    feeling in favour of the beleaguered garrisons, but admiration of
+    these qualities is no sufficient plea against a condemnation of his
+    conduct on the ground that it was quixotic. In his last letter to his
+    sister, dated December 14, 1884, he wrote: 'I am quite happy, thank
+    God, and, like Lawrence, I have tried to do my duty' ... I am not now
+    dealing with General Gordon's character, which was in many respects
+    noble, or with his military defence of Khartoum, which was heroic,
+    but with the political conduct of his mission, and from this point of
+    view I have no hesitation in saying that General Gordon cannot be
+    considered to have tried to do his duty unless a very strained and
+    mistaken view be taken of what his duty was.... As a matter of public
+    morality I cannot think that General Gordon's process of reasoning is
+    defensible.... I do not think that it can be held that General Gordon
+    made any serious effort to carry out the main ends of British and
+    Egyptian policy in the Sudan. He thought more of his personal
+    opinions than of the interests of the state.... In fact, except
+    personal courage, great fertility in military resource, a lively
+    though sometimes ill-directed repugnance to injustice, oppression and
+    meanness of every description, and a considerable power of acquiring
+    influence over those, necessarily limited in numbers, with whom he
+    was brought into personal contact, General Gordon does not appear to
+    have possessed any of the qualities which would have fitted him to
+    undertake the difficult task he had in hand."
+
+    Lord Morley (_Life of Gladstone_, vol. iii., 1st ed., 1903, ch. 9, p.
+    151) says: "Gordon, as Mr Gladstone said, was a hero of heroes. He
+    was a soldier of infinite personal courage and daring, of striking
+    military energy, initiative and resource; a high, pure and single
+    character, dwelling much in the region of the unseen. But as all who
+    knew him admit, and as his own records testify, notwithstanding an
+    undercurrent of shrewd common sense, he was the creature, almost the
+    sport, of impulse; his impressions and purposes changed with the
+    speed of lightning; anger often mastered him; he went very often by
+    intuitions and inspirations rather than by cool inference from
+    carefully surveyed fact; with many variations of mood he mixed, as we
+    often see in people less famous, an invincible faith in his own rapid
+    prepossessions while they lasted. Everybody now discerns that to
+    despatch a soldier of this temperament on a piece of business [the
+    mission to the Sudan in 1884] that was not only difficult and
+    dangerous, as Sir E. Baring said, but profoundly obscure, and needing
+    vigilant sanity and self-control, was little better than to call in a
+    wizard with his magic. Mr Gladstone always professed perplexity in
+    understanding why the violent end of the gallant Cavagnari in
+    Afghanistan stirred the world so little in comparison with the fate
+    of Gordon. The answer is that Gordon seized the imagination of
+    England, and seized it on its higher side. His religion was
+    eccentric, but it was religion; the Bible was the rock on which he
+    founded himself, both old dispensation and new; he was known to hate
+    forms, ceremonies and all the 'solemn plausibilities'; his speech was
+    sharp, pithy, rapid and ironic; above all, he knew the ways of war
+    and would not bear the sword for nought."
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 12, Slice 2, by Various
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 12, Slice 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 2
+       "Gloss" to "Gordon, Charles George"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: October 29, 2011 [EBook #37880]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 12 SL 2 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME XII SLICE II<br /><br />
+Gloss to Gordon, Charles George</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">GLOSS, GLOSSARY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">GOLDBEATING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">GLOSSOP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">GOLDBERG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">GOLD COAST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">GOLDEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">GLOUCESTER, HUMPHREY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">GOLDEN BULL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">GOLDEN-EYE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">GLOUCESTER, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">GOLDEN FLEECE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">GOLDEN HORDE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">GLOUCESTER</a> (city of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">GOLDEN ROD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">GLOUCESTER</a> (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">GOLDEN ROSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">GLOUCESTER CITY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">GOLDEN RULE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">GLOUCESTERSHIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">GOLDFIELD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">GLOVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">GOLDFINCH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">GLOVER, SIR JOHN HAWLEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">GOLDFISH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">GLOVER, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">GOLDFUSS, GEORG AUGUST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">GLOVERSVILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE DASHWOOD TAUBMAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">GLOW-WORM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">GOLDING, ARTHUR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">GLOXINIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">GOLDINGEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">GLUCINUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">GOLDMARK, KARL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">GLUCK, CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">GOLDONI, CARLO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">GLÜCKSBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">GOLDS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">GLÜCKSTADT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">GOLDSBORO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">GLUCOSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">GOLDSCHMIDT, HERMANN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">GLUCOSIDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">GOLDSMID</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">GLUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">GOLDSMITH, LEWIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">GLUTARIC ACID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">GOLDSMITH, OLIVER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">GLUTEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">GOLDSTÜCKER, THEODOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">GLUTTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">GOLDWELL, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">GLYCAS, MICHAEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">GLYCERIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">GOLETTA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">GLYCOLS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">GOLF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">GLYCONIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">GOLIAD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">GLYPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">GOLIARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">GLYPTODON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">GOLIATH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">GLYPTOTHEK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">GOLITSUIN, BORIS ALEKSYEEVICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">GMELIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">GOLITSUIN, DMITRY MIKHAILOVICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">GMÜND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">GOLITSUIN, VASILY VASILEVICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">GMUNDEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">GOLIUS, JACOBUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">GNAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">GOLLNOW</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">GNATHOPODA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">GOLOSH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">GNATIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">GOLOVIN, FEDOR ALEKSYEEVICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">GNEISENAU, AUGUST WILHELM ANTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">GOLOVKIN, GAVRIIL IVANOVICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">GNEISS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">GOLOVNIN, VASILY MIKHAILOVICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">GNEIST, HEINRICH RUDOLF HERMANN FRIEDRICH VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">GOLTZ, BOGUMIL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">GNESEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">GOLTZ, COLMAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">GNOME, and GNOMIC POETRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">GNOMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">GOLUCHOWSKI, AGENOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">GNOMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">GOMAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">GNOSTICISM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">GOMARUS, FRANZ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">GNU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">GOMBERVILLE, MARIN LE ROY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">GO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">GOMER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">GOA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">GOMERA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">GOAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">GOMEZ, DIOGO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">GOALPARA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167"> GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA, GERTRUDIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">GOAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">GOMM, SIR WILLIAM MAYNARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">GOATSUCKER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">GOMPERS, SAMUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">GOBAT, SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">GOMPERZ, THEODOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">GOBEL, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">GONAGUAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">GOBELIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">GONÇALVES DIAS, ANTONIO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">GOBI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">GONCHAROV, IVAN ALEXANDROVICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">GOBLET, RENÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">GONCOURT, DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">GOBLET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">GONDA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">GOBY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">GONDAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">GOCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">GONDAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">GOD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">GONDOKORO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">GODALMING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">GONDOMAR, DIEGO SARMIENTO DE ACUÑA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">GODARD, BENJAMIN LOUIS PAUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">GONDOPHARES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">GODAVARI</a> (river of India)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">GONDWANA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">GODAVARI</a> (district of India)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">GONFALON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">GODEFROY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">GONG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">GODESBERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">GÓNGORA Y ARGOTE, LUIS DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">GODET, FRÉDÉRIC LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">GONIOMETER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">GODFREY, SIR EDMUND BERRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">GONTAUT, MARIE JOSÉPHINE LOUISE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">GODFREY OF BOUILLON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">GONVILE, EDMUND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">GODFREY OF VITERBO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">GONZAGA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">GODHRA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">GONZAGA, THOMAZ ANTONIO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">GODIN, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">GONZÁLEZ-CARVAJAL, TOMAS JOSÉ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">GODIVA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">GONZALO DE BERCEO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">GOOCH, SIR DANIEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">GODMANCHESTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">GOOD, JOHN MASON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">GÖDÖLLÖ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">GOOD FRIDAY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">GODOLPHIN, SIDNEY GODOLPHIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">GOODMAN, GODFREY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">GODOY, ALVAREZ DE FARIA, RIOS SANCHEZ Y ZARZOSA, MANUEL DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">GOODRICH, SAMUEL GRISWOLD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">GODROON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">GOODRICH, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">GODWIN, FRANCIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">GOODSIR, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">GOODWILL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">GODWIN, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">GOODWIN, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">GODWIN-AUSTEN, ROBERT ALFRED CLOYNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">GOODWIN, NATHANIEL CARL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">GODWINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">GOODWIN, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">GODWIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">GOEBEN, AUGUST KARL VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">GOODWIN SANDS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">GOODWOOD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">GOES, DAMIÃO DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">GOODYEAR, CHARLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">GOES, HUGO VAN DER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">GOOGE, BARNABE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">GOES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">GOOLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">GOOSE</a> (bird)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">GOETZ, HERMANN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">GOOSE</a> (game)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">GOFFE, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">GOOSEBERRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">GOFFER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">GOOTY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">GOG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">GOPHER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">GOGO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">GÖPPINGEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">GOGOL, NIKOLAI VASILIEVICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">GORAKHPUR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">GOGRA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">GORAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">GOHIER, LOUIS JÉRÔME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">GORAMY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">GÖHRDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">GÖRBERSDORF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">GOITO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">GORBODUC</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">GOITRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">GORCHAKOV</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">GOKAK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">GORDIAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">GOKCHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">GORDIUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">GOLCONDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">GORDON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">GOLD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">GOLD AND SILVER THREAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">GORDON, ALEXANDER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">GOLDAST AB HAIMINSFELD, MELCHIOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" id="page124"></a>124</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">GLOSS, GLOSSARY,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> &amp;c. The Greek word <span class="grk" title="glôssa">&#947;&#955;&#8182;&#963;&#963;&#945;</span> (whence
+our &ldquo;gloss&rdquo;), meaning originally a tongue, then a language or
+dialect, gradually came to denote any obsolete, foreign, provincial,
+technical or otherwise peculiar word or use of a word (see Arist.
+<i>Rhet.</i> iii. 3. 2). The making of collections and explanations<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of
+such <span class="grk" title="glôssai">&#947;&#955;&#8182;&#963;&#963;&#945;&#953;</span> was at a comparatively early date a well-recognized
+form of literary activity. Even in the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, among
+the many writings of Abdera was included a treatise entitled
+<span class="grk" title="Peri Homêrou ê orthoepeiês kai glôsseôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#8009;&#956;&#942;&#961;&#959;&#965; &#7972; &#8000;&#961;&#952;&#959;&#949;&#960;&#949;&#943;&#951;&#962; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#947;&#955;&#969;&#963;&#963;&#941;&#969;&#957;</span>. It was not, however,
+until the Alexandrian period that the <span class="grk" title="glôssographoi">&#947;&#955;&#969;&#963;&#963;&#959;&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#959;&#953;</span>, glossographers
+(writers of glosses), or glossators, became numerous.
+Of many of these perhaps even the names have perished; but
+Athenaeus the grammarian alone (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 250) alludes to no
+fewer than thirty-five. Among the earliest was Philetas of Cos
+(d. <i>c.</i> 290 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the elegiac poet, to whom Aristarchus dedicated
+the treatise <span class="grk" title="Pros Philptan">&#928;&#961;&#8056;&#962; &#934;&#953;&#955;&#960;&#964;&#8118;&#957;</span>; he was the compiler of a lexicographical
+work, arranged probably according to subjects, and
+entitled <span class="grk" title="Hatakta">&#7949;&#964;&#945;&#954;&#964;&#945;</span> or <span class="grk" title="Glôssai">&#915;&#947;&#8182;&#963;&#963;&#945;&#953;</span> (sometimes <span class="grk" title="Ataktoi glôssai">&#7949;&#964;&#945;&#954;&#964;&#959;&#953; &#947;&#955;&#8182;&#963;&#963;&#945;&#953;</span>).
+Next came his disciple Zenodotus of Ephesus (<i>c.</i> 280 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), one of
+the earliest of the Homeric critics and the compiler of
+<span class="grk" title="Glôssai Homêrikai">&#915;&#955;&#8182;&#963;&#963;&#945;&#953; &#8009;&#956;&#951;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#943;</span>; Zenodotus in turn was succeeded by his greater pupil
+Aristophanes of Byzantium (<i>c.</i> 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), whose great compilation
+<span class="grk" title="Peri lexeôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#955;&#941;&#958;&#949;&#969;&#957;</span> (still partially preserved in that of Pollux), is known
+to have included <span class="grk" title="Attikai lexeis, Lakônikai glôssai">&#7944;&#964;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#8054; &#955;&#941;&#958;&#949;&#953;&#962;, &#923;&#945;&#954;&#969;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#8054; &#947;&#955;&#8182;&#963;&#963;&#945;&#953;</span>, and the
+like. From the school of Aristophanes issued more than one
+glossographer of name,&mdash;Diodorus, Artemidorus (<span class="grk" title="Glôssai">&#915;&#955;&#8182;&#963;&#963;&#945;&#953;</span>, and
+a collection of <span class="grk" title="lexeis opsartutikai">&#955;&#941;&#958;&#949;&#953;&#962; &#8000;&#968;&#945;&#961;&#964;&#965;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#943;</span>), Nicander of Colophon
+(<span class="grk" title="Glôssai">&#915;&#955;&#8182;&#963;&#963;&#945;&#953;</span>, of which some twenty-six fragments still survive),
+and Aristarchus (<i>c.</i> 210 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the famous critic, whose numerous
+labours included an arrangement of the Homeric vocabulary
+(<span class="grk" title="lexeis">&#955;&#941;&#958;&#949;&#953;&#962;</span>) in the order of the books. Contemporary with the
+last named was Crates of Mallus, who, besides making some
+new contributions to Greek lexicography and dialectology,
+was the first to create at Rome a taste for similar investigations
+in connexion with the Latin idioms. From his school proceeded
+Zenodotus of Mallus, the compiler of <span class="grk" title="Ethnikai lexeis">&#7960;&#952;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#8054; &#955;&#941;&#958;&#949;&#953;&#962;</span> or <span class="grk" title="glôssai">&#947;&#955;&#8182;&#963;&#963;&#945;&#953;</span>,
+a work said to have been designed chiefly to support the views
+of the school of Pergamum as to the allegorical interpretation of
+Homer.<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Of later date were Didymus (Chalcenterus, <i>c.</i> 50 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>),
+who made collections of <span class="grk" title="lexeis tragôdoumenai kômikai">&#955;&#941;&#958;&#949;&#953;&#962; &#964;&#961;&#945;&#947;&#969;&#948;&#959;&#965;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#945;&#953; &#954;&#969;&#956;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#943;</span>, &amp;c.; Apollonius
+Sophista (<i>c.</i> 20 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), whose Homeric Lexicon has come
+down to modern times; and Neoptolemus, known distinctively as
+<span class="grk" title="ho glôssographos">&#8001; &#947;&#955;&#969;&#963;&#963;&#959;&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#959;&#962;</span>. In the beginning of the 1st century of the
+Christian era Apion, a grammarian and rhetorician at Rome
+during the reigns of Tiberius and Claudius, followed up the labours
+of Aristarchus and other predecessors with <span class="grk" title="Glôssai Homêrikai">&#915;&#955;&#8182;&#963;&#963;&#945;&#953; &#8009;&#956;&#951;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#943;</span>,
+and a treatise <span class="grk" title="Peri tês Hrômaïkês dialekton">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#8172;&#969;&#956;&#945;&#8147;&#954;&#8134;&#962; &#948;&#953;&#945;&#955;&#941;&#954;&#964;&#959;&#965;</span>; Heliodorus or
+Herodorus was another almost contemporary glossographer;
+Erotian also, during the reign of Nero, prepared a special glossary
+for the writings of Hippocrates, still preserved. To this period
+also Pamphilus, the author of the <span class="grk" title="Leimôn">&#923;&#949;&#953;&#956;&#974;&#957;</span>, from which Diogenian
+and Julius Vestinus afterwards drew so largely, most probably
+belonged. In the following century one of the most prominent
+workers in this department of literature was Aelius Herodianus,
+whose treatise <span class="grk" title="Peri monêrous lexeôs">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#956;&#959;&#957;&#942;&#961;&#959;&#965;&#962; &#955;&#941;&#958;&#949;&#969;&#962;</span> has been edited in modern
+times, and whose <span class="grk" title="Epimerismoi">&#7960;&#960;&#953;&#956;&#949;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#959;&#943;</span> we still possess in an abridgment;
+also Pollux, Diogenian (<span class="grk" title="Lexis pantodapê">&#923;&#941;&#958;&#953;&#962; &#960;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#959;&#948;&#945;&#960;&#942;</span>), Julius Vestinus
+(<span class="grk" title="&rsquo;Epitomê tôn Pamphilou glôssôn">&#7960;&#960;&#953;&#964;&#959;&#956;&#8052; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#928;&#945;&#956;&#966;&#943;&#955;&#959;&#965; &#947;&#955;&#969;&#963;&#963;&#8182;&#957;</span>) and especially Phrynichus,
+who flourished towards the close of the 2nd century, and whose
+<i>Eclogae nominum et verborum Atticorum</i> has frequently been
+edited. To the 4th century belongs Ammonius of Alexandria
+(<i>c.</i> 389), who wrote <span class="grk" title="Peri Homoiôn kai diaphorôn lexeôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#8001;&#956;&#959;&#943;&#969;&#957; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#948;&#953;&#945;&#966;&#972;&#961;&#969;&#957; &#955;&#941;&#958;&#949;&#969;&#957;</span>, a dictionary
+of words used in senses different from those in which they had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125"></a>125</span>
+been employed by older and approved writers. Of somewhat
+later date is the well-known Hesychius, whose often-edited
+<span class="grk" title="Lexikon">&#923;&#949;&#958;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#957;</span> superseded all previous works of the kind; Cyril, the
+celebrated patriarch of Alexandria, also contributed somewhat
+to the advancement of glossography by his <span class="grk" title="Sunagôgê tôn pros
+diaphoron sêmasian diaphorôs tonoumenôn lexeôn">&#931;&#965;&#957;&#945;&#947;&#969;&#947;&#8052; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#960;&#961;&#8056;&#962; &#948;&#953;&#940;&#966;&#959;&#961;&#959;&#957; &#963;&#951;&#956;&#945;&#963;&#943;&#945;&#957; &#948;&#953;&#945;&#966;&#972;&#961;&#969;&#962; &#964;&#959;&#957;&#959;&#965;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#969;&#957; &#955;&#941;&#958;&#949;&#969;&#957;</span>; while Orus,
+Orion, Philoxenus and the two Philemons also belong to this
+period. The works of Photius, Suidas and Zonaras, as also the
+<i>Etymologicum magnum</i>, to which might be added the <i>Lexica
+Sangermania</i> and the <i>Lexica Segueriana</i>, are referred to in the
+article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dictionary</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>To a special category of technical glossaries belongs a large
+and important class of works relating to the law-compilations of
+Justinian. Although the emperor forbade under severe penalties
+all commentaries (<span class="grk" title="hupomnêmata">&#8017;&#960;&#959;&#956;&#957;&#942;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945;</span>) on his legislation (<i>Const. Deo
+Auctore</i>, sec. 12; <i>Const. Tanta</i>, sec. 21), yet indices (<span class="grk" title="indikes">&#7988;&#957;&#948;&#953;&#954;&#949;&#962;</span>)
+and references (<span class="grk" title="paratitla">&#960;&#945;&#961;&#940;&#964;&#953;&#964;&#955;&#945;</span>), as well as translations (<span class="grk" title="ermêneiai
+kata poda">&#7953;&#961;&#956;&#951;&#957;&#949;&#8150;&#945;&#953; &#954;&#945;&#964;&#8048; &#960;&#972;&#948;&#945;</span>) and paraphrases (<span class="grk" title="hermêneiai eis platos">&#7953;&#961;&#956;&#951;&#957;&#949;&#8150;&#945;&#953; &#949;&#7984;&#962; &#960;&#955;&#940;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>), were
+expressly permitted, and lavishly produced. Among the
+numerous compilers of alphabetically arranged <span class="grk" title="lexeis Rhômaïkai">&#955;&#941;&#958;&#949;&#953;&#962; &#8172;&#969;&#956;&#945;&#8147;&#954;&#945;&#943;</span>
+or <span class="grk" title="Lateinikai">&#923;&#945;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#943;</span>, and <span class="grk" title="glôssai nomikai">&#947;&#955;&#8182;&#963;&#963;&#945;&#953; &#957;&#959;&#956;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#943;</span> (glossae nomicae),
+Cyril and Philoxenus are particularly noted; but the authors
+of <span class="grk" title="paragraphai">&#960;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#945;&#943;</span>, or <span class="grk" title="sêmeiôseis">&#963;&#951;&#956;&#949;&#953;&#974;&#963;&#949;&#953;&#962;</span>, whether <span class="grk" title="exôthen">&#7956;&#958;&#969;&#952;&#949;&#957;</span> or <span class="grk" title="esôthen
+keimenai">&#7956;&#963;&#969;&#952;&#949;&#957; &#954;&#949;&#943;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#945;&#953;</span>, are too numerous to mention. A collection of these
+<span class="grk" title="paragraphai tôn palaiôn">&#960;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#945;&#943; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#960;&#945;&#955;&#945;&#953;&#8182;&#957;</span>, combined with <span class="grk" title="neai paragraphai">&#957;&#941;&#945;&#953; &#960;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#945;&#943;</span> on
+the revised code called <span class="grk" title="ta basilika">&#964;&#8048; &#946;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#955;&#953;&#954;&#940;</span>, was made about the middle
+of the 12th century by a disciple of Michael Hagiotheodorita.
+This work is known as the <i>Glossa ordinaria</i> <span class="grk" title="tôn basilikôn">&#964;&#8182;&#957; &#946;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#955;&#953;&#954;&#8182;&#957;</span>.<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In Italy also, during the period of the Byzantine ascendancy,
+various glossae (glosae) and scholia on the Justinian code were
+produced<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a>; particularly the Turin gloss (reprinted by Savigny),
+to which, apart from later additions, a date prior to 1000 is
+usually assigned. After the total extinction of the Byzantine
+authority in the West the study of law became one of the free
+arts, and numerous schools for its cultivation were instituted.
+Among the earliest of these was that of Bologna, where Pepo
+(1075) and Irnerius (1100-1118) began to give their expositions.
+They had a numerous following, who, besides delivering exegetical
+lectures (&ldquo;ordinariae&rdquo; on the <i>Digest</i> and <i>Code</i>, &ldquo;extraordinariae&rdquo;
+on the rest of the <i>Corpus juris civilis</i>), also wrote
+Glossae, first interlinear, afterwards marginal.<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The series
+of these glossators was closed by Accursius (<i>q.v.</i>) with the compilation
+known as the <i>Glossa ordinaria</i> or <i>magistralis</i>, the
+authority of which soon became very great, so that ultimately
+it came to be a recognized maxim, &ldquo;Quod non agnoscit glossa,
+non agnoscit curia.&rdquo;<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a> For some account of the glossators on
+the canon law, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canon Law</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>In late classical and medieval Latin, <i>glosa</i> was the vulgar and
+romanic (<i>e.g.</i> in the early 8th century Corpus Glossary, and the
+late 8th century Leiden Glossary), <i>glossa</i> the learned form
+(Varro, <i>De ling. Lat.</i> vii. 10; Auson. <i>Epigr</i>. 127. 2 (86. 2), written
+in Greek, Quint, i. 1. 34). The diminutive <i>glossula</i> occurs in
+Diom. 426. 26 and elsewhere. The same meaning has <i>glossarium</i>
+(Gell. xviii. 7. 3 <i>glosaria</i> = <span class="grk" title="glôssarion">&#947;&#955;&#969;&#963;&#963;&#940;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>), which also occurs in the
+modern sense of &ldquo;glossary&rdquo; (Papias, &ldquo;unde <i>glossarium</i> dictum
+quod omnium fere partium glossas contineat&rdquo;), as do the words
+<i>glossa</i>, <i>glossae</i>, <i>glossulae</i>, <i>glossemata</i> (Steinmeyer, <i>Alth. Gloss.</i> iv.
+408, 410), expressed in later times by <i>dictionarium</i>, <i>dictionarius</i>,
+<i>vocabularium</i>, <i>vocabularius</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dictionary</a></span>). <i>Glossa</i> and
+<i>glossema</i> (Varro vii. 34. 107; Asinius Gallus, ap. Suet. <i>De gramm.</i>
+22; Fest. 166<span class="sp">b</span>. 8, 181<span class="sp">a</span>. 18; Quint. i. 8. 15, &amp;c.) are synonyms,
+signifying (<i>a</i>) the word which requires explanation; or (<i>b</i>)
+such a word (called <i>lemma</i>) together with the interpretation
+(<i>interpretamentum</i>); or (<i>c</i>) the interpretation alone (so first
+in the <i>Anecd. Helv.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Latin, like Greek glossography, had its origin chiefly in the
+practical wants of students and teachers, of whose names we
+only know a few. No doubt even in classical times collections
+of glosses (&ldquo;glossaries&rdquo;) were compiled, to which allusion seems
+to be made by Varro (<i>De ling. Lat.</i> vii. 10, &ldquo;tesca, aiunt sancta esse
+qui glossas scripserunt&rdquo;) and Verrius-Festus (166<span class="sp">b</span> .6, &ldquo;naucum
+... glossematorum ... scriptures fabae grani quod haereat in
+fabulo&rdquo;), but it is not known to what extent Varro, for instance,
+used them, or retained their original forms. The <i>scriptores
+glossematorum</i> were distinguished from the learned glossographers
+like Aurelius Opilius (cf. his <i>Musae</i>, ap. Suet. <i>De gramm.</i> 6;
+Gell. i. 25. 17; Varro vii. 50, 65, 67, 70, 79, 106), Servius Clodius
+(Varro vii. 70. 106), Aelius Stilo, L. Ateius Philol., whose <i>liber
+glossematorum</i> Festus mentions (181<span class="sp">a</span>. 18).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Verrius Flaccus and his epitomists, Festus and Paulus, have
+preserved many treasures of early glossographers who are now lost to
+us. He copied Aelius Stilo (Reitzenstein, &ldquo;Verr. Forsch.,&rdquo; in vol. i.
+of <i>Breslauer philol. Abhandl.</i>, p. 88; Kriegshammer, <i>Comm. phil.
+Ien.</i> vii. 1. 74 sqq.), Aurelius Opilius, Ateius Philol., the treatise
+<i>De obscuris Catonis</i> (Reitzenstein, <i>ib.</i> 56. 92). He often made use of
+Varro (Willers, <i>De Verrio Flacco</i>, Halle, 1898), though not of his
+<i>ling. lat.</i> (Kriegshammer, 74 sqq.); and was also acquainted with
+later glossographers. Perhaps we owe to him the <i>glossae asbestos</i>
+(Goetz, <i>Corpus</i>, iv.; <i>id., Rhein. Mus.</i> xl. 328). Festus was used by
+Ps.-Philoxenus (Dammann, &ldquo;De Festo Ps.-Philoxeni auctore,&rdquo;
+<i>Comm. Ien.</i> v. 26 sqq.), as appears from the <i>glossae ab absens</i> (Goetz,
+&ldquo;De Astrabae Pl. fragmentis,&rdquo; <i>Ind. Ien.</i>, 1893, iii. sqq.). The
+distinct connexions with Nonius need not be ascribed to borrowing,
+as Plinius and Caper may have been used (P. Schmidt, <i>De Non. Marc.
+auctt. gramm.</i> 145; Nettleship, <i>Lect. and Ess. 229</i>; Fröhde, <i>De Non.
+Marc. et Verrio Flacco</i>, 2; W. M. Lindsay, &ldquo;Non. Marc.,&rdquo; <i>Dict. of
+Repub. Latin</i>, 100, &amp;c.).</p>
+
+<p>The <i>bilingual</i> (Gr.-Lat., Lat.-Gr.) glossaries also point to an early
+period, and were used by the grammarians (1) to explain the peculiarities
+(<i>idiomata</i>) of the Latin language by comparison with the
+Greek, and (2) for instruction in the two languages (Charis. 254.
+9, 291. 7, 292. 16 sqq.; Marschall, <i>De Q. Remmii P. libris gramm. 22</i>;
+Goetz, <i>Corp. gloss. lat.</i> ii. 6).</p>
+
+<p>For the purposes of grammatical instruction (Greek for the Romans,
+Latin for the Hellenistic world), we have systematic works, a translation
+of Dositheus and the so-called <i>Hermeneutica</i>, parts of which
+may be dated as early as the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, and lexica (cf.
+Schoenemann, <i>De lexicis ant.</i> 122; Knaack, in <i>Phil. Rundsch.</i>, 1884,
+372; Traube, in <i>Byzant. Ztschr.</i> iii. 605; David, <i>Comment. Ien.</i> v.
+197 sqq.).</p>
+
+<p>The most important remains of bilingual glossaries are two well-known
+lexica; one (Latin-Greek), formerly attributed (but wrongly,
+see Rudorff, in <i>Abh.. Akad. Berl.</i>, 1865, 220 sq.; Loewe, <i>Prodr.</i> 183,
+190; Mommsen, <i>C.I.L.</i> v. 8120; A. Dammann, <i>De Festo Pseudo-philoxeni
+auctore</i>, 12 sqq.; Goetz, Corp. ii. 1-212) to Philoxenus
+(consul <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 525), clearly consists of two closely allied glossaries
+(containing glosses to Latin authors, as Horace, Cicero, Juvenal,
+Virgil, the Jurists, and excerpts from Festus), worked into one by
+some Greek grammarian, or a person who worked under Greek
+influence (his alphabet runs A, B, G, D, E, &amp;c.); the other (Greek-Latin)
+is ascribed to Cyril (Stephanus says it was found at the end
+of some of his writings), and is considered to be a compilation of
+not later than the 6th century (Macrobius is used, and the <i>Cod.
+Harl.</i>, which is the source of all the other MSS., belongs to the 7th
+century); cf. Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> ii. 215-483, 487-506, praef. <i>ibid.</i> p.
+xx. sqq. Furthermore, the bilingual medico-botanic glossaries had
+their origin in old lists of plants, as Ps.-Apuleius in the treatise
+<i>De herbarum virtutibus</i>, and Ps.-Dioscorides (cf. M. Wellmann,
+<i>Hermes</i>, xxxiii. 360 sqq., who thinks that the latter work is based on
+Pamphilus, <i>q.v.</i>; Goetz, Corp. iii.); the glossary, entitled <i>Hermeneuma</i>,
+printed from the <i>Cod. Vatic.</i> reg. Christ. 1260, contains names
+of diseases.</p>
+
+<p>Just as grammar developed, so we see the original form of the
+glosses extend. If <i>massucum edacem</i> in Placidus indicates the
+original form, the allied gloss of Festus (<i>masucium edacem a mandendo
+scilicet</i>) shows an etymological addition. Another extension
+consists in adding special references to the original source, as <i>e.g.</i>
+at the gloss <i>Ocrem</i> (Fest. 181<span class="sp">a</span>. 17), which is taken from Ateius
+Philol. In this way collections arose like the <i>priscorum verborum
+cum exemplis</i>, a title given by Fest. (218<span class="sp">b</span>. 10) to a particular work.
+Further the <i>glossae veterum</i> (Charis. 242. 10); the <i>glossae antiquitatum</i>
+(<i>id.</i> 229. 30); the <i>idonei vocum antiquarum enarratores</i> (Gell. xviii.
+6. 8); the <i>libri rerum verborumque veterum</i> (<i>id.</i> xiii. 24. 25). L.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126"></a>126</span>
+Cincius, according to Festus (330<span class="sp">b</span>. 2), wrote <i>De verbis priscis</i>; Santra,
+<i>De antiquitate verborum</i> (Festus 277<span class="sp">a</span>. 2).</p>
+
+<p>Of Latin glossaries of the first four centuries of the Roman emperors
+few traces are left, if we except Verrius-Festus. Charis, 229. 30,
+speaks of <i>glossae antiquitatum</i> and 242. 10 of <i>glossae veterum</i>, but it
+is not known whether these glosses are identic, or in what relation
+they stand to the <i>glossemata per litteras Latinas ordine composita</i>,
+which were incorporated with the works of this grammarian according
+to the index in Keil, p. 6. Latin glosses occur in Ps.-Philoxenus,
+and Nonius must have used Latin glossaries; there exists a <i>glossarium
+Plautinum</i> (Ritschl, <i>Op.</i> ii. 234 sqq.), and the bilingual
+glossaries have been used by the later grammarian Martyrius; but
+of this early period we know by name only Fulgentius and Placidus,
+who is sometimes called Luctatius Placidus, by confusion with
+the Statius scholiast, with whom the <i>glossae Placidi</i> have no connexion.
+All that we know of him tends to show that he lived in
+North Africa (like Fulgentius and Nonius and perhaps Charisius)
+in the 6th century, from whence his glosses came to Spain, and were
+used by Isidore and the compiler of the <i>Liber glossarum</i> (see below).
+These glosses we know from (1) Codices Romani (15th and 16th
+century); (2) the <i>Liber glossarum</i>; (3) the Cod. Paris. nov. acquis.
+1298 (saec. xi.), a collection of glossaries, in which the Placidus-glosses
+are kept separate from the others, and still retain traces of
+their original order (cf. the editions published by A. Mai, <i>Class.
+auct.</i> iii. 427-503, and Deuerling, 1875; Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> v.; P. Karl,
+&ldquo;De Placidi glossis,&rdquo; <i>Comm. Ien.</i> vii. 2. 99, 103 sqq.; Loewe,
+<i>Gloss. Nom.</i> 86; F. Bücheler, in <i>Thesaur. gloss. emend.</i>). His
+collection includes glosses from Plautus and Lucilius.</p>
+
+<p>(Fabius Planciades) Fulgentius (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 468-533) wrote <i>Expositio
+sermonum antiquorum</i> (ed. Rud. Helm, Lips. 1898; cf. Wessner, <i>Comment.
+Ien.</i> vi. 2. 135 sqq.) in sixty-two paragraphs, each containing a
+lemma (sometimes two or three) with an explanation giving quotations
+and names of authors. Next to him come the <i>glossae Nonianae</i>, which
+arose from the contents of the various paragraphs in Nonius Marcellus&rsquo;
+work being written in the margin without the words of the
+text; these epitomized glosses were alphabetized and afterwards
+copied for other collections (see Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> v. 637 sqq., <i>id.</i> v.
+Praef. xxxv.; Onions and Lindsay, <i>Harvard Stud.</i> ix. 67 sqq.;
+Lindsay, <i>Nonii praef.</i> xxi.). In a similar way arose the <i>glossae
+Eucherii</i> or <i>glossae spiritales secundum Eucherium episcopum</i> found
+in many MSS. (cf. K. Wotke, <i>Sitz. Ber. Akad. Wien</i>, cxv. 425 sqq.;
+= the <i>Corpus Glossary</i>, first part), which are an alphabetical extract
+from the <i>formulae spiritalis intelligentiae</i> of St Eucherius, bishop of
+Lyons, <i>c.</i> 434-450.<a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Other sources were the <i>Differentiae</i>, already known to Placidus and
+much used in the medieval glossaries; and the <i>Synonyma Ciceronis</i>;
+cf. Goetz, &ldquo;Der Liber glossarum,&rdquo; in <i>Abhandl. der philol.-hist. Cl.
+der sächs. Gesellsch. d. Wiss.</i>, 1893, p. 215; <i>id.</i> in <i>Berl. philol.
+Wochenschr.</i>, 1890, p. 195 sqq.; Beck, in <i>Wochenschr.</i>, p. 297 sqq.,
+and Sittls, <i>ibid.</i> p. 267; <i>Archiv f. lat. Lex.</i> vi. 594; W. L. Mahne,
+(Leid. 1850, 1851); also various collections of <i>scholia</i>. By the side
+of the scholiasts come the grammarians, as Charisius, or an ars similar
+to that ascribed to him; further, treatises <i>de dubiis generibus</i>, the
+<i>scriptores orthographici</i> (especially Caper and Beda), and Priscianus,
+the chief grammarian of the middle ages (cf. Goetz in <i>Mélanges
+Boissier</i>, 224).</p>
+
+<p>During the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries glossography developed in
+various ways; old glossaries were worked up into new forms, or
+amalgamated with more recent ones. It ceased, moreover, to be
+exclusively Latin-Latin, and interpretations in Germanic (Old High
+German, Anglo-Saxon) and Romanic dialects took the place of or
+were used side by side with earlier Latin ones. The origin and
+development of the late classic and medieval glossaries preserved
+to us can be traced with certainty. While reading the manuscript
+texts of classical authors, the Bible or early Christian and profane
+writers, students and teachers, on meeting with any obscure or out-of-the-way
+words which they considered difficult to remember or to
+require elucidation, wrote above them, or in the margins, interpretations
+or explanations in more easy or better-known words. The
+interpretations written above the line are called &ldquo;interlinear,&rdquo;
+those written in the margins of the MSS. &ldquo;marginal glosses.&rdquo;
+Again, MSS. of the Bible or portions of the Bible were often provided
+with literal translations in the vernacular written above the lines of
+the Latin version (interlinear versions).</p>
+
+<p>Of such glossed MSS. or translated texts, photographs may be
+seen in the various palaeographical works published in recent years;
+cf. <i>The Palaeogr. Society</i>, 1st ser. vol. ii. pls. 9 (Terentius MS. of
+4th or 5th century, interlinear glosses) and 24 (Augustine&rsquo;s epistles,
+6th or 7th century, marginal glosses); see further, plates 10, 12,
+33, 40, 50-54, 57, 58, 63, 73, 75, 80; vol. iii. plates 10, 24, 31, 39,
+44, 54, 80.</p>
+
+<p>From these glossed or annotated MSS. and interlinear versions
+glossaries were compiled; that is, the obscure and difficult Latin
+words, together with the interpretations, were excerpted and
+collected in separate lists, in the order in which they appeared, one
+after the other, in the MSS., without any alphabetical arrangement,
+but with the names of the authors or the titles of the books whence
+they were taken, placed at the head of each separate collection or
+chapter. In this arrangement each article by itself is called a gloss;
+when reference is made only to the word explained it is called the
+<i>lemma</i>, while the explanation is termed the <i>interpretamentum</i>.
+In most cases the form of the lemma was retained just as it stood
+in its source, and explained by a single word (<i>tesca</i>: <i>sancta</i>,
+Varro vii. 10; <i>clucidatus: suavis, id.</i> vii. 107; cf. Isid. <i>Etym.</i> i.
+30. 1, &ldquo;quid enim illud sit in uno verbo positum declarat [<i>scil.</i>
+glossa] ut conticescere est tacere&rdquo;), so that we meet with lemmata
+in the accusative, dative and genitive, likewise explained by words
+in the same cases; the forms of verbs being treated in the same way.
+Of this first stage in the making of glossaries, many traces are
+preserved, for instance, in the late 8th century Leiden Glossary
+(Voss. 69, ed. J. H. Hessels), where chapter iii. contains words or
+glosses excerpted from the <i>Life of St Martin</i> by Sulpicius Severus;
+chs. iv., v. and xxxv. glosses from Rufinus; chs. vi. and xl. from
+Gildas; chs. vii. to xxv. from books of the Bible (Paralipomenon;
+Proverbs, &amp;c., &amp;c.); chs. xxvi. to xlviii, from Isidore, the Vita S.
+<i>Anthonii</i>, Cassiodorus, St Jerome, Cassianus, Orosius, St Augustine,
+St Clement, Eucherius, St Gregory, the grammarians Donatus,
+Phocas, &amp;c. (See also Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> v. 546. 23-547. 6. and i. 5-40
+from Ovid&rsquo;s <i>Metam.</i>; v. 657 from Apuleius, <i>De deo Socratis</i>; cf.
+Landgraf, in <i>Arch.</i> ix. 174).</p>
+
+<p>By a second operation the glosses came to be arranged in <i>alphabetical</i>
+order according to the first letter of the lemma, but still retained
+in separate chapters under the names of authors or the titles
+of books. Of this <i>second</i> stage the Leiden Glossary contains traces
+also: ch. i. (<i>Verba de Canonibus</i>) and ii. (<i>Sermones de Regulis</i>); see
+Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> v. 529 sqq. (from Terentius), iv. 427 sqq. (Virgil).</p>
+
+<p>The third operation collected all the accessible glosses in alphabetical
+order, in the first instance according to the first letters of the
+lemmata. In this arrangement the names of the authors or the titles
+of the books could no longer be preserved, and consequently the
+sources whence the glosses were excerpted became uncertain,
+especially if the grammatical forms of the lemmata had been
+normalized.</p>
+
+<p>A fourth arrangement collected the glosses according to the first
+two letters of the lemmata, as in the Corpus Glossary and in the still
+earlier <i>Cod. Vat.</i> 3321 (Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> iv. 1 sqq.), where even many
+attempts were made to arrange them according to the first three
+letters of the alphabet. A peculiar arrangement is seen in the
+<i>Glossae affatim</i> (Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> iv. 471 sqq.), where all words are
+alphabetized, first according to the initial letter of the word (a, b, c,
+&amp;c.), and then further according to the first <i>vowel</i> in the word
+(a, e, i, o, u).</p>
+
+<p>No date or period can be assigned to any of the above stages or
+arrangements. For instance, the first and second are both found in
+the Leiden Glossary, which dates from the end of the 8th century,
+whereas the Corpus Glossary, written in the beginning of the same
+century, represents already the fourth stage.</p>
+
+<p>For the purpose of identification titles have of late years been
+given to the various nameless collections of glosses, derived partly
+from their first lemma, partly from other characteristics, as glossae
+<i>abstrusae</i>; glossae <i>abavus major</i> and <i>minor</i>; g. <i>affatim</i>; g. <i>ab absens</i>;
+g. <i>abactor</i>; g. <i>Abba Pater</i>; g. <i>a, a</i>; g. <i>Vergilianae</i>; g. <i>nominum</i>
+(Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> ii. 563, iv.); g. Sangallenses (Warren, <i>Transact</i>.
+<i>Amer. Philol. Assoc.</i> xv., 1885, p. 141 sqq.).</p>
+
+<p>A chief landmark in glossography is represented by the <i>Origines</i>
+(<i>Etymologiae</i>) of Isidore (d. 636), an encyclopedia in which he, like
+Cassiodorus, mixed human and divine subjects together. In many
+places we can trace his sources, but he also used glossaries. His work
+became a great mine for later glossographers. In the tenth book he
+deals with the etymology of many substantives and adjectives
+arranged alphabetically according to the first letter of the words,
+perhaps by himself from various sources. His principal source
+is Servius, then the fathers of the Church (Augustine, Jerome,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>127</span>
+Lactantius) and Donatus the grammarian. This tenth book was
+also copied and used separately, and mixed up with other works
+(cf. Loewe, <i>Prodr.</i> 167. 21). Isidore&rsquo;s <i>Differentiae</i> have also had a
+great reputation.</p>
+
+<p>Next comes the <i>Liber glossarum</i>, chiefly compiled from Isidore,
+but all articles arranged alphabetically; its author lived in Spain
+c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 690-750; he has been called Ansileubus, but not in any of
+the MSS., some of which belong to the 8th century; hence this name
+is suspected to be merely that of some owner of a copy of the book
+(cf. Goetz, &ldquo;Der Liber Glossarum,&rdquo; in <i>Abhandl. der philol.-hist.
+Class, der kön. sächs. Ges.</i> xiii., 1893; <i>id., Corp.</i> v., praef. xx. 161).</p>
+
+<p>Here come, in regard to time, some Latin glossaries already largely
+mixed with Germanic, more especially Anglo-Saxon interpretations:
+(1) the Corpus Glossary (ed. J. H. Hessels), written in the beginning
+of the 8th century, preserved in the library of Corpus Christi College,
+Cambridge; (2) the Leiden Glossary (end of 8th century, ed. Hessels;
+another edition by Plac. Glogger), preserved in the Leiden MS. Voss.
+Q<span class="sp">o</span>. 69; (3) the Épinal Glossary, written in the beginning of the 9th
+century<a name="fa8a" id="fa8a" href="#ft8a"><span class="sp">8</span></a> and published in facsimile by the London Philol. Society
+from a MS. in the town library at Épinal; (4) the <i>Glossae Amplonianae</i>,
+<i>i.e.</i> three glossaries preserved in the Amplonian library at
+Erfurt, known as Erfurt<span class="sp">1</span>, Erfurt<span class="sp">2</span> and Erfurt<span class="sp">3</span>. The first, published
+by Goetz (<i>Corp.</i> v. 337-401; cf. also Loewe, <i>Prodr.</i> 114 sqq.) with
+the various readings of the kindred Épinal, consists, like the latter,
+of different collections of glosses (also some from Aldhelm), some
+arranged alphabetically according to the first letter of the lemma,
+others according to the first two letters. The title of Erfurt<span class="sp">2</span> (<i>incipit
+II. conscriptio glosarum in unam</i>) shows that it is also a combination
+of various glossaries; it is arranged alphabetically according to the
+first two letters of the lemmata, and contains the <i>affatim</i> and <i>abavus
+maior</i> glosses, also a collection from Aldhelm; Erfurt<span class="sp">3</span> are the
+<i>Glossae nominum</i>, mixed also with Anglo-Saxon interpretations
+(Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> ii. 563). The form in which the three Erfurt glossaries
+have come down to us points back to the 8th century.</p>
+
+<p>The first great glossary or collection of various glosses and glossaries
+is that of Salomon, bishop of Constance, formerly abbot of St Gall,
+who died <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 919. An edition of it in two parts was printed <i>c.</i> 1475
+at Augsburg, with the headline <i>Salemonis ecclesie Constantiensis
+episcopi glosse ex illustrissimis collecte auctoribus</i>. The oldest MSS.
+of this work date from the 11th century. Its sources are the <i>Liber
+glossarum</i> (Loewe, Prodr. 234 sqq.), the glossary preserved in the
+9th-century MS. <i>Lat. Monac.</i> 14429 (Goetz, &ldquo;Lib. Gloss.&rdquo; 35 sqq.),
+and the great Abavus Gloss (<i>id., ibid.</i> p. 37; <i>id., Corp.</i> iv. praef.
+xxxvii.).</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Lib. glossarum</i> has also been the chief source for the important
+(but not original) glossary of Papias, of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1053 (cf. Goetz in <i>Sitz.
+Ber. Akad. Münch.</i>, 1903, p. 267 sqq., who enumerates eighty-seven
+MSS. of the 12th to the 15th centuries), of whom we only know that he
+lived among clerics and dedicated his work to his two sons. An
+edition of it was published at Milan &ldquo;per Dominicum de Vespolate&rdquo;
+on the 12th of December 1476; other editions followed in 1485,
+1491, 1496 (at Venice). He also wrote a grammar, chiefly compiled
+from Priscianus (Hagen, <i>Anecd. Helv.</i> clxxix. sqq.).</p>
+
+<p>The same <i>Lib. gloss.</i> is the source (1) for the <i>Abba Pater</i> Glossary
+(cf. Goetz, <i>ibid.</i> p. 39), published by G. M. Thomas (<i>Sitz. Ber. Akad.
+Münch.</i>, 1868, ii. 369 sqq.); (2) the Greek glossary <i>Absida lucida</i>
+(Goetz, <i>ib.</i> p. 41); and (3) the Lat.-Arab. glossary in the <i>Cod. Leid.
+Scal. Orient.</i> No. 231 (published by Seybold in <i>Semit. Studien</i>, Heft
+xv.-xvii., Berlin, 1900).</p>
+
+<p>The Paulus-Glossary (cf. Goetz, &ldquo;Der Liber Glossarum,&rdquo; p. 215) is
+compiled from the second Salomon-Glossary (<i>abacti magistratus</i>),
+the <i>Abavus major</i> and the <i>Liber glossarum</i>, with a mixture of
+Hebraica. Many of his glosses appear again in other compilations,
+as in the Cod. Vatic. 1469 (cf. Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> v. 520 sqq.), mixed up
+with glosses from Beda, Placidus, &amp;c. (cf. a glossary published by
+Ellis in <i>Amer. Journ. of Philol.</i> vi. 4, vii. 3, containing besides
+Paulus glosses, also excerpts from Isidore; Cambridge <i>Journ. of
+Philol.</i> viii. 71 sqq., xiv. 81 sqq.).</p>
+
+<p>Osbern of Gloucester (<i>c.</i> 1123-1200) compiled the glossary entitled
+<i>Panormia</i> (published by Angelo Mai as <i>Thesaurus novus Latinitatis</i>,
+from Cod. Vatic. reg. Christ. 1392; cf. W. Meyer, <i>Rhein. Mus.</i>
+xxix., 1874; Goetz in <i>Sitzungsber. sächs. Ges. d. Wiss.</i>, 1903, p. 133
+sqq.; <i>Berichte üb. die Verhandl. der kön. sächs. Gesellsch. der Wiss.</i>,
+Leipzig, 1902); giving derivations, etymologies, testimonia collected
+from Paulus, Priscianus, Plautus, Horace, Virgil, Ovid, Mart.
+Capella, Macrobius, Ambrose, Sidonius, Prudentius, Josephus,
+Jerome, &amp;c., &amp;c. Osbern&rsquo;s material was also used by Hugucio,
+whose compendium was still more extensively used (cf. Goetz, l.c.,
+p. 121 sqq., who enumerates one hundred and three MSS. of his
+treatise), and contains many biblical glosses, especially Hebraica,
+some treatises on Latin numerals, &amp;c. (cf. Hamann, <i>Weitere Mitteil.
+aus dem Breviloquus Benthemianus</i>, Hamburg, 1882; A. Thomas,
+&ldquo;Glosses provençales inéd.&rdquo; in <i>Romania</i>, xxxiv. p. 177 sqq; P.
+Toynbee, <i>ibid.</i> xxv. p. 537 sqq.).</p>
+
+<p>The great work of Johannes de Janua, entitled <i>Summa quae
+vocatur catholicon</i>, dates from the year 1286, and treats of (1) accent,
+(2) etymology, (3) syntax, and (4) so-called prosody, <i>i.e.</i> a lexicon,
+which also deals with quantity. It mostly uses Hugucio and Papias;
+its classical quotations are limited, except from Horace; it quotes the
+Vulgate by preference, frequently independently from Hugucio;
+it excerpts Priscianus, Donatus, Isidore, the fathers of the Church,
+especially Jerome, Gregory, Augustine, Ambrose; it borrows
+many Hebrew glosses, mostly from Jerome and the other collections
+then in use; it mentions the <i>Graecismus</i> of Eberhardus Bethuniensis,
+the works of Hrabanus Maurus, the <i>Doctrinale</i> of Alexander de Villa
+Dei, and the <i>Aurora</i> of Petrus de Riga. Many quotations from the
+<i>Catholicon</i> in Du Cange are really from Hugucio, and may be traced
+to Osbern. There exist many MSS. of this work, and the Mainz
+edition of 1460 is well known (cf. Goetz in <i>Berichte üb. die Verhandl.
+der kön. sächs. Gesellsch. der Wiss.</i>, Leipzig, 1902).</p>
+
+<p>The gloss MSS. of the 9th and 10th centuries are numerous, but a
+diminution becomes visible towards the 11th. We then find grammatical
+treatises arise, for which also glossaries were used. The chief
+material was (1) the <i>Liber glossarum</i>; (2) the Paulus glosses; (3)
+the <i>Abavus major</i>; (4) excerpts from Priscian and glosses to Priscian;
+(5) Hebrew-biblical collections of proper names (chiefly from Jerome).
+After these comes medieval material, as the <i>derivationes</i> which are
+found in many MSS. (cf. Goetz in <i>Sitzungsber. sächs. Ges. d. Wiss.</i>,
+1903, p. 136 sqq.; Traube in <i>Archiv f. lat. Lex.</i> vi. 264), containing
+quotations from Plautus, Ovid, Juvenal, Persius, Terence, occasionally
+from Priscian, Eutyches, and other grammarians, with etymological
+explanations. These <i>derivationes</i> were the basis for the
+grammatical works of Osbern, Hugucio and Joannes of Janua.</p>
+
+<p>A peculiar feature of the late middle ages are the medico-botanic
+glossaries based on the earlier ones (see Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> iii.). The
+additions consisted in Arabic words with Latin explanations, while
+Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Arabic, interchange with English, French,
+Italian and German forms. Of glossaries of this kind we have (1)
+the <i>Glossae alphita</i> (published by S. de Renzi in the 3rd vol. of the
+<i>Collect. Salernitana</i>, Naples, 1854, from two Paris MSS. of the 14th
+and 15th centuries, but some of the glosses occur already in earlier
+MSS.); (2) <i>Sinonoma Bartholomei</i>, collected by John Mirfeld,
+towards the end of the 14th century, ed. J. L. G. Mowat (<i>Anecd.
+Oxon.</i> i. 1, 1882, cf. Loewe, <i>Gloss. Nom.</i> 116 sqq.); it seems to have
+used the same or some similar source as No. 1; (3) the compilations
+of Simon de Janua (<i>Clavis sanationis</i>, end of 13th century), and of
+Matthaeus Silvaticus (<i>Pandectae medicinae</i>, 14th century; cf.
+H. Stadler, &ldquo;Dioscor. Longob.&rdquo; in <i>Roman. Forsch.</i> x. 3. 371;
+Steinmeyer, <i>Althochd. Gloss.</i> iii.).</p>
+
+<p>Of biblical glossaries we have a large number, mostly mixed with
+glosses on other, even profane, subjects, as Hebrew and other
+biblical proper names, and explanations of the text of the Vulgate
+in general, and the prologues of Hieronymus. So we have the
+<i>Glossae veteris ac novi testamenti</i> (beginning &ldquo;Prologus graece latine
+praelocutio sive praefatio&rdquo;) in numerous MSS. of the 9th to 14th
+centuries, mostly retaining the various books under separate headings
+(cf. Arevalo, <i>Isid.</i> vii. 407 sqq.; Loewe, <i>Prodr.</i> 141; Steinmeyer
+iv. 459; S. Berger, <i>De compendiis exegeticis quibusdam medii aevi</i>,
+Paris, 1879). Special mention should be made of Guil. Brito, who
+lived about 1250, and compiled a <i>Summa</i> (beginning &ldquo;difficiles studeo
+partes quas Biblia gestat Pandere&rdquo;), contained in many MSS. especially
+in French libraries. This <i>Summa</i> gave rise to the <i>Mammotrectus</i>
+of Joh. Marchesinus, about 1300, of which we have editions printed
+in 1470, 1476, 1479, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Finally we may mention such compilations as the <i>Summa Heinrici</i>;
+the work of Johannes de Garlandia, which he himself calls <i>dictionarius</i>
+(cf. Scheler in <i>Jahrb. f. rom. u. engl. Philol.</i> vi., 1865, p. 142 sqq.);
+and that of Alexander Neckam (<i>ib.</i> vii. p. 60 sqq., cf. R. Ellis, in
+<i>Amer. Journ. of Phil.</i> x. 2); which are, strictly speaking, not glossographic.
+The <i>Breviloquus</i> drew its chief material from Papias,
+Hugucio, Brito, &amp;c. (K. Hamann, <i>Mitteil. aus dem Breviloquus
+Benthemianus</i>, Hamburg, 1879; <i>id.</i>, <i>Weitere Mitteil.</i>, &amp;c., Hamburg,
+1882); so also the <i>Vocabularium Ex quo</i>; the various <i>Gemmae</i>;
+<i>Vocabularia rerum</i> (cf. Diefenbach, <i>Glossar. Latino-Germanicum</i>).</p>
+
+<p>After the revival of learning, J. Scaliger (1540-1609) was the first
+to impart to glossaries that importance which they deserve (cf.
+Goetz, in <i>Sitzungsber. sächs. Ger. d. Wiss.</i>, 1888, p. 219 sqq.), and in
+his edition of Festus made great use of Ps.-Philoxenus, which enabled
+O. Müller, the later editor of Festus, to follow in his footsteps.
+Scaliger also planned the publication of a <i>Corpus glossarum</i>, and left
+behind a collection of glosses known as <i>glossae Isidori</i> (Goetz, <i>Corp.</i>
+v. p. 589 sqq.; id. in <i>Sitzungsber. sächs. Ges.</i>, 1888, p. 224 sqq.; Loewe,
+<i>Prodr.</i> 23 sqq.), which occurs also in old glossaries, clearly in reference
+to the tenth book of the <i>Etymologiae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The study of glosses spread through the publication, in 1573,
+of the bilingual glossaries by H. Stephanus (Estienne), containing,
+besides the two great glossaries, also the <i>Hermeneumata Stephani</i>,
+which is a recension of the <i>Ps.-Dositheana</i> (republished Goetz,
+<i>Corp.</i> iii. 438-474), and the <i>glossae Stephani</i>, excerpted from a
+collection of the <i>Hermeneumata</i> (<i>ib.</i> iii. 438-474).</p>
+
+<p>In 1600 Bonav. Vulcanius republished the same glossaries, adding
+(1) the glossae <i>Isidori</i>, which now appeared for the first time; (2)
+the <i>Onomasticon</i>; (3) <i>notae</i> and <i>castigationes</i>, derived from Scaliger
+(Loewe, <i>Prodr.</i> 183).</p>
+
+<p>In 1606 Carolus and Petrus Labbaeus published, with the effective
+help of Scaliger, another collection of glossaries, republished, in 1679,
+by Du Cange, after which the 17th and 18th centuries produced no
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>128</span>
+further glossaries (Erasm. Nyerup published extracts from the
+Leiden Glossary, Voss. 69, in 1787, <i>Symbolae ad Literat. Teut.</i>),
+though glosses were constantly used or referred to by Salmasius,
+Meursius, Heraldus, Barth, Fabricius and Burman at Leiden, where
+a rich collection of glossaries had been obtained by the acquisition
+of the Vossius library (cf. Loewe, <i>Prodr.</i> 168). In the 19th century
+came Osann&rsquo;s <i>Glossarii Latini specimen</i> (1826); the glossographic
+publications of Angelo Mai (<i>Classici auctores</i>, vols. iii., vi., vii., viii.,
+Rome, 1831-1836, containing Osbern&rsquo;s <i>Panormia</i>, Placidus and
+various glosses from Vatican MSS.); Fr. Oehler&rsquo;s treatise (1847)
+on the <i>Cod. Amplonianus</i> of Osbern, and his edition of the three
+Erfurt glossaries, so important for Anglo-Saxon philology; in 1854
+G. F. Hildebrand&rsquo;s <i>Glossarium Latinum</i> (an extract from <i>Abavus
+minor</i>), preserved in a Cod. Paris. lat. 7690; 1857, Thomas Wright&rsquo;s
+vol. of Anglo-Saxon glosses, which were republished with others in
+1884 by R. Paul Wülcker under the title <i>Anglo-Saxon and Old English
+Vocabularies</i> (London, 2 vols., 1857); L. Diefenbach&rsquo;s supplement
+to Du Cange, entitled <i>Glossarium Latino-Germanicum mediae et
+infimae aetatis</i>, containing mostly glosses collected from glossaries,
+vocabularies, &amp;c., enumerated in the preface; Ritschl&rsquo;s treatise
+(1870) on Placidus, which called forth an edition (1875) of Placidus
+by Deuerling; G. Loewe&rsquo;s <i>Prodromus</i> (1876), and other treatises
+by him, published after his death by G. Goetz (Leipzig, 1884);
+1888, the second volume of Goetz&rsquo;s own great <i>Corpus glossariorum
+Latinorum</i>, of which seven volumes (except the first) had seen the
+light by 1907, the last two being separately entitled <i>Thesaurus
+glossarum emendatarum</i>, containing many emendations and corrections
+of earlier glossaries by the author and other scholars; 1900,
+Arthur S. Napier, <i>Old English Glosses</i> (Oxford), collected chiefly from
+Aldhelm MSS., but also from Augustine, Avianus, Beda, Boethius,
+Gregory, Isidore, Juvencus, Phocas, Prudentius, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>There are a very great number of glossaries still in MS. scattered in
+various libraries of Europe, especially in the Vatican, at Monte Cassino,
+Paris, Munich, Bern, the British Museum, Leiden, Oxford, Cambridge,
+&amp;c. Much has already been done to make the material contained in
+these MSS. accessible in print, and much may yet be done with what
+is still unpublished, though we may find that the differences between
+the glossaries which often present themselves at first sight are mere
+differences in form introduced by successive more or less qualified
+copyists.</p>
+
+<p>Some Celtic (Breton, Cornish, Welsh, Irish) glossaries have been
+preserved to us, the particulars of which may be learnt from the
+publications of Whitley Stokes, Sir John Rhys, Kuno Meyer, L. C.
+Stern, G. I. Ascoli, Heinr. Zimmer, Ernst Windisch, Nigra, and many
+others; these are published separately as books or in Zeuss&rsquo;s <i>Grammatica
+Celtica</i>, A. Kühn&rsquo;s <i>Beiträge zur vergleich. Sprachforschung,
+Zeitschr. für celtische Philologie, Archiv für Celtische Lexicographie,
+the Revue celtique, Transactions of the London Philological Society</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The first Hebrew author known to have used glosses was R.
+Gershom of Metz (1000) in his commentaries on the Talmud. But
+he and other Hebrew writers after him mostly used the Old French
+language (though sometimes also Italian, Slavonic, German) of which
+an example has been published by Lambert and Brandin, in their
+<i>Glossaire hébreu-français du XIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle: recueil de mots hébreux
+bibliques avec traduction française</i> (Paris, 1905). See further <i>The
+Jewish Encyclopedia</i> (New York and London, 1903), article &ldquo;Gloss.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;For a great part of what has been said above, the
+writer is indebted to G. Goetz&rsquo;s article on &ldquo;Latein. Glossographie&rdquo;
+in Pauly&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>. By the side of Goetz&rsquo;s <i>Corpus</i> stands
+the great collection of Steinmeyer and Sievers, <i>Die althochdeutschen
+Glossen</i> (in 4 vols., 1879-1898), containing a vast number of (also
+Anglo-Saxon) glosses culled from Bible MSS. and MSS. of classical
+Christian authors, enumerated and described in the 4th vol. Besides
+the works of the editors of, or writers on, glosses, already mentioned,
+we refer here to a few others, whose writings may be consulted:
+Hugo Blümner; <i>Catholicon Anglicum</i> (ed. Hertage); De-Vit (at
+end of Forcellini&rsquo;s <i>Lexicon</i>); F. Deycks; Du Cange; Funck;
+J. H. Gallée (<i>Altsächs. Sprachdenkm.</i>, 1894); Gröber; K. Gruber
+(<i>Hauptquellen des Corpus, Épin. u. Erfurt Gloss.</i>, Erlangen, 1904);
+Hattemer; W. Heraeus (<i>Die Sprache des Petronius und die Glossen</i>,
+Leipzig, 1899); Kettner; Kluge; Krumbacher; Lagarde; Landgraf;
+Marx; W. Meyer-Lubke (&ldquo;Zu den latein. Glossen&rdquo; in
+<i>Wiener Stud.</i> xxv. 90 sqq.); Henry Nettleship; Niedermann,
+<i>Notes d&rsquo;étymol. lat.</i> (Macon, 1902), <i>Contribut. à la critique des glosses
+latines</i> (Neuchâtel, 1905); Pokrowskij; Quicherat; Otto B.
+Schlutter (many important articles in <i>Anglia, Englische Studien,
+Archiv f. latein. Lexicographie</i>, &amp;c.); Schöll; Schuchardt; Leo
+Sommer; Stadler; Stowasser; Strachan; H. Sweet; Usener
+(<i>Rhein. Mus.</i> xxiii. 496, xxiv. 382); A. Way, <i>Promptorium parvulorum
+sive clericorum</i> (3 vols., London, 1843-1865); Weyman; Wilmanns (in
+<i>Rhein. Mus.</i> xxiv. 363); Wölfflin in <i>Arch. für lat. Lexicogr.</i>; Zupitza.
+Cf. further, the various volumes of the following periodicals:
+<i>Romania</i>; <i>Zeitschr. für deutsches Alterthum</i>; <i>Anglia</i>; <i>Englische
+Studien</i>; <i>Journal of English and German Philology</i> (ed. Cook and
+Karsten); <i>Archiv für latein. Lexicogr.</i>, and others treating of philology,
+lexicography, grammar, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. H. H.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The history of the literary gloss in its proper sense has given
+rise to the common English use of the word to mean an interpretation,
+especially in a disingenuous, sinister or false way; the form &ldquo;gloze,&rdquo;
+more particularly associated with explaining away, palliating or
+talking speciously, is simply an alternative spelling. The word has
+thus to some extent influenced, or been influenced by, the meaning
+of the etymologically different &ldquo;gloss&rdquo; = lustrous surface (from the
+same root as &ldquo;glass&rdquo;; cf. &ldquo;glow&rdquo;), in its extended sense of &ldquo;outward
+fair seeming.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Matthaei, <i>Glossaria Graeca</i> (Moscow, 1774/5).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See Labbé, <i>Veteres glossae verborum juris quae passim in Basilicis
+reperiuntur</i> (1606); Otto, <i>Thesaurus juris Romani</i>, iii. (1697);
+Stephens, <i>Thesaurus linguae Graecae</i>, viii. (1825).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See Biener, <i>Geschichte der Novellen</i>, p. 229 sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Irnerius himself is with some probability believed to have been
+the author of the Brachylogus (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Thus Fil. Villani (<i>De origine civitatis Florentiae</i>, ed. 1847, p. 23),
+speaking of the Glossator Accursius, says of the Glossae that &ldquo;tantae
+auctoritatis gratiaeque fuere, ut omnium consensu publice approbarentur,
+et reiectis aliis, quibuscumque penitus abolitis, solae
+juxta textum legum adpositae sunt et ubique terrarum sine controversia
+pro legibus celebrantur, ita ut nefas sit, non secus quam
+textui, Glossis Accursii contraire.&rdquo; For similar testimonies see
+Bayle&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire</i>, s.v. &ldquo;Accursius,&rdquo; and Rudorff, <i>Röm. Rechtsgeschichte</i>,
+i. 338 (1857).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The so-called <i>Malberg</i> glosses, found in various texts of the Lex
+Salica, are not glosses in the ordinary sense of the word, but precious
+remains of the parent of the present literary Dutch, namely, the Low
+German dialect spoken by the Salian Franks who conquered Gaul
+from the Romans at the end of the 5th century. It is supposed that
+the conquerors brought their Frankish law with them, either written
+down, or by oral tradition; that they translated it into Latin for
+the sake of the Romans settled in the country, and that the translators,
+not always knowing a proper Latin equivalent for certain
+things or actions, retained in their translations the Frankish technical
+names or phrases which they had attempted to translate into Latin.
+E.g. in chapter ii., by the side of &ldquo;<i>porcellus lactans</i>&rdquo; (a sucking-pig),
+we find the Frankish &ldquo;<i>chramnechaltio</i>,&rdquo; lit. a stye-porker. The
+person who stole such a pig (still kept in an enclosed place, in a stye)
+was fined three times as much as one who stole a &ldquo;<i>porcellus de campo
+qui sine matre vivere possit</i>,&rdquo; as the Latin text has it, for which the
+Malberg technical expression appears to have been <i>ingymus</i>, that is,
+a one year (winter) old animal, <i>i.e.</i> a yearling. Nearly all these
+glosses are preceded by &ldquo;<i>mal</i>&rdquo; or &ldquo;<i>malb</i>,&rdquo; which is thought to be
+a contraction for &ldquo;<i>malberg</i>,&rdquo; the Frankish for &ldquo;forum.&rdquo; The
+antiquity and importance of these glosses for philology may be
+realized from the fact that the Latin translation of the Lex Salica
+probably dates from the latter end of the 5th century. For further
+information cf. Jac. Grimm&rsquo;s preface to Joh. Merkel&rsquo;s ed. (1850),
+and H. Kern&rsquo;s notes to J. H. Hessels&rsquo;s ed. (London, 1880) of the Lex
+Salica.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8a" id="ft8a" href="#fa8a"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Anglo-Saxon scholars ascribe an earlier date to the text of the
+MS. on account of certain archaisms in its Anglo-Saxon words.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLOSSOP,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough, in the
+High Peak parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, on
+the extreme northern border of the county; 13 m. E. by S. of
+Manchester by the Great Central railway. Pop. (1901) 21,526.
+It is the chief seat of the cotton manufacture in Derbyshire,
+and it has also woollen and paper mills, dye and print works,
+and bleaching greens. The town consists of three main divisions,
+the Old Town (or Glossop proper), Howard Town (or Glossop
+Dale) and Mill Town. An older parish church was replaced by
+that of All Saints in 1830; there is also a very fine Roman
+Catholic church. In the immediate neighbourhood is Glossop
+Hall, the seat of Lord Howard, lord of the manor, a picturesque
+old building with extensive terraced gardens. On a hill near the
+town is Melandra Castle, the site of a Roman fort guarding
+Longdendale and the way into the hills of the Peak District.
+In the neighbourhood also a great railway viaduct spans the
+Dinting valley with sixteen arches. To the north, in Longdendale,
+there are five lakes belonging to the water-supply system
+of Manchester, formed by damming the Etherow, a stream which
+descends from the high moors north-east of Glossop. The town
+is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area,
+3052 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Glossop was granted by Henry I. to William Peverel, on the
+attainder of whose son it reverted to the crown. In 1157 it
+was gifted by Henry II. to the abbey of Basingwerk. Henry
+VIII. bestowed it on the earl of Shrewsbury. It was made a
+municipal borough in 1866.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF.<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> The English
+earldom of Gloucester was held by several members of the royal
+family, including Robert, a natural son of Henry I., and John,
+afterwards king, and others, until 1218, when Gilbert de Clare
+was recognized as earl of Gloucester. It remained in the family
+of Clare (<i>q.v.</i>) until 1314, when another Earl Gilbert was killed
+at Bannockburn; and after this date it was claimed by various
+relatives of the Clares, among them by the younger Hugh le
+Despenser (d. 1326) and by Hugh Audley (d. 1347), both of whom
+had married sisters of Earl Gilbert. In 1397 Thomas le Despenser
+(1373-1400), a descendant of the Clares, was created earl of
+Gloucester; but in 1399 he was degraded from his earldom
+and in January 1400 was beheaded.</p>
+
+<p>The dukedom dates from 1385, when Thomas of Woodstock,
+a younger son of Edward III., was created duke of Gloucester,
+but his honours were forfeited when he was found guilty of
+treason in 1397. The next holder of the title was Humphrey,
+a son of Henry IV., who was created duke of Gloucester in 1414.
+He died without sons in 1447, and in 1461 the title was revived
+in favour of Richard, brother of Edward IV., who became king
+as Richard III. in 1483.</p>
+
+<p>In 1659 Henry (1639-1660), a brother of Charles II., was
+formally created duke of Gloucester, a title which he had borne
+since infancy. This prince, sharing the exile of the Stuarts, had
+incensed his mother, Queen Henrietta Maria, by his firm adherence
+to the Protestant religion, and had fought among the
+Spaniards at Dunkirk in 1658. Having returned to England
+with Charles II., he died unmarried in London on the 13th of
+September 1660. The next duke was William (1689-1700),
+son of the princess Anne, who was, after his mother, the heir to
+the English throne, and who was declared duke of Gloucester by
+his uncle, William III., in 1689, but no patent for this creation
+was ever passed. William died on the 30th of July 1700, and
+again the title became extinct.</p>
+
+<p>Frederick Louis, the eldest son of George II., was known
+for some time as duke of Gloucester, but when he was raised to
+the peerage in 1726 it was as duke of Edinburgh only. In 1764
+Frederick&rsquo;s third son, William Henry (1743-1805), was created
+duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh by his brother, George III.
+This duke&rsquo;s secret marriage with Maria (d. 1807), an illegitimate
+daughter of Sir Edward Walpole and widow of James, 2nd
+Earl Waldegrave, in 1766, greatly incensed his royal relatives
+and led to his banishment from court. Gloucester died on the
+25th of August 1805, leaving an only son, William Frederick
+(1776-1834), who now became duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh.
+The duke, who served with the British army in Flanders, married
+his cousin Mary (1776-1857), a daughter of George III. He
+died on the 30th of November 1834, leaving no children, and his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id="page129"></a>129</span>
+widow, the last survivor of the family of George III., died on the
+30th of April 1857.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl of</span> (1243-1295),
+was a son of Richard de Clare, 7th earl of Gloucester and 8th
+earl of Clare, and was born at Christchurch, Hampshire, on the
+2nd of September 1243. Having married Alice of Angoulême,
+half-sister of king Henry III., he became earl of Gloucester
+and Clare on his father&rsquo;s death in July 1262, and almost at once
+joined the baronial party led by Simon de Montfort, earl of
+Leicester. With Simon Gloucester was at the battle of Lewes
+in May 1264, when the king himself surrendered to him, and
+after this victory he was one of the three persons selected to
+nominate a council. Soon, however, he quarrelled with Leicester.
+Leaving London for his lands on the Welsh border he met
+Prince Edward, afterwards king Edward I., at Ludlow, just
+after his escape from captivity, and by his skill contributed
+largely to the prince&rsquo;s victory at Evesham in August 1265. But
+this alliance was as transitory as the one with Leicester. Gloucester
+took up the cudgels on behalf of the barons who had
+surrendered at Kenilworth in November and December 1266,
+and after putting his demands before the king, secured possession
+of London. This happened in April 1267, but the earl quickly
+made his peace with Henry III. and with Prince Edward, and,
+having evaded an obligation to go on the Crusade, he helped
+to secure the peaceful accession of Edward I. to the throne
+in 1272. Gloucester then passed several years in fighting in
+Wales, or on the Welsh border; in 1289 when the barons were
+asked for a subsidy he replied on their behalf that they would
+grant nothing until they saw the king in person (<i>nisi prius
+personaliter viderent in Anglia faciem regis</i>), and in 1291 he was
+fined and imprisoned on account of his violent quarrel with
+Humphrey de Bohun, earl of Hereford. Having divorced his
+wife Alice, he married in 1290 Edward&rsquo;s daughter Joan, or
+Johanna (d. 1307). Earl Gilbert, who is sometimes called the
+&ldquo;Red,&rdquo; died at Monmouth on the 7th of December 1295,
+leaving in addition to three daughters a son, Gilbert, earl of
+Gloucester and Clare, who was killed at Bannockburn.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Bémont, <i>Simon de Montfort, comte de Leicester</i> (1884), and
+G. W. Prothero, <i>Simon de Montfort</i> (1877).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLOUCESTER, HUMPHREY,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duke of</span> (1391-1447), fourth
+son of Henry IV. by Mary de Bohun, was born in 1391. He was
+knighted at his father&rsquo;s coronation on the 11th of October
+1399, and created duke of Gloucester by Henry V. at Leicester
+on the 16th of May 1414. He served in the war next year,
+and was wounded at Agincourt, where he owed his life to his
+brother&rsquo;s valour. In April 1416 Humphrey received the emperor
+Sigismund at Dover and, according to a 16th-century story,
+did not let him land till he had disclaimed all title to imperial
+authority in England. In the second invasion of France
+Humphrey commanded the force which during 1418 reduced
+the Cotentin and captured Cherbourg. Afterwards he joined
+the main army before Rouen, and took part in subsequent
+campaigns till January 1420. He then went home to replace
+Bedford as regent in England, and held office till Henry&rsquo;s
+own return in February 1421. He was again regent for his
+brother from May to September 1422.</p>
+
+<p>Henry V. measured Humphrey&rsquo;s capacity, and by his will
+named him merely deputy for Bedford in England. Humphrey
+at once claimed the full position of regent, but the parliament
+and council allowed him only the title of protector during
+Bedford&rsquo;s absence, with limited powers. His lack of discretion
+soon justified this caution. In the autumn of 1422 he married
+Jacqueline of Bavaria, heiress of Holland, to whose lands
+Philip of Burgundy had claims. Bedford, in the interest of so
+important an ally, endeavoured vainly to restrain his brother.
+Finally in October 1424 Humphrey took up arms in his wife&rsquo;s
+behalf, but after a short campaign in Hainault went home,
+and left Jacqueline to be overwhelmed by Burgundy. Returning
+to England in April 1425 he soon entangled himself in a
+quarrel with the council and his uncle Henry Beaufort, and
+stirred up a tumult in London. Open war was averted only by
+Beaufort&rsquo;s prudence, and Bedford&rsquo;s hurried return. Humphrey
+had charged his uncle with disloyalty to the late and present
+kings. With some difficulty Bedford effected a formal reconciliation
+at Leicester in March 1426, and forced Humphrey to accept
+Beaufort&rsquo;s disavowal. When Bedford left England next year
+Humphrey renewed his intrigues. But one complication was
+removed by the annulling in 1428 of his marriage with Jacqueline.
+His open adultery with his mistress, Eleanor Cobham, also made
+him unpopular. To check his indiscretion the council, in
+November 1429, had the king crowned, and so put an end to
+Humphrey&rsquo;s protectorate. However, when Henry VI. was soon
+afterwards taken to be crowned in France, Humphrey was made
+lieutenant and warden of the kingdom, and thus ruled England
+for nearly two years. His jealousy of Bedford and Beaufort
+still continued, and when the former died in 1435 there was no
+one to whom he would defer. The defection of Burgundy roused
+English feeling, and Humphrey won popularity as leader of the
+war party. In 1436 he commanded in a short invasion of
+Flanders. But he had no real power, and his political importance
+lay in his persistent opposition to Beaufort and the
+councillors of his party. In 1439 he renewed his charges against
+his uncle without effect. His position was further damaged by
+his connexion with Eleanor Cobham, whom he had now married.
+In 1441 Eleanor was charged with practising sorcery against
+the king, and Humphrey had to submit to see her condemned,
+and her accomplices executed. Nevertheless, he continued
+his political opposition, and endeavoured to thwart Suffolk,
+who was now taking Beaufort&rsquo;s place in the council, by opposing
+the king&rsquo;s marriage to Margaret of Anjou. Under Suffolk&rsquo;s
+influence Henry VI. grew to distrust his uncle altogether. The
+crisis came in the parliament of Bury St Edmunds in February
+1447. Immediately on his arrival there Humphrey was arrested,
+and four days later, on the 23rd of February, he died. Rumour
+attributed his death to foul play. But his health had been long
+undermined by excesses, and his end was probably only hastened
+by the shock of his arrest.</p>
+
+<p>Humphrey was buried at St Albans Abbey, in a fine tomb,
+which still exists. He was ambitious and self-seeking, but
+unstable and unprincipled, and, lacking the fine qualities of his
+brothers, excelled neither in war nor in peace. Still he was a
+cultured and courtly prince, who could win popularity. He
+was long remembered as the good Duke Humphrey, and in his
+lifetime was a liberal patron of letters. He had been a great
+collector of books, many of which he presented to the university
+of Oxford. He contributed also to the building of the Divinity
+School, and of the room still called Duke Humphrey&rsquo;s library.
+His books were dispersed at the Reformation and only three
+volumes of his donation now remain in the Bodleian library.
+Titus Livius, an Italian in Humphrey&rsquo;s service, wrote a life
+of Henry V. at his patron&rsquo;s bidding. Other Italian scholars,
+as Leonardo Aretino, benefited by his patronage. Amongst
+English men of letters he befriended Reginald Pecock, Whethamstead
+of St Albans, Capgrave the historian, Lydgate, and
+Gilbert Kymer, who was his physician and chancellor of Oxford
+university. A popular error found Humphrey a fictitious tomb
+in St Paul&rsquo;s Cathedral. The adjoining aisle, called Duke
+Humphrey&rsquo;s Walk, was frequented by beggars and needy
+adventurers. Hence the 16th-century proverb &ldquo;to dine with
+Duke Humphrey,&rdquo; used of those who loitered there dinnerless.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The most important contemporary sources are Stevenson&rsquo;s <i>Wars
+of the English in France</i>, Whethamstead&rsquo;s <i>Register</i>, and Beckington&rsquo;s
+<i>Letters</i> (all in Rolls Ser.), with the various <i>London Chronicles</i>, and
+the works of Waurin and Monstrelet. For his relations with
+Jacqueline see F. von Löher&rsquo;s <i>Jacobäa von Bayern und ihre Zeit</i>
+(2 vols., Nördlingen, 1869). For other modern authorities consult
+W. Stubbs&rsquo;s <i>Constitutional History</i>; J. H. Ramsay&rsquo;s <i>Lancaster and
+York</i>; <i>Political History of England</i>, vol. iv.; R. Pauli, <i>Pictures of
+Old England</i>, pp. 373-401 (1861); and K. H. Viekers, <i>Humphrey,
+Duke of Gloucester</i> (1907). For Humphrey&rsquo;s correspondence with
+Piero Candido Decembrio see the <i>English Historical Review</i>, vols.
+x., xix., xx.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. L. K.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl of</span> (1222-1262),
+was a son of Gilbert de Clare, 6th earl of Gloucester and 7th
+earl of Clare, and was born on the 4th of August 1222, succeeding
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>130</span>
+to his father&rsquo;s earldoms on the death of the latter in October
+1230. His first wife was Margaret, daughter of Hubert de Burgh,
+and after her death in 1237 he married Maud, daughter of John de
+Lacy, earl of Lincoln, and passed his early years in tournaments
+and pilgrimages, taking for a time a secondary and undecided
+part in politics. He refused to help Henry III. on the French
+expedition of 1250, but was afterwards with the king at Paris;
+then he went on a diplomatic errand to Scotland, and was sent
+to Germany to work among the princes for the election of his
+stepfather, Richard, earl of Cornwall, as king of the Romans.
+About 1258 Gloucester took up his position as a leader of the
+barons in their resistance to the king, and he was prominent
+during the proceedings which followed the Mad Parliament at
+Oxford in 1258. In 1259, however, he quarrelled with Simon de
+Montfort, earl of Leicester; the dispute, begun in England,
+was renewed in France and he was again in the confidence and
+company of the king. This attitude, too, was only temporary,
+and in 1261 Gloucester and Leicester were again working in
+concord. The earl died at his residence near Canterbury on the
+15th of July 1262. A large landholder like his son and successor,
+Gilbert, Gloucester was the most powerful English baron of his
+time; he was avaricious and extravagant, but educated and able.
+He left several children in addition to Earl Gilbert.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLOUCESTER, ROBERT,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl of</span> (d. 1147), was a natural
+son of Henry I. of England. He was born, before his father&rsquo;s
+accession, at Caen in Normandy; but the exact date of his birth,
+and his mother&rsquo;s name are unknown. He received from his
+father the hand of a wealthy heiress, Mabel of Gloucester,
+daughter of Robert Fitz Hamon, and with her the lordships
+of Gloucester and Glamorgan. About 1121 the earldom of
+Gloucester was created for his benefit. His rank and territorial
+influence made him the natural leader of the western baronage.
+Hence, at his father&rsquo;s death, he was sedulously courted by the
+rival parties of his half-sister the empress Matilda and of Stephen.
+After some hesitation he declared for the latter, but tendered
+his homage upon strict conditions, the breach of which should be
+held to invalidate the contract. Robert afterwards alleged that
+he had merely feigned submission to Stephen with the object
+of secretly furthering his half-sister&rsquo;s cause among the English
+barons. The truth appears to be that he was mortified at finding
+himself excluded from the inner councils of the king, and so
+resolved to sell his services elsewhere. Robert left England for
+Normandy in 1137, renewed his relations with the Angevin
+party, and in 1138 sent a formal defiance to the king. Returning
+to England in the following year, he raised the standard of
+rebellion in his own earldom with such success that the greater
+part of western England and the south Welsh marches were
+soon in the possession of the empress. By the battle of Lincoln
+(Feb. 2, 1141), in which Stephen was taken prisoner, the earl
+made good Matilda&rsquo;s claim to the whole kingdom. He accompanied
+her triumphal progress to Winchester and London; but
+was unable to moderate the arrogance of her behaviour. Consequently
+she was soon expelled from London and deserted by
+the bishop Henry of Winchester who, as legate, controlled the
+policy of the English church. With Matilda the earl besieged
+the legate at Winchester, but was forced by the royalists to beat
+a hasty retreat, and in covering Matilda&rsquo;s flight fell into the
+hands of the pursuers. So great was his importance that his
+party purchased his freedom by the release of Stephen. The earl
+renewed the struggle for the crown and continued it until his
+death (Oct. 31, 1147); but the personal unpopularity of Matilda,
+and the estrangement of the Church from her cause, made his
+efforts unavailing. His loyalty to a lost cause must be allowed
+to weigh in the scale against his earlier double-dealing. But he
+hardly deserves the extravagant praise which is lavished upon
+him by William of Malmesbury. The sympathies of the chronicler
+are too obviously influenced by the earl&rsquo;s munificence towards
+literary men.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Historia novella</i> by William of Malmesbury (Rolls edition);
+the <i>Historia Anglorum</i> by Henry of Huntingdon (Rolls edition);
+J. H. Round&rsquo;s <i>Geoffrey de Mandeville</i> (1892); and O. Rössler&rsquo;s
+<i>Kaiserin Mathilde</i> (Berlin, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duke of</span> (1355-1397),
+seventh and youngest son of the English king Edward III.,
+was born at Woodstock on the 7th of January 1355. Having
+married Eleanor (d. 1399), daughter and co-heiress of Humphrey
+de Bohun, earl of Hereford, Essex and Northampton (d. 1373),
+Thomas obtained the office of constable of England, a position
+previously held by the Bohuns, and was made earl of Buckingham
+by his nephew, Richard II., at the coronation in July 1377.
+He took part in defending the English coasts against the attacks
+of the French and Castilians, after which he led an army through
+northern and central France, and besieged Nantes, which town,
+however, he failed to take.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to England early in 1381, Buckingham found that
+his brother, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, had married
+his wife&rsquo;s sister, Mary Bohun, to his own son, Henry, afterwards
+King Henry IV. The relations between the brothers, hitherto
+somewhat strained, were not improved by this proceeding, as
+Thomas, doubtless, was hoping to retain possession of Mary&rsquo;s
+estates. Having taken some part in crushing the rising of the
+peasants in 1381, Buckingham became more friendly with
+Lancaster; and while marching with the king into Scotland in
+1385 was created duke of Gloucester, a mark of favour, however,
+which did not prevent him from taking up an attitude of hostility
+to Richard. Lancaster having left the country, Gloucester
+placed himself at the head of the party which disliked the royal
+advisers, Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk and Robert de Vere,
+earl of Oxford, whose recent elevation to the dignity of duke of
+Ireland had aroused profound discontent. The moment was
+propitious for interference, and supported by those who were
+indignant at the extravagance and incompetence, real or alleged,
+of the king, Gloucester was soon in a position of authority. He
+forced on the dismissal and impeachment of Suffolk; was a
+member of the commission appointed in 1386 to reform the
+kingdom and the royal household; and took up arms when
+Richard began proceedings against the commissioners. Having
+defeated Vere at Radcot in December 1387 the duke and his
+associates entered London to find the king powerless in their
+hands. Gloucester, who had previously threatened his uncle
+with deposition, was only restrained from taking this extreme
+step by the influence of his colleagues; but, as the leader of the
+&ldquo;lords appellant&rdquo; in the &ldquo;Merciless Parliament,&rdquo; which met
+in February 1388 and was packed with his supporters, he took
+a savage revenge upon his enemies, while not neglecting to add
+to his own possessions.</p>
+
+<p>He was not seriously punished when Richard regained his
+power in May 1389, but he remained in the background, although
+employed occasionally on public business, and accompanying the
+king to Ireland in 1394. In 1396, however, uncle and nephew were
+again at variance. Gloucester disliked the peace with France and
+Richard&rsquo;s second marriage with Isabella, daughter of King
+Charles VI.; other causes of difference were not wanting, and it
+has been asserted that the duke was plotting to seize the king. At
+all events Richard decided to arrest him. By refusing an invitation
+to dinner the duke frustrated the first attempt, but on the
+11th of July 1397 he was arrested by the king himself at his
+residence, Pleshey castle in Essex. He was taken at once to
+Calais, and it is probable that he was murdered by order of the
+king on the 9th of September following. The facts seem to be as
+follows. At the beginning of September it was reported that he
+was dead. The rumour, probably a deliberate one, was false, and
+about the same time a justice, Sir William Rickhill (d. 1407),
+was sent to Calais with instructions dated the 17th of August to
+obtain a confession from Gloucester. On the 8th of September
+the duke confessed that he had been guilty of treason, and his
+death immediately followed this avowal. Unwilling to meet his
+parliament so soon after his uncle&rsquo;s death, Richard&rsquo;s purpose was
+doubtless to antedate this occurrence, and to foster the impression
+that the duke had died from natural causes in August. When
+parliament met in September he was declared guilty of treason
+and his estates forfeited. Gloucester had one son, Humphrey
+(<i>c.</i> 1381-1399), who died unmarried, and four daughters, the
+most notable of whom was Anne (<i>c.</i> 1380-1438), who was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id="page131"></a>131</span>
+successively the wife of Thomas, 3rd earl of Stafford, Edmund, 5th
+earl of Stafford, and William Bourchier, count of Eu. Gloucester
+is supposed to have written <i>L&rsquo;Ordonnance d&rsquo;Angleterre pour le
+camp à l&rsquo;outrance, ou gaige de bataille</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;See T. Walsingham, <i>Historia Anglicana</i>, edited
+by H. T. Riley (London, 1863-1864); The Monk of Evesham,
+<i>Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II.</i>, edited by T. Hearne (Oxford,
+1729); <i>Chronique de la traison et mort de Richard II</i>, edited by B.
+Williams (London, 1846); J. Froissart, <i>Chroniques</i>, edited by S.
+Luce and G. Raynaud (Paris, 1869-1897); W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional
+History</i>, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1896); J. Tait in <i>Owens College Historical
+Essays</i> and S. Armitage-Smith, <i>John of Gaunt</i> (London, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLOUCESTER<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (abbreviated as pronounced <i>Glo&rsquo;ster</i>), a city,
+county of a city, municipal and parliamentary borough and port,
+and the county town of Gloucestershire, England, on the left
+(east) bank of the river Severn, 114 m. W.N.W. of London. Pop.
+(1901) 47,955. It is served by the Great Western railway and
+the west-and-north branch of the Midland railway; while the
+Berkeley Ship Canal runs S.W. to Sharpness Docks in the Severn
+estuary (16½ m.). Gloucester is situated on a gentle eminence
+overlooking the Severn and sheltered by the Cotteswolds on the
+east, while the Malverns and the hills of the Forest of Dean rise
+prominently to the west and north-west.</p>
+
+<p>The cathedral, in the north of the city near the river, originates
+in the foundation of an abbey of St Peter in 681, the foundations
+of the present church having been laid by Abbot Serlo (1072-1104);
+and Walter Froucester (d. 1412) its historian, became its
+first mitred abbot in 1381. Until 1541, Gloucester lay in the see
+of Worcester, but the separate see was then constituted, with
+John Wakeman, last abbot of Tewkesbury, for its first bishop.
+The diocese covers the greater part of Gloucestershire, with small
+parts of Herefordshire and Wiltshire. The cathedral may be
+succinctly described as consisting of a Norman nucleus, with
+additions in every style of Gothic architecture. It is 420 ft. long,
+and 144 ft. broad, with a beautiful central tower of the 15th
+century rising to the height of 225 ft. and topped by four graceful
+pinnacles. The nave is massive Norman with Early English
+roof; the crypt also, under the choir, aisles and chapels, is
+Norman, as is the chapter-house. The crypt is one of the four
+apsidal cathedral crypts in England, the others being at Worcester,
+Winchester and Canterbury. The south porch is Perpendicular,
+with fan-tracery roof, as also is the north transept, the south
+being transitional Decorated. The choir has Perpendicular
+tracery over Norman work, with an apsidal chapel on each side.
+The choir-vaulting is particularly rich, and the modern scheme
+of colouring is judicious. The splendid late Decorated east
+window is partly filled with ancient glass. Between the apsidal
+chapels is a cross Lady chapel, and north of the nave are the
+cloisters, with very early example of fan-tracery, the carols or
+stalls for the monks&rsquo; study and writing lying to the south. The
+finest monument is the canopied shrine of Edward II. who was
+brought hither from Berkeley. By the visits of pilgrims to this
+the building and sanctuary were enriched. In a side-chapel, too,
+is a monument in coloured bog oak of Robert Curthose, a great
+benefactor to the abbey, the eldest son of the Conqueror, who was
+interred there; and those of Bishop Warburton and Dr Edward
+Jenner are also worthy of special mention. A musical festival
+(the Festival of the Three Choirs) is held annually in this cathedral
+and those of Worcester and Hereford in turn. Between 1873
+and 1890 and in 1897 the cathedral was extensively restored,
+principally by Sir Gilbert Scott. Attached to the deanery is the
+Norman prior&rsquo;s chapel. In St Mary&rsquo;s Square outside the Abbey
+gate, Bishop Hooper suffered martyrdom under Queen Mary in
+1555.</p>
+
+<p>Quaint gabled and timbered houses preserve the ancient aspect
+of the city. At the point of intersection of the four principal
+streets stood the Tolsey or town hall, replaced by a modern
+building in 1894. None of the old public buildings, in fact, is left,
+but the New Inn in Northgate Street is a beautiful timbered
+house, strong and massive, with external galleries and courtyards,
+built in 1450 for the pilgrims to Edward II.&rsquo;s shrine, by Abbot
+Sebroke, a traditional subterranean passage leading thence to the
+cathedral. The timber is principally chestnut. There are a large
+number of churches and dissenting chapels, and it may have
+been the old proverb, &ldquo;as sure as God&rsquo;s in Gloucester,&rdquo; which
+provoked Oliver Cromwell to declare that the city had &ldquo;more
+churches than godliness.&rdquo; Of the churches four are of special
+interest: St Mary de Lode, with a Norman tower and chancel,
+and a monument of Bishop Hooper, on the site of a Roman
+temple which became the first Christian church in Britain; St
+Mary de Crypt, a cruciform structure of the 12th century, with
+later additions and a beautiful and lofty tower; the church of
+St Michael, said to have been connected with the ancient abbey of
+St Peter; and St Nicholas church, originally of Norman erection,
+and possessing a tower and other portions of later date. In the
+neighbourhood of St Mary de Crypt are slight remains of Greyfriars
+and Blackfriars monasteries, and also of the city wall.
+Early vaulted cellars remain under the Fleece and Saracen&rsquo;s
+Head inns.</p>
+
+<p>There are three endowed schools: the College school, refounded
+by Henry VIII. as part of the cathedral establishment; the
+school of St Mary de Crypt, founded by Dame Joan Cooke in the
+same reign; and Sir Thomas Rich&rsquo;s Blue Coat hospital for 34
+boys (1666). At the Crypt school the famous preacher George
+Whitefield (1714-1770) was educated, and he preached his first
+sermon in the church. The first Sunday school was held in
+Gloucester, being originated by Robert Raikes, in 1780.</p>
+
+<p>The noteworthy modern buildings include the museum and
+school of art and science, the county gaol (on the site of a Saxon
+and Norman castle), the Shire Hall and the Whitefield memorial
+church. A park in the south of the city contains a spa, a chalybeate
+spring having been discovered in 1814. West of this,
+across the canal, are the remains (a gateway and some walls) of
+Llanthony Priory, a cell of the mother abbey in the vale of
+Ewyas, Monmouthshire, which in the reign of Edward IV. became
+the secondary establishment.</p>
+
+<p>Gloucester possesses match works, foundries, marble and
+slate works, saw-mills, chemical works, rope works, flour-mills,
+manufactories of railway wagons, engines and agricultural
+implements, and boat and ship-building yards. Gloucester
+was declared a port in 1882. The Berkeley canal was opened in
+1827. The Gloucester canal-harbour and that at Sharpness on
+the Severn are managed by a board. Principal imports are
+timber and grain; and exports, coal, salt, iron and bricks.
+The salmon and lamprey fisheries in the Severn are valuable.
+The tidal bore in the river attains its extreme height just below
+the city, and sometimes surmounts the weir in the western
+branch of the river, affecting the stream up to Tewkesbury lock.
+The parliamentary borough returns one member. The city is
+governed by a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area,
+2315 acres.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The traditional existence of a British settlement
+at Gloucester (Cær Glow, Gleawecastre, Gleucestre) is not
+confirmed by any direct evidence, but Gloucester was the Roman
+municipality or <i>colonia</i> of <i>Glevum</i>, founded by Nerva (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 96-98).
+Parts of the walls can be traced, and many remains and coins
+have been found, though inscriptions (as is frequently the case
+in Britain) are somewhat scarce. Its situation on a navigable
+river, and the foundation in 681 of the abbey of St Peter by
+Æthelred favoured the growth of the town; and before the
+Conquest Gloucester was a borough governed by a portreeve,
+with a castle which was frequently a royal residence, and a mint.
+The first overlord, Earl Godwine, was succeeded nearly a century
+later by Robert, earl of Gloucester. Henry II. granted the first
+charter in 1155 which gave the burgesses the same liberties
+as the citizens of London and Winchester, and a second charter
+of Henry II. gave them freedom of passage on the Severn. The
+first charter was confirmed in 1194 by Richard I. The privileges
+of the borough were greatly extended by the charter of John
+(1200) which gave freedom from toll throughout the kingdom
+and from pleading outside the borough. Subsequent charters
+were numerous. Gloucester was incorporated by Richard III.
+in 1483, the town being made a county in itself. This charter
+was confirmed in 1489 and 1510, and other charters of incorporation
+were received by Gloucester from Elizabeth in 1560, James I.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132"></a>132</span>
+in 1604, Charles I. in 1626 and Charles II. in 1672. The
+chartered port of Gloucester dates from 1580. Gloucester
+returned two members to parliament from 1275 to 1885, since
+when it has been represented by one member. A seven days&rsquo;
+fair from the 24th of June was granted by Edward I. in 1302,
+and James I. licensed fairs on the 25th of March and the 17th
+of November, and fairs under these grants are still held on the
+first Saturday in April and July and the last Saturday in
+November. The fair now held on the 28th of September was
+granted to the abbey of St Peter in 1227. A market on Wednesday
+existed in the reign of John, was confirmed by charter in
+1227 and is still held. The iron trade of Gloucester dates from
+before the Conquest, tanning was carried on before the reign of
+Richard III., pin-making and bell-founding were introduced
+in the 16th, and the long-existing coal trade became important
+in the 18th century. The cloth trade flourished from the 12th
+to the 16th century. The sea-borne trade in corn and wine
+existed before the reign of Richard I.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. H. Stevenson, <i>Records of the Corporation of Gloucester</i>
+(Gloucester, 1893); <i>Victoria County History, Gloucestershire</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLOUCESTER,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a city and port of entry of Essex county,
+Massachusetts, U.S.A., beautifully situated on Cape Ann.
+Pop. (1890) 24,651; (1900) 26,121, of whom 8768 were foreign-born,
+including 4388 English Canadians, 800 French Canadians,
+665 Irish, 653 Finns and 594 Portuguese; (1910 census)
+24,398. Area, 53.6 sq. m. It is served by the Boston &amp; Maine
+railway and by a steamboat line to Boston. The surface is
+sterile, naked and rugged, with bold, rocky ledges, and a most
+picturesque shore, the beauties of which have made it a favourite
+summer resort, much frequented by artists. Included within
+the city borders are several villages, of which the principal one,
+also known as Gloucester, has a deep and commodious harbour.
+Among the other villages, all summer resorts, are Annisquam,
+Bay View and Magnolia (so called from the <i>Magnolia glauca</i>,
+which grows wild there, this being probably its most northerly
+habitat); near Magnolia are Rafe&rsquo;s Chasm (60 ft. deep and 6-10 ft.
+wide) and Norman&rsquo;s Woe, the scene of the wreck of the &ldquo;Hesperus&rdquo;
+(which has only tradition as a basis), celebrated in Longfellow&rsquo;s
+poem. There is some slight general commerce&mdash;in 1909 the
+imports were valued at $130,098; the exports at $7853&mdash;but
+the principal business is fishing, and has been since early
+colonial days. The pursuit of cod, mackerel, herring and
+halibut fills up, with a winter coasting trade, the round of
+the year. In this industry Gloucester is the most important
+place in the United States; and is, indeed, one of the greatest
+fishing ports of the world. Most of the adult males are engaged
+in it. The &ldquo;catch&rdquo; was valued in 1895 at $3,212,985 and in
+1905 at $3,377,330. The organization of the industry has
+undergone many transformations, but a notable feature is the
+general practice&mdash;especially since modern methods have necessitated
+larger vessels and more costly gear, and correspondingly
+greater capital&mdash;of profit-sharing; all the crew entering on that
+basis and not independently. There are some manufactures,
+chiefly connected with the fisheries. The total factory product
+in 1905 was valued at $6,920,984, of which the canning and
+preserving of fish represented $4,068,571, and glue represented
+$752,003. An industry of considerable importance is the
+quarrying of the beautiful, dark Cape Ann granite that underlies
+the city and all the environs.</p>
+
+<p>Gloucester harbour was probably noted by Champlain (as
+La Beauport), and a temporary settlement was made by English
+fishermen sent out by the Dorchester Company of &ldquo;merchant
+adventurers&rdquo; in 1623-1625; some of these settlers returned
+to England in 1625, and others, with Roger Conant, the governor,
+removed to what is now Salem.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Permanent settlement ante-dated
+1639 at least, and in 1642 the township was incorporated.
+From Gosnold&rsquo;s voyages onward the extraordinary abundance
+of cod about Cape Ann was well known, and though the first
+settlers characteristically enough tried to live by farming, they
+speedily became perforce a sea-faring folk. The active pursuit of
+fishing as an industry may be dated as beginning about 1700,
+for then began voyages beyond Cape Sable. Voyages to the
+Grand Banks began about 1741. Mackerel was a relatively
+unimportant catch until about 1821, and since then has been
+an important but unstable return; halibut fishing has been
+vigorously pursued since about 1836 and herring since about
+1856. At the opening of the War of Independence Gloucester,
+whose fisheries then employed about 600 men, was second to
+Marblehead as a fishing-port. The war destroyed the fisheries,
+which steadily declined, reaching their lowest ebb from 1820 to
+1840. Meanwhile foreign commerce had greatly expanded.
+The cod take had supported in the 18th century an extensive
+trade with Bilbao, Lisbon and the West Indies, and though
+changed in nature with the decline of the Bank fisheries after
+the War of Independence, it continued large through the first
+quarter of the 19th century. Throughout more than half of
+the same century also Gloucester carried on a varied and
+valuable trade with Surinam, hake being the chief article of
+export and molasses and sugar the principal imports. &ldquo;India
+Square&rdquo; remains, a memento of a bygone day. About 1850 the
+fisheries revived, especially after 1860, under the influence of
+better prices, improved methods and the discovery of new
+grounds, becoming again the chief economic interest; and since
+that time the village of Gloucester has changed from a picturesque
+hamlet to a fairly modern, though still quaint and somewhat
+foreign, settlement. Gasoline boats were introduced in 1900.
+Ship-building is another industry of the past. The first &ldquo;schooner&rdquo;
+was launched at Gloucester in 1713. From 1830 to 1907, 776
+vessels and 5242 lives were lost in the fisheries; but the loss of
+life has been greatly reduced by the use of better vessels and by
+improved methods of fishing. Gloucester became a city in 1874.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gloucester life has been celebrated in many books; among others
+in Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward&rsquo;s <i>Singular Life</i> and <i>Old Maid&rsquo;s
+Paradise</i>, in Rudyard Kipling&rsquo;s <i>Captains Courageous</i>, and in James
+B. Connolly&rsquo;s <i>Out of Gloucester</i> (1902), <i>The Deep Sea&rsquo;s Toll</i> (1905),
+and <i>The Crested Seas</i> (1907).</p>
+
+<p>See J. J. Babson, <i>History of the Town of Gloucester</i> (Gloucester,
+1860; with <i>Notes and Additions</i>, on genealogy, 1876, 1891); and
+J. R. Pringle, <i>History of the Town and City of Gloucester</i> (Gloucester,
+1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> According to some authorities (<i>e.g.</i> Pringle) a few settlers
+remained on the site of Gloucester, the permanent settlement thus
+dating from 1623 to 1625; of this, however, there is no proof, and
+the contrary opinion is the one generally held.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLOUCESTER CITY,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> a city of Camden county, New Jersey,
+U.S.A., on the Delaware river, opposite Philadelphia. Pop.
+(1890) 6564; (1900) 6840, of whom 1094 were foreign-born;
+(1905) 8055; (1910) 9462. The city is served by the West
+Jersey &amp; Seashore and the Atlantic City railways, and by ferry
+to Philadelphia, of which it is a residential suburb. Among
+its manufactures are incandescent gas-burners, rugs, cotton
+yarns, boats and drills. The municipality owns and operates
+the water works. It was near the site of Gloucester City that
+the Dutch in 1623 planted the short-lived colony of Fort Nassau,
+the first European settlement on the Delaware river, but it was
+not until after the arrival of English Quakers on the Delaware,
+in 1677, that a permanent settlement, at first called Axwamus,
+was established on the site of the present city. This was surveyed
+and laid out as a town in 1689. During the War of Independence
+the place was frequently occupied by troops, and a number of
+skirmishes were fought in its vicinity. The most noted of these
+was a successful attack upon a detachment of Hessians on the
+25th of November 1777 by American troops under the command
+of General Lafayette. In 1868 Gloucester City was chartered
+as a city. In Camden county there is a township named
+<span class="sc">Gloucester</span> (pop. in 1905, 2300), incorporated in 1798, and
+originally including the present township of Clementon and parts
+of the present townships of Waterford, Union and Winslow.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLOUCESTERSHIRE,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a county of the west midlands of
+England, bounded N. by Worcestershire, N.E. by Warwickshire,
+E. by Oxfordshire, S.E. by Berkshire and Wiltshire, S. by
+Somerset, and W. by Monmouth and Herefordshire. Its area
+is 1243-3 sq. m. The outline is very irregular, but three physical
+divisions are well marked&mdash;the hills, the vale and the forest.
+(1) The first (the eastern part of the county) lies among the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id="page133"></a>133</span>
+uplands of the Cotteswold Hills (<i>q.v.</i>), whose westward face is
+a line of heights of an average elevation of 700 ft., but exceeding
+1000 ft. at some points. This line bisects the county from
+S.W. to N.E. The watershed between the Thames and Severn
+valleys lies close to it, so that Gloucestershire includes Thames
+Head itself, in the south-east near Cirencester, and most of the
+upper feeders of the Thames which join the main stream, from
+narrow and picturesque valleys on the north. (2) The western
+Cotteswold line overlooks a rich valley, that of the lower Severn,
+usually spoken of as &ldquo;The Vale,&rdquo; or, in two divisions, as the
+vale of Gloucester and the vale of Berkeley. This great river
+receives three famous tributaries during its course through
+Gloucestershire. Near Tewkesbury, on the northern border,
+the Avon joins it on the left and forms the county boundary
+for 4 m. This is the river known variously as the Upper,
+Worcestershire, Warwickshire, Stratford or Shakespeare&rsquo;s Avon,
+which descends a lovely pastoral valley through the counties
+named. It is to be distinguished from the Bristol Avon, which
+rises as an eastward flowing stream of the Cotteswolds, in the
+south-east of Gloucestershire, sweeps southward and westward
+through Wiltshire, pierces the hills through a narrow valley
+which becomes a wooded gorge where the Clifton suspension
+bridge crosses it below Bristol, and enters the Severn estuary
+at Avonmouth. For 17 m. from its mouth it forms the boundary
+between Gloucestershire and Somersetshire, and for 8 m. it is
+one of the most important commercial waterways in the kingdom,
+connecting the port of Bristol with the sea. The third great
+tributary of the Severn is the Wye. From its mouth in the
+estuary, 8 m. N. of that of the Bristol Avon, it forms the county
+boundary for 16 m. northward, and above this, over two short
+reaches of its beautiful winding course, it is again the boundary.
+(3) Between the Wye and the Severn lies a beautiful and historic
+tract, the forest of Dean, which, unlike the majority of English
+forests, maintains its ancient character. Gloucestershire has
+thus a share in the courses of five of the most famous of English
+rivers, and covers two of the most interesting physical districts
+in the country. The minor rivers of the county are never long.
+The vale is at no point within the county wider than 24 m., and
+so does not permit the formation of any considerable tributary
+to the Severn from the Dean Hills on the one hand or the
+Cotteswolds on the other. The Leadon rises east of Hereford,
+forms part of the north-western boundary, and joins the Severn
+near Gloucester, watering the vale of Gloucester, the northern
+part of the vale. In the southern part, the vale of Berkeley,
+the Stroudwater traverses a narrow, picturesque and populous
+valley, and the Little Avon flows past the town of Berkeley,
+joining the Severn estuary on the left. The Frome runs southward
+to the Bristol Avon at Bristol. The principal northern
+feeders of the Thames are the Churn (regarded by some as
+properly the headwater of the main river) rising in the Seven
+Springs, in the hills above Cheltenham, and forming the southern
+county boundary near its junction with the Thames at Cricklade;
+the Coln, a noteworthy trout-stream, joining above Lechlade,
+and the Lech (forming part of the eastern county boundary)
+joining below the same town; while from the east of the county
+there pass into Oxfordshire the Windrush and the Evenlode,
+much larger streams, rising among the bare uplands of the
+northern Cotteswolds.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;No county in England has a greater variety of geological
+formations. The pre-Cambrian is represented by the gneissic rocks
+at the south end of the Malvern Hills and by grits at Huntley.
+At Damory, Charfield and Woodford is a patch of greenstone, the
+cause of the upheaval of the Upper Silurian basin of Tortworth, in
+which are the oldest stratified rocks of the county. Of these the Upper
+Llandovery is the dominant stratum, exposed near Damory mill,
+Micklewood chase and Purton passage, wrapping round the base of
+May and Huntley hills, and reappearing in the vale of Woolhope.
+The Wenlock limestone is exposed at Falfield mill and Whitfield,
+and quarried for burning at May hill. The Lower Ludlow shales or
+mudstones are seen at Berkeley and Purton, where the upper part
+is probably Aymestry limestone. The series of sandy shales and
+sandstones which, as Downton sandstones and Ledbury shales,
+form a transition to the Old Red Sandstone are quarried at Dymock.
+The &ldquo;Old Red&rdquo; itself occurs at Berkeley, Tortworth Green, Thornbury,
+and several places in the Bristol coal-field, in anticlinal folds
+forming hills. It forms also the great basin extending from Ross to
+Monmouth and from Dymock to Mitcheldean, Abenhall, Blakeney,
+&amp;c., within which is the Carboniferous basin of the forest. It is cut
+through by the Wye from Monmouth to Woolaston. This formation
+is over 8000 ft. thick in the forest of Dean. The Bristol and Forest
+Carboniferous basins lie within the synclinal folds of the Old Red
+Sandstone; and though the seams of coal have not yet been correlated,
+they must have been once continuous, as further appears from
+the existence of an intermediate basin, recently pierced, under the
+Severn. The lower limestone shales are 500 ft. thick in the Bristol
+area and only 165 in the forest, richly fossiliferous and famous for
+their bone bed. The great marine series known as the Mountain
+Limestone, forming the walls of the grand gorges of the Wye and
+Avon, is over 2000 ft. thick in the latter district, but only 480 in the
+former, where it yields the brown hematite in pockets so largely
+worked for iron even from Roman times. It is much used too for
+lime and road metal. Above this comes the Millstone Grit, well seen
+at Brandon hill, where it is 1000 ft. in thickness, though but 455
+in the forest. On this rest the Coal Measures, consisting in the
+Bristol field of two great series, the lower 2000 ft. thick with 36
+seams, the upper 3000 ft. with 22 seams, 9 of which reach 2 ft. in
+thickness. These two series are separated by over 1700 ft. of hard
+sandstone (Pennant Grit), containing only 5 coal-seams. In the
+Forest coal-field the whole series is not 3000 ft. thick, with but 15
+seams. At Durdham Down a dolomitic conglomerate, of the age
+known as Keuper or Upper Trias, rests unconformably on the edges
+of the Palaeozoic rocks, and is evidently a shore deposit, yielding
+dinosaurian remains. Above the Keuper clays come the Penarth
+beds, of which classical sections occur at Westbury, Aust, &amp;c. The
+series consists of grey marls, black paper shales containing much
+pyrites and a celebrated bone bed, the Cotham landscape marble,
+and the White Lias limestone, yielding <i>Ostrea Liassica</i> and <i>Cardium
+Rhaeticum</i>. The district of Over Severn is mainly of Keuper marls.
+The whole vale of Gloucester is occupied by the next formation, the
+Lias, a warm sea deposit of clays and clayey limestones, characterized
+by ammonites, belemnites and gigantic saurians. At its base is
+the insect-bearing limestone bed. The pastures producing Gloucester
+cheese are on the clays of the Lower Lias. The more calcareous
+Middle Lias or marlstone forms hillocks flanking the Oolite escarpment
+of the Cotteswolds, as at Wotton-under-Edge and Churchdown.
+The Cotteswolds consist of the great limestone series of the Lower
+Oolite. At the base is a transition series of sands, 30 to 40 ft. thick,
+well developed at Nailsworth and Frocester. Leckhampton hill is
+a typical section of the Lower Oolite, where the sands are capped by
+40 ft. of a remarkable pea grit. Above this are 147 ft. of freestone,
+7 ft. of oolite marl, 34 ft. of upper freestone and 38 ft. of ragstone.
+The Painswick stone belongs to lower freestone. Resting on the
+Inferior Oolite, and dipping with it to S.E., is the &ldquo;fuller&rsquo;s earth,&rdquo;
+a rubbly limestone about 100 ft. thick, throwing out many of the
+springs which form the head waters of the Thames. Next comes
+the Great or Bath Oolite, at the base of which are the Stonesfield
+&ldquo;slate&rdquo; beds, quarried for roofing, paling, &amp;c., at Sevenhampton and
+elsewhere. From the Great Oolite Minchinhampton stone is obtained,
+and at its top is about 40 ft. of flaggy Oolite with bands of clay
+known as the Forest Marble. Ripple marks are abundant on the
+flags; in fact all the Oolites seem to have been near shore or in
+shallow water, much of the limestone being merely comminuted
+coral. The highest bed of the Lower Oolite is the Cornbrash, about
+40 ft. of rubble, productive in corn, forming a narrow belt from
+Siddington to Fairford. Near the latter town and Lechlade is a
+small tract of blue Oxford Clay of the Middle Oolite. The county has
+no higher Secondary or Tertiary rocks; but the Quaternary series
+is represented by much northern drift gravel in the vale and Over
+Severn, by accumulations of Oolitic detritus, including post-Glacial
+extinct mammalian remains on the flanks of the Cotteswolds, and by
+submerged forests extending from Sharpness to Gloucester.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;The climate is mild. Between three-quarters and
+seven-eighths of the total area is under cultivation, and of this some
+four-sevenths is in permanent pasture. Wheat is the chief grain
+crop. In the vale the deep rich black and red loamy soil is well
+adapted for pasturage, and a moist mild climate favours the growth
+of grasses and root crops. The cattle, save on the frontier of Herefordshire,
+are mostly shorthorns, of which many are fed for distant
+markets, and many reared and kept for dairy purposes. The rich
+grazing tract of the vale of Berkeley produces the famous &ldquo;double
+Gloucester&rdquo; cheeses, and the vale in general has long been celebrated
+for cheese and butter. The vale of Gloucester is the chief grain-growing
+district. Turnips, &amp;c., occupy about three-fourths of the
+green crop acreage, potatoes occupying only about a twelfth. A
+feature of the county is its apple and pear orchards, chiefly for the
+manufacture of cider and perry, which are attached to nearly every
+farm. The Cotteswold district is comparatively barren except in
+the valleys, but it has been famous since the 15th century for the
+breed of sheep named after it. Oats and barley are here the chief
+crops.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Industries.</i>&mdash;The manufacture of woollen cloth followed upon
+the early success in sheep-farming among the Cotteswolds. This
+industry is not confined to the hill country or even to Gloucestershire
+itself in the west of England. The description of cloth principally
+manufactured is broadcloth, dressed with teazles to produce a short
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page134" id="page134"></a>134</span>
+close nap on the face, and made of all shades of colour, but chiefly
+black, blue and scarlet. The principal centre of the industry lies
+in and at the foot of the south-western Cotteswolds. Stroud is the
+centre for a number of manufacturing villages, and south-west of
+this are Wotton-under-Edge, North Nibley and others. Machinery
+and tools, paper, furniture, pottery and glass are also produced.
+Ironstone, clay, limestone and sandstone are worked, and the
+coal-fields in the forest of Dean are important. Of less extent is the
+field in the south of the county, N.E. of Bristol. Strontium sulphate
+is dug from shallow pits in the red marl of Gloucestershire and
+Somersetshire.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;Railway communications are provided principally
+by the Great Western and Midland companies. Of the Great
+Western lines, the main line serves Bristol from London. It divides
+at Bristol, one section serving the south-western counties, another
+South Wales, crossing beneath the Severn by the Severn Tunnel,
+4<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> m. in length, a remarkable engineering work. A more direct
+route, by this tunnel, between London and South Wales, is provided
+by a line from Wootton Bassett on the main line, running north of
+Bristol by Badminton and Chipping Sodbury. Other Great Western
+lines are that from Swindon on the main line, by the Stroud valley
+to Gloucester, crossing the Severn there, and continuing by the right
+bank of the river into Wales, with branches north-west into Herefordshire;
+the Oxford and Worcester trunk line, crossing the north-east
+of the county, connected with Cheltenham and Gloucester by a
+branch through the Cotteswolds from Chipping Norton junction;
+and the line from Cheltenham by Broadway to Honeybourne.
+The west-and-north line of the Midland railway follows the vale
+from Bristol by Gloucester and Cheltenham with a branch into the
+forest of Dean by Berkeley, crossing the Severn at Sharpness by a
+great bridge 1387 yds. in length, with 22 arches. The coal-fields of
+the forest of Dean are served by several branch lines. In the north,
+Tewkesbury is served by a Midland branch from Ashchurch to
+Malvern. The Midland and South-western Junction railway runs
+east and south from Cheltenham by Cirencester, affording communication
+with the south of England. The East Gloucester line
+of the Great Western from Oxford terminates at Fairford. The
+Thames and Severn canal, rising to a summit level in the tunnel
+through the Cotteswolds at Sapperton, is continued from Wallbridge
+(Stroud) by the Stroudwater canal, and gives communication between
+the two great rivers. The Berkeley Ship Canal (16½ m.) connects
+the port of Gloucester with its outport of Sharpness on Severn.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>&mdash;The area of the ancient county is
+795,709 acres, with a population in 1891 of 599,947 and in 1901 of
+634,729. The area of the administrative county is 805,482 acres. The
+county contains 28 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are&mdash;Bristol,
+a city and county borough (pop. 328,945); Cheltenham (49,439);
+Gloucester, a city and county borough (47,955); Tewkesbury
+(5419). The other urban districts are&mdash;Awre (1096), Charlton Kings
+(3806), Circenester (7536), Coleford (2541), Kingswood, on the eastern
+outskirts of Bristol (11,961), Nailsworth (3028), Newnham (1184),
+Stow-on-the-Wold (1386), Stroud (9153), Tetbury (1989), Westbury-on-Severn
+(1866). The number of small ancient market towns is
+large, especially in the southern part of the vale, on the outskirts
+of the forest, and among the foot hills of the wolds. Those in the
+forest district are mostly connected with the coal trade, such as
+Lydney (3559), besides Awre and Coleford; and, to the north,
+besides Newnham, Cinderford and Mitcheldean. South from Stroud
+there are Minchinhampton (3737) and Nailsworth; near the south-eastern
+boundary Tetbury and Marshfield; Stonehouse (2183),
+Dursley (2372), Wotton-under-Edge (2992) and Chipping Sodbury
+along the western line of the hills; and between them and the
+Severn, Berkeley and Thornbury (2594). Among the uplands of the
+Cotteswolds there are no towns, and villages are few, but in the east of
+the county, in the upper Thames basin, there are, besides Cirencester,
+Fairford on the Coln and Lechlade, close to the head of the navigation
+on the Thames itself. Far up in the Lech valley, remote from
+railway communication, is Northleach, once a great posting station
+on the Oxford and Cheltenham road. In the north-east are Stow-on-the-Wold,
+standing high, and Moreton-in-the-Marsh near the headwaters
+of the Evenlode. In a northern prolongation of the county,
+almost detached, is Chipping Campden. Winchcomb (2699) lies
+6 m. N.E. of Cheltenham. In the north-west, Newent (2485) is the
+only considerable town. Gloucestershire is in the Oxford circuit, and
+assizes are held at Gloucester. It has one court of quarter sessions,
+and is divided into 24 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs
+of Bristol, Gloucester and Tewkesbury have separate commissions
+of the peace and courts of quarter sessions. There are 359 civil
+parishes. Gloucestershire is principally in the diocese of Gloucester,
+but part is in that of Bristol, and small parts in those of Worcester
+and Oxford. There are 408 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly
+or in part within the county. There are five parliamentary divisions,
+namely, Tewkesbury or northern, Cirencester or eastern, Stroud or
+mid, Thornbury or southern, and Forest of Dean, each returning
+one member. The county also includes the boroughs of Gloucester
+and Cheltenham, each returning one member; and the greater part
+of the borough of Bristol, which returns four members.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The English conquest of the Severn valley began in
+577 with the victory of Ceawlin at Deorham, followed by the
+capture of Cirencester, Gloucester and Bath. The Hwiccas who
+occupied the district were a West Saxon tribe, but their territory
+had become a dependency of Mercia in the 7th century, and
+was not brought under West Saxon dominion until the 9th
+century. No important settlements were made by the Danes
+in the district. Gloucestershire probably originated as a shire
+in the 10th century, and is mentioned by name in the Anglo-Saxon
+Chronicle in 1016. Towards the close of the 11th century
+the boundaries were readjusted to include Winchcomb, hitherto
+a county by itself, and at the same time the forest district between
+the Wye and the Severn was added to Gloucestershire. The
+divisions of the county for a long time remained very unsettled,
+and the thirty-nine hundreds mentioned in the Domesday Survey
+and the thirty-one hundreds of the Hundred Rolls of 1274 differ
+very widely in name and extent both from each other and from
+the twenty-eight hundreds of the present day.</p>
+
+<p>Gloucestershire formed part of Harold&rsquo;s earldom at the time
+of the Norman invasion, but it offered slight resistance to the
+Conqueror. In the wars of Stephen&rsquo;s reign the cause of the
+empress Maud was supported by Robert of Gloucester who had
+rebuilt the castle at Bristol, and the castles at Gloucester and
+Cirencester were also garrisoned on her behalf. In the barons&rsquo;
+war of the reign of Henry III. Gloucester was garrisoned for
+Simon de Montfort, but was captured by Prince Edward in 1265,
+in which year de Montfort was slain at Evesham. Bristol and
+Gloucester actively supported the Yorkist cause during the Wars
+of the Roses. In the religious struggles of the 16th century
+Gloucester showed strong Protestant sympathy, and in the
+reign of Mary Bishop Hooper was sent to Gloucester to be burnt
+as a warning to the county, while the same Puritan leanings
+induced the county to support the Parliamentary cause in the
+civil war of the 17th century. In 1643 Bristol and Cirencester
+were captured by the Royalists, but the latter was recovered
+in the same year and Bristol in 1645. Gloucester was garrisoned
+for the parliament throughout the struggle.</p>
+
+<p>On the subdivision of the Mercian diocese in 680 the greater
+part of modern Gloucestershire was included in the diocese of
+Worcester, and shortly after the Conquest constituted the archdeaconry
+of Gloucester, which in 1290 comprised the deaneries
+of Campden, Stow, Cirencester, Fairford, Winchcombe, Stonehouse,
+Hawkesbury, Bitton, Bristol, Dursley and Gloucester.
+The district west of the Severn, with the exception of a few
+parishes in the deaneries of Ross and Staunton, constituted the
+deanery of the forest within the archdeaconry and diocese of
+Hereford. In 1535 the deanery of Bitton had been absorbed
+in that of Hawkesbury. In 1541 the diocese of Gloucester was
+created, its boundaries being identical with those of the county.
+On the erection of Bristol to a see in 1542 the deanery of Bristol
+was transferred from Gloucester to that diocese. In 1836 the
+sees of Gloucester and Bristol were united; the archdeaconry of
+Bristol was created out of the deaneries of Bristol, Cirencester,
+Fairford and Hawkesbury; and the deanery of the forest was
+transferred to the archdeaconry of Gloucester. In 1882 the
+archdeaconry of Cirencester was constituted to include the
+deaneries of Campden, Stow, Northleach north and south,
+Fairford and Cirencester. In 1897 the diocese of Bristol was
+recreated, and included the deaneries of Bristol, Stapleton and
+Bitton.</p>
+
+<p>After the Conquest very extensive lands and privileges in the
+county were acquired by the church, the abbey of Cirencester
+alone holding seven hundreds at fee-farm, and the estates of the
+principal lay-tenants were for the most part outlying parcels
+of baronies having their &ldquo;caput&rdquo; in other counties. The large
+estates held by William Fitz Osbern, earl of Hereford, escheated
+to the crown on the rebellion of his son Earl Roger in 1074-1075.
+The Berkeleys have held lands in Gloucestershire from
+the time of the Domesday Survey, and the families of Basset,
+Tracy, Clifton, Dennis and Poyntz have figured prominently
+in the annals of the county. Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester,
+and Richard of Cornwall claimed extensive lands and privileges
+in the shire in the 13th century, and Simon de Montfort owned
+Minsterworth and Rodley.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page135" id="page135"></a>135</span></p>
+
+<p>Bristol was made a county in 1425, and in 1483 Richard III.
+created Gloucester an independent county, adding to it the
+hundreds of Dudston and King&rsquo;s Barton. The latter were
+reunited to Gloucestershire in 1673, but the cities of Bristol and
+Gloucester continued to rank as independent counties, with
+separate jurisdiction, county rate and assizes. The chief officer
+of the forest of Dean was the warden, who was generally also
+constable of St Briavel Castle. The first justice-seat for the
+forest was held at Gloucester Castle in 1282, the last in 1635.
+The hundred of the duchy of Lancaster is within the jurisdiction
+of the duchy of Lancaster for certain purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The physical characteristics of the three natural divisions of
+Gloucestershire have given rise in each to a special industry,
+as already indicated. The forest district, until the development
+of the Sussex mines in the 16th century, was the chief iron-producing
+area of the kingdom, the mines having been worked
+in Roman times, while the abundance of timber gave rise to
+numerous tanneries and to an important ship-building trade.
+The hill district, besides fostering agricultural pursuits, gradually
+absorbed the woollen trade from the big towns, which now
+devoted themselves almost entirely to foreign commerce. Silk-weaving
+was introduced in the 17th century, and was especially
+prosperous in the Stroud valley. The abundance of clay and
+building-stone in the county gave rise to considerable manufactures
+of brick, tiles and pottery. Numerous minor industries
+sprang up in the 17th and 18th centuries, such as flax-growing
+and the manufacture of pins, buttons, lace, stockings, rope and
+sailcloth.</p>
+
+<p>Gloucestershire was first represented in parliament in 1290,
+when it returned two members. Bristol and Gloucester acquired
+representation in 1295, Cirencester in 1572 and Tewkesbury
+in 1620. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned
+four members in two divisions; Bristol, Gloucester, Cirencester,
+Stroud and Tewkesbury returned two members each, and
+Cheltenham returned one member. The act of 1868 reduced the
+representation of Cirencester and Tewkesbury to one member each.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antiquities.</i>&mdash;The cathedrals of Gloucester and Bristol, the
+magnificent abbey church of Tewkesbury, and the church of
+Cirencester with its great Perpendicular porch, are described
+under their separate headings. Of the abbey of Hayles near
+Winchcomb, founded by Richard, earl of Cornwall, in 1246,
+little more than the foundations are left, but these have been
+excavated with great care, and interesting fragments have been
+brought to light. Most of the old market towns have fine parish
+churches. At Deerhurst near Tewkesbury, and Cleeve near
+Cheltenham, there are churches of special interest on account
+of the pre-Norman work they retain. The Perpendicular church
+at Lechlade is unusually perfect; and that at Fairford was
+built (<i>c.</i> 1500), according to tradition, to contain the remarkable
+series of stained-glass windows which are said to have been
+brought from the Netherlands. These are, however, adjudged
+to be of English workmanship, and are one of the finest series
+in the country. The great Decorated Calcot Barn is an interesting
+relic of the monastery of Kingswood near Tetbury. The castle
+at Berkeley is a splendid example of a feudal stronghold. Thornbury
+Castle, in the same district, is a fine Tudor ruin, the pretensions
+of which evoked the jealousy of Cardinal Wolsey against
+its builder, Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, who was
+beheaded in 1521. Near Cheltenham is the fine 15th-century
+mansion of Southam de la Bere, of timber and stone. Memorials
+of the de la Bere family appear in the church at Cleeve. The
+mansion contains a tiled floor from Hayles Abbey. Near
+Winchcomb is Sudeley Castle, dating from the 15th century,
+but the inhabited portion is chiefly Elizabethan. The chapel is
+the burial place of Queen Catherine Parr. At Great Badminton
+is the mansion and vast domain of the Beauforts (formerly of
+the Botelers and others), on the south-eastern boundary of the
+county.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Gloucestershire</i>; Sir R. Atkyns,
+<i>The Ancient and Present State of Gloucestershire</i> (London, 1712; 2nd
+ed., London, 1768); Samuel Rudder, <i>A New History of Gloucestershire</i>
+(Cirencester, 1779); Ralph Bigland, <i>Historical, Monumental and
+Genealogical Collections relative to the County of Gloucester</i> (2 vols.,
+London, 1791); Thomas Rudge, <i>The History of the County of Gloucester</i>
+(2 vols., Gloucester, 1803); T. D. Fosbroke <i>Abstract of Records and
+Manuscripts respecting the County of Gloucestershire formed into a
+History</i> (2 vols., Gloucester, 1807); <i>Legends, Tales and Songs in
+the Dialect of the Peasantry of Gloucestershire</i> (London, 1876); J. D.
+Robertson, <i>Glossary of Dialect and Archaic Words of Gloucester</i>
+(London, 1890); W. Bazeley and F. A. Hyett, <i>Bibliographers&rsquo;
+Manual of Gloucestershire</i> (3 vols., London, 1895-1897); W. H.
+Hutton, <i>By Thames and Cotswold</i> (London, 1903). See also <i>Transactions
+of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological Society</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLOVE<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>glof</i>, perhaps connected with Gothic <i>lofa</i>, the
+palm of the hand), a covering for the hand, commonly with a
+separate sheath for each finger.</p>
+
+<p>The use of gloves is of high antiquity, and apparently was
+known even to the pre-historic cave dwellers. In Homer
+Laërtes is described as wearing gloves (<span class="grk" title="cheiridas epi chersi">&#967;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#8150;&#948;&#945;&#962; &#7952;&#960;&#8054; &#967;&#949;&#961;&#963;&#943;</span>)
+while walking in his garden (<i>Od.</i> xxiv. 230). Herodotus (vi.
+72) tells how Leotychides filled a glove (<span class="grk" title="cheiris">&#967;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#943;&#962;</span>) with the money
+he received as a bribe, and Xenophon (<i>Cyrop.</i> viii. 8. 17) records
+that the Persians wore fur gloves having separate sheaths for
+the fingers (<span class="grk" title="cheiridas daseias kai daktylêthras">&#967;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#8150;&#948;&#945;&#962; &#948;&#945;&#963;&#949;&#943;&#945;&#962; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#948;&#945;&#954;&#964;&#965;&#955;&#942;&#952;&#961;&#945;&#962;</span>). Among the
+Romans also there are occasional references to the use of gloves.
+According to the younger Pliny (<i>Ep.</i> iii. 5. 15) the secretary
+whom his uncle had with him when ascending Vesuvius wore
+gloves (<i>manicae</i>) so that he might not be impeded in his work
+by the cold, and Varro (<i>R.R.</i> i. 55. 1) remarks that olives gathered
+with the bare fingers are better than those gathered with gloves
+(<i>digitabula</i> or <i>digitalia</i>). In the northern countries the general
+use of gloves would be more natural than in the south, and it
+is not without significance that the most common medieval
+Latin word for glove (<i>guantus</i> or <i>wantus</i>, Mod. Fr. <i>gant</i>) is of
+Teutonic origin (O. H. Ger. <i>want</i>). Thus in the life of Columbanus
+by Jonas, abbot of Bobbio (d. <i>c.</i> 665), gloves for protecting the
+hands in doing manual labour are spoken of as <i>tegumenta manuum
+quae Galli wantos vocant</i>. Among the Germans and Scandinavians,
+in the 8th and 9th centuries, the use of gloves, fingerless
+at first, would seem to have been all but universal; and in the
+case of kings, prelates and nobles they were often elaborately
+embroidered and bejewelled. This was more particularly the case
+with the gloves which formed part of the pontifical vestments (see
+below). In war and in the chase gloves of leather, or with the
+backs armoured with articulated iron plates, were early worn; yet
+in the Bayeux tapestry the warriors on either side fight ungloved.
+The fact that gloves are not represented by contemporary artists
+does not prove their non-existence, since this might easily be
+an omission due to lack of observation or of skill; but, so far
+as the records go, there is no evidence to prove that gloves were
+in general use in England until the 13th century. It was in
+this century that ladies began to wear gloves as ornaments;
+they were of linen and sometimes reached to the elbow. It
+was, however, not till the 16th century that they reached their
+greatest elaboration, when Queen Elizabeth set the fashion for
+wearing them richly embroidered and jewelled.</p>
+
+<p>The symbolic sense of the middle ages early gave to the use
+of gloves a special significance. Their liturgical use by the
+Church is dealt with below (<i>Pontifical gloves</i>); this was imitated
+from the usage of civil life. Embroidered and jewelled gloves
+formed part of the <i>insignia</i> of the emperors, and also, and that
+quite early, of the kings of England. Thus Matthew of Paris,
+in recording the burial of Henry II. in 1189, mentions that he
+was buried in his coronation robes, with a golden crown on his
+head and gloves on his hands. Gloves were also found on the
+hands of King John when his tomb was opened in 1797, and on
+those of King Edward I. when his tomb was opened in 1774.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. B. Redfern, <i>Royal and Historic Gloves and Shoes</i>, with
+numerous examples.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Gages.</i>&mdash;Of the symbolical uses of the glove one of the most
+widespread and important during the middle ages was the
+practice of tendering a folded glove as a gage for waging one&rsquo;s
+law. The origin of this custom is probably not far to seek. The
+promise to fulfil a judgment of a court of law, a promise secured
+by the delivery of a <i>wed</i> or gage, is one of the oldest, if not the
+very oldest, of all enforceable contracts. This gage was originally
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>136</span>
+a chattel of value, which had to be deposited at once by the
+defendant as security into his adversary&rsquo;s hand; and that the
+glove became the formal symbol of such deposit is doubtless
+due to its being the most convenient loose object for the purpose.
+The custom survived after the contract with the <i>vadium</i>, <i>wed</i>
+or gage had been superseded by the contract with pledges (personal
+sureties). In the rules of procedure of a baronial court
+of the 14th century we find: &ldquo;He shall wage his law with his
+folded glove (<i>de son gaunt plyee</i>) and shall deliver it into the hand
+of the other, and then take his glove back and find pledges for
+his law.&rdquo; The delivery of the glove had, in fact, become a mere
+ceremony, because the defendant had his sureties close at hand.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Associated with this custom was the use of the glove in the
+wager of battle (<i>vadium in duello</i>). The glove here was thrown
+down by the defendant in open court as security that he would
+defend his cause in arms; the accuser by picking it up accepted
+the challenge (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wager</a></span>). This form is still prescribed for the
+challenge of the king&rsquo;s champion at the coronation of English
+sovereigns, and was actually followed at that of George IV.
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Champion</a></span>). The phrase &ldquo;to throw down the gauntlet&rdquo;
+is still in common use of any challenge.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pledges of Service.</i>&mdash;The use of the glove as a pledge of fulfilment
+is exemplified also by the not infrequent practice of enfeoffing
+vassals by investing them with the glove; similarly the emperors
+symbolized by the bestowal of a glove the concession of the right
+to found a town or to establish markets, mints and the like;
+the &ldquo;hands&rdquo; in the armorial bearings of certain German towns
+are really gloves, reminiscent of this investiture. Conversely,
+fiefs were held by the render of presenting gloves to the sovereign.
+Thus the manor of Little Holland in Essex was held in Queen
+Elizabeth&rsquo;s time by the service of one knight&rsquo;s fee and the rent of
+a pair of gloves turned up with hare&rsquo;s skin (Blount&rsquo;s <i>Tenures</i>,
+ed. Beckwith, p. 130). The most notable instance in England,
+however, is the grand serjeanty of finding for the king a glove
+for his right hand on coronation day, and supporting his right
+arm as long as he holds the sceptre. The right to perform
+this &ldquo;honourable service&rdquo; was originally granted by William the
+Conqueror to Bertram de Verdun, together with the manor of
+Fernham (Farnham Royal) in Buckinghamshire. The male
+descendants of Bertram performed this serjeanty at the coronations
+until the death of Theobald de Verdun in 1316, when the
+right passed, with the manor of Farnham, to Thomas Lord
+Furnival by his marriage with the heiress Joan. His son William
+Lord Furnival performed the ceremony at the coronation of
+Richard II. He died in 1383, and his daughter and heiress Jean
+de Furnival having married Sir Thomas Nevill, Lord Furnival
+in her right, the latter performed the ceremony at the coronation
+of Henry IV. His heiress Maud married Sir John Talbot (1st
+earl of Shrewsbury) who, as Lord Furnival, presented the glove
+embroidered with the arms of Verdun at the coronation of
+Henry V. When in 1541 Francis earl of Shrewsbury exchanged
+the manor of Farnham with King Henry VIII. for the site and
+precincts of the priory of Worksop in Nottinghamshire he
+stipulated that the right to perform this serjeanty should be
+reserved to him, and the king accordingly transferred the
+obligation from Farnham to Worksop. On the 3rd of April
+1838 the manor of Worksop was sold to the duke of Newcastle
+and with it the right to perform the service, which had hitherto
+always been carried out by a descendant of Bertram de Verdun.
+At the coronation of King Edward VII. the earl of Shrewsbury
+disputed the duke of Newcastle&rsquo;s right, on the ground that the
+serjeanty was attached not to the manor but to the priory lands
+at Worksop, and that the latter had been subdivided by sale
+so that no single person was entitled to perform the ceremony
+and the right had therefore lapsed. His petition for a regrant
+to himself as lineal heir of Bertram de Verdun, however, was
+disallowed by the court of claims, and the serjeanty was declared
+to be attached to the manor of Worksop (G. Woods Wollaston,
+<i>Coronation Claims</i>, London, 1903, p. 133).</p>
+
+<p><i>Presentations.</i>&mdash;From the ceremonial and symbolic use of
+gloves the transition was easy to the custom which grew up of
+presenting them to persons of distinction on special occasions.
+When Queen Elizabeth visited Cambridge in 1578 the vice-chancellor
+offered her a &ldquo;paire of gloves, perfumed and garnished
+with embroiderie and goldsmithe&rsquo;s wourke, price 60s.,&rdquo; and at
+the visit of James I. there in 1615 the mayor and corporation
+of the town &ldquo;delivered His Majesty a fair pair of perfumed
+gloves with gold laces.&rdquo; It was formerly the custom in England
+for bishops at their consecrations to make presents of gloves to
+those who came to their consecration dinners and others, but this
+gift became such a burden to them that by an order in council
+in 1678 It was commuted for the payment of a sum of £50 towards
+the rebuilding of St Paul&rsquo;s. Serjeants at law, on their appointment,
+were given a pair of gloves containing a sum of money
+which was termed &ldquo;regards&rdquo;; this custom is recorded as early
+as 1495, when according to the <i>Black Book</i> of Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn
+each of the new Serjeants received £6, 13s. 4d. and a pair of
+gloves costing 4d., and it persisted to a late period. At one time
+it was the practice for a prisoner who pleaded the king&rsquo;s pardon
+on his discharge to present the judges with gloves by way of a
+fee. Glove-silver, according to Jacob&rsquo;s <i>Law Dictionary</i>, was a
+name used of extraordinary rewards formerly given to officers of
+courts, &amp;c., or of money given by the sheriff of a county in which
+no offenders were left for execution to the clerk of assize and
+judge&rsquo;s officers; the explanation of the term is that the glove
+given as a perquisite or fee was in some cases lined with money
+to increase its value, and thus came to stand for money ostensibly
+given in lieu of gloves. It is still the custom in the United
+Kingdom to present a pair of white gloves to a judge or magistrate
+who when he takes his seat for criminal business at the
+appointed time finds no cases for trial. By ancient custom
+judges are not allowed to wear gloves while actually sitting on
+the bench, and a witness taking the oath must remove the glove
+from the hand that holds the book. (See J. W. Norton-Kyshe,
+<i>The Law and Customs relating to Gloves</i>, London, 1901.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Pontifical gloves</i> (Lat. <i>chirothecae</i>) are liturgical ornaments
+peculiar to the Western Church and proper only to the pope, the
+cardinals and bishops, though the right to wear them is often
+granted by the Holy See to abbots, cathedral dignitaries and
+other prelates, as in the case of the other episcopal insignia.
+According to the present use the gloves are of silk and of the
+liturgical colour of the day, the edge of the opening ornamented
+with a narrow band of embroidery or the like, and the middle of
+the back with a cross. They may be worn only at the celebration
+of mass (except masses for the dead). In vesting, the
+gloves are put on the bishop immediately after the dalmatic, the
+right hand one by the deacon, the other by the subdeacon. They
+are worn only until the ablution before the canon of the mass,
+after which they may not again be put on.</p>
+
+<p>At the consecration of a bishop the consecrating prelate puts
+the gloves on the new bishop immediately after the mitre, with
+a prayer that his hands may be kept pure, so that the sacrifice he
+offers may be as acceptable as the gift of venison which Jacob,
+his hands wrapped in the skin of kids, brought to Isaac. This
+symbolism (as in the case of the other vestments) is, however, of
+late growth. The liturgical use of gloves itself cannot, according
+to Father Braun, be traced beyond the beginning of the 10th
+century, and their introduction was due, perhaps to the simple
+desire to keep the hands clean for the holy mysteries, but more
+probably merely as part of the increasing pomp with which the
+Carolingian bishops were surrounding themselves. From the
+Frankish kingdom the custom spread to Rome, where liturgical
+gloves are first heard of in the earlier half of the 11th century.
+The earliest authentic instance of the right to wear them being
+granted to a non-bishop is a bull of Alexander IV. in 1070, conceding
+this to the abbot of S. Pietro in Cielo d&rsquo; Oro.</p>
+
+<p>During the middle ages the occasions on which pontifical gloves
+(often <i>wanti</i>, <i>guanti</i>, and sometimes <i>manicae</i> in the inventories)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id="page137"></a>137</span>
+were worn were not so carefully defined as now, the use varying in
+different churches. Nor were the liturgical colours prescribed.
+The most characteristic feature of the medieval pontifical glove
+was the ornament (<i>tasellus</i>, <i>fibula</i>, <i>monile</i>, <i>paratura</i>) set in the
+middle of the back of the glove. This was usually a small plaque
+of metal, enamelled or jewelled, generally round, but sometimes
+square or irregular in shape. Sometimes embroidery was substituted;
+still more rarely the whole glove was covered, even to the
+fingers, with elaborate needlework designs.</p>
+
+<p>Liturgical gloves have not been worn by Anglican bishops since
+the Reformation, though they are occasionally represented as
+wearing them on their effigies.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Braun, S.J., <i>Die liturgische Gewandung</i> (Freiburg im Breisgau,
+1907), pp. 359-382, where many beautiful examples are illustrated.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Manufacture of Gloves.</i>&mdash;Three countries, according to an old
+proverb, contribute to the making of a good glove&mdash;Spain
+dressing the leather, France cutting it and England sewing it.
+But the manufacture of gloves was not introduced into Great
+Britain till the 10th or 11th century. The incorporation of
+glovers of Perth was chartered in 1165, and in 1190 a glove-makers&rsquo;
+gild was formed in France, with the object of regulating
+the trade and ensuring good workmanship. The glovers of
+London in 1349 framed their ordinances and had them approved
+by the corporation, the city regulations at that time fixing the
+price of a pair of common sheepskin gloves at 1d. In 1464, when
+the gild received armorial bearings, they do not seem to have
+been very strong, but apparently their position improved subsequently
+and in 1638 they were incorporated as a new company.
+In 1580 it is recorded that both French and Spanish gloves were
+on sale in London shops, and in 1661 a company of glovers was
+incorporated at Worcester, which still remains an important seat
+of the English glove Industry. In America the manufacture of
+gloves dates from about 1760, when Sir William Johnson brought
+over several families of glove makers from Perth; these settled
+in Fulton county, New York, which is now the largest seat of the
+glove trade in the United States.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gloves may be divided into two distinct categories, according as
+these are made of leather or are woven or knitted from fibres such as
+silk, wool or cotton. The manufacture of the latter kinds is a branch
+of the hosiery industry. For leather gloves skins of various animals
+are employed&mdash;deer, calves, sheep and lambs, goats and kids, &amp;c.&mdash;but
+kids have had nothing to do with the production of many of
+the &ldquo;kid gloves&rdquo; of commerce. The skins are prepared and dressed
+by special processes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leather</a></span>) before going to the glove-maker
+to be cut. Owing to the elastic character of the material the cutting
+is a delicate operation, and long practice is required before a man
+becomes expert at it. Formerly it was done by shears, the workmen
+following an outline marked on the leather, but now steel dies are
+universally employed not only for the bodies of the gloves but also
+for the thumb-pieces and fourchettes or sides of the fingers. When
+hand sewing is employed the pieces to be sewn together are placed
+between a pair of jaws, the holding edges of which are serrated with
+fine saw-teeth, and the sewer by passing the needle forwards and
+backwards between each of these teeth secures neat uniform stitching.
+But sewing machines are now widely employed on the work. The
+labour of making a glove is much subdivided, different operators
+sewing different pieces, and others again embroidering the back,
+forming the button-holes, attaching the buttons, &amp;c. After the gloves
+are completed, they undergo the process of &ldquo;laying off,&rdquo; in which
+they are drawn over metal forms, shaped like a hand and heated
+internally by steam; in this way they are finally smoothed and
+shaped before being wrapped in paper and packed in boxes.</p>
+
+<p>Gloves made of thin india-rubber or of white cotton are worn by
+some surgeons while performing operations, on account of the ease
+with which they can be thoroughly sterilized.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> F. W. Maitland and W. P. Baildon, <i>The Court Baron</i> (Selden
+Society, London, 1891), p. 17. Maitland wrongly translates <i>gaunt
+plyee</i> as &ldquo;twisted&rdquo; glove, adding &ldquo;why it should be twisted I cannot
+say.&rdquo; An earlier instance of the delivery of a folded glove as gage
+is quoted from the 13th-century Anglo-Norman poem known as <i>The
+Song of Dermott and the Earl</i> (ed. G. H. Orpen, Oxford, 1892) in
+J. H. Round&rsquo;s <i>Commune of London</i>, p. 153.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLOVER, SIR JOHN HAWLEY<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1829-1885), captain in the
+British navy, entered the service in 1841 and passed his examination
+as lieutenant in 1849, but did not receive a commission till
+May 1851. He served on various stations, and was wounded
+severely in an action with the Burmese at Donabew (4th
+February 1853). But his reputation was not gained at sea and
+as a naval officer, but on shore and as an administrative official
+in the colonies. During his years of service as lieutenant in the
+navy he had had considerable experience of the coast of Africa,
+and had taken part in the expedition of Dr W. B. Baikie (1824-1864)
+up the Niger. On the 21st of April 1863 he was appointed
+administrator of the government of Lagos, and in that capacity,
+or as colonial secretary, he remained there till 1872. During this
+period he had been much employed in repelling the marauding
+incursions of the Ashantis. When the Ashanti war broke out
+in 1873, Captain Glover undertook the hazardous and doubtful
+task of organizing the native tribes, whom hatred of the Ashantis
+might be expected to make favourable to the British authorities&mdash;to
+the extent at least to which their fears would allow them to act.
+His services were accepted, and in September of 1873 he landed at
+Cape Coast, and, after forming a small trustworthy force of
+Hausa, marched to Accra. His influence sufficed to gather a
+numerous native force, but neither he nor anybody else could
+overcome their abject terror of the ferocious Ashantis to the
+extent of making them fight. In January 1874 Captain Glover
+was able to render some assistance in the taking of Kumasi,
+but it was at the head of a Hausa force. His services were
+acknowledged by the thanks of parliament and by his creation
+as G.C.M.G. In 1875 he was appointed governor of Newfoundland
+and held the post till 1881, when he was transferred to the
+Leeward Islands. He returned to Newfoundland in 1883, and
+died in London on the 30th September 1885.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Lady Glover&rsquo;s <i>Life</i> of her husband appeared in 1897.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLOVER, RICHARD<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1712-1785), English poet, son of Richard
+Glover, a Hamburg merchant, was born in London in 1712. He
+was educated at Cheam in Surrey. While there he wrote in his
+sixteenth year a poem to the memory of Sir Isaac Newton, which
+was prefixed by Dr Pemberton to his <i>View of Newton&rsquo;s Philosophy</i>,
+published in 1728. In 1737 he published an epic poem in praise
+of liberty, <i>Leonidas</i>, which was thought to have a special reference
+to the politics of the time; and being warmly commended by the
+prince of Wales and his court, it soon passed through several
+editions. In 1739 Glover published a poem entitled <i>London, or
+the Progress of Commerce</i>; and in the same year, with a view to
+exciting the nation against the Spaniards, he wrote a spirited
+ballad, <i>Hosier&rsquo;s Ghost</i>, very popular in its day. He was also the
+author of two tragedies, <i>Boadicea</i> (1753) and <i>Medea</i> (1761),
+written in close imitation of Greek models. The success of
+Glover&rsquo;s <i>Leonidas</i> led him to take considerable interest in politics,
+and in 1761 he entered parliament as member for Weymouth.
+He died on the 25th of November 1785. The <i>Athenaid</i>, an epic in
+thirty books, was published in 1787, and his diary, entitled
+<i>Memoirs of a distinguished literary and political Character from
+1742 to 1757</i>, appeared in 1813. Glover was one of the reputed
+authors of <i>Junius</i>; but his claims&mdash;which were advocated in an
+<i>Inquiry concerning the author of the Letters of Junius</i> (1815), by
+R. Duppa&mdash;rest on very slight grounds.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLOVERSVILLE,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> a city of Fulton county, New York,
+U.S.A., at the foot-hills of the Adirondacks, about 55 m. N.W.
+of Albany. Pop. (1890) 13,864; (1900) 18,349, of whom 2542
+were foreign-born; (1910 census) 20,642. It is served by
+the Fonda, Johnstown &amp; Gloversville railway (connecting
+at Fonda, about 9 m. distant, with the New York Central),
+and by electric lines connecting with Johnstown, Amsterdam
+and Schenectady. The city has a public library (26,000
+volumes in 1908), the Nathan Littauer memorial hospital,
+a state armoury and a fine government building. Gloversville
+is the principal glove-manufacturing centre in the United
+States. In 1900 Fulton county produced more than 57%,
+and Gloversville 38.8%, of all the leather gloves and mittens
+made in the United States; in 1905 Gloversville produced 29.9%
+of the leather gloves and mittens made in the United States,
+its products being valued at $5,302,196. Gloversville has more
+than a score of tanneries and leather-finishing factories, and
+manufactures fur goods. In 1905 the city&rsquo;s total factory product
+was valued at $9,340,763. The extraordinary localization of the
+glove-making industry in Gloversville, Johnstown and other
+parts of Fulton county, is an incident of much interest in the
+economic history of the United States. The industry seems to
+have had its origin among a colony of Perthshire families,
+including many glove-makers, who were settled in this region by
+Sir William Johnson about 1760. For many years the entire
+product seems to have been disposed of in the neighbourhood,
+but about 1809 the goods began to find more distant markets,
+and by 1825 the industry was firmly established on a prosperous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page138" id="page138"></a>138</span>
+basis, the trade being handed down from father to son. An
+interesting phase of the development is that, in addition to the
+factory work, a large amount of the industry is in the hands of
+&ldquo;home workers&rdquo; both in the town and country districts.
+Gloversville, settled originally about 1770, was known for some
+time as Stump City, its present name being adopted in 1832.
+It was incorporated as a village in 1851 and was chartered as a
+city in 1890.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLOW-WORM,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> the popular name of the wingless female of
+the beetle <i>Lampyris noctiluca</i>, whose power of emitting light has
+been familiar for many centuries. The luminous organs of the
+glow-worm consist of cells similar to those of the fat-body,
+grouped into paired masses in the ventral region of the hinder
+abdominal segments. The light given out by the wingless
+female insect is believed to serve as an attraction to the flying
+male, whose luminous organs remain in a rudimentary condition.
+The common glow-worm is a widespread European and Siberian
+insect, generally distributed in England and ranging in Scotland
+northwards to the Tay, but unknown in Ireland. Exotic species
+of <i>Lampyris</i> are similarly luminous, and light-giving organs are
+present in many genera of the family <i>Lampyridae</i> from various
+parts of the world. Frequently&mdash;as in the south European <i>Luciola
+italica</i>&mdash;both sexes of the beetle are provided with wings, and both
+male and female emit light. These luminous, winged Lampyrids
+are generally known as &ldquo;fire-flies.&rdquo; In correspondence with their
+power of emitting light, the insects are nocturnal in habit.</p>
+
+<p>Elongate centipedes of the family <i>Geophilidae</i>, certain species
+of which are luminous, are sometimes mistaken for the true
+glow-worm.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLOXINIA,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> a charming decorative plant, botanically a species
+of <i>Sinningia</i> (<i>S. speciosa</i>), a member of the natural order Gesneraceae
+and a native of Brazil. The species has given rise under
+cultivation to numerous forms showing a wonderful variety of
+colour, and hybrid forms have also been obtained between these
+and other species of <i>Sinningia</i>. A good strain of seed will
+produce many superb and charmingly coloured varieties, and
+if sown early in spring, in a temperature of 65° at night, they
+may be shifted on into 6-in. pots, and in these may be flowered
+during the summer. The bulbs are kept at rest through the
+winter in dry sand, in a temperature of 50°, and to yield a succession
+should be started at intervals, say at the end of February and
+the beginning of April. To prolong the blooming season, use
+weak manure water when the flower-buds show themselves.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLUCINUM,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> an alternative name for Beryllium (<i>q.v.</i>). When
+L. N. Vauquelin in 1798 published in the <i>Annales de chimie</i> an
+account of a new earth obtained by him from beryl he refrained
+from giving the substance a name, but in a note to his paper
+the editors suggested glucine, from <span class="grk" title="glykys">&#947;&#955;&#965;&#954;&#973;&#962;</span>, sweet, in reference
+to the taste of its salts, whence the name Glucinum or Glucinium
+(symbol Gl. or sometimes G). The name beryllium was given
+to the metal by German chemists and was generally used until
+recently, when the earlier name was adopted.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLUCK,</span><a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <span class="bold">CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (1714-1787), operatic
+composer, German by his nationality, French by his place in art,
+was born at Weidenwang, near Neumarkt, in the upper
+Palatinate, on the 2nd of July 1714. He belonged to the lower
+middle class, his father being gamekeeper to Prince Lobkowitz;
+but the boy&rsquo;s education was not neglected on that account.
+From his twelfth to his eighteenth year he frequented the
+Jesuit school of Kommotau in the neighbourhood of Prince
+Lobkowitz&rsquo;s estate in Bohemia, where he not only received a
+good general education, but also had lessons in music. At the
+age of eighteen Gluck went to Prague, where he continued his
+musical studies under Czernohorsky, and maintained himself
+by the exercise of his art, sometimes in the very humble capacity
+of fiddler at village fairs and dances. Through the introductions
+of Prince Lobkowitz, however, he soon gained access to the best
+families of the Austrian nobility; and when in 1736 he proceeded
+to Vienna he was hospitably received at his protector&rsquo;s palace.
+Here he met Prince Melzi, an ardent lover of music, whom he
+accompanied to Milan, continuing his education under Giovanni
+Battista San Martini, a great musical historian and contrapuntist,
+who was also famous in his own day as a composer of
+church and chamber music. We soon find Gluck producing
+operas at the rapid rate necessitated by the omnivorous taste
+of the Italian public in those days. Nine of these works were
+produced at various Italian theatres between 1741 and 1745.
+Although their artistic value was small, they were so favourably
+received that in 1745 Gluck was invited to London to compose
+for the Haymarket. The first opera produced there was called
+<i>La Caduta dei giganti</i>; it was followed by a revised version of
+one of his earlier operas. Gluck also appeared in London as a
+performer on the musical glasses (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harmonica</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The success of his two operas, as well as that of a <i>pasticcio</i>
+(<i>i.e.</i> a collection of favourite arias set to a new libretto) entitled
+<i>Piramo e Tisbe</i>, was anything but brilliant, and he accordingly
+left London. But his stay in England was not without important
+consequences for his subsequent career. Gluck at this time was
+rather less than an ordinary producer of Italian opera. Handel&rsquo;s
+well-known saying that Gluck &ldquo;knew no more counterpoint
+than his cook&rdquo; must be taken in connexion with the less well-known
+fact that that cook was an excellent bass singer who
+performed in many of Handel&rsquo;s own operas. But it indicates
+the musical reason of Gluck&rsquo;s failure, while Gluck himself learnt
+the dramatic reason through his surprise at finding that arias
+which in their original setting had been much applauded lost
+all effect when adapted to new words in the <i>pasticcio</i>. Irrelevant
+as Handel&rsquo;s criticism appears, it was not without bearing on
+Gluck&rsquo;s difficulties. The use of counterpoint has very little
+necessary connexion with contrapuntal display; its real and
+final cause is a certain depth of harmonic expression which Gluck
+attained only in his most dramatic moments, and for want of
+which he, even in his finest works, sometimes moved very lamely.
+And in later years his own mature view of the importance of
+harmony, which he upheld in long arguments with Grétry, who
+believed only in melody, shows that he knew that the dramatic
+expression of music must strike below the surface. At this
+early period he was simply producing Handelian opera in an
+amateurish style, suggesting an unsuccessful imitation of Hasse;
+but the failure of his <i>pasticcio</i> is as significant to us as it was to
+him, since it shows that already the effect of his music depended
+upon its characteristic treatment of dramatic situations. This
+characterizing power was as yet not directly evident, and it
+needed all the influence of the new instrumental resources of
+the rising sonata-forms before music could pass out of what we
+may call its architectural and decorative period and enter into
+dramatic regions at all.</p>
+
+<p>It is highly probable that the chamber music of his master,
+San Martini, had already indicated to Gluck a new direction
+which was more or less incompatible with the older art; and
+there is nothing discreditable either to Gluck or to his
+contemporaries in the failure of his earlier works. Had the young
+composer been successful in the ordinary <i>opera seria</i>, there is
+reason to fear that the great dramatic reform, initiated by him,
+might not have taken place. The critical temper of the London
+public fortunately averted this calamity. It may also be assumed
+that the musical atmosphere of the English capital, and especially
+the great works of Handel, were not without beneficial influence
+upon the young composer. But of still greater importance in
+this respect was a short trip to Paris, where Gluck became for
+the first time acquainted with the classic traditions and the
+declamatory style of the French opera&mdash;a sphere of music in
+which his own greatest triumphs were to be achieved. Of
+these great issues little trace, however, is to be found in the works
+produced by Gluck during the fifteen years after his return from
+England. In this period Gluck, in a long course of works by
+no means free from the futile old traditions, gained technical
+experience and important patronage, though his success was
+not uniform. His first opera written for Vienna, <i>La Semiramide
+riconosciuta</i>, is again an ordinary <i>opera seria</i>, and little more
+can be said of <i>Telemacco</i>, although thirty years later Gluck was
+able to use most of its overture and an energetic duet in one of
+his greatest works, <i>Armide</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id="page139"></a>139</span></p>
+
+<p>Gluck settled permanently at Vienna in 1756, having two
+years previously been appointed court chapel-master, with a
+salary of 2000 florins, by the empress Maria Theresa. He had
+already received the order of knighthood from the pope in consequence
+of the successful production of two of his works in Rome.
+During the long interval from 1756 to 1762 Gluck seems to have
+matured his plans for the reform of the opera; and, barring a
+ballet named <i>Don Giovanni</i>, and some <i>airs nouveaux</i> to French
+words with pianoforte accompaniment, no compositions of any
+importance have to be recorded. Several later <i>pièces d&rsquo;occasion</i>,
+such as <i>Il Trionfo di Clelia</i> (1763), are still written in the old
+manner, though already in 1762 <i>Orfeo ed Euridice</i> shows that the
+composer had entered upon a new career. Gluck had for the
+first time deserted Metastasio for Raniero Calzabigi, who, as
+Vernon Lee suggests, was in all probability the immediate cause
+of the formation of Gluck&rsquo;s new ideas, as he was a hot-headed
+dramatic theorist with a violent dislike for Metastasio, who had
+hitherto dominated the whole sphere of operatic libretto.</p>
+
+<p>Quite apart from its significance in the history of dramatic
+music, <i>Orpheus</i> is a work which, by its intrinsic beauty, commands
+the highest admiration. Orpheus&rsquo;s air, <i>Che faro</i>, is known to
+every one; but still finer is the great scena in which the poet&rsquo;s
+song softens even the <i>ombre sdegnose</i> of Tartarus. The ascending
+passion of the entries of the solo (<i>Deh! placatevi</i>; <i>Mille pene</i>;
+<i>Men tiranne</i>), interrupted by the harsh but gradually softening
+exclamations of the Furies, is of the highest dramatic effect.
+These melodies, moreover, as well as every declamatory passage
+assigned to Orpheus, are made subservient to the purposes of
+dramatic characterization; that is, they could not possibly
+be assigned to any other person in the drama, any more than
+Hamlet&rsquo;s monologue could be spoken by Polonius. It is in this
+power of musically realizing a character&mdash;a power all but unknown
+in the serious opera of his day&mdash;that Gluck&rsquo;s genius
+as a dramatic composer is chiefly shown. After a short relapse
+into his earlier manner, Gluck followed up his <i>Orpheus</i> by a
+second classical music-drama (1767) named <i>Alceste</i>. In his
+dedication of the score to the grand-duke of Tuscany, he fully
+expressed his aims, as well as the reasons for his total breach with
+the old traditions. &ldquo;I shall try,&rdquo; he wrote, &ldquo;to reduce music
+to its real function, that of seconding poetry by intensifying
+the expression of sentiments and the interest of situations
+without interrupting the action by needless ornament. I have
+accordingly taken care not to interrupt the singer in the heat of
+the dialogue, to wait for a tedious <i>ritornel</i>, nor do I allow him to
+stop on a sonorous vowel, in the middle of a phrase, in order to
+show the nimbleness of a beautiful voice in a long <i>cadenza</i>.&rdquo;
+Such theories, and the stern consistency with which they were
+carried out, were little to the taste of the pleasure-loving
+Viennese; and the success of <i>Alceste</i>, as well as that of <i>Paris
+and Helena</i>, which followed two years later, was not such as
+Gluck had desired and expected. He therefore eagerly accepted
+the chance of finding a home for his art in the centre of intellectual
+and more especially dramatic life, Paris. Such a chance was
+opened to him through the <i>bailli</i> Le Blanc du Roullet, attaché of
+the French embassy at Vienna, and a musical amateur who
+entered into Gluck&rsquo;s ideas with enthusiasm. A classic opera
+for the Paris stage was accordingly projected, and the friends
+fixed upon Racine&rsquo;s <i>Iphigénie en Aulide</i>. After some difficulties,
+overcome chiefly by the intervention of Gluck&rsquo;s former pupil
+the dauphiness Marie Antoinette, the opera was at last accepted
+and performed at the Académie de Musique, on the 19th of
+April 1774.</p>
+
+<p>The great importance of the new work was at once perceived
+by the musical amateurs of the French capital, and a hot controversy
+on the merits of <i>Iphigénie</i> ensued, in which some of the
+leading literary men of France took part. Amongst the opponents
+of Gluck were not only the admirers of Italian vocalization and
+sweetness, but also the adherents of the earlier French school, who
+refused to see in the new composer the legitimate successor of
+Lulli and Rameau. Marmontel, Laharpe and D&rsquo;Alembert were
+his opponents, the Abbé Arnaud and others his enthusiastic
+friends. Rousseau took a peculiar position in the struggle.
+In his early writings he is a violent partisan of Italian music,
+but when Gluck himself appeared as the French champion
+Rousseau acknowledged the great composer&rsquo;s genius; although
+he did not always understand it, as for example when he suggested
+that in <i>Alceste</i>, &ldquo;Divinités du Styx,&rdquo; perhaps the most majestic
+of all Gluck&rsquo;s arias, ought to have been set as a rondo. Nevertheless
+in a letter to Dr Burney, written shortly before his death,
+Rousseau gives a close and appreciative analysis of <i>Alceste</i>,
+the first Italian version of which Gluck had submitted to him
+for suggestions; and when, on the first performance of the
+piece not being received favourably by the Parisian audience,
+the composer exclaimed, &ldquo;<i>Alceste est tombée</i>,&rdquo; Rousseau is said
+to have comforted him with the flattering <i>bonmot</i>, &ldquo;<i>Oui, mais
+elle est tombée du ciel</i>.&rdquo; The contest received a still more personal
+character when Piccinni, a celebrated and by no means incapable
+composer, came to Paris as the champion of the Italian party
+at the invitation of Madame du Barry, who held a rival court to
+that of the young princess (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Opera</a></span>). As a dramatic controversy
+it suggests a parallel with the Wagnerian and anti-Wagnerian
+warfare of a later age; but there is no such radical
+difference between Gluck&rsquo;s and Piccinni&rsquo;s musical methods as
+the comparison would suggest. Gluck was by far the better
+musician, but his deficiencies in musical technique were of a
+kind which contemporaries could perceive as easily as they could
+perceive Piccinni&rsquo;s. Both composers were remarkable inventors
+of melody, and both had the gift of making incorrect music
+sound agreeable. Gluck&rsquo;s indisputable dramatic power might
+be plausibly dismissed as irrelevant by upholders of music for
+music&rsquo;s sake, even if Piccinni himself had not chosen, as he
+did, to assimilate every feature in Gluck&rsquo;s style that he could
+understand. The rivalry between the two composers was soon
+developed into a quarrel by the skilful engineering of Gluck&rsquo;s
+enemies. In 1777 Piccinni was given a libretto by Marmontel
+on the subject of <i>Roland</i>, to Gluck&rsquo;s intense disgust, as he had
+already begun an opera on that subject himself. This, and the
+failure of an attempt to show his command of a lighter style by
+furbishing up some earlier works at the instigation of Marie
+Antoinette, inspired Gluck to produce his <i>Armide</i>, which appeared
+four months before Piccinni&rsquo;s <i>Roland</i> was ready, and raised a
+storm of controversy, admiration and abuse. Gluck did not
+anticipate Wagner more clearly in his dramatic reforms than in
+his caustic temper; and, as in Gluck&rsquo;s own estimation the
+difference between <i>Armide</i> and <i>Alceste</i> is that &ldquo;<i>l&rsquo;un</i> (<i>Alceste</i>)
+<i>doit faire pleurer et l&rsquo;autre faire éprouver une voluptueuse sensation</i>,&rdquo;
+it was extremely annoying for him to be told by Laharpe that
+he had made Armide a sorceress instead of an enchantress, and
+that her part was &ldquo;<i>une criaillerie monotone et fatiguante</i>.&rdquo; He
+replied to Laharpe in a long public letter worthy of Wagner in
+its venomous sarcasm and its tremendous value as an advertisement
+for its recipient.</p>
+
+<p>Gluck&rsquo;s next work was <i>Iphigénie en Tauride</i>, the success
+of which finally disposed of Piccinni, who produced a work
+on the same subject at the same time and who is said to have
+acknowledged Gluck&rsquo;s superiority. Gluck&rsquo;s next work was
+<i>Écho et Narcisse</i>, the comparative failure of which greatly
+disappointed him; and during the composition of another opera,
+<i>Les Danaïdes</i>, an attack of apoplexy compelled him to give up
+work. He left Paris for Vienna, where he lived for several
+years in dignified leisure, disturbed only by his declining health.
+He died on the 15th of November 1787.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. H.; D. F. T.)</div>
+
+<p>The great interest of the dramatic aspect of Gluck&rsquo;s reforms
+is apt to overshadow his merit as a musician, and yet in some
+ways to idealize it. One is tempted to regard him as condoning
+for technical musical deficiencies by sheer dramatic power,
+whereas unprejudiced study of his work shows that where his
+dramatic power asserts itself there is no lack of musical technique.
+Indeed only a great musician could so reform opera as to give it
+scope for dramatic power at all. Where Gluck differs from the
+greatest musicians is in his absolute dependence on literature
+for his inspiration. Where his librettist failed him (as in his
+last complete work, <i>Écho et Narcisse</i>), he could hardly write
+tolerably good music; and, even in the finest works of his French
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140"></a>140</span>
+period, the less emotional situations are sometimes set to music
+which has little interest except as a document in the history of
+the art. This must not be taken to mean merely that Gluck
+could not, like Mozart and nearly all the great song-writers,
+set good music to a bad text. Such inability would prove
+Gluck&rsquo;s superior literary taste without casting a slur on his
+musicianship. But it points to a certain weakness as a musician
+that Gluck could not be inspired except by the more thrilling
+portions of his libretti. When he was inspired there was no
+question that he was the first and greatest writer of dramatic
+music before Mozart. To begin with, he could invent sublime
+melodies; and his power of producing great musical effects by
+the simplest means was nothing short of Handelian. Moreover,
+in his peculiar sphere he deserves the title generally accorded
+to Haydn of &ldquo;father of modern orchestration.&rdquo; It is misleading
+to say that he was the first to use the timbre of instruments
+with a sense of emotional effect, for Bach and Handel well knew
+how to give a whole aria or whole chorus peculiar tone by means
+of a definite scheme of instrumentation. But Gluck did not treat
+instruments as part of a decorative design, any more than he so
+treated musical forms. Just as his sense of musical form is that
+of Philipp Emmanuel Bach and of Mozart, so is his treatment
+of instrumental tone-colour a thing that changes with every
+shade of feeling in the dramatic situation, and not in accordance
+with any purely decorative scheme. To accompany an aria
+with strings, oboes and flutes, was, for example, a perfectly
+ordinary procedure; nor was there anything unusual in making
+the wind instruments play in unison with the strings for the
+first part of the aria, and writing a passage for one or more of
+them in the middle section. But it was an unheard-of thing to
+make this passage consist of long <i>appoggiaturas</i> once every two
+bars in rising sequence on the first oboe, answered by deep
+<i>pizzicato</i> bass notes, while Agamemnon in despair cries:
+&ldquo;<i>J&rsquo;entends retentir dans mon sein le cri plaintif de la nature</i>.&rdquo;
+Some of Gluck&rsquo;s most forcible effects are of great subtlety, as,
+for instance, in <i>Iphigénie en Tauride</i>, where Orestes tries to
+reassure himself by saying: &ldquo;<i>Le calme rentre dans mon c&oelig;ur</i>,&rdquo;
+while the intensely agitated accompaniment of the strings
+belies him. Again, the sense of orchestral climax shown in the
+oracle scene in <i>Alceste</i> was a thing inconceivable in older music,
+and unsurpassed in artistic and dramatic spirit by any modern
+composer. Its influence in Mozart&rsquo;s <i>Idomeneo</i> is obvious at a
+first glance.</p>
+
+<p>The capacity for broad melody always implies a true sense
+of form, whether that be developed by skill or not; and thus
+Gluck, in rejecting the convenient formalities of older styles
+of opera, was not, like some reformers, without something
+better to substitute for them. Moreover he, in consultation with
+his librettist, achieved great skill in holding together entire
+scenes, or even entire acts, by dramatically apposite repetitions
+of short arias and choruses. And thus in large portions of his
+finest works the music, in spite of frequent full closes, seems to
+move <i>pari passu</i> with the drama in a manner which for naturalness
+and continuity is surpassed only by the finales of Mozart
+and the entire operas of Wagner. This is perhaps most noticeable
+in the second act of <i>Orfeo</i>. In its original Italian version both
+scenes, that in Hades and that in Elysium, are indivisible wholes,
+and the division into single movements, though technically
+obvious, is aesthetically only a natural means of articulating
+the structure. The unity of the scene in Hades extends, in the
+original version, even to the key-system. This was damaged
+when Gluck had to transpose the part of Orpheus from an alto
+to a tenor in the French version. And here, we have one of
+many instances in which the improvements his French experience
+enabled him to make in his great Italian works were not altogether
+unmixed. Little harm, however, was done to <i>Orfeo</i>
+which has not been easily remedied by transposing Orpheus&rsquo;s
+part back again; and in a suitable compromise between the
+two versions <i>Orfeo</i> remains Gluck&rsquo;s most perfect and inspired
+work. The emotional power of the music is such that the
+inevitable spoiling of the story by a happy ending has not the
+aspect of mere conventionality which it had in cases where the
+music produced no more than the normal effect upon 18th-century
+audiences. Moreover Gluck&rsquo;s genius was of too high
+an order for him to be less successful in portraying a sufficiently
+intense happiness than in portraying grief. He failed only in
+what may be called the business capacities of artistic technique;
+and there is less &ldquo;business&rdquo; in <i>Orfeo</i> than in almost any other
+music-drama. It was Gluck&rsquo;s first great inspiration, and his
+theories had not had time to take action in paper warfare.
+<i>Alceste</i> contains his grandest music and is also very free from
+weak pages; but in its original Italian version the third act
+did not give Gluck scope for an adequate climax. This difficulty
+so accentuated itself in the French version that after continual
+retouchings a part for Hercules was, in Gluck&rsquo;s absence, added
+by Gossec; and three pages of Gluck&rsquo;s music, dealing with the
+supreme crisis where Alceste is rescued from Hades (either by
+Apollo or by Hercules) were no longer required in performance
+and have been lost. The Italian version is so different from the
+French that it cannot help us to restore this passage, in which
+Gluck&rsquo;s music now stops short just at the point where we realize
+the full height of his power. The comparison between the
+Italian and French <i>Alceste</i> is one of the most interesting that can
+be made in the study of a musician&rsquo;s development. It would have
+been far easier for Gluck to write a new opera if he had not
+been so justly attached to his second Italian masterpiece. So
+radical are the differences that in retranslating the French
+libretto into Italian for performance with the French music
+not one line of Calzabigi&rsquo;s original text can be retained.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Iphigénie en Aulide</i> and <i>Iphigénie en Tauride</i>, Gluck
+shows signs that the controversies aroused by his methods
+began to interfere with his musical spontaneity. He had not,
+in <i>Orfeo</i>, gone out of his way to avoid rondos, or we should have
+had no &ldquo;<i>Che faro senza Euridice</i>.&rdquo; We read with a respectful
+smile Gluck&rsquo;s assurance to the bailli Le Blanc du Roullet that
+&ldquo;you would not believe <i>Armide</i> to be by the same composer&rdquo;
+as <i>Alceste</i>. But there is no question that <i>Armide</i> is a very great
+work, full of melody, colour and dramatic point; and that Gluck
+has availed himself of every suggestion that his libretto afforded
+for orchestral and emotional effects of an entirely different type
+from any that he had attempted before. And it is hardly
+relevant to blame him for his inability to write erotic music.
+In the first place, the libretto is not erotic, though the subject
+would no doubt become so if treated by a modern poet. In the
+second place a conflict of passions (as, for instance, where Armide
+summons the demons of Hate to exorcise love from her heart,
+and her courage fails her as soon as they begin) has never, even
+in <i>Alceste</i>, been treated with more dramatic musical force.
+The work as a whole is unequal, partly because there is a little
+too much action in it to suit Gluck&rsquo;s methods; but it shows,
+as does no other opera until Mozart&rsquo;s <i>Don Giovanni</i>, a sense of
+the <i>development</i> of characters, as distinguished from the mere
+presentation of them as already fixed.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Iphigénie en Aulide</i> and <i>Iphigénie en Tauride</i>, the very
+subtlety of the finest features indicates a certain self-consciousness
+which, when inspiration is lacking, becomes mannerism.
+Moreover, in both cases the libretti, though skilfully managed,
+tell a rather more complicated story than those which Gluck
+had hitherto so successfully treated; and, where inspiration
+fails, the musical technique becomes curiously amateurish
+without any corresponding naïveté. Still these works are
+immortal, and their finest passages are equal to anything in
+<i>Alceste</i> and <i>Orfeo</i>. <i>Écho et Narcisse</i> we must, like Gluck&rsquo;s
+contemporaries, regard as a failure. As in <i>Orfeo</i>, the pathetic
+story is ruined by a violent happy ending, but here this artistic
+disaster takes place before the pathos has had time to assert
+itself. Gluck had no opportunities in this work for any higher
+qualities, musical or dramatic, than prettiness; and with him
+beauty, without visible emotion, was indeed skin-deep. It is
+a pity that the plan of the great Pelletan-Damcke critical
+<i>édition de luxe</i> of Gluck&rsquo;s French operas forbids the inclusion
+of his Italian <i>Paride e Elena</i>, his third opera to Calzabigi&rsquo;s
+libretto, which was never given in a French version; for there
+can be no question that, whatever he owed to France, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page141" id="page141"></a>141</span>
+period of his greatness began with his collaboration with
+Calzabigi.</p>
+<div class="author">(D. F. T.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Not, as frequently spelt, Glück.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLÜCKSBURG,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Schleswig-Holstein, romantically situated among pine woods
+on the Flensburg Fjord off the Baltic, 6 m. N.E. from Flensburg
+by rail. Pop. (1905) 1551. It has a Protestant church and some
+small manufactures and is a favourite sea-bathing resort. The
+castle, which occupies the site of a former Cistercian monastery,
+was, from 1622 to 1779, the residence of the dukes of
+Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg,
+passing then to the king of Denmark
+and in 1866 to Prussia. King Frederick VII. of Denmark died
+here on the 15th of November 1863.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLÜCKSTADT,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Schleswig-Holstein, on the right bank of the Elbe, at the
+confluence of the small river Rhin, and 28 m. N.W. of Altona,
+on the railway from Itzehoe to Elmshorn. Pop. (1905) 6586.
+It has a Protestant and a Roman Catholic church, a handsome
+town-hall (restored in 1873-1874), a gymnasium, a provincial
+prison and a penitentiary. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged
+in commerce and fishing; but the frequent losses from inundations
+have greatly retarded the prosperity of the town. Glückstadt
+was founded by Christian IV. of Denmark in 1617, and
+fortified in 1620. It soon became an important trading centre.
+In 1627-28 it was besieged for fifteen weeks by the imperialists
+under Tilly, without success. In 1814 it was blockaded by the
+allies and capitulated, whereupon its fortifications were demolished.
+In 1830 it was made a free port. It came into the
+possession of Prussia together with the rest of Schleswig-Holstein
+in 1866.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Lucht, <i>Glückstadt. Beiträge zur Geschichte dieser Stadt</i> (Kiel,
+1854).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLUCOSE<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="glykys">&#947;&#955;&#965;&#954;&#973;&#962;</span>, sweet), a carbohydrate of the
+formula C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">12</span>O<span class="su">6</span>; it may be regarded as the aldehyde of sorbite.
+The name is applied in commerce to a complex mixture of
+carbohydrates obtained by boiling starch with dilute mineral
+acids; in chemistry, it denotes, with the prefixes d, l and
+d + l (or i), the dextro-rotatory, laevo-rotatory and inactive
+forms of the definite chemical compound defined above. The
+d modification is of the commonest occurrence, the other forms
+being only known as synthetic products; for this reason it is
+usually termed glucose, simply; alternative names are dextrose,
+grape sugar and diabetic sugar, in allusion to its right-handed
+optical rotation, its occurrence in large quantity in grapes, and
+in the urine of diabetic patients respectively. In the vegetable
+kingdom glucose occurs, always in admixture with fructose,
+in many fruits, especially grapes, cherries, bananas, &amp;c.; and
+in combination, generally with phenols and aldehydes belonging
+to the aromatic series, it forms an extensive class of compounds
+termed glucosides. It appears to be synthesized in the plant
+tissues from carbon dioxide and water, formaldehyde being an
+intermediate product; or it may be a hydrolytic product of a
+glucoside or of a polysaccharose, such as cane sugar, starch,
+cellulose, &amp;c. In the plant it is freely converted into more
+complex sugars, poly-saccharoses and also proteids. In the
+animal kingdom, also, it is very widely distributed, being sometimes
+a normal and sometimes a pathological constituent of
+the fluids and tissues; in particular, it is present in large
+amount in the urine of those suffering from diabetes, and
+may be present in nearly all the body fluids. It also occurs in
+honey, the white appearance of candied honey being due to
+its separation.</p>
+
+<p>Pure <i>d</i>-glucose, which may be obtained synthetically (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sugar</a></span>) or by adding crystallized cane sugar to a mixture of
+80% alcohol and <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">15</span> volume of fuming hydrochloric acid so
+long as it dissolves on shaking, crystallizes from water or alcohol
+at ordinary temperatures in nodular masses, composed of minute
+six-sided plates, and containing one molecule of water of crystallization.
+This product melts at 86° C., and becomes anhydrous
+when heated to 110° C. The anhydrous compound can also be
+prepared, as hard crusts melting at 146°, by crystallizing concentrated
+aqueous solutions at 30° to 35°. It is very soluble
+in water, but only slightly soluble in strong alcohol. Its taste
+is somewhat sweet, its sweetening power being estimated at
+from ½ to <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> that of cane sugar. When heated to above 200° it
+turns brown and produces caramel, a substance possessing a
+bitter taste, and used, in its aqueous solution or otherwise,
+under various trade names, for colouring confectionery, spirits,
+&amp;c. The specific rotation of the plane of polarized light by
+glucose solutions is characteristic. The specific rotation of a
+freshly prepared solution is 105°, but this value gradually
+diminishes to 52.5°, 24 hours sufficing for the transition in the
+cold, and a few minutes when the solution is boiled. This
+phenomenon has been called mutarotation by T. M. Lowry.
+The specific rotation also varies with the concentration; this
+is due to the dissociation of complex molecules into simpler
+ones, a view confirmed by cryoscopic measurements.</p>
+
+<p>Glucose may be estimated by means of the polarimeter, <i>i.e.</i>
+by determining the rotation of the plane of polarization of a
+solution, or, chemically, by taking advantage of its property of
+reducing alkaline copper solutions. If a glucose solution be
+added to copper sulphate and much alkali added, a yellowish-red
+precipitate of cuprous hydrate separates, slowly in the cold,
+but immediately when the liquid is heated; this precipitate
+rapidly turns red owing to the formation of cuprous oxide. In
+1846 L. C. A. Barreswil found that a strongly alkaline solution
+of copper sulphate and potassium sodium tartrate (Rochelle
+salt) remained unchanged on boiling, but yielded an immediate
+precipitate of red cuprous oxide when a solution of glucose was
+added. He suggested that the method was applicable for quantitatively
+estimating glucose, but its acceptance only followed
+after H. von Fehling&rsquo;s investigation. &ldquo;Fehling&rsquo;s solution&rdquo;
+is prepared by dissolving separately 34.639 grammes of copper
+sulphate, 173 grammes of Rochelle salt, and 71 grammes of
+caustic soda in water, mixing and making up to 1000 ccs.;
+10 ccs. of this solution is completely reduced by 0.05 grammes of
+hexose. Volumetric methods are used, but the uncertainty of
+the end of the reaction has led to the suggestion of special
+indicators, or of determining the amount of cuprous oxide
+gravimetrically.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Chemistry.</i>&mdash;In its chemical properties glucose is a typical oxyaldehyde
+or aldose. The aldehyde group reacts with hydrocyanic acid
+to produce two stereo-isomeric cyanhydrins; this isomerism is due
+to the conversion of an originally non-asymmetric carbon atom into
+an asymmetric one. The cyanhydrin is hydrolysable to an acid,
+the lactone of which may be reduced by sodium amalgam to a
+glucoheptose, a non-fermentable sugar containing seven carbon
+atoms. By repeating the process a non-fermentable gluco-octose
+and a fermentable glucononose may be prepared. The aldehyde
+group also reacts with phenyl hydrazine to form two phenylhydrazones;
+under certain conditions a hydroxyl group adjacent to the
+aldehyde group is oxidized and glucosazone is produced; this
+glucosazone is decomposed by hydrochloric acid into phenyl
+hydrazine and the keto-aldehyde glucosone. These transformations
+are fully discussed in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sugar</a></span>. On reduction glucose
+appears to yield the hexahydric alcohol <i>d</i>-sorbite, and on oxidation
+<i>d</i>-gluconic and <i>d</i>-saccharic acids. Alkalis partially convert it into
+<i>d</i>-mannose and <i>d</i>-fructose. Baryta and lime yield saccharates,
+<i>e.g.</i> C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">12</span>O<span class="su">6</span>·BaO, precipitable by alcohol.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:235px; height:118px" src="images/img141.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The constitution of glucose was established by H. Kiliani in 1885-1887,
+who showed it to be CH<span class="su">2</span>OH·(CH·OH)<span class="su">4</span>·CHO. The subject
+was taken up by Emil Fischer, who succeeded in synthesizing
+glucose, and also several of its stereo-isomers, there being 16 according
+to the Le Bel-van&rsquo;t Hoff theory (see Stereo-Isomerism and
+Sugar). This open chain structure is challenged in the views put
+forward by T. M. Lowry and E. F. Armstrong. In 1895 C. Tanret
+showed that glucose existed in more than one form, and he isolated
+&alpha;, &beta; and &gamma; varieties with specific rotations of 105°, 52.5° and 22°.
+It is now agreed that the &beta; variety is a mixture of the &alpha; and &gamma;.
+This discovery explained the mutarotation of glucose. In a fresh
+solution &alpha;-glucose only exists, but on standing it is slowly transformed
+into &gamma;-glucose, equilibrium
+being reached when the &alpha; and &gamma;
+forms are present in the ratio
+0.368 : 0.632 (Tanret, Zeit. physikal.
+Chem., 1905, 53, p. 692). It is
+convenient to refer to these two
+forms as &alpha; and &beta;. Lowry and Armstrong
+represent these compounds
+by the following spatial formulae
+which postulate a &gamma;-oxidic structure, and 5 asymmetric carbon
+atoms, <i>i.e.</i> one more than in the Fischer formulae. These formulae
+are supported by many considerations, especially by the selective
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page142" id="page142"></a>142</span>
+action of enzymes, which follows similar lines with the &alpha;- and
+&beta;-glucosides, <i>i.e.</i> the compounds formed by the interaction of
+glucose with substances generally containing hydroxyl groups (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glucoside</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Fermentation of Glucose.</i>&mdash;Glucose is readily fermentable. Of
+the greatest importance is the alcoholic fermentation brought about
+by yeast cells (<i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae seu vini</i>); this follows the
+equation C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">12</span>O<span class="su">6</span> = 2C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O + 2CO<span class="su">2</span>, Pasteur considering 94 to 95% of
+the sugar to be so changed. This character is the base of the plan of
+adding glucose to wine and beer wort before fermenting, the alcohol
+content of the liquid after fermentation being increased. Some
+fusel oil, glycerin and succinic acid appear to be formed simultaneously,
+but in small amount. Glucose also undergoes fermentation
+into lactic acid (<i>q.v.</i>) in the presence of the lactic acid bacillus, and
+into butyric acid if the action of the preceding ferment be continued,
+or by other bacilli. It also yields, by the so-called mucous fermentation,
+a mucous, gummy mass, mixed with mannitol and lactic
+acid.</p>
+
+<p>We may here notice the frequent production of glucose by the action
+of enzymes upon other carbohydrates. Of especial note is the
+transformation of maltose by maltase into glucose, and of cane sugar
+by invertase into a mixture of glucose and fructose (invert sugar);
+other instances are: lactose by lactase into galactose and glucose;
+trehalose by trehalase into glucose; melibiose by melibiase into
+galactose and glucose; and of melizitose by melizitase into touranose
+and glucose, touranose yielding glucose also when acted upon by the
+enzyme touranase.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commercial Glucose.</i>&mdash;The glucose of commerce, which may be
+regarded as a mixture of grape sugar, maltose and dextrins, is prepared
+by hydrolysing starch by boiling with a dilute mineral acid.
+In Europe, potato starch is generally employed; in America, corn
+starch. The acid employed may be hydrochloric, which gives the
+best results, or sulphuric, which is used in Germany; sulphuric acid
+is more readily separated from the product than hydrochloric, since
+the addition of powdered chalk precipitates it as calcium sulphate,
+which may be removed by a filter press. The processes of manufacture
+have much in common, although varying in detail. The
+following is an outline of the process when hydrochloric acid is used:
+Starch (&ldquo;green&rdquo; starch in America) is made into a &ldquo;milk&rdquo; with
+water, and the milk pumped into boiling dilute acid contained in
+a closed &ldquo;converter,&rdquo; generally made of copper or cast iron; steam
+is led in at the same time, and the pressure is kept up to about 25 &#8468;
+to the sq. in. When the converter is full the pressure is raised somewhat,
+and the heating continued until the conversion is complete.
+The liquid is now run into neutralizing tanks containing sodium
+carbonate, and, after settling, the supernatant liquid, termed
+&ldquo;light liquor,&rdquo; is run through bag filters and then on to bone-char
+filters, which have been previously used for the &ldquo;heavy liquor.&rdquo;
+The colourless or amber-coloured filtrate is concentrated to 27° to
+28° B., when it forms the &ldquo;heavy liquor,&rdquo; just mentioned. This is
+filtered through fresh bone-char filters, from which it is discharged
+as a practically colourless liquid. This liquid is concentrated in
+vacuum pans to a specific gravity of 40° to 44° B., a small quantity
+of sodium bisulphite solution being added to bleach it, to prevent
+fermentation, and to inhibit browning. &ldquo;Syrup glucose&rdquo; is the
+commercial name of the product; by continuing the concentration
+further solid glucose or grape sugar is obtained.</p>
+
+<p>Several brands are recognized: &ldquo;Mixing glucose&rdquo; is used by
+syrup and molasses manufacturers, &ldquo;jelly glucose&rdquo; by makers of
+jellies, &ldquo;confectioners&rsquo; glucose&rdquo; in confectionery, &ldquo;brewers&rsquo; glucose&rdquo;
+in brewing, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLUCOSIDE,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> in chemistry, the generic name of an extensive
+group of substances characterized by the property of yielding
+a sugar, more commonly glucose, when hydrolysed by purely
+chemical means, or decomposed by a ferment or enzyme. The
+name was originally given to vegetable products of this nature,
+in which the other part of the molecule was, in the greater
+number of cases, an aromatic aldehydic or phenolic compound
+(exceptions are sinigrin and jalapin or scammonin). It has now
+been extended to include synthetic ethers, such as those obtained
+by acting on alcoholic glucose solutions with hydrochloric acid,
+and also the polysaccharoses, <i>e.g.</i> cane sugar, which appear
+to be ethers also. Although glucose is the commonest sugar
+present in glucosides, many are known which yield rhamnose
+or iso-dulcite; these may be termed pentosides. Much attention
+has been given to the non-sugar parts of the molecules; the
+constitutions of many have been determined, and the compounds
+synthesized; and in some cases the preparation of the synthetic
+glucoside effected.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:277px; height:140px" src="images/img142a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The simplest glucosides are the alkyl esters which E. Fischer
+(<i>Ber.</i>, 28, pp. 1151, 3081) obtained by acting with hydrochloric
+acid on alcoholic glucose solutions. A better method of preparation
+is due to E. F. Armstrong and S. L. Courtauld (<i>Proc.
+Phys. Soc.</i>, 1905, July 1), who dissolve solid anhydrous glucose
+in methyl alcohol containing hydrochloric acid. A mixture
+of &alpha;- and &beta;-glucose result, which are then etherified, and if the
+solution be neutralized before the &beta;-form isomerizes and the
+solvent removed, a mixture of the &alpha;- and &beta;-methyl ethers is
+obtained. These may be separated by the action of suitable
+ferments. Fischer found that these ethers did not reduce
+Fehling&rsquo;s solution, neither did they combine with phenyl hydrazine
+at 100°; they appear to be stereo-isomeric &gamma;-oxidic compounds
+of the formulae I., II.: The difference between the &alpha;- and
+&beta;-forms is best shown by the
+selective action of enzymes.
+Fischer found that maltase,
+an enzyme occurring in yeast
+cells, hydrolysed &alpha;-glucosides
+but not the &beta;; while emulsin,
+an enzyme occurring in bitter
+almonds, hydrolyses the &beta;
+but not the &alpha;. The ethers of non-fermentable sugars are themselves
+non-fermentable. By acting with these enzymes on the
+natural glucosides, it is found that the majority are of the
+&beta;-form; <i>e.g.</i> emulsin hydrolyses salicin, helicin, aesculin, coniferin,
+syringin, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Classification of the glucosides is a matter of some difficulty.
+One based on the chemical constitution of the non-glucose part
+of the molecules has been proposed by Umney, who framed four
+groups: (1) ethylene derivatives, (2) benzene derivatives,
+(3) styrolene derivatives, (4) anthracene derivatives. A group
+may also be made to include the cyanogenetic glucosides, <i>i.e.</i>
+those containing prussic acid. J. J. L. van Rijn (<i>Die Glykoside</i>,
+1900) follows a botanical classification, which has several
+advantages; in particular, plants of allied genera contain similar
+compounds. In this article the chemical classification will be
+followed. Only the more important compounds will be noticed,
+the reader being referred to van Rijn (<i>loc. cit.</i>) and to Beilstein&rsquo;s
+<i>Handbuch der organischen Chemie</i> for further details.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. <i>Ethylene Derivatives.</i>&mdash;These are generally mustard oils, and
+are characterized by a burning taste; their principal occurrence is in
+mustard and <i>Tropaeolum seeds</i>. Sinigrin or the potassium salt of
+myronic acid, C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">16</span>NS<span class="su">2</span>KO<span class="su">9</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O, occurs in black pepper and in
+horse-radish root. Hydrolysis with baryta, or decomposition by
+the ferment myrosin, gives glucose, allyl mustard oil and potassium
+bisulphate. Sinalbin, C<span class="su">30</span>H<span class="su">42</span>N<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">15</span>, occurs in white pepper;
+it decomposes to the mustard oil HO·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>·NCS, glucose and
+sinapin, a compound of choline and sinapinic acid. Jalapin or
+scammonin, C<span class="su">34</span>H<span class="su">56</span>O<span class="su">16</span>, occurs in scammony; it hydrolyses to glucose
+and jalapinolic acid. The formulae of sinigrin, sinalbin, sinapin and
+jalapinolic acid are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:515px; height:152px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img142b.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">2. <i>Benzene Derivatives.</i>&mdash;These are generally oxy and oxyaldehydic
+compounds. Arbutin, C<span class="su">12</span>H<span class="su">16</span>O<span class="su">7</span>, which occurs in bearberry along
+with methyl arbutin, hydrolyses to hydroquinone and glucose.
+Pharmacologically it acts as a urinary antiseptic and diuretic;
+the benzoyl derivative, cellotropin, has been used for tuberculosis.
+Salicin, also termed &ldquo;saligenin&rdquo; and &ldquo;glucose,&rdquo; C<span class="su">13</span>H<span class="su">18</span>O<span class="su">7</span>, occurs in
+the willow. The enzymes ptyalin and emulsin convert it into glucose
+and saligenin, ortho-oxybenzylalcohol, HO·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>OH. Oxidation
+gives the aldehyde helicin. Populin, C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">22</span>O<span class="su">8</span>, which occurs
+in the leaves and bark of <i>Populus tremula</i>, is benzoyl salicin.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Styrolene Derivatives.</i>&mdash;This group contains a benzene and also
+an ethylene group, being derived from styrolene C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·CH:CH<span class="su">2</span>.
+Coniferin, C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">22</span>O<span class="su">8</span>, occurs in the cambium of coniferous woods.
+Emulsin converts it into glucose and coniferyl alcohol, while oxidation
+gives glycovanillin, which yields with emulsin glucose and
+vanillin (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eugenol</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vanilla</a></span>). Syringin, which occurs in the
+bark of <i>Syringa vulgaris</i>, is methoxyconiferin. Phloridzin, C<span class="su">21</span>H<span class="su">24</span>O<span class="su">10</span>,
+occurs in the root-bark of various fruit trees; it hydrolyses to
+glucose and phloretin, which is the phloroglucin ester of para-oxyhydratropic
+acid. It is related to the pentosides naringin,
+C<span class="su">21</span>H<span class="su">26</span>O<span class="su">11</span>, which hydrolyses to rhamnose and naringenin, the
+phloroglucin ester of para-oxycinnamic acid, and hesperidin,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page143" id="page143"></a>143</span>
+C<span class="su">50</span>H<span class="su">60</span>O<span class="su">22</span>(?), which hydrolyses to rhamnose and hesperetin, C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">14</span>O<span class="su">6</span>,
+the phloroglucin ester of meta-oxy-para-methoxycinnamic acid or
+isoferulic acid, C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">10</span>O<span class="su">4</span>. We may here include various coumarin
+and benzo-&gamma;-pyrone derivatives. Aesculin, C<span class="su">15</span>H<span class="su">16</span>O<span class="su">9</span>, occurring in
+horse-chestnut, and daphnin, occurring in <i>Daphne alpina</i>, are isomeric;
+the former hydrolyses to glucose and aesculetin (4·5-dioxycoumarin),
+the latter to glucose and daphnetin (3·4-dioxycoumarin).
+Fraxin, C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">18</span>O<span class="su">10</span>, occurring in <i>Fraxinus excelsior</i>, and with aesculin
+in horse-chestnut, hydrolyses to glucose and fraxetin, the monomethyl
+ester of a trioxycoumarin. Flavone or benzo-&gamma;-pyrone
+derivatives are very numerous; in many cases they (or the non-sugar
+part of the molecule) are vegetable dyestuffs. <i>Quercitrin</i>,
+C<span class="su">21</span>H<span class="su">22</span>O<span class="su">12</span>, is a yellow dyestuff found in <i>Quercus tinctoria</i>; it hydrolyses
+to rhamnose and quercetin, a dioxy-&beta;-phenyl-trioxybenzo-&gamma;-pyrone.
+Rhamnetin, a splitting product of the glucosides of
+<i>Rhamnus</i>, is monomethyl quercetin; fisetin, from <i>Rhus cotinus</i>,
+is monoxyquercetin; chrysin is phenyl-dioxybenzo-&gamma;-pyrone.
+Saponarin, a glucoside found in <i>Saponaria officinalis</i>, is a related
+compound. Strophanthin is the name given to three different
+compounds, two obtained from <i>Strophanthus Kombe</i> and one from
+<i>S. hispidus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Anthracene Derivatives.</i>&mdash;These are generally substituted
+anthraquinones; many have medicinal applications, being used
+as purgatives, while one, ruberythric acid, yields the valuable dyestuff
+madder, the base of which is alizarin (<i>q.v.</i>). Chrysophanic
+acid, a dioxymethylanthraquinone, occurs in rhubarb, which also
+contains emodin, a trioxymethylanthraquinone; this substance
+occurs in combination with rhamnose in frangula bark.</p>
+
+<p>The most important cyanogenetic glucoside is amygdalin, which
+occurs in bitter almonds. The enzyme maltase decomposes it into
+glucose and mandelic nitrile glucoside; the latter is broken down
+by emulsin into glucose, benzaldehyde and prussic acid. Emulsin
+also decomposes amygdalin directly into these compounds without
+the intermediate formation of mandelic nitrile glucoside. Several
+other glucosides of this nature have been isolated. The saponins are
+a group of substances characterized by forming a lather with water;
+they occur in soap-bark (<i>q.v.</i>). Mention may also be made of indican,
+the glucoside of the indigo plant; this is hydrolysed by the indigo
+ferment, indimulsin, to indoxyl and indiglucin.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLUE<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (from the O. Fr. <i>glu</i>, bird-lime, from the Late Lat.
+<i>glutem</i>, <i>glus</i>, glue), a valuable agglutinant, consisting of impure
+gelatin and widely used as an adhesive medium for wood, leather,
+paper and similar substances. Glues and gelatins merge into
+one another by imperceptible degrees. The difference is conditioned
+by the degree of purity: the more impure form is termed
+glue and is only used as an adhesive, the purer forms, termed
+gelatin, have other applications, especially in culinary operations
+and confectionery. Referring to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gelatin</a></span> for a
+general account of this substance, it is only necessary to state
+here that gelatigenous or glue-forming tissues occur in the bones,
+skins and intestines of all animals, and that by extraction with
+hot water these agglutinating materials are removed, and the
+solution on evaporating and cooling yields a jelly-like substance&mdash;gelatin
+or glue.</p>
+
+<p>Glues may be most conveniently classified according to their
+sources: bone glue, skin glue and fish glue; these may be
+regarded severally as impure forms of bone gelatin, skin gelatin
+and isinglass.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bone Glue.</i>&mdash;For the manufacture of glue the bones are supplied
+fresh or after having been used for making soups; Indian and
+South American bones are unsuitable, since, by reason of their
+previous treatment with steam, both their fatty and glue-forming
+constituents have been already removed (to a great extent).
+On the average, fresh bones contain about 50% of mineral
+matter, mainly calcium and magnesium phosphates, about
+12% each of moisture and fat, the remainder being other
+organic matter. The mineral matter reappears in commerce
+chiefly as artificial manure; the fat is employed in the candle,
+soap and glycerin industries, while the other organic matter
+supplies glue.</p>
+
+<p>The separation of the fat, or &ldquo;de-greasing of the bones&rdquo;
+is effected (1) by boiling the bones with water in open vessels;
+(2) by treatment with steam under pressure; or (3) by means
+of solvents. The last process is superseding the first two, which
+give a poor return of fat&mdash;a valuable consideration&mdash;and also
+involve the loss of a certain amount of glue. Many solvents
+have been proposed; the greatest commercial success appears
+to attend Scottish shale oil and natural petroleum (Russian or
+American) boiling at about 100° C. The vessels in which the
+extraction is carried out consist of upright cylindrical boilers,
+provided with manholes for charging, a false bottom on which
+the bones rest, and with two steam coils&mdash;one for heating only,
+the other for leading in &ldquo;live&rdquo; steam. There is a pipe from
+the top of the vessel leading to a condensing plant. The vessels
+are arranged in batteries. In the actual operation the boiler
+is charged with bones, solvent is run in, and the mixture gradually
+heated by means of the dry coil; the spirit distils over, carrying
+with it the water present in the bones; and after a time the
+extracted fat is run off from discharge cocks in the bottom of the
+extractor.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> A fresh charge of solvent is introduced, and the cycle
+repeated; this is repeated a third and fourth time, after which
+the bones contain only about 0.2% of fat, and a little of the
+solvent, which is removed by blowing in live steam under 70 to
+80 &#8468; pressure. The de-greased bones are now cleansed from
+all dirt and flesh by rotation in a horizontal cylindrical drum
+covered with stout wire gauze. The attrition accompanying
+this motion suffices to remove the loosely adherent matter,
+which falls through the meshes of the gauze; this meal contains
+a certain amount of glue-forming matter, and is generally
+passed through a finer mesh, the residuum being worked up in
+the glue-house, and the flour which passes through being sold
+as a bone-meal, or used as a manure.</p>
+
+<p>The bones, which now contain 5 to 6% of glue-forming
+nitrogen and about 60% of calcium phosphate, are next treated
+for glue. The most economical process consists in steaming
+the bones under pressure (15 &#8468; to start with, afterwards 5 &#8468;)
+in upright cylindrical boilers fitted with false bottoms. The
+glue-liquors collect beneath the false bottoms, and when of a
+strength equal to about 20% dry glue they are run off to the
+clarifiers. The first runnings contain about 65 to 70% of the
+total glue; a second steaming extracts another 25 to 30%. For
+clarifying the solutions, ordinary alum is used, one part being
+used for 200 parts of dry glue. The alum is added to the hot
+liquors, and the temperature raised to 100°; it is then allowed
+to settle, and the surface scum removed by filtering through
+coarse calico or fine wire filters.</p>
+
+<p>The clear liquors are now concentrated to a strength of about
+32% dry glue in winter and 35% in summer. This is invariably
+effected in vacuum pans&mdash;open boiling yields a dark-coloured
+and inferior product. Many types of vacuum plant are in use;
+the Yaryan form, invented by H. T. Yaryan, is perhaps the best,
+and the double effect system is the most efficient. After concentration
+the liquors are bleached by blowing in sulphur
+dioxide, manufactured by burning sulphur; by this means the
+colour can be lightened to any desired degree. The liquors are
+now run into galvanized sheet-iron troughs, 2 ft. long, 6 in.
+wide and 5 in. deep, where they congeal to a firm jelly, which is
+subsequently removed by cutting round the edges, or by warming
+with hot water, and turning the cake out. The cake is sliced
+to sheets of convenient thickness, generally by means of a wire
+knife, <i>i.e.</i> a piece of wire placed in a frame. Mechanical slicers
+acting on this principle are in use. Instead of allowing the
+solution to congeal in troughs, it may be &ldquo;cast&rdquo; on sheets of
+glass, the bottoms of which are cooled by running water. After
+congealing, the tremulous jelly is dried; this is an operation
+of great nicety: the desiccation must be slow and is generally
+effected by circulating a rapid current of air about the cakes
+supported on nets set in frames; it occupies from four to five
+days, and the cake contains on the average from 10 to 13% of
+water.</p>
+
+<p><i>Skin Glue.</i>&mdash;In the preparation of skin glue the materials
+used are the parings and cuttings of hides from tan-yards, the
+ears of oxen and sheep, the skins of rabbits, hares, cats, dogs
+and other animals, the parings of tawed leather, parchment
+and old gloves, and many other miscellaneous scraps of animal
+matter. Much experience is needed in order to prepare a good
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" id="page144"></a>144</span>
+glue from such heterogeneous materials; one blending may be
+a success and another a failure. The raw material has been
+divided into three great divisions: (1) sheep pieces and fleshings
+(ears, &amp;c.); (2) ox fleshings and trimmings; (3) ox hides and
+pieces; the best glue is obtained from a mixture of the hide,
+ear and face clippings of the ox and calf. The raw material
+or &ldquo;stock&rdquo; is first steeped for from two to ten weeks, according
+to its nature, in wooden vats or pits with lime water, and afterwards
+carefully dried and stored. The object of the lime steeping
+is to remove any blood and flesh which may be attached to the
+skin, and to form a lime soap with the fatty matter present.
+The &ldquo;scrows&rdquo; or glue pieces, which may be kept a long time
+without undergoing change, are washed with a dilute hydrochloric
+acid to remove all lime, and then very thoroughly with
+water; they are now allowed to drain and dry. The skins
+are then placed in hemp nets and introduced into an open boiler
+which has a false bottom, and a tap by which liquid may be run
+off. As the boiling proceeds test quantities of liquid are from
+time to time examined, and when a sample is found on cooling
+to form a stiff jelly, which happens when it contains about 32%
+dry glue, it is ready to draw off. The solution is then run to a
+clarifier, in which a temperature sufficient to keep it fluid is
+maintained, and in this way any impurity is permitted to subside.
+The glue solution is then run into wooden troughs or coolers in
+which it sets to a firm jelly. The cakes are removed as in the
+case of bone glue (see above), and, having been placed on nets,
+are, in the Scottish practice, dried by exposure to open air.
+This primitive method has many disadvantages: on a hot
+day the cake may become unshapely, or melt and slip through
+the net, or dry so rapidly as to crack; a frost may produce
+fissures, while a fog or mist may precipitate moisture on the
+surface and occasion a mouldy appearance. The surface of the
+cake, which is generally dull after drying, is polished by washing
+with water. The practice of boiling, clarification, cooling and
+drying, which has been already described in the case of bone glue,
+has been also applied to the separation of skin glue.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fish Glue.</i>&mdash;Whereas isinglass, a very pure gelatin, is yielded
+by the sounds of a limited number of fish, it is found that all
+fish offals yield a glue possessing considerable adhesive properties.
+The manufacture consists in thoroughly washing the offal with
+water, and then discharging it into extractors with live steam.
+After digestion, the liquid is run off, allowed to stand, the
+upper oily layer removed, and the lower gluey solution clarified
+with alum. The liquid is then filtered, concentrated in open vats,
+and bleached with sulphur dioxide.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Fish glue is a light-brown
+viscous liquid which has a distinctly disagreeable odour and
+an acrid taste; these disadvantages to its use are avoided if it
+be boiled with a little water and 1% of sodium phosphate, and
+0.025% of saccharine added.</p>
+
+<p><i>Properties of Glue.</i>&mdash;A good quality of glue should be free from
+all specks and grit, have a uniform, light brownish-yellow,
+transparent appearance, and should break with a glassy fracture.
+Steeped for some time in cold water it softens and swells up
+without dissolving, and when again dried it ought to resume its
+original properties. Under the influence of heat it entirely
+dissolves in water, forming a thin syrupy fluid with a not
+disagreeable smell. The adhesiveness of different qualities of
+glue varies considerably; the best adhesive is formed by steeping
+the glue, broken in small pieces, in water until they are quite
+soft, and then placing them with just sufficient water to effect
+solution in the glue-pot. The hotter the glue, the better the
+joint; remelted glue is not so strong as the freshly prepared;
+and newly manufactured glue is inferior to that which has been
+long in stock. It is therefore seen that many factors enter into
+the determination of the cohesive power of glue; a well-prepared
+joint may, under favourable conditions, withstand a pull of
+about 700 &#8468; per sq. in. The following table, after Kilmarsch,
+shows the holding power of glued joints with various kinds of
+woods.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Wood.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">&#8468; per sq. in.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">With grain.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Across grain.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Beech</td> <td class="tcc rb">852</td> <td class="tcc rb">434.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Maple</td> <td class="tcc rb">484</td> <td class="tcc rb">346 &ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oak</td> <td class="tcc rb">704</td> <td class="tcc rb">302 &ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Fir</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">605</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">132 &ensp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Special Kinds of Glues, Cements, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;By virtue of the fact that
+the word &ldquo;glue&rdquo; is frequently used to denote many adhesives, which
+may or may not contain gelatin, there will now be given an account
+of some special preparations. These may be conveniently divided
+into: (1) liquid glues, mixtures containing gelatin which do not
+jelly at ordinary temperatures but still possess adhesive properties;
+(2) water-proof glues, including mixtures containing gelatin, and
+also the &ldquo;marine glues,&rdquo; which contain no glue; (3) glues or cements
+for special purposes, <i>e.g.</i> for cementing glass, pottery, leather, &amp;c.,
+for cementing dissimilar materials, such as paper or leather to iron.</p>
+
+<p><i>Liquid Glues.</i>&mdash;The demand for liquid glues is mainly due to the
+disadvantages&mdash;the necessity of dissolving and using while hot&mdash;of
+ordinary glue. They are generally prepared by adding to a warm
+glue solution some reagent which destroys the property of gelatinizing.
+The reagents in common use are acetic acid; magnesium chloride,
+used for a glue employed by printers; hydrochloric acid and zinc
+sulphate; nitric acid and lead sulphate; and phosphoric acid and
+ammonium carbonate.</p>
+
+<p><i>Water-proof Glues.</i>&mdash;Numerous recipes for water-proof glues have
+been published; glue, having been swollen by soaking in water,
+dissolved in four-fifths its weight of linseed oil, furnishes a good
+water-proof adhesive; linseed oil varnish and litharge, added to
+a glue solution, is also used; resin added to a hot glue solution
+in water, and afterwards diluted with turpentine, is another
+recipe; the best glue is said to be obtained by dissolving one
+part of glue in one and a half parts of water, and then adding
+one-fiftieth part of potassium bichromate. Alcoholic solutions of
+various gums, and also tannic acid, confer the same property on
+glue solutions. The &ldquo;marine glues&rdquo; are solutions of india-rubber,
+shellac or asphaltum, or mixtures of these substances, in benzene or
+naphtha. Jeffrey&rsquo;s marine glue is formed by dissolving india-rubber
+in four parts of benzene and adding two parts of shellac; it is
+extensively used, being easily applied and drying rapidly and hard.
+Another water-proof glue which contains no gelatin is obtained by
+heating linseed oil with five parts of quicklime; when cold it forms
+a hard mass, which melts on heating like ordinary glue.</p>
+
+<p><i>Special Glues.</i>&mdash;There are innumerable recipes for adhesives
+specially applicable to certain substances and under certain conditions.
+For repairing glass, ivory, &amp;c. isinglass (<i>q.v.</i>), which may be
+replaced by fine glue, yields valuable cements; bookbinders employ
+an elastic glue obtained from an ordinary glue solution and glycerin,
+the water being expelled by heating; an efficient cement for mounting
+photographs is obtained by dissolving glue in ten parts of alcohol
+and adding one part of glycerin; portable or mouth glue&mdash;so named
+because it melts in the mouth&mdash;is prepared by dissolving one part of
+sugar in a solution of four parts of glue. An india-rubber substitute
+is obtained by adding sodium tungstate and hydrochloric acid to a
+strong glue solution; this preparation may be rolled out when
+heated to 60°.</p>
+
+<p>For further details see Thomas Lambert, <i>Glue, Gelatine and their
+Allied Products</i> (London, 1905); R. L. Fernbach, <i>Glues and Gelatine</i>
+(1907); H. C. Standage, <i>Agglutinants of all Kinds for all Purposes</i>
+(1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This fat contains a small quantity of solvent, which is removed
+by heating with steam, when the solvent distils off. Hot water is
+then run in to melt the fat, which rises to the surface of the water
+and is floated off. Another boiling with water, and again floating
+off, frees the fat from dirt and mineral matter, and the product is
+ready for casking.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The residue in the extractors is usually dried in steam-heated
+vessels, and mixed with potassium and magnesium salts; the product
+is then put on the market as fish-potash guano.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLUTARIC ACID,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Normal Pyrotaric Acid</span>,
+HO<span class="su">2</span>C·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, an organic acid prepared by the
+reduction of &alpha;-oxyglutaric acid with hydriodic acid, by reducing
+glutaconic acid, HO<span class="su">2</span>C·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH:CH·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, with sodium amalgam,
+by conversion of trimethylene bromide into the cyanide
+and hydrolysis of this compound, or from acetoacetic ester,
+which, in the form of its sodium derivative, condenses
+with &beta;-iodopropionic ester to form acetoglutaric ester,
+CH<span class="su">3</span>·CO·CH(CO<span class="su">2</span>C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>, from which glutaric
+acid is obtained by hydrolysis. It is also obtained when sebacic,
+stearic and oleic acids are oxidized with nitric acid. It crystallizes
+in large monoclinic prisms which melt at 97.5° C., and
+distils between 302° and 304° C., practically without decomposition.
+It is soluble in water, alcohol and ether. By long heating the
+acid is converted into its anhydride, which, however, is obtained
+more readily by heating the silver salt of the acid with acetyl
+chloride. By distillation of the ammonium salt glutarimide,
+CH<span class="su">2</span>(CH<span class="su">2</span>·<span class="correction" title="amended from CP">CO</span>)<span class="su">2</span>NH, is obtained; it forms small crystals melting
+at 151° to 152° C. and sublimes unchanged.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>On the alkyl glutaric acids, see C. Hell (<i>Ber.</i>, 1889, 22, pp. 48, 60),
+C. A. Bischoff (<i>Ber.</i>, 1891, 24, p. 1041), K. Auwers (<i>Ber.</i>, 1891, 24,
+p. 1923) and W. H. Perkin, junr. (<i>Journ. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1896, 69, p. 268).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id="page145"></a>145</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLUTEN,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a tough, tenacious, ductile, somewhat elastic,
+nearly tasteless and greyish-yellow albuminous substance,
+obtained from the flour of wheat by washing in water, in which
+it is insoluble. Gluten, when dried, loses about two-thirds of
+its weight, becoming brittle and semi-transparent; when strongly
+heated it crackles and swells, and burns like feather or horn.
+It is soluble in strong acetic acid, and in caustic alkalis, which
+latter may be used for the purification of starch in which it is
+present. When treated with .1 to .2% solution of hydrochloric
+acid it swells up, and at length forms a liquid resembling a
+solution of albumin, and laevorotatory as regards polarized
+light. Moistened with water and exposed to the air gluten
+putrefies, and evolves carbon dioxide, hydrogen and sulphuretted
+hydrogen, and in the end is almost entirely resolved into a liquid,
+which contains leucin and ammonium phosphate and acetate. On
+analysis gluten shows a composition of about 53% of carbon, 7%
+of hydrogen, and nitrogen 15 to 18%, besides oxygen, and about
+1% of sulphur, and a small quantity of inorganic matter. According
+to H. Ritthausen it is a mixture of <i>glutencasein</i> (Liebig&rsquo;s
+vegetable fibrin), <i>glutenfibrin</i>, <i>gliadin</i> (Pflanzenleim), <i>glutin</i> or
+vegetable gelatin, and <i>mucedin</i>, which are all closely allied to one
+another in chemical composition. It is the gliadin which confers
+upon gluten its capacity of cohering to form elastic masses, and
+of separating readily from associated starch. In the so-called
+gluten of the flour of barley, rye and maize, this body is absent
+(H. Ritthausen and U. Kreusler). The gluten yielded by wheat
+which has undergone fermentation or has begun to sprout is
+devoid of toughness and elasticity. These qualities can be
+restored to it by kneading with salt, lime-water or alum. Gluten
+is employed in the manufacture of gluten bread and biscuits
+for the diabetic, and of chocolate, and also in the adulteration
+of tea and coffee. For making bread it must be used fresh, as
+otherwise it decomposes, and does not knead well. Granulated
+gluten is a kind of vermicelli, made in some starch manufactories
+by mixing fresh gluten with twice its weight of flour, and granulating
+by means of a cylinder and contained stirrer, each armed
+with spikes, and revolving in opposite directions. The process
+is completed by the drying and sifting of the granules.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLUTTON,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Wolverine</span> (<i>Gulo luscus</i>), a carnivorous
+mammal belonging to the <i>Mustelidae</i>, or weasel family, and the
+sole representative of its genus. The legs are short and stout,
+with large feet, the toes of which terminate in strong, sharp
+claws considerably curved. The mode of progression is semi-plantigrade.
+In size and form the glutton is something like the
+badger, measuring from 2 to 3 ft. in length, exclusive of the thick
+bushy tail, which is about 8 in. long. The head is broad, the
+eyes are small and the back arched. The fur consists of an undergrowth
+of short woolly hair, mixed with long straight hairs,
+to the abundance and length of which on the sides and tail
+the creature owes its shaggy appearance. The colour of the fur
+is blackish-brown, with a broad band of chestnut stretching
+from the shoulders along each side of the body, the two meeting
+near the root of the tail. Unlike the majority of arctic animals,
+the fur of the glutton in winter grows darker. Like other
+<i>Mustelidae</i>, the glutton is provided with anal glands, which
+secrete a yellowish fluid possessing a highly foetid odour. It
+is a boreal animal, inhabiting the northern regions of both
+hemispheres, but most abundant in the circumpolar area of the
+New World, where it occurs throughout the British provinces
+and Alaska, being specially numerous in the neighbourhood
+of the Mackenzie river, and extending southwards as far as New
+York and the Rocky Mountains. The wolverine is a voracious
+animal, and also one with an inquisitive disposition. It feeds
+on grouse, the smaller rodents and foxes, which it digs from
+their burrows during the breeding-season; but want of activity
+renders it dependent for most of its food on dead carcases, which
+it frequently obtains by methods that have made it peculiarly
+obnoxious to the hunter and trapper. Should the hunter,
+after succeeding in killing his game, leave the carcase insufficiently
+protected for more than a single night, the glutton, whose fear
+of snares is sufficient to prevent him from touching it during
+the first night, will, if possible, get at and devour what he can
+on the second, hiding the remainder beneath the snow. It
+annoys the trapper by following up his lines of marten-traps,
+often extending to a length of 40 to 50 m., each of which it enters
+from behind, extracting the bait, pulling up the traps, and devouring
+or concealing the entrapped martens. So persistent is the
+glutton in this practice, when once it discovers a line of traps,
+that its extermination along the trapper&rsquo;s route is a necessary
+preliminary to the success of his business. This is no easy task,
+as the glutton is too cunning to be caught by the methods successfully
+employed on the other members of the weasel family.
+The trap generally used for this purpose is made to resemble
+a cache, or hidden store of food, such as the Indians and hunters
+are in the habit of forming, the discovery and rifling of which
+is one of the glutton&rsquo;s most congenial occupations&mdash;the bait,
+instead of being paraded as in most traps, being carefully concealed,
+to lull the knowing beast&rsquo;s suspicions. One of the most
+prominent characteristics of the wolverine is its propensity
+to steal and hide things, not merely food which it might afterwards
+need, or traps which it regards as enemies, but articles
+which cannot possibly have any interest except that of curiosity.
+The following instance of this is quoted by Dr E. Coues in his
+work on the <i>Fur-bearing Animals of North America</i>: &ldquo;A
+hunter and his family having left their lodge unguarded during
+their absence, on their return found it completely gutted&mdash;the
+walls were there, but nothing else. Blankets, guns, kettles,
+axes, cans, knives and all the other paraphernalia of a trapper&rsquo;s
+tent had vanished, and the tracks left by the beast showed
+who had been the thief. The family set to work, and, by carefully
+following up all his paths, recovered, with some trifling exceptions,
+the whole of the lost property.&rdquo; The cunning displayed by the
+glutton in unravelling the snares set for it forms at once the
+admiration and despair of every trapper, while its great strength
+and ferocity render it a dangerous antagonist to animals larger
+than itself, occasionally including man. The rutting-season
+occurs in March, and the female, secure in her burrow, produces
+her young&mdash;four or five at a birth&mdash;in June or July. In defence
+of these, she is exceedingly bold, and the Indians, according to
+Dr Coues, &ldquo;have been heard to say that they would sooner
+encounter a she-bear with her cubs than a carcajou (the Indian
+name of the glutton) under the same circumstances.&rdquo; On
+catching sight of its enemy, man, the wolverine before finally
+determining on flight, is said to sit on its haunches, and, in order
+to get a clearer view of the danger, shade its eyes with one of
+its fore-paws. When pressed for food it becomes fearless, and
+has been known to come on board an ice-bound vessel, and in
+presence of the crew seize a can of meat. The glutton is valuable
+for its fur, which, when several skins are sewn together, forms
+elegant hearth and carriage rugs.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:437px; height:365px" src="images/img145.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">The Glutton, or Wolverine (<i>Gulo luscus</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLYCAS, MICHAEL,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> Byzantine historian (according to some
+a Sicilian, according to others a Corfiote), flourished during the
+12th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> His chief work is his <i>Chronicle</i> of events
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" id="page146"></a>146</span>
+from the creation of the world to the death of Alexius I.
+Comnenus(1118). It is extremely brief and written in a popular
+style, but too much space is devoted to theological and scientific
+matters. Glycas was also the author of a theological treatise
+and a number of letters on theological questions. A poem of
+some 600 &ldquo;political&rdquo; verses, written during his imprisonment
+on a charge of slandering a neighbour and containing an appeal
+to the emperor Manuel, is still extant. The exact nature of his
+offence is not known, but the answer to his appeal was that he
+was deprived of his eyesight by the emperor&rsquo;s orders.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Editions: &ldquo;Chronicle and Letters,&rdquo; in J. P. Migne, <i>Patrologia
+Graeca</i>, clviii.; poem in E. Legrand, <i>Bibliothèque grecque vulgaire</i>,
+i.; see also F. Hirsch, <i>Byzantinische Studien</i> (1876); C. Krumbacher
+in <i>Sitzungsberichte bayer. Acad.</i>, 1894; C. F. Bähr in Ersch and
+Gruber&rsquo;s <i>Allgemeine Encyklopädie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLYCERIN,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> <span class="sc">Glycerine</span> or <span class="sc">Glycerol</span> (in pharmacy <i>Glycerinum</i>)
+(from Gr. <span class="grk" title="glykys">&#947;&#955;&#965;&#954;&#973;&#962;</span>, sweet), a trihydric alcohol,
+trihydroxypropane, C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(OH)<span class="su">3</span>. It is obtainable from most
+natural fatty bodies by the action of alkalis and similar reagents,
+whereby the fats are decomposed, water being taken up, and
+glycerin being formed together with the alkaline salt of some
+particular acid (varying with the nature of the fat). Owing to
+their possession of this common property, these natural fatty
+bodies and various artificial derivatives of glycerin, which
+behave in the same way when treated with alkalis, are known
+as glycerides. In the ordinary process of soap-making the
+glycerin remains dissolved in the aqueous liquors from which the
+soap is separated.</p>
+
+<p>Glycerin was discovered in 1779 by K. W. Scheele and named
+<i>Ölsüss</i> (<i>principe doux des huiles</i>&mdash;sweet principle of oils), and
+more fully investigated subsequently by M. E. Chevreul, who
+named it glycerin, M. P. E. Berthelot, and many other chemists,
+from whose researches it results that glycerin is a trihydric
+alcohol indicated by the formula C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(OH)<span class="su">3</span>, the natural fats
+and oils, and the glycerides generally, being substances of the
+nature of compound esters formed from glycerin by the replacement
+of the hydrogen of the OH groups by the radicals of
+certain acids, called for that reason &ldquo;fatty acids.&rdquo; The relationship
+of these glycerides to glycerin is shown by the series of bodies
+formed from glycerin by replacement of hydrogen by &ldquo;stearyl&rdquo;
+(C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">35</span>O), the radical of stearic acid (C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">35</span>O·OH):&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:527px; height:105px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img146.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">The process of saponification may be viewed as the gradual
+progressive transformation of tristearin, or some analogously
+constituted substance, into distearin, monostearin and glycerin,
+or as the similar transformation of a substance analogous to
+distearin or to monostearin into glycerin. If the reaction is
+brought about in presence of an alkali, the acid set free becomes
+transformed into the corresponding alkaline salt; but if the
+decomposition is effected without the presence of an alkali
+(<i>i.e.</i> by means of water alone or by an acid), the acid set free
+and the glycerin are obtained together in a form which usually
+admits of their ready separation. It is noticeable that with
+few exceptions the fatty and oily matters occurring in nature
+are substances analogous to tristearin, <i>i.e.</i> they are trebly
+replaced glycerins. Amongst these glycerides may be mentioned
+the following:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed list">
+<p><i>Tristearin</i>&mdash;C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(O·C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">35</span>O)<span class="su">3</span>. The chief constituent of hard
+animal fats, such as beef and mutton tallow, &amp;c.; also contained
+in many vegetable fats in smaller quantity.</p>
+
+<p><i>Triolein</i>&mdash;C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(O·C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">33</span>O)<span class="su">3</span>. Largely present in olive oil and
+other saponifiable vegetable oils and soft fats; also present
+in animal fats, especially hog&rsquo;s lard.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tripalmitin</i>&mdash;C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(O·C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">31</span>O)<span class="su">3</span>. The chief constituent of palm
+oil; also contained in greater or less quantities in human
+fat, olive oil, and other animal and vegetable fats.</p>
+
+<p><i>Triricinolein</i>&mdash;C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(O·C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">33</span>O<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">3</span>. The main constituent of castor
+oil.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other analogous glycerides are apparently contained in
+greater or smaller quantity in certain other oils. Thus in cows&rsquo;
+butter, <i>tributyrin</i>, C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(O·C<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">7</span>O)<span class="su">3</span>, and the analogous glycerides
+of other readily volatile acids closely resembling butyric acid,
+are present in small quantity; the production of these acids
+on saponification and distillation with dilute sulphuric acid is
+utilized as a test of a purity of butter as sold. <i>Triacetin</i>,
+C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(O·C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">3</span>O)<span class="su">3</span>, is apparently contained in cod-liver oil. Some
+other glycerides isolated from natural sources are analogous
+in composition to tristearin, but with this difference, that the
+three radicals which replace hydrogen in glycerin are not all
+identical; thus kephalin, myelin and lecithin are glycerides
+in which two hydrogens are replaced by fatty acid radicals,
+and the third by a complex phosphoric acid derivative.</p>
+
+<p>Glycerin is also a product of certain kinds of fermentation,
+especially of the alcoholic fermentation of sugar; consequently
+it is a constituent of many wines and other fermented liquors.
+According to Louis Pasteur, about <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">30</span>th of the sugar transformed
+under ordinary conditions in the fermentation of grape juice
+and similar saccharine liquids into alcohol and other products
+become converted into glycerin. In certain natural fatty
+substances, <i>e.g.</i> palm oil, it exists in the free state, so that it can
+be separated by washing with boiling water, which dissolves
+the glycerin but not the fatty glycerides.</p>
+
+<p><i>Properties</i>.&mdash;Glycerin is a viscid, colourless liquid of sp. gr.
+1.265 at 15° C., possessing a somewhat sweet taste; below 0° C.
+it solidifies to a white crystalline mass, which melts at 17° C.
+When heated alone it partially volatilizes, but the greater part
+decomposes; under a pressure of 12 mm. of mercury it boils
+at 170° C. In an atmosphere of steam it distils without decomposition
+under ordinary barometric pressure. It dissolves
+readily in water and alcohol in all proportions, but is insoluble
+in ether. It possesses considerable solvent powers, whence it is
+employed for numerous purposes in pharmacy and the arts.
+Its viscid character, and its non-liability to dry and harden by
+exposure to air, also fit it for various other uses, such as lubrication,
+&amp;c., whilst its peculiar physical characters, enabling it to
+blend with either aqueous or oily matters under certain circumstances,
+render it a useful ingredient in a large number of products
+of varied kinds.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Manufacture</i>.&mdash;The simplest modes of preparing pure glycerin are
+based on the saponification of fats, either by alkalis or by superheated
+steam, and on the circumstance that, although glycerin cannot be
+distilled by itself under the ordinary pressure without decomposition,
+it can be readily volatilized in a current of superheated steam.
+Commercial glycerin is mostly obtained from the &ldquo;spent lyes&rdquo;
+of the soap-maker. In the van Ruymbeke process the spent lyes
+are allowed to settle, and then treated with &ldquo;persulphate of iron,&rdquo;
+the exact composition of which is a trade secret, but it is possibly a
+mixture of ferric and ferrous sulphates. Ferric hydrate, iron soaps
+and all insoluble impurities are precipitated. The liquid is filter-pressed,
+and any excess of iron in the filtrate is precipitated by the
+careful addition of caustic soda and then removed. The liquid is then
+evaporated under a vacuum of 27 to 28 in. of mercury, and, when of
+specific gravity 1.295 (corresponding to about 80% of glycerin),
+it is distilled under a vacuum of 28 to 29 in. In the Glatz process the
+lye is treated with a little milk of lime, the liquid then neutralized
+with hydrochloric acid, and the liquid filtered. Evaporation and
+subsequent distillation under a high vacuum gives crude glycerin.
+The impure glycerin obtained as above is purified by redistillation
+in steam and evaporation in vacuum pans.</p>
+
+<p><i>Technical Uses</i>.&mdash;Besides its use as a starting-point in the production
+of &ldquo;nitroglycerin&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>) and other chemical products, glycerin
+is largely employed for a number of purposes in the arts, its application
+thereto being due to its peculiar physical properties. Thus its
+non-liability to freeze (when not absolutely anhydrous, which it
+practically never is when freely exposed to the air) and its non-volatility
+at ordinary temperatures, combined with its power of
+always keeping fluid and not drying up and hardening, render it
+valuable as a lubricating agent for clockwork, watches, &amp;c., as a
+substitute for water in wet gas-meters, and as an ingredient in
+cataplasms, plasters, modelling clay, pasty colouring matters,
+dyeing materials, moist colours for artists, and numerous other
+analogous substances which are required to be kept in a permanently
+soft condition. Glycerin acts as a preservative against decomposition,
+owing to its antiseptic qualities, which also led to its being employed
+to preserve untanned leather (especially during transit when exported,
+the hides being, moreover, kept soft and supple); to make
+solutions of gelatin, albumen, gum, paste, cements, &amp;c. which will
+keep without decomposition; to preserve meat and other edibles;
+to mount anatomical preparations; to preserve vaccine lymph unchanged;
+and for many similar purposes. Its solvent power is also
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>147</span>
+utilized in the production of various colouring fluids, where the
+colouring matter would not dissolve in water alone; thus aniline
+violet, the tinctorial constituents of madder, and various allied
+colouring matters dissolve in glycerin, forming liquids which remain
+coloured even when diluted with water, the colouring matters being
+either retained in suspension or dissolved by the glycerin present
+in the diluted fluid. Glycerin is also employed in the manufacture
+of formic acid (<i>q.v.</i>). Certain kinds of copying inks are greatly
+improved by the substitution of glycerin, in part or entirely, for the
+sugar or honey usually added.</p>
+
+<p>In its medicinal use glycerin is an excellent solvent for such substances
+as iodine, alkaloids, alkalis, &amp;c., and is therefore used for
+applying them to diseased surfaces, especially as it aids in their
+absorption. It does not evaporate or turn rancid, whilst its marked
+hygroscopic action ensures the moistness and softness of any surface
+that it covers. Given by the mouth glycerin produces purging if
+large doses are administered, and has the same action if only a small
+quantity be introduced into the rectum. For this purpose it is
+very largely used either as a suppository or in the fluid form (one
+or two drachms). The result is prompt, safe and painless. Glycerin
+is useless as a food and is not in any sense a substitute for cod-liver
+oil. Very large doses in animals cause lethargy, collapse and death.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLYCOLS,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> in organic chemistry, the generic name given
+to the aliphatic dihydric alcohols. These compounds may be
+obtained by heating the alkylen iodides or bromides (<i>e.g.</i> ethylene
+dibromide) with silver acetate or with potassium acetate and
+alcohol, the esters so produced being then hydrolysed with
+caustic alkalis, thus:</p>
+
+<p class="center">C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">4</span>Br<span class="su">2</span> + 2 C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">2</span>·Ag &rarr; C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">4</span>(O·C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">3</span>O)<span class="su">2</span> &rarr; C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">4</span>(OH)<span class="su">2</span> + 2 K·C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">2</span>;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">by the direct union of water with the alkylen oxides; by oxidation
+of the olefines with cold potassium permanganate solution
+(G. Wagner, <i>Ber.</i>, 1888, 21, p. 1231), or by the action of nitrous
+acid on the diamines.</p>
+
+<p>Glycols may be classified as <i>primary</i>, containing two &minus;CH<span class="su">2</span>OH
+groups; <i>primary-secondary</i>, containing the grouping &minus;CH(OH)·CH<span class="su">2</span>OH;
+<i>secondary</i>, with the grouping &minus;CH(OH)·CH(OH)&minus;; and
+<i>tertiary</i>, with the grouping &gt;C(OH)·(OH)C&lt;. The secondary
+glycols are prepared by the action of alcoholic potash on aldehydes,
+thus:</p>
+
+<p class="center">3(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>CH·CHO + KHO = (CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>CHCO<span class="su">2</span>K +
+                           (CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>CH·CH(OH)·CH(OH)·CH(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">The tertiary glycols are known as <i>pinacones</i> and are formed
+on the reduction of ketones with sodium amalgam.</p>
+
+<p>The glycols are somewhat thick liquids, of high boiling point,
+the pinacones only being crystalline solids; they are readily
+soluble in water and alcohol, but are insoluble in ether. By the
+action of dehydrating agents they are converted into aldehydes
+or ketones. In their general behaviour towards oxidizing agents
+the primary glycols behave very similarly to the ordinary
+primary alcohols (<i>q.v.</i>), but the secondary and tertiary glycols
+break down, yielding compounds with a smaller carbon content.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Ethylene glycol, C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">4</span>(OH)<span class="su">2</span>, was first prepared by A. Wurtz
+(<i>Ann. chim.</i>, 1859 [3], 55, p. 400) from ethylene dibromide and
+silver acetate. It is a somewhat pleasant smelling liquid, boiling
+at 197° to 197.5° C. and having a specific gravity of 1.125 (0°). On
+fusion with solid potash at 250° C. it completely decomposes, giving
+potassium oxalate and hydrogen,</p>
+
+<p class="center">C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">2</span> + 2KHO = K<span class="su">2</span>C<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">4</span> + 4H<span class="su">2</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Two propylene glycols, C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">8</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, are known, viz.
+&alpha;-propylene glycol, CH<span class="su">3</span>·CH(OH)·CH<span class="su">2</span>OH, a liquid boiling at 188° to 189°, and
+obtained by heating glycerin with sodium hydroxide and distilling
+the mixture; and trimethylene glycol, CH<span class="su">2</span>OH·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>OH, a
+liquid boiling at 214° C. and prepared by boiling trimethylene bromide
+with potash solution (A. Zander, <i>Ann.</i>, 1882, 214, p. 178).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLYCONIC<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (from Glycon, a Greek lyric poet), a form of verse,
+best known in Catullus and Horace (usually in the catalectic
+variety <img style="width:119px; height:14px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img147a.jpg" alt="" />), with three feet&mdash;a spondee and two dactyls;
+or four&mdash;three trochees and a dactyl, or a dactyl and three
+chorees. Sir R. Jebb pointed out that the last form might be
+varied by placing the dactyl second or third, and according to its
+place this verse was called a First, Second or Third Glyconic.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Cf. J. W. White, in <i>Classical Quarterly</i> (Oct. 1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLYPH<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="glyphein">&#947;&#955;&#973;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to carve), in architecture, a vertical
+channel in a frieze (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Triglyph</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLYPTODON<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (Greek for &ldquo;fluted-tooth&rdquo;), a name applied
+by Sir R. Owen to the typical representative of a group of
+gigantic, armadillo-like, South American, extinct Edentata,
+characterized by having the carapace composed of a solid piece
+(formed by the union of a multitude of bony dermal plates)
+without any movable rings. The facial portion of the skull is
+very short; a long process of the maxillary bone descends
+from the anterior part of the zygomatic arch; and the ascending
+ramus of the mandible is remarkably high. The teeth, <span class="spp">8</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in the
+later species, are much alike, having two deep grooves or flutings
+on each side, so as to divide them into three distinct lobes (fig.).
+They are very tall and grew throughout
+life. The vertebral column is almost
+entirely welded into a solid tube, but
+there is a complex joint at the base of the
+neck, to allow the head being retracted
+within the carapace. The limbs are very
+strong, and the feet short and broad, resembling
+externally those of an elephant
+or tortoise.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:154px; height:507px" src="images/img147b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Two views of the
+tooth of a <i>Glyptodon</i>;
+the upper figure showing
+one side, and the
+lower the crown.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Glyptodonts constitute a family, the <i>Glyptodontidae</i>,
+whose position is next to the
+armadillos (<i>Dasypodidae</i>); the group being
+represented by a number of generic types.
+The Pleistocene forms, whose remains occur
+abundantly in the silt of the Buenos Aires
+pampas, are by far the largest, the skull and
+tail-sheath in some instances having a length
+of from 12 to 16 ft. In <i>Glyptodon</i> (with
+which <i>Schistopleurum</i> is identical) the tail-sheath
+consists of a series of coronet-like
+rings, gradually diminishing in diameter from
+base to tip. <i>Daedicurus</i>, in which the tail-sheath
+is in the form of a huge solid club, is
+the largest member of the family, in <i>Panochthus</i>
+and <i>Sclerocalyptus</i> (<i>Hoplophorus</i>) the
+tail-sheath consists basally of a small number
+of smooth rings, and terminally of a tube.
+In some specimens of these genera the horny
+shields covering the bony scutes of the carapace
+have been preserved, and since the
+foramina, which often pierce the latter, stop
+short of the former, it is evident that these
+were for the passage of blood-vessels and
+not receptacles for bristles. In the early
+Pleistocene epoch, when South America
+became connected with North America, some of the glyptodonts
+found their way into the latter continent. Among these northern
+forms some from Texas and Florida have been referred to
+<i>Glyptodon</i>. One large species from Texas has, however, been
+made the type of a separate genus, under the name of <i>Glyptotherium
+texanum</i>. In some respects it shows affinity with <i>Panochthus</i>,
+although in the simple structure of the tail-sheath it
+recalls the undermentioned <i>Propalaeohoplophorus</i>. All the above
+are of Pleistocene and perhaps Pliocene age, but in the Santa Cruz
+beds of Patagonia there occur the two curious genera <i>Propalaeohoplophorus</i>
+and <i>Peltephilus</i>, the former of which is a primitive and
+generalized type of glyptodont, while the latter seems to come
+nearer to the armadillos. Both are represented by species of comparatively
+small size. In <i>Propalaeohoplophorus</i> the scutes of the
+carapace, which are less deeply sculptured than in the larger glyptodonts,
+are arranged in distinct transverse rows, in three of which
+they partially overlap near the border of the carapace after the
+fashion of the armadillos. The skull and limb-bones exhibit several
+features met with in the latter, and the vertebrae of the back are not
+welded into a continuous tube. There are eight pairs of teeth, the
+first four of which are simpler than the rest, and may perhaps therefore
+be regarded as premolars. More remarkable is <i>Peltephilus</i>, on
+account of the fact that the teeth, which are simple, with a chevron-shaped
+section, form a continuous series from the front of the jaw
+backwards, the number of pairs being seven. Accordingly, a
+modification of the character, even of the true Edentata, as given
+in the earlier article, is rendered necessary. The head bears a pair
+of horn-like scutes, and the scutes of the carapace and tail, which
+are loosely opposed or slightly overlapping, form a number of transverse
+rows.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;R. Lydekker, &ldquo;The Extinct Edentates of Argentina,&rdquo;
+<i>An. Mus. La Plata</i>&mdash;<i>Pal. Argent.</i> vol. iii. p. 2 (1904);
+H. F. Osborn, &ldquo;&lsquo;Glyptotherium texanum,&rsquo; a Glyptodont from the
+Lower Pleistocene of Texas,&rdquo; <i>Bull. Amer. Mus.</i>, vol. xvii. p. 491
+(1903); W. B. Scott, &ldquo;Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds&mdash;Edentata,&rdquo;
+<i>Rep. Princeton Exped. to Patagonia</i>, vol. v. (1903-1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">GLYPTOTHEK<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="glyptos">&#947;&#955;&#965;&#960;&#964;&#972;&#962;</span>, carved, and <span class="grk" title="thêkê">&#952;&#942;&#954;&#951;</span>, a place
+of storage), an architectural term given to a gallery for the
+exhibition of sculpture, and first employed at Munich, where it
+was built to exhibit the sculptures from the temple of Aegina.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page148" id="page148"></a>148</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GMELIN,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> the name of several distinguished German scientists,
+of a Tübingen family. Johann Georg Gmelin (1674-1728),
+an apothecary in Tübingen, and an accomplished chemist for
+the times in which he lived, had three sons. The first, Johann
+Conrad (1702-1759), was an apothecary and surgeon in Tübingen.
+The second, Johann Georg (1709-1755), was appointed professor
+of chemistry and natural history in St Petersburg in 1731, and
+from 1733 to 1743 was engaged in travelling through Siberia.
+The fruits of his journey were <i>Flora Sibirica</i> (4 vols., 1749-1750)
+and <i>Reisen durch Sibirien</i> (4 vols., 1753). He ended his
+days as professor of medicine at Tübingen, a post to which he
+was appointed in 1749. The third son, Philipp Friedrich (1721-1768),
+was extraordinary professor of medicine at Tübingen
+in 1750, and in 1755 became ordinary professor of botany and
+chemistry. In the second generation Samuel Gottlieb (1743-1774),
+the son of Johann Conrad, was appointed professor of
+natural history at St Petersburg in 1766, and in the following
+year started on a journey through south Russia and the regions
+round the Caspian Sea. On his way back he was captured by
+Usmey Khan, of the Kaitak tribe, and died from the ill-treatment
+he suffered, on the 27th of July 1774. One of his nephews,
+Ferdinand Gottlob von Gmelin (1782-1848), became professor of
+medicine and natural history at Tübingen in 1805, and another,
+Christian Gottlob (1792-1860), who in 1828 was one of the
+first to devise a process for the artificial manufacture of ultramarine,
+was professor of chemistry and pharmacy in the same
+university. In the youngest branch of the family, Philipp
+Friedrich had a son, Johann Friedrich (1748-1804), who was
+appointed professor of medicine in Tübingen in 1772, and in
+1775 accepted the chair of medicine and chemistry at Göttingen.
+In 1788 he published the 13th edition of Linnaeus&rsquo; <i>Systema
+Naturae</i> with many additions and alterations. His son Leopold
+(1788-1853), was the best-known member of the family. He
+studied medicine and chemistry at Göttingen, Tübingen and
+Vienna, and in 1813 began to lecture on chemistry at Heidelberg,
+where in 1814 he was appointed extraordinary, and in 1817
+ordinary, professor of chemistry and medicine. He was the
+discoverer of potassium ferricyanide (1822), and wrote the
+<i>Handbuch der Chemie</i> (1st ed. 1817-1819, 4th ed. 1843-1855),
+an important work in its day, which was translated into English
+for the Cavendish Society by H. Watts (1815-1884) in 1848-1859.
+He resigned his chair in 1852, and died on the 13th of
+April in the following year at Heidelberg.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GMÜND,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg,<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+in a charming and fruitful valley on the Rems, here spanned by
+a beautiful bridge, 31 m. E.N.E. of Stuttgart on the railway
+to Nördlingen. Pop. (1905) 18,699. It is surrounded by old
+walls, flanked with towers, and has a considerable number of
+ancient buildings, among which are the fine church of the Holy
+Cross; St John&rsquo;s church, which dates from the time of the
+Hohenstaufen; and, situated on a height near the town, partly
+hewn out of the rock, the pilgrimage church of the Saviour.
+Among the modern buildings are the gymnasium, the drawing
+and trade schools, the Roman Catholic seminary, the town
+hall and the industrial art museum. Clocks and watches are
+manufactured here and also other articles of silver, while the
+town has a considerable trade in corn, hops and fruit. The
+scenery in the neighbourhood is very beautiful, near the town
+being the district called Little Switzerland.</p>
+
+<p>Gmünd was surrounded by walls in the beginning of the 12th
+century by Duke Frederick of Swabia. It received town rights
+from Frederick Barbarossa, and after the extinction of the
+Hohenstaufen became a free imperial town. It retained its
+independence till 1803, when it came into the possession of
+Württemberg. Gmünd is the birth-place of the painter Hans
+Baldung (1475-1545) and of the architect Heinrich Arler or Parler
+(fl. 1350). In the middle ages the population was about 10,000.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Kaiser, <i>Gmünd und seine Umgebung</i> (1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> There are two places of this name in Austria. (1) Gmünd,
+a town in Lower Austria, containing a palace belonging to the
+imperial family, (2) a town in Carinthia, with a beautiful Gothic
+church and some interesting ruins.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GMUNDEN,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> a town and summer resort of Austria, in Upper
+Austria, 40 m. S.S.W. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 7126. It
+is situated at the efflux of the Traun river from the lake of the
+same name and is surrounded by high mountains, as the Traunstein
+(5446 ft.), the Erlakogel (5150 ft.), the Wilde Kogel (6860
+ft.) and the Höllen Gebirge. It is much frequented as a health
+and summer resort, and has a variety of lake, brine, vegetable
+and pine-cone baths, a hydropathic establishment, inhalation
+chambers, whey cure, &amp;c. There are a great number of excursions
+and points of interest round Gmunden, specially worth
+mentioning being the Traun Fall, 10 m. N. of Gmunden. It is
+also an important centre of the salt industry in Salzkammergut.
+Gmunden was a town encircled with walls already in 1186. On
+the 14th of November 1626, Pappenheim completely defeated
+here the army of the rebellious peasants.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. Krackowizer, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Gmunden in Oberösterreich</i>
+(Gmunden, 1898-1901, 3 vols.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GNAT<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>gnæt</i>), the common English name for the
+smaller dipterous flies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diptera</a></span>) of the family <i>Culicidae</i>,
+which are now included among &ldquo;mosquitoes&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mosquito</a></span>).
+The distinctive term has no zoological significance, but in
+England the &ldquo;mosquito&rdquo; has commonly been distinguished
+from the &ldquo;gnat&rdquo; as a variety of larger size and more poisonous
+bite.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GNATHOPODA,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> a term in zoological classification, suggested
+as an alternative name for the group Arthropoda (<i>q.v.</i>). The
+word, which means &ldquo;jaw-footed,&rdquo; refers to the fact that in the
+members of the group, some of the lateral appendages or &ldquo;feet&rdquo;
+in the region of the mouth act as jaws.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GNATIA<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (also <span class="sc">Egnatia</span> or <span class="sc">Ignatia</span>, mod. <i>Anazzo</i>, near
+Fasano), an ancient city of the Peucetii, and their frontier town
+towards the Sallentini (<i>i.e.</i> of Apulia towards Calabria), in
+Roman times of importance for its trade, lying as it did on the
+sea, at the point where the Via Traiana joined the coast road,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+38 m. S.E. of Barium. The ancient city walls have been almost
+entirely destroyed in recent times to provide building material,<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+and the place is famous for the discoveries made in its tombs.
+A considerable collection of antiquities from Gnatia is preserved
+at Fasano, though the best are in the museum at Bari. Gnatia
+was the scene of the prodigy at which Horace mocks (<i>Sat.</i> i.
+5. 97). Near Fasano are two small subterranean chapels with
+paintings of the 11th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> (E. Bertaux, <i>L&rsquo;Art dans
+l&rsquo;Italie méridionale</i>, Paris, 1904, 135).</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> There is no authority for calling the latter Via Egnatia.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> H. Swinburne, <i>Travels in the Two Sicilies</i> (London, 1790), ii. 15,
+mentions the walls as being 8 yds. thick and 16 courses high.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GNEISENAU, AUGUST WILHELM ANTON,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count Neithardt
+von</span> (1760-1831), Prussian field marshal, was the son
+of a Saxon officer named Neithardt. Born in 1760 at Schildau,
+near Torgau, he was brought up in great poverty there, and
+subsequently at Würzburg and Erfurt. In 1777 he entered
+Erfurt university; but two years later joined an Austrian
+regiment there quartered. In 1782 taking the additional name
+of Gneisenau from some lost estates of his family in Austria,
+he entered as an officer the service of the margrave of Baireuth-Anspach.
+With one of that prince&rsquo;s mercenary regiments in
+English pay he saw active service and gained valuable experience
+in the War of American Independence, and returning
+in 1786, applied for Prussian service. Frederick the Great gave
+him a commission as first lieutenant in the infantry. Made
+<i>Stabskapitän</i> in 1790, Gneisenau served in Poland, 1793-1794,
+and, subsequently to this, ten years of quiet garrison life in
+Jauer enabled him to undertake a wide range of military studies.
+In 1796 he married Caroline von Kottwitz. In 1806 he was
+one of Hohenlohe&rsquo;s staff-officers, fought at Jena, and a little
+later commanded a provisional infantry brigade which fought
+under Lestocq in the Lithuanian campaign. Early in 1807
+Major von Gneisenau was sent as commandant to Colberg, which,
+small and ill-protected as it was, succeeded in holding out until
+the peace of Tilsit. The commandant received the much-prized
+order &ldquo;pour le mérite,&rdquo; and was promoted lieutenant-colonel.</p>
+
+<p>A wider sphere of work was now opened to him. As chief of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149"></a>149</span>
+engineers, and a member of the reorganizing committee, he
+played a great part, along with Scharnhorst, in the work of reconstructing
+the Prussian army. A colonel in 1809, he soon drew
+upon himself, by his energy, the suspicion of the dominant French,
+and Stein&rsquo;s fall was soon followed by Gneisenau&rsquo;s retirement.
+But, after visiting Russia, Sweden and England, he returned
+to Berlin and resumed his place as a leader of the patriotic
+party. In open military work and secret machinations his
+energy and patriotism were equally tested, and with the outbreak
+of the War of Liberation, Major-General Gneisenau
+became Blücher&rsquo;s quartermaster-general. Thus began the
+connexion between these two soldiers which has furnished
+military history with its best example of the harmonious co-operation
+between the general and his chief-of-staff. With
+Blücher, Gneisenau served to the capture of Paris; his military
+character was the exact complement of Blücher&rsquo;s, and under
+this happy guidance the young troops of Prussia, often defeated
+but never discouraged, fought their way into the heart of France.
+The plan of the march on Paris, which led directly to the fall
+of Napoleon, was specifically the work of the chief-of-staff.
+In reward for his distinguished service he was in 1814, along
+with York, Kleist and Bülow, made count at the same time as
+Blücher became prince of Wahlstatt; an annuity was also
+assigned to him.</p>
+
+<p>In 1815, once more chief of Blücher&rsquo;s staff, Gneisenau played
+a very conspicuous part in the Waterloo campaign (<i>q.v.</i>). Senior
+generals, such as York and Kleist, had been set aside in order
+that the chief-of-staff should have the command in case of need,
+and when on the field of Ligny the old field marshal was disabled,
+Gneisenau at once assumed the control of the Prussian army.
+Even in the light of the evidence that many years&rsquo; research
+has collected, the precise part taken by Gneisenau in the events
+which followed is much debated. It is known that Gneisenau
+had the deepest distrust of the British commander, who, he
+considered, had left the Prussians in the lurch at Ligny, and that
+to the hour of victory he had grave doubts as to whether he ought
+not to fall back on the Rhine. Blücher, however, soon recovered
+from his injuries, and, with Grolmann, the quartermaster-general,
+he managed to convince Gneisenau. The relations of
+the two may be illustrated by Brigadier-General Hardinge&rsquo;s
+report. Blücher burst into Hardinge&rsquo;s room at Wavre, saying
+&ldquo;<i>Gneisenau has given way</i>, and we are to march at once to your
+chief.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>On the field of Waterloo, however, Gneisenau was quick to
+realize the magnitude of the victory, and he carried out the
+pursuit with a relentless vigour which has few parallels in
+history. His reward was further promotion and the insignia
+of the &ldquo;Black Eagle&rdquo; which had been taken in Napoleon&rsquo;s
+coach. In 1816 he was appointed to command the VIIIth
+Prussian Corps, but soon retired from the service, both because
+of ill-health and for political reasons. For two years he lived in
+retirement on his estate, Erdmannsdorf in Silesia, but in 1818
+he was made governor of Berlin in succession to Kalkreuth, and
+member of the <i>Staatsrath</i>. In 1825 he became general field
+marshal. In 1831 he was appointed to the command of the
+Army of Observation on the Polish frontier, with Clausewitz
+as his chief-of-staff. At Posen he was struck down by
+cholera and died on the 24th of August 1831, soon followed
+by his chief-of staff, who fell a victim to the same disease in
+November.</p>
+
+<p>As a soldier, Gneisenau was the greatest Prussian general
+since Frederick; as a man, his noble character and virtuous life
+secured him the affection and reverence, not only of his superiors
+and subordinates in the service, but of the whole Prussian
+nation. A statue by Rauch was erected in Berlin in 1855, and
+in memory of the siege of 1807 the Colberg grenadiers received
+his name in 1889. One of his sons led a brigade of the VIIIth
+Army Corps in the war of 1870.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. H. Pertz, <i>Das Leben des Feldmarschalls Grafen Neithardt
+von Gneisenau</i>, vols. 1-3 (Berlin, 1864-1869); vols. 4 and 5,
+G. Delbrück (<i>ib.</i> 1879, 1880), with numerous documents and letters;
+H. Delbrück, <i>Das Leben des G. F. M. Grafen von Gneisenau</i> (2 vols.,
+2nd ed., Berlin, 1894), based on Pertz&rsquo;s work, but containing much
+new material; Frau von Beguelin, <i>Denkwürdigkeiten</i> (Berlin, 1892);
+Hormayr, <i>Lebensbilder aus den Befreiungskriegen</i> (Jena, 1841);
+Pick, <i>Aus dem brieflichen Nachlass Gneisenaus</i>; also the histories of
+the campaigns of 1807 and 1813-15.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GNEISS,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a term long used by the miners of the Harz Mountains
+to designate the country rock in which the mineral veins occur;
+it is believed to be a word of Slavonic origin meaning &ldquo;rotted&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;decomposed.&rdquo; It has gradually passed into acceptance as a
+generic term signifying a large and varied series of metamorphic
+rocks, which mostly consist of quartz and felspar (orthoclase
+and plagioclase) with muscovite and biotite, hornblende or
+augite, iron oxides, zircon and apatite. There is also a long
+list of accessory minerals which are present in gneisses with more
+or less frequency, but not invariably, as garnet, sillimanite,
+cordierite, graphite and graphitoid, epidote, calcite, orthite,
+tourmaline and andalusite. The gneisses all possess a more
+or less marked parallel structure or foliation, which is the main
+feature by which many of them are separated from the granites,
+a group of rocks having nearly the same mineralogical composition
+and closely allied to many gneisses.</p>
+
+<p>The felspars of the gneisses are predominantly orthoclase
+(often perthitic), but microcline is common in the more acid
+types and oligoclase occurs also very frequently, especially in
+certain sedimentary gneisses, while more basic varieties of
+plagioclase are rare. Quartz is very seldom absent and may be
+blue or milky and opalescent. Muscovite and biotite may both
+occur in the same rock; in other cases only one of them is present.
+The commonest and most important types of gneiss are the mica-gneisses.
+Hornblende is green, rarely brownish; augite pale
+green or nearly colourless; enstatite appears in some granulite-gneisses.
+Epidote, often with enclosures of orthite, is by no
+means rare in gneisses from many different parts of the world.
+Sillimanite and andalusite are not infrequent ingredients of
+gneiss, and their presence has been accounted for in more than
+one way. Cordierite-gneisses are a special group of great interest
+and possessing many peculiarities; they are partly, if not
+entirely, foliated contact-altered sedimentary rocks. Kyanite
+and staurolite may also be mentioned as occasionally occurring.</p>
+
+<p>Many varieties of gneiss have received specific names according
+to the minerals they consist of and the structural peculiarities
+they exhibit. Muscovite-gneiss, biotite-gneiss and muscovite-biotite-gneiss,
+more common perhaps than all the others taken
+together, are grey or pinkish rocks according to the colour of
+their prevalent felspar, not unlike granites, but on the whole
+more often fine-grained (though coarse-grained types occur) and
+possessing a gneissose or foliated structure. The latter consists
+in the arrangement of the flakes of mica in such a way that
+their faces are parallel, and hence the rock has the property of
+splitting more readily in the direction in which the mica plates
+are disposed. This fissility, though usually marked, is not so
+great as in the schists or slates, and the split faces are not so
+smooth as in these latter rocks. The films of mica may be
+continuous and are usually not flat, but irregularly curved.
+In some gneisses the parallel flakes of mica are scattered through
+the quartz and felspar; in others these minerals form discrete
+bands, the quartz and felspar being grouped into lenticles
+separated by thin films of mica. When large felspars, of rounded
+or elliptical form, are visible in the gneiss, it is said to have
+augen structure (Ger. <i>Augen</i> = eyes). It should also be remarked
+that the essential component minerals of the rocks of this family
+are practically always determinable by naked eye inspection or
+with the aid of a simple lens. If the rock is too fine grained
+for this it is generally relegated to the schists. When the
+bands of folia are very fine and tortuous the structure is called
+helizitic.</p>
+
+<p>In mica-gneisses sillimanite, kyanite, andalusite and garnet
+may occur. The significance of these minerals is variously
+interpreted; they may indicate that the gneiss consists wholly
+or in part of sedimentary material which has been contact-altered,
+but they have also been regarded as having been
+developed by metamorphic action out of biotite or other primary
+ingredients of the rock.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150"></a>150</span></p>
+
+<p>Hornblende-gneisses are usually darker in colour and less
+fissile than mica-gneisses; they contain more plagioclase, less
+orthoclase and microcline, and more sphene and epidote. Many
+of them are rich in hornblende and thus form transitions to
+amphibolites. Pyroxene-gneisses are less frequent but occur
+in many parts of both hemispheres. The &ldquo;charnockite&rdquo; series
+are very closely allied to the pyroxene-gneisses. Hypersthene
+and scapolite both may occur in these rocks and they are sometimes
+garnetiferous.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In every country where the lowest and oldest rocks have come to
+the surface and been exposed by the long continued action of denudation
+in stripping away the overlying formations, gneisses are found in
+great abundance and of many different kinds. They are in fact the
+typical rocks of the Archean (Lewisian, Laurentian, &amp;c.) series.
+In the Alps, Harz, Scotland, Norway and Sweden, Canada, South
+America, Peninsular India, Himalayas (to mention only a few
+localities) they occupy wide areas and exhibit a rich diversity of
+types. From this it has been inferred that they are of great geological
+age, and in fact this can be definitely proved in many cases, for the
+oldest known fossiliferous formations may be seen to rest unconformably
+on these gneisses and are made up of their débris. It was
+for a long time believed that they represented the primitive crust of
+the earth, and while this is no longer generally taught there are
+still geologists who hold that these gneisses are necessarily of pre-Cambrian
+age. Others, while admitting the general truth of this
+hypothesis, consider that there are localities in which typical gneisses
+can be shown to penetrate into rocks which may be as recent as the
+Tertiary period, or to pass into these rocks so gradually and in such
+a way as to make it certain that the gneisses are merely altered
+states of comparatively recent sedimentary or igneous rocks. Much
+controversy has arisen on these points; but this is certain, that
+gneisses are far the most common among Archean rocks, and where
+their age is not known the presumption is strong that they are at
+least pre-Cambrian.</p>
+
+<p>Many gneisses are undoubtedly sedimentary rocks that have been
+brought to their present state by such agents of metamorphism as
+heat, movement, crushing and recrystallization. This may be
+demonstrated partly by their mode of occurrence: they accompany
+limestones, graphitic schists, quartzites and other rocks of sedimentary
+type; some of them where least altered may even show remains of
+bedding or of original pebbly character (conglomerate gneisses).
+More conclusive, however, is the chemical composition of these rocks,
+which often is such as no igneous masses possess, but resembles that
+of many impure argillaceous sediments. These sedimentary gneisses
+(or paragneisses, as they are often called) are often rich in biotite
+and garnet and may contain kyanite and sillimanite, or less frequently
+calcite. Some of them, however, are rich in felspar and quartz, with
+muscovite and biotite; others may even contain hornblende and
+augite, and all these may bear so close a resemblance to gneisses of
+igneous origin that by no single character, chemical or mineralogical,
+can their original nature be definitely established. In these cases,
+however, a careful study of the relations of the rock in the field and
+of the different types which occur together will generally lead to some
+positive conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>Other gneisses are igneous (orthogneisses). These have very much
+the same composition as acid igneous rocks such as granite, aplite,
+hornblende granite, or intermediate rocks such as syenite and quartz
+diorite. Many of these orthogneisses are not equally well foliated
+throughout, but are massive or granitoid in places. They are sometimes
+subdivided into granite gneiss, diorite gneiss, syenite gneiss
+and so on. The sedimentary schists into which these rocks have
+been intruded may show contact alteration by the development of
+such minerals as cordierite, andalusite and sillimanite. In many
+of these orthogneisses the foliation is primitive, being an original
+character of the rock which was produced either by fluxion movements
+in a highly viscous, semi-solid mass injected at great pressure
+into the surrounding strata, or by folding stresses acting immediately
+after consolidation. That the foliation in other orthogneisses is
+subsequent or superinduced, having been occasioned by pressure
+and deformation of the solid mass long after it had consolidated and
+cooled, admits of no doubt, but it is very difficult to establish criteria
+by which these types may be differentiated. Those gneisses in which
+the minerals have been crushed and broken by fluxion or injection
+movements have been called protoclastic, while those which have
+attained their gneissose state by crushing long after consolidation
+are distinguished as cataclastic. There are also many examples of
+gneisses of mixed or synthetic origin. They may be metamorphosed
+sediments (granulites and schists) into which tongues and thin
+veins of granitic character have been intruded, following the more
+or less parallel foliation planes already present in the country rock.
+These veinlets produce that alternation in mineral composition and
+banded structure which are essential in gneisses. This intermixture
+of igneous and sedimentary material may take place on the finest scale
+and in the most intricate manner. Often there has been resorption
+of the older rocks, whether sedimentary or igneous, by those which
+have invaded them, and movement has gone on both during injection
+and at a later period, so that the whole complex becomes amalgamated
+and its elements are so completely confused that the geologist can
+no longer disentangle them.</p>
+
+<p>When we remember that in the earlier stages of the earth&rsquo;s history,
+to which most gneisses belong, and in the relatively deep parts of
+the earth&rsquo;s crust, where they usually occur, there has been most
+igneous injection and greatest frequency of earth movements, it
+is not difficult to understand the geological distribution of gneissose
+rocks. All the factors which are required for their production, heat,
+movement, plutonic intrusions, contact alteration, interstitial
+moisture at high temperatures, are found at great depths and have
+acted most frequently and with greatest power on the older rock
+masses. But locally, where the conditions were favourable, the
+same processes may have gone on in comparatively recent times.
+Hence, though most gneisses are Archean, all gneisses are not
+necessarily so.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GNEIST, HEINRICH RUDOLF HERMANN FRIEDRICH
+VON<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1816-1895), German jurist and politician, was born at
+Berlin on the 13th of August 1816, the son of a judge attached
+to the &ldquo;Kammergericht&rdquo; (court of appeal) in that city. After
+receiving his school education at the gymnasium at Eisleben
+in Prussian Saxony, he entered the university of Berlin in 1833
+as a student of jurisprudence, and became a pupil of the famous
+Roman law teacher von Savigny. Proceeding to the degree
+of <i>doctor juris</i> in 1838, young Gneist immediately established
+himself as a <i>Privatdozent</i> in the faculty of law. He had, however,
+already chosen the judicial branch of the legal profession as a
+career, and having while yet a student acted as <i>Auscultator</i>,
+was admitted <i>Assessor</i> in 1841. He soon found leisure and
+opportunity to fulfil a much-cherished wish, and spent the
+next few years on a lengthened tour in Italy, France and
+England. He utilized his <i>Wanderjahre</i> for the purposes of
+comparative study, and on his return in 1844 was appointed
+extraordinary professor of Roman law in Berlin university,
+and thus began a professorial connexion which ended only with
+his death. The first-fruits of his activity as a teacher were
+seen in his brilliant work, <i>Die formellen Verträge des heutigen
+römischen Obligationen-Rechtes</i> (Berlin, 1845). <i>Pari passu</i>
+with his academic labours he continued his judicial career,
+and became in due course successively assistant judge of the
+superior court and of the supreme tribunal. But to a mind
+constituted such as his, the want of elasticity in the procedure
+of the courts was galling. &ldquo;Brought up,&rdquo; he tells, in the preface
+to his <i>Englische Verfassungsgeschichte</i>, &ldquo;in the laborious and
+rigid school of Prussian judges, at a time when the duty of
+formulating the matter in litigation was entailed upon the judge
+who personally conducted the pleadings, I became acquainted
+both with the advantages possessed by the Prussian bureau
+system as also with its weak points.&rdquo; Feeling the necessity
+for fundamental reforms in legal procedure, he published, in
+1849, his <i>Trial by Jury</i>, in which, after pointing out that the
+origin of that institution was common to both Germany and
+England, and showing in a masterly way the benefits which had
+accrued to the latter country through its more extended application,
+he pleaded for its freer admission in the tribunals of his
+own country.</p>
+
+<p>The period of &ldquo;storm and stress&rdquo; in 1848 afforded Gneist an
+opportunity for which he had yearned, and he threw himself
+with ardour into the constitutional struggles of Prussia. Although
+his candidature for election to the National Assembly
+of that year was unsuccessful, he felt that &ldquo;the die was cast,&rdquo;
+and deciding for a political career, retired in 1850 from his judicial
+position. Entering the ranks of the National Liberal party,
+he began both in writing and speeches actively to champion
+their cause, now busying himself pre-eminently with the study
+of constitutional law and history. In 1853 appeared his <i>Adel
+und Ritterschaft in England</i>, and in 1857 the <i>Geschichte und
+heutige Gestalt der Ämter in England</i>, a pamphlet primarily
+written to combat the Prussian abuses of administration, but
+for which the author also claimed that it had not been without
+its effect in modifying certain views that had until then ruled
+in England itself. In 1858 Gneist was appointed ordinary
+professor of Roman law, and in the same year commenced his
+parliamentary career by his election for Stettin to the
+Abgeordnetenhaus (House of Deputies) of the Prussian Landtag, in which
+assembly he sat thenceforward uninterruptedly until 1893.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>151</span>
+Joining the Left, he at once became one of its leading spokesmen.
+His chief oratorical triumphs are associated with the early period
+of his membership of the House; two noteworthy occasions
+being his violent attack (September 1862) upon the government
+budget in connexion with the reorganization of the Prussian
+army, and his defence (1864) of the Polish chiefs of the (then)
+grand-duchy of Posen, who were accused of high treason. In
+1857-1863 was published <i>Das heutige englische Verfassungsund
+Verwaltungsrecht</i>, a work which, contrasting English and
+German constitutional law and administration, aimed at exercising
+political pressure upon the government of the day. In
+1868 Gneist became a member of the North German parliament,
+and acted as a member of the commission for organizing the
+federal army, and also of that for the settlement of ecclesiastical
+controversial questions. On the establishment of German
+unity his mandate was renewed for the Reichstag, and in this
+he sat, an active and prominent member of the National Liberal
+party, until 1884. In the Kulturkampf he sided with the
+government against the attacks of the Clericals, whom he bitterly
+denounced, and whose implacable enemy he ever showed himself.
+In 1879, together with his colleague, von Hänel, he violently
+attacked the motion for the prosecution of certain Socialist
+members, which as a result of the vigour of his opposition was
+almost unanimously rejected. He was parliamentary reporter
+for the committees on all great financial and administrative
+questions, and his profound acquaintance with constitutional
+law caused his advice to be frequently sought, not only in his
+own but also in other countries. In Prussia he largely influenced
+legislation, the reform of the judicial and penal systems and the
+new constitution of the Evangelical Church being largely his
+work. He was also consulted by the Japanese government when
+a constitution was being introduced into that country. In
+1875 he was appointed a member of the supreme administrative
+court (<i>Oberverwaltungsgericht</i>) of Prussia, but only held office
+for two years. In 1882 was published his <i>Englische Verfassungsgeschichte</i>
+(trans. <i>History of the English Constitution</i>, London,
+1886), which may perhaps be described as his <i>magnum opus</i>.
+It placed the author at once on the level of such writers
+on English constitutional history as Hallam and Stubbs, and
+supplied English literature with a text-book almost unrivalled
+in point of historical research. In 1888 one of the first acts
+of the ill-fated emperor Frederick III., who had always, as
+crown prince, shown great admiration for him, was to ennoble
+Gneist, and attach him as instructor in constitutional law to his
+son, the emperor William II., a charge of which he worthily
+acquitted himself. The last years of his life were full of energy,
+and, in the possession of all his faculties, he continued his wonted
+academic labours until a short time before his death, which
+occurred at Berlin on the 22nd of July 1895.</p>
+
+<p>As a politician, Gneist&rsquo;s career cannot perhaps be said to have
+been entirely successful. In a country where parliamentary
+institutions are the living exponents of the popular will he might
+have risen to a foremost position in the state; as it was, the
+party to which he allied himself could never hope to become
+more than what it remained, a parliamentary faction, and the
+influence it for a time wielded in the counsels of the state waned
+as soon as the Social-Democratic party grew to be a force to be
+reckoned with. It is as a writer and a teacher that Gneist is
+best known to fame. He was a jurist of a special type. To him
+law was not mere theory, but living force; and this conception
+of its power animates all his schemes of practical reform. As
+a teacher he exercised a magnetic influence, not only by reason
+of the clearness and cogency of his exposition, but also because
+of the success with which he developed the talents and guided
+the aspirations of his pupils. He was a man of noble bearing,
+religious, and imbued with a stern sense of duty. He was proud
+of being a &ldquo;Preussischer Junker&rdquo; (a member of the Prussian
+squirearchy), and throughout his writings, despite their liberal
+tendencies, may be perceived the loyalty and affection with which
+he clung to monarchical institutions. A great admirer and a true
+friend of England, to which country he was attached by many
+personal ties, he surpassed all other Germans in his efforts to
+make her free institutions, in which he found his ideal, the
+common heritage of the two great nations of the Teutonic race.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gneist was a prolific writer, especially on the subject he had made
+peculiarly his own, that of constitutional law and history, and among
+his works, other than those above named, may be mentioned the
+following: <i>Budget und Gesetz nach dem constitutionellen Staatsrecht
+Englands</i> (Berlin, 1867); <i>Freie Advocatur</i> (<i>ib.</i>, 1867); <i>Der Rechtsstaat</i>
+(<i>ib.</i>, 1872, and 2nd edition, 1879); <i>Zur Verwaltungsreform
+in Preussen</i> (Leipzig, 1880); <i>Das englische Parlament</i> (Berlin, 1886);
+in English translation, <i>The English Parliament</i> (London, 1886; 3rd
+edition, 1889); <i>Die Militär-Vorlage von 1892 und der preussische
+Verfassungsconflikt von 1862 bis 1866</i> (Berlin, 1893); <i>Die nationale
+Rechtsidee von den Ständen und das preussische Dreiklassenwahlsystem</i>
+(<i>ib.</i>, 1895); <i>Die verfassungsmässige Stellung des preussischen
+Gesamtministeriums</i> (<i>ib.</i>, 1895). See O. Gierke, <i>Rudolph von
+Gneist, Gedächtnisrede</i> (Berlin, 1895), an In Memoriam address
+delivered in Berlin.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. A. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GNESEN<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (Polish, <i>Gniezno</i>), a town of Germany, in the Prussian
+province of Posen, in an undulating and fertile country, on the
+Wrzesnia, 30 m. E.N.E. of Posen by the railway to Thorn.
+Pop. (1905) 23,727. Besides the cathedral, a handsome Gothic
+edifice with twin towers, which contains the remains of St
+Adalbert, there are eight Roman Catholic churches, a Protestant
+church, a synagogue, a clerical seminary and a convent of the
+Franciscan nuns. Among the industries are cloth and linen
+weaving, brewing and distilling. A great horse and cattle
+market is held here annually. Gnesen is one of the oldest towns
+in the former kingdom of Poland. Its name, <i>Gniezno</i>, signifies
+&ldquo;nest,&rdquo; and points to early Polish traditions. The cathedral is
+believed to have been founded towards the close of the 9th
+century, and, having received the bones of St Adalbert, it was
+visited in 1000 by the emperor Otto III., who made it the seat
+of an archbishop. Here, until 1320, the kings of Poland were
+crowned; and the archbishop, since 1416 primate of Poland,
+acted as protector pending the appointment of a new king.
+In 1821 the see of Posen was founded and the archbishop
+removed his residence thither, though its cathedral chapter
+still remains at Gnesen. After a long period of decay the town
+revived after 1815, when it came under the rule of Prussia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See S. Karwowski, <i>Gniezno</i> (Posen, 1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GNOME,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> <span class="sc">and</span> <b>GNOMIC POETRY.</b> Sententious maxims, put
+into verse for the better aid of the memory, were known by the
+Greeks as gnomes, <span class="grk" title="gnômai">&#947;&#957;&#8182;&#956;&#945;&#953;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="gnôme">&#947;&#957;&#974;&#956;&#951;</span>, an opinion. A gnome
+is defined by the Elizabethan critic Henry Peacham (1576?-1643?)
+as &ldquo;a saying pertaining to the manners and common
+practices of men, which declareth, with an apt brevity, what
+in this our life ought to be done, or not done.&rdquo; The Gnomic
+Poets of Greece, who flourished in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, were
+those who arranged series of sententious maxims in verse.
+These were collected in the 4th century, by Lobon of Argos,
+an orator, but his collection has disappeared. The chief gnomic
+poets were Theognis, Solon, Phocylides, Simonides of Amorgos,
+Demodocus, Xenophanes and Euenus. With the exception of
+Theognis, whose gnomes were fortunately preserved by some
+schoolmaster about 300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, only fragments of the Gnomic
+Poets have come down to us. The moral poem attributed to
+Phocylides, long supposed to be a masterpiece of the school,
+is now known to have been written by a Jew in Alexandria.
+Of the gnomic movement typified by the moral works of the
+poets named above, Prof. Gilbert Murray has remarked that
+it receives its special expression in the conception of the Seven
+Wise Men, to whom such proverbs as &ldquo;Know thyself&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Nothing too much&rdquo; were popularly attributed, and whose
+names differed in different lists. These gnomes or maxims
+were extended and put into literary shape by the poets.
+Fragments of Solon, Euenus and Mimnermus have been preserved,
+in a very confused state, from having been written,
+for purposes of comparison, on the margins of the MSS. of
+Theognis, whence they have often slipped into the text of that
+poet. Theognis enshrines his moral precepts in his elegies, and
+this was probably the custom of the rest; it is improbable
+that there ever existed a species of poetry made up entirely of
+successive gnomes. But the title &ldquo;gnomic&rdquo; came to be given
+to all poetry which dealt in a sententious way with questions
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id="page152"></a>152</span>
+of ethics. It was, unquestionably, the source from which moral
+philosophy was directly developed, and theorists upon life and
+infinity, such as Pythagoras and Xenophanes, seem to have
+begun their career as gnomic poets. By the very nature of
+things, gnomes, in their literary sense, belong exclusively to the
+dawn of literature; their naïveté and their simplicity in moralizing
+betray it. But it has been observed that many of the ethical
+reflections of the great dramatists, and in particular of Sophocles
+and Euripides, are gnomic distiches expanded. It would be an
+error to suppose that the ancient Greek gnomes are all of a
+solemn character; some are voluptuous and some chivalrous;
+those of Demodocus of Leros had the reputation of being droll.
+In modern times, the gnomic spirit has occasionally been displayed
+by poets of a homely philosophy, such as Francis Quarles
+(1592-1644) in England and Gui de Pibrac (1529-1584) in
+France. The once-celebrated <i>Quatrains</i> of the latter, published
+in 1574, enjoyed an immense success throughout Europe; they
+were composed in deliberate imitation of the Greek gnomic
+writers of the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> These modern effusions are
+rarely literature and perhaps never poetry. With the gnomic
+writings of Pibrac it was long customary to bind up those of
+Antoine Favre (or Faber) (1557-1624) and of Pierre Mathieu
+(1563-1621). Gnomes are frequently to be found in the ancient
+literatures of Arabia, Persia and India, and in the Icelandic
+staves. The <i>priamel</i>, a brief, sententious kind of poem, which
+was in favour in Germany from the 12th to the 16th century,
+belonged to the true gnomic class, and was cultivated with
+particular success by Hans Rosenblut, the lyrical goldsmith
+of Nuremberg, in the 15th century.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GNOMES<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (Fr. <i>gnomes</i>, Ger. <i>Gnomen</i>), in folk-lore, the name
+now commonly given to the earth and mountain spirits who are
+supposed to watch over veins of precious metals and other
+hidden treasures. They are usually pictured as bearded dwarfs
+clad in brown close-fitting garments with hoods. The word
+&ldquo;gnome&rdquo; as applied to these is of comparatively modern
+and somewhat uncertain origin. By some it is said to have
+been coined by Paracelsus (so Hatzfeld and Darmesteter,
+<i>Dictionnaire</i>), who uses <i>Gnomi</i> as a synonym of <i>Pygmaei</i>, from
+the Greek <span class="grk" title="gnômê">&#947;&#957;&#974;&#956;&#951;</span>, intelligence. The <i>New English Dictionary</i>,
+however, suggests a derivation from <i>genomus</i>, <i>i.e.</i> a Greek type
+<span class="grk" title="gênomos">&#947;&#951;&#957;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;earth-dweller,&rdquo; on the analogy of <span class="grk" title="thalassonomos">&#952;&#945;&#955;&#945;&#963;&#963;&#959;&#957;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+&ldquo;dwelling in the sea,&rdquo; adding, however, that though there is
+no evidence that the term was not used before Paracelsus,
+it is possibly &ldquo;a mere arbitrary invention, like so many others
+found in Paracelsus&rdquo; (<i>N.E.D.</i> s.v.).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:170px; height:115px" src="images/img152.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">GNOMON,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> the Greek word for the style of a sundial, or any
+object, commonly a vertical column, the shadow of which was
+observed in former times in order to learn
+the altitude of the sun, especially when on
+the meridian. The art of constructing a
+sundial is sometimes termed <i>gnomonics</i>.
+In geometry, a gnomon is a plane figure
+formed by removing a parallelogram from
+a corner of a larger parallelogram; in the
+figure ABCDEFA is a gnomon. Gnomonic projection is a projection
+of a sphere in which the centre of sight is the centre of
+the sphere.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">GNOSTICISM<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="gnôsis">&#947;&#957;&#8182;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>, knowledge), the name generally
+applied to that spiritual movement existing side by side with
+genuine Christianity, as it gradually crystallized into the old
+Catholic Church, which may roughly be defined as a distinct religious
+syncretism bearing the strong impress of Christian influences.</p>
+
+<p>I. The term &ldquo;Gnosis&rdquo; first appears in a technical sense in
+1 Tim. vi. 20 (<span class="grk" title="hê pseudônymos gnôsis">&#7969; &#968;&#949;&#965;&#948;&#974;&#957;&#965;&#956;&#959;&#962; &#947;&#957;&#8182;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>). It seems to have at first
+been applied exclusively, or at any rate principally, to a particular
+tendency within the movement as a whole, <i>i.e.</i> to those sections of
+(the Syrian) Gnostics otherwise generally known as Ophites or
+Naasseni (see Hippolytus, <i>Philosophumena</i>, v. 2: <span class="grk" title="Naassênoi
+... hoi heautous Gnôstikous apokalountes">&#925;&#945;&#945;&#963;&#963;&#951;&#957;&#959;&#8054; ... &#959;&#7985; &#7953;&#945;&#965;&#964;&#959;&#8058;&#962; &#915;&#957;&#969;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#8058;&#962; &#7936;&#960;&#959;&#954;&#945;&#955;&#959;&#8166;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#962;</span>; Irenaeus i. 11. 1;
+Epiphanius, <i>Haeres.</i> xxvi. Cf. also the self-assumed name of the
+Carpocratiani, Iren. i. 25. 6). But in Irenaeus the term has
+already come to designate the whole movement. This first came
+into prominence in the opening decades of the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>,
+but is certainly older; it reached its height in the second third of
+the same century, and began to wane about the 3rd century, and
+from the second half of the 3rd century onwards was replaced by
+the closely-related and more powerful Manichaean movement.
+Offshoots of it, however, continued on into the 4th and 5th
+centuries. Epiphanius still had the opportunity of making
+personal acquaintance with Gnostic sects.</p>
+
+<p>II. Of the actual writings of the Gnostics, which were extraordinarily
+numerous,<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> very little has survived; they were
+sacrificed to the destructive zeal of their ecclesiastical opponents.
+Numerous fragments and extracts from Gnostic writings are to be
+found in the works of the Fathers who attacked Gnosticism.
+Most valuable of all are the long extracts in the 5th and 6th books
+of the <i>Philosophumena</i> of Hippolytus. The most accessible and
+best critical edition of the fragments which have been preserved
+word for word is to be found in Hilgenfeld&rsquo;s <i>Ketzergeschichte des
+Urchristentums</i>. One of the most important of these fragments is
+the letter of Ptolemaeus to Flora, preserved in Epiphanius, <i>Haeres</i>.
+xxxiii. 3-7 (see on this point Harnack in the <i>Sitzungsberichte der
+Berliner Akademie</i>, 1902, pp. 507-545). Gnostic fragments are
+certainly also preserved for us in the <i>Acts of Thomas</i>. Here we
+should especially mention the beautiful and much-discussed
+<i>Song of the Pearl</i>, or <i>Song of the Soul</i>, which is generally, though
+without absolute clear proof, attributed to the Gnostic Bardesanes
+(till lately it was known only in the Syrian text; edited and
+translated by Bevan, <i>Texts and Studies</i>,<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a> v. 3, 1897; Hofmann,
+<i>Zeitschrift für neutestamentliche Wissenschaft</i>, iv.; for the
+newly-found Greek text see <i>Acta apostolorum</i>, ed. Bonnet, ii. 2,
+c. 108, p. 219). Generally also much Gnostic matter is contained
+in the apocryphal histories of the Apostles. To the school of
+Bardesanes belongs the &ldquo;Book of the Laws of the Lands,&rdquo; which
+does not, however, contribute much to our knowledge of Gnosticism.
+Finally, we should mention in this connexion the text on
+which are based the pseudo-Clementine <i>Homilies</i> and <i>Recognitiones</i>
+(beginning of the 3rd century). It is, of course, already
+permeated with the Catholic spirit, but has drawn so largely upon
+sources of a Judaeo-Christian Gnostic character that it comes to
+a great extent within the category of sources for Gnosticism.
+Complete original Gnostic works have unfortunately survived to
+us only from the period of the decadence of Gnosticism. Of
+these we should mention the comprehensive work called the
+<i>Pistis-Sophia</i>, probably belonging to the second half of the 3rd
+century.<a name="fa3h" id="fa3h" href="#ft3h"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Further, the Coptic-Gnostic texts of the <i>Codex
+Brucianus</i>; both the books of Ieu, and an anonymous third
+work (edited and translated by C. Schmidt, <i>Texte und Untersuchungen</i>,
+vol. viii., 1892; and a new translation by the same in
+<i>Koptische-gnostische Schriften</i>, i.) which, contrary to the opinion
+of their editor and translator, the present writer believes to
+represent, in their existing form, a still later period and a
+still more advanced stage in the decadence of Gnosticism.
+For other and older Coptic-Gnostic texts, in one of which is contained
+the source of Irenaeus&rsquo;s treatises on the Barbelognostics,
+but which have unfortunately not yet been made completely
+accessible, see C. Schmidt in <i>Sitzungsberichte der Berl. Akad.</i>
+(1896), p. 839 seq., and &ldquo;Philotesia,&rdquo; dedicated to Paul Kleinert
+(1907); p. 315 seq.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, then, for an exposition of Gnosticism we are
+thrown back upon the polemical writings of the Fathers in their
+controversy with heresy. The most ancient of these is Justin,
+who according to his <i>Apol.</i> i. 26 wrote a <i>Syntagma</i> against all
+heresies (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 150), and also, probably, a special polemic against
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>153</span>
+Marcion (fragment in Irenaeus iv. 6. 2). Both these writings are
+lost. He was followed by Irenaeus, who, especially in the first
+book of his treatise <i>Adversus haereses</i> (<span class="grk" title="elegchou kai anatropês
+tês pseudônymou gnôseôs biblia pente">&#7952;&#955;&#941;&#947;&#967;&#959;&#965; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#7936;&#957;&#945;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#960;&#8134;&#962; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#968;&#949;&#965;&#948;&#969;&#957;&#973;&#956;&#959;&#965; &#947;&#957;&#974;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#962; &#946;&#953;&#946;&#955;&#943;&#945; &#960;&#941;&#957;&#964;&#949;</span>, <i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 180), gives a
+detailed account of the Gnostic heresies. He founds his work
+upon that of his master Justin, but adds from his own knowledge
+among many other things, notably the detailed account of
+Valentinianism at the beginning of the book. On Irenaeus, and
+probably also on Justin, Hippolytus drew for his <i>Syntagma</i>
+(beginning of the 3rd century), a work which is also lost, but can,
+with great certainty, be reconstructed from three recensions of it:
+in the <i>Panarion</i> of Epiphanius (after 374), in Philaster of Brescia,
+<i>Adversus haereses</i>, and the Pseudo-Tertullian, <i>Liber adversus
+omnes haereses</i>. A second work of Hippolytus <span class="grk" title="Katà pasôn
+haipeseôv elegchos">&#922;&#945;&#964;&#8048; &#960;&#945;&#963;&#8182;&#957; &#945;&#7985;&#961;&#941;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#957; &#7956;&#955;&#949;&#947;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span> is preserved in the so-called <i>Philosophumena</i>
+which survives under the name of Origen. Here Hippolytus
+gave a second exposition supplemented by fresh Gnostic original
+sources with which he had become acquainted in the meanwhile.
+These sources quoted in Hippolytus have lately met with very
+unfavourable criticisms. The opinion has been advanced that
+Hippolytus has here fallen a victim to the mystification of a
+forger. The truth of the matter must be that Hippolytus
+probably made use of a collection of Gnostic texts, put together
+by a Gnostic, in which were already represented various secondary
+developments of the genuine Gnostic schools. It is also possible
+that the compiler has himself attempted here and there to
+harmonize to a certain extent the various Gnostic doctrines, yet
+in no case is this collection of sources given by Hippolytus to be
+passed over; it should rather be considered as important evidence
+for the beginnings of the decay of Gnosticism. Very noteworthy
+references to Gnosticism are also to be found scattered up and
+down the <i>Stromateis</i> of Clement of Alexandria. Especially
+important are the <i>Excerpta ex Theodoto</i>, the author of which is
+certainly Clement, which are verbally extracted from Gnostic
+writings, and have almost the value of original sources. The
+writings of Origen also contain a wealth of material. In the
+first place should be mentioned the treatise <i>Contra Celsum</i>, in
+which the expositions of Gnosticism by both Origen and Celsus
+are of interest (see especially v. 61 seq. and vi. 25 seq.). Of
+Tertullian&rsquo;s works should be mentioned: <i>De praescriptione
+haereticorum</i>, especially <i>Adversus Marcionem</i>, <i>Adversus Hermogenem</i>,
+and finally <i>Adversus Valentinianos</i> (entirely founded on
+Irenaeus). Here must also be mentioned the dialogue of Adamantius
+with the Gnostics, <i>De recta in deum fide</i> (beginning of 4th
+century). Among the followers of Hippolytus, Epiphanius in his
+<i>Panarion</i> gives much independent and valuable information
+from his own knowledge of contemporary Gnosticism. But
+Theodoret of Cyrus (d. 455) is already entirely dependent on
+previous works and has nothing new to add. With the 4th
+century both Gnosticism and the polemical literature directed
+against it die out.<a name="fa4h" id="fa4h" href="#ft4h"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>III. If we wish to grasp the peculiar character of the great
+Gnostic movement, we must take care not to be led astray by
+the catchword &ldquo;Gnosis.&rdquo; It is a mistake to regard the Gnostics
+as pre-eminently the representatives of intellect among Christians,
+and Gnosticism as an intellectual tendency chiefly concerned
+with philosophical speculation, the reconciliation of religion
+with philosophy and theology. It is true that when Gnosticism
+was at its height it numbered amongst its followers both theologians
+and men of science, but that is not its main characteristic.
+Among the majority of the followers of the movement &ldquo;Gnosis&rdquo;
+was understood not as meaning &ldquo;knowledge&rdquo; or &ldquo;understanding,&rdquo;
+in our sense of the word, but &ldquo;revelation.&rdquo; These little
+Gnostic sects and groups all lived in the conviction that they
+possessed a secret and mysterious knowledge, in no way accessible
+to those outside, which was not to be proved or propagated,
+but believed in by the initiated, and anxiously guarded as a
+secret. This knowledge of theirs was not based on reflection,
+on scientific inquiry and proof, but on revelation. It was
+derived directly from the times of primitive Christianity; from
+the Saviour himself and his disciples and friends, with whom
+they claimed to be connected by a secret tradition, or else from
+later prophets, of whom many sects boasted. It was laid down
+in wonderful mystic writings, which were in the possession of the
+various circles (Liechtenhahn, <i>Die Offenbarung im Gnosticismus</i>,
+1901).</p>
+
+<p>In short, Gnosticism, in all its various sections, its form and
+its character, falls under the great category of mystic religions,
+which were so characteristic of the religious life of decadent
+antiquity. In Gnosticism as in the other mystic religions we
+find the same contrast of the initiated and the uninitiated, the
+same loose organization, the same kind of petty sectarianism
+and mystery-mongering. All alike boast a mystic revelation
+and a deeply-veiled wisdom. As in many mystical religions,
+so in Gnosticism, the ultimate object is individual salvation,
+the assurance of a fortunate destiny for the soul after death.
+As in the others, so in this the central object of worship is a
+redeemer-deity who has already trodden the difficult way which
+the faithful have to follow. And finally, as in all mystical
+religions, so here too, holy rites and formulas, acts of initiation
+and consecration, all those things which we call sacraments,
+play a very prominent part. The Gnostic religion is full of such
+sacraments. In the accounts of the Fathers we find less about
+them; yet here Irenaeus&rsquo; account of the Marcosians is of the
+highest significance (i. 21 seq.). Much more material is to be
+found in the original Gnostic writings, especially in the <i>Pistis-Sophia</i>
+and the two books of Ieu, and again in the <i>Excerpta ex
+Theodoto</i>, the <i>Acts of Thomas</i>, and here and there also in the
+pseudo-Clementine writings. Above all we can see from the
+original sources of the Mandaean religion, which also represents
+a branch of Gnosticism, how great a part the sacraments played
+in the Gnostic sects (Brandt, <i>Mandäische Religion</i>, p. 96 seq.).
+Everywhere we are met with the most varied forms of holy rites&mdash;the
+various baptisms, by water, by fire, by the spirit, the
+baptism for protection against demons, anointing with oil,
+sealing and stigmatizing, piercing the ears, leading into the
+bridal chamber, partaking of holy food and drink. Finally,
+sacred formulas, names and symbols are of the highest importance
+among the Gnostic sects. We constantly meet with the
+idea that the soul, on leaving the body, finds its path to the
+highest heaven opposed by the deities and demons of the lower
+realms of heaven, and only when it is in possession of the names
+of these demons, and can repeat the proper holy formula, or is
+prepared with the right symbol, or has been anointed with the
+holy oil, finds its way unhindered to the heavenly home. Hence
+the Gnostic must above all things learn the names of the demons,
+and equip himself with the sacred formulas and symbols, in
+order to be certain of a good destiny after death. The exposition
+of the system of the Ophites given by Celsus (in Origen vi. 25 seq.),
+and, in connexion with Celsus, by Origen, is particularly instructive
+on this point. The two &ldquo;Coptic Ieu&rdquo; books unfold an
+immense system of names and symbols. This system again was
+simplified, and as the supreme secret was taught in a single
+name or a single formula, by means of which the happy possessor
+was able to penetrate through all the spaces of heaven (cf. the
+name &ldquo;Caulacau&rdquo; among the Basilidians; Irenaeus, <i>Adv. haer.</i>
+i. 24. 5, and among other sects). It was taught that even the
+redeemer-god, when he once descended on to this earth, to rise
+from it again, availed himself of these names and formulas on his
+descent and ascent through the world of demons. Traces of
+ideas of this kind are to be met with almost everywhere. They
+have been most carefully collected by Anz (<i>Ursprung des Gnosticismus,
+Texte und Untersuchungen</i> xv. 4 <i>passim</i>) who would see
+in them the central doctrine of Gnosticism.</p>
+
+<p>IV. All these investigations point clearly to the fact that
+Gnosticism belongs to the group of mystical religions. We must
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>154</span>
+now proceed to define more exactly the peculiar and distinctive
+character of the Gnostic system. The basis of the Gnostic
+religion and world-philosophy lies in a decided Oriental dualism.
+In sharp contrast are opposed the two worlds of the good and of
+the evil, the divine world and the material world <span class="grk" title="hulê">&#8020;&#955;&#951;</span>, the
+worlds of light and of darkness. In many systems there seems
+to be no attempt to derive the one world from the other. The
+true Basilides (<i>q.v.</i>), perhaps also Satornil, Marcion and a part
+of his disciples, Bardesanes and others, were frankly dualists.
+In the case of other systems, owing to the inexactness of our
+information, we are unable to decide; the later systems of
+Mandaeism and Manichaeanism, so closely related to Gnosticism,
+are also based upon a decided dualism. And even when there
+is an attempt at reconciliation, it is still quite clear how strong
+was the original dualism which has to be overcome. Thus the
+Gnostic systems make great use of the idea of a fall of the Deity
+himself; by the fall of the Godhead into the world of matter,
+this matter, previously insensible, is animated into life and
+activity, and then arise the powers, both partly and wholly
+hostile, who hold sway over this world. Such figures of fallen
+divinities, sinking down into the world of matter are those of
+Sophia (<i>i.e.</i> Ahamoth) among the Gnostics (Ophites) in
+the narrower sense of the word, the Simoniani (the figure of
+Helena), the Barbelognostics, and in the system of the <i>Pistis-Sophia</i>
+or the Primal Man, among the Naasseni and the sect,
+related to them, as described by Hippolytus.<a name="fa5h" id="fa5h" href="#ft5h"><span class="sp">5</span></a> A further weakening
+of the dualism is indicated when, in the systems of the
+Valentinian school, the fall of Sophia takes place within the
+godhead, and Sophia, inflamed with love, plunges into the Bythos,
+the highest divinity, and when the attempt is thus made genetically
+to derive the lower world from the sufferings and passions
+of fallen divinity. Another attempt at reconciliation is set
+forth in the so-called &ldquo;system of emanations&rdquo; in which it is
+assumed that from the supreme divinity emanated a somewhat
+lesser world, from this world a second, and so on, until the
+divine element (of life) became so far weakened and attenuated,
+that the genesis of a partly, or even wholly, evil world appears
+both possible and comprehensible. A system of emanations
+of this kind, in its purest form, is set forth in the expositions
+coming from the school of Basilides, which are handed down by
+Irenaeus, while the propositions which are set forth in the
+<i>Philosophumena</i> of Hippolytus as being doctrines of Basilides
+represent a still closer approach to a monistic philosophy.
+Occasionally, too, there is an attempt to establish at any rate a
+threefold division of the world, and to assume between the
+worlds of light and darkness a middle world connecting the two;
+this is clearest among the Sethiani mentioned by Hippolytus
+(and cf. the Gnostics in Irenaeus i. 30. 1). Quite peculiar in
+this connexion are the accounts in Books xix. and xx. of the
+Clementine <i>Homilies</i>. After a preliminary examination of all
+possible different attempts at a solution of the problem of evil,
+the attempt is here made to represent the devil as an instrument
+of God. Christ and the devil are the two hands of God, Christ
+the right hand, and the devil the left, the devil having power
+over this world-epoch and Christ over the next. The devil here
+assumes very much the characteristics of the punishing and just
+God of the Old Testament, and the prospect is even held out of
+his ultimate pardon. All these efforts at reconciliation show
+how clearly the problem of evil was realized in these Gnostic
+and half-Gnostic sects, and how deeply they meditated on the
+subject; it was not altogether without reason that in the ranks
+of its opponents Gnosticism was judged to have arisen out of the
+question, <span class="grk" title="pothen to kakon">&#960;&#972;&#952;&#949;&#957; &#964;&#8056; &#954;&#945;&#954;&#972;&#957;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>This dualism had not its origin in Hellenic soil, neither is it
+related to that dualism which to a certain extent existed also in
+late Greek religion. For the lower and imperfect world, which
+in that system too is conceived and assumed, is the nebulous
+world of the non-existent and the formless, which is the
+necessary accompaniment of that which exists, as shadow is of
+light.</p>
+
+<p>In Gnosticism, on the contrary, the world of evil is full of
+active energy and hostile powers. It is an Oriental (Iranian)
+dualism which here finds expression, though in one point, it is
+true, the mark of Greek influence is quite clear. When Gnosticism
+recognizes in this corporeal and material world the true seat of
+evil, consistently treating the bodily existence of mankind as
+essentially evil and the separation of the spiritual from the
+corporeal being as the object of salvation, this is an outcome
+of the contrast in Greek dualism between spirit and matter, soul
+and body. For in Oriental (Persian) dualism it is within this
+material world that the good and evil powers are at war, and this
+world beneath the stars is by no means conceived as entirely
+subject to the influence of evil. Gnosticism has combined the
+two, the Greek opposition between spirit and matter, and the
+sharp Zoroastrian dualism, which, where the Greek mind conceived
+of a higher and a lower world, saw instead two hostile
+worlds, standing in contrast to each other like light and darkness.
+And out of the combination of these two dualisms arose the
+teaching of Gnosticism, with its thoroughgoing pessimism and
+fundamental asceticism.</p>
+
+<p>Another characteristic feature of the Gnostic conception of
+the universe is the rôle played in almost all Gnostic systems
+by the seven world-creating powers. There are indeed certain
+exceptions; for instance, in the systems of the Valentinian schools
+there is the figure of the one Demiurge who takes the place of
+the Seven. But how widespread was the idea of seven powers,
+who created this lower material world and rule over it, has
+been clearly proved, especially by the systematic examination
+of the subject by Anz (<i>Ursprung des Gnosticismus</i>). These
+Seven, then, are in most systems half-evil, half-hostile powers;
+they are frequently characterized as &ldquo;angels,&rdquo; and are reckoned
+as the last and lowest emanations of the Godhead; below them&mdash;and
+frequently considered as derived from them&mdash;comes the
+world of the actually devilish powers. On the other hand, among
+the speculations of the Mandaeans, we find a different and perhaps
+more primitive conception of the Seven, according to which
+they, together with their mother Namrus (R&#363;h&#257;) and their
+father (Ur), belong entirely to the world of darkness. They
+and their family are looked upon as captives of the god of light
+(Mand&#257;-d&rsquo;hayy&#275;, Hibil-Z&#299;v&#257;), who pardons them, sets them on
+chariots of light, and appoints them as rulers of the world
+(cf. chiefly Genza, in <i>Tractat</i>. 6 and 8; W. Brandt, <i>Mandäische
+Schriften</i>, 125 seq. and 137 seq.; <i>Mandäische Religion</i>, 34 seq.,
+&amp;c.). In the Manichaean system it is related how the helper of
+the Primal Man, the spirit of life, captured the evil <i>archontes</i>, and
+fastened them to the firmament, or according to another account,
+flayed them, and formed the firmament from their skin (F. C.
+Baur, <i>Das manichäische Religionssystem</i>, v. 65), and this conception
+is closely related to the other, though in this tradition the number
+(seven) of the <i>archontes</i> is lost. Similarly, the last book of the
+<i>Pistis-Sophia</i> contains the myth of the capture of the rebellious
+<i>archontes</i>, whose leaders here appear as five in number (Schmidt,
+<i>Koptisch-gnostische Schriften</i>, p. 234 seq.).<a name="fa6h" id="fa6h" href="#ft6h"><span class="sp">6</span></a> There can scarcely
+be any doubt as to the origin of these seven (five) powers; they
+are the seven planetary divinities, the sun, moon and five planets.</p>
+
+<p>In the Mandaean speculations the Seven are introduced with
+the Babylonian names of the planets. The connexion of the
+Seven with the planets is also clearly established by the expositions
+of Celsus and Origen (<i>Contra Celsum</i>, vi. 22 seq.) and similarly
+by the above-quoted passage in the <i>Pistis-Sophia</i>, where the
+<i>archontes</i>, who are here mentioned as five, are identified with
+the five planets (excluding the sun and moon). This collective
+grouping of the seven (five) planetary divinities is derived from
+the late Babylonian religion, which can definitely be indicated
+as the home of these ideas (Zimmern, <i>Keilinschriften in dem
+alten Testament</i>, ii. p. 620 seq.; cf. particularly Diodorus ii. 30).
+And if in the old sources it is only the first beginnings of this
+development that can be traced, we must assume that at a later
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155"></a>155</span>
+period the Babylonian religion centred in the adoration of the
+seven planetary deities. Very instructive in this connexion
+is the later (Arabian) account of the religion of the Mesopotamian
+Sabaeans. The religion of the Sabaeans, evidently a later
+offshoot from the stock of the old Babylonian religion, actually
+consists in the cult of the seven planets (cf. the great work of
+Daniel Chwolsohn, <i>Die Ssabier u. der Ssabismus</i>). But this
+reference to Babylonian religion does not solve the problem
+which is here in question. For in the Babylonian religion the
+planetary constellations are reckoned as the supreme deities.
+And here the question arises, how it came about that in the
+Gnostic systems the Seven appear as subordinate, half-daemonic
+powers, or even completely as powers of darkness. This can
+only be explained on the assumption that some religion hostile
+to, and stronger than the Babylonian, has superimposed itself
+upon this, and has degraded its principal deities into daemons.
+Which religion can this have been? We are at first inclined to
+think of Christianity itself, but it is certainly most improbable
+that at the time of the rise of Christianity the Babylonian teaching
+about the seven planet-deities governing the world should have
+played so great a part throughout all Syria, Asia Minor and
+Egypt, that the most varying sections of syncretic Christianity
+should over and over again adopt this doctrine and work it up
+into their system. It is far more probable that the combination
+which we meet with in Gnosticism is older than Christianity,
+and was found already in existence by Christianity and its sects.
+We must also reject the theory that this degradation of the
+planetary deities into daemons is due to the influence of Hebrew
+monotheism, for almost all the Gnostic sects take up a definitely
+hostile attitude towards the Jewish religion, and almost always
+the highest divinity among the Seven is actually the creator-God
+of the Old Testament. There remains, then, only one religion
+which can be used as an explanation, namely the Persian, which
+in fact fulfils all the necessary conditions. The Persian religion
+was at an early period brought into contact with the Babylonian,
+through the triumphant progress of Persian culture towards
+the West; at the time of Alexander the Great it was already the
+prevailing religion in the Babylonian plain (cf. F. Cumont,
+<i>Textes et monuments rel. aux mystères de Mithra</i>, i. 5, 8-10, 14,
+223 seq., 233). It was characterized by a main belief, tending
+towards monotheism, in the Light-deity Ahuramazda and his
+satellites, who appeared in contrast with him as powers of the
+nature of angels.</p>
+
+<p>A combination of the Babylonian with the Persian religion
+could only be effected by the degradation of the Babylonian
+deities into half-divine, half-daemonic beings, infinitely remote
+from the supreme God of light and of heaven, or even into
+powers of darkness. Even the characteristic dualism of Gnosticism
+has already proved to be in part of Iranian origin; and now
+it becomes clear how from that mingling of late Greek and
+Persian dualism the idea could arise that these seven half-daemonic
+powers are the creators or rulers of this material
+world, which is separated infinitely from the light-world of the
+good God. Definite confirmation of this conjecture is afforded
+us by later sources of the Iranian religion, in which we likewise
+meet with the characteristic fundamental doctrine of Gnosticism.
+Thus the <i>Bundahish</i> (iii. 25, v. 1) is able to inform us that in the
+primeval strife of Satan against the light-world, seven hostile
+powers were captured and set as constellations in the heavens,
+where they are guarded by good star-powers and prevented
+from doing harm. Five of the evil powers are the planets,
+while here the sun and moon are of course not reckoned among
+the evil powers&mdash;for the obvious reason that in the Persian
+official religion they invariably appear as good divinities (cf.
+similar ideas in the Arabic treatise on Persian religion <i>Ulema-i-Islam</i>,
+Vullers, <i>Fragmente über die Religion Zoroasters</i>, p. 49,
+and in other later sources for Persian religion, put together
+in Spiegel, <i>Eranische Altertumskunde</i>, Bd. ii. p. 180). These
+Persian fancies can hardly be borrowed from the Christian
+Gnostic systems, their definiteness and much more strongly
+dualistic character recalling the exposition of the Mandaean
+(and Manichaean) system, are proofs to the contrary. They are
+derived from the same period in which the underlying idea
+of the Gnostic systems also originated, namely, the time at which
+the ideas of the Persian and Babylonian religions came into
+contact, the remarkable results of which have thus partly found
+their way into the official documents of Parsiism.</p>
+
+<p>With this fundamental doctrine of Gnosticism is connected,
+as Anz has shown in his book which we have so often quoted,
+a side of their religious practices to which we have already
+alluded. Gnosticism is to a great extent dominated by the idea
+that it is above all and in the highest degree important for the
+Gnostic&rsquo;s soul to be enabled to find its way back through the
+lower worlds and spheres of heaven ruled by the Seven to the
+kingdom of light of the supreme deity of heaven. Hence, a
+principal item in their religious practice consisted in communications
+about the being, nature and names of the Seven (or of
+any other hostile daemons barring the way to heaven), the
+formulas with which they must be addressed, and the symbols
+which must be shown to them. But names, symbols and
+formulas are not efficacious by themselves: the Gnostic must
+lead a life having no part in the lower world ruled by these
+spirits, and by his knowledge he must raise himself above
+them to the God of the world of light. Throughout this mystic
+religious world it was above all the influence of the late Greek
+religion, derived from Plato, that also continued to operate;
+it is filled with the echo of the song, the first note of which was
+sounded by the Platonists, about the heavenly home of the
+soul and the homeward journey of the wise to the higher world
+of light.</p>
+
+<p>But the form in which the whole is set forth is Oriental, and
+it must be carefully noted that the Mithras mysteries, so closely
+connected with the Persian religion, are acquainted with this
+doctrine of the ascent of the soul through the planetary spheres
+(Origen, <i>Contra Celsum</i>, vi. 22).</p>
+
+<p>V. We cannot here undertake to set forth and explain in detail
+all the complex varieties of the Gnostic systems; but it will
+be useful to take a nearer view of certain principal figures which
+have had an influence upon at least one series of Gnostic systems,
+and to examine their origins in the history of religion. In
+almost all systems an important part is played by the Great
+Mother (<span class="grk" title="mêtêr">&#956;&#942;&#964;&#951;&#961;</span>) who appears under the most varied forms (cf.
+<span class="sc">Great Mother of the Gods</span>). At an early period, and notably
+in the older systems of the Ophites (a fairly exact account of
+which has been preserved for us by Epiphanius and Hippolytus),
+among the Gnostics in the narrower sense of the word, the Archontici,
+the Sethites (there are also traces among the Naasseni,
+cf. the <i>Philosophumena</i> of Hippolytus), the <span class="grk" title="mêtêr">&#956;&#942;&#964;&#951;&#961;</span> is the most
+prominent figure in the light-world, elevated above the <span class="grk" title="hebdomas">&#7953;&#946;&#948;&#959;&#956;&#940;&#962;</span>,
+and the great mother of the faithful. The sect of the Barbelognostics
+takes its name from the female figure of the Barbelo
+(perhaps a corruption of <span class="grk" title="Parthenos">&#928;&#945;&#961;&#952;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>; cf. the form <span class="grk" title="Barthenos">&#914;&#945;&#961;&#952;&#949;&#957;&#974;&#962;</span> for
+&ldquo;virgin&rdquo; in Epiphanius, <i>Haer.</i> xxvi. 1). But Gnostic speculation
+gives various accounts of the descent or fall of this goddess of
+heaven. Thus the &ldquo;Helena&rdquo; of the Simoniani descends to this
+world in order by means of her beauty to provoke to sensual
+passion and mutual strife the angels who rule the world, and
+thus again to deprive them of the powers of light, stolen from
+heaven, by means of which they rule over the world. She is
+then held captive by them in extreme degradation. Similar
+ideas are to be found among the &ldquo;Gnostics&rdquo; of Epiphanius.
+The kindred idea of the light-maiden, who, by exciting the sensual
+passions of the rulers (<span class="grk" title="archontes">&#7940;&#961;&#967;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#962;</span>), takes from them those powers
+of light which still remain to them, has also a central place
+in the Manichaean scheme of salvation (F. C. Baur, <i>Das manichäische
+Religionssystem</i>, pp. 219, 315, 321). The light-maiden
+also plays a prominent part in the <i>Pistis-Sophia</i> (cf. the index
+to the translation by C. Schmidt). With this figure of the mother-goddess
+who descends into the lower world seems to be closely
+connected the idea of the fallen Sophia, which is so widespread
+among the Gnostic systems. This Sophia then is certainly
+no longer the dominating figure of the light-world, she is a lower
+aeon at the extreme limit of the world of light, who sinks down
+into matter (Barbelognostics, the anonymous Gnostic of Irenaeus,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>156</span>
+Bardesanes, <i>Pistis-Sophia</i>), or turns in presumptuous love towards
+the supreme God (<span class="grk" title="Buthos">&#914;&#965;&#952;&#972;&#962;</span>), and thus brings the Fall into
+the world of the <i>aeons</i> (Valentinians). This Sophia then appears
+as the mother of the &ldquo;seven&rdquo; gods (see above).</p>
+
+<p>The origin of this figure is not far to seek. It is certainly
+not derived from the Persian religious system, to the spirit of
+which it is entirely opposed. Neither would it be correct to
+identify her entirely with the great goddess Ishtar of the old
+Babylonian religion. But there can hardly be any doubt that
+the figure of the great mother-goddess or goddess of heaven,
+who was worshipped throughout Asia under various forms and
+names (Astarte, Beltis, Atargatis, Cybele, the Syrian Aphrodite),
+was the prototype of the <span class="grk" title="mêtêr">&#956;&#942;&#964;&#951;&#961;</span> of the Gnostics (cf. <span class="sc">Great
+Mother of the Gods</span>). The character of the great goddess of
+heaven is still in many places fairly exactly preserved in the
+Gnostic speculations. Hence we are able to understand how the
+Gnostic <span class="grk" title="mêtêr">&#956;&#942;&#964;&#951;&#961;</span>, the Sophia, appears as the mother of the Hebdomas
+(<span class="grk" title="hebdomas">&#7953;&#946;&#948;&#959;&#956;&#940;&#962;</span>). The great goddess of heaven is the mother of
+the stars. Particularly instructive in this connexion is the fact
+that in those very sects, in the systems of which the figure of the
+<span class="grk" title="mêtêr">&#956;&#942;&#964;&#951;&#961;</span> plays a special part, unbridled prostitution appears as a
+distinct and essential part of the cult (cf. the accounts of particular
+branches of the Gnostics, Nicolaitans, Philionites, Borborites,
+&amp;c. in Epiphanius, <i>Haer.</i> xxv., xxvi.). The meaning of
+this cult is, of course, reinterpreted in the Gnostic sense: by this
+unbridled prostitution the Gnostic sects desired to prevent the
+sexual propagation of mankind, the origin of all evil. But the
+connexion is clear, and hence it also explained the curious Gnostic
+myth mentioned above, namely that the <span class="grk" title="mêtêr">&#956;&#942;&#964;&#951;&#961;</span> (the light-maiden)
+by appearing to the archontes (<span class="grk" title="archontes">&#7940;&#961;&#967;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#962;</span>), the lower powers of
+this world, inflames them to sexual lusts, in order to take from
+them that share of light which they have stolen from the upper
+world. This is a Gnostic interpretation of the various myths of
+the great mother-goddess&rsquo;s many loves and love-adventures with
+other gods and heroes. And when the pagan legend of the Syrian
+Astarte tells how she lived for ten years in Tyre as a prostitute,
+this directly recalls the Gnostic myth of how Simon found
+Helena in a brothel in Tyre (Epiphanius, <i>Ancoratus</i>, c. 104).
+From the same group of myths must be derived the idea of the
+goddess who descends to the under-world, and is there taken
+prisoner against her will by the lower powers; the direct prototype
+of this myth is to be found, <i>e.g.</i> in Ishtar&rsquo;s journey to hell.
+And finally, just as the mother-goddess of south-western Asia
+stands in particularly intimate connexion with the youthful
+god of spring (Tammuz, Adonis, Attis), so we ought perhaps to
+compare here as a parallel the relation of Sophia with the Soter
+in certain Gnostic systems (see below).</p>
+
+<p>Another characteristic figure of Gnosticism is that of the
+Primal Man (<span class="grk" title="prôtos anthrôpos">&#960;&#961;&#8182;&#964;&#959;&#962; &#7940;&#957;&#952;&#961;&#969;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>). In many systems, certainly,
+it has already been forced quite into the background. But on
+closer examination we can clearly see that it has a wide influence
+on Gnosticism. Thus in the system of the Naasseni (see Hippolytus,
+<i>Philosophumena</i>), and in certain related sects there
+enumerated, the Primal Man has a central and predominant
+position. Again, in the text on which are based the pseudo-Clementine
+writings (<i>Recognitions</i>, i. 16, 32, 45-47, 52, ii. 47; and
+<i>Homilies</i>, iii. 17 seq. xviii. 14), as in the closely related system
+of the Ebionites in Epiphanius (<i>Haer.</i> xxx. 3-16; cf. liii. 1), we
+meet with the man who existed before the world, the prophet
+who goes through the world in various forms, and finally reveals
+himself in Christ. Among the Barbelognostics (Irenaeus i.
+29. 3), the Primal Man (Adamas, <i>homo perfectus et verus</i>) and
+Gnosis appear as a pair of aeons, occupying a prominent place
+in the whole series. In the Valentinian systems the pair of
+aeons, Anthropos and Ekklesia, occupy the third or fourth
+place within the <i>Oydoás</i>, but incidentally we learn that with
+some representatives of this school the Anthropos took a still
+more prominent place (first or second; Hilgenfeld, <i>Ketzergeschichte</i>,
+p. 294 seq.). And even in the <i>Pistis-Sophia</i> the
+Primal Man &ldquo;Ieu&rdquo; is frequently alluded to as the King of the
+Luminaries (cf. index to C. Schmidt&rsquo;s translation). We also
+meet with speculations of this kind about man in the circles
+of non-Christian Gnosis. Thus in the <i>Poimandres</i> of Hermes
+man is the most prominent figure in the speculation; numerous
+pagan and half-pagan parallels (the &ldquo;Gnostics&rdquo; of Plotinus,
+Zosimus, Bitys) have been collected by Reitzenstein in his
+work <i>Poimandres</i> (pp. 81-116). Reitzenstein has shown (p.
+81 seq.) that very probably the system of the Naasseni described
+by Hippolytus was originally derived from purely pagan circles,
+which are probably connected in some way with the mysteries
+of the Attis cult. The figure in the Mandaean system most
+closely corresponding to the Primal Man, though this figure
+also actually occurs in another part of the system (cf. the figure
+of Adakas Mana; Brandt, <i>Mandäische Religion</i>, p. 36 seq.) is
+that of Mand&#257; d&rsquo;hayy&#275; (<span class="grk" title="gnôsis tês zôês">&#947;&#957;&#8182;&#963;&#953;&#962; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#950;&#969;&#8134;&#962;</span>; cf. the pair of aeons,
+Adamas and Gnosis, among the Barbelognostics, in Irenaeus
+i. 29. 3). Finally, in the Manichaean system, as is well known,
+the Primal Man again assumes the predominant place (<i>Baur,
+Manich. Religionssystem</i>, 49 seq.).</p>
+
+<p>This figure of the Primal Man can particularly be compared
+with that of the Gnostic Sophia. Wherever this figure has not
+become quite obscure, it represents that divine power which,
+whether simply owing to a fall, or as the hero who makes war
+on, and is partly vanquished by darkness, descends into the
+darkness of the material world, and with whose descent begins
+the great drama of the world&rsquo;s development. From this power
+are derived those portions of light existing and held prisoner
+in this lower world. And as he has raised himself again out of
+the material world, or has been set free by higher powers, so
+shall also the members of the Primal Man, the portions of
+light still imprisoned in matter, be set free.</p>
+
+<p>The question of the derivation of the myth of the Primal
+Man is still one of the unsolved problems of religious history.
+It is worthy of notice that according to the old Persian myth
+also, the development of the world begins with the slaying of
+the primal man Gayomart by Angra-Mainyu (Ahriman);
+further, that the Primal Man (&ldquo;son of man&rdquo; = man) also
+plays a part in Jewish apocalyptic literature (Daniel, Enoch,
+iv. Ezra), whence this figure passes into the Gospels; and again,
+that the dogma of Christ&rsquo;s descent into hell is directly connected
+with this myth. But these parallels do not carry us much further.
+Even the Persian myth is entirely obscure, and has hitherto
+defied interpretation. It is certainly true that in some way
+an essential part in the formation of the myth has been played
+by the sun-god, who daily descends into darkness, to rise from
+it again victoriously. But how to explain the combination of
+the figure of the sun-god with that of the Primal Man is an
+unsolved riddle. The meaning of this figure in the Gnostic
+speculations is, however, clear. It answers the question: how
+did the portions of light to be found in this lower world, among
+which certainly belong the souls of the Gnostics, enter into it?</p>
+
+<p>A parallel myth to that of the Primal Man are the accounts
+to be found in most of the Gnostic systems of the creation of
+the first man. In all these accounts the idea is expressed that
+so far as his body is concerned man is the work of the angels
+who created the world. So <i>e.g.</i> Satornil relates (Irenaeus i.
+24. 1) that a brilliant vision appeared from above to the world-creating
+angels; they were unable to hold it fast, but formed
+man after its image. And as the man thus formed was unable
+to move, but could only crawl like a worm, the supreme Power
+put into him a spark of life, and man came into existence.
+Imaginations of the same sort are also to be found, <i>e.g.</i> in the
+genuine fragments of Valentinus (Hilgenfeld, <i>Ketzergeschichte</i>,
+p. 293), the Gnostics of Irenaeus i. 30. 6, the Mandaeans
+(Brandt, <i>Religion der Mandäer</i>, p. 36), and the Manichaeans
+(Baur, <i>Religionssystem</i>, p. 118 seq.). The Naasseni (Hippolytus,
+<i>Philosophumena</i>, v. 7) expressly characterize the myth as
+Chaldean (cf. the passage from Zosimus, in Reitzenstein&rsquo;s
+<i>Poimandres</i>, p. 104). Clearly then the question which the myth
+of the Primal Man is intended to answer in relation to the
+whole universe is answered in relation to the nature of man by
+this account of the coming into being of the first man, which
+may, moreover, have been influenced by the account in the Old
+Testament. That question is: how does it happen that in this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id="page157"></a>157</span>
+inferior body of man, fallen a prey to corruption, there dwells
+a higher spark of the divine Being, or in other words, how are
+we to explain the double nature of man?</p>
+
+<p>VI. Of all the fundamental ideas of Gnosticism of which we
+have so far treated, it can with some certainty be assumed that
+they were in existence before the rise of Christianity and the
+influence of Christian ideas on the development of Gnosticism.
+The main question with which we have now to deal is that of
+whether the dominant figure of the Saviour (<span class="grk" title="Sôtêr">&#931;&#969;&#964;&#942;&#961;</span>) in Gnosticism
+is of specifically Christian derivation, or whether this can also
+be explained apart from the assumption of Christian influence.
+And here it must be premised that, intimately as the conception
+of salvation is bound up with the Gnostic religion, the idea of
+salvation accomplished in a definite historical moment to a
+certain extent remained foreign to it. Indeed, nearly all the
+Christian Gnostic systems clearly exhibit the great difficulty
+with which they had to contend in order to reconcile the idea
+of an historical redeemer, actually occurring in the form of a
+definite person, with their conceptions of salvation. In Gnosticism
+salvation always lies at the root of all existence and all history.
+The fundamental conception varies greatly. At one time the
+Primal Man, who sank down into matter, has freed himself
+and risen out of it again, and like him his members will rise out
+of darkness into the light (<i>Poimandres</i>); at another time the
+Primal Man who was conquered by the powers of darkness
+has been saved by the powers of light, and thus too all his race
+will be saved (Manichaeism); at another time the fallen Sophia
+is purified by her passions and sorrows and has found her <i>Syzygos</i>,
+the Soter, and wedded him, and thus all the souls of the Gnostics
+who still languish in matter will become the brides of the angels
+of the <i>Soter</i> (Valentinus). In fact salvation, as conceived in
+Gnosticism, is always a myth, a history of bygone events, an
+allegory or figure, but not an historical event. And this decision
+is not affected by the fact that in certain Gnostic sects figured
+historical personages such as Simon Magus and Menander.
+The Gnostic ideas of salvation were in the later schools and sects
+transferred to these persons whom we must consider as rather
+obscure charlatans and miracle-mongers, just as in other cases
+they were transferred to the person of Christ. The &ldquo;Helena&rdquo;
+of the Simonian system was certainly not an historical but a
+mythical figure. This explains the laborious and artificial way
+in which the person of Jesus is connected in many Gnostic systems
+with the original Gnostic conception of redemption. In this
+patchwork the joins are everywhere still clearly to be recognized.
+Thus, <i>e.g.</i> in the Valentinian system, the myth of the fallen
+Sophia and the Soter, of their ultimate union, their marriage
+and their 70 sons (Irenaeus i. 4. 5; Hippolytus, <i>Philos.</i> vi.
+34), has absolutely nothing to do with the Christian conceptions
+of salvation. The subject is here that of a high goddess of heaven
+(she has 70 sons) whose friend and lover finds her in the misery
+of deepest degradation, frees her, and bears her home as his
+bride. To this myth the idea of salvation through the earthly
+Christ can only be attached with difficulty. And it was openly
+maintained that the Soter only existed for the Gnostic, the
+Saviour Jesus who appeared on earth only for the &ldquo;Psychicus&rdquo;
+(Irenaeus i. 6. 1).</p>
+
+<p>VII. Thus the essential part of most of the conceptions of
+what we call Gnosticism was already in existence and fully
+developed before the rise of Christianity. But the fundamental
+ideas of Gnosticism and of early Christianity had a kind of
+magnetic attraction for each other. What drew these two
+forces together was the energy exerted by the universal idea of
+salvation in both systems. Christian Gnosticism actually
+introduced only one new figure into the already existing Gnostic
+theories, namely that of the historical Saviour Jesus Christ.
+This figure afforded, as it were, a new point of crystallization
+for the existing Gnostic ideas, which now grouped themselves
+round this point in all their manifold diversity. Thus there
+came into the fluctuating mass a strong movement and formative
+impulse, and the individual systems and sects sprang up like
+mushrooms from this soil.</p>
+
+<p>It must now be our task to make plain the position of Gnosticism
+within the Christian religion, and its significance for the
+development of the latter. Above all the Gnostics represented
+and developed the distinctly anti-Jewish tendency in Christianity.
+Paul was the apostle whom they reverenced, and his spiritual
+influence on them is quite unmistakable. The Gnostic Marcion
+has been rightly characterized as a direct disciple of Paul.
+Paul&rsquo;s battle against the law and the narrow national conception
+of Christianity found a willing following in a movement, the
+syncretic origin of which directed it towards a universal religion.
+St Paul&rsquo;s ideas were here developed to their extremest consequences,
+and in an entirely one-sided fashion such as was far
+from being in his intention. In nearly all the Gnostic systems
+the doctrine of the seven world-creating spirits is given an
+anti-Jewish tendency, the god of the Jews and of the Old
+Testament appearing as the highest of the seven. The demiurge
+of the Valentinians always clearly bears the features of the Old
+Testament creator-God.</p>
+
+<p>The Old Testament was absolutely rejected by most
+of the Gnostics. Even the so-called Judaeo-Christian Gnostics
+(Cerinthus), the Ebionite (Essenian) sect of the Pseudo-Clementine
+writings (the Elkesaites), take up an inconsistent
+attitude towards Jewish antiquity and the Old Testament.
+In this <span class="correction" title="amended from repect">respect</span> the opposition to Gnosticism led to a reactionary
+movement. If the growing Christian Church, in quite a different
+fashion from Paul, laid stress on the literal authority of the Old
+Testament, interpreted, it is true, allegorically; if it took up a
+much more friendly and definite attitude towards the Old
+Testament, and gave wider scope to the legal conception of
+religion, this must be in part ascribed to the involuntary reaction
+upon it of Gnosticism.</p>
+
+<p>The attitude of Gnosticism to the Old Testament and to the
+creator-God proclaimed in it had its deeper roots, as we have
+already seen, in the dualism by which it was dominated. With
+this dualism and the recognition of the worthlessness and
+absolutely vicious nature of the material world is combined a
+decided spiritualism. The conception of a resurrection of the
+body, of a further existence for the body after death, was unattainable
+by almost all of the Gnostics, with the possible exception of
+a few Gnostic sects dominated by Judaeo-Christian tendencies.
+With the dualistic philosophy is further connected an attitude
+of absolute indifference towards this lower and material world,
+and the practice of asceticism. Marriage and sexual propagation
+are considered either as absolute Evil or as altogether worthless,
+and carnal pleasure is frequently looked upon as forbidden.
+Then again asceticism sometimes changes into wild libertinism.
+Here again Gnosticism has exercised an influence on the development
+of the Church by way of contrast and opposition. If here
+a return was made to the old material view of the resurrection
+(the apostolic <span class="grk" title="anastasis tês sarkos">&#7936;&#957;&#940;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#962; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#963;&#945;&#961;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>), entirely abandoning the
+more spiritual conception which had been arrived at as a compromise
+by Paul, this is probably the result of a reaction from
+the views of Gnosticism. It was just at this point, too, that
+Gnosticism started a development which was followed later by
+the Catholic Church. In spite of the rejection of the ascetic
+attitude of the Gnostics, as a blasphemy against the Creator,
+a part of this ascetic principle became at a later date dominant
+throughout all Christendom. And it is interesting to observe
+how, <i>e.g.</i>, St Augustine, though desperately combating the
+dualism of the Manichaeans, yet afterwards introduced a number
+of dualistic ideas into Christianity, which are distinguishable
+from those of Manichaeism only by a very keen eye, and even
+then with difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>The Gnostic religion also anticipated other tendencies. As
+we have seen, it is above all things a religion of sacraments and
+mysteries. Through its syncretic origin Gnosticism introduced
+for the first time into Christianity a whole mass of sacramental,
+mystical ideas, which had hitherto existed in it only in its
+earliest phases. But in the long run even genuine Christianity
+has been unable to free itself from the magic of the sacraments;
+and the Eastern Church especially has taken the same direction
+as Gnosticism. Gnosticism was also the pioneer of the Christian
+Church in the strong emphasis laid on the idea of salvation in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page158" id="page158"></a>158</span>
+religion. And since the Gnostics were compelled to draw the
+figure of the Saviour into a world of quite alien myths, their
+Christology became so complicated in character that it frequently
+recalls the Christology of the later dogmatic of the Greek Fathers.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, it was Gnosticism which gave the most decided
+impulse to the consolidation of the Christian Church as a church.
+Gnosticism itself is a free, naturally-growing religion, the religion
+of isolated minds, of separate little circles and minute sects.
+The homogeneity of wide circles, the sense of responsibility
+engendered by it, and continuity with the past are almost
+entirely lacking in it. It is based upon revelation, which even
+at the present time is imparted to the individual, upon the more
+or less convincing force of the religious imagination and speculations
+of a few leaders, upon the voluntary and unstable grouping
+of the schools round the master. Its adherents feel themselves
+to be the isolated, the few, the free and the enlightened, as
+opposed to the sluggish and inert masses of mankind degraded
+into matter, or the initiated as opposed to the uninitiated, the
+Gnostics as opposed to the &ldquo;Hylici&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="hulikoi">&#8017;&#955;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#943;</span>); at most in the
+later and more moderate schools a middle place was given to
+the adherents of the Church as Psychici (<span class="grk" title="psychikoi">&#968;&#965;&#967;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#943;</span>).</p>
+
+<p>This freely-growing Gnostic religiosity aroused in the Church
+an increasingly strong movement towards unity and a firm
+and inelastic organization, towards authority and tradition. An
+organized hierarchy, a definitive canon of the Holy Scriptures,
+a confession of faith and rule of faith, and unbending doctrinal
+discipline, these were the means employed. A part was also
+played in this movement by a free theology which arose within
+the Church, itself a kind of Gnosticism which aimed at holding
+fast whatever was good in the Gnostic movement, and obtaining
+its recognition within the limits of the Church (Clement of
+Alexandria, Origen). But the mightiest forces, to which in the
+end this theology too had absolutely to give way, were outward
+organization and tradition.</p>
+
+<p>It must be considered as an unqualified advantage for the
+further development of Christianity, as a universal religion, that
+at its very outset it prevailed against the great movement of
+Gnosticism. In spite of the fact that in a few of its later representatives
+Gnosticism assumed a more refined and spiritual
+aspect, and even produced blossoms of a true and beautiful piety,
+it is fundamentally and essentially an unstable religious syncretism,
+a religion in which the determining forces were a fantastic
+oriental imagination and a sacramentalism which degenerated
+into the wildest superstitions, a weak dualism fluctuating
+unsteadily between asceticism and libertinism. Indirectly, however,
+Gnosticism was certainly one of the most powerful factors
+in the development of Christianity in the 1st century.</p>
+
+<p>VIII. This sketch may be completed by a short review of the
+various separate sects and their probable connexion with each
+other. As a point of departure for the history of the development
+of Gnosticism may be taken the numerous little sects
+which were apparently first included under the name of &ldquo;Gnostics&rdquo;
+in the narrower sense. Among these probably belong the
+Ophites of Celsus (in Origen), the many little sects included by
+Epiphanius under the name of Nicolaitans and Gnostics (<i>Haer.</i>
+25, 26); the Archontici (Epiphanius, <i>Haer.</i> xl.), Sethites (Cainites)
+should also here be mentioned, and finally the Carpocratians.
+Common to all these is the dominant position assumed by the
+&ldquo;Seven&rdquo; (headed by Ialdabaoth); the heavenly world lying
+above the spheres of the Seven is occupied by comparatively
+few figures, among which the most important part is played by
+the <span class="grk" title="mêtêr">&#956;&#942;&#964;&#951;&#961;</span>, who is sometimes enthroned as the supreme
+goddess in heaven, but in a few systems has already descended
+from there into matter, been taken prisoner, &amp;c. Numerous
+little groups are distinguished from the mass, sometimes by one
+peculiarity, sometimes by another. On the one hand we have
+sects with a strongly ascetic tendency, on the other we find some
+characterized by unbridled libertinism; in some the most
+abandoned prostitution has come to be the most sacred mystery;
+in others again appears the worship of serpents, which here
+appears to be connected in various and often very loose ways
+with the other ideas of these Gnostics&mdash;hence the names of the
+&ldquo;Ophites,&rdquo; &ldquo;Naasseni.&rdquo; To this class also fundamentally
+belong the Simoniani, who have included the probably historical
+figure of Simon Magus in a system which seems to be closely
+connected with those we have mentioned, especially if we look
+upon the &ldquo;Helena&rdquo; of this system as a mythical figure. A
+particular branch of the &ldquo;Gnostic&rdquo; sects is represented by those
+systems in which the figure of Sophia sinking down into matter
+already appears. To these belong the Barbelognostics (in the
+description given by Irenaeus the figure of the Spirit takes the
+place of that of Sophia), and the Gnostics whom Irenaeus (i. 30)
+describes (cf. Epiphanius, <i>Haer.</i> xxvi.). And here may best be
+included Bardesanes, a famous leader of a Gnostic school of
+the end of the 2nd century. Most scholars, it is true, following
+an old tradition, reckon Bardesanes among the Valentinians.
+But from the little we know of Bardesanes, his system bears no
+trace of relationship with the complicated Valentinian system,
+but is rather completely derived from the ordinary Gnosticism,
+and is distinguished from it apparently only by its more strongly
+dualistic character. The systems of Valentinus and his disciples
+must be considered as a further development of what we have
+just characterized as the popular Gnosticism, and especially of
+that branch of it to which the figure of Sophia is already known.
+In them above all the world of the higher aeons is further extended
+and filled with a throng of varied figures. They also
+exhibit a variation from the characteristic dualism of Gnosticism
+into monism, in their conception of the fall of Sophia and their
+derivation of matter from the passions of the fallen Sophia. The
+figures of the Seven have here entirely disappeared, the remembrance
+of them being merely preserved in the name of the
+<span class="grk" title="Dêmiourgos (hebdomas)">&#7953;&#946;&#948;&#959;&#956;&#940;&#962;</span>. In general, Valentinianism displays a
+particular resemblance to the dominant ideas of the Church,
+both in its complicated Christology, its triple division of mankind
+into <span class="grk" title="pneumatikoi, psychikoi">&#960;&#957;&#949;&#965;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#943;, &#968;&#965;&#967;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#943;</span> and <span class="grk" title="hulikoi">&#8017;&#955;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#943;</span>, and its far-fetched
+interpretation of texts.<a name="fa7h" id="fa7h" href="#ft7h"><span class="sp">7</span></a> A quite different position from those
+mentioned above is taken by Basilides (<i>q.v.</i>). From what little
+we know of him he was an uncompromising dualist. Both the
+systems which are handed down under his name by Irenaeus and
+Hippolytus, that of emanations and the monistic-evolutionary
+system, represent further developments of his ideas with a
+tendency away from dualism towards monism. Characteristically,
+in these Basilidian systems the figure of the &ldquo;Mother&rdquo; or
+of Sophia does not appear. This peculiarity the Basilidian
+system shares with that of Satornil of Antioch, which has only
+come down to us in a very fragmentary state, and in other
+respects recalls in many ways the popular Gnosticism. By
+itself, on the other hand, stands the system preserved for us by
+Hippolytus in the <i>Philosophumena</i> under the name of the
+Naasseni, with its central figure of &ldquo;the Man,&rdquo; which, as we
+have seen, is very closely related with certain specifically pagan
+Gnostic speculations which have come down to us (in the <i>Poimandres</i>,
+in Zosimus and Plotinus, <i>Ennead</i> ii. 9). With the
+Naasseni, moreover, are related also the other sects of which
+Hippolytus alone gives us a notice in his <i>Philosophumena</i>
+(Docetae, Perates, Sethiani, the adherents of Justin, the Gnostic
+of Monoimos). Finally, apart from all other Gnostics stands
+Marcion. With him, as far as we are able to conclude from the
+scanty notices of him, the manifold Gnostic speculations are
+reduced essentially to the one problem of the good and the just
+God, the God of the Christians and the God of the Old Testament.
+Between these two powers Marcion affirms a sharp and, as it
+appears, originally irreconcilable dualism which with him rests
+moreover on a speculative basis. Thanks to the noble simplicity
+and specifically religious character of his ideas, Marcion was
+able to found not only schools, but a community, a church of
+his own, which gave trouble to the Church longer than any
+other Gnostic sect. Among his disciples the speculative and
+fantastic element of Gnosticism again became more apparent.
+As we have already intimated, Gnosticism had such a power
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id="page159"></a>159</span>
+of attraction that it now drew within its limits even Judaeo-Christian
+sects. Among these we must mention the Judaeo-Christian
+Gnostic Cerinthus, also the Gnostic Ebionites, of
+whom Epiphanius (<i>Haer.</i>) gives us an account, and whose writings
+are to be found in a recension in the collected works of the
+Pseudo-Clementine <i>Recognitions and Homilies</i>; to the same class
+belong the Elkesaites with their mystical scripture, the <i>Elxai</i>,
+extracts of which are given by Hippolytus in the <i>Philos.</i> (ix. 13).
+Later evidence of the decadence of Gnosticism occurs in the
+<i>Pistis-Sophia</i> and the Coptic Gnostic writings discovered and
+edited by Schmidt. In these confused records of human imagination
+gone mad, we possess a veritable herbarium of all possible
+Gnostic ideas, which were once active and now rest peacefully
+side by side. None the less, the stream of the Gnostic religion
+is not yet dried up, but continues on its way; and it is beyond
+a doubt that the later Mandaeanism and the great religious
+movement of Mani are most closely connected with Gnosticism.
+These manifestations are all the more characteristic since in
+them we meet with a Gnosticism which remained essentially
+more untouched by Christian influences than the Gnostic
+systems of the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Thus these systems throw an
+important light on the past, and a true perception of the nature
+and purpose of Gnosticism is not to be obtained without taking
+them into consideration.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;A. Neander, <i>Genetische Entwicklung d. vornehmsten
+gnostischen Systeme</i> (Berlin, 1818); F. Chr. Baur, <i>Die christl.
+Gnosis in ihrer geschichtl. Entwicklung</i> (Tübingen, 1835); E. W.
+Möller, <i>Gesch. der Kosmologie in der griechischen Kirche bis Origenes</i>
+(Halle, 1860); R. A. Lipsius, <i>Der Gnosticismus</i> (Leipzig, 1860;
+originally in Ersch and Gruber&rsquo;s <i>Encyclopädie</i>); H. L. Mansel,
+<i>The Gnostic Heresies of the 1st and 2nd Centuries</i> (London, 1875);
+K. Kepler, <i>Über Gnosis und altbabylonische Religion</i>, a lecture
+delivered at the Congress of Orientalists (Berlin, 1881); A. Hilgenfeld,
+<i>Ketzergeschichte des Urchristentums</i> (Leipzig, 1884); and in
+<i>Ztschr. für wissenschaftl. Theol.</i> 1890, i. &ldquo;Der Gnosticismus&rdquo;;
+A. Harnack, <i>Dogmengeschichte</i>, i. 271 seq. (cf. the corresponding
+sections of the <i>Dogmengeschichten</i> of Loofs and Seeberg); W. Anz,
+&ldquo;Zur Frage nach dem Ursprung des Gnosticismus,&rdquo; <i>Texte u. Untersuchungen</i>,
+xv. 4 (Leipzig, 1897); R. Liechtenhahn, <i>Die Offenbarung
+im Gnosticismus</i> (Göttingen, 1901); C. Schmidt, &ldquo;Plotins Stellung
+zum Gnosticismus u. kirchl. Christentum&rdquo; <i>Texte u. Untersuch.</i>
+xx. 4 (1902); E. de Faye, <i>Introduction à l&rsquo;étude du Gnosticisme</i> (Paris,
+1903); R. Reitzenstein, <i>Poimandres</i> (Leipzig, 1904); G. Krüger,
+article &ldquo;Gnosticismus&rdquo; in Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd
+ed.) vi. 728 ff.; Bousset, &ldquo;Hauptprobleme der Gnosis,&rdquo; <i>Forschungen
+z. Relig. u. Lit. d. alten u. neuen Testaments</i>, 10 (1907); T. Wendland,
+<i>Hellenistisch-römische Kultur in ihren Beziehungen zu Judentum
+und Christentum</i> (1907), p. 161 seq. See further among important
+monographs on the individual Gnostic systems, R. A. Lipsius,
+&ldquo;Die ophitischen Systeme,&rdquo; <i>Ztschr. f. wissensch. Theologie</i> (1863);
+G. Heinrici, <i>Die valentinianische Gnosis u. d. Heilige Schrift</i> (Berlin,
+1871); A. Merx, <i>Bardesanes von Edessa</i> (Halle, 1863); A. Hilgenfeld,
+<i>Bardesanes, der letzte Gnostiker</i> (Leipzig, 1864); A. Harnack, &ldquo;Über
+das gnostische Buch Pistis-Sophia,&rdquo; <i>Texte u. Untersuch.</i> vii. 2;
+C. Schmidt, &ldquo;Gnostische Schriften,&rdquo; <i>Texte u. Untersuch.</i> viii. 1, 2;
+and also the works mentioned under § II. of this article.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. Bo.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See the list of their titles in A. Harnack, <i>Geschichte der altchristlichen
+Literatur</i>, Teil I. v. 171; <i>ib.</i> Teil II. <i>Chronologie der altchristl.
+Literatur</i>, i. 533 seq.; also Liechtenhahn, <i>Die Offenbarung im
+Gnosticismus</i> (1901).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> For the text see A. Merx, <i>Bardesanes von Edessa</i> (1863), and A.
+Hilgenfeld, <i>Bardesanes der letzte Gnostiker</i> (1864).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3h" id="ft3h" href="#fa3h"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Ed. Petermann-Schwartze; newly translated by C. Schmidt,
+<i>Koptisch-gnostische Schriften</i>, i. (1905), in the series <i>Die griechischen
+christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei Jahrhunderte</i>; see also
+A. Harnack, <i>Texte und Untersuchungen</i>, Bd. vii. Heft 2 (1891), and
+<i>Chronologie der altchristlichen Literatur</i>, ii. 193-195.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4h" id="ft4h" href="#fa4h"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See R. A. Lipsius, <i>Die Quellen der ältesten Ketzergeschichte</i> (1875);
+A. Harnack, <i>Zur Quellenkritik der Geschichte des Gnosticismus</i> (1873);
+A. Hilgenfeld, <i>Ketzergeschichte</i>, pp. 1-83; Harnack, <i>Geschichte der
+altchristlich. Literatur</i>, i. 171 seq., ii. 533 seq., 712 seq.; J. Kunze,
+<i>De historiae Gnostic. fontibus</i> (1894). On the <i>Philosophumena</i> of
+Hippolytus see G. Salmon, the cross-references in the Philosophumena,
+<i>Hermathena</i>, vol. xi. (1885) p. 5389 seq.; H. Staehelin,
+<i>Die gnostischen Quellen Hippolyts</i>, <i>Texte und Unters.</i> Bd. vi. Hft.
+3 (1890).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5h" id="ft5h" href="#fa5h"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Cf. the same idea of the fall of mankind in the pagan Gnosticism
+of &ldquo;Poimandres&rdquo;; see Reitzenstein, <i>Poimandres</i> (1904); and the
+position of the Primal Man (<i>Urmensch</i>) among the Manichaeans is
+similar.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6h" id="ft6h" href="#fa6h"><span class="fn">6</span></a> These ideas may possibly be traced still further back, and perhaps
+even underlie St Paul&rsquo;s exposition in Col. ii. 15.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7h" id="ft7h" href="#fa7h"><span class="fn">7</span></a> For the disciples of Valentinus, especially Marcus, after whom
+was named a separate sect, the Marcosians, with their Pythagorean
+theories of numbers and their strong tincture of the mystical, magic,
+and sacramental, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Valentinus and Valentinians</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GNU,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> the Hottentot name for the large white-tailed South
+African antelope (<i>q.v.</i>), now nearly extinct, know to the Boers
+as the black wildebeest, and to naturalists as Connochaetes (or
+Catoblepas) gnu. A second and larger species is the brindled
+gnu or blue wildebeest (<i>C. taurinus</i> or <i>Catoblepas gorgon</i>), also
+known by the Bechuana name <i>kokon</i> or <i>kokoon</i>; and there are
+several East African forms more or less closely related to the
+latter which have received distinct names.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:451px; height:418px" src="images/img159.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">White-tailed Gnu, or Black Wildebeest (<i>Connochaetes gnu</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GO,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Go-bang</span> (Jap. <i>Go-ban</i>, board for playing <i>Go</i>), a popular
+table game. It is of great antiquity, having been invented in
+Japan, according to tradition, by the emperor Yao, 2350 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+but it is probably of Chinese origin. According to Falkener the
+first historical mention of it was made about the year 300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+but there is abundant evidence that it was a popular game
+long before that period. The original Japanese Go is played on
+a board divided into squares by 19 horizontal and 19 vertical
+lines, making 361 intersections, upon which the flat round men,
+181 white and 181 black, are placed one by one as the game
+proceeds. The men are placed by the two players on any intersections
+(<i>me</i>) that may seem advantageous, the object being to
+surround with one&rsquo;s men as many unoccupied intersections as
+possible, the player enclosing the greater number of vacant
+points being the winner. Completely surrounded men are
+captured and removed from the board. This game is played in
+England upon a board divided into 361 squares, the men being
+placed upon these instead of upon the intersections.</p>
+
+<p>A much simpler variety of Go, mostly played by foreigners,
+has for its object to get five men into line. This may have been
+the earliest form of the game, as the word <i>go</i> means five. Except
+in Japan it is often played on an ordinary draughts-board, and
+the winner is he who first gets five men into line, either vertically,
+horizontally or diagonally.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Go-Bang</i>, by A. Howard Cady, in Spalding&rsquo;s Home Library
+(New York, 1896); <i>Games Ancient and Oriental</i>, by Edward Falkener
+(London, 1892); <i>Das japan.-chinesische Spiel Go</i>, by O. Korschelt
+(Yokohama, 1881); <i>Das Nationalspiel der Japanesen</i>, by G. Schurig
+(Leipzig, 1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOA,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> the name of the past and present capitals of Portuguese
+India, and of the surrounding territory more exactly described
+as Goa settlement, which is situated on the western coast of
+India, between 15° 44&rsquo; and 14° 53&prime; N., and between 73° 45&prime; and
+74° 26&prime; E. Pop. (1900) 475,513, area 1301 sq. m.</p>
+
+<p><i>Goa Settlement.</i>&mdash;With Damaun (<i>q.v.</i>) and Diu (<i>q.v.</i>) Goa
+settlement forms a single administrative province ruled by a
+governor-general, and a single ecclesiastical province subject
+to the archbishop of Goa; for judicial purposes the province
+includes Macao in China, and Timor in the Malay Archipelago.
+It is bounded on the N. by the river Terakhul or Araundem,
+which divides it from the Sawantwari state, E. by the Western
+Ghats, S. by Kanara district, and W. by the Arabian Sea. It
+comprises the three districts of Ilhas, Bardez and Salsette,
+conquered early in the 16th century and therefore known as the
+Velhas Conquistas (Old Conquests), seven districts acquired
+later and known as the Novas Conquistas, and the island of
+Anjidiv or Anjadiva. The settlement, which has a coast-line
+of 62 m., is a hilly region, especially the Novas Conquistas; its
+distinguishing features are the Western Ghats, though the highest
+summits nowhere reach an altitude of 4000 ft., and the island
+of Goa. Numerous short but navigable rivers water the lowlands
+skirting the coast. The two largest rivers are the Mandavi and
+the Juari, which together encircle the island of Goa (Ilhas),
+being connected on the landward side by a creek. The island
+(native name Tisv&#257;d&#299;, Tissuvaddy, Tissuary) is a triangular
+territory, the apex of which, called the <i>cabo</i> or cape, is a rocky
+headland separating the harbour of Goa into two anchorages&mdash;Agoada
+or Aguada at the mouth of the Mandavi, on the north,
+and Mormugão or Marmagão at the mouth of the Juari, on the
+south. The northern haven is exposed to the full force of the
+south-west monsoon, and is liable to silt up during the rains.
+The southern, sheltered by the promontory of Salsette, is always
+open, but is less used, owing to its greater distance from the city
+of Goa, which is built on the island. A railway connects Mormagão,
+south of the Juari estuary, with Castle Rock on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>160</span>
+Western Ghats. Goa imports textiles and foodstuffs, and exports
+coco-nuts, areca-nuts, spices, fish, poultry and timber. Its
+trade is carried on almost entirely with Bombay, Madras,
+Kathiawar and Portugal. Manganese is mined in large quantities,
+some iron is obtained, and other products are salt, palm-spirit,
+betel and bananas.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cities of Goa.</i>&mdash;1. The ancient Hindu city of Goa, of which
+hardly a fragment survives, was built at the southernmost point
+of the island, and was famous in early Hindu legend and history
+for its learning, wealth and beauty. In the Puranas and certain
+inscriptions its name appears as Gove, Gov&#257;pur&#299;, Gomant, &amp;c.;
+the medieval Arabian geographers knew it as Sind&#257;bur or Sand&#257;bur,
+and the Portuguese as Goa Velha. It was ruled by the
+Kadamba dynasty from the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> to 1312, and by
+Mahommedan invaders of the Deccan from 1312 until about
+1370, during which period it was visited and described by Ibn
+Batuta. It was then annexed to the Hindu kingdom of
+Vijayanagar, of which, according to Ferishta, it still formed part
+in 1469, when it was conquered by the Bahmani sultan of the
+Deccan; but two of the best Portuguese chroniclers state that
+it became independent in 1440, when the second city (Old Goa)
+was founded.</p>
+
+<p>2. Old Goa is, for the most part, a city of ruins without
+inhabitants other than ecclesiastics and their dependents. The
+chief surviving buildings are the cathedral, founded by Albuquerque
+in 1511 to commemorate his entry into Goa on St
+Catherine&rsquo;s day 1510, and rebuilt in 1623, and still used for
+public worship; the convent of St Francis (1517), a converted
+mosque rebuilt in 1661, with a portal of carved black stone,
+which is the only relic of Portuguese architecture in India dating
+from the first quarter of the 16th century; the chapel of St
+Catherine (1551); the church of Bom Jesus (1594-1603), a
+superb example of Renaissance architecture as developed by the
+Jesuits, containing the magnificent shrine and tomb of St
+Francis Xavier (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Xavier, Francisco de</a></span>); and the 17th-century
+convents of St Monica and St Cajetan. The college of St Paul
+(see below) is in ruins.</p>
+
+<p>3. Panjim, Pangim or New Goa, originally a suburb of Old
+Goa, is, like the parent city, built on the left bank of the Mandavi
+estuary, in 15° 30&prime; N. and 73° 33&prime; E. Pop. (1901) 9500. It is
+a modern port with few pretensions to architectural beauty.
+Ships of the largest size can anchor in the river, but only small
+vessels can load or discharge at the quay. Panjim became the
+residence of the viceroy in 1759 and the capital of Portuguese
+India in 1843. It possesses a lyceum, a school for teachers, a
+seminary, a technical school and an experimental agricultural
+station.</p>
+
+<p><i>Political History.</i>&mdash;With the subdivision of the Bahmani
+kingdom, after 1482, Goa passed into the power of Yusuf Adil
+Shah, king of Bijapur, who was its ruler when the Portuguese
+first reached India. At this time Goa was important as the
+starting-point of pilgrims from India to Mecca, as a mart with
+no rival except Calicut on the west coast, and especially as the
+centre of the import trade in horses (Gulf Arabs) from Hormuz,
+the control of which was a vital matter to the kingdoms warring
+in the Deccan. It was easily defensible by any power with
+command of the sea, as the encircling rivers could only be forded
+at one spot, and had been deliberately stocked with crocodiles.
+It was attacked on the 10th of February 1510 by the Portuguese
+under Albuquerque. As a Hindu ascetic had foretold its downfall
+and the garrison of Ottoman mercenaries was outnumbered,
+the city surrendered without a struggle, and Albuquerque entered
+it in triumph, while the Hindu townsfolk strewed filagree flowers
+of gold and silver before his feet. Three months later Yusuf
+Adil Shah returned with 60,000 troops, forced the passage of the
+ford, and blockaded the Portuguese in their ships from May to
+August, when the cessation of the monsoon enabled them to put
+to sea. In November Albuquerque returned with a larger force,
+and after overcoming a desperate resistance, recaptured the city,
+permitted his soldiers to plunder it for three days, and massacred
+the entire Mahommedan population.</p>
+
+<p>Goa was the first territorial possession of the Portuguese in
+Asia. Albuquerque intended it to be a colony and a naval base,
+as distinct from the fortified factories which had been established
+in certain Indian seaports. He encouraged his men to marry
+native women, and to settle in Goa as farmers, retail traders or
+artisans. These married men soon became a privileged caste,
+and Goa acquired a large Eurasian population. Albuquerque
+and his successors left almost untouched the customs and constitutions
+of the 30 village communities on the island, only
+abolishing the rite of suttee. A register of these customs (<i>Foral
+de usos e costumes</i>) was published in 1526, and is an historical
+document of much value; an abstract of it is given in R. S.
+Whiteway&rsquo;s <i>Rise of the Portuguese Empire in India</i> (London,
+1898).</p>
+
+<p>Goa became the capital of the whole Portuguese empire in the
+East. It was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon. Its
+senate or municipal chamber maintained direct communications
+with the king and paid a special representative to attend to its
+interests at court. In 1563 the governor even proposed to make
+Goa the seat of a parliament, in which all parts of the Portuguese
+east were to be represented; this was vetoed by the king.</p>
+
+<p>In 1542 St Francis Xavier mentions the architectural splendour
+of the city; but it reached the climax of its prosperity between
+1575 and 1625. <i>Goa Dourada</i>, or Golden Goa, was then the
+wonder of all travellers, and there was a Portuguese proverb,
+&ldquo;He who has seen Goa need not see Lisbon.&rdquo; Merchandise from
+all parts of the East was displayed in its bazaar, and separate
+streets were set aside for the sale of different classes of goods&mdash;Bahrein
+pearls and coral, Chinese porcelain and silk, Portuguese
+velvet and piece-goods, drugs and spices from the Malay Archipelago.
+In the main street slaves were sold by auction. The
+houses of the rich were surrounded by gardens and palm groves;
+they were built of stone and painted red or white. Instead of
+glass, their balconied windows had thin polished oyster-shells set
+in lattice-work.</p>
+
+<p>The social life of Goa was brilliant, as befitted the headquarters
+of the viceregal court, the army and navy, and the church; but
+the luxury and ostentation of all classes had become a byword
+before the end of the 16th century. Almost all manual labour was
+done by slaves; common soldiers assumed high-sounding titles,
+and it was even customary for the poor noblemen who congregated
+together in boarding-houses to subscribe for a few silken cloaks, a
+silken umbrella and a common man-servant, so that each could
+take his turn to promenade the streets, fashionably attired and
+with a proper escort. There were huge gambling saloons,
+licensed by the municipality, where determined players lodged
+for weeks together; and every form of vice, except drunkenness,
+was practised by both sexes, although European women were
+forced to lead a kind of zenana life, and never ventured unveiled
+into the streets; they even attended at church in their palanquins,
+so as to avoid observation.</p>
+
+<p>The appearance of the Dutch in Indian waters was followed by
+the gradual ruin of Goa. In 1603 and 1639 the city was blockaded
+by Dutch fleets, though never captured, and in 1635 it was
+ravaged by an epidemic. Its trade was gradually monopolized
+by the Jesuits. Thevenot in 1666, Baldaeus in 1672, Fryer in
+1675 describe its ever-increasing poverty and decay. In 1683 only
+the timely appearance of a Mogul army saved it from capture by
+a horde of Mahratta raiders, and in 1739 the whole territory was
+attacked by the same enemies, and only saved by the unexpected
+arrival of a new viceroy with a fleet. This peril was always
+imminent until 1759, when a peace with the Mahrattas was concluded.
+In the same year the proposal to remove the seat of
+government to Panjim was carried out; it had been discussed as
+early as 1684. Between 1695 and 1775 the population dwindled
+from 20,000 to 1600, and in 1835 Goa was only inhabited by a few
+priests, monks and nuns.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ecclesiastical History.</i>&mdash;Some Dominican friars came out to
+Goa in 1510, but no large missionary enterprise was undertaken
+before the arrival of the Franciscans in 1517. From their headquarters
+in Goa the Franciscan preachers visited many parts of
+western India, and even journeyed to Ceylon, Pegu and the
+Malay Archipelago. For nearly twenty-five years they carried on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page161" id="page161"></a>161</span>
+the work of evangelization almost alone, with such success that in
+1534 Pope Paul III. made Goa a bishopric, with spiritual jurisdiction
+over all Portuguese possessions between China and the Cape
+of Good Hope, though itself suffragan to the archbishopric of
+Funchal in Madeira. A Franciscan friar, João de Albuquerque,
+came to Goa as its first bishop in 1538. In 1542 St Francis
+Xavier came to Goa, and took over the Franciscan college of
+Santa Fé, for the training of native missionaries; this was renamed
+the College of St Paul, and became the headquarters of all
+Jesuit missions in the East, where the Jesuits were commonly
+styled <i>Paulistas</i>. By a Bull dated the 4th of February 1557
+Goa was made an archbishopric, with jurisdiction over the sees of
+Malacca and Cochin, to which were added Macao (1575), Japan
+(1588), Angamale or Cranganore (1600), Meliapur (Mylapur)
+(1606), Peking and Nanking (1610), together with the bishopric of
+Mozambique, which included the entire coast of East Africa. In
+1606 the archbishop received the title of Primate of the East, and
+the king of Portugal was named Patron of the Catholic Missions
+in the East; his right of patronage was limited by the Concordat
+of 1857 to Goa, Malacca, Macao and certain parts of British India.
+The Inquisition was introduced into Goa in 1560: a vivid
+account of its proceedings is given by C. Dellon, <i>Relation de
+l&rsquo;inquisition de Goa</i> (1688). Five ecclesiastical councils, which
+dealt with matters of discipline, were held at Goa&mdash;in 1567,
+1575, 1585, 1592 and 1606; the archbishop of Goa also presided
+over the more important synod of Diamper (Udayamperur,
+about 12 m. S.E. of Cochin), which in 1599 condemned as
+heretical the tenets and liturgy of the Indian Nestorians, or
+Christians of St Thomas (<i>q.v.</i>). In 1675 Fryer described Goa as
+&ldquo;a Rome in India, both for absoluteness and fabrics,&rdquo; and
+Hamilton states that early in the 18th century the number of
+ecclesiastics in the settlement had reached the extraordinary
+total of 30,000. But the Jesuits were expelled in 1759, and by
+1800 Goa had lost much even of its ecclesiastical importance.
+The Inquisition was abolished in 1814 and the religious orders
+were secularized in 1835.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;J. N. da Fonseca, <i>An Historical and Archaeological
+Sketch of Goa</i> (Bombay, 1878) is a minute study of the city
+from the earliest times, illustrated. For the early history of Portuguese
+rule the chief authorities are <i>The Commentaries ... of
+Dalboquerque</i> (Hakluyt Society&rsquo;s translation, London, 1877), the
+<i>Cartas</i> of Albuquerque (Lisbon, 1884), the <i>Historia ... da India</i>
+of F. L. de Castanheda (Lisbon, 1833, written before 1552), the
+<i>Lendas da India of G. Correa</i> (Lisbon, 1860, written 1514-1566),
+and the <i>Decadas da India</i> of João de Barros and D. do Couto (Lisbon,
+1778-1788, written about 1530-1616). Couto&rsquo;s <i>Soldado pratico</i>
+(Lisbon, 1790) and S. Botelho&rsquo;s <i>Cartas and Tombo</i>, written 1547-1554,
+published in &ldquo;Subsidios&rdquo; of the Lisbon Academy (1868), are valuable
+studies of military life and administration. The <i>Archivo Portuguez
+oriental</i> (6 parts, New Goa, 1857-1877) is a most useful collection
+of documents dating from 1515; part 2 contains the privileges, &amp;c.
+of the city of Goa, and part 4 contains the minutes of the ecclesiastical
+councils and of the synod of Diamper. The social life of Goa has
+been graphically described by many writers; see especially the
+travels of Varthema (<i>c.</i> 1505), Linschoten (<i>c.</i> 1580), Pyrard (1608)
+in the Hakluyt Society&rsquo;s translations; J. Mocquet, <i>Voyages</i> (Paris,
+1830, written 1608-1610); P. Baldaeus, in <i>Churchill&rsquo;s Voyages</i>,
+vol. 3 (London, 1732); J. Fryer, <i>A New Account of East India
+and Persia</i> (London, 1698); A. de Mandelslo, <i>Voyages</i> (London,
+1669); <i>Les Voyages de M. de Thevenot aux Indes Orientales</i> (Amsterdam,
+1779), and A. Hamilton, <i>A New Account of the East Indies</i>
+(London, 1774). For Goa in the 20th century see <i>The Imperial
+Gazetteer of India</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(K. G. J.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOAL,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> originally an object set up as the place where a race
+ends, the winning-post, and so used figuratively of the end to
+which any effort is directed. It is thus used to translate the
+Lat. <i>meta</i>, the boundary pillar, set one at each end of the circus
+to mark the turning-point. The word was quite early used in
+various games for the two posts, with or without a cross-bar,
+through or over which the ball has to be driven to score a point
+towards winning the game. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> quotes
+the use in Richard Stanyhurst&rsquo;s <i>Description of Ireland</i> (1577);
+but the word <i>g&#333;l</i> in the sense of a boundary appears as early as the
+beginning of the 14th century in the religious poems of William de
+Shoreham (<i>c.</i> 1315). The origin of the word is obscure. It is
+usually taken to be derived from a French word <i>gaule</i>, meaning a
+pole or stick, but this meaning does not appear in the English
+usage, nor does the usual English meaning appear in the French.
+There is an O. Eng. <i>gaélan</i>, to hinder, which may point to a lost
+<i>gál</i>, barrier, but there is no evidence in other Teutonic languages
+for such a word.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOALPARA,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the
+Brahmaputra valley division of eastern Bengal and Assam.
+The town (pop. 6287) overlooks the Brahmaputra. It was the
+frontier outpost of the Mahommedan power, and has long been a
+flourishing seat of river trade. The civil station is built on the
+summit of a small hill commanding a magnificent view of the
+valley of the Brahmaputra, bounded on the north by the snowy
+ranges of the Himalayas and on the south by the Garo hills.
+The native town is built on the western slope of the hill, and the
+lower portion is subject to inundation from the marshy land
+which extends in every direction. It has declined in importance
+since the district headquarters were removed to Dhubri in 1879,
+and it suffered severely from the earthquake of the 12th of June
+1897.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">District</span> comprises an area of 3961 sq. m. It is situated
+along the Brahmaputra, at the corner where the river takes its
+southerly course from Assam into Bengal. The scenery is
+striking. Along the banks of the river grow clumps of cane and
+reed; farther back stretch fields of rice cultivation, broken only
+by the fruit trees surrounding the villages, and in the background
+rise the forest-clad hills overtopped by the white peaks of the
+Himalayas. The soil of the hills is of a red ochreous earth,
+with blocks of granite and sandstone interspersed; that of the
+plains is of alluvial formation. Earthquakes are common and
+occasionally severe shocks have been experienced. The Brahmaputra
+annually inundates vast tracts of country. Numerous
+extensive forests yield valuable timber. Wild animals of all
+kinds are found. In 1901 the population was 462,083, showing
+an increase of 2% in the decade. Rice forms the staple crop.
+Mustard and jute are also largely grown. The manufactures
+consist of the making of brass and iron utensils and of gold and
+silver ornaments, weaving of silk cloth, basket-work and pottery.
+The cultivation of tea has been introduced but does not flourish
+anywhere in the district. Local trade is in the hands of Marwari
+merchants, and is carried on at the <i>bazars</i>, weekly <i>hats</i> or markets
+and periodical fairs. The chief exports are mustard-seed, jute,
+cotton, timber, lac, silk cloth, india-rubber and tea; the imports,
+Bengal rice, European piece goods, salt, hardware, oil and
+tobacco.</p>
+
+<p>Dhubri (pop. 3737), the administrative headquarters of the
+district, stands on the Brahmaputra where that river takes its
+great bend south. It is the termination of the emigration road
+from North Bengal and of the river steamers that connect with
+the North Bengal railway. It is also served by the eastern
+Bengal State railway.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOAT<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. <i>gát</i>, Goth. <i>gaits</i>, Mod.
+Ger. <i>Geiss</i>, cognate with Lat. <i>haedus</i>, a kid), properly the name of
+the well-known domesticated European ruminant (<i>Capra hircus</i>),
+which has for all time been regarded as the emblem of everything
+that is evil, in contradistinction to the sheep, which is the symbol
+of excellence and purity. Although the more typical goats are
+markedly distinct from sheep, there is, both as regards wild and
+domesticated forms, an almost complete gradation from goats
+to sheep, so that it is exceedingly difficult to define either group.
+The position of the genus <i>Capra</i> (to all the members of which,
+as well as some allied species, the name &ldquo;goat&rdquo; in its wider sense
+is applicable) in the family <i>Bovidae</i> is indicated in the article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bovidae</a></span>, and some of the distinctions between goats and sheep
+are mentioned in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sheep</a></span>. Here then it will suffice
+to mention that goats are characterized by the strong and offensive
+odour of the males, which are furnished with a beard on
+the chin; while as a general rule glands are present between the
+middle toes of the fore feet only.</p>
+
+<p>Goats, in the wild state, are an exclusively old-world group,
+of which the more typical forms are confined to Europe and
+south-western and central Asia, although there are two outlying
+species in northern Africa. The wild goat, or pasang, is represented
+in Europe in the Cyclades and Crete by rather small races.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id="page162"></a>162</span>
+more or less mingled with domesticated breeds, the Cretan
+animal being distinguished as <i>Capra hircus creticus</i>; but the
+large typical race <i>C. h. aegagrus</i> is met with in the mountains of
+Asia Minor and Persia, whence it extends to Sind, where it is
+represented by a somewhat different race known as <i>C. h. blythi</i>.
+The horns of the old bucks are of great length and beauty, and
+characterized by their bold scimitar-like backward sweep and
+sharp front edge, interrupted at irregular intervals by knots or
+bosses. Domesticated goats have run wild in many islands,
+such as the Hebrides, Shetland, Canaries, Azores, Ascension and
+Juan Fernandez. Some of these reverted breeds have developed
+horns of considerable size, although not showing that regularity
+of curve distinctive of the wild race. In the Azores the horns are
+remarkably upright and straight, whence the name of &ldquo;antelope-goat&rdquo;
+which has been given to these animals. The concretions
+known as <i>bezoar-stones</i>, formerly much used in medicine and as
+antidotes of poison, are obtained from the stomach of the wild
+goat.</p>
+
+<p>Although there have in all probability been more or less
+important local crosses with other wild species, there can be
+no doubt that domesticated goats generally are descended from
+the wild goat. It is true that many tame goats show spirally
+twisted horns recalling those of the under-mentioned Asiatic
+markhor; but in nearly all such instances it will be found that
+the spiral twists in the opposite direction. Among the domesticated
+breeds the following are some of the more important.</p>
+
+<p>Firstly, we have the common or European goats, of which
+there are several more or less well-marked breeds, differing
+from each other in length of hair, in colour and slightly in the
+configuration of the horns. The ears are more or less upright,
+sometimes horizontal, but never actually pendent, as in some
+Asiatic breeds. The horns are rather flat at the base and not
+unfrequently corrugated; they rise vertically from the head,
+curving to the rear, and are more or less laterally inclined.
+The colour varies from dirty white to dark-brown, but when
+pure-bred is never black, which indicates eastern blood. Most
+European countries possess more than one description of the
+common goat. In the British Isles there are two distinct types,
+one short and the other long haired. In the former the hair is
+thick and close, with frequently an under-coat resembling wool.
+The horns are large in the male, and of moderate size in the female,
+flat at the base and inclining outwards. The head is short and
+tapering, the forehead flat and wide, and the nose small; while
+the legs are strong, thick and well covered with hair. The colour
+varies from white or grey to black, but is frequently fawn, with
+a dark line down the spine and another across the shoulders.
+The other variety has a shaggy coat, generally reddish-black,
+though sometimes grey or pied and occasionally white. The head
+is long, heavy and ugly, the nose coarse and prominent, with the
+horns situated close together, often continuing parallel almost
+to the extremities, being also large, corrugated and pointed.
+The legs are long and the sides flat, the animal itself being generally
+gaunt and thin. This breed is peculiar to Ireland, the
+Welsh being of a similar type, but more often white. The short-haired
+goat is the English goat proper. Both British breeds,
+as well as those from abroad, are frequently ornamented with
+two tassel-like appendages, hanging near together under the
+throat. It has been supposed by many that these are traceable
+to foreign blood; but although there are foreign breeds that
+possess them, they appear to pertain quite as much to the English
+native breeds as to those of distant countries, the peculiarity
+being mentioned in very old works on the goats of the British
+Islands. The milk-produce in the common goat as well as other
+kinds varies greatly with individuals. Irish goats often yield a
+quantity of milk, but the quality is poor. The goats of France
+are similar to those of Britain, varying in length of hair, colour
+and character of horns. The Norway breed is frequently white
+with long hair; it is rather small in size, with small bones, a
+short rounded body, head small with a prominent forehead, and
+short, straight, corrugated horns. The facial line is concave.
+The horns of the males are very large, and curve round after the
+manner of the wild goat, with a tuft of hair between and in front.</p>
+
+<p>The Maltese goat has the ears long, wide and hanging down
+below the jaw. The hair is long and cream-coloured. The breed
+is usually hornless.</p>
+
+<p>The Syrian goat is met with in various parts of the East, in
+Lower Egypt, on the shores of the Indian Ocean and in Madagascar.
+The hair and ears are excessively long, the latter so
+much so that they are sometimes clipped to prevent their being
+torn by stones or thorny shrubs. The horns are somewhat erect
+and spiral, with an outward bend.</p>
+
+<p>The Angora goat is often confounded with the Kashmir, but
+is in reality quite distinct. The principal feature of this breed,
+of which there are two or three varieties, is the length and
+quantity of the hair, which has a particularly soft and silky
+texture, covering the whole body and a great part of the legs
+with close matted ringlets. The horns of the male differ from
+those of the female, being directed vertically and in shape spiral,
+whilst in the female they have a horizontal tendency, somewhat
+like those of a ram. The coat is composed of two kinds of hair,
+the one short and coarse and of the character of hair, which lies
+close to the skin, the other long and curly and of the nature of
+wool, forming the outer covering. Both are used by the manufacturer,
+but the exterior portion, which makes up by far the
+greater bulk, is much the more valuable. The process of shearing
+takes place in early spring, the average amount of wool yielded
+by each animal being about 2½ &#8468;. The best quality comes
+from castrated males, females producing the next best.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:301px" src="images/img162.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Male Angora Goat.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The breed was introduced at the Cape about 1864. The
+Angora is a bad milker and an indifferent mother, but its flesh
+is better than that of any other breed, and in its native country
+is preferred to mutton. The kids are born small, but grow fast,
+and arrive early at maturity. The Kashmir, or rather Tibet,
+goat has a delicate head, with semi-pendulous ears, which are
+both long and wide. The hair varies in length, and is coarse
+and of different colours according to the individual. The horns
+are very erect, and sometimes slightly spiral, inclining inwards
+and to such an extent in some cases as to cross. The coat is
+composed, as in the Angora, of two materials; but in this
+breed it is the under-coat that partakes of the nature of wool and
+is valued as an article of commerce. This under-coat, or <i>pushm</i>,
+which is of a uniform greyish-white tint, whatever the colour
+of the hair may be, is beautifully soft and silky, and of a fluffy
+description resembling down. It makes its appearance in the
+autumn, and continues to grow until the following spring, when,
+if not removed, it falls off naturally; its collection then
+commences, occupying from eight to ten days. The animal
+undergoes during that time a process of combing by which all
+the wool and a portion of the hair, which of necessity comes
+with it, is removed. The latter is afterwards carefully separated,
+when the fleece in a good specimen weighs about half a pound.
+This is the material of which the far-famed and costly shawls
+are made, which at one time had such a demand that, it is stated,
+16,000 looms were kept in constant work at Kashmir in their
+manufacture. Those goats having a short, neat head, long, thin,
+ears, a delicate skin, small bones, and a long heavy coat, are
+for this purpose deemed the best. There are several varieties
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" id="page163"></a>163</span>
+possessing this valuable quality, but those of Kashmir, Tibet
+and Mongolia are the most esteemed.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:374px; height:409px" src="images/img163a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Nubian Goat.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Nubian goat, which is met with in Nubia, Upper Egypt
+and Abyssinia, differs greatly in appearance from those previously
+described. The coat of the female is extremely short, almost
+like that of a race-horse, and the legs are long. This breed
+therefore stands considerably higher than the common goat.
+One of its peculiarities is the convex profile of the face, the
+forehead being prominent and the nostrils sunk in, the nose itself
+extremely small, and the lower lip projecting from the upper.
+The ears are long, broad and thin, and hang down by the side
+of the head like a lop-eared rabbit. The horns are black, slightly
+twisted and very short, flat at the base, pointed at the tips,
+and recumbent on the head. Among goats met with in England
+a good many show signs of a more or less remote cross with this
+breed, derived probably from specimens brought from the East
+on board ships for supplying milk during the voyage.</p>
+
+<p>The Theban goat, of the Sudan, which is hornless, displays
+the characteristic features of the last in an exaggerated degree,
+and in the form of the head and skull is very sheep-like.</p>
+
+<p>The Nepal goat appears to be a variety of the Nubian breed,
+having the same arched facial line, pendulous ears and long
+legs. The horns, however, are more spiral. The colour of the
+hair, which is longer than in the Nubian, is black, grey or white,
+with black blotches.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly the Guinea goat is a dwarf breed originally from the
+coast whence its name is derived. There are three varieties.
+Besides the commonest <i>Capra recurva</i>, there is a rarer breed,
+<i>Capra depressa</i>, inhabiting the Mauritius and the islands of
+Bourbon and Madagascar. The other variety is met with along
+the White Nile, in Lower Egypt, and at various points on the
+African coast of the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p>As regards wild goats other than the representatives of <i>Capra
+hircus</i>, the members of the ibex-group are noticed under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ibex</a></span>,
+while another distinctive type receives mention under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Markhor</a></span>.
+The ibex are connected with the wild goat by means of <i>Capra
+nubiana</i>, in which the front edge of the horns is thinner than in
+either the European <i>C. ibex</i> or the Asiatic <i>C. sibirica</i>; while
+the Spanish <i>C. pyrenaica</i> shows how the ibex-type of horn may
+pass into the spirally twisted one distinctive of the markhor,
+<i>C. falconeri</i>. In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ibex</a></span> mention is made of the Caucasus
+ibex, or tur, <i>C. caucasica</i>, as an aberrant member of that group,
+but beside this animal the Caucasus is the home of another very
+remarkable goat, or tur, known as <i>C. pallasi</i>. In this ruminant,
+which is of a dark-brown colour, the relatively smooth black
+horns diverge outwards in a manner resembling those of the
+bharal among the sheep rather than in goat-fashion; and, in
+fact, this tur, which has only a very short beard, is so bharal-like
+that it is commonly called by sportsmen the Caucasian bharal.
+It is one of the species which render it so difficult to give a precise
+definition of either sheep or goats.</p>
+
+<p>The short-horned Asiatic goats of the genus <i>Hemitragus</i>
+receive mention in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tahr</a></span>; but it may be added that
+fossil species of the same genus are known from the Lower
+Pliocene formations of India, which have also yielded remains
+of a goat allied to the markhor of the Himalayas. The Rocky
+Mountain goat (<i>q.v.</i>) of America has no claim to be regarded as a
+member of the goat-group.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For full descriptions of the various wild species, see R. Lydekker,
+<i>Wild Oxen, Sheep, and Goats</i> (London, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOATSUCKER,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> a bird from very ancient times absurdly
+believed to have the habit implied by the common name it bears
+in many European tongues besides English&mdash;as testified by
+the Gr.<span class="grk" title="aigothêlas">&#945;&#7984;&#947;&#959;&#952;&#942;&#955;&#945;&#962;</span>, the Lat. <i>caprimulgus</i>, Ital. <i>succiacapre</i>,
+Span. <i>chotacabras</i>, Fr. <i>tettechèvre</i>, and Ger. <i>Ziegenmelker</i>.
+The common goatsucker (<i>Caprimulgus europaeus</i>, Linn.), is
+admittedly the type of a very peculiar and distinct family,
+<i>Caprimulgidae</i>, a group remarkable for the flat head, enormously
+wide mouth, large eyes, and soft, pencilled plumage of its members,
+which vary in size from a lark to a crow. Its position has been
+variously assigned by systematists. Though now judiciously
+removed from the <i>Passeres</i>, in which Linnaeus placed all the
+species known to him, Huxley considered it to form, with two
+other families&mdash;the swifts (<i>Cypselidae</i>) and humming-birds
+(<i>Trochilidae</i>)&mdash;the division <i>Cypselomorphae</i> of his larger group
+Aegithognathae, which is equivalent in the main to the Linnaean
+<i>Passeres</i>. There are two ways of regarding the <i>Caprimulgidae</i>&mdash;one
+including the genus <i>Podargus</i> and its allies, the other recognizing
+them as a distinct family, <i>Podargidae</i>. As a matter of
+convenience we shall here comprehend these last in the <i>Caprimulgidae</i>,
+which will then contain two subfamilies, <i>Caprimulginae</i>
+and <i>Podarginae</i>; for what, according to older authors, constitutes
+a third, though represented only by <i>Steatornis</i>, the singular
+oil-bird, or guacharo, certainly seems to require separation as an
+independent family (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guachero</a></span>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:338px" src="images/img163b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Common Goatsucker.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Some of the differences between the <i>Caprimulginae</i> and
+<i>Podarginae</i> have been pointed out by Sclater (<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>,
+1866, p. 123), and are very obvious. In the former, the outer toes
+have <i>four</i> phalanges only, thus presenting a very uncommon
+character among birds, and the middle claws are pectinated;
+while in the latter the normal number of five phalanges is found,
+and the claws are smooth, and other distinctions more recondite
+have also been indicated by him (<i>tom. cit.</i> p. 582). The Caprimulginae
+may be further divided into those having the gape
+thickly beset by strong bristles, and those in which there are few
+such bristles or none&mdash;the former containing the genera <i>Caprimulgus</i>,
+<i>Antrostomus</i>, <i>Nyctidromus</i> and others, and the latter
+<i>Podargus</i>, <i>Chordiles</i>, <i>Lyncornis</i> and a few more.</p>
+
+<p>The common goatsucker of Europe (<i>C. europaeus</i>) arrives
+late in spring from its winter-retreat in Africa, and its presence
+is soon made known by its habit of chasing its prey, consisting
+chiefly of moths and cockchafers, in the evening-twilight. As
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page164" id="page164"></a>164</span>
+the season advances the song of the cock, from its singularity,
+attracts attention amid all rural sounds. This song seems to be
+always uttered when the bird is at rest, though the contrary has
+been asserted, and is the continuous repetition of a single burring
+note, as of a thin lath fixed at one end and in a state of vibration
+at the other, and loud enough to reach in still weather a distance
+of half-a-mile or more. On the wing, while toying with its mate,
+or performing its rapid evolutions round the trees where it
+finds its food, it has the habit of occasionally producing another
+and equally extraordinary sound, sudden and short, but somewhat
+resembling that made by swinging a thong in the air,
+though whether this noise proceeds from its mouth is not ascertained.
+In general its flight is silent, but at times when disturbed
+from its repose, its wings may be heard to smite together. The
+goatsucker, or, to use perhaps its commoner English name,
+nightjar,<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> passes the day in slumber, crouching on the ground
+or perching on a tree&mdash;in the latter case sitting not across the
+branch but lengthways, with its head lower than its body. In
+hot weather, however, its song may sometimes be heard by day
+and even at noontide, but it is then uttered, as it were, drowsily,
+and without the vigour that characterizes its crepuscular or
+nocturnal performance. Towards evening the bird becomes
+active, and it seems to pursue its prey throughout the night
+uninterruptedly, or only occasionally pausing for a few seconds
+to alight on a bare spot&mdash;a pathway or road&mdash;and then resuming
+its career. It is one of the few birds that absolutely make no
+nest, but lays its pair of beautifully-marbled eggs on the ground,
+generally where the herbage is short, and often actually on the
+soil. So light is it that the act of brooding, even where there is
+some vegetable growth, produces no visible depression of the
+grass, moss or lichens on which the eggs rest, and the finest
+sand equally fails to exhibit a trace of the parental act. Yet
+scarcely any bird shows greater local attachment, and the
+precise site chosen one year is almost certain to be occupied
+the next. The young, covered when hatched with dark-spotted
+down, are not easily found, nor are they more easily discovered
+on becoming fledged, for their plumage almost entirely resembles
+that of the adults, being a mixture of reddish-brown, grey and
+black, blended and mottled in a manner that passes description.
+They soon attain their full size and power of flight, and then take
+to the same manner of life as their parents. In autumn all
+leave their summer haunts for the south, but the exact time of
+their departure has hardly been ascertained. The habits of the
+nightjar, as thus described, seem to be more or less essentially
+those of the whole subfamily&mdash;the differences observable being
+apparently less than are found in other groups of birds of similar
+extent.</p>
+
+<p>A second species of goatsucker (<i>C. ruficollis</i>), which is somewhat
+larger, and has the neck distinctly marked with rufous,
+is a summer visitant to the south-western parts of Europe, and
+especially to Spain and Portugal. The occurrence of a single
+example of this bird at Killingworth, near Newcastle-on-Tyne,
+in October 1856, has been recorded by Mr Hancock (<i>Ibis</i>, 1862,
+p. 39); but the season of its appearance argues the probability of
+its being but a casual straggler from its proper home. Many other
+species of <i>Caprimulgus</i> inhabit Africa, Asia and their islands,
+while one (<i>C. macrurus</i>) is found in Australia. Very nearly allied
+to this genus is <i>Antrostomus</i>, an American group containing
+many species, of which the chuck-will&rsquo;s-widow (<i>A. carolinensis</i>)
+and the whip-poor-will (<i>A. vociferus</i>) of the eastern United States
+(the latter also reaching Canada) are familiar examples. Both
+these birds take their common name from the cry they utter,
+and their habits seem to be almost identical, with those of the
+old world goatsuckers. Passing over some other forms which
+need not here be mentioned, the genus <i>Nyctidromus</i>, though
+consisting of only one species (<i>N. albicollis</i>) which inhabits
+Central and part of South America, requires remark, since it has
+tarsi of sufficient length to enable it to run swiftly on the ground,
+while the legs of most birds of the family are so short that they can
+make but a shuffling progress. <i>Heleothreptes</i>, with the unique
+form of wing possessed by the male, needs mention. Notice
+must also be taken of two African species, referred by some
+ornithologists to as many genera (<i>Macrodipteryx</i> and <i>Cosmetornis</i>),
+though probably one genus would suffice for both.
+The males of each of them are characterized by the wonderful
+development of the ninth primary in either wing, which reaches
+in fully adult specimens the extraordinary length of 17 in. or
+more. The former of these birds, the <i>Caprimulgus macrodipterus</i>
+of Adam Afzelius, is considered to belong to the west coast of
+Africa, and the shaft of the elongated remiges is bare for the
+greater part of its length, retaining the web, in a spatulate form,
+only near the tip. The latter, to which the specific name of
+<i>vexillarius</i> was given by John Gould, has been found on the
+east coast of that continent, and is reported to have occurred in
+Madagascar and Socotra. In this the remigial streamers do
+not lose their barbs, and as a few of the next quills are also to
+some extent elongated, the bird, when flying, is said to look as
+though it had four wings. Specimens of both are rare in collections,
+and no traveller seems to have had the opportunity of
+studying the habits of either so as to suggest a reason for this
+marvellous sexual development.</p>
+
+<p>The second group of <i>Caprimulginae</i>, those which are but
+poorly or not at all furnished with rictal bristles, contains about
+five genera, of which we may particularize <i>Lyncornis</i> of the old
+world and <i>Chordiles</i> of the new. The species of the former are
+remarkable for the tuft of feathers which springs from each side
+of the head, above and behind the ears, so as to give the bird an
+appearance like some of the &ldquo;horned&rdquo; owls&mdash;those of the genus
+<i>Scops</i>, for example; and remarkable as it is to find certain forms
+of two families, so distinct as are the <i>Strigidae</i> and the <i>Caprimulgidae</i>,
+resembling each other in this singular external feature,
+it is yet more remarkable to note that in some groups of the
+latter, as in some of the former, a very curious kind of dimorphism
+takes place. In either case this has been frequently asserted
+to be sexual, but on that point doubt may fairly be entertained.
+Certain it is that in some groups of goatsuckers, as in some groups
+of owls, individuals of the same species are found in plumage of
+two entirely different hues&mdash;rufous and grey. The only explanation
+as yet offered of this fact is that the difference is sexual,
+but evidence to that effect is conflicting. It must not, however,
+be supposed that this common feature, any more than that of
+the existence of tufted forms in each group, indicates any close
+relationship between them. The resemblances may be due to
+the same causes, concerning which future observers may possibly
+enlighten us, but at present we must regard them as analogies,
+not homologies. The species of <i>Lyncornis</i> inhabit the Malay
+Archipelago, one, however, occurring also in China. Of <i>Chordiles</i>
+the best-known species is the night-hawk of North America
+(<i>C. virginianus</i> or <i>C. popetue</i>), which has a wide range from
+Canada to Brazil. Others are found in the Antilles and in South
+America. The general habits of all these birds agree with those
+of the typical goatsuckers.</p>
+
+<p>We have next to consider the birds forming the genus <i>Podargus</i>
+and those allied to it, whether they be regarded as a distinct
+family, or as a subfamily of <i>Caprimulgidae</i>. As above stated,
+they have feet constructed as those of birds normally are, and
+their sternum seems to present the constant though comparatively
+trivial difference of having its posterior margin elongated
+into two pairs of processes, while only one pair is found in the
+true goatsuckers. <i>Podargus</i> includes the bird (<i>P. cuvieri</i>) known
+from its cry as morepork to the Tasmanians,<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and several other
+species, the number of which is doubtful, from Australia and
+New Guinea. They have comparatively powerful bills, and it
+would seem feed to some extent on fruits and berries, though they
+mainly subsist on insects, chiefly <i>Cicadae</i> and <i>Phasmidae</i>. They
+also differ from the true goatsuckers in having the outer toes
+partially reversible, and they build a flat nest on the horizontal
+branch of a tree for the reception of their eggs, which are of a
+spotless white. Apparently allied to <i>Podargus</i>, but differing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id="page165"></a>165</span>
+among other respects in its mode of nidification, is <i>Aegotheles</i>,
+which belongs also to the Australian sub-region; and farther
+to the northward, extending throughout the Malay Archipelago
+and into India, comes <i>Batrachostomus</i>, wherein we again meet
+with species having aural tufts somewhat like <i>Lyncornis</i>. The
+<i>Podarginae</i> are thought by some to be represented in the new
+world by the genus <i>Nyctibius</i>, of which several species occur
+from the Antilles and Central America to Brazil. Finally, it may
+be stated that none of the <i>Caprimulgidae</i> seem to occur in
+Polynesia or in New Zealand, though there is scarcely any other
+part of the world suited to their habits in which members of the
+family are not found.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Other English names of the bird are evejar, fern-owl, churn-owl
+and wheel-bird&mdash;the last from the bird&rsquo;s song resembling the noise
+made by a spinning-wheel in motion.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> In New Zealand, however, this name is given to an owl (<i>Sceloglaux
+novae-zelandiae</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOBAT, SAMUEL<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1799-1879), bishop of Jerusalem, was born
+at Crémine, Bern, Switzerland, on the 26th of January 1799.
+After serving in the mission house at Basel from 1823 to 1826,
+he went to Paris and London, whence, having acquired some
+knowledge of Arabic and Ethiopic, he went out to Abyssinia
+under the auspices of the Church Missionary Society. The
+unsettled state of the country and his own ill health prevented
+his making much headway; he returned to Europe in 1835 and
+from 1839 to 1842 lived in Malta, where he supervised an Arabic
+translation of the Bible. In 1846 he was consecrated Protestant
+bishop of Jerusalem, under the agreement between the British
+and Prussian governments (1841) for the establishment of a
+joint bishopric for Lutherans and Anglicans in the Holy Land.
+He carried on a vigorous mission as bishop for over thirty years,
+his diocesan school and orphanage on Mount Zion being specially
+noteworthy. He died on the 11th of May 1879.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A record of his life, largely autobiographical, was published at
+Basel in 1884, and an English translation at London in the same year.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOBEL, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1727-1794), French
+ecclesiastic and politician, was born at Thann, in Alsace, on the
+1st of September 1727. He studied theology in the German
+College at Rome, and then became successively a member of
+the chapter of Porrentruy, bishop <i>in partibus</i> of Lydda, and
+finally suffragan of Basel for that part of the diocese situated
+in French territory. His political life began when he was elected
+deputy to the states-general of 1789 by the clergy of the <i>bailliage</i>
+of Huningue. The turning-point of his life was his action in
+taking the oath of the civil constitution of the clergy (Jan. 3rd,
+1791); in favour of which he had declared himself since the 5th
+of May 1790. The civil constitution of the clergy gave the
+appointment of priests to the electoral assemblies, and since
+taking the oath Gobel had become so popular that he was elected
+bishop in several dioceses. He chose Paris, and in spite of the
+difficulties which he had to encounter before he could enter into
+possession, was consecrated on the 27th of March 1791 by eight
+bishops, including Talleyrand. On the 8th of November 1792,
+Gobel was appointed administrator of Paris. He was careful
+to flatter the politicians by professing anti-clerical opinions,
+declaring himself, among other things, opposed to the celibacy
+of the clergy; and on the 17th Brumaire in the year II. (7th
+November 1793), he came before the bar of the Convention, and,
+in a famous scene, resigned his episcopal functions, proclaiming
+that he did so for love of the people, and through respect for
+their wishes. The followers of Hébert, who were then pursuing
+their anti-Christian policy, claimed Gobel as one of themselves;
+while, on the other hand, Robespierre looked upon him as an
+atheist, though apostasy cannot strictly speaking be laid to the
+charge of the ex-bishop, nor did he ever make any actual profession
+of atheism. Robespierre, however, found him an obstacle
+to his religious schemes, and involved him in the fate of the
+Hébertists. Gobel was condemned to death, with Chaumette,
+Hébert and Anacharsis Cloots, and was guillotined on the 12th
+of April 1794.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. Charavay, <i>Assemblée électorale de Paris</i> (Paris, 1890);
+H. Monin, <i>La Chanson et l&rsquo;Église sous la Révolution</i> (Paris, 1892);
+A. Aulard, &ldquo;La Culte de la raison&rdquo; in the review, <i>La Révolution
+Française</i> (1891). For a bibliography of documents relating to
+his episcopate see &ldquo;Épiscopat de Gobel&rdquo; in vol. iii. (1900) of
+M. Tourneux&rsquo;s <i>Bibliographie de l&rsquo;histoire de Paris pendant la Rév. Fr.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOBELIN,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> the name of a family of dyers, who in all probability
+came originally from Reims, and who in the middle of the 15th
+century established themselves in the Faubourg Saint Marcel,
+Paris, on the banks of the Bièvre. The first head of the firm
+was named Jehan (d. 1476). He discovered a peculiar kind of
+scarlet dyestuff, and he expended so much money on his
+establishment that it was named by the common people <i>la folie
+Gobelin</i>. To the dye-works there was added in the 16th century
+a manufactory of tapestry (<i>q.v.</i>). So rapidly did the wealth
+of the family increase, that in the third or fourth generation
+some of them forsook their trade and purchased titles of nobility.
+More than one of their number held offices of state, among
+others Balthasar, who became successively treasurer general of
+artillery, treasurer extraordinary of war, councillor secretary of
+the king, chancellor of the exchequer, councillor of state and
+president of the chamber of accounts, and who in 1601 received
+from Henry IV. the lands and lordship of Briecomte-Robert.
+He died in 1603. The name of the Gobelins as dyers cannot be
+found later than the end of the 17th century. In 1662 the works
+in the Faubourg Saint Marcel, with the adjoining grounds, were
+purchased by Colbert on behalf of Louis XIV., and transformed
+into a general upholstery manufactory, in which designs both
+in tapestry and in all kinds of furniture were executed under the
+superintendence of the royal painter, Le Brun. On account of
+the pecuniary embarrassments of Louis XIV., the establishment
+was closed in 1694, but it was reopened in 1697 for the manufacture
+of tapestry, chiefly for royal use and for presentation.
+During the Revolution and the reign of Napoleon the manufacture
+was suspended, but it was revived by the Bourbons, and in 1826
+the manufacture of carpets was added to that of tapestry. In
+1871 the building was partly burned by the Communists. The
+manufacture is still carried on under the state.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Lacordaire, <i>Notice historique sur les manufactures impériales
+de tapisserie des Gobelin et de tapis de la Savonnerie, précédée du catalogue
+des tapisseries qui y sont exposés</i> (Paris, 1853); Genspach,
+<i>Répertoire détaillé des tapisseries exécutées aux Gobelins, 1662-1892</i>
+(Paris, 1893); Guiffrey, <i>Histoire de la tapisserie en France</i> (Paris,
+1878-1885). The two last-named authors were directors of the
+manufactory.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOBI<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (for which alternative Chinese names are <span class="sc">Sha-mo</span>,
+&ldquo;sand desert,&rdquo; and <span class="sc">Han-hai</span>, &ldquo;dry sea&rdquo;), a term which in its
+widest significance means the long stretch of desert country that
+extends from the foot of the Pamirs, in about 77° E., eastward
+to the Great Khingan Mountains, in 116°-118° E., on the border
+of Manchuria, and from the foothills of the Altai, the Sayan
+and the Yablonoi Mountains on the N. to the Astin-tagh or
+Altyn-tagh and the Nan-shan, the northernmost constituent
+ranges of the Kuen-lun Mountains, on the south. By conventional
+usage a relatively small area on the east side of the Great
+Khingan, between the upper waters of the Sungari and the upper
+waters of the Liao-ho, is also reckoned to belong to the Gobi.
+On the other hand, geographers and Asiatic explorers prefer to
+regard the W. extremity of the Gobi region (as defined above),
+namely, the basin of the Tarim in E. Turkestan, as forming a
+separate and independent desert, to which they have given the
+name of Takla-makan. The latter restriction governs the present
+article, which accordingly excludes the Takla-makan, leaving it
+for separate treatment. The desert of Gobi as a whole is only
+very imperfectly known, information being confined to the
+observations which individual travellers have made from their
+respective itineraries across the desert. Amongst the explorers
+to whom we owe such knowledge as we possess about the Gobi,
+the most important have been Marco Polo (1273-1275), Gerbillon
+(1688-1698), Ijsbrand Ides (1692-1694), Lange (1727-1728 and
+1736), Fuss and Bunge (1830-1831), Fritsche (1868-1873),
+Pavlinov and Matusovski (1870), Ney Elias (1872-1873), N. M.
+Przhevalsky (1870-1872 and 1876-1877), Zosnovsky (1875),
+M. V. Pjevtsov (1878), G. N. Potanin (1877 and 1884-1886),
+Count Széchenyi and L. von Loczy (1879-1880), the brothers
+Grum-Grzhimailo (1889-1890), P. K. Kozlov (1893-1894 and
+1899-1900), V. I. Roborovsky (1894), V. A. Obruchev (1894-1896),
+Futterer and Holderer (1896); C. E. Bonin (1896 and 1899),
+Sven Hedin (1897 and 1900-1901), K. Bogdanovich (1898),
+Ladyghin (1899-1900) and Katsnakov (1899-1900).</p>
+
+<p>Geographically the Gobi (a Mongol word meaning &ldquo;desert&rdquo;)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page166" id="page166"></a>166</span>
+is the deeper part of the gigantic depression which fills the
+interior of the lower terrace of the vast Mongolian plateau, and
+measures over 1000 m. from S.W. to N.E. and 450 to 600 m.
+from N. to S., being widest in the west, along the line joining
+the Baghrash-kol and the Lop-nor (87°-89° E.). Owing to the
+immense area covered, and the piecemeal character of the
+information, no general description can be made applicable to
+the whole of the Gobi. It will be more convenient, therefore, to
+describe its principal distinctive sections <i>seriatim</i>, beginning in
+the west.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Ghashiun-Gobi and Kuruk-tagh.</i>&mdash;The Yulduz valley or valley of
+the Khaïdyk-gol (83°-86° E., 43° N.) is enclosed by two prominent
+members of the Tian-shan system, namely the Chol-tagh and the
+Kuruk-tagh, running parallel and close to one another. As they proceed
+eastward they diverge, sweeping back on N. and S. respectively
+so as to leave room for the Baghrash-kol. These two ranges mark
+the northern and the southern edges respectively of a great swelling,
+which extends eastward for nearly twenty degrees of longitude. On
+its northern side the Chol-tagh descends steeply, and its foot is fringed
+by a string of deep depressions, ranging from Lukchun (425 ft. <i>below</i>
+the level of the sea) to Hami (2800 ft. above sea-level). To the south
+of the Kuruk-tagh lie the desert of Lop, the desert of Kum-tagh, and
+the valley of the Bulunzir-gol. To this great swelling, which arches
+up between the two border-ranges of the Chol-tagh and Kuruk-tagh,
+the Mongols give the name of Ghashiun-Gobi or Salt Desert. It is
+some 80 to 100 m. across from N. to S., and is traversed by a number
+of minor parallel ranges, ridges and chains of hills, and down its
+middle runs a broad stony valley, 25 to 50 m. wide, at an elevation of
+3000 to 4500 ft. The Chol-tagh, which reaches an average altitude
+of 6000 ft., is absolutely sterile, and its northern foot rests upon a
+narrow belt of barren sand, which leads down to the depressions
+mentioned above.</p>
+
+<p>The Kuruk-tagh is the greatly disintegrated, denuded and wasted
+relic of a mountain range which formerly was of incomparably
+greater magnitude. In the west, between Baghrash-kol and the
+Tarim, it consists of two, possibly of three, principal ranges, which,
+although broken in continuity, run generally parallel to one another,
+and embrace between them numerous minor chains of heights.
+These minor ranges, together with the principal ranges, divide the
+region into a series of long, narrow valleys, mostly parallel to one
+another and to the enclosing mountain chains, which descend like
+terraced steps, on the one side towards the depression of Lukchun
+and on the other towards the desert of Lop. In many cases these
+latitudinal valleys are barred transversely by ridges or spurs,
+generally elevations <i>en masse</i> of the bottom of the valley. Where
+such elevations exist, there is generally found, on the E. side of the
+transverse ridge, a cauldron-shaped depression, which some time
+or other has been the bottom of a former lake, but is now nearly a
+dry salt-basin. The surface configuration is in fact markedly
+similar to that which occurs in the inter-mont latitudinal valleys of
+the Kuen-lun. The hydrography of the Ghashiun-Gobi and the
+Kuruk-tagh is determined by these chequered arrangements of the
+latitudinal valleys. Most of the principal streams, instead of flowing
+straight down these valleys, cross them diagonally and only turn
+west after they have cut their way through one or more of the transverse
+barrier ranges.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> To the highest range on the great swelling
+Grum-Grzhimailo gives the name of Tuge-tau, its altitude being
+9000 ft. above the level of the sea and some 4000 ft. above the crown
+of the swelling itself. This range he considers to belong to the Chol-tagh
+system, whereas Sven Hedin would assign it to the Kuruk-tagh.
+This last, which is pretty certainly identical with the range of Khara-teken-ula
+(also known as the Kyzyl-sanghir, Sinir, and Singher
+Mountains), that overlooks the southern shore of the Baghrash-kol,
+though parted from it by the drift-sand desert of Ak-bel-kum (White
+Pass Sands), has at first a W.N.W. to E.S.E. strike, but it gradually
+curves round like a scimitar towards the E.N.E. and at the same
+time gradually decreases in elevation. In 91° E., while the principal
+range of the Kuruk-tagh system wheels to the E.N.E., four of its
+subsidiary ranges terminate, or rather die away somewhat suddenly,
+on the brink of a long narrow depression (in which Sven Hedin sees
+a N.E. bay of the former great Central Asian lake of Lop-nor), having
+over against them the écheloned terminals of similar subordinate
+ranges of the Pe-shan (Bey-san) system (see below). The Kuruk-tagh
+is throughout a relatively low, but almost completely barren range,
+being entirely destitute of animal life, save for hares, antelopes and
+wild camels, which frequent its few small, widely scattered oases.
+The vegetation, which is confined to these same relatively favoured
+spots, is of the scantiest and is mainly confined to bushes of saxaul
+(<i>Anabasis Ammodendron</i>), reeds (<i>kamish</i>), tamarisks, poplars,
+<i>Kalidium</i> and <i>Ephedra</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Desert of Lop.</i>&mdash;This section of the Gobi extends south-eastward
+from the foot of the Kuruk-tagh as far as the present terminal basin
+of the Tarim, namely Kara-koshun (Przhevalsky&rsquo;s Lop-nor), and is an
+almost perfectly horizontal expanse, for, while the Baghrash-kol
+in the N. lies at an altitude of 2940 ft., the Kara-koshun, over 200 m.
+to the S., is only 300 ft. lower. The characteristic features of this
+almost dead level or but slightly undulating region are: (i.) broad,
+unbroken expanses of clay intermingled with sand, the clay (<i>shor</i>)
+being indurated and saliferous and often arranged in terraces; (ii.)
+hard, level, clay expanses, more or less thickly sprinkled with fine
+gravel (<i>say</i>), the clay being mostly of a yellow or yellow-grey colour;
+(iii.) benches, flattened ridges and tabular masses of consolidated
+clay (<i>jardangs</i>), arranged in distinctly defined <i>laminae</i>, three stories
+being sometimes superimposed one upon the other, and their vertical
+faces being abraded, and often undercut, by the wind, while the
+formations themselves are separated by parallel gullies or wind-furrows,
+6 to 20 ft. deep, all sculptured in the direction of the prevailing
+wind, that is, from N.E. to S.W.; and (iv.) the absence of
+drift-sand and sand-dunes, except in the south, towards the outlying
+foothills of the Astin-tagh. Perhaps the most striking characteristic,
+after the jardangs or clay terraces, is the fact that the whole
+of this region is not only swept bare of sand by the terrific sandstorms
+(<i>burans</i>) of the spring months, the particles of sand with
+which the wind is laden acting like a sand-blast, but the actual
+substantive materials of the desert itself are abraded, filed, eroded
+and carried bodily away into the network of lakes in which the Tarim
+loses itself, or are even blown across the lower, constantly shifting
+watercourses of that river and deposited on or among the gigantic
+dunes which choke the eastern end of the desert of Takla-makan.
+Numerous indications, such as salt-stained depressions of a lacustrine
+appearance, traces of former lacustrine shore-lines, more or less
+parallel and concentric, the presence in places of vast quantities of
+fresh-water mollusc shells (species of <i>Limnaea</i> and <i>Planorbis</i>), the
+existence of belts of dead poplars, patches of dead tamarisks and
+extensive beds of withered reeds, all these always on top of the
+jardangs, never in the wind-etched furrows, together with a few
+scrubby poplars and <i>Elaeagnus</i>, still struggling hard not to die, the
+presence of ripple marks of aqueous origin on the leeward sides of the
+clay terraces and in other wind-sheltered situations, all testify to
+the former existence in this region of more or less extensive freshwater
+lakes, now of course completely desiccated. During the
+prevalence of the spring storms the atmosphere that overhangs
+the immediate surface of the desert is so heavily charged with dust
+as to be a veritable pall of desolation. Except for the wild camel
+which frequents the reed oases on the N. edge of the desert, animal
+life is even less abundant than in the Ghashiun-Gobi, and the same
+is true as regards the vegetation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Desert of Kum-tagh.</i>&mdash;This section lies E.S.E. of the desert of Lop,
+on the other side of the Kara-koshun and its more or less temporary
+continuations, and reaches north-eastwards as far as the vicinity of
+the town of Sa-chow and the lake of Kara-nor or Kala-chi. Its
+southern rim is marked by a labyrinth of hills, dotted in groups and
+irregular clusters, but evidently survivals of two parallel ranges
+which are now worn down as it were to mere fragments of their
+former skeletal structure. Between these and the Astin-tagh intervenes
+a broad latitudinal valley, seamed with watercourses which
+come down from the foothills of the Astin-tagh and beside which
+scrubby desert plants of the usual character maintain a precarious
+existence, water reaching them in some instances at intervals of years
+only. This part of the desert has a general slope N.W. towards the
+relative depression of the Kara-koshun. A noticeable feature of the
+Kum-tagh is the presence of large accumulations of drift-sand,
+especially along the foot of the crumbling desert ranges, where it
+rises into dunes sometimes as much as 250 ft. in height and climbs
+half-way up the flanks of ranges themselves. The prevailing winds
+in this region would appear to blow from the W. and N.W. during
+the summer, winter and autumn, though in spring, when they certainly
+are more violent, they no doubt come from the N.E., as in the desert
+of Lop. Anyway, the arrangement of the sand here &ldquo;agrees perfectly
+with the law laid down by Potanin, that in the basins of Central
+Asia the sand is heaped up in greater mass on the south, all along
+the bordering mountain ranges where the floor of the depressions
+lies at the highest level.&rdquo;<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The country to the north of the desert
+ranges is thus summarily described by Sven Hedin:<a name="fa3j" id="fa3j" href="#ft3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> &ldquo;The first zone
+of drift-sand is succeeded by a region which exhibits proofs of wind-modelling
+on an extraordinarily energetic and well developed scale,
+the results corresponding to the jardangs and the wind-eroded
+gullies of the desert of Lop. Both sets of phenomena lie parallel
+to one another; from this we may infer that the winds which prevail
+in the two deserts are the same. Next comes, sharply demarcated
+from the zone just described, a more or less thin kamish steppe
+growing on level ground; and this in turn is followed by another very
+narrow belt of sand, immediately south of Achik-kuduk....
+Finally in the extreme north we have the characteristic and sharply
+defined belt of kamish steppe, stretching from E.N.E. to W.S.W.
+and bounded on N. and S. by high, sharp-cut clay terraces....
+At the points where we measured them the northern terrace was
+113 ft. high and the southern 85¼ ft.... Both terraces belong to
+the same level, and would appear to correspond to the shore lines of a
+big bay of the last surviving remnant of the Central Asian Mediterranean.
+At the point where I crossed it the depression was 6 to 7 m.
+wide, and thus resembled a flat valley or immense river-bed.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page167" id="page167"></a>167</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Desert of Hami and the Pe-shan Mountains.</i>&mdash;This section occupies
+the space between the Tian-shan system on the N. and the Nan-shan
+Mountains on the S., and is connected on the W. with the desert of
+Lop. The classic account is that of Przhevalsky, who crossed the
+desert from Hami (or Khami) to Su-chow (not Sa-chow) in the summer
+of 1879. In the middle this desert rises into a vast swelling, 80 m.
+across, which reaches an average elevation of 5000 ft. and a maximum
+elevation of 5500 ft. On its northern and southern borders it is
+overtopped by two divisions of the Bey-san (= Pe-shan) Mountains,
+neither of which attains any great relative altitude. Between the
+northern division and the Karlyk-tagh range or E. Tian-shan
+intervenes a somewhat undulating barren plain, 3900 ft. in altitude
+and 40 m. from N. to S., sloping downwards from both N. and S.
+towards the middle, where lies the oasis of Hami (2800 ft.). Similarly
+from the southern division of the Bey-san a second plain slopes down
+for 1000 ft. to the valley of the river Bulunzir or Su-lai-ho, which
+comes out of China, from the south side of the Great Wall, and finally
+empties itself into the lake of Kala-chi or Kara-nor. From the
+Bulunzir the same plain continues southwards at a level of 3700 ft.
+to the foot of the Nan-shan Mountains. The total breadth of the
+desert from N. to S. is here 200 m. Its general character is that of an
+undulating plain, dotted over with occasional elevations of clay,
+which present the appearance of walls, table-topped mounds and
+broken towers (<i>jardangs</i>), the surface of the plain being strewn with
+gravel and absolutely destitute of vegetation. Generally speaking,
+the Bey-san ranges consist of isolated hills or groups of hills, of low
+relative elevation (100 to 300 ft.), scattered without any regard to
+order over the arch of the swelling. They nowhere rise into well-defined
+peaks. Their axis runs from W.S.W. to E.N.E. But whereas
+Przhevalsky and Sven Hedin consider them to be a continuation of
+the Kuruk-tagh, though the latter regards them as separated from
+the Kuruk-tagh by a well-marked bay of the former Central Asian
+Mediterranean (Lop-nor), Futterer declares they are a continuation
+of the Chol-tagh. The swelling or undulating plain between these
+two ranges of the Bey-san measures about 70 m. across and is
+traversed by several stretches of high ground having generally an
+east-west direction.<a name="fa4j" id="fa4j" href="#ft4j"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Futterer, who crossed the same desert twenty
+years after Przhevalsky, agrees generally in his description of it,
+but supplements the account of the latter explorer with several
+particulars. He observes that the ranges in this part of the Gobi
+are much worn down and wasted, like the Kuruk-tagh farther west
+and the tablelands of S.E. Mongolia farther east, through the effects
+of century-long insolation, wind erosion, great and sudden changes
+of temperature, chemical action and occasional water erosion.
+Vast areas towards the N. consist of expanses of gently sloping (at
+a mean slope of 3°) clay, intermingled with gravel. He points out
+also that the greatest accumulations of sand and other products of
+aerial denudation do not occur in the deepest parts of the depressions
+but at the outlets of the valleys and glens, and along the foot of the
+ranges which flank the depressions on the S. Wherever water has
+been, desert scrub is found, such as tamarisks, <i>Dodartia orientalis</i>,
+<i>Agriophyllum gobicum</i>, <i>Calligonium sinnex</i>, and <i>Lycium ruthenicum</i>,
+but all with their roots elevated on little mounds in the same way
+as the tamarisks grow in the Takla-makan and desert of Lop.</p>
+
+<p>Farther east, towards central Mongolia, the relations, says Futterer,
+are the same as along the Hami-Su-chow route, except that the ranges
+have lower and broader crests, and the detached hills are more
+denuded and more disintegrated. Between the ranges occur broad,
+flat, cauldron-shaped valleys and basins, almost destitute of life
+except for a few hares and a few birds, such as the crow and the
+pheasant, and with scanty vegetation, but no great accumulations
+of drift-sand. The rocks are severely weathered on the surface, a
+thick layer of the coarser products of denudation covers the flat parts
+and climbs a good way up the flanks of the mountain ranges, but all
+the finer material, sand and clay has been blown away partly S.E. into
+Ordos, partly into the Chinese provinces of Shen-si and Shan-si, where
+it is deposited as loess, and partly W., where it chokes all the southern
+parts of the basin of the Tarim. In these central parts of the Gobi,
+as indeed in all other parts except the desert of Lop and Ordos, the
+prevailing winds blow from the W. and N.W. These winds are warm
+in summer, and it is they which in the desert of Hami bring the fierce
+sandstorms or burans. The wind does blow also from the N.E., but
+it is then cold and often brings snow, though it speedily clears the
+air of the everlasting dust haze. In summer great heat is encountered
+here on the relatively low (3000-4600 ft.), gravelly expanses (<i>say</i>)
+on the N. and on those of the S. (4000-5000 ft.); but on the higher
+swelling between, which in the Pe-shan ranges ascends to 7550 ft.,
+there is great cold even in summer, and a wide daily range of temperature.
+Above the broad and deep accumulations of the products of
+denudation which have been brought down by the rivers from the
+Tian-shan ranges (<i>e.g.</i> the Karlyk-tagh) on the N. and from the Nan-shan
+on the S., and have filled up the cauldron-shaped valleys, there
+rises a broad swelling, built up of granitic rocks, crystalline schists
+and metamorphosed sedimentary rocks of both Archaic and Palaeozoic
+age, all greatly folded and tilted up, and shot through with
+numerous irruptions of volcanic rocks, predominantly porphyritic
+and dioritic. On this swelling rise four more or less parallel mountain
+ranges of the Pe-shan system, together with a fifth chain of hills
+farther S., all having a strike from W.N.W. to E.N.E. The range
+farthest N. rises to 1000 ft. above the desert and 7550 ft. above
+sea-level, the next two ranges reach 1300 ft. above the general level
+of the desert, and the range farthest south 1475 ft. or an absolute
+altitude of 7200 ft., while the fifth chain of hills does not exceed
+650 ft. in relative elevation. All these ranges decrease in altitude
+from W. to E. In the depressions which border the Pe-shan swelling
+on N. and S. are found the sedimentary deposits of the Tertiary
+sea of the Han-hai; but no traces of those deposits have been found
+on the swelling itself at altitudes of 5600 to 5700 ft. Hence, Futterer
+infers, in recent geological times no large sea has occupied the central
+part of the Gobi. Beyond an occasional visit from a band of nomad
+Mongols, this region of the Pe-shan swelling is entirely uninhabited.<a name="fa5j" id="fa5j" href="#ft5j"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
+And yet it was from this very region, avers G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo,
+that the Yue-chi, a nomad race akin to the Tibetans, proceeded
+when, towards the middle of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, they moved
+westwards and settled near Lake Issyk-kul; and from here proceeded
+also the Shanshani, or people who some two thousand years ago
+founded the state of Shanshan or Loû-lan, ruins of the chief town of
+which Sven Hedin discovered in the desert of Lop in 1901. Here,
+says the Russian explorer, the Huns gathered strength, as also did
+the Tukiu (Turks) in the 6th century, and the Uighur tribes and the
+rulers of the Tangut kingdom. But after Jenghiz Khan in the 12th
+century drew away the peoples of this region, and no others came
+to take their place, the country went out of cultivation and eventually
+became the barren desert it now is.<a name="fa6j" id="fa6j" href="#ft6j"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Ala-shan.</i>&mdash;This division of the great desert, known also as the
+Hsi-tau and the Little Gobi, fills the space between the great N.
+loop of the Hwang-ho or Yellow river on the E., the Edzin-gol on
+the W., and the Nan-shan Mountains on the S.W., where it is separated
+from the Chinese province of Kan-suh by the narrow rocky chain
+of Lung-shan (Ala-shan), 10,500 to 11,600 ft. in altitude. It belongs
+to the middle basin of the three great depressions into which Potanin
+divides the Gobi as a whole. &ldquo;Topographically,&rdquo; says Przhevalsky,
+&ldquo;it is a perfectly level plain, which in all probability once formed the
+bed of a huge lake or inland sea.&rdquo; The data upon which he bases this
+conclusion are the level area of the region as a whole, the hard saline
+clay and the sand-strewn surface, and lastly the salt lakes which
+occupy its lowest parts. For hundreds of miles there is nothing to be
+seen but bare sands; in some places they continue so far without
+a break that the Mongols call them Tyngheri (<i>i.e.</i> sky). These vast
+expanses are absolutely waterless, nor do any oases relieve the unbroken
+stretches of yellow sand which alternate with equally vast
+areas of saline clay or, nearer the foot of the mountains, with barren
+shingle. Although on the whole a level country with a general
+altitude of 3300 to 5000 ft., this section, like most other parts of the
+Gobi, is crowned by a chequered network of hills and broken ranges
+going up 1000 ft. higher. The vegetation is confined to a few
+varieties of bushes and a dozen kinds of grasses, the most conspicuous
+being saxaul and <i>Agriophyllum gobicum</i><a name="fa7j" id="fa7j" href="#ft7j"><span class="sp">7</span></a> (a grass). The others
+include prickly convolvulus, field wormwood, acacia, <i>Inula ammophila</i>,
+<i>Sophora flavescens</i>, <i>Convolvulus Ammani</i>, <i>Peganum</i> and
+<i>Astragalus</i>, but all dwarfed, deformed and starved. The fauna
+consists of little else except antelopes, the wolf, fox, hare, hedgehog,
+marten, numerous lizards and a few birds, <i>e.g.</i> the sand-grouse,
+lark, stonechat, sparrow, crane, <i>Podoces Hendersoni</i>, <i>Otocorys
+albigula</i> and <i>Galerita cristata</i>.<a name="fa8j" id="fa8j" href="#ft8j"><span class="sp">8</span></a> The only human inhabitants of
+Ala-shan are the Torgod Mongols.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ordos.</i>&mdash;East of the desert of Ala-shan, and only separated from
+it by the Hwang-ho, is the desert of Ordos or Ho-tau, &ldquo;a level
+steppe, partly bordered by low hills. The soil is altogether sandy
+or a mixture of clay and sand, ill adapted for agriculture. The
+absolute height of this country is between 3000 and 3500 ft., so that
+Ordos forms an intermediate step in the descent to China from the
+Gobi, separated from the latter by the mountain ranges lying on
+the N. and E. of the Hwang-ho or Yellow river.&rdquo;<a name="fa9j" id="fa9j" href="#ft9j"><span class="sp">9</span></a> Towards the
+south Ordos rises to an altitude of over 5000 ft., and in the W., along
+the right bank of the Hwang-ho, the Arbus or Arbiso Mountains,
+which overtop the steppe by some 3000 ft., serve to link the Ala-shan
+Mountains with the In-shan. The northern part of the great loop
+of the river is filled with the sands of Kuzupchi, a succession of dunes,
+40 to 50 ft. high. Amongst them in scattered patches grow the shrub
+<i>Hedysarum</i> and the trees <i>Calligonium Tragopyrum</i> and <i>Pugionium
+cornutum</i>. In some places these sand-dunes approach close to the
+great river, in others they are parted from it by a belt of sand,
+intermingled with clay, which terminates in a steep escarpment,
+50 ft. and in some localities 100 ft. above the river. This belt is
+studded with little mounds (7 to 10 ft. high), mostly overgrown with
+wormwood (<i>Artemisia campestris</i>) and the Siberian pea-tree (<i>Caragana</i>);
+and here too grows one of the most characteristic plants
+of Ordos, the liquorice root (<i>Glycyrrhiza uralensis</i>). Eventually
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page168" id="page168"></a>168</span>
+the sand-dunes cross over to the left bank of the Hwang-ho, and
+are threaded by the beds of dry watercourses, while the level spaces
+amongst them are studded with little mounds (3 to 6 ft. high),
+on which grow stunted <i>Nitraria Scoberi</i> and <i>Zygophyllum</i>. Ordos,
+which was anciently known as Ho-nan (&ldquo;the country south of the
+river&rdquo;) and still farther back in time as Ho-tau, was occupied by the
+Hiong-nu in the 1st and 2nd centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, but was almost depopulated
+during and after the Dungan revolt of 1869. North of the
+big loop of the Hwang-ho Ordos is separated from the central Gobi
+by a succession of mountain chains, the Kara-naryn-ula, the Sheiten-ula,
+and the In-shan Mountains, which link on to the south end of the
+Great Khingan Mountains. The In-shan Mountains, which stretch
+from 108° to 112° E., have a wild Alpine character and are distinguished
+from other mountains in the S.E. of Mongolia by an
+abundance of both water and vegetation. In one of their constituent
+ranges, the bold Munni-ula, 70 m. long and nearly 20 m. wide, they
+attain elevations of 7500 to 8500 ft., and have steep flanks, slashed
+with rugged gorges and narrow glens. Forests begin on them at
+5300 ft. and wild flowers grow in great profusion and variety in
+summer, though with a striking lack of brilliancy in colouring.
+In this same border range there is also a much greater abundance
+and variety of animal life, especially amongst the avifauna.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eastern Gobi.</i>&mdash;Here the surface is extremely diversified, although
+there are no great differences in vertical elevation. Between Urga
+(48° N. and 107° E.) and the little lake of Iren-dubasu-nor (111° 50&prime; E.
+and 43° 45&prime; N.) the surface is greatly eroded, and consists of broad
+flat depressions and basins separated by groups of flat-topped
+mountains of relatively low elevation (500 to 600 ft.), through
+which archaic rocks crop out as crags and isolated rugged masses.
+The floors of the depressions lie mostly between 2900 and 3200 ft.
+above sea-level. Farther south, between Iren-dubasu-nor and the
+Hwang-ho comes a region of broad tablelands alternating with
+flat plains, the latter ranging at altitudes of 3300 to 3600 ft. and
+the former at 3500 to 4000 ft. The slopes of the plateaus are more
+or less steep, and are sometimes penetrated by &ldquo;bays&rdquo; of the lowlands.
+As the border-range of the Khingan is approached the
+country steadily rises up to 4500 ft. and then to 5350 ft. Here
+small lakes frequently fill the depressions, though the water in them
+is generally salt or brackish. And both here, and for 200 m. south
+of Urga, streams are frequent, and grass grows more or less abundantly.
+There is, however, through all the central parts, until the bordering
+mountains are reached, an utter absence of trees and shrubs. Clay
+and sand are the predominant formations, the watercourses, especially
+in the north, being frequently excavated 6 to 8 ft. deep, and in
+many places in the flat, dry valleys or depressions farther south
+beds of loess, 15 to 20 ft. thick, are exposed. West of the route
+from Urga to Kalgan the country presents approximately the same
+general features, except that the mountains are not so irregularly
+scattered in groups but have more strongly defined strikes, mostly
+E. to W., W.N.W. to E.S.E., and W.S.W. to E.N.E. The altitudes
+too are higher, those of the lowlands ranging from 3300 to 5600 ft.,
+and those of the ranges from 650 to 1650 ft. higher, though in a few
+cases they reach altitudes of 8000 ft. above sea-level. The elevations
+do not, however, as a rule form continuous chains, but make up a
+congeries of short ridges and groups rising from a common base and
+intersected by a labyrinth of ravines, gullies, glens and basins.
+But the tablelands, built up of the horizontal red deposits of the
+Han-hai (Obruchev&rsquo;s Gobi formation) which are characteristic of
+the southern parts of eastern Mongolia, are absent here or occur
+only in one locality, near the Shara-muren river, and are then greatly
+intersected by gullies or dry watercourses.<a name="fa10j" id="fa10j" href="#ft10j"><span class="sp">10</span></a> Here there is, however,
+a great dearth of water, no streams, no lakes, no wells, and precipitation
+falls but seldom. The prevailing winds blow from the W. and
+N.W. and the pall of dust overhangs the country as in the Takla-makan
+and the desert of Lop. Characteristic of the flora are wild
+garlic, <i>Kalidium gracile</i>, wormwood, saxaul, <i>Nitraria Scoberi</i>,
+<i>Caragana</i>, <i>Ephedra</i>, saltwort and <i>dirisun</i> (<i>Lasiagrostis splendens</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This great desert country of Gobi is crossed by several trade routes,
+some of which have been in use for thousands of years. Among the
+most important are those from Kalgan on the frontier of China to
+Urga (600 m.), from Su-chow (in Kan-suh) to Hami (420 m.) from
+Hami to Peking (1300 m.), from Kwei-hwa-cheng (or Kuku-khoto)
+to Hami and Barkul, and from Lanchow (in Kan-suh) to Hami.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;The climate of the Gobi is one of great extremes, combined
+with rapid changes of temperature, not only at all seasons of
+the year but even within 24 hours (as much as 58° F.). For instance,
+at Urga (3770 ft.) the annual mean is 27.5° F., the January mean
+&minus;15.7°, and the July mean 63.5°, the extremes being 100.5° and
+&minus;44.5°; while at Sivantse (3905 ft.) the annual mean is 37°, the
+January mean 2.3°, and the July mean 66.3°, the range being from
+a recorded maximum of 93° to a recorded minimum of &minus;53°. Even
+in southern Mongolia the thermometer goes down as low as &minus;27°,
+and in Ala-shan it rises day after day in July as high as 99°. Although
+the south-east monsoons reach the S.E. parts of the Gobi, the air
+generally throughout this region is characterized by extreme dryness,
+especially during the winter. Hence the icy sandstorms and snowstorms
+of spring and early summer. The rainfall at Urga for the year
+amounts to only 9.7 in.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sands of the Gobi Deserts.</i>&mdash;With regard to the origin of the masses
+of sand out of which the dunes and chains of dunes (<i>barkhans</i>) are
+built up in the several deserts of the Gobi, opinions differ. While
+some explorers consider them to be the product of marine, or at any
+rate lacustrine, denudation (the Central Asian Mediterranean),
+others&mdash;and this is not only the more reasonable view, but it is the
+view which is gaining most ground&mdash;consider that they are the products
+of the aerial denudation of the border ranges (<i>e.g.</i> Nan-shan,
+Karlyk-tagh, &amp;c.), and more especially of the terribly wasted ranges
+and chains of hills, which, like the gaunt fragments of montane
+skeletal remains, lie littered all over the swelling uplands and
+tablelands of the Gobi, and that they have been transported by the
+prevailing winds to the localities in which they are now accumulated,
+the winds obeying similar transportation laws to the rivers and
+streams which carry down sediment in moister parts of the world.
+Potanin points out<a name="fa11j" id="fa11j" href="#ft11j"><span class="sp">11</span></a> that &ldquo;there is a certain amount of regularity
+observable in the distribution of the sandy deserts over the vast
+uplands of central Asia. Two agencies are represented in the distribution
+of the sands, though what they really are is not quite clear;
+and of these two agencies one prevails in the north-west, the other
+in the south-east, so that the whole of Central Asia may be divided
+into two regions, the dividing line between them being drawn from
+north-east to south-west, from Urga via the eastern end of the
+Tian-shan to the city of Kashgar. North-west of this line the sandy
+masses are broken up into detached and disconnected areas, and are
+almost without exception heaped up around the lakes, and consequently
+in the lowest parts of the several districts in which they
+exist. Moreover, we find also that these sandy tracts always occur
+on the western or south-western shores of the lakes; this is the case
+with the lakes of Balkash, Ala-kul, Ebi-nor, Ayar-nor (or Telli-nor),
+Orku-nor, Zaisan-nor, Ulungur-nor, Ubsa-nor, Durga-nor and
+Kara-nor lying E. of Kirghiz-nor. South-east of the line the arrangement
+of the sand is quite different. In that part of Asia we have
+three gigantic but disconnected basins. The first, lying farthest east,
+is embraced on the one side by the ramifications of the Kentei and
+Khangai Mountains and on the other by the In-shan Mountains.
+The second or middle division is contained between the Altai of the
+Gobi and the Ala-shan. The third basin, in the west, lies between
+the Tian-shan and the border ranges of western Tibet.... The
+deepest parts of each of these three depressions occur near their
+northern borders; towards their southern boundaries they are all
+alike very much higher.... However, the sandy deserts are not
+found in the low-lying tracts but occur on the higher uplands which
+foot the southern mountain ranges, the In-shan and the Nan-shan.
+Our maps show an immense expanse of sand south of the Tarim
+in the western basin; beginning in the neighbourhood of the city
+of Yarkent (Yarkand), it extends eastwards past the towns of Khotan,
+Keriya and Cherchen to Sa-chow. Along this stretch there is only
+one locality which forms an exception to the rule we have indicated,
+namely, the region round the lake of Lop-nor. In the middle basin the
+widest expanse of sand occurs between the Edzin-gol and the range
+of Ala-shan. On the south it extends nearly as far as a line drawn
+through the towns of Lian-chow, Kan-chow and Kao-tai at the foot
+of the Nan-shan; but on the south it does not approach anything
+like so far as the latitude (42° N.) of the lake of Ghashiun-nor. Still
+farther east come the sandy deserts of Ordos, extending south-eastward
+as far as the mountain range which separates Ordos
+from the (Chinese) provinces of Shan-si and Shen-si. In the eastern
+basin drift-sand is encountered between the district of Ude in the
+north (44° 30&prime; N.) and the foot of the In-shan in the south.&rdquo; In
+two regions, if not in three, the sands have overwhelmed large
+tracts of once cultivated country, and even buried the cities in
+which men formerly dwelt. These regions are the southern parts
+of the desert of Takla-makan (where Sven Hedin and M. A. Stein<a name="fa12j" id="fa12j" href="#ft12j"><span class="sp">12</span></a>
+have discovered the ruins under the desert sands), along the N.
+foot of the Nan-shan, and probably in part (other agencies having
+helped) in the north of the desert of Lop, where Sven Hedin
+discovered the ruins of Lo&#363;-lan and of other towns or villages.
+For these vast accumulations of sand are constantly in movement;
+though the movement is slow, it has nevertheless been calculated
+that in the south of the Takla-makan the sand-dunes travel
+bodily at the rate of roughly something like 160 ft. in the course of a
+year. The shape and arrangement of the individual sand-dunes,
+and of the barkhans, generally indicate from which direction the
+predominant winds blow. On the windward side of the dune the
+slope is long and gentle, while the leeward side is steep and in outline
+concave like a horse-shoe. The dunes vary in height from 30 up to
+300 ft., and in some places mount as it were upon one another&rsquo;s
+shoulders, and in some localities it is even said that a third tier is
+sometimes superimposed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;See N. M. Przhevalsky, <i>Mongolia, the Tangut
+Country, &amp;c.</i> (Eng. trans., ed. by Sir H. Yule, London, 1876), and
+<i>From Kulja across the Tian Shan to Lob Nor</i> (Eng. trans, by Delmar
+Morgan, London, 1879); G. N. Potanin, <i>Tangutsko-Tibetskaya
+Okraina Kitaya i Centralnaya Mongoliya, 1884-1886</i> (1893, &amp;c.);
+M. V. Pjevtsov, <i>Sketch of a Journey to Mongolia</i> (in Russian, Omsk,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169"></a>169</span>
+1883); G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, <i>Opisanie Puteshestviya v Sapadniy
+Kitai</i> (1898-1899); V. A. Obruchev, <i>Centralnaya Asiya, Severniy
+Kitai i Nan-schan, 1892-1894</i> (1900-1901); V. I. Roborovsky and
+P. K. Kozlov, <i>Trudy Ekspeditsiy Imp. Russ. Geog. Obshchestva Po
+Centralnoy Asiy, 1893-1895</i> (1900, &amp;c.); Roborovsky, <i>Trudy
+Tibetskoi Ekspeditsiy, 1889-1890</i>; Sven Hedin, <i>Scientific Results
+of a Journey in Central Asia, 1899-1902</i> (6 vols., 1905-1907);
+Futterer, <i>Durch Asien</i> (1901, &amp;c.); K. Bogdanovich, <i>Geologicheskiya
+Isledovaniya v Vostochnom Turkestane</i> and <i>Trudiy Tibetskoy Ekspeditsiy,
+1889-1890</i>; L. von Loczy, <i>Die wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse
+der Reise des Grafen Széchenyi in Ostasien, 1877-1880</i> (1883); Ney
+Elias, in <i>Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc.</i> (1873); C. W. Campbell&rsquo;s &ldquo;Journeys
+in Mongolia,&rdquo; in <i>Geographical Journal</i> (Nov. 1903); Pozdnievym,
+<i>Mongolia and the Mongols</i> (in Russian, St Petersburg, 1897 &amp;c.);
+Deniker&rsquo;s summary of Kozlov&rsquo;s latest journeys in <i>La Géographie</i>
+(1901, &amp;c.); F. von Richthofen, <i>China</i> (1877).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. T. Be.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Cf. G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, <i>Opisaniye Puteshestviya</i>, i. 381-417.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Quoted in Sven Hedin, <i>Scientific Results</i>, ii. 499.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> ii. 499-500.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4j" id="ft4j" href="#fa4j"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Przhevalsky, <i>Iz Zayana cherez Hami v Tibet na Vershovya
+Shaltoy Reki</i>, pp. 84-91.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5j" id="ft5j" href="#fa5j"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Futterer, <i>Durch Asien</i>, i. pp. 206-211.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6j" id="ft6j" href="#fa6j"><span class="fn">6</span></a> G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, <i>Opisanie Puteshestviya v Sapadniy
+Kitai</i>, ii. p. 127.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7j" id="ft7j" href="#fa7j"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Its seeds are pounded by the Mongols to flour and mixed with
+their tea.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8j" id="ft8j" href="#fa8j"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Przhevalsky, <i>Mongolia</i> (Eng. trans. ed. by Sir H. Yule).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9j" id="ft9j" href="#fa9j"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Przhevalsky, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 183.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10j" id="ft10j" href="#fa10j"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Obruchev. in <i>Izvestia</i> of Russ. Geogr. Soc. (1895).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11j" id="ft11j" href="#fa11j"><span class="fn">11</span></a> In <i>Tangutsko-Tibetskaya Okraina Kitaya i Centralnaya Mongoliya</i>,
+i. pp. 96, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12j" id="ft12j" href="#fa12j"><span class="fn">12</span></a> See <i>Sand-buried Cities of Khotan</i> (London, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOBLET, RENÉ<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1828-1905), French politician, was born at
+Aire-sur-la-Lys, in the Pas de Calais, on the 26th of November
+1828, and was educated for the law. Under the Second Empire,
+he helped to found a Liberal journal, <i>Le Progrès de la Somme</i>,
+and in July 1871 was sent by the department of the Somme to
+the National Assembly, where he took his place on the extreme
+left. He failed to secure election in 1876, but next year was
+returned for Amiens. He held a minor government office in
+1879, and in 1882 became minister of the interior in the Freycinet
+cabinet. He was minister of education, fine arts and religion in
+Henri Brisson&rsquo;s first cabinet in 1885, and again under Freycinet
+in 1886, when he greatly increased his reputation by an able
+defence of the government&rsquo;s education proposals. Meanwhile
+his extreme independence and excessive candour had alienated
+him from many of his party, and all through his life he was
+frequently in conflict with his political associates, from Gambetta
+downwards. On the fall of the Freycinet cabinet in December
+he formed a cabinet in which he reserved for himself the portfolios
+of the interior and of religion. The Goblet cabinet was unpopular
+from the outset, and it was with difficulty that anybody could
+be found to accept the ministry of foreign affairs, which was
+finally given to M. Flourens. Then came what is known as the
+Schnaebele incident, the arrest on the German frontier of a
+French official named Schnaebele, which caused immense excitement
+in France. For some days Goblet took no definite decision,
+but left Flourens, who stood for peace, to fight it out with
+General Boulanger, then minister of war, who was for the
+despatch of an ultimatum. Although he finally intervened on
+the side of Flourens, and peace was preserved, his weakness in
+face of the Boulangist propaganda became a national danger.
+Defeated on the budget in May 1887, his government resigned;
+but he returned to office next year as foreign minister in the
+radical administration of Charles Floquet. He was defeated at
+the polls by a Boulangist candidate in 1889, and sat in the senate
+from 1891 to 1893, when he returned to the popular chamber.
+In association with MM. E. Lockroy, Ferdinand Sarrien and
+P. L. Peytral he drew up a republican programme which they
+put forward in the <i>Petite République française</i>. At the elections
+of 1898 he was defeated, and thenceforward took little part in
+public affairs. He died in Paris on the 13th of September
+1905.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOBLET,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> a large type of drinking-vessel, particularly one
+shaped like a cup, without handles, and mounted on a shank
+with a foot. The word is derived from the O. Fr. <i>gobelet</i>, diminutive
+of <i>gobel</i>, <i>gobeau</i>, which Skeat takes to be formed from Low
+Lat. <i>cupellus</i>, cup, diminutive of <i>cupa</i>, tub, cask (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drinking-Vessels</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOBY.<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> The gobies (<i>Gobius</i>) are small fishes readily recognized
+by their ventrals (the fins on the lower surface of the chest) being
+united into one fin, forming a suctorial disk, by which these fishes
+are enabled to attach themselves in every possible position to a
+rock or other firm substances. They are essentially coast-fishes,
+inhabiting nearly all seas, but disappearing towards the Arctic
+and Antarctic Oceans. Many enter, or live exclusively in, such
+fresh waters as are at no great distance from the sea. Nearly 500
+different kinds are known. The largest British species, <i>Gobius
+capito</i>, occurring in the rock-pools of Cornwall, measures 10
+in. <i>Gobius alcocki</i>, from brackish and fresh waters of Lower
+Bengal, is one of the very smallest of fishes, not measuring over
+16 millimetres (= 7 lines). The males are usually more brilliantly
+coloured than the females, and guard the eggs, which are often
+placed in a sort of nest made of the shell of some bivalve or of the
+carapace of a crab, with the convexity turned upwards and
+covered with sand, the eggs being stuck to the inner surface of
+this roof.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:525px; height:150px" src="images/img169a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;<i>Gobius lentiginosus</i>.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;United<br />
+Ventrals of Goby.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:410px; height:178px" src="images/img169b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;<i>Periophthalmus koelreuteri</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Close allies of the gobies are the walking fish or jumping fish
+(<i>Periophthalmus</i>), of which various species are found in great
+numbers on the mud flats at the mouths of rivers in the tropics,
+skipping about by means of the muscular, scaly base of their
+pectoral fins, with the head raised and bearing a pair of strongly
+projecting versatile eyes close together.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOCH,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on
+the Niers, 8 m. S. of Cleves at the junction of the railways Cologne-Zevenaar
+and Boxtel-Wesel. Pop. (1905) 10,232. It has a
+Protestant and a Roman Catholic church and manufactures of
+brushes, plush goods, cigars and margarine. In the middle ages
+it was the seat of a large trade in linen. Goch became a town in
+1231 and belonged to the dukes of Gelderland and later to the
+dukes of Cleves.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOD,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> the common Teutonic word for a personal object of
+religious worship. It is thus, like the Gr. <span class="grk" title="theos">&#952;&#949;&#972;&#962;</span> and Lat. <i>deus</i>,
+applied to all those superhuman beings of the heathen mythologies
+who exercise power over nature and man and are often identified
+with some particular sphere of activity; and also to the visible
+material objects, whether an image of the supernatural being or a
+tree, pillar, &amp;c. used as a symbol, an idol. The word &ldquo;god,&rdquo; on
+the conversion of the Teutonic races to Christianity, was
+adopted as the name of the one Supreme Being, the Creator of the
+universe, and of the Persons of the Trinity. The <i>New English
+Dictionary</i> points out that whereas the old Teutonic type of the
+word is neuter, corresponding to the Latin <i>numen</i>, in the Christian
+applications it becomes masculine, and that even where the
+earlier neuter form is still kept, as in Gothic and Old Norwegian,
+the construction is masculine. Popular etymology has connected
+the word with &ldquo;good&rdquo;; this is exemplified by the corruption of
+&ldquo;God be with you&rdquo; into &ldquo;good-bye.&rdquo; &ldquo;God&rdquo; is a word
+common to all Teutonic languages. In Gothic it is <i>Guth</i>; Dutch
+has the same form as English; Danish and Swedish have <i>Gud</i>,
+German <i>Gott</i>. According to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, the
+original may be found in two Aryan roots, both of the form <i>gheu</i>,
+one of which means &ldquo;to invoke,&rdquo; the other &ldquo;to pour&rdquo; (cf. Gr.
+<span class="grk" title="cheein">&#967;&#941;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>); the last is used of sacrificial offerings. The word would
+thus mean the object either of religious invocation or of religious
+worship by sacrifice. It has been also suggested that the word
+might mean a &ldquo;molten image&rdquo; from the sense of &ldquo;pour.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Religion</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew Religion</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theism</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODALMING,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> a market-town and municipal borough in the
+Guildford parliamentary division of Surrey, England, 34 m. S.W.
+of London by the London &amp; South-Western railway. Pop. (1901)
+8748. It is beautifully situated on the right bank of the Wey,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page170" id="page170"></a>170</span>
+which is navigable thence to the Thames, and on the high road
+between London and Portsmouth. Steep hills, finely wooded,
+enclose the valley. The chief public buildings are the church of
+SS. Peter and Paul, a cruciform building of mixed architecture,
+but principally Early English and Perpendicular; the town-hall,
+Victoria hall, and market-house, and a technical institute and
+school of science and art. Charterhouse School, one of the
+principal English public schools, originally founded in 1611, was
+transferred from Charterhouse Square, London, to Godalming in
+1872. It stands within grounds 92 acres in extent, half a mile
+north of Godalming, and consists of spacious buildings in Gothic
+style, with a chapel, library and hall, besides boarding-houses,
+masters&rsquo; houses and sanatoria. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charterhouse</a></span>.) Godalming
+has manufactures of paper, leather, parchment and hosiery, and
+some trade in corn, malt, bark, hoops and timber; and the
+Bargate stone, of which the parish church is built, is still quarried.
+The borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
+Area, 812 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Godalming (Godelminge) belonged to King Alfred, and was a
+royal manor at the time of Domesday. The manor belonged to
+the see of Salisbury in the middle ages, but reverted to the crown
+in the time of Henry VIII. Godalming was incorporated by
+Elizabeth in 1574, when the borough originated. The charter
+was confirmed by James I. in 1620, and a fresh charter was
+granted by Charles II. in 1666. The borough was never represented
+in parliament. The bishop of Salisbury in 1300 received the
+grant of a weekly market to be held on Mondays: the day was
+altered to Wednesday by Elizabeth&rsquo;s charter. The bishop&rsquo;s
+grant included a fair at the feast of St Peter and St Paul (29th of
+June). Another fair at Candlemas (2nd of February) was granted
+by Elizabeth. The market is still held. The making of cloth,
+particularly Hampshire kerseys, was the staple industry of
+Godalming in the middle ages, but it began to decay early in the
+17th century and by 1850 was practically extinct. As in other
+cases, dyeing was subsidiary to the cloth industry. Tanning,
+introduced in the 15th century, survives. The present manufacture
+of fleecy hosiery dates from the end of the 18th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODARD, BENJAMIN LOUIS PAUL<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1849-1895); French
+composer, was born in Paris, on the 18th of August 1849. He
+studied at the Conservatoire, and competed for the Prix de
+Rome without success in 1866 and 1867. He began by publishing
+a number of songs, many of which are charming, such as &ldquo;Je
+ne veux pas d&rsquo;autres choses,&rdquo; &ldquo;Ninon,&rdquo; &ldquo;Chanson de Florian,&rdquo;
+also a quantity of piano pieces, some chamber music, including
+several violin sonatas, a trio for piano and strings, a quartet for
+strings, a violin concerto and a second work of the same kind
+entitled &ldquo;Concerto Romantique.&rdquo; Godard&rsquo;s chance arrived in
+the year 1878, when with his dramatic cantata, <i>Le Tasse</i>, he shared
+with M. Théodore Dubois the honour of winning the musical
+competition instituted by the city of Paris. From that time
+until his death Godard composed a surprisingly large number of
+works, including four operas, <i>Pedro de Zalamea</i>, produced at
+Antwerp in 1884; <i>Jocelyn</i>, given in Paris at the Théâtre du
+Château d&rsquo;Eau, in 1888; <i>Dante</i>, played at the Opéra Comique
+two years later; and <i>La Vivandière</i>, left unfinished and partly
+scored by another hand. This last work was heard at the Opéra
+Comique in 1895, and has been played in England by the Carl
+Rosa Opera Company. His other works include the &ldquo;Symphonie
+légendaire,&rdquo; &ldquo;Symphonie gothique,&rdquo; &ldquo;Diane&rdquo; and various
+orchestral works. Godard&rsquo;s productivity was enormous, and his
+compositions are, for this reason only, decidedly unequal. He
+was at his best in works of smaller dimensions, and has left many
+exquisite songs. Among his more ambitious works the &ldquo;Symphonie
+légendaire&rdquo; may be singled out as being one of the most
+distinctive. He had a decided individuality, and his premature
+death at Cannes on the 10th of January 1895 was a loss to
+French art.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODAVARI,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> a river of central and western India. It flows
+across the Deccan from the Western to the Eastern Ghats; its
+total length is 900 m., the estimated area of its drainage basin,
+112,200 sq. m. Its traditional source is on the side of a hill
+behind the village of Trimbak in Nasik district, Bombay, where
+the water runs into a reservoir from the lips of an image. But
+according to popular legend it proceeds from the same ultimate
+source as the Ganges, though underground. Its course is generally
+south-easterly. After passing through Nasik district, it
+crosses into the dominions of the nizam of Hyderabad. When
+it again strikes British territory it is joined by the Pranhita,
+with its tributaries the Wardha, the Penganga and Wainganga.
+For some distance it flows between the nizam&rsquo;s dominions and
+the Upper Godavari district, and receives the Indravati, the Tal
+and the Sabari. The stream has here a channel varying from
+1 to 2 m. in breadth, occasionally broken by alluvial islands.
+Parallel to the river stretch long ranges of hills. Below the
+junction of the Sabari the channel begins to contract. The
+flanking hills gradually close in on both sides, and the result is
+a magnificent gorge only 200 yds. wide through which the water
+flows into the plain of the delta, about 60 m. from the sea. The
+head of the delta is at the village of Dowlaishweram, where the
+main stream is crossed by the irrigation anicut. The river has
+seven mouths, the largest being the Gautami Godavari. The
+Godavari is regarded as peculiarly sacred, and once every twelve
+years the great bathing festival called <i>Pushkaram</i> is held on its
+banks at Rajahmundry.</p>
+
+<p>The upper waters of the Godavari are scarcely utilized for
+irrigation, but the entire delta has been turned into a garden of
+perennial crops by means of the anicut at Dowlaishweram,
+constructed by Sir Arthur Cotton, from which three main canals
+are drawn off. The river channel here is 3½ m. wide. The anicut
+is a substantial mass of stone, bedded in lime cement, about
+2¼ m. long, 130 ft. broad at the base, and 12 ft. high. The
+stream is thus pent back so as to supply a volume of 3000 cubic ft.
+of water per second during its low season, and 12,000 cubic ft.
+at time of flood. The main canals have a total length of 493 m.,
+irrigating 662,000 acres, and all navigable; and there are 1929 m.
+of distributary channels. In 1864 water-communication was
+opened between the deltas of the Godavari and Kistna. Rocky
+barriers and rapids obstruct navigation in the upper portion of
+the Godavari. Attempts have been made to construct canals
+round these barriers with little success, and the undertaking has
+been abandoned.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODAVARI,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a district of British India, in the north-east
+of the Madras presidency. It was remodelled in 1907-1908,
+when part of it was transferred to Kistna district. Its present
+area is 5634 sq. m. Its territory now lies mainly east of
+the Godavari river, including the entire delta, with a long
+narrow strip extending up its valley. The apex of the delta
+is at Dowlaishweram, where a great dam renders the waters
+available for irrigation. Between this point and the coast
+there is a vast extent of rice fields. Farther inland, and
+enclosing the valley of the great river, are low hills, steep and
+forest-clad. The north-eastern part, known as the Agency
+tract, is occupied by spurs of the Eastern Ghats. The coast is
+low, sandy and swampy, the sea very shallow, so that vessels
+must lie nearly 5 m. from Cocanada, the chief port. The Sabari
+is the principal tributary of the Godavari within the district.
+The Godavari often rises in destructive floods. The population
+of the present area in 1901 was 1,445,961. In the old district
+the increase during the last decade was 11%. The chief towns
+are Cocanada and Rajahmundry. The forests are of great value;
+coal is known, and graphite is worked. The population is
+principally occupied in agriculture, the principal crops being
+rice, oil-seeds, tobacco and sugar. The cigars known in England
+as Lunkas are partly made from tobacco grown on <i>lankas</i> or
+islands in the river Godavari. Sugar (from the juice of the
+palmyra palm) and rum are made by European processes at
+Samalkot. The administrative headquarters are now at Cocanada,
+the chief seaport; but Rajahmundry, at the head of the
+delta, is the old capital. A large but decreasing trade is conducted
+at Cocanada, rice being shipped to Mauritius and Ceylon, and
+cotton and oil-seeds to Europe. Rice-cleaning mills have been
+established here and at other places. The district is traversed
+by the main line of the East Coast railway, with a branch to
+Cocanada; the iron girder bridge of forty-two spans over the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171"></a>171</span>
+Godavari river near Rajahmundry was opened in 1900. There
+is a government college at Rajahmundry, with a training college
+attached, and an aided college at Cocanada.</p>
+
+<p>The Godavari district formed part of the Andhra division of
+Dravida, the north-west portion being subject to the Orissa
+kings, and the south-western belonging to the Vengi kingdom.
+For centuries it was the battlefield on which various chiefs
+fought for independence with varying success till the beginning
+of the 16th century, when the whole country may be said to have
+passed under Mahommedan power. At the conclusion of the
+struggle with the French in the Carnatic, Godavari with the
+Northern Circars was conquered by the English, and finally
+ceded by imperial <i>sanad</i> in 1765. The district was constituted
+in 1859, by the redistribution of the territory comprising the
+former districts of Guntur, Rajahmundry and Masulipatam,
+into what are now the Kistna and Godavari districts.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. Morris, <i>District Manual</i> (1878); <i>District Gazetteer</i> (1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODEFROY<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Gothofredus</span>), a French noble family, which
+numbered among its members several distinguished jurists and
+historians. The family claimed descent from Symon Godefroy,
+who was born at Mons about 1320 and was lord of Sapigneulx
+near Berry-au-bac, now in the department of Aisne.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Denis Godefroy</span> (Dionysius Gothofredus) (1549-1622),
+jurist, son of Léon Godefroy, lord of Guignecourt, was born in
+Paris on the 17th of October 1549. He was educated at the
+Collège de Navarre, and studied law at Louvain, Cologne and
+Heidelberg, returning to Paris in 1573. He embraced the
+reformed religion, and in 1579 left Paris, where his abilities and
+connexions promised a brilliant career, to establish himself at
+Geneva. He became professor of law there, received the freedom
+of the city in 1580; and in 1587 became a member of the Council
+of the Two Hundred. Henry IV. induced him to return to France
+by making him <i>grand bailli</i> of Gex, but no sooner had he installed
+himself than the town was sacked and his library burnt by the
+troops of the duke of Savoy. In 1591 he became professor of
+Roman law at Strassburg, where he remained until April 1600,
+when in response to an invitation from Frederick IV., elector
+palatine, he removed to Heidelberg. The difficulties of his
+position led to his return to Strassburg for a short time, but in
+November 1604 he definitely settled at Heidelberg. He was
+made head of the faculty of law in the university, and was from
+time to time employed on missions to the French court. His
+repeated refusal of offers of advancement in his own country
+was due to his Calvinism. He died at Strassburg on the 7th of
+September 1622, having left Heidelberg before the city was
+sacked by the imperial troops in 1621. His most important work
+was the <i>Corpus juris civilis</i>, originally published at Geneva in
+1583, which went through some twenty editions, the most
+valuable of them being that printed by the Elzevirs at Amsterdam
+in 1633 and the Leipzig edition of 1740.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Lists of his other learned works may be found in Senebier&rsquo;s <i>Hist.
+litt. de Genève</i>, vol. ii., and in Nicéron&rsquo;s <i>Mémoires</i>, vol. xvii. Some of
+his correspondence with his learned friends, with his kinsman
+President de Thou, Isaac Casaubon, Jean Jacques Grynaeus and
+others, is preserved in the libraries of the British Museum, of Basel
+and Paris.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His eldest son, <span class="sc">Theodore Godefroy</span> (1580-1649), was born
+at Geneva on the 14th of July 1580. He abjured Calvinism,
+and was called to the bar in Paris. He became historiographer
+of France in 1613, and was employed from time to time on
+diplomatic missions. He was employed at the congress of
+Münster, where he remained after the signing of peace in 1648
+as chargé d&rsquo;affaires until his death on the 5th of October of the
+next year. His most important work is <i>Le Cérémonial de France ...</i> (1619),
+a work which became a classic on the subject of
+royal ceremonial, and was re-edited by his son in an enlarged
+edition in 1649.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides his printed works he made vast collections of historical
+material which remains in MS. and fills the greater part of the
+Godefroy collection of over five hundred portfolios in the Library
+of the Institute in Paris. These were catalogued by Ludovic
+Lalanne in the <i>Annuaire Bulletin</i> (1865-1866 and 1892) of the
+<i>Société de l&rsquo;histoire de France</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The second son of Denis, <span class="sc">Jacques Godefroy</span> (1587-1652),
+jurist, was born at Geneva on the 13th of September 1587. He
+was sent to France in 1611, and studied law and history at
+Bourges and Paris. He remained faithful to the Calvinist
+persuasion, and soon returned to Geneva, where he became active
+in public affairs. He was secretary of state from 1632 to 1636,
+and syndic or chief magistrate in 1637, 1641, 1645 and 1649.
+He died on the 23rd of June 1652. In addition to his civic and
+political work he lectured on law, and produced, after thirty
+years of labour, his edition of the <i>Codex Theodosianus</i>. This
+code formed the principal, though not the only, source of the
+legal systems of the countries formed from the Western Empire.
+Godefroy&rsquo;s edition was enriched with a multitude of important
+notes and historical comments, and became a standard authority
+on the decadent period of the Western Empire. It was only
+printed thirteen years after his death under the care of his
+friend Antoine Marville at Lyons (4 vols. 1665), and was reprinted
+at Leipzig (6 vols.) in 1736-1745. Of his numerous other works
+the most important was the reconstruction of the twelve tables
+of early Roman law.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also the dictionary of Moreri, Nicéron&rsquo;s <i>Mémoires</i> (vol. 17)
+and a notice in the <i>Bibliothèque universelle de Genève</i> (Dec. 1837).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Denis Godefroy</span> (1615-1681), eldest son of Théodore,
+succeeded his father as historiographer of France, and re-edited
+various chronicles which had been published by him. He was
+entrusted by Colbert with the care and investigation of the
+records concerning the Low Countries preserved at Lille, where
+great part of his life was spent. He was also the historian of
+the reigns of Charles VII. and Charles VIII.</p>
+
+<p>Other members of the family who attained distinction in the
+same branch of learning were the two sons of Denis <span class="correction" title="amended from Godefroi">Godefroy</span>&mdash;Denis
+(1653-1719), also an historian, and Jean, sieur d&rsquo;Aumont
+(1656-1732), who edited the letters of Louis XII., the memoirs
+of Marguerite de Valois, of Castelnau and Pierre de l&rsquo;Estoile,
+and left some useful material for the history of the Low Countries;
+Jean Baptiste Achille Godefroy, sieur de Maillart (1697-1759),
+and Denis Joseph Godefroy, sieur de Maillart (1740-1819), son
+and grandson of Jean Godefroy, who were both officials at
+Lille, and left valuable historical documents which have remained
+in MS.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For further details see <i>Les Savants Godefroy</i> (Paris, 1873) by the
+marquis de Godefroy-Ménilglaise, son of Denis Joseph Godefroy.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODESBERG,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> a spa of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province,
+on the left bank of the Rhine, almost opposite Königswinter,
+and 4 m. S. of Bonn, on the railway to Coblenz. It is a fashionable
+summer resort, and contains numerous pretty villas, the
+residences of merchants from Cologne, Elberfeld, Crefeld and
+other Rhenish manufacturing centres. It has an Evangelical
+and three Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue and several
+educational establishments. Its chalybeate springs annually
+attract a large number of visitors, and the pump-room, baths
+and public grounds are arranged on a sumptuous scale. On a
+conical basalt hill, close by, are the ruins, surmounted by a
+picturesque round tower, of Godesberg castle. Built by Archbishop
+Dietrich I. of Cologne in the 13th century, it was destroyed
+by the Bavarians in 1583.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Dennert, <i>Godesberg, eine Perle des Rheins</i> (Godesberg, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODET, FRÉDÉRIC LOUIS<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1812-1900), Swiss Protestant
+theologian, was born at Neuchâtel on the 25th of October 1812.
+After studying theology at Neuchâtel, Bonn and Berlin, he was
+in 1850 appointed professor of theology at Neuchâtel. From
+1851 to 1866 he also held a pastorate. In 1873 he became one
+of the founders of the free Evangelical Church of Neuchâtel, and
+professor in its theological faculty. He died there on the 29th of
+October 1900. A conservative scholar, Godet was the author
+of some of the most noteworthy French commentaries published
+in recent times.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His commentaries are on the Gospel of St John (2 vols., 1863-1865;
+3rd ed., 1881-1888; Eng. trans. 1886, &amp;c.); St Luke (2 vols., 1871;
+3rd ed., 1888; Eng. trans. 1875, &amp;c.); the Epistle to the Romans (2
+vols., 1879-1880; 2nd ed., 1883-1890; Eng. trans., 1880, &amp;c.);
+Corinthians (2 vols., 1886-1887; Eng. trans. 1886, &amp;c.). His other
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>172</span>
+works include <i>Études bibliques</i> (2 vols., 1873-1874; 4th ed., 1889;
+Eng. trans. 1875 f.), and <i>Introduction au Nouveau Testament</i> (1893 f.;
+Eng. trans., 1894, &amp;c.); <i>Lectures in Defence of the Christian Faith</i>
+(Eng. trans. 4th ed., 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODFREY, SIR EDMUND BERRY<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1621-1678), English
+magistrate and politician, younger son of Thomas Godfrey
+(1586-1664), a member of an old Kentish family, was born on
+the 23rd of December 1621. He was educated at Westminster
+school and at Christ Church, Oxford, and after entering Gray&rsquo;s
+Inn became a dealer in wood. His business prospered. He was
+made a justice of the peace for the city of Westminster, and in
+September 1666 was knighted as a reward for his services as
+magistrate and citizen during the great plague in London; but
+in 1669 he was imprisoned for a few days for instituting the
+arrest of the king&rsquo;s physician, Sir Alexander Fraizer (d. 1681),
+who owed him money. The tragic events in Godfrey&rsquo;s life began
+in September 1678 when Titus Oates and two other men appeared
+before him with written information about the <i>Popish Plot</i>, and
+swore to the truth of their statements. During the intense
+excitement which followed the magistrate expressed a fear that
+his life was in danger, but took no extra precautions for safety.
+On the 12th of October he did not return home as usual, and on
+the 17th his body was found on Primrose Hill, Hampstead.
+Medical and other evidence made it certain that he had been
+murdered, and the excited populace regarded the deed as the
+work of the Roman Catholics. Two committees investigated
+the occurrence without definite result, but in December 1678
+a certain Miles Prance, who had been arrested for conspiracy,
+confessed that he had shared in the murder. According to
+Prance the deed was instigated by some Roman Catholic priests,
+three of whom witnessed the murder, and was committed in the
+courtyard of Somerset House, where Godfrey was strangled by
+Robert Green, Lawrence Hill and Henry Berry, the body being
+afterwards taken to Hampstead. The three men were promptly
+arrested; the evidence of the informer William Bedloe, although
+contradictory, was similar on a few points to that of Prance, and
+in February 1679 they were hanged. Soon afterwards, however,
+some doubt was cast upon this story; a war of words ensued
+between Prance and others, and it was freely asserted that
+Godfrey had committed suicide. Later the falsehood of Prance&rsquo;s
+confession was proved and Prance pleaded guilty to perjury;
+but the fact remains that Godfrey was murdered. Godfrey
+was an excellent magistrate, and was very charitable both in
+public and in private life. Mr John Pollock, in the <i>Popish Plot</i>
+(London, 1903), confirms the view that the three men, Green,
+Hill and Berry, were wrongfully executed, and thinks the
+murder was committed by some Jesuits aided by Prance.
+Godfrey was feared by the Jesuits because he knew, through
+Oates, that on the 24th of April 1678 a Jesuit congregation had
+met at the residence of the duke of York to concert plans for the
+king&rsquo;s murder. He concludes thus: &ldquo;The success of Godfrey&rsquo;s
+murder as a political move is indubitable. The duke of York
+was the pivot of the Roman Catholic scheme in England, and
+Godfrey&rsquo;s death saved both from utter ruin.&rdquo; On the other hand
+Mr Alfred Marks in his <i>Who killed Sir E. B. Godfrey?</i> (1905)
+maintains that suicide was the cause of Godfrey&rsquo;s death.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oates, Titus</a></span>, also R. Tuke, <i>Memoirs of the Life
+and Death of Sir Edmondbury Godfrey</i> (London, 1682); and G.
+Burnet, <i>History of my Own Time; The Reign of Charles II.</i>, edited by
+O. Airy (Oxford, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODFREY OF BOUILLON<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1060-1100), a leader in the First
+Crusade, was the second son of Eustace II., count of Boulogne,
+by his marriage with Ida, daughter of Duke Godfrey II. of
+Lower Lorraine. He was designated by Duke Godfrey as his
+successor; but the emperor Henry IV. gave him only the mark
+of Antwerp, in which the lordship of Bouillon was included
+(1076). He fought for Henry, however, both on the Elster and
+in the siege of Rome; and he was invested in 1082 with the duchy
+of Lower Lorraine. Lorraine had been penetrated by Cluniac
+influences, and Godfrey would seem to have been a man of
+notable piety. Accordingly, though he had himself served as
+an imperialist, and though the Germans in general had little
+sympathy with the Crusaders (<i>subsannabant ... quasi delirantes</i>),
+Godfrey, nevertheless, when the call came &ldquo;to follow Christ,&rdquo;
+almost literally sold all that he had, and followed. Along with
+his brothers Eustace and Baldwin (the future Baldwin I. of
+Jerusalem) he led a German contingent, some 40,000 strong,
+along &ldquo;Charlemagne&rsquo;s road,&rdquo; through Hungary to Constantinople,
+starting in August 1096, and arriving at Constantinople, after
+some difficulties in Hungary, in November. He was the first
+of the crusading princes to arrive, and on him fell the duty of
+deciding what the relations of the princes to the eastern emperor
+Alexius were to be. Eventually, after several disputes and
+some fighting, he did homage to Alexius in January 1097; and
+his example was followed by the other princes. From this time
+until the beginning of 1099 Godfrey appears as one of the
+minor princes, plodding onwards, and steadily fighting, while
+men like Bohemund and Raymund, Baldwin and Tancred were
+determining the course of events.</p>
+
+<p>In 1099 he came once more to the front. The mass of the
+crusaders became weary of the political factions which divided
+some of their leaders; and Godfrey, who was more of a pilgrim
+than a politician, becomes the natural representative of this
+feeling. He was thus able to force the reluctant Raymund to
+march southward to Jerusalem; and he took a prominent
+part in the siege, his division being the first to enter when the
+city was captured. It was natural therefore that, when Raymund
+of Provence refused the offered dignity, Godfrey should be elected
+ruler of Jerusalem (July 22, 1099). He assumed the title not of
+king, but of &ldquo;advocate&rdquo;<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of the Holy Sepulchre. The new
+dignity proved still more onerous than honourable; and during
+his short reign of a year Godfrey had to combat the Arabs of
+Egypt, and the opposition of Raymund and the patriarch
+Dagobert. He was successful In repelling the Egyptian attack
+at the battle of Ascalon (August 1099); but he failed, owing to
+Raymund&rsquo;s obstinacy and greed, to acquire the town of Ascalon
+after the battle. Left alone, at the end of the autumn, with an
+army of some 2000 men, Godfrey was yet able, in the spring of
+1100, probably with the aid of new pilgrims, to exact tribute
+from towns like Acre, Ascalon, Arsuf and Caesarea. But already,
+at the end of 1099 Dagobert, archbishop of Pisa, had been
+substituted as patriarch for Arnulf (who had been acting as vicar)
+by the influence of Bohemund; and Dagobert, whose vassal
+Godfrey had at once piously acknowledged himself, seems to
+have forced him to an agreement in April 1100, by which he
+promised Jerusalem and Jaffa to the patriarch, in case he should
+acquire in their place Cairo or some other town, or should die
+without issue. Thus were the foundations of a theocracy laid
+in Jerusalem; and when Godfrey died (July 1100) he left the
+question to be decided, whether a theocracy or a monarchy
+should be the government of the Holy Land.</p>
+
+<p>Because he had been the first ruler in Jerusalem Godfrey
+was idolized in later saga. He was depicted as the leader of
+the crusades, the king of Jerusalem, the legislator who laid
+down the assizes of Jerusalem. He was none of these things.
+Bohemund was the leader of the crusades; Baldwin was first
+king; the assizes were the result of a gradual development.
+In still other ways was the figure of Godfrey idealized by the
+grateful tradition of later days; but in reality he would seem to
+have been a quiet, pious, hard-fighting knight, who was chosen
+to rule in Jerusalem because he had no dangerous qualities,
+and no obvious defects.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;The narrative of Albert of Aix may be regarded
+as presenting the Lotharingian point of view, as the <i>Gesta</i> presents
+the Norman, and Raymund of Agiles the Provençal. The career
+of Godfrey has been discussed in modern times by R. Röhricht,
+<i>Die Deutschen im heiligen Lande</i>, Band ii., and <i>Geschichte des ersten
+Kreuzzuges, passim</i> (Innsbruck, 1901).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Br.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Romances.</i>&mdash;Godfrey was the principal hero of two French
+<i>chansons de geste</i> dealing with the Crusade, the <i>Chanson d&rsquo;Antioche</i>
+(ed. P. Paris, 2 vols., 1848) and the <i>Chanson de Jérusalem</i> (ed.
+C. Hippeau, 1868), and other poems, containing less historical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id="page173"></a>173</span>
+material, were subsequently added. In addition the parentage
+and early exploits of Godfrey were made the subject of legend.
+His grandfather was said to be Helias, knight of the Swan, one
+of the brothers whose adventures are well known, though with
+some variation, in the familiar fairy tale of &ldquo;The Seven Swans.&rdquo;
+Helias, drawn by the swan, one day disembarked at Nijmwegen,
+and reconquered her territory for the duchess of Bouillon.
+Marrying her daughter he exacted a promise that his wife should
+not inquire into his origin. The tale, which is almost identical
+with the Lohengrin legend, belongs to the class of the Cupid and
+Psyche narratives. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lohengrin</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also C. Hippeau, <i>Le Chevalier au cygne</i> (Paris, 2 vols., 1874-1877);
+H. Pigeonneau, <i>Le Cycle de la croisade et de la famille de
+Bouillon</i> (1877); W. Golther, &ldquo;Lohengrin,&rdquo; in <i>Roman. Forsch.</i> (vol. v.,
+1889); <i>Hist. litt. de la France</i>, vol. xxii. pp. 350-402; the English
+romance of <i>Helyas, Knyghte of the Swanne</i> was printed by W. Copland
+about 1550.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> An &ldquo;advocate&rdquo; was a layman who had been invested with part
+of an ecclesiastic estate, on condition that he defended the rest, and
+exercised the blood-ban in lieu of the ecclesiastical owner (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Advocate</a></span>, sec. <i>Advocatus ecclesiae</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODFREY OF VITERBO<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1120-<i>c.</i> 1196), chronicler, was
+probably an Italian by birth, although some authorities assert
+that he was a Saxon. He evidently passed some of his early life
+at Viterbo, where also he spent his concluding days, but he was
+educated at Bamberg, gaining a good knowledge of Latin.
+About 1140 he became chaplain to the German king, Conrad III.;
+but the greater part of his life was spent as secretary (<i>notarius</i>)
+in the service of the emperor Frederick I., who appears to have
+thoroughly trusted him, and who employed him on many
+diplomatic errands. Incessantly occupied, he visited Sicily,
+France and Spain, in addition to many of the German cities, in
+the emperor&rsquo;s interests, and was by his side during several of
+the Italian campaigns. Both before and after Frederick&rsquo;s death
+in 1190 he enjoyed the favour of his son, the emperor Henry VI.,
+for whom he wrote his <i>Speculum regum</i>, a work of very little
+value. Godfrey also wrote <i>Memoria seculorum</i>, or <i>Liber memorialis</i>,
+a chronicle dedicated to Henry VI., which professes to
+record the history of the world from the creation until 1185.
+It is written partly in prose and partly in verse. A revision of
+this work was drawn up by Godfrey himself as <i>Pantheon</i>, or
+<i>Universitatis libri qui chronici appellantur</i>. The author borrowed
+from Otto of Freising, but the earlier part of his chronicle is full
+of imaginary occurrences. <i>Pantheon</i> was first printed in 1559,
+and extracts from it are published by L. A. Muratori in the
+<i>Rerum Italicarum scriptores</i>, tome vii. (Milan, 1725). The only
+part of Godfrey&rsquo;s work which is valuable is the <i>Gesta Friderici I.</i>,
+verses relating events in the emperor&rsquo;s career from 1155 to 1180.
+Concerned mainly with affairs in Italy, the poem tells of the sieges
+of Milan, of Frederick&rsquo;s flight to Pavia in 1167, of the treaty with
+Pope Alexander III. at Venice, and of other stirring episodes
+with which the author was intimately acquainted, and many of
+which he had witnessed. Attached to the <i>Gesta Friderici</i> is the
+<i>Gesta Heinrici VI.</i>, a shorter poem which is often attributed to
+Godfrey, although W. Wattenbach and other authorities think
+it was not written by him. The <i>Memoria seculorum</i> was very
+popular during the middle ages, and has been continued by
+several writers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Godfrey&rsquo;s works are found in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>,
+Band xxii. (Hanover, 1872). The <i>Gesta Friderici I. et Heinrici VI.</i>
+is published separately with an introduction by G. Waitz (Hanover,
+1872). See also H. Ulmann, <i>Gotfried von Viterbo</i> (Göttingen, 1863),
+and W. Wattenbach, <i>Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen</i>, Band ii.
+(Berlin, 1894).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODHRA,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> a town of British India, administrative headquarters
+of the Panch Mahals district of Bombay, and also of
+the Rewa Kantha political agency; situated 52 m. N.E. of
+Baroda on the railway from Anand to Ratlam. Pop. (1901)
+20,915. It has a trade in timber from the neighbouring forests.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODIN, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRÉ<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1817-1888), French
+socialist, was born on the 26th of January 1817 at Esquehéries
+(Aisne). The son of an artisan, he entered an iron-works at an
+early age, and at seventeen made a tour of France as journeyman.
+Returning to Esquehéries in 1837, he started a small factory for
+the manufacture of castings for heating-stoves. The business
+increased rapidly, and for the purpose of railway facilities was
+transferred to Guise in 1846. At the time of Godin&rsquo;s death in
+1888 the annual output was over four millions of francs (£160,000),
+and in 1908 the employees numbered over 2000 and the output
+was over £280,000. An ardent disciple of Fourier, he advanced
+a considerable sum of money towards the disastrous Fourierist
+experiment of V. P. Considérant (<i>q.v.</i>) in Texas. He profited,
+however, by its failure, and in 1859 started the <i>familistère</i> or
+community settlement of Guise on more carefully laid plans.
+It comprises, in addition to the workshops, three large buildings,
+four storeys high, capable of housing all the work-people, each
+family having two or three rooms. Attached to each building
+is a vast central court, covered with a glass roof, under which the
+children can play in all weathers. There are also crèches,
+nurseries, hospital, refreshment rooms and recreation rooms of
+various kinds, stores for the purchase of groceries, drapery and
+every necessity, and a large theatre for concerts and dramatic
+entertainments. In 1880 the whole was turned into a co-operative
+society, with provision by which it eventually became the
+property of the workers. In 1871 Godin was elected deputy for
+Aisne, but retired in 1876 to devote himself to the management
+of the <i>familistère</i>. In 1882 he was created a knight of the legion
+of honour.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Godin was the author of <i>Solutions sociales</i> (1871); <i>Les Socialistes
+et les droits du travail</i> (1874); <i>Mutualité sociale</i> (1880); <i>La République
+du travail et la réforme parlementaire</i> (1889). See Bernardot,
+<i>Le Familistère de Guise et son fondateur</i> (Paris, 1887); Fischer,
+<i>Die Familistère Godin&rsquo;s</i> (Berlin, 1890); Lestelle, <i>Étude sur le familistère
+de Guise</i> (Paris, 1904); D. F. P., <i>Le Familistère illustré, résultats
+de vingt ans d&rsquo;association</i>, 1880-1900 (Eng. trans., <i>Twenty-eight years
+of co-partnership at Guise</i>, by A. Williams, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODIVA,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> a Saxon lady, who, according to the legend, rode
+naked through the streets of Coventry to gain from her husband
+a remission of the oppressive toll imposed on his tenants. The
+story is that she was the beautiful wife of Leofric, earl of Mercia
+and lord of Coventry. The people of that city suffering grievously
+under the earl&rsquo;s oppressive taxation, Lady Godiva appealed
+again and again to her husband, who obstinately refused to remit
+the tolls. At last, weary of her entreaties, he said he would grant
+her request if she would ride naked through the streets of the
+town. Lady Godiva took him at his word, and after issuing a
+proclamation that all persons should keep within doors or shut
+their windows, she rode through, clothed only in her long hair.
+One person disobeyed her proclamation, a tailor, ever afterwards
+known as Peeping Tom. He bored a hole in his shutters that he
+might see Godiva pass, and is said to have been struck blind.
+Her husband kept his word and abolished the obnoxious taxes.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest form of the legend makes Godiva pass through
+Coventry market from one end to the other when the people
+were assembled, attended only by two soldiers, her long hair
+down so that none saw her, &ldquo;apparentibus cruribus tamen
+candidissimis.&rdquo; This version is given in <i>Flores historiarum</i> by
+Roger of Wendover, who quoted from an earlier writer. The
+later story, with its episode of Peeping Tom, has been evolved
+by later chroniclers. Whether the lady Godiva of this story is
+the Godiva or Godgifu of history is undecided. That a lady of
+this name existed in the early part of the 11th century is certain,
+as evidenced by several ancient documents, such as the Stow
+charter, the Spalding charter and the Domesday survey, though
+the spelling of the name varies considerably. It would appear
+from <i>Liber Eliensis</i> (end of 12th century) that she was a widow
+when Leofric married her in 1040. In or about that year she
+aided in the founding of a monastery at Stow, Lincolnshire.
+In 1043 she persuaded her husband to build and endow a Benedictine
+monastery at Coventry. Her mark, &ldquo;<img style="width:16px; height:16px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img173.jpg" alt="" /> Ego Godiva
+Comitissa diu istud desideravi,&rdquo; was found on the charter given
+by her brother, Thorold of Bucknall&mdash;sheriff of Lincolnshire&mdash;to
+the Benedictine monastery of Spalding in 1051; and she is
+commemorated as benefactress of other monasteries at Leominster,
+Chester, Wenlock, Worcester and Evesham. She
+probably died a few years before the Domesday survey (1085-1086),
+and was buried in one of the porches of the abbey church.
+Dugdale (1656) says that a window, with representations of
+Leofric and Godiva, was placed in Trinity Church, Coventry,
+about the time of Richard II. The Godiva procession, a commemoration
+of the legendary ride instituted on the 31st of May
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page174" id="page174"></a>174</span>
+1678 as part of Coventry fair, was celebrated at intervals until
+1826. From 1848 to 1887 it was revived, and recently further
+attempts have been made to popularize the pageant. The
+wooden effigy of Peeping Tom which, since 1812, has looked
+out on the world from a house at the north-west corner of
+Hertford Street, Coventry, represents a man in armour, and
+was probably an image of St George. It was removed from
+another part of the town to its present position.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1831-1902), American
+publicist, was born in Moyne, county Wicklow, Ireland, on the
+2nd of October 1831. His father, James Godkin, was a Presbyterian
+minister and a journalist, and the son, after graduating
+in 1851 at Queen&rsquo;s College, Belfast, and studying law in London,
+was in 1853-1855 war correspondent for the London <i>Daily News</i>
+in Turkey and Russia, being present at the capture of Sevastopol,
+and late in 1856 went to America and wrote letters to the same
+journal, giving his impressions of a tour of the southern states of
+the American Union. He studied law in New York City, was
+admitted to the bar in 1859, travelled in Europe in 1860-1862,
+wrote for the London <i>News</i> and the New York <i>Times</i> in 1862-1865,
+and in 1865 founded in New York City the <i>Nation</i>, a
+weekly projected by him long before, for which Charles Eliot
+Norton gained friends in Boston and James Miller McKim (1810-1874)
+in Philadelphia, and which Godkin edited until the end of
+the year 1899. In 1881 he sold the <i>Nation</i> to the New York
+<i>Evening Post</i>, and became an associate editor of the <i>Post</i>, of
+which he was editor-in-chief in 1883-1899, succeeding Carl
+Schurz. In the &rsquo;eighties he engaged in a controversy with
+Goldwin Smith over the Irish question. Under his leadership the
+<i>Post</i> broke with the Republican party in the presidential campaign
+of 1884, when Godkin&rsquo;s opposition to Blaine did much to
+create the so-called Mugwump party (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mugwump</a></span>), and his
+organ became thoroughly independent, as was seen when it
+attacked the Venezuelan policy of President Cleveland, who had
+in so many ways approximated the ideal of the <i>Post</i> and <i>Nation</i>.
+He consistently advocated currency reform, the gold basis, a tariff
+for revenue only, and civil service reform, rendering the greatest
+aid to the last cause. His attacks on Tammany Hall were
+so frequent and so virulent that in 1894 he was sued for libel
+because of biographical sketches of certain leaders in that
+organization&mdash;cases which never came up for trial. His opposition
+to the war with Spain and to imperialism was able and
+forcible. He retired from his editorial duties on the 30th of
+December 1899, and sketched his career in the <i>Evening Post</i>
+of that date. Although he recovered from a severe apoplectic
+stroke early in 1900, his health was shattered, and he died in
+Greenway, Devonshire, England, on the 21st of May 1902.
+Godkin shaped the lofty and independent policy of the <i>Post</i>
+and the <i>Nation</i>, which had a small but influential and intellectual
+class of readers. But as editor he had none of the personal
+magnetism of Greeley, for instance, and his superiority to the
+influence of popular feeling made Charles Dudley Warner style
+the Nation the &ldquo;weekly judgment day.&rdquo; He was an economist
+of the school of Mill, urged the necessity of the abstraction
+called &ldquo;economic man,&rdquo; and insisted that socialism put in
+practice would not improve social and economic conditions
+in general. In politics he was an enemy of sentimentalism and
+loose theories in government. He published <i>A History of
+Hungary, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 300-1850</i> (1856), <i>Government</i> (1871, in the
+American Science Series), <i>Reflections and Comments</i> (1895),
+<i>Problems of Modern Democracy</i> (1896) and <i>Unforeseen Tendencies
+of Democracy</i> (1898).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Life and Letters of E. L. Godkin</i>, edited by Rollo Ogden (2 vols.,
+New York, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODMANCHESTER,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> a municipal borough in the southern,
+parliamentary division of Huntingdonshire, England, on the
+right bank of the Ouse, 1 m. S.S.E. of Huntingdon, on a branch
+of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2017. It has a
+beautiful Perpendicular church (St Mary&rsquo;s) and an agricultural
+trade, with flour mills. The town is governed by a mayor, 4
+aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 4907 acres.</p>
+
+<p>A Romano-British village occupied the site of Godmanchester.
+The town (<i>Gumencestre, Gomecestre</i>) belonged to the king before
+the Conquest and at the time of the Domesday survey. In 1213
+King John granted the manor to the men of the town at a fee-farm
+of £120 yearly, and confirmation charters were granted
+by several succeeding kings, Richard II. in 1391-1392 adding
+exemption from toll, pannage, &amp;c. James I. granted an incorporation
+charter in 1605 under the title of bailiffs, assistants
+and commonalty, but under the Municipal Reform Act of 1835
+the corporation was changed to a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
+councillors. Godmanchester was formerly included for parliamentary
+purposes in the borough of Huntingdon, which has
+ceased to be separately represented since 1885. The incorporation
+charter of 1605 recites that the burgesses are chiefly engaged
+in agriculture, and grants them a fair, which still continues
+every year on Tuesday in Easter week.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Huntingdon</i>; Robert Fox, <i>The
+History of Godmanchester</i> (1831).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÖDÖLLÖ<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span>, a market town of Hungary, in the county of Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kiskun,
+23 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900)
+5875. Gödöllö is the summer residence of the Hungarian royal
+family, and the royal castle, built in the second half of the 18th
+century by Prince Anton Grassalkovich, was, with the beautiful
+domain, presented by the Hungarian nation to King Francis
+Joseph I. after the coronation in 1867. In its park there are a
+great number of stags and wild boars. Gödöllö is a favourite
+summer resort of the inhabitants of Budapest. In its vicinity
+is the famous place of pilgrimage Mária-Besnyö, with a fine
+Franciscan monastery, which contains the tombs of the Grassalkovich
+family.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODOLPHIN, SIDNEY GODOLPHIN<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Earl of</span> (<i>c.</i> 1645-1712),
+was a cadet of an ancient family of Cornwall. At the
+Restoration he was introduced into the royal household by
+Charles II., with whom he had previously become a favourite,
+and he also at the same period entered the House of Commons as
+member for Helston. Although he very seldom addressed the
+House, and, when he did so, only in the briefest manner, he
+gradually acquired a reputation as its chief if not its only financial
+authority. In March 1679 he was appointed a member of the
+privy council, and in the September following he was promoted,
+along with Viscount Hyde (afterwards earl of Rochester) and
+the earl of Sunderland, to the chief management of affairs.
+Though he voted for the Exclusion Bill in 1680, he was continued
+in office after the dismissal of Sunderland, and in September
+1684 he was created Baron Godolphin of Rialton, and succeeded
+Rochester as first lord of the treasury. After the accession of
+James II. he was made chamberlain to the queen, and, along
+with Rochester and Sunderland, enjoyed the king&rsquo;s special
+confidence. In 1687 he was named commissioner of the treasury.
+He was one of the council of five appointed by King James to
+represent him in London, when he went to join the army after
+the landing of William, prince of Orange, in England, and, along
+with Halifax and Nottingham, he was afterwards appointed a
+commissioner to treat with the prince. On the accession of
+William, though he only obtained the third seat at the treasury
+board, he had virtually the chief control of affairs. He retired
+in March 1690, but was recalled on the November following
+and appointed first lord. While holding this office he for several
+years continued, in conjunction with Marlborough, a treacherous
+intercourse with James II., and is said even to have anticipated
+Marlborough in disclosing to James intelligence regarding the
+intended expedition against Brest. Godolphin was not only a
+Tory by inheritance, but had a romantic admiration for the wife
+of James II. He also wished to be safe whatever happened,
+and his treachery in this case was mostly due to caution. After
+Fenwick&rsquo;s confession in 1696 regarding the attempted assassination
+of William III., Godolphin, who was compromised, was induced
+to tender his resignation; but when the Tories came into
+power in 1700, he was again appointed lord treasurer and
+retained office for about a year. Though not a favourite with
+Queen Anne, he was, after her accession, appointed to his old
+office, on the strong recommendation of Marlborough. He also
+in 1704 received the honour of knighthood, and in December
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" id="page175"></a>175</span>
+1706 he was created Viscount Rialton and earl of Godolphin.
+Though a Tory he had an active share in the intrigues which
+gradually led to the predominance of the Whigs in alliance
+with Marlborough. The influence of the Marlboroughs with the
+queen was, however, gradually supplanted by that of Mrs
+Masham and Harley, earl of Oxford, and with the fortunes of
+the Marlboroughs those of Godolphin were indissolubly united.
+The services of both were so appreciated by the nation that
+they were able for a time to regard the loss of the queen&rsquo;s favour
+with indifference, and even in 1708 to procure the expulsion of
+Harley from office; but after the Tory reaction which followed
+the impeachment of Dr Sacheverel, who abused Godolphin under
+the name of Volpone, the queen made use of the opportunity
+to take the initiatory step towards delivering herself from
+the irksome thraldom of Marlborough by abruptly dismissing
+Godolphin from office on the 7th of August 1710. He died on
+the 15th of September 1712.</p>
+
+<p>Godolphin owed his rise to power and his continuance in it
+under four sovereigns chiefly to his exceptional mastery of financial
+matters; for if latterly he was in some degree indebted for his
+promotion to the support of Marlborough, he received that
+support mainly because Marlborough recognized that for the
+prosecution of England&rsquo;s foreign wars his financial abilities were
+an indispensable necessity. He was cool, reserved and cautious,
+but his prudence was less associated with high sagacity than
+traceable to the weakness of his personal antipathies and prejudices,
+and his freedom from political predilections. Perhaps
+it was his unlikeness to Marlborough in that moral characteristic
+which so tainted Marlborough&rsquo;s greatness that rendered possible
+between them a friendship so intimate and undisturbed: he
+was, it would appear, exceptionally devoid of the passion of
+avarice; and so little advantage did he take of his opportunities
+of aggrandizement that, though his style of living was unostentatious,&mdash;and
+in connexion with his favourite pastimes
+of horse-racing, card-playing and cock-fighting he gained
+perhaps more than he lost,&mdash;all that he left behind him did not,
+according to the duchess of Marlborough, amount to more than
+£12,000.</p>
+
+<p>Godolphin married Margaret Blagge, the pious lady whose
+life was written by Evelyn, on the 16th of May 1675, and married
+again after her death in 1678. His son and successor, Francis
+(1678-1766), held various offices at court, and was lord privy
+seal from 1735 to 1740. He married Henrietta Churchill (d.
+1733), daughter of the duke of Marlborough, who in 1722 became
+in her own right duchess of Marlborough. He died without male
+issue in January 1766, when the earldom became extinct, and
+the estates passed to Thomas Osborne, 4th duke of Leeds, the
+husband of the earl&rsquo;s daughter Mary, whose descendant is the
+present representative of the Godolphins.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A life of Godolphin was published in 1888 in London by the Hon.
+H. Elliot.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODOY, ALVAREZ DE FARIA, RIOS SANCHEZ Y ZARZOSA,
+MANUEL DE<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1767-1851), duke of El Alcudia and prince of the
+Peace, Spanish royal favourite and minister, was born at Badajoz
+on the 12th of May 1767. His father, Don José de Godoy, was
+the head of a very ancient but impoverished family of nobles
+in Estremadura. His mother, whose maiden name was Maria
+Antonia Alvarez de Faria, belonged to a Portuguese noble family.
+Manuel boasts in his memoirs that he had the best masters, but
+it is certain that he received only the very slight education
+usually given at that time to the sons of provincial nobles.
+In 1784 he entered the Guardia de Corps, a body of gentlemen
+who acted as the immediate body-guard of the king. His well-built
+and stalwart person, his handsome foolish face, together
+with a certain geniality of character which he must have
+possessed, earned him the favour of Maria Luisa of Parma, the
+princess of Asturias, a coarse, passionate woman who was much
+neglected by her husband, who on his part cared for nothing but
+hunting.</p>
+
+<p>When King Charles III. died in 1788, Godoy&rsquo;s fortune was
+soon made. The princess of Asturias, now queen, understood
+how to manage her husband Charles IV. Godoy says in his
+memoirs that the king, who had been carefully kept apart from
+affairs during his father&rsquo;s life, and who disliked his father&rsquo;s
+favourite minister Floridablanca, wished to have a creature of
+his own. This statement is no doubt true as far as it goes. But
+it requires to be completed by the further detail that the queen
+put her lover in her husband&rsquo;s way, and that the king was guided
+by them, when he thought he was ruling for himself through
+a subservient minister. In some respects King Charles was
+obstinate, and Godoy is probably right in saying that he never
+was an absolute &ldquo;viceroy,&rdquo; and that he could not always secure
+the removal of colleagues whom he knew to be his enemies.
+He could only rule by obeying. Godoy adopted without scruple
+this method of pushing his fortunes. When the king was set on a
+particular course, he followed it; the execution was left to him
+and the queen. His pliability endeared him to his master,
+whose lasting affection he earned. In practice he commonly
+succeeded in inspiring the wishes which he then proceeded to
+gratify. From the very beginning of the new reign he was
+promoted in the army with scandalous rapidity, made duke of
+El Alcudia, and in 1792 minister under the premiership of
+Aranda, whom he succeeded in displacing by the close of the
+year.</p>
+
+<p>His official life is fairly divided by himself into three periods.
+From 1792 to 1798 he was premier. In the latter year his unpopularity
+and the intrigues of the French government, which
+had taken a dislike to him, led to his temporary retirement,
+without, however, any diminution of the king&rsquo;s personal favour.
+He asserts that he had no wish to return to office, but letters
+sent by him to the queen show that he begged for employment.
+They are written in a very unpleasant mixture of gush and
+vulgar familiarity. In 1801 he returned to office, and until
+1807 he was the executant of the disastrous policy of the court.
+The third period of his public life is the last year, 1807-1808,
+when he was desperately striving for his place between the
+aggressive intervention of Napoleon on the one hand, and the
+growing hatred of the nation, organized behind, and about, the
+prince of Asturias, Ferdinand. On the 17th of March 1808 a
+popular outbreak at Aranjuez drove him into hiding. When
+driven out by hunger and thirst he was recognized and arrested.
+By Ferdinand&rsquo;s order he was kept in prison, till Napoleon
+demanded that he should be sent to Bayonne. Here he rejoined
+his master and mistress. He remained with them till Charles IV.
+died at Rome in 1819, having survived his queen. The rest of
+Godoy&rsquo;s life was spent in poverty and obscurity. After the
+death of Ferdinand VII., in 1833, he returned to Madrid, and
+endeavoured to secure the restoration of his property confiscated
+in 1808. Part of it was the estate of the Soto de Roma, granted
+by the cortes to the duke of Wellington. He failed, and during
+his last years lived on a small pension granted him by Louis
+Philippe. He died in Paris on the 4th of October 1851.</p>
+
+<p>As a favourite Godoy is remarkable for the length of his
+hold on the affection of his sovereigns, and for its completeness.
+Latterly he was supported rather by the husband than by the
+wife. He got rid of Aranda by adopting, in order to please the
+king, a policy which tended to bring on war with France. When
+the war proved disastrous, he made the peace of Basel, and was
+created prince of the Peace for his services. Then he helped to
+make war with England, and the disasters which followed only
+made him dearer to the king. Indeed it became a main object
+with Charles IV. to protect &ldquo;Manuelito&rdquo; from popular hatred,
+and if possible secure him a principality. The queen endured
+his infidelities to her, which were flagrant. The king arranged
+a marriage for him with Doña Teresa de Bourbon, daughter of the
+infante Don Luis by a morganatic marriage, though he was
+probably already married to Doña Josefa Tudó, and certainly
+continued to live with her. Godoy, in his memoirs, lays claim
+to have done much for Spanish agriculture and industry, but
+he did little more than issue proclamations and appoint officers.
+His intentions may have been good, but the policy of his government
+was financially ruinous. In his private life he was not
+only profligate and profuse, but childishly ostentatious. The
+best that can be said for him is that he was good-natured, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" id="page176"></a>176</span>
+did his best to restrain the Inquisition and the purely reactionary
+parties.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Godoy&rsquo;s <i>Memoirs</i> were published in Spanish,
+English and French in 1836. A general account of his career will
+be found in the <i>Mémoires sur la Révolution d&rsquo;Espagne</i>, by the Abbé
+de Pradt (1816).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODROON,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gadroon</span> (Fr. <i>godron</i>, of unknown etymology),
+in architecture, a convex decoration (said to be derived from
+raised work on linen) applied in France to varieties of the bead
+and reel, in which the bead is often carved with ornament.
+In England the term is constantly used by auctioneers to describe
+the raised convex decorations under the bowl of stone or terra-cotta
+vases. The godroons radiate from the vertical support
+of the vase and rise half-way up the bowl.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODWIN, FRANCIS<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1562-1633), English divine, son of
+Thomas Godwin, bishop of Bath and Wells, was born at Hannington,
+Northamptonshire, in 1562. He was elected student of
+Christ Church, Oxford, in 1578, took his bachelor&rsquo;s degree in
+1580, and that of master in 1583. After holding two Somersetshire
+livings he was in 1587 appointed subdean of Exeter. In
+1590 he accompanied William Camden on an antiquarian tour
+through Wales. He was created bachelor of divinity in 1593, and
+doctor in 1595. In 1601 he published his <i>Catalogue of the Bishops
+of England since the first planting of the Christian Religion in this
+Island</i>, a work which procured him in the same year the bishopric
+of Llandaff. A second edition appeared in 1615, and in 1616 he
+published an edition in Latin with a dedication to King James,
+who in the following year conferred upon him the bishopric of
+Hereford. The work was republished, with a continuation by
+William Richardson, in 1743. In 1616 Godwin published <i>Rerum
+Anglicarum, Henrico VIII., Edwardo VI. et Maria regnantibus,
+Annales</i>, which was afterwards translated and published by his
+son Morgan under the title <i>Annales of England</i> (1630). He is also
+the author of a somewhat remarkable story, published posthumously
+in 1638, and entitled <i>The Man in the Moone, or a Discourse
+of a Voyage thither, by Domingo Gonsales</i>, written apparently
+some time between the years 1599 and 1603. In this production
+Godwin not only declares himself a believer in the Copernican
+system, but adopts so far the principles of the law of gravitation
+as to suppose that the earth&rsquo;s attraction diminishes with the
+distance. The work, which displays considerable fancy and wit,
+was translated into French, and was imitated in several important
+particulars by Cyrano de Bergerac, from whom (if not from
+Godwin direct) Swift obtained valuable hints in writing of
+Gulliver&rsquo;s voyage to Laputa. Another work of Godwin&rsquo;s, <i>Nuncius
+inanimatus Utopiae</i>, originally published in 1629 and again in
+1657, seems to have been the prototype of John Wilkins&rsquo;s
+<i>Mercury, or the Secret and Swift Messenger</i>, which appeared in
+1641. He died, after a lingering illness, in April 1633.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1759-1797), English
+miscellaneous writer, was born at Hoxton, on the 27th of April
+1759. Her family was of Irish extraction, and Mary&rsquo;s grandfather,
+who was a respectable manufacturer in Spitalfields,
+realized the property which his son squandered. Her mother,
+Elizabeth Dixon, was Irish, and of good family. Her father,
+Edward John Wollstonecraft, after dissipating the greater part of
+his patrimony, tried to earn a living by farming, which only
+plunged him into deeper difficulties, and he led a wandering,
+shifty life. The family roamed from Hoxton to Edmonton, to
+Essex, to Beverley in Yorkshire, to Laugharne, Pembrokeshire,
+and back to London again.</p>
+
+<p>After Mrs Wollstonecraft&rsquo;s death in 1780, soon followed by her
+husband&rsquo;s second marriage, the three daughters, Mary, Everina
+and Eliza, sought to earn their own livelihood. The sisters
+were all clever women&mdash;Mary and Eliza far above the average&mdash;but
+their opportunities of culture had been few. Mary,
+the eldest, went in the first instance to live with her friend
+Fanny Blood, a girl of her own age, whose father, like
+Wollstonecraft, was addicted to drink and dissipation. As long
+as she lived with the Bloods, Mary helped Mrs Blood to earn
+money by taking in needlework, while Fanny painted in watercolours.
+Everina went to live with her brother Edward, and
+Eliza made a hasty and, as it proved, unhappy marriage with a
+Mr Bishop. A legal separation was afterwards obtained, and the
+sisters, together with Fanny Blood, took a house, first at Islington,
+afterwards at Newington Green, and opened a school, which was
+carried on with indifferent success for nearly two years. During
+their residence at Newington Green, Mary was introduced to Dr
+Johnson, who, as Godwin tells us, &ldquo;treated her with particular
+kindness and attention.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1785 Fanny Blood married Hugh Skeys, a merchant, and went
+with him to Lisbon, where she died in childbed after sending for
+Mary to nurse her. &ldquo;The loss of Fanny,&rdquo; as she said in a letter to
+Mrs Skeys&rsquo;s brother, George Blood, &ldquo;was sufficient of itself to have
+cast a cloud over my brightest days.... I have lost all relish for
+pleasure, and life seems a burden almost too heavy to be endured.&rdquo;
+Her first novel, <i>Mary, a Fiction</i> (1788), was intended to commemorate
+her friendship with Fanny. After closing the school at
+Newington Green, Mary became governess in the family of Lord
+Kingsborough, in Ireland. Her pupils were much attached to her,
+especially Margaret King, afterwards Lady Mountcashel; and
+indeed, Lady Kingsborough gave the reason for dismissing her
+after one year&rsquo;s service that the children loved their governess
+better than their mother. Mary now resolved to devote herself
+to literary work, and she was encouraged by Johnson, the
+publisher in St Paul&rsquo;s churchyard, for whom she acted as literary
+adviser. She also undertook translations, chiefly from the French.
+<i>The Elements of Morality</i> (1790) from the German of Salzmann,
+illustrated by Blake, an old-fashioned book for children, and
+Lavater&rsquo;s <i>Physiognomy</i> were among her translations. Her
+<i>Original Stories from Real Life</i> were published in 1791, and, with
+illustrations by Blake, in 1796. In 1792 appeared <i>A Vindication
+of the Rights of Woman</i>, the work with which her name is always
+associated.</p>
+
+<p>It is not among the least oddities of this book that it is dedicated
+to M. Talleyrand Périgord, late bishop of Autun. Mary Wollstonecraft
+still believed him to be sincere, and working in the same
+direction as herself. In the dedication she states the &ldquo;main
+argument&rdquo; of the work, &ldquo;built on this simple principle that, if
+woman be not prepared by education to become the companion
+of man, she will stop the progress of knowledge, for truth must
+be common to all, or it will be inefficacious with respect to its
+influence or general practice.&rdquo; In carrying out this argument she
+used great plainness of speech, and it was this that caused all, or
+nearly all, the outcry. For she did not attack the institution of
+marriage, nor assail orthodox religion; her book was really a plea
+for equality of education, passing into one for state education and
+for the joint education of the sexes. It was a protest against the
+assumption that woman was only the plaything of man, and she
+asserted that intellectual companionship was the chief, as it is
+the lasting, happiness of marriage. She thus directly opposed the
+teaching of Rousseau, of whom she was in other respects an
+ardent disciple.</p>
+
+<p>Mrs Wollstonecraft, as she now styled herself, desired to watch
+the progress of the Revolution in France, and went to Paris in
+1792. Godwin, in his memoir of his wife, considers that the
+change of residence may have been prompted by the discovery
+that she was becoming attached to Henry Fuseli, but there is
+little to confirm this surmise; indeed, it was first proposed that
+she should go to Paris in company with him and his wife, nor
+was there any subsequent breach in their friendship. She remained
+in Paris during the Reign of Terror, when communication
+with England was difficult or almost impossible. Some time in
+the spring or summer of 1793 Captain Gilbert Imlay, an American,
+became acquainted with Mary&mdash;an acquaintance which ended in
+a more intimate connexion. There was no legal ceremony of
+marriage, and it is doubtful whether such a marriage would have
+been valid at the time; but she passed as Imlay&rsquo;s wife, and
+Imlay himself terms her in a legal document, &ldquo;Mary Imlay, my
+best friend and wife.&rdquo; In August 1793 Imlay was called to Havre
+on business, and was absent for some months, during which
+time most of the letters published after her death by Godwin
+were written. Towards the end of the year she joined Imlay at
+Havre, and there in the spring of 1794 she gave birth to a girl,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page177" id="page177"></a>177</span>
+who received the name of Fanny, in memory of the dear friend of
+her youth. In this year she published the first volume of a never
+completed <i>Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution</i>.
+Imlay became involved in a multitude of speculations, and his
+affection for Mary and their child was already waning. He left
+Mary for some months at Havre. In June 1795, after joining
+him in England, Mary left for Norway on business for Imlay.
+Her letters from Norway, divested of all personal details, were
+afterwards published. She returned to England late in 1795,
+and found letters awaiting her from Imlay, intimating his intention
+to separate from her, and offering to settle an annuity on her
+and her child. For herself she rejected this offer with scorn:
+&ldquo;From you,&rdquo; she wrote, &ldquo;I will not receive anything more. I
+am not sufficiently humbled to depend on your beneficence.&rdquo;
+They met again, and for a short time lived together, until the
+discovery that he was carrying on an intrigue under her own
+roof drove her to despair, and she attempted to drown herself
+by leaping from Putney bridge, but was rescued by watermen.
+Imlay now completely deserted her, although she continued to
+bear his name.</p>
+
+<p>In 1796, when Mary Wollstonecraft was living in London,
+supporting herself and her child by working, as before, for Mr
+Johnson, she met William Godwin. A friendship sprang up
+between them,&mdash;a friendship, as he himself says, which &ldquo;melted
+into love.&rdquo; Godwin states that &ldquo;ideas which he is now willing
+to denominate prejudices made him by no means willing to
+conform to the ceremony of marriage&rdquo;; but these prejudices
+were overcome, and they were married at St Pancras church on
+the 29th of March 1797. And now Mary had a season of real
+calm in her stormy existence. Godwin, for once only in his life,
+was stirred by passion, and his admiration for his wife equalled
+his affection. But their happiness was of short duration. The
+birth of her daughter Mary, afterwards the wife of Percy Bysshe
+Shelley, on the 30th of August 1797, proved fatal, and Mrs
+Godwin died on the 10th of September following. She was
+buried in the churchyard of Old St Pancras, but her remains
+were afterwards removed by Sir Percy Shelley to the churchyard
+of St Peter&rsquo;s, Bournemouth.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Her principal published works are as follows:&mdash;<i>Thoughts on the
+Education of Daughters, ...</i> (1787); <i>The Female Reader</i> (selections)
+(1789); <i>Original Stories from Real Life</i> (1791); <i>An Historical and
+Moral View of the Origin and Progress of the French Revolution, and
+the effects it has produced in Europe</i>, vol. i. (no more published)
+(1790); <i>Vindication of the Rights of Woman</i> (1792); <i>Vindication
+of the Rights of Man</i> (1793); <i>Mary, a Fiction</i> (1788); <i>Letters written
+during a Short Residence in Sweden, Norway and Denmark</i> (1796);
+<i>Posthumous Works</i> (4 vols., 1798). It is impossible to trace the many
+articles contributed by her to periodical literature.</p>
+
+<p>A memoir of her life was published by Godwin in 1798. A large
+portion of C. Kegan Paul&rsquo;s work, <i>William Godwin, his Friends and
+Contemporaries</i>, was devoted to her, and an edition of the <i>Letters to
+Imlay</i> (1879), of which the first edition was published by Godwin,
+is prefaced by a somewhat fuller memoir. See also E. Dowden,
+<i>The French Revolution and English Literature</i> (1897) pp. 82 et seq.;
+E. R. Pennell, <i>Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin</i> (1885), in the Eminent
+Women Series; E. R. Clough, <i>A Study of Mary Wollstonecraft and
+the Rights of Woman</i> (1898); an edition of her <i>Original Stories</i> (1906),
+with William Blake&rsquo;s illustrations and an introduction by E. V.
+Lucas; and the <i>Love Letters of Mary Wollstonecraft to Gilbert Imlay</i>
+(1908), with an introduction by Roger Ingpen.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODWIN, WILLIAM,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1756-1836), English political and
+miscellaneous writer, son of a Nonconformist minister, was born
+on the 3rd of March 1756, at Wisbeach in Cambridgeshire. His
+family came on both sides of middle-class people, and it was
+probably only as a joke that Godwin, a stern political reformer
+and philosophical radical, attempted to trace his pedigree to a
+time before the Norman conquest and the great earl Godwine.
+Both parents were strict Calvinists. The father died young, and
+never inspired love or much regret in his son; but in spite of
+wide differences of opinion, tender affection always subsisted
+between William Godwin and his mother, until her death at an
+advanced age.</p>
+
+<p>William Godwin was educated for his father&rsquo;s profession at
+Hoxton Academy, where he was under Andrew Kippis the
+biographer and Dr Abraham Rees of the <i>Cyclopaedia</i>, and was
+at first more Calvinistic than his teachers, becoming a Sandemanian,
+or follower of John Glas (<i>q.v.</i>), whom he describes as
+&ldquo;a celebrated north-country apostle who, after Calvin had
+damned ninety-nine in a hundred of mankind, has contrived a
+scheme for damning ninety-nine in a hundred of the followers
+of Calvin.&rdquo; He then acted as a minister at Ware, Stowmarket
+and Beaconsfield. At Stowmarket the teachings of the French
+philosophers were brought before him by a friend, Joseph Fawcet,
+who held strong republican opinions. He came to London in
+1782, still nominally a minister, to regenerate society with his
+pen&mdash;a real enthusiast, who shrank theoretically from no conclusions
+from the premises which he laid down. He adopted
+the principles of the Encyclopaedists, and his own aim was the
+complete overthrow of all existing institutions, political, social
+and religious. He believed, however, that calm discussion was
+the only thing needful to carry every change, and from the
+beginning to the end of his career he deprecated every approach
+to violence. He was a philosophic radical in the strictest sense
+of the term.</p>
+
+<p>His first published work was an anonymous <i>Life of Lord
+Chatham</i> (1783). Under the inappropriate title <i>Sketches of
+History</i> (1784) he published under his own name six sermons
+on the characters of Aaron, Hazael and Jesus, in which, though
+writing in the character of an orthodox Calvinist, he enunciates
+the proposition &ldquo;God Himself has no right to be a tyrant.&rdquo;
+Introduced by Andrew Kippis, he began to write in 1785 for the
+<i>Annual Register</i> and other periodicals, producing also three
+novels now forgotten. The &ldquo;Sketches of English History&rdquo;
+written for the <i>Annual Register</i> from 1785 onward still deserve
+study. He joined a club called the &ldquo;Revolutionists,&rdquo; and
+associated much with Lord Stanhope, Horne Tooke and Holcroft.
+His clerical character was now completely dropped.</p>
+
+<p>In 1793 Godwin published his great work on political science,
+<i>The Inquiry concerning Political Justice, and its Influence on
+General Virtue and Happiness</i>. Although this work is little
+known and less read now, it marks a phase in English thought.
+Godwin could never have been himself a worker on the active
+stage of life. But he was none the less a power behind the
+workers, and for its political effect, <i>Political Justice</i> takes its
+place with Milton&rsquo;s <i>Areopagitica</i>, with Locke&rsquo;s <i>Essay on Education</i>
+and with Rousseau&rsquo;s <i>Émile</i>. By the words &ldquo;political
+justice&rdquo; the author meant &ldquo;the adoption of any principle of
+morality and truth into the practice of a community,&rdquo; and the
+work was therefore an inquiry into the principles of society, of
+government and of morals. For many years Godwin had been
+&ldquo;satisfied that monarchy was a species of government unavoidably
+corrupt,&rdquo; and from desiring a government of the simplest
+construction, he gradually came to consider that &ldquo;government
+by its very nature counteracts the improvement of original
+mind.&rdquo; Believing in the perfectibility of the race, that there are
+no innate principles, and therefore no original propensity to evil,
+he considered that &ldquo;our virtues and our vices may be traced
+to the incidents which make the history of our lives, and if these
+incidents could be divested of every improper tendency, vice
+would be extirpated from the world.&rdquo; All control of man by man
+was more or less intolerable, and the day would come when each
+man, doing what seems right in his own eyes, would also be
+doing what is in fact best for the community, because all will be
+guided by principles of pure reason. But all was to be done by
+discussion, and matured change resulting from discussion.
+Hence, while Godwin thoroughly approved of the philosophic
+schemes of the precursors of the Revolution, he was as far
+removed as Burke himself from agreeing with the way in which
+they were carried out. So logical and uncompromising a thinker
+as Godwin could not go far in the discussion of abstract questions
+without exciting the most lively opposition in matters of detailed
+opinion. An affectionate son, and ever ready to give of his
+hard-earned income to more than one ne&rsquo;er-do-well brother, he
+maintained that natural relationship had no claim on man, nor
+was gratitude to parents or benefactors any part of justice or
+virtue. In a day when the penal code was still extremely severe,
+he argued gravely against all punishments, not only that of
+death. Property was to belong to him who most wanted it;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id="page178"></a>178</span>
+accumulated property was a monstrous injustice. Hence
+marriage, which is law, is the worst of all laws, and as property
+the worst of all properties. A man so passionless as Godwin
+could venture thus to argue without suspicion that he did so only
+to gratify his wayward desires. Portions of this treatise, and
+only portions, found ready acceptance in those minds which were
+prepared to receive them. Perhaps no one received the whole
+teaching of the book. But it gave cohesion and voice to philosophic
+radicalism; it was the manifesto of a school without
+which liberalism of the present day had not been. Godwin
+himself in after days modified his communistic views, but his
+strong feeling for individualism, his hatred of all restrictions on
+liberty, his trust in man, his faith in the power of reason remained;
+it was a manifesto which enunciated principles modifying action,
+even when not wholly ruling it.</p>
+
+<p>In May 1794 Godwin published the novel of <i>Caleb Williams,
+or Things as they are</i>, a book of which the political object is
+overlooked by many readers in the strong interest of the story.
+The book was dramatized by the younger Colman as <i>The Iron
+Chest</i>. It is one of the few novels of that time which may be said
+still to live.<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> A theorist who lived mainly in his study, Godwin
+yet came forward boldly to stand by prisoners arraigned of high
+treason in that same year&mdash;1794. The danger to persons so
+charged was then great, and he deliberately put himself into
+this same danger for his friends. But when his own trial was
+discussed in the privy council, Pitt sensibly held that <i>Political
+Justice</i>, the work on which the charge could best have been
+founded, was priced at three guineas, and could never do much
+harm among those who had not three shillings to spare.</p>
+
+<p>From this time Godwin became a notable figure in London
+society, and there was scarcely an important person in politics,
+on the Liberal side, in literature, art or science, who does not
+appear familiarly in the pages of Godwin&rsquo;s singular diary. For
+forty-eight years, beginning in 1788, and continuing to the very
+end of his life, Godwin kept a record of every day, of the work
+he did, the books he read, the friends he saw. Condensed in the
+highest degree, the diary is yet easy to read when the style is
+once mastered, and it is a great help to the understanding of his
+cold, methodical, unimpassioned character. He carried his
+method into every detail of life, and lived on his earnings with
+extreme frugality. Until he made a large sum by the publication
+of <i>Political Justice</i>, he lived on an average of £120 a year.</p>
+
+<p>In 1797, the intervening years having been spent in strenuous
+literary labour, Godwin married Mary Wollstonecraft (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Godwin, Mary Wollstonecraft</a></span>). Since both held the same
+views regarding the slavery of marriage, and since they only
+married at all for the sake of possible offspring, the marriage
+was concealed for some time, and the happiness of the avowed
+married life was very brief; his wife&rsquo;s death on the 10th of
+September left Godwin prostrated by affliction, and with a
+charge for which he was wholly unfit&mdash;his infant daughter Mary,
+and her stepsister, Fanny Imlay, who from that time bore the
+name of Godwin. His unfitness for the cares of a family, far
+more than love, led him to contract a second marriage with
+Mary Jane Clairmont in 1801. She was a widow with two
+children, one of whom, Clara Mary Jane Clairmont, became the
+mistress of Lord Byron. The second Mrs Godwin was energetic
+and painstaking, but a harsh stepmother; and it may be
+doubted whether the children were not worse off under her care
+than they would have been under Godwin&rsquo;s neglect.</p>
+
+<p>The second novel which proceeded from Godwin&rsquo;s pen was
+called <i>St Leon</i>, and published in 1799. It is chiefly remarkable
+for the beautiful portrait of Marguerite, the heroine, drawn from
+the character of his own wife. His opinions underwent a change
+in the direction of theism, influenced, he says, by his acquaintance
+with Coleridge. He also became known to Wordsworth and
+Lamb. Study of the Elizabethan dramatists led to the production
+in 1800 of the <i>Tragedy of Antonio</i>. Kemble brought it out
+at Drury Lane, but the failure of this attempt made him refuse
+<i>Abbas, King of Persia</i>, which Godwin offered him in the next
+year. He was more successful with his <i>Life of Chaucer</i>, for which
+he received £600.</p>
+
+<p>The events of Godwin&rsquo;s life were few. Under the advice of
+the second Mrs Godwin, and with her active co-operation, he
+carried on business as a bookseller under the pseudonym of
+Edward Baldwin, publishing several useful school books and
+books for children, among them Charles and Mary Lamb&rsquo;s <i>Tales
+from Shakespeare</i>. But the speculation was unsuccessful, and
+for many years Godwin struggled with constant pecuniary
+difficulties, for which more than one subscription was raised
+by the leaders of the Liberal party and by literary men. He
+became bankrupt in 1822, but during the following years he
+accomplished one of his best pieces of work, <i>The History of the
+Commonwealth</i>, founded on pamphlets and original documents,
+which still retains considerable value. In 1833 the government
+of Earl Grey conferred upon him the office known as yeoman
+usher of the exchequer, to which were attached apartments in
+Palace Yard, where he died on the 7th of April 1836.</p>
+
+<p>In his own time, by his writings and by his conversation,
+Godwin had a great power of influencing men, and especially
+young men. Though his character would seem, from much
+which is found in his writings, and from anecdotes told by those
+who still remember him, to have been unsympathetic, it was not
+so understood by enthusiastic young people, who hung on his
+words as those of a prophet. The most remarkable of these was
+Percy Bysshe Shelley, who in the glowing dawn of his genius
+turned to Godwin as his teacher and guide. The last of the long
+series of young men who sat at Godwin&rsquo;s feet was Edward Lytton
+Bulwer, afterwards Lord Lytton, whose early romances were
+formed after those of Godwin, and who, in <i>Eugene Aram</i>, succeeded
+to the story as arranged, and the plan to a considerable
+extent sketched out, by Godwin, whose age and failing health
+prevented him from completing it. Godwin&rsquo;s character appears
+in the worst light in connexion with Shelley. His early correspondence
+with Shelley, which began in 1811, is remarkable for
+its genuine good sense and kindness; but when Shelley carried
+out the principles of the author of <i>Political Justice</i> in eloping
+with Mary Godwin, Godwin assumed a hostile attitude that
+would have been unjustifiable in a man of ordinary views, and
+was ridiculous in the light of his professions. He was not, moreover,
+too proud to accept £1000 from his son-in-law, and after
+the reconciliation following on Shelley&rsquo;s marriage in 1816, he
+continued to demand money until Shelley&rsquo;s death. His character
+had no doubt suffered under his long embarrassments and his
+unhappy marriage.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Godwin&rsquo;s more important works are&mdash;<i>The Inquiry concerning
+Political Justice, and its Influence on General Virtue and Happiness</i>
+(1793); <i>Things as they are, or the Adventures of Caleb Williams</i>
+(1794); <i>The Inquirer, a series of Essays</i> (1797); <i>Memoirs of the
+Author of the Rights of Woman</i> (1798); <i>St Leon, a Tale of the Sixteenth
+Century</i> (1799); <i>Antonio, a Tragedy</i> (1800); <i>The Life of Chaucer</i>
+(1803); <i>Fleetwood, a Novel</i> (1805); <i>Faulkner, a Tragedy</i> (1807);
+<i>Essay on Sepulchres</i> (1809); <i>Lives of Edward and John Philips, the
+Nephews of Milton</i> (1815); <i>Mandeville, a Tale of the Times of Cromwell</i>
+(1817); <i>Of Population, an answer to Malthus</i> (1820); <i>History
+of the Commonwealth</i> (1824-1828); <i>Cloudesley, a Novel</i> (1830);
+<i>Thoughts on Man, a series of Essays</i> (1831); <i>Lives of the Necromancers</i>
+(1834). A volume of essays was also collected from his papers and
+published in 1873, as left for publication by his daughter Mrs Shelley.
+Many other short and anonymous works proceeded from his ever
+busy pen, but many are irrecoverable, and all are forgotten. Godwin&rsquo;s
+life was published in 1876 in two volumes, under the title <i>William
+Godwin, his Friends and Contemporaries</i>, by C. Kegan Paul. The
+best estimate of his literary position is that given by Sir Leslie
+Stephen in his <i>English Thought in the 18th Century</i> (ii. 264-281; ed.,
+1902). See also the article on William Godwin in W. Hazlitt&rsquo;s
+<i>The Spirit of the Age</i> (1825), and &ldquo;Godwin and Shelley&rdquo; in Sir L.
+Stephen&rsquo;s <i>Hours in a Library</i> (vol. iii., ed. 1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For an analysis of <i>Caleb Williams</i> see the chapter on &ldquo;Theorists
+of Revolution&rdquo; in Professor E. Dowden&rsquo;s <i>The French Revolution
+and English Literature</i> (1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODWIN-AUSTEN, ROBERT ALFRED CLOYNE<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (1808-1884),
+English geologist, the eldest son of Sir Henry E. Austen, was
+born on the 17th of March 1808. He was educated at Oriel
+College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow in 1830. He
+afterwards entered Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn. In 1833 he married the only
+daughter and heiress of General Sir Henry T. Godwin, K.C.B.,
+and he took the additional name of Godwin by Royal licence
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page179" id="page179"></a>179</span>
+in 1854. At Oxford as a pupil of William Buckland he became
+deeply interested in geology, and soon afterwards becoming
+acquainted with De la Beche, he was inspired by that great
+master, and assisted him by making a geological map of the
+neighbourhood of Newton Abbot, which was embodied in the
+Geological Survey map. He also published an elaborate memoir
+&ldquo;On the Geology of the South-East of Devonshire&rdquo; (<i>Trans.
+Geol. Soc.</i> ser. 2, vol. viii.). His attention was next directed to
+the Cretaceous rocks of Surrey, his home-county, his estates
+being situated at Chilworth and Shalford near Guildford. Later
+he dealt with the superficial accumulations bordering the English
+Channel, and with the erratic boulders of Selsea. In 1855 he
+brought before the Geological Society of London his celebrated
+paper &ldquo;On the possible Extension of the Coal-Measures beneath
+the South-Eastern part of England,&rdquo; in which he pointed out
+on well-considered theoretical grounds the likelihood of coal-measures
+being some day reached in that area. In this article
+he also advocated the freshwater origin of the Old Red Sandstone,
+and discussed the relations of that formation, and of the
+Devonian, to the Silurian and Carboniferous. He was elected
+F.R.S. in 1849, and in 1862 he was awarded the Wollaston medal
+by the Geological Society of London, on which occasion he was
+styled by Sir R. I. Murchison &ldquo;pre-eminently the physical
+geographer of bygone periods.&rdquo; He died at Shalford House
+near Guildford on the 25th of November 1884.</p>
+
+<p>His son, Lieut-Colonel <span class="sc">Henry Haversham Godwin-Austen</span>
+(b. 1834), entered the army in 1851, and served for many years
+on the Trigonometrical Survey of India, retiring in 1877. He
+gave much attention to geology, but is more especially distinguished
+for his researches on the natural history of India
+and as the author of <i>The Land and Freshwater Mollusca of India</i>
+(1882-1887).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODWINE<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (d. 1053), son of Wulfnoth, earl of the West-Saxons,
+the leading Englishman in the first half of the 11th
+century. His birth and origin are utterly uncertain; but he
+rose to power early in Canute&rsquo;s reign and was an earl in 1018.
+He received in marriage Gytha, a connexion of the king&rsquo;s, and
+in 1020 became earl of the West-Saxons. On the death of Canute
+in 1035 he joined with Queen Emma in supporting the claim
+of Hardicanute, the son of Canute and Emma, to the crown of
+his father, in opposition to Leofric and the northern party who
+supported Harold Harefoot (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hardicanute</a></span>). While together
+they held Wessex for Hardicanute, the ætheling Ælfred, son of
+Emma by her former husband Æthelred II., landed in England
+in the hope of winning back his father&rsquo;s crown; but falling into
+the hands of Godwine, he and his followers were cruelly done to
+death. On the death of Hardicanute in 1042 Godwine was
+foremost in promoting the election of Edward (the Confessor)
+to the vacant throne. He was now the first man in the kingdom,
+though his power was still balanced by that of the other great
+earls, Leofric of Mercia and Siward of Northumberland. His
+sons Sweyn and Harold were promoted to earldoms; and his
+daughter Eadgyth was married to the king (1045). His policy
+was strongly national in opposition to the marked Normanizing
+tendencies of the king. Between him and Edward&rsquo;s foreign
+favourites, particularly Robert of Jumièges, there was deadly
+feud. The appointment of Robert to the archbishopric of Canterbury
+in 1051 marks the decline of Godwine&rsquo;s power; and in the
+same year a series of outrages committed by one of the king&rsquo;s
+foreign favourites led to a breach between the king and the earl,
+which culminated in the exile of the latter with all his family (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Edward the Confessor</a></span>). But next year Godwine returned in
+triumph; and at a great meeting held outside London he and
+his family were restored to all their offices and possessions,
+and the archbishop and many other Normans were banished.
+In the following year Godwine was smitten with a fit at the
+king&rsquo;s table, and died three days later on the 15th of April 1053.</p>
+
+<p>Godwine appears to have had seven sons, three of whom&mdash;King Harold,
+Gyrth and Leofwine&mdash;were killed at Hastings;
+two others, Wulfnoth and Ælfgar, are of little importance;
+another was Earl Tostig (<i>q.v.</i>). The eldest son was Sweyn, or
+Swegen (d. 1052), who was outlawed for seducing Eadgifu
+abbess of Leominster. After fighting for the king of Denmark
+he returned to England in 1049, when his murder of his cousin
+Beorn compelled him to leave England for the second time.
+In 1050, however, he regained his earldom, and in 1051 he shared
+his father&rsquo;s exile. To atone for the murder of Beorn, Sweyn
+went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and on the return journey
+he died on the 29th of September 1052, meeting his death,
+according to one account, at the hands of the Saracens.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GODWIT,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a word of unknown origin, the name commonly
+applied to a marsh-bird in great repute, when fattened, for the
+table, and formerly abundant in the fens of Norfolk, the Isle
+of Ely and Lincolnshire. In Turner&rsquo;s days (1544) it was worth
+three times as much as a snipe, and at the same <span class="correction" title="amended from peroid">period</span> Belon
+said of it&mdash;&ldquo;C&rsquo;est vn Oyseau es delices des Françoys.&rdquo; Casaubon,
+who Latinized its name &ldquo;<i>Dei ingenium</i>&rdquo; (<i>Ephemerides</i>, 19th
+September 1611), was told by the &ldquo;<i>ornithotrophaeus</i>&rdquo; he visited
+at Wisbech that in London it fetched twenty pence. Its fame
+as a delicacy is perpetuated by many later writers, Ben Jonson
+among them, and Pennant says that in his time (1766) it sold for
+half-a-crown or five shillings. Under the name godwit two
+perfectly distinct species of British birds were included, but that
+which seems to have been especially prized is known to modern
+ornithologists as the black-tailed godwit, <i>Limosa aegocephala</i>,
+formerly called, from its loud cry, a yarwhelp,<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> shrieker or
+barker, in the districts it inhabited. The practice of netting
+this bird in large numbers during the spring and summer, coupled
+with the gradual reclamation of the fens, to which it resorted,
+has now rendered it but a visitor in England; and it probably
+ceased from breeding regularly in England in 1824 or thereabouts,
+though under favourable conditions it may have occasionally
+laid its eggs for some thirty years later or more (Stevenson,
+<i>Birds of Norfolk</i>, ii. 250). This godwit is a species of wide
+range, reaching Iceland, where it is called <i>Jardraeka</i> (= earth-raker),
+in summer, and occurring numerously in India in winter.
+Its chief breeding-quarters seem to extend from Holland eastwards
+to the south of Russia. The second British species is that
+which is known as the bar-tailed godwit, <i>L. lapponica</i>, and this
+seems to have never been more than a bird of double passage
+in the United Kingdom, arriving in large flocks on the south
+coast about the 12th of May, and, after staying a few days,
+proceeding to the north-eastward. It is known to breed in
+Lapland, but its eggs are of great rarity. Towards autumn
+the young visit the English coasts, and a few of them remain,
+together with some of the other species, in favourable situations
+throughout the winter. One of the local names by which the
+bar-tailed godwit is known to the Norfolk gunners is scamell,
+a word which, in the mouth of Caliban (<i>Tempest</i>, II. ii.), has been
+the cause of much perplexity to Shakespearian critics.</p>
+
+<p>The godwits belong to the group <i>Limicolae</i>, and are about as
+big as a tame pigeon, but possess long legs, and a long bill with
+a slight upward turn. It is believed that in the genus <i>Limosa</i>
+the female is larger than the male. While the winter plumage
+is of a sober greyish-brown, the breeding-dress is marked by a
+predominance of bright bay or chestnut, rendering the wearer
+a very beautiful object. The black-tailed godwit, though varying
+a good deal in size, is constantly larger than the bar-tailed, and
+especially longer in the legs. The species may be further distinguished
+by the former having the proximal third of the tail-quills
+pure white, and the distal two-thirds black, with a narrow white
+margin, while the latter has the same feathers barred with
+black and white alternately for nearly their whole length.</p>
+
+<p>America possesses two species of the genus, the very large
+marbled godwit or marlin, <i>L. fedoa</i>, easily recognized by its size
+and the buff colour of its axillaries, and the smaller Hudsonian
+godwit, <i>L. hudsonica</i>, which has its axillaries of a deep black.
+This last, though less numerous than its congener, seems to
+range over the whole of the continent, breeding in the extreme
+north, while it has been obtained also in the Strait of Magellan
+and the Falkland Islands. The first seems not to go farther
+southward than the Antilles and the Isthmus of Panama.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180"></a>180</span></p>
+
+<p>From Asia, or at least its eastern part, two species have
+been described. One of them, <i>L. melanuroides</i>, differs only
+from <i>L. aegocephala</i> in its smaller size, and is believed to breed
+in Amurland, wintering in the islands of the Pacific, New
+Zealand and Australia. The other, <i>L. uropygialis</i>, is closely
+allied to and often mistaken for <i>L. lapponica</i>, from which it
+chiefly differs by having the rump barred like the tail. This
+was found breeding in the extreme north of Siberia by Dr von
+Middendorff, and ranges to Australia, whence it was, like the
+last, first described by Gould.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This name seems to have survived in Whelp Moor, near Brandon,
+in Suffolk.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOEBEN, AUGUST KARL VON<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1816-1880), Prussian
+general of infantry, came of old Hanoverian stock. Born at
+Stade on the 10th of December 1816, he aspired from his earliest
+years to the Prussian service rather than that of his own country,
+and at the age of seventeen obtained a commission in the 24th
+regiment of Prussian infantry. But there was little scope there
+for the activities of a young and energetic subaltern, and, leaving
+the service in 1836, he entered the Carlist army campaigning in
+Spain. In the five campaigns which he made in the service of
+Don Carlos he had many and various vicissitudes of fortune.
+He had not fought for two months when he fell, severely wounded,
+into the hands of the Spanish Royal troops. After eight months&rsquo;
+detention he escaped, but it was not long before he was captured
+again. This time his imprisonment was long and painful, and
+on two occasions he was compelled to draw lots for his life with
+his fellow-captives. When released, he served till 1840 with
+distinction. In that year he made his way back, a beggar
+without means or clothing, to Prussia. The Carlist lieutenant-colonel
+was glad to be re-admitted into the Prussian service as a
+second lieutenant, but he was still young, and few subalterns
+could at the age of twenty-four claim five years&rsquo; meritorious
+war service. In a few years we find him serving as captain on the
+Great General Staff, and in 1848 he had the good fortune to be
+transferred to the staff of the IV. army corps, his immediate
+superior being Major von Moltke. The two &ldquo;coming men&rdquo;
+became fast friends, and their mutual esteem was never disturbed.
+In the Baden insurrection Goeben served with distinction on the
+staff of Prince William, the future emperor. Staff and regimental
+duty (as usual in the Prussian service) alternated for some years
+after this, till in 1863 he became major-general commanding the
+26th infantry brigade. In 1860, it should be mentioned, he
+was present with the Spanish troops in Morocco, and took part
+in the battle of Tetuan.</p>
+
+<p>In the first of Prussia&rsquo;s great wars (1864) he distinguished
+himself at the head of his brigade at Rackebüll and Sonderburg.
+In the war of 1866 Lieutenant-General von Goeben commanded
+the 13th division, of which his old brigade formed part, and,
+in this higher sphere, once more displayed the qualities of a born
+leader and skilful tactician. He held almost independent
+command with conspicuous success in the actions of Dermbach,
+Laufach, Kissingen, Aschaffenburg, Gerchsheim, Tauber-Bischofsheim
+and Würzburg. The mobilization of 1870 placed
+him at the head of the VIII. (Rhineland) army corps, forming
+part of the First Army under Steinmetz. It was his resolute and
+energetic leading that contributed mainly to the victory of
+Spicheren (6th August), and won the only laurels gained on the
+Prussian right wing at Gravelotte (18th August). Under Manteuffel
+the VIII. corps took part in the operations about Amiens and
+Bapaume, and on the 8th of January 1871 Goeben succeeded
+that general in the command of the First Army, with which he
+had served throughout the campaign as a corps commander.
+A fortnight later he had brought the war in northern France
+to a brilliant conclusion, by the decisive victory of St Quentin
+(18th and 19th January 1871). The close of the Franco-German
+War left Goeben one of the most distinguished men in the
+victorious army. He was colonel of the 28th infantry, and had
+the grand cross of the Iron Cross. He commanded the VIII.
+corps at Coblenz until his death in 1880.</p>
+
+<p>General von Goeben left many writings. His memoirs are to
+be found in his works <i>Vier Jahre in Spanien</i> (Hanover, 1841),
+<i>Reise- und Lagerbriefe aus Spanien und vom spanischen Heere in
+Marokko</i> (Hanover, 1863) and in the Darmstadt <i>Allgemeine
+Militärzeitung</i>. The former French port (Queuleu) at Metz was
+renamed Goeben after him, and the 28th infantry bears his name.
+A statue of Goeben by Schaper was erected at Coblenz in 1884.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. Zernin, <i>Das Leben des Generals August von Goeben</i> (2 vols.,
+Berlin, 1895-1897); H. Barth, <i>A. von Goeben</i> (Berlin, 1906); and, for
+his share in the war of 1870-71; H. Kunz, <i>Der Feldzug im N. und
+N.W. Frankreichs 1870-1871</i> (Berlin, 1889), and the 14th Monograph
+of the Great General Staff (1891).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (1836-1909), Dutch orientalist,
+was born in Friesland in 1836. He devoted himself at an early
+age to the study of oriental languages and became especially
+proficient in Arabic, under the guidance of Dozy and Juynboll,
+to whom he was afterwards an intimate friend and colleague.
+He took his degree of doctor at Leiden in 1860, and then studied
+for a year in Oxford, where he examined and collated the Bodleian
+MSS. of Idr&#299;s&#299; (part being published in 1866, in collaboration
+with R. P. Dozy, as <i>Description de l&rsquo;Afrique et de l&rsquo;Espagne</i>).
+About the same time he wrote <i>Mémoires de l&rsquo;histoire et de la
+géographie orientales</i>, and edited <i>Expugnatio regionum</i>. In
+1883, on the death of Dozy, he became Arabic professor at Leiden,
+retiring in 1906. He died on the 17th of May 1909. Though
+perhaps not a teacher of the first order, he wielded a great
+influence during his long professoriate not only over his pupils,
+but over theologians and eastern administrators who attended
+his lectures, and his many editions of Arabic texts have been of
+the highest value to scholars, the most important being his great
+edition of &#7788;abar&#299;. Though entirely averse from politics, he took
+a keen interest in the municipal affairs of Leiden and made a
+special study of elementary education. He took the leading part
+in the International Congress of Orientalists at Algiers in 1905.
+He was a member of the Institut de France, was awarded the
+German Order of Merit, and received an honorary doctorate of
+Cambridge University. At his death he was president of the
+newly formed International Association of Academies of Science.
+Among his chief works are <i>Fragmenta historicorum Arabicorum</i>
+(1869-1871); <i>Diwan of Moslim ibn al-W&#257;lid</i> (1875); <i>Bibliotheca
+geographorum Arabicorum</i> (1870-1894); <i>Annals of &#7788;abari</i>
+(1879-1901); edition of Ibn Qutaiba&rsquo;s biographies (1904);
+of the travels of Ibn Jubaye (1907, 5th vol. of Gibb Memorial).
+He was also the chief editor of the <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam</i> (vols.
+i.-iii.), and contributed many articles to periodicals. He wrote
+for the 9th and the present edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia
+Britannica</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOES, DAMIÃO DE<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1502-1574), Portuguese humanist, was
+born of a patrician family at Alemquer, in February 1502.
+Under King John III. he was employed abroad for many years
+from 1523 on diplomatic and commercial missions, and he
+travelled over the greater part of Europe. He was intimate
+with the leading scholars of the time, was acquainted with Luther
+and other Protestant divines, and in 1532 became the pupil and
+friend of Erasmus. Goes took his degree at Padua in 1538 after
+a four years&rsquo; course. In 1537, at the instance of his friend Cardinal
+Sadoleto, he undertook to mediate between the Church and the
+Lutherans, but failed through the attitude of the Protestants.
+He married in Flanders a rich and noble Dutch lady, D. Joanna
+de Hargen, and settled at Louvain, then the literary centre of
+the Low Countries, where he was living in 1542 when the French
+besieged the town. He was given the command of the defending
+forces, and saved Louvain, but was taken prisoner and confined
+for nine months in France, till he obtained his freedom by a
+heavy ransom. He was rewarded, however, by a grant of arms
+from Charles V. He finally returned to Portugal in 1545, with
+a view of becoming tutor to the king&rsquo;s son, but he failed to
+obtain this post, owing to the denunciations of Father Simon
+Rodriguez, provincial of the Jesuits, who accused Goes of
+favouring the Lutheran doctrines and of being a disciple of
+Erasmus. Nevertheless in 1548 he was appointed chief keeper
+of the archives and royal chronicler, and at once introduced
+some much-needed reforms into the administration of his office.</p>
+
+<p>In 1558 he was given a commission to write a history of the
+reign of King Manoel, a task previously confided to João de
+Barros, but relinquished by him. It was an onerous undertaking
+for a conscientious historian, since it was necessary to expose
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id="page181"></a>181</span>
+the miseries as well as relate the glories of the period, and so to
+offend some of the most powerful families. Goes had already
+written a <i>Chronicle</i> of Prince John (afterwards John II.), and
+when, after more than eight years&rsquo; labour, he produced the First
+Part of his <i>Chronicle</i> of King Manoel (1566), a chorus of attacks
+greeted it, the edition was destroyed, and he was compelled to
+issue a revised version. He brought out the three other parts
+in 1566-1567, though chapters 23 to 27 of the Third Part were
+so mutilated by the censorship that the printed text differs
+largely from the MS. Hitherto Goes, notwithstanding his Liberalism,
+had escaped the Inquisition, though in 1540 his <i>Fides,
+religio, moresque Aethiopum</i> had been prohibited by the chief
+inquisitor, Cardinal D. Henrique; but the denunciation of
+Father Rodriguez in 1545, which had been vainly renewed in
+1550, was now brought into action, and in 1571 he was arrested
+to stand his trial. There seems to be no doubt that the Inquisition
+made itself on this occasion, as on others, the instrument of
+private enmity; for eighteen months Goes lay ill in prison, and
+then he was condemned, though he had lived for thirty years as
+a faithful Catholic, and the worst that could be proved against
+him was that in his youth he had spoken against Indulgences,
+disbelieved in auricular confession, and consorted with heretics.
+He was sentenced to a term of reclusion, and his property was
+confiscated to the crown. After he had abjured his errors in
+private, he was sent at the end of 1572 to do penance at the
+monastery of Batalha. Later he was allowed to return home
+to Alemquer, where he died on the 30th of January 1574. He
+was buried in the church of Nossa Senhora da Varzea.</p>
+
+<p>Damião de Goes was a man of wide culture and genial and
+courtly manners, a skilled musician and a good linguist. He
+wrote both Portuguese and Latin with classic strength and
+simplicity, and his style is free from affectation and rhetorical
+ornaments. His portrait by Albrecht Dürer shows an open,
+intelligent face, and the record of his life proves him to have
+been upright and fearless. His prosperity doubtless excited
+ill-will, but above all, his ideas, advanced for Portugal, his foreign
+ways, outspokenness and honesty contributed to the tragedy
+of his end, at a time when the forces of ignorant reaction held
+the ascendant. He had, it may be presumed, given some umbrage
+to the court by condemning, in the <i>Chronicle of King
+Manoel</i>, the royal ingratitude to distinguished public servants,
+though he received a pension and other rewards for that work,
+and he had certainly offended the nobility by his administration
+of the archive office and by exposing false genealogical claims
+in his <i>Nobiliario</i>. He paid the penalty for telling the truth, as
+he knew it, in an age when an historian had to choose between
+flattery of the great and silence. The <i>Chronicle of King Manoel</i>
+was the first official history of a Portuguese reign to be written
+in a critical spirit, and Damião de Goes has the honour of having
+been the first Portuguese royal chronicler to deserve the name
+of an historian.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His Portuguese works include <i>Chronica do felicissimo rei Dom
+Emanuel</i> (parts i. and ii., Lisbon, 1566, parts iii. and iv., <i>ib.</i>
+1567). Other editions appeared in Lisbon in 1619 and 1749 and in
+Coimbra in 1790. <i>Chronica do principe Dom Joam</i> (Lisbon, 1558),
+with subsequent editions in 1567 and 1724 in Lisbon and in 1790 in
+Coimbra. <i>Livro de Marco Tullio Ciceram chamado Catam Mayor</i>
+(Venice, 1538). This is a translation of Cicero&rsquo;s <i>De senectute</i>. His
+Latin works, published separately, comprise: (1) <i>Legatio magni imperatoris
+Presbiteri Joannis, &amp;c.</i> (Antwerp, 1532); (2) <i>Legatio Davidis
+Ethiopiae regis, &amp;c.</i> (Bologna, 1533); (3) <i>Commentarii rerum gestarum
+in India</i> (Louvain, 1539); (4) <i>Fides, religio, moresque Aethiopum</i>
+(Louvain, 1540), incorporating Nos. (1) and (2); (5) <i>Hispania</i> (Louvain,
+1542); (6) <i>Aliquot epistolae Sadoleti Bembi et aliorum clarissimorum
+virorum, &amp;c.</i> (Louvain, 1544); (7) <i>Damiani a Goes equitis Lusitani
+aliquot opuscula</i> (Louvain, 1544); (8) <i>Urbis Lovaniensis obsidia</i> (Lisbon,
+1546); (9) <i>De bello Cambaico ultimo</i> (Louvain, 1549); (10) <i>Urbis Olisiponensis
+descriptio</i> (Evora, 1554); (11) <i>Epistola ad Hieronymum Cardosum</i>
+(Lisbon, 1556). Most of the above went through several editions,
+and many were afterwards included with new works in such collections
+as No. (7), and seven sets of <i>Opuscula</i> appeared, all incomplete.
+Nos. (3), (4) and (5) suffered mutilation in subsequent editions,
+at the hands of the censors, because they offended against religious
+orthodoxy or family pride.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;(A) Joaquim de Vasconcellos, <i>Goesiana</i> (5 vols.),
+with the following sub-titles: (1) <i>O Retrato de Albrecht Dürer</i>
+(Porto, 1879); (2) <i>Bibliographia</i> (Porto, 1879), which describes 67
+numbers of books by Goes; (3) As Variantes das Chronicus Portuguezas
+(Porto, 1881); (4) <i>Damião de Goes: Novos Estudos</i> (Porto,
+1897); (5) <i>As Cartas Latinas</i>&mdash;in the press (1906). Snr. Vasconcellos
+only printed a very limited number of copies of these studies for
+distribution among friends, so that they are rare. (B) Guilherme
+J. C. Henriques, <i>Ineditos Goesianos</i>, vol. i. (Lisbon, 1896), vol. ii.
+(containing the proceedings at the trial by the Inquisition) (Lisbon,
+1898). (C) A. P. Lopes de Mendonça, <i>Damião de Goes e a Inquisição
+de Portugal</i> (Lisbon, 1859). (D) Dr Sousa Viterbo, <i>Damião de Goes
+e D. Antonio Pinheiro</i> (Coimbra, 1895). (E) Dr Theophilo Braga,
+<i>Historia da Universidade de Coimbra</i> (Lisbon, 1892), i. 374-380.
+(F) Menendez y Pelayo, <i>Historia de los Heter. Españoles</i>, ii.
+129-143.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Pr.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOES, HUGO VAN DER<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (d. 1482), a painter of considerable
+celebrity at Ghent, was known to Vasari, as he is known to
+us, by a single picture in a Florentine monastery. At a period
+when the family of the Medici had not yet risen from the rank
+of a great mercantile firm to that of a reigning dynasty, it employed
+as an agent at the port of Bruges Tommaso Portinari, a
+lineal descendant, it was said, of Folco, the father of Dante&rsquo;s
+Beatrix. Tommaso, at that time patron of a chapel in the hospital
+of Santa Maria Nuova at Florence, ordered an altar-piece of
+Hugo van der Goes, and commanded him to illustrate the sacred
+theme of &ldquo;Quem genuit adoravit.&rdquo; In the centre of a vast
+triptych, comprising numerous figures of life size, Hugo represented
+the Virgin kneeling in adoration before the new-born
+Christ attended by Shepherds and Angels. On the wings he
+portrayed Tommaso and his two sons in prayer under the protection
+of Saint Anthony and St Matthew, and Tommaso&rsquo;s
+wife and two daughters supported by St Margaret and St Mary
+Magdalen. The triptych, which has suffered much from decay
+and restoring, was for over 400 years at Santa Maria Nuova,
+and is now in the Uffizi Gallery. Imposing because composed
+of figures of unusual size, the altar-piece is more remarkable
+for portrait character than for charms of ideal beauty.</p>
+
+<p>There are also small pieces in public galleries which claim to
+have been executed by Van der Goes. One of these pictures in
+the National Gallery in London is more nearly allied to the school
+of Memling than to the triptych of Santa Maria Nuova; another,
+a small and very beautiful &ldquo;John the Baptist,&rdquo; at the Pinakothek
+of Munich, is really by Memling; whilst numerous fragments
+of an altar-piece in the Belvedere at Vienna, though
+assigned to Hugo, are by his more gifted countryman of Bruges.
+Van der Goes, however, was not habitually a painter of easel
+pieces. He made his reputation at Bruges by producing coloured
+hangings in distemper. After he settled at Ghent, and became a
+master of his gild in 1465, he designed cartoons for glass windows.
+He also made decorations for the wedding of Charles the Bold and
+Margaret of York in 1468, for the festivals of the Rhetoricians and
+papal jubilees on repeated occasions, for the solemn entry of
+Charles the Bold into Ghent in 1470-1471, and for the funeral of
+Philip the Good in 1474. The labour which he expended on
+these occasions might well add to his fame without being the
+less ephemeral. About the year 1475 he retired to the monastery
+of Rouge Cloître near Ghent, where he took the cowl. There,
+though he still clung to his profession, he seems to have
+taken to drinking, and at one time to have shown decided
+symptoms of insanity. But his superiors gradually cured him
+of his intemperance, and he died in the odour of sanctity in
+1482.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOES,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> a town in the province of Zeeland, Holland, on the island
+of South Beveland, 11½ m. by rail E. of Middelburg. Pop. (1900)
+6919. It is connected by a short canal with the East Scheldt,
+and has a good harbour (1819) defended by a fort. The principal
+buildings are the interesting Gothic church (1423) and the
+picturesque old town hall (restored 1771). There are various
+educational and charitable institutions. Goes has preserved
+for centuries its prosperous position as the market-town of the
+island. The chief industries are boat-building, brewing, book-binding
+and cigar-making. The town had its origin in the
+castle of Oostende, built here by the noble family of Borssele.
+It received a charter early in the 15th century from the
+countess Jacoba of Holland, who frequently stayed at the
+castle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page182" id="page182"></a>182</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1749-1832), German
+poet, dramatist and philosopher, was born at Frankfort-on-Main
+on the 28th of August 1749. He came, on his father&rsquo;s side, of
+Thuringian stock, his great-grandfather, Hans Christian Goethe,
+having been a farrier at Artern-on-the-Unstrut, about the
+middle of the 17th century. Hans Christian&rsquo;s son, Friedrich
+Georg, was brought up to the trade of a tailor, and in this
+capacity settled in Frankfort in 1686. A second marriage,
+however, brought him into possession of the Frankfort inn,
+&ldquo;Zum Weidenhof,&rdquo; and he ended his days as a well-to-do innkeeper.
+His son, Johann Kaspar, the poet&rsquo;s father (1710-1782),
+studied law at Leipzig, and, after going through the prescribed
+courses of practical training at Wetzlar, travelled in Italy.
+He hoped, on his return to Frankfort, to obtain an official
+position in the government of the free city, but his personal
+influence with the authorities was not sufficiently strong. In
+his disappointment he resolved never again to offer his services
+to his native town, and retired into private life, a course which
+his ample means facilitated. In 1742 he acquired, as a consolation
+for the public career he had missed, the title of <i>kaiserlicher
+Rat</i>, and in 1748 married Katharina Elisabeth (1731-1808),
+daughter of the <i>Schultheiss</i> or <i>Bürgermeister</i> of Frankfort,
+Johann Wolfgang Textor. The poet was the eldest son of this
+union. Of the later children only one, Cornelia, born in 1750,
+survived the years of childhood; she died as the wife of Goethe&rsquo;s
+friend, J. G. Schlosser, in 1777. The best elements in Goethe&rsquo;s
+genius came from his mother&rsquo;s side; of a lively, impulsive
+disposition, and gifted with remarkable imaginative power,
+Frau Rat was the ideal mother of a poet; moreover, being
+hardly eighteen at the time of her son&rsquo;s birth, she was herself
+able to be the companion of his childhood. From his father,
+whose stern, somewhat pedantic nature repelled warmer feelings
+on the part of the children, Goethe Inherited that &ldquo;holy earnestness&rdquo;
+and stability of character which brought him unscathed
+through temptations and passions, and held the balance to his
+all too powerful imagination.</p>
+
+<p>Unforgettable is the picture which the poet subsequently
+drew of his childhood spent in the large house with its many
+nooks and crannies, in the Grosse Hirschgraben at Frankfort.
+Books, pictures, objects of art, antiquities, reminiscences of
+Rat Goethe&rsquo;s visit to Italy, above all a marionette theatre,
+kindled the child&rsquo;s quick intellect and imagination. His training
+was conducted in its early stages by his father, and was later
+supplemented by tutors. Meanwhile the varied and picturesque
+life of Frankfort was in itself an education. In 1759, during the
+Seven Years&rsquo; War, the French, as Maria Theresa&rsquo;s allies, occupied
+the town, and, much to the irritation of Goethe&rsquo;s father, who
+was a stanch partisan of Frederick the Great, a French lieutenant,
+Count Thoranc, was quartered on the Goethe household.
+The foreign occupation also led to the establishment of a French
+troupe of actors, and to their performances the boy, through his
+grandfather&rsquo;s influence, had free access. Goethe has also recorded
+his memories of another picturesque event, the coronation of the
+emperor Joseph II. in the Frankfort Römer or town hall in 1764;
+but these memories were darkened by being associated in his
+mind with the tragic dénouement of his first love affair. The
+object of this passion was a certain Gretchen, who seems to have
+taken advantage of the boy&rsquo;s interest in her to further the
+dishonest ends of one of her friends. The discovery of the affair
+and the investigation that followed cooled Goethe&rsquo;s ardour and
+caused him to turn his attention seriously to the studies which
+were to prepare him for the university. Meanwhile the literary
+instinct had begun to show itself; we hear of a novel in letters&mdash;a
+kind of linguistic exercise, in which the characters carried on
+the correspondence in different languages&mdash;of a prose epic on
+the subject of Joseph, and various religious poems of which one,
+<i>Die Höllenfahrt Christi</i>, found its way in a revised form into the
+poet&rsquo;s complete works.</p>
+
+<p>In October 1765, Goethe, then a little over sixteen, left Frankfort
+for Leipzig, where a wider and, in many respects, less
+provincial life awaited him. He entered upon his university
+studies with zeal, but his own education in Frankfort had not
+been the best preparation for the scholastic methods which still
+dominated the German universities; of his professors, only
+Gellert seems to have won his interest, and that interest was soon
+exhausted. The literary beginnings he had made in Frankfort
+now seemed to him amateurish and trivial; he felt that he had
+to turn over a new leaf, and, under the guidance of E. W. Behrisch,
+a genial, original comrade, he learned the art of writing those
+light Anacreontic lyrics which harmonized with the tone of polite
+Leipzig society. Artificial as this poetry is, Goethe was, nevertheless,
+inspired by a real passion in Leipzig, namely, for Anna
+Katharina Schönkopf, the daughter of a wine-merchant at whose
+house he dined. She is the &ldquo;Annette&rdquo; after whom the recently
+discovered collection of lyrics was named, although it must be
+added that neither these lyrics nor the <i>Neue Lieder</i>, published in
+1770, express very directly Goethe&rsquo;s feelings for Käthchen
+Schönkopf. To his Leipzig student-days belong also two small
+plays in Alexandrines, <i>Die Laune des Verliebten</i>, a pastoral
+comedy in one act, which reflects the lighter side of the poet&rsquo;s
+love affair, and <i>Die Mitschuldigen</i> (published in a revised form,
+1769), a more sombre picture, in which comedy is incongruously
+mingled with tragedy. In Leipzig Goethe also had time for what
+remained one of the abiding interests of his life, for art; he regarded
+A. F. Oeser (1717-1799), the director of the academy of
+painting in the Pleissenburg, who had given him lessons in drawing,
+as the teacher who in Leipzig had influenced him most. His art
+studies were also furthered by a short visit to Dresden. His stay
+in Leipzig came, however, to an abrupt conclusion; the distractions
+of student life proved too much for his strength; a
+sudden haemorrhage supervened, and he lay long ill, first in
+Leipzig, and, after it was possible to remove him, at home in
+Frankfort. These months of slow recovery were a time of serious
+introspection for Goethe. He still corresponded with his Leipzig
+friends, but the tone of his letters changed; life had become
+graver and more earnest for him. He pored over books on occult
+philosophy; he busied himself with alchemy and astrology. A
+friend of his mother&rsquo;s, Susanne Katharina von Klettenberg, who
+belonged to pietist circles in Frankfort, turned the boy&rsquo;s thoughts
+to religious mysticism. On his recovery his father resolved that
+he should complete his legal studies at Strassburg, a city which,
+although then outside the German empire, was, in respect of
+language and culture, wholly German. From the first moment
+Goethe set foot in the narrow streets of the Alsatian capital, in
+April 1770, the whole current of his thought seemed to change.
+The Gothic architecture of the Strassburg minster became to
+him the symbol of a national and German ideal, directly antagonistic
+to the French tastes and the classical and rationalistic
+atmosphere that prevailed in Leipzig. The second moment of
+importance in Goethe&rsquo;s Strassburg period was his meeting with
+Herder, who spent some weeks in Strassburg undergoing an operation
+of the eye. In this thinker, who was his senior by five years,
+Goethe found the master he sought; Herder taught him the
+significance of Gothic architecture, revealed to him the charm
+of nature&rsquo;s simplicity, and inspired him with enthusiasm for
+Shakespeare and the <i>Volkslied</i>. Meanwhile Goethe&rsquo;s legal studies
+were not neglected, and he found time to add to knowledge of
+other subjects, notably that of medicine. Another factor of
+importance in Goethe&rsquo;s Strassburg life was his love for Friederike
+Brion, the daughter of an Alsatian village pastor in Sesenheim.
+Even more than Herder&rsquo;s precept and example, this passion showed
+Goethe how trivial and artificial had been the Anacreontic and
+pastoral poetry with which he had occupied himself in Leipzig;
+and the lyrics inspired by Friederike, such as <i>Kleine Blumen,
+kleine Blätter</i> and <i>Wie herrlich leuchtet mir die Natur!</i> mark the
+beginning of a new epoch in German lyric poetry. The idyll of
+Sesenheim, as described in <i>Dichtung und Wahrheit</i>, is one of the
+most beautiful love-stories in the literature of the world. From
+the first, however, it was clear that Friederike Brion could never
+become the wife of the Frankfort patrician&rsquo;s son; an unhappy
+ending to the romance was unavoidable, and, as is to be seen in
+passionate outpourings like the <i>Wanderers Sturmlied</i>, and in the
+bitter self-accusations of <i>Clavigo</i>, it left deep wounds on the poet&rsquo;s
+sensitive soul.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page183" id="page183"></a>183</span></p>
+
+<p>To Strassburg we owe Goethe&rsquo;s first important drama, <i>Götz
+von Berlichingen</i>, or, as it was called in its earliest form,
+<i>Geschichte Gottfriedens von Berlichingen dramatisiert</i> (not published
+until 1831). Revised under the now familiar title, it appeared in
+1773, after Goethe&rsquo;s return to Frankfort. In estimating this
+drama we must bear in mind Goethe&rsquo;s own Strassburg life, and
+the turbulent spirit of his own age, rather than the historical facts,
+which the poet found in the autobiography of his hero published
+in 1731. The latter supplied only the rough materials; the Götz
+von Berlichingen whom Goethe drew, with his lofty ideals of
+right and wrong, and his enthusiasm for freedom, is a very
+different personage from the unscrupulous robber-knight of the
+16th century, the rough friend of Franz von Sickingen and of the
+revolting peasants. Still less historical justification is to be found
+for the vacillating Weisslingen in whom Goethe executed poetic
+justice on himself as the lover of Friederike, or in the women of
+the play, the gentle Maria, the heartless Adelheid. But there is
+genial, creative power in the very subjectivity of these characters,
+and a vigorous dramatic life, which is irresistible in its appeal.
+With <i>Götz von Berlichingen</i>, Shakespeare&rsquo;s art first triumphed on
+the German stage, and the literary movement known as <i>Sturm
+und Drang</i> was inaugurated.</p>
+
+<p>Having received his degree in Strassburg, Goethe returned
+home in August 1771, and began his initiation into the routine of
+an advocate&rsquo;s profession. In the following year, in order to gain
+insight into another side of his calling, he spent four months at
+Wetzlar, where the imperial law-courts were established. But
+Goethe&rsquo;s professional duties had only a small share in the eventful
+years which lay between his return from Strassburg and that visit
+to Weimar at the end of 1775, which turned the whole course of
+his career, and resulted in his permanent attachment to the
+Weimar court. Goethe&rsquo;s life in Frankfort was a round of stimulating
+literary intercourse; in J. H. Merck (1741-1791), an army
+official in the neighbouring town of Darmstadt, he found a friend
+and mentor, whose irony and common-sense served as a corrective
+to his own exuberance of spirits. Wetzlar brought new friends
+and another passion, that for Charlotte Buff, the daughter of the
+<i>Amtmann</i> there&mdash;a love-story which has been immortalized in
+<i>Werthers Leiden</i>&mdash;and again the young poet&rsquo;s nature was obsessed
+by a love which was this time strong enough to bring him to
+the brink of that suicide with which the novel ends. A visit to
+the Rhine, where new interests and the attractions of Maximiliane
+von Laroche, a daughter of Wieland&rsquo;s friend, the novelist Sophie
+von Laroche, brought partial healing; his intense preoccupation
+with literary work on his return to Frankfort did the rest. In
+1775 Goethe was attracted by still another type of woman, Lili
+Schönemann, whose mother was the widow of a wealthy Frankfort
+banker. A formal betrothal took place, and the beauty of the
+lyrics which Lili inspired leaves no room for doubt that here was
+a passion no less genuine than that for Friederike or Charlotte.
+But Goethe&mdash;more worldly wise than on former occasions&mdash;felt
+instinctively that the gay, social world in which Lili moved was
+not really congenial to him. A visit to Switzerland in the
+summer of 1775 may not have weakened his interest in her, but it
+at least allowed him to regard her objectively; and, without tragic
+consequences on either side, the passion was ultimately allowed to
+yield to the dictates of common-sense. Goethe&rsquo;s departure for
+Weimar in November made the final break less difficult.</p>
+
+<p>The period from 1771 to 1775 was, in literary respects, the
+most productive of the poet&rsquo;s life. It had been inaugurated
+with <i>Götz von Berlichingen</i>, and a few months later this tragedy
+was followed by another, <i>Clavigo</i>, hardly less convincing in its
+character-drawing, and reflecting even more faithfully than the
+former the experiences Goethe had gone through in Strassburg.
+Again poetic justice is effected on the unfortunate hero who
+has chosen his own personal advancement in preference to his
+duty to the woman he loves; more pointedly than in <i>Götz</i> is
+the moral enforced by Clavigo&rsquo;s worldly friend Carlos, that the
+ground of Clavigo&rsquo;s tragic end lies not so much in the defiance
+of a moral law as in the hero&rsquo;s vacillation and want of character.
+With <i>Die Leiden des jungen Werthers</i> (1774), the literary
+precipitate of the author&rsquo;s own experiences in Wetzlar, Goethe
+succeeded in attracting, as no German had done before him,
+the attention of Europe. Once more it was the gospel that the
+world belongs to the strong, which lay beneath the surface of
+this romance. This, however, was not the lesson which was
+drawn from it by Goethe&rsquo;s contemporaries; they shed tears
+of sympathy over the lovelorn youth whose burden becomes
+too great for him to bear. While <i>Götz</i> inaugurated the manlier
+side of the <i>Sturm und Drang</i> literature, <i>Werther</i> was responsible
+for its sentimental excesses. And to the sentimental rather
+than to the heroic side belongs also <i>Stella</i>, &ldquo;a drama for lovers,&rdquo;
+in which the poet again reproduced, if with less fidelity than in
+<i>Werther</i>, certain aspects of his own love troubles. A lighter
+vein is to be observed in various dramatic satires written at this
+time, such as <i>Götter</i>, <i>Helden und Wieland</i> (1774), <i>Hanswursts
+Hochzeit</i>, <i>Fastnachtsspiel vom Pater Brey</i>, <i>Satyros</i>, and in the
+<i>Singspiele</i>, <i>Erwin und Elmire</i> (1775) and <i>Claudine von Villa
+Bella</i> (1776); while in the <i>rankfurter Gelehrte Anzeiger</i> (1772-1773),
+Goethe drove home the principles of the new movement
+of <i>Sturm und Drang</i> in terse and pointed criticism. The exuberance
+of the young poet&rsquo;s genius is also to be seen in the many
+unfinished fragments of this period; at one time we find him
+occupied with dramas on <i>Caesar</i> and <i>Mahomet</i>, at another with
+an epic on <i>Der ewige Jude</i>, and again with a tragedy on <i>Prometheus</i>,
+of which a magnificent fragment has passed into his works.
+Greatest of all the torsos of this period, however, was the dramatization
+of <i>Faust</i>. Thanks to a manuscript copy of the play in
+its earliest form&mdash;discovered as recently as 1887&mdash;we are now
+able to distinguish how much of this tragedy was the immediate
+product of the <i>Sturm und Drang</i>, and to understand the intentions
+with which the young poet began his masterpiece. Goethe&rsquo;s
+hero changed with the author&rsquo;s riper experience and with his new
+conceptions of man&rsquo;s place and duties in the world, but the
+Gretchen tragedy was taken over into the finished poem, practically
+unaltered, from the earliest <i>Faust</i> of the <i>Sturm und Drang</i>.
+With these wonderful scenes, the most intensely tragic in all
+German literature, Goethe&rsquo;s poetry in this period reaches its
+climax. Still another important work, however, was conceived,
+and in large measure written at this time, the drama of <i>Egmont</i>,
+which was not published until 1788. This work may, to some
+extent, be regarded as supplementary to <i>Faust</i>; it presents the
+lighter, more cheerful and optimistic side of Goethe&rsquo;s philosophy
+in these years; Graf Egmont, the most winning and fascinating
+of the poet&rsquo;s heroes, is endowed with that &ldquo;demonic&rdquo; power
+over the sympathies of men and women, which Goethe himself
+possessed in so high a degree. But <i>Egmont</i> depends for its
+interest almost solely on two characters, Egmont himself and
+Klärchen, Gretchen&rsquo;s counterpart; regarded as a drama, it
+demonstrates the futility of that defiance of convention and
+rules with which the <i>Sturm und Drang</i> set out. It remained for
+Goethe, in the next period of his life, to construct on classic
+models a new vehicle for German dramatic poetry.</p>
+
+<p>In December 1774 the young &ldquo;hereditary prince&rdquo; of Weimar,
+Charles Augustus, passing through Frankfort on his way to Paris,
+came into personal touch with Goethe, and invited the poet to
+visit Weimar when, in the following year, he took up the reins
+of government. In October 1775 the invitation was repeated,
+and on the 7th of November of that year Goethe arrived in the
+little Saxon capital which was to remain his home for the rest of
+his life. During the first few months in Weimar the poet gave
+himself up to the pleasures of the moment as unreservedly as
+his patron; indeed, the Weimar court even looked upon him for
+a time as a tempter who led the young duke astray. But the
+latter, although himself a mere stripling, had implicit faith in
+Goethe, and a firm conviction that his genius could be utilized
+in other fields besides literature. Goethe was not long in Weimar
+before he was entrusted with responsible state duties, and events
+soon justified the duke&rsquo;s confidence. Goethe proved the soul
+of the Weimar government, and a minister of state of energy
+and foresight. He interested himself in agriculture, horticulture
+and mining, which were of paramount importance to the welfare
+of the duchy, and out of these interests sprang his own love for
+the natural sciences, which took up so much of his time in later
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page184" id="page184"></a>184</span>
+years. The inevitable love-interest was also not wanting. As
+Friederike had fitted into the background of Goethe&rsquo;s Strassburg
+life, Lotte into that of Wetzlar, and Lili into the gaieties of
+Frankfort, so now Charlotte von Stein, the wife of a Weimar
+official, was the personification of the more aristocratic ideals of
+Weimar society. We possess only the poet&rsquo;s share of his correspondence
+with Frau von Stein, but it is possible to infer from
+it that, of all Goethe&rsquo;s loves, this was intellectually the most
+worthy of him. Frau von Stein was a woman of refined literary
+taste and culture, seven years older than he and the mother of
+seven children. There was something more spiritual, something
+that partook rather of the passionate friendships of the 18th
+century than of love in Goethe&rsquo;s relations with her. Frau von
+Stein dominated the poet&rsquo;s life for twelve years, until his journey
+to Italy in 1786-1788. Of other events of this period the most
+notable were two winter journeys, the first in 1777, to the Harz
+Mountains, the second, two years later, to Switzerland&mdash;journeys
+which gave Goethe scope for that introspection and reflection
+for which his Weimar life left him little time. On the second of
+these journeys he revisited Friederike in Sesenheim, saw Lili,
+who had married and settled in Strassburg, and made the
+personal acquaintance of Lavater in Zürich.</p>
+
+<p>The literary results of these years cannot be compared with
+those of the preceding period; they are virtually limited to a
+few wonderful lyrics, such as <i>Wanderers Nachtlied</i>, <i>An den Mond</i>,
+<i>Gesang der Geister über den Wassern</i>, or ballads, such as <i>Der
+Erlkönig</i>, a charming little drama, <i>Die Geschwister</i> (1776), in
+which the poet&rsquo;s relations to both Lili and Frau von Stein seem
+to be reflected, a dramatic satire, <i>Der Triumph der Empfindsamkeit</i>
+(1778), and a number of <i>Singspiele</i>, <i>Lila</i> (1777), <i>Die Fischerin</i>,
+<i>Scherz, List und Rache</i>, and <i>Jery und Bätely</i> (1780). But greater
+works were in preparation. A religious epic, <i>Die Geheimnisse</i>, and
+a tragedy <i>Elpenor</i>, did not, it is true, advance much further
+than plans; but in 1777, under the influence of the theatrical
+experiments at the Weimar court, Goethe conceived and in great
+measure wrote a novel of the theatre, which was to have borne
+the title <i>Wilhelm Meisters theatralische Sendung</i>; and in 1779
+himself took part in a representation before the court at Ettersburg,
+of his drama <i>Iphigenie auf Tauris</i>. This <i>Iphigenie</i> was,
+however, in prose; in the following year Goethe remoulded it
+in iambics, but it was not until he went to Rome that the drama
+finally received the form in which we know it.</p>
+
+<p>In September, 1786 Goethe set out from Karlsbad&mdash;secretly
+and stealthily, his plan known only to his servant&mdash;on that
+memorable journey to Italy, to which he had looked forward
+with such intense longing; he could not cross the Alps quickly
+enough, so impatient was he to set foot in Italy. He travelled
+by way of Munich, the Brenner and Lago di Garda to Verona
+and Venice, and from thence to Rome, where he arrived on the
+29th of October 1786. Here he gave himself up unreservedly
+to the new impressions which crowded on him, and he was soon
+at home among the German artists in Rome, who welcomed him
+warmly. In the spring of 1787 he extended his journey as far
+as Naples and Sicily, returning to Rome in June 1787, where he
+remained until his final departure for Germany on the 2nd of
+April 1788. It is difficult to exaggerate the importance of
+Goethe&rsquo;s Italian journey. He himself regarded it as a kind of
+climax to his life; never before had he attained such complete
+understanding of his genius and mission in the world; it afforded
+him a vantage-ground from which he could renew the past and
+make plans for the future. In Weimar he had felt that he was no
+longer in sympathy with the <i>Sturm und Drang</i>, but it was Italy
+which first taught him clearly what might take the place of that
+movement in German poetry. To the modern reader, who
+may well be impressed by Goethe&rsquo;s extraordinary receptivity,
+it may seem strange that his interests in Italy were so limited;
+for, after all, he saw comparatively little of the art treasures of
+Italy. He went to Rome in Winckelmann&rsquo;s footsteps; it was
+the antique he sought, and his interest in the artists of the
+Renaissance was virtually restricted to their imitation of classic
+models. This search for the classic ideal is reflected in the works
+he completed or wrote under the Italian sky. The calm beauty
+of Greek tragedy is seen in the new iambic version of <i>Iphigenie
+auf Tauris</i> (1787); the classicism of the Renaissance gives the
+ground-tone to the wonderful drama of <i>Torquato Tasso</i> (1790),
+in which the conflict of poetic genius with the prosaic world is
+transmuted into imperishable poetry. Classic, too, in this
+sense, were the plans of a drama on <i>Iphigenie auf Delphos</i> and
+of an epic, <i>Nausikaa</i>. Most interesting of all, however, is the
+reflection of the classic spirit in works already begun in earlier
+days, such as <i>Egmont</i> and <i>Faust</i>. The former drama was finished
+in Italy and appeared in 1788, the latter was brought a step
+further forward, part of it being published as a <i>Fragment</i> in 1790.</p>
+
+<p>Disappointment in more senses than one awaited Goethe on
+his return to Weimar. He came back from Italy with a new
+philosophy of life, a philosophy at once classic and pagan, and
+with very definite ideas of what constituted literary excellence.
+But Germany had not advanced; in 1788 his countrymen were
+still under the influence of that <i>Sturm und Drang</i> from which
+the poet had fled. The times seemed to him more out of joint
+than ever, and he withdrew into himself. Even his relations to
+the old friends were changed. Frau von Stein had not known
+of his flight to Italy until she received a letter from Rome; but
+he looked forward to her welcome on his return. The months
+of absence, however, the change he had undergone, and doubtless
+those lighter loves of which the <i>Römische Elegien</i> bear evidence,
+weakened the Weimar memories; if he left Weimar as Frau von
+Stein&rsquo;s lover he returned only as her friend; and she naturally
+resented the change. Goethe, meanwhile, satisfied to continue
+the freer customs to which he had adapted himself in Rome,
+found a new mistress in Christiane Vulpius (1765-1816), the
+least interesting of all the women who attracted him. But
+Christiane gradually filled up a gap in the poet&rsquo;s life; she gave
+him, quietly, unobtrusively, without making demands on him,
+the comforts of a home. She was not accepted by court society;
+it did not matter to her that even Goethe&rsquo;s intimate friends
+ignored her; and she, who had suited the poet&rsquo;s whim when he
+desired to shut himself off from all that might dim the recollection
+of Italy, became with the years an indispensable helpmate to
+him. On the birth in 1789 of his son, Goethe had some thought
+of legalizing his relations with Christiane, but this intention was
+not realized until 1806, when the invasion of Weimar by the
+French made him fear for both life and property.</p>
+
+<p>The period of Goethe&rsquo;s life which succeeded his return from
+Italy was restless and unsettled; relieved of his state duties,
+he returned in 1790 to Venice, only to be disenchanted with the
+Italy he had loved so intensely a year or two before. A journey
+with the duke of Weimar to Breslau followed, and in 1792 he
+accompanied his master on that campaign against France which
+ended so ingloriously for the German arms at Valmy. In later
+years Goethe published his account both of this <i>Campagne in
+Frankreich</i> and of the <i>Belagerung von Mainz</i>, at which he was
+also present in 1793. His literary work naturally suffered under
+these distractions. <i>Tasso</i>, and the edition of the <i>Schriften</i> in
+which it was to appear, had still to be completed on his return
+from Italy; the <i>Römische Elegien</i>, perhaps the most Latin of all
+his works, were published in 1795, and the <i>Venetianische Epigramme</i>,
+the result of the second visit to Italy, in 1796. The
+French Revolution, in which all Europe was engrossed, was in
+Goethe&rsquo;s eyes only another proof that the passing of the old
+régime meant the abrogation of all law and order, and he gave
+voice to his antagonism to the new democratic principles in the
+dramas <i>Der Grosskophta</i> (1792), <i>Der Bürgergeneral</i> (1793), and
+in the unfinished fragments <i>Die Aufgeregten</i> and <i>Das Mädchen
+von Oberkirch</i>. The spirited translation of the epic of <i>Reinecke
+Fuchs</i> (1794) he took up as a relief and an antidote to the social
+disruption of the time. Two new interests, however, strengthened
+the ties between Goethe and Weimar,&mdash;ties which the Italian
+journey had threatened to sever: his appointment in 1791 as
+director of the ducal theatre, a post which he occupied for
+twenty-two years, and his absorption in scientific studies. In
+1790 he published his important <i>Versuch, die Metamorphose der
+Pflanzen zu erklären</i>, which was an even more fundamental
+achievement for the new science of comparative morphology
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>185</span>
+than his discovery some six years earlier of the existence of a
+formation in the human jaw-bone analogous to the intermaxillary
+bone in apes; and in 1791 and 1792 appeared two parts of his
+<i>Beiträge zur Optik</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, however, Goethe had again taken up the novel
+of the theatre which he had begun years before, with a view to
+finishing it and including it in the edition of his <i>Neue Schriften</i>
+(1792-1800). <i>Wilhelm Meisters theatralische Sendung</i> became
+<i>Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre</i>; the novel of purely theatrical
+interests was widened out to embrace the history of a young
+man&rsquo;s apprenticeship to life. The change of plan explains,
+although it may not exculpate, the formlessness and loose
+construction of the work, its extremes of realistic detail and
+poetic allegory. A hero, who was probably originally intended
+to demonstrate the failure of the vacillating temperament when
+brought face to face with the problems of art, proved ill-adapted
+to demonstrate those precepts for the guidance of life with which
+the <i>Lehrjahre</i> closes; unstable of purpose, Wilhelm Meister is
+not so much an illustration of the author&rsquo;s life-philosophy as a
+lay-figure on which he demonstrates his views. <i>Wilhelm Meister</i>
+is a work of extraordinary variety, ranging from the commonplace
+realism of the troupe of strolling players to the poetic romanticism
+of Mignon and the harper; its flashes of intuitive criticism and
+its weighty apothegms add to its value as a <i>Bildungsroman</i> in
+the best sense of that word. Of all Goethe&rsquo;s works, this exerted
+the most immediate and lasting influence on German literature;
+it served as a model for the best fiction of the next thirty years.</p>
+
+<p>In completing <i>Wilhelm Meister</i>, Goethe found a sympathetic
+and encouraging critic in Schiller, to whom he owed in great
+measure his renewed interest in poetry. After years of tentative
+approaches on Schiller&rsquo;s part, years in which that poet concealed
+even from himself his desire for a friendly understanding with
+Goethe, the favourable moment arrived; it was in June 1794,
+when Schiller was seeking collaborators for his new periodical
+<i>Die Horen</i>; and his invitation addressed to Goethe was the
+beginning of a friendship which continued unbroken until the
+younger poet&rsquo;s death. The friendship of Goethe and Schiller,
+of which their correspondence is a priceless record, had its
+limitations; it was purely intellectual in character, a certain
+barrier of personal reserve being maintained to the last. But
+for the literary life of both poets the gain was incommensurable.
+As far as actual work was concerned, Goethe went his own way
+as he had always been accustomed to do; but the mere fact that
+he devoted himself with increasing interest to literature was due
+to Schiller&rsquo;s stimulus. It was Schiller, too, who induced him to
+undertake those studies on the nature of epic and dramatic
+poetry which resulted in the epic of <i>Hermann und Dorothea</i>
+and the fragment of the <i>Achilleis</i>; without the friendship there
+would have been no <i>Xenien</i> and no ballads, and it was his younger
+friend&rsquo;s encouragement which induced Goethe to betake himself
+once more to the &ldquo;misty path&rdquo; of <i>Faust</i>, and bring the first
+part of that drama to a conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>Goethe&rsquo;s share in the <i>Xenien</i> (1796) may be briefly dismissed.
+This collection of distichs, written in collaboration with Schiller,
+was prompted by the indifference and animosity of contemporary
+criticism, and its disregard for what the two poets regarded as
+the higher interests of German poetry. The <i>Xenien</i> succeeded
+as a retaliation on the critics, but the masterpieces which followed
+them proved in the long run much more effective weapons
+against the prevailing mediocrity. Prose works like the <i>Unterhaltungen
+deutscher Ausgewanderten</i> (1795) were unworthy of
+the poet&rsquo;s genius, and the translation of Benvenuto Cellini&rsquo;s
+<i>Life</i> (1796-1797) was only a translation. But in 1798 appeared
+<i>Hermann und Dorothea</i>, one of Goethe&rsquo;s most perfect poems.
+It is indeed remarkable&mdash;when we consider by how much reflection
+and theoretic discussion the composition of the poem
+was preceded and accompanied&mdash;that it should make upon the
+reader so simple and &ldquo;naïve&rdquo; an impression; in this respect
+it is the triumph of an art that conceals art. Goethe has here
+taken a simple story of village life, mirrored in it the most
+pregnant ideas of his time, and presented it with a skill which
+may well be called Homeric; but he has discriminated with
+the insight of genius between the Homeric method of reproducing
+the heroic life of primitive Greece and the same method
+as adapted to the commonplace happenings of 18th-century
+Germany. In this respect he was undoubtedly guided by a
+forerunner who has more right than he to the attribute &ldquo;naïve,&rdquo;
+by J. H. Voss, the author of <i>Luise</i>. Hardly less imposing in
+their calm, placid perfection are the poems with which, in
+friendly rivalry, Goethe seconded the more popular ballads
+of his friend; <i>Der Zauberlehrling</i>, <i>Der Gott und die Bayadere</i>,
+<i>Die Braut von Korinth</i>, <i>Alexis und Dora</i>, <i>Der neue Pausias</i> and
+<i>Die schöne Müllerin</i>&mdash;a cycle of poems in the style of the <i>Volkslied</i>&mdash;are
+among the masterpieces of Goethe&rsquo;s poetry. On the other
+hand, even the friendship with Schiller did not help him
+to add to his reputation as a dramatist. <i>Die natürliche Tochter</i>
+(1803), in which he began to embody his ideas of the Revolution
+on a wide canvas, proved impossible on the stage, and the
+remaining dramas, which were to have formed a trilogy, were
+never written. Goethe&rsquo;s classic principles, when applied to
+the swift, direct art of the theatre, were doomed to failure, and
+<i>Die natürliche Tochter</i>, notwithstanding its good theoretic intention,
+remains the most lifeless and shadowy of all his dramas.
+Even less in touch with the living present were the various
+prologues and <i>Festspiele</i>, such as <i>Paläophron und Neoterpe</i> (1800),
+<i>Was wir bringen</i> (1802), which in these years he composed for
+the Weimar theatre.</p>
+
+<p>Goethe&rsquo;s classicism brought him into inevitable antagonism
+with the new Romantic movement which had been inaugurated
+in 1798 by the <i>Athenaeum</i>, edited by the brothers Schlegel.
+The sharpness of the conflict was, however, blunted by the fact
+that, without exception, the young Romantic writers looked
+up to Goethe as its master; they modelled their fiction on
+<i>Wilhelm Meister</i>; they regarded his lyrics as the high-water
+mark of German poetry; Goethe, Novalis declared, was the
+&ldquo;Statthalter of poetry on earth.&rdquo; With regard to painting and
+sculpture, however, Goethe felt that a protest was necessary,
+if the insidious ideas propounded in works like Wackenroder&rsquo;s
+<i>Herzensergiessungen</i> were not to do irreparable harm, by bringing
+back the confusion of the <i>Sturm und Drang</i>; and, as a rejoinder
+to the Romantic theories, Goethe, in conjunction with his friend
+Heinrich Meyer (1760-1832), published from 1798 to 1800 an
+art review, <i>Die Propyläen</i>. Again, in <i>Winckelmann und seine
+Zeit</i> (1805) Goethe vigorously defended the classical ideals of
+which Winckelmann had been the founder. But in the end he
+proved himself the greatest enemy to the strict classic doctrine by
+the publication in 1808 of the completed first part of <i>Faust</i>, a
+work which was accepted by contemporaries as a triumph of
+Romantic art. <i>Faust</i> is a patchwork of many colours. With the
+aid of the vast body of <i>Faust</i> literature which has sprung up in
+recent years, and the many new documents bearing on its history&mdash;above
+all, the so-called <i>Urfaust</i>, to which reference has already
+been made&mdash;we are able now to ascribe to their various periods
+the component parts of the work; it is possible to discriminate
+between the <i>Sturm und Drang</i> hero of the opening scenes and
+of the Gretchen tragedy&mdash;the contemporary of Götz and Clavigo&mdash;and
+the superimposed Faust of calmer moral and intellectual
+ideals&mdash;a Faust who corresponds to Hermann and Wilhelm
+Meister. In its original form the poem was the dramatization
+of a specific and individualized story; in the years of Goethe&rsquo;s
+friendship with Schiller it was extended to embody the higher
+strivings of 18th-century humanism; ultimately, as we shall see,
+it became, in the second part, a vast allegory of human life and
+activity. Thus the elements of which <i>Faust</i> is composed were
+even more difficult to blend than were those of <i>Wilhelm Meister</i>;
+but the very want of uniformity is one source of the perennial
+fascination of the tragedy, and has made it in a peculiar degree
+the national poem of the German people, the mirror which
+reflects the national life and poetry from the outburst of <i>Sturm
+und Drang</i> to the well-weighed and tranquil classicism of Goethe&rsquo;s
+old age.</p>
+
+<p>The third and final period of Goethe&rsquo;s long life may be said
+to have begun after Schiller&rsquo;s death. He never again lost touch
+with literature as he had done in the years which preceded his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>186</span>
+friendship with Schiller; but he stood in no active or immediate
+connexion with the literary movement of his day. His life
+moved on comparatively uneventfully. Even the Napoleonic
+régime of 1806-1813 disturbed but little his equanimity. Goethe,
+the cosmopolitan <i>Weltbürger</i> of the 18th century, had himself no
+very intense feelings of patriotism, and, having seen Germany
+flourish as a group of small states under enlightened despotisms,
+he had little confidence in the dreamers of 1813 who hoped
+to see the glories of Barbarossa&rsquo;s empire revived. Napoleon,
+moreover, he regarded not as the scourge of Europe, but as the
+defender of civilization against the barbarism of the Slavs;
+and in the famous interview between the two men at Erfurt the
+poet&rsquo;s admiration was reciprocated by the French conqueror.
+Thus Goethe had no great sympathy for the war of liberation
+which kindled young hearts from one end of Germany to the
+other; and when the national enthusiasm rose to its highest
+pitch he buried himself in those optical and morphological
+studies, which, with increasing years, occupied more and more
+of his time and interest.</p>
+
+<p>The works and events of the last twenty-five years of Goethe&rsquo;s
+life may be briefly summarized. In 1805, as we have seen, he
+suffered an irreparable loss in the death of Schiller; in 1806,
+Christiane became his legal wife, and to the same year belongs
+the magnificent tribute to his dead friend, the <i>Epilog zu Schillers
+Glocke</i>. Two new friendships about this time kindled in the
+poet something of the juvenile fire and passion of younger days.
+Bettina von Arnim came into personal touch with Goethe in
+1807, and her <i>Briefwechsel Goethes mit einem Kinde</i> (published
+in 1835) is, in its mingling of truth and fiction, one of the most
+delightful products of the Romantic mind; but the episode was
+of less importance for Goethe&rsquo;s life than Bettina would have us
+believe. On the other hand, his interest in Minna Herzlieb,
+foster-daughter of the publisher Frommann in Jena, was of a
+warmer nature, and has left its traces on his sonnets.</p>
+
+<p>In 1808, as we have seen, appeared the first part of <i>Faust</i>, and
+in 1809 it was followed by <i>Die Wahlverwandtschaften</i>. The novel,
+hardly less than the drama, effected a change in the public
+attitude towards the poet. Since the beginning of the century
+the conviction had been gaining ground that Goethe&rsquo;s mission
+was accomplished, that the day of his leadership was over;
+but here were two works which not merely re-established his
+ascendancy, but proved that the old poet was in sympathy with
+the movement of letters, and keenly alive to the change of ideas
+which the new century had brought in its train. The intimate
+psychological study of four minds, which forms the subject of
+the <i>Wahlverwandtschaften</i>, was an essay in a new type of fiction,
+and pointed out the way for developments of the German novel
+after the stimulus of <i>Wilhelm Meister</i> had exhausted itself.
+Less important than <i>Die Wahlverwandtschaften</i> was <i>Pandora</i>
+(1810), the final product of Goethe&rsquo;s classicism, and the most
+uncompromisingly classical and allegorical of all his works.
+And in 1810, too, appeared his treatise on <i>Farbenlehre</i>. In the
+following year the first volume of his autobiography was published
+under the title <i>Aus meinem Leben, Dichtung und Wahrheit</i>.
+The second and third volumes of this work followed in 1812 and
+1814; the fourth, bringing the story of his life up to the close
+of the Frankfort period in 1833, after his death. Goethe felt,
+even late in life, too intimately bound up with Weimar to discuss
+in detail his early life there, and he shrank from carrying his
+biography beyond the year 1775. But a number of other
+publications&mdash;descriptions of travel, such as the <i>Italienische
+Reise</i> (1816-1817), the materials for a continuation of <i>Dichtung
+und Wahrheit</i> collected in <i>Tag- und Jahreshefte</i> (1830)&mdash;have also
+to be numbered among the writings which Goethe has left us as
+documents of his life. Meanwhile no less valuable biographical
+materials were accumulating in his diaries, his voluminous
+correspondence and his conversations, as recorded by J. P.
+Eckermann, the chancellor Müller and F. Soret. Several
+periodical publications, <i>Über Kunst und Altertum</i> (1816-1832),
+<i>Zur Naturwissenschaft überhaupt</i> (1817-1824). <i>Zur Morphologie</i>
+(1817-1824), bear witness to the extraordinary breadth of
+Goethe&rsquo;s interests in these years. Art, science, literature&mdash;little
+escaped his ken&mdash;and that not merely in Germany: English
+writers, Byron, Scott and Carlyle, Italians like Manzoni, French
+scientists and poets, could all depend on friendly words of
+appreciation and encouragement from Weimar.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>West-östlicher Diwan</i> (1819), a collection of lyrics&mdash;matchless
+in form and even more concentrated in expression than those
+of earlier days&mdash;which were suggested by a German translation
+of Hafiz, Goethe had another surprise in store for his contemporaries.
+And, again, it was an actual passion&mdash;that for Marianne
+von Willemer, whom he met in 1814 and 1815&mdash;which rekindled
+in him the lyric fire. Meanwhile the years were thinning the
+ranks of Weimar society: Wieland, the last of Goethe&rsquo;s greater
+literary contemporaries, died in 1813, his wife in 1816, Charlotte
+von Stein in 1827 and Duke Charles Augustus in 1828. Goethe&rsquo;s
+retirement from the direction of the theatre in 1817 meant for
+him a break with the literary life of the day. In 1822 a passion
+for a young girl, Ulrike von Levetzow, whom he met at Marienbad,
+inspired the fine <i>Trilogie der Leidenschaft</i>, and between
+1821 and 1829 appeared the long-expected and long-promised
+continuation of <i>Wilhelm Meister, Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre</i>.
+The latter work, however, was a disappointment: perhaps it
+could not have been otherwise. Goethe had lost the thread of
+his romance and it was difficult for him to resume it. Problems
+of the relation of the individual to society and industrial questions
+were to have formed the theme of the <i>Wanderjahre</i>; but since
+the French Revolution these problems had themselves entered
+on a new phase and demanded a method of treatment which it
+was not easy for the old poet to learn. Thus his intentions were
+only partially carried out, and the volumes were filled out by
+irrelevant stories, which had been written at widely different
+periods.</p>
+
+<p>But the crowning achievement of Goethe&rsquo;s literary life was
+the completion of <i>Faust</i>. The poem had accompanied him from
+early manhood to the end and was the repository for the fullest
+&ldquo;confession&rdquo; of his life; it is the poetic epitome of his experience.
+The second part is, in form, far removed from the impressive
+realism of the <i>Urfaust</i>. It is a phantasmagory; a drama the
+actors in which are not creatures of flesh and blood, but the
+shadows of an unreal world of allegory. The lover of Gretchen
+had, as far as poetic continuity is concerned, disappeared with
+the close of the first part. In the second part it is virtually a new
+Faust who, at the hands of a new Mephistopheles, goes out into
+a world that is not ours. Yet behind these unconvincing shadows
+of an imperial court with its financial difficulties, of the classical
+<i>Walpurgisnacht</i>, of the fantastic creation of the Homunculus,
+the noble Helena episode and the impressive mystery-scene
+of the close, where the centenarian Faust finally triumphs over
+the powers of evil, there lies a philosophy of life, a ripe wisdom
+born of experience, such as no European poet had given to the
+world since the Renaissance. <i>Faust</i> has been well called the
+&ldquo;divine comedy&rdquo; of 18th-century humanism.</p>
+
+<p>The second part of <i>Faust</i> forms a worthy close to the life of
+Germany&rsquo;s greatest man of letters, who died in Weimar on the
+22nd of March 1832. He was the last of those universal minds
+which have been able to compass all domains of human activity
+and knowledge; for he stood on the brink of an era of rapidly
+expanding knowledge which has made for ever impossible the
+universality of interest and sympathy which distinguished him.
+As a poet, his fame has undergone many vicissitudes since his
+death, ranging from the indifference of the &ldquo;Young German&rdquo;
+school to the enthusiastic admiration of the closing decades of
+the 19th century&mdash;an enthusiasm to which we owe the Weimar
+<i>Goethe-Gesellschaft</i> (founded in 1885) and a vast literature dealing
+with the poet&rsquo;s life and work; but the fact of his being Germany&rsquo;s
+greatest poet and the master of her classical literature has never
+been seriously put in question. The intrinsic value of his poetic
+work, regarded apart from his personality, is smaller in proportion
+to its bulk than is the case with many lesser German poets
+and with the greatest poets of other literatures. But Goethe
+was a type of literary man hitherto unrepresented among the
+leading writers of the world&rsquo;s literature; he was a poet whose
+supreme greatness lay in his subjectivity. Only a small fraction
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187"></a>187</span>
+of Goethe&rsquo;s work was written in an impersonal and objective
+spirit, and sprang from what might be called a conscious artistic
+impulse; by far the larger&mdash;and the better&mdash;part is the immediate
+reflex of his feelings and experiences.</p>
+
+<p>It is as a lyric poet that Goethe&rsquo;s supremacy is least likely
+to be challenged; he has given his nation, whose highest literary
+expression has in all ages been essentially lyric, its greatest songs.
+No other German poet has succeeded in attuning feeling, sentiment
+and thought so perfectly to the music of words as he; none
+has expressed so fully that spirituality in which the quintessence
+of German lyrism lies. Goethe&rsquo;s dramas, on the other hand,
+have not, in the eyes of his nation, succeeded in holding their
+own beside Schiller&rsquo;s; but the reason is rather because Goethe,
+from what might be called a wilful obstinacy, refused to be
+bound by the conventions of the theatre, than because he was
+deficient in the cunning of the dramatist. For, as an interpreter
+of human character in the drama, Goethe is without a rival
+among modern poets, and there is not one of his plays that does
+not contain a few scenes or characters which bear indisputable
+testimony to his mastery. <i>Faust</i> is Germany&rsquo;s most national
+drama, and it remains perhaps for the theatre of the future to
+prove itself capable of popularizing psychological masterpieces
+like <i>Tasso</i> and <i>Iphigenie</i>. It is as a novelist that Goethe has
+suffered most by the lapse of time. The <i>Sorrows of Werther</i> no
+longer moves us to tears, and even <i>Wilhelm Meister</i> and <i>Die
+Wahlverwandtschaften</i> require more understanding for the
+conditions under which they were written than do <i>Faust</i> or
+<i>Egmont</i>. Goethe could fill his prose with rich wisdom, but he
+was only the perfect artist in verse.</p>
+
+<p>Little attention is nowadays paid to Goethe&rsquo;s work in other
+fields, work which he himself in some cases prized more highly
+than his poetry. It is only as an illustration of his many-sidedness
+and his manifold activity that we now turn to his work as a
+statesman, as a theatre-director, as a practical political economist.
+His art-criticism is symptomatic of a phase of European taste
+which tried in vain to check the growing individualism of
+Romanticism. His scientific studies and discoveries awaken
+only an historical interest. We marvel at the obstinacy with
+which he, with inadequate mathematical knowledge, opposed
+the Newtonian theory of light and colour; and at his championship
+of &ldquo;Neptunism,&rdquo; the theory of aqueous origin, as opposed
+to &ldquo;Vulcanism,&rdquo; that of igneous origin of the earth&rsquo;s crust.
+Of far-reaching importance was, on the other hand, his foreshadowing
+of the Darwinian theory in his works on the metamorphosis
+of plants and on animal morphology. Indeed, the
+deduction to be drawn from Goethe&rsquo;s contributions to botany
+and anatomy is that he, as no other of his contemporaries,
+possessed that type of scientific mind which, in the 19th century,
+has made for progress; he was Darwin&rsquo;s predecessor by virtue
+of his enunciation of what has now become one of the commonplaces
+of natural science&mdash;organic evolution. Modern, too, was
+the outlook of the aging poet on the changing social conditions
+of the age, wonderfully sympathetic his attitude towards modern
+industry, which steam was just beginning to establish on a new
+basis, and towards modern democracy. The Europe of his later
+years was very different from the idyllic and enlightened
+autocracy of the 18th century, in which he had spent his best
+years and to which he had devoted his energies; yet Goethe
+was at home in it.</p>
+
+<p>From the philosophic movement, in which Schiller and the
+Romanticists were so deeply involved, Goethe stood apart.
+Comparatively early in life he had found in Spinoza the philosopher
+who responded to his needs; Spinoza taught him to see
+in nature the &ldquo;living garment of God,&rdquo; and more he did not seek
+or need to know. As a convinced realist he took his standpoint
+on nature and experience, and could afford to look on objectively
+at the controversies of the metaphysicians. Kant he by no
+means ignored, and under Schiller&rsquo;s guidance he learned much
+from him; but of the younger thinkers, only Schelling, whose
+mystic nature-philosophy was a development of Spinoza&rsquo;s
+ideas, touched a sympathetic chord in his nature. As a moralist
+and a guide to the conduct of life&mdash;an aspect of Goethe&rsquo;s work
+which Carlyle, viewing him through the coloured glasses of
+Fichtean idealism, emphasized and interpreted not always
+justly&mdash;Goethe was a powerful force on German life in years of
+political and intellectual depression. It is difficult even still
+to get beyond the maxims of practical wisdom he scattered so
+liberally through his writings, the lessons to be learned from
+<i>Meister</i> and <i>Faust</i>, or even that calm, optimistic fatalism which
+never deserted Goethe, and was so completely justified by the
+tenor of his life. If the philosophy of Spinoza provided the poet
+with a religion which made individual creeds and dogmas
+unnecessary and impossible, so Leibnitz&rsquo;s doctrine of predestinism
+supplied the foundations for his faith in the divine
+mission of human life.</p>
+
+<p>This many-sided activity is a tribute to the greatness of
+Goethe&rsquo;s mind and personality; we may regard him merely as
+the embodiment of his particular age, or as a poet &ldquo;for all
+time&rdquo;; but with one opinion all who have felt the power of
+Goethe&rsquo;s genius are in agreement&mdash;the opinion which was condensed
+in Napoleon&rsquo;s often cited words, uttered after the meeting
+at Erfurt: <i>Voilà un homme!</i> Of all modern men, Goethe is
+the most universal type of genius. It is the full, rich humanity
+of his life and personality&mdash;not the art behind which the artist
+disappears, or the definite pronouncements of the thinker or the
+teacher&mdash;that constitutes his claim to a place in the front rank
+of men of letters. His life was his greatest work.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <i>Collected Works, Diaries, Correspondence,
+Conversations</i>. The following authorized editions of Goethe&rsquo;s
+writings appeared in the poet&rsquo;s lifetime: <i>Schriften</i> (8 vols., Leipzig,
+1787-1790); <i>Neue Schriften</i> (7 vols., Berlin, 1792-1800); <i>Werke</i>
+(13 vols., Stuttgart, 1806-1810); <i>Werke</i> (20 vols., Stuttgart, 1815-1819);
+to which six volumes were added in 1820-1822; Werke
+(Vollständige Ausgabe letzter Hand) (40 vols., Stuttgart, 1827-1830).
+Goethe&rsquo;s <i>Nachgelassene Werke</i> appeared as a continuation of this
+edition in 15 volumes (Stuttgart, 1832-1834), to which five volumes
+were added in 1842. These were followed by several editions of
+Goethe&rsquo;s <i>Sämtliche Werke</i>, mostly in forty volumes, published by
+Cotta of Stuttgart. The first critical edition with notes was published
+by Hempel, Berlin, in thirty-six volumes, 1868-1879; that in
+Kürschner&rsquo;s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i>, vols. 82-117 (1882-1897) is
+also important. In 1887 the monumental Weimar edition, which
+is now approaching completion, began to appear; it is divided
+into four sections: I. <i>Werke</i> (<i>c.</i> 56 vols.); II. <i>Naturwissenschaftliche
+Werke</i> (12 vols.); III. <i>Tagebücher</i> (13 vols.); IV. <i>Briefe</i> (<i>c.</i> 45 vols.).
+Of other recent editions the most noteworthy are: Sämtliche Werke
+(Jubiläums-Ausgabe), edited by E. von der Hellen (40 vols., Stuttgart,
+1902 ff.); <i>Werke</i>, edited by K. Heinemann (30 vols., Leipzig,
+1900 ff.), and the cheap edition of the <i>Sämtliche Werke</i>, edited by
+L. Geiger (44 vols., Leipzig, 1901). There are also innumerable
+editions of selected works; reference need only be made here to the
+useful collection of the early writings and letters published by S.
+Hirzel with an introduction by M. Bernays, <i>Der junge Goethe</i> (3 vols.,
+Leipzig, 1875, 2nd ed., 1887). A French translation of Goethe&rsquo;s
+<i>&OElig;uvres complètes</i>, by J. Porchat, appeared in 9 vols., at Paris, in
+1860-1863. There is, as yet, no uniform English edition, but Goethe&rsquo;s
+chief works have all been frequently translated and a number of
+them will be found in Bohn&rsquo;s standard library.</p>
+
+<p>The definitive edition of Goethe&rsquo;s diaries and letters is that forming
+Sections III. and IV. of the Weimar edition. Collections of selected
+letters based on the Weimar edition have been published by E. von
+der Hellen (6 vols., 1901 ff.), and by P. Stein (8 vols., 1902 ff.). Of
+the many separate collections of Goethe&rsquo;s correspondence mention
+may be made of the <i>Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Goethe</i>, edited
+by Goethe himself (1828-1829; 4th ed., 1881; also several cheap
+reprints. English translation by L. D. Schmitz, 1877-1879);
+<i>Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Zelter</i> (6 vols., 1833-1834; reprint
+in Reclam&rsquo;s <i>Universalbibliothek</i>, 1904; English translation by
+A. D. Coleridge, 1887); <i>Bettina von Arnim, Goethes Briefwechsel
+mit einem Kinde</i> (1835; 4th ed., 1890; English translation, 1838);
+<i>Briefe von und an Goethe</i>, edited by F. W. Riemer (1846); <i>Goethes
+Briefe an Frau von Stein</i>, edited by A. Schöll (1848-1851; 3rd ed.
+by J. Wahle, 1899-1900); <i>Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und K. F. von
+Reinhard</i> (1850); <i>Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Knebel</i> (2 vols.,
+1851); <i>Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Staatsrat Schultz</i> (1853);
+<i>Briefwechsel des Herzogs Karl August mit Goethe</i> (2 vols., 1863);
+<i>Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Kaspar Graf von Sternberg</i> (1866);
+<i>Goethes naturwissenschaftliche Korrespondenz</i>, and <i>Goethes Briefwechsel
+mit den Gebrüdern von Humboldt</i>, edited by F. T. Bratranek
+(1874-1876); <i>Goethes und Carlyles Briefwechsel</i> (1887), also in
+English; <i>Goethe und die Romantik</i>, edited by C. Schüddekopf and
+O. Walzel (2 vols., 1898-1899); <i>Goethe und Lavater</i>, edited by H.
+Funck (1901); <i>Goethe und Österreich</i>, edited by A. Sauer (2 vols.,
+1902-1903). Besides the correspondence with Schiller and Zelter,
+Bonn&rsquo;s library contains a translation of <i>Early and Miscellaneous</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188"></a>188</span>
+<i>Letters</i>, by E. Bell (1884). The chief collections of Goethe&rsquo;s conversations
+are: J. P. Eckermann, <i>Gespräche mit Goethe</i> (1836;
+vol. iii., also containing conversations with Soret, 1848; 7th ed. by
+H. Düntzer, 1899; also new edition by L. Geiger, 1902; English
+translation by J. Oxenford, 1850). The complete conversations
+with Soret have been published in German translation by C. A. H.
+Burkhardt (1905); <i>Goethes Unterhaltungen mit dem Kanzler F. von
+Müller</i> (1870). Goethe&rsquo;s collected <i>Gespräche</i> were published by
+W. von Biedermann in 10 vols. (1889-1896).</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Biography.</i>&mdash;Goethe&rsquo;s autobiography, <i>Aus meinem Leben:
+Dichtung und Wahrheit</i>, appeared in three parts between 1811 and
+1814, a fourth part, bringing the history of his life as far as his
+departure for Weimar in 1775, in 1833 (English translation by
+J. Oxenford, 1846); it is supplemented by other biographical writings,
+as the <i>Italienische Reise, Aus einer Reise in die Schweiz im Jahre
+1797</i>; <i>Aus einer Reise am Rhein, Main und Neckar in den Jahren
+1814 und 1815, Tag- und Jahreshefte</i>, &amp;c., and especially by his
+diaries and correspondence. The following are the more important
+biographies: H. Döring, <i>Goethes Leben</i> (1828; subsequent editions,
+1833, 1849, 1856); H. Viehoff, <i>Goethes Leben</i> (4 vols., 1847-1854;
+5th ed., 1887); J. W. Schäfer, <i>Goethes Leben</i> (2 vols., 1851; 3rd ed.,
+1877); G. H. Lewes, <i>The Life and Works of Goethe</i> (2 vols., 1855;
+2nd ed., 1864; 3rd ed., 1875; cheap reprint, 1906; the German
+translation by J. Frese is in its 18th edition, 1900; a shorter biography
+was published by Lewes in 1873 under the title <i>The Story of Goethe&rsquo;s
+Life)</i>; W. Mézières, <i>W. Goethe, les &oelig;uvres expliquées par la vie</i>
+(1872-1873); A. Bossert, <i>Goethe</i> (1872-1873); K. Goedeke, <i>Goethes
+Leben und Schriften</i> (1874; 2nd ed., 1877); H. Grimm, <i>Goethe:
+Vorlesungen</i> (1876; 8th ed., 1903; English translation, 1880);
+A. Hayward, <i>Goethe</i> (1878); H. H. Boyesen, <i>Goethe and Schiller,
+their Lives and Works</i> (1879); H. Düntzer, <i>Goethes Leben</i> (1880;
+2nd ed., 1883; English translation, 1883); A. Baumgartner, <i>Goethe,
+sein Leben und seine Werke</i> (1885); J. Sime, <i>Life of Goethe</i> (1888);
+K. Heinemann, <i>Goethes Leben und Werke</i> (1889; 3rd ed., 1903);
+R. M. Meyer, <i>Goethe</i> (1894; 3rd ed., 1904); A. Bielschowsky,
+<i>Goethe, sein Leben und seine Werke</i> (vol. i., 1895; 5th ed., 1904;
+vol. ii., 1903; English translation by W. A. Cooper, 1905 ff.);
+G. Witkowsky, Goethe (1899); H. G. Atkins, <i>J. W. Goethe</i> (1904);
+P. Hansen and R. Meyer, <i>Goethe, hans Liv og Vaerker</i> (1906).</p>
+
+<p>Of writings on special periods and aspects of Goethe&rsquo;s life the
+more important are as follows (the titles are arranged as far as
+possible in the chronological sequence of the poet&rsquo;s life): H. Düntzer,
+<i>Goethes Stammbaum</i> (1894); K. Heinemann, <i>Goethes Mutter</i> (1891;
+6th ed., 1900); P. Bastier, <i>La Mère de Goethe</i> (1902); <i>Briefe der
+Frau Rat</i> (2 vols., 2nd ed., 1905); F. Ewart, <i>Goethes Vater</i> (1899);
+G. Witkowski, <i>Cornelia die Schwester Goethes</i> (1903); P. Besson,
+<i>Goethe, sa s&oelig;ur et ses amies</i> (1898); H. Düntzer, <i>Frauenbilder aus
+Goethes Jugendzeit</i> (1852); W. von Biedermann, <i>Goethe und Leipzig</i>
+(1865); P. F. Lucius, <i>Friederike Brion</i> (1878; 3rd ed., 1904);
+A. Bielschowsky, <i>Friederike Brion</i> (1880); F. E. von Durckheim,
+<i>Lili&rsquo;s Bild geschichtlich entworfen</i> (1879; 2nd ed., 1894); W. Herbst,
+<i>Goethe in Wetzlar</i> (1881); A. Diezmann, <i>Goethe und die lustige Zeit
+in Weimar</i> (1857; 2nd ed., 1901); H. Düntzer, <i>Goethe und Karl
+August</i> (1859-1864; 2nd ed., 1888); also, by the same author,
+<i>Aus Goethes Freundeskreise</i> (1868) and <i>Charlotte von Stein</i> (2 vols.,
+1874); J. Haarhuus, <i>Auf Goethes Spuren in Italien</i> (1896-1898);
+O. Harnack, <i>Zur Nachgeschichte der italienischen Reise</i> (1890); H.
+Grimm, <i>Schiller und Goethe</i> (<i>Essays</i>, 1858; 3rd ed., 1884); G.
+Berlit, <i>Goethe und Schiller im persönlichen Verkehre, nach brieflichen
+Mitteilungen von H. Voss</i> (1895); E. Pasqué, <i>Goethes Theaterleitung
+in Weimar</i> (2 vols., 1863); C. A. H. Burkhards, <i>Das Repertoire des
+weimarischen Theaters unter Goethes Leitung</i> (1891); J. Wahle,
+<i>Das Weimarer Hoftheater unter Goethes Leitung</i> (1892); O. Harnack,
+<i>Goethe in der Epoche seiner Vollendung</i> (2nd ed., 1901); J. Barbey
+d&rsquo;Aurevilly, <i>Goethe et Diderot</i> (1880); A Fischer, <i>Goethe und Napoleon</i>
+(1899; 2nd ed., 1900); R. Steig, <i>Goethe und die Gebrüder Grimm</i>
+(1892).</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>Criticism.</i>&mdash;H. G. Graef, <i>Goethe über seine Dichtungen</i> (1901 ff.);
+J. W. Braun, <i>Goethe im Urteile seiner Zeitgenossen</i> (3 vols., 1883-1885);
+T. Carlyle, <i>Essays on Goethe</i> (1828-1832); X. Marmier,
+<i>Études sur Goethe</i> (1835); W. von Biedermann, <i>Goethe-Forschungen</i>
+(1879, 1886); J. Minor and A. Sauer, <i>Studien zur Goethe-Philologie</i>
+(1880); H. Düntzer, <i>Abhandlungen zu Goethes Leben und Werken</i>
+(1881); A. Schöll, <i>Goethe in Hauptzügen seines Lebens und Wirkens</i>
+(1882); V. Hehn, <i>Gedanken über Goethe</i> (1884; 4th ed., 1900);
+W. Scherer, <i>Aufsätze über Goethe</i> (1886); J. R. Seeley, <i>Goethe
+reviewed after Sixty Years</i> (1894); E. Dowden, <i>New Studies
+in Literature</i> (1895); É. Rod, <i>Essai sur Goethe</i> (1898); A. Luther,
+<i>Goethe, sechs Vorträge</i> (1905); R. Saitschik, <i>Goethes Charakter</i>
+(1898); W. Bode, <i>Goethes Lebenskunst</i> (1900; 2nd ed., 1902); by
+the same, <i>Goethes Ästhetik</i> (1901); T. Vollbehr, <i>Goethe und die
+bildende Kunst</i> (1895); E. Lichtenberger, <i>Études sur les poésies
+lyriques de Goethe</i> (1878); T. Achelis, <i>Grundzüge der Lyrik Goethes</i>
+(1900); B. Litzmann, <i>Goethes Lyrik</i> (1903); R. Riemann, <i>Goethes
+Romantechnik</i> (1901); R. Virchow, <i>Goethe als Naturforscher</i> (1861);
+E. Caro, <i>La Philosophie de Goethe</i> (1866; 2nd ed., 1870); R. Steiner,
+<i>Goethes Weltanschauung</i> (1897); F. Siebeck, <i>Goethe als Denker</i> (1902);
+F. Baldensperger, Goethe en France (1904); S. Waetzoldt, <i>Goethe
+und die Romantik</i> (1888).</p>
+
+<p>More special treatises dealing with individual works are the
+following: W. Scherer, <i>Aus Goethes Frühzeit</i> (1879); R. Weissenfels,
+<i>Goethe in Sturm und Drang</i>, vol. i. (1894); W. Wilmanns,
+<i>Quellenstudien zu Goethes Götz von Berlichingen</i> (1874); J. Baechtold,
+<i>Goethes Götz von Berlichingen in dreifacher Gestalt</i> (1882); J. W.
+Appell, <i>Werther und seine Zeit</i> (1855; 4th ed., 1896); E. Schmidt,
+<i>Richardson, Rousseau und Goethe</i> (1875); M. Herrmann, <i>Das Jahrmarktsfest
+zu Plundersweilen</i> (1900); E. Schmidt, Goethes Faust
+in ursprünglicher Gestalt (1887; 5th ed., 1901); J. Collin, <i>Goethes
+Faust in seiner ältesten Gestalt</i> (1896); H. Hettner, <i>Goethes Iphigenie
+in ihrem Verhältnis zur Bildungsgeschichte des Dichters</i> (1861; in
+<i>Kleine Schriften</i>, 1884); K. Fischer, <i>Goethes Iphigenie</i> (1888);
+F. T. Bratranek, <i>Goethes Egmont und Schillers Wallenstein</i> (1862);
+C. Schuchardt, <i>Goethes italienische Reise</i> (1862); H. Düntzer,
+<i>Iphigenie auf Tauris; die drei ältesten Bearbeitungen</i> (1854); F.
+Kern, <i>Goethes Tasso</i> (1890); J. Schubart, <i>Die philosophischen
+Grundgedanken in Goethes Wilhelm Meister</i> (1896); E. Boas, <i>Schiller
+und Goethe in Xenienkampf</i> (1851); E. Schmidt and B. Suphan,
+<i>Xenien 1796, nach den Handschriften</i> (1893); W. von Humboldt,
+<i>Ästhetische Versuche: Hermann und Dorothea</i> (1799); V. Hehn,
+<i>Über Goethes Hermann und Dorothea</i> (1893); A. Fries, <i>Quellen und
+Komposition der Achilleis</i> (1901); K. Alt, <i>Studien zur Entstehungsgeschichte
+von Dichtung und Wahrheit</i> (1898); A. Jung, <i>Goethes
+Wanderjahre und die wichtigsten Fragen des 19. Jahrhunderts</i> (1854);
+F. Kreyssig, <i>Vorlesungen über Goethes Faust</i> (1866); the editions of
+<i>Faust</i> by G. von Loeper (2 vols., 1879), and K. J. Schröer (2 vols.,
+3rd and 4th ed., 1898-1903); K. Fischer, <i>Goethes Faust</i> (3 vols.,
+1893, 1902, 1903); O. Pniower, <i>Goethes Faust, Zeugnisse und Excurse
+zu seiner Entstehungsgeschichte</i> (1899); J. Minor, <i>Goethes Faust,
+Entstehungsgeschichte und Erklärung</i> (2 vols., 1901).</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) <i>Bibliographical Works, Goethe-Societies, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;L. Unflad, <i>Die
+Goethe-Literatur in Deutschland</i> (1878); S. Hirzel, <i>Verzeichnis einer
+Goethe-Bibliothek</i> (1884), to which G. von Loeper and W. von Biedermann
+have supplied supplements. F. Strehlke, <i>Goethes Briefe:
+Verzeichnis unter Angabe der Quelle</i> (1882-1884); <i>British Museum
+Catalogue of Printed Books: Goethe</i> (1888); Goedeke&rsquo;s <i>Grundriss
+zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung</i> (2nd ed., vol. iv. 1891); and
+the bibliographies in the <i>Goethe-Jahrbuch</i> (since 1880). Also K.
+Hoyer, <i>Zur Einführung in die Goethe-Literatur</i> (1904). On Goethe in
+England see E. Oswald, <i>Goethe in England and America</i> (1899;
+2nd ed., 1909); W. Heinemann, <i>A Bibliographical List of the English
+Translations and Annotated Editions of Goethe&rsquo;s Faust</i> (1886).
+Reference may also be made here to F. Zarncke&rsquo;s <i>Verzeichnis der
+Originalaufnahmen von Goethes Bildnissen</i> (1888).</p>
+
+<p><i>A Goethe-Gesellschaft</i> was founded at Weimar in 1885, and numbers
+over 2800 members; its publications include the annual <i>Goethe-Jahrbuch</i>
+(since 1880), and a series of <i>Goethe-Schriften</i>. A <i>Goethe-Verein</i>
+has existed in Vienna since 1887, and an English Goethe
+society, which has also issued several volumes of publications, since
+1886.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. G. R.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Goethe&rsquo;s Descendants.</i>&mdash;Goethe&rsquo;s only son, <span class="sc">August</span>, born on
+the 25th of December 1789 at Weimar, married in 1817 Ottilie
+von Pogwisch (1796-1872), who had come as a child to Weimar
+with her mother (<i>née</i> Countess Henckel von Donnersmarck).
+The marriage was a very unhappy one, the husband having no
+qualities that could appeal to a woman who, whatever the
+censorious might say of her moral character, was distinguished
+to the last by a lively intellect and a singular charm. August
+von Goethe, whose sole distinction was his birth and his position
+as grand-ducal chamberlain, died in Italy, on the 27th of October
+1830, leaving three children; <span class="sc">Walther Wolfgang</span>, born on
+April 9, 1818, died on April 15, 1885; <span class="sc">Wolfgang Maximilian</span>,
+born on September 18, 1820, died on January 20, 1883; <span class="sc">Alma</span>,
+born on October 22, 1827, died on September 29, 1844.</p>
+
+<p>Of Walther von Goethe little need be said. In youth he had
+musical ambitions, studied under Mendelssohn and Weinlig
+at Leipzig, under Loewe at Stettin, and afterwards at Vienna.
+He published a few songs of no great merit, and had at his
+death no more than the reputation among his friends of a kindly
+and accomplished man.</p>
+
+<p>Wolfgang or, as he was familiarly called, Wolf von Goethe,
+was by far the more gifted of the two brothers, and his gloomy
+destiny by so much the more tragic. A sensitive and highly
+imaginative boy, he was the favourite of his grandfather, who
+made him his constant companion. This fact, instead of being
+to the boy&rsquo;s advantage, was to prove his bane. The exalted
+atmosphere of the great man&rsquo;s ideas was too rarefied for the
+child&rsquo;s intellectual health, and a brain well fitted to do excellent
+work in the world was ruined by the effort to live up to an
+impossible ideal. To maintain himself on the same height as
+his grandfather, and to make the name of Goethe illustrious in
+his descendants also, became Wolfgang&rsquo;s ambition; and his
+incapacity to realize this, very soon borne in upon him, paralyzed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>189</span>
+his efforts and plunged him at last into bitter revolt against his
+fate and gloomy isolation from a world that seemed to have no
+use for him but as a curiosity. From the first, too, he was
+hampered by wretched health; at the age of sixteen he was
+subjected to one of those terrible attacks of neuralgia which
+were to torment him to the last; physically and mentally alike
+he stood in tragic contrast with his grandfather, in whose
+gigantic personality the vigour of his race seems to have been
+exhausted.</p>
+
+<p>From 1839 to 1845 Wolfgang studied law at Bonn, Jena,
+Heidelberg and Berlin, taking his degree of <i>doctor juris</i> at Heidelberg
+in 1845. During this period he had made his first literary
+efforts. His <i>Studenten-Briefe</i> (Jena, 1842), a medley of letters
+and lyrics, are wholly conventional. This was followed by <i>Der
+Mensch und die elementarische Natur</i> (Stuttgart and Tübingen,
+1845), in three parts (<i>Beiträge</i>): (1) an historical and philosophical
+dissertation on the relations of mankind and the &ldquo;soul of nature,&rdquo;
+largely influenced by Schelling, (2) a dissertation on the juridical
+side of the question, <i>De fragmento Vegoiae</i>, being the thesis
+presented for his degree, (3) a lyrical drama, <i>Erlinde</i>. In this
+last, as in his other poetic attempts, Wolfgang showed a considerable
+measure of inherited or acquired ability, in his wealth of
+language and his easy mastery of the difficulties of rhythm and
+rhyme. But this was all. The work was characteristic of his
+self-centred isolation: ultra-romantic at a time when Romanticism
+was already an outworn fashion, remote alike from the
+spirit of the age and from that of Goethe. The cold reception
+it met with shattered at a blow the dream of Wolfgang&rsquo;s life;
+henceforth he realized that to the world he was interesting
+mainly as &ldquo;Goethe&rsquo;s grandson,&rdquo; that anything he might achieve
+would be measured by that terrible standard, and he hated the
+legacy of his name.</p>
+
+<p>The next five years he spent in Italy and at Vienna, tormented
+by facial neuralgia. Returning to Weimar in 1850, he was made a
+chamberlain by the grand-duke, and in 1852, his health being
+now somewhat restored, he entered the Prussian diplomatic
+service and went as attaché to Rome. The fruit of his long
+years of illness was a slender volume of lyrics, <i>Gedichte</i> (Stuttgart
+and Tübingen, 1851), good in form, but seldom inspired, and
+showing occasionally the influence of a morbid sensuality. In
+1854 he was appointed secretary of legation; but the aggressive
+ultramontanism of the Curia became increasingly intolerable
+to his overwrought nature, and in 1856 he was transferred, at his
+own request, as secretary of legation to Dresden. This post he
+resigned in 1859, in which year he was raised to the rank of
+<i>Freiherr</i> (baron). In 1866 he received the title of councillor
+of legation; but he never again occupied any diplomatic post.</p>
+
+<p>The rest of his life he devoted to historical research, ultimately
+selecting as his special subject the Italian libraries up to the year
+1500. The outcome of all his labours was, however, only the
+first part of <i>Studies and Researches in the Times and Life of
+Cardinal Bessarion</i>, embracing the period of the council of
+Florence (privately printed at Jena, 1871), a catalogue of the
+MSS. in the monastery of Sancta Justina at Padua (Jena,
+1873), and a mass of undigested material, which he ultimately
+bequeathed to the university of Jena.</p>
+
+<p>In 1870 Ottilie von Goethe, who had resided mainly at Vienna,
+returned to Weimar and took up her residence with her two sons
+in the Goethehaus. So long as she lived, her small salon in the
+attic storey of the great house was a centre of attraction for
+many of the most illustrious personages in Europe. But after
+her death in 1872 the two brothers lived in almost complete
+isolation. The few old friends, including the grand-duke Charles
+Alexander, who continued regularly to visit the house, were
+entertained with kindly hospitality by Baron Walther; Wolfgang
+refused to be drawn from his isolation even by the advent
+of royalty. &ldquo;Tell the empress,&rdquo; he cried on one occasion,
+&ldquo;that I am not a wild beast to be stared at!&rdquo; In 1879, his
+increasing illness necessitating the constant presence of an
+attendant, he went to live at Leipzig, where he died.</p>
+
+<p>Goethe&rsquo;s grandsons have been so repeatedly accused of having
+displayed a dog-in-the-manger temper in closing the Goethehaus
+to the public and the Goethe archives to research, that the
+charge has almost universally come to be regarded as proven.
+It is true that the house was closed and access to the archives only
+very sparingly allowed until Baron Walther&rsquo;s death in 1885.
+But the reason for this was not, as Herr Max Hecker rather
+absurdly suggests, Wolfgang&rsquo;s jealousy of his grandfather&rsquo;s
+oppressive fame, but one far more simple and natural. From
+one cause or another, principally Ottilie von Goethe&rsquo;s extravagance,
+the family was in very straitened circumstances; and the
+brothers, being thoroughly unbusinesslike, believed themselves
+to be poorer than they really were.<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> They closed the Goethehaus
+and the archives, because to have opened them would have
+needed an army of attendants.<a name="fa2o" id="fa2o" href="#ft2o"><span class="sp">2</span></a> If they deserve any blame it
+is for the pride, natural to their rank and their generation, which
+prevented them from charging an entrance fee, an expedient
+which would not only have made it possible for them to give
+access to the house and collections, but would have enabled
+them to save the fabric from falling into the lamentable state
+of disrepair in which it was found after their death. In any case,
+the accusation is ungenerous. With an almost exaggerated
+<i>Pietät</i> Goethe&rsquo;s descendants preserved his house untouched,
+at great inconvenience to themselves, and left it, with all its
+treasures intact, to the nation. Had they been the selfish
+misers they are sometimes painted, they could have realized a
+fortune by selling its contents.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Wolf Goethe</i> (Weimar, 1889) is a sympathetic appreciation by Otto
+Mejer, formerly president of the Lutheran consistory in Hanover.
+See also Jenny v. Gerstenbergk, <i>Ottilie von Goethe und ihre Söhne
+Walther und Wolf</i> (Stuttgart, 1901), and the article on Maximilian
+Wolfgang von Goethe by Max F. Hecker in <i>Allgem. deutsche Biographie</i>,
+Bd. 49, <i>Nachträge</i> (Leipzig, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> After Walther&rsquo;s death upwards of £10,000 in bonds, &amp;c., were
+discovered put away and forgotten in escritoires and odd corners.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2o" id="ft2o" href="#fa2o"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This was the reason given by Baron Walther himself to the
+writer&rsquo;s mother, an old friend of Frau von Goethe, who lived with
+her family in the Goethehaus for some years after 1871.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOETZ, HERMANN<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1840-1876), German musical composer,
+was born at Königsberg in Prussia, on the 17th of December 1840,
+and began his regular musical studies at the comparatively
+advanced age of seventeen. He entered the music-school of
+Professor Stern at Berlin, and studied composition chiefly under
+Ulrich and Hans von Bülow. In 1863 he was appointed organist
+at Winterthur in Switzerland, where he lived in obscurity for
+a number of years, occupying himself with composition during
+his leisure hours. One of his works was an opera, <i>The Taming
+of the Shrew</i>, the libretto skilfully adapted from Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+play. After much delay it was produced at Mannheim (in
+October 1874), and its success was as instantaneous as it has up to
+the present proved lasting. It rapidly made the round of the
+great German theatres, and spread its composer&rsquo;s fame over all
+the land. But Goetz did not live to enjoy this happy result
+for long. In December 1876 he died at Zürich from overwork.
+A second opera, <i>Francesco da Rimini</i>, on which he was engaged,
+remained a fragment; but it was finished according to his
+directions, and was performed for the first time at Mannheim
+a few months after the composer&rsquo;s death on the 4th of December
+1876. Besides his dramatic work, Goetz also wrote various
+compositions for chamber-music, of which a trio (Op. 1) and
+a quintet (Op. 16) have been given with great success at the
+London Monday Popular Concerts. Still more important is the
+<i>Symphony in F</i>. As a composer of comic opera Goetz lacks the
+sprightliness and artistic <i>savoir faire</i> so rarely found amongst
+Germanic nations. His was essentially a serious nature, and
+passion and pathos were to him more congenial than humour.
+The more serious sides of the subject are therefore insisted upon
+more successfully than Katherine&rsquo;s ravings and Petruchio&rsquo;s
+eccentricities. There are, however, very graceful passages, <i>e.g.</i>
+the singing lesson Bianca receives from her disguised lover.
+Goetz&rsquo;s style, although influenced by Wagner and other masters,
+shows signs of a distinct individuality. The design of his music
+is essentially of a polyphonic character, and the working out and
+interweaving of his themes betray the musician of high scholarship.
+But breadth and beautiful flow of melody also were his,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190"></a>190</span>
+as is seen in the symphony, and perhaps still more in the quintet
+for pianoforte and strings above referred to. The most important
+of Goetz&rsquo;s posthumous works are a setting of the 137th Psalm
+for soprano solo, chorus and orchestra, a &ldquo;Spring&rdquo; overture
+(Op. 15), and a pianoforte sonata for four hands (Op. 17).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOFFE<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Gough</span>), <b>WILLIAM</b> (fl. 1642-1660), English
+parliamentarian, son of Stephen Goffe, puritan rector of Stanmer
+in Essex, began life as an apprentice to a London salter, a zealous
+parliamentarian, but on the outbreak of the civil war he joined
+the army and became captain in Colonel Harley&rsquo;s regiment of the
+new model in 1645. He was imprisoned in 1642 for his share in
+the petition to give the control of the militia to the parliament.
+By his marriage with Frances, daughter of General Edward
+Whalley, he became connected with Oliver Cromwell&rsquo;s family
+and one of his most faithful followers. He was a member of
+the deputation which on the 6th of July 1647 brought up the
+charge against the eleven members. He was active in bringing
+the king to trial and signed the death warrant. In 1649 he
+received the honorary degree of M.A. at Oxford. He distinguished
+himself at Dunbar, commanding a regiment there and at
+Worcester. He assisted in the expulsion of Barebone&rsquo;s parliament
+in 1653, took an active part in the suppression of Penruddock&rsquo;s
+rising in July 1654, and in October 1655 was appointed
+major-general for Berkshire, Sussex and Hampshire. Meanwhile
+he had been elected member for Yarmouth in the parliament of
+1654 and for Hampshire in that of 1656. He supported the
+proposal to bestow a royal title upon Cromwell, who greatly
+esteemed him, was included in the newly-constituted House of
+Lords, obtained Lambert&rsquo;s place as major-general of the Foot,
+and was even thought of as a fit successor to Cromwell. As a
+member of the committee of nine appointed in June 1658 on
+public affairs, he was witness to the protector&rsquo;s appointment
+of Richard Cromwell as his successor. He supported the latter
+during his brief tenure of power and his fall involved his own loss
+of influence. In November 1659 he took part in the futile mission
+sent by the army to Monk in Scotland, and at the Restoration
+escaped with his father-in-law General Edward Whalley to
+Massachusetts. Goffe&rsquo;s political aims appear not to have gone
+much beyond fighting &ldquo;to pull down Charles and set up Oliver&rdquo;;
+and he was no doubt a man of deep religious feeling, who acted
+throughout according to a strict sense of duty as he conceived it.
+He was destined to pass the rest of his life in exile, separated
+from his wife and children, dying, it is supposed, about 1679.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOFFER,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> to give a fluted or crimped appearance to anything,
+particularly to linen or lace frills or trimmings by means of
+heated irons of a special shape, called goffering-irons or tongs.
+&ldquo;Goffering,&rdquo; or the French term <i>gaufrage</i>, is also used of the
+wavey or crimped edging in certain forms of porcelain, and also
+of the stamped or embossed decorations on the edges of the
+binding of books. The French word <i>gaufre</i>, from which the
+English form is adapted, means a thin cake marked with a
+pattern like a honeycomb, a &ldquo;wafer,&rdquo; which is etymologically
+the same word. <i>Waufre</i> appears in the phrase <i>un fer à waufres</i>,
+an iron for baking cakes on (quotation of 1433 in J. B. Roquefort&rsquo;s
+<i>Glossaire de la langue romane</i>). The word is Teutonic,
+cf. Dutch <i>wafel</i>, Ger. <i>Waffel</i>, a form seen in &ldquo;waffle,&rdquo; the name
+given to the well-known batter-cakes of America. The &ldquo;wafer&rdquo;
+was so called from its likeness to a honeycomb, <i>Wabe</i>, ultimately
+derived from the root <i>wab</i>-, to weave, the cells of the comb
+appearing to be woven together.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOG<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (possibly connected with the Gentilic <i>Gagaya</i>, &ldquo;of the
+land of Gag,&rdquo; used in Amarna Letters i. 38, as a synonym for
+&ldquo;barbarian,&rdquo; or with Ass. <i>Gagu</i>, a ruler of the land of <i>Sahi</i>,
+N. of Assyria, or with <i>Gyges</i>, Ass. <i>Gugu</i>, a king of Lydia), a
+Hebrew name found in Ezek. xxxviii.-xxxix. and in Rev. xx.,
+and denoting an antitheocratic power that is to manifest itself
+in the world immediately before the final dispensation. In the
+later passage, Gog and Magog are spoken of as co-ordinate; in
+the earlier, Gog is given as the name of the person or people and
+Magog as that of the land of origin. Magog is perhaps a
+contracted form of Mat-gog, <i>mat</i> being the common Assyrian
+word for &ldquo;land.&rdquo; The passages are, however, intimately related
+and both depend upon Gen. x. 2, though here Magog alone is
+mentioned. He is the second &ldquo;son&rdquo; of Japhet, and the order
+of the names here and in Ezekiel xxxviii. 2, indicates a locality
+between Cappadocia and Media, <i>i.e.</i> in Armenia. According
+to Josephus, who is followed by Jerome, the Scythians were
+primarily intended by this designation; and this plausible
+opinion has been generally followed. The name <span class="grk" title="Skythai">&#931;&#954;&#973;&#952;&#945;&#953;</span>, it is
+to be observed, however, is often but a vague word for any or all
+of the numerous and but partially known tribes of the north;
+and any attempt to assign a more definite locality to Magog can
+only be very hesitatingly made. According to some, the Maiotes
+about the Palus Maeotis are meant; according to others, the
+Massagetae; according to Kiepert, the inhabitants of the
+northern and eastern parts of Armenia. The imagery employed
+in Ezekiel&rsquo;s prophetic description was no doubt suggested by the
+Scythian invasion which about the time of Josiah, 630 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+had devastated Asia (Herodotus i. 104-106; Jer. iv. 3-vi. 30).
+Following on this description, Gog figures largely in Jewish and
+Mahommedan as well as in Christian eschatology. In the
+district of Astrakhan a legend is still to be met with, to the effect
+that Gog and Magog were two great races, which Alexander the
+Great subdued and banished to the inmost recesses of the
+Caucasus, where they are meanwhile kept in by the terror of
+twelve trumpets blown by the winds, but whence they are
+destined ultimately to make their escape and destroy the world.</p>
+
+<p>The legends that attach themselves to the gigantic effigies
+(dating from 1708 and replacing those destroyed in the Great
+Fire) of Gog and Magog in Guildhall, London, are connected
+only remotely, if at all, with the biblical notices. According to
+the <i>Recuyell des histoires de Troye</i>, Gog and Magog were the
+survivors of a race of giants descended from the thirty-three
+wicked daughters of Diocletian; after their brethren had been
+slain by Brute and his companions, Gog and Magog were brought
+to London (Troy-novant) and compelled to officiate as porters
+at the gate of the royal palace. It is known that effigies similar
+to the present existed in London as early as the time of Henry V.;
+but when this legend began to attach to them is uncertain. They
+may be compared with the giant images formerly kept at Antwerp
+(Antigomes) and Douai (Gayant). According to Geoffrey of
+Monmouth (<i>Chronicles</i>, i. 16), Goëmot or Goëmagot (either
+corrupted from or corrupted into &ldquo;Gog and Magog&rdquo;) was a
+giant who, along with his brother Corineus, tyrannized in the
+western horn of England until slain by foreign invaders.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOGO<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Gogha</span>, a town of British India in Ahmedabad
+district, Bombay, 193 m. N.W. of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 4798.
+About ¾ m. east of the town is an excellent anchorage, in some
+measure sheltered by the island of Piram, which lies still farther
+east. The natives of this place are reckoned the best sailors in
+India; and ships touching here may procure water and supplies,
+or repair damages. The anchorage is a safe refuge during the
+south-west monsoon, the bottom being a bed of mud and the
+water always smooth. Gogo has lost its commercial importance
+and has steadily declined in population and trade since the time
+of the American Civil War, when it was an important cotton-mart.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOGOL, NIKOLAI VASILIEVICH<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1809-1852), Russian
+novelist, was born in the province of Poltava, in South Russia,
+on the 31st of March 1809. Educated at the Niezhin gymnasium,
+he there started a manuscript periodical, &ldquo;The Star,&rdquo; and wrote
+several pieces including a tragedy, <i>The Brigands</i>. Having
+completed his course at Niezhin, he went in 1829 to St Petersburg,
+where he tried the stage but failed. Next year he obtained a
+clerkship in the department of appanages, but he soon gave it up.
+In literature, however, he found his true vocation. In 1829 he
+published anonymously a poem called <i>Italy</i>, and, under the
+pseudonym of V. Alof, an idyll, <i>Hans Kuchel Garten</i>, which he
+had written while still at Niezhin. The idyll was so ridiculed by
+a reviewer that its author bought up all the copies he could
+secure, and burnt them in a room which he hired for the purpose
+at an inn. Gogol then fell back upon South Russian popular
+literature, and especially the tales of Cossackdom on which his
+boyish fancy had been nursed, his father having occupied the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>191</span>
+post of &ldquo;regimental secretary,&rdquo; one of the honorary officials in
+the Zaporogian Cossack forces.</p>
+
+<p>In 1830 he published in a periodical the first of the stories
+which appeared next year under the title of <i>Evenings in a Farm
+near Dikanka: by Rudy Panko</i>. This work, containing a series
+of attractive pictures of that Little-Russian life which lends
+itself to romance more readily than does the monotony of
+&ldquo;Great-Russian&rdquo; existence, immediately obtained a great
+success&mdash;its light and colour, its freshness and originality being
+hailed with enthusiasm by the principal writers of the day in
+Russia. Whereupon Gogol planned, not only a history of Little-Russia,
+but also one of the middle ages, to be completed in eight
+or nine volumes. This plan he did not carry out, though it led
+to his being appointed to a professorship in the university of
+St Petersburg, a post in which he met with small success and
+which he resigned in 1835. Meanwhile he had published his
+<i>Arabesques</i>, a collection of essays and stories; his <i>Taras Bulba</i>,
+the chief of the <i>Cossack Tales</i> translated into English by George
+Tolstoy; and a number of novelettes, which mark his transition
+from the romantic to the realistic school of fiction, such as the
+admirable sketch of the tranquil life led in a quiet country
+house by two kindly specimens of <i>Old-world Gentlefolks</i>, or the
+description of the petty miseries endured by an ill-paid clerk
+in a government office, the great object of whose life is to secure
+the &ldquo;cloak&rdquo; from which his story takes its name. To the same
+period belongs his celebrated comedy, the <i>Revizor</i>, or government
+inspector. His aim in writing it was to drag into light &ldquo;all that
+was bad in Russia,&rdquo; and to hold it up to contempt. And he
+succeeded in rendering contemptible and ludicrous the official
+life of Russia, the corruption universally prevailing throughout
+the civil service, the alternate arrogance and servility of men
+in office. The plot of the comedy is very simple. A traveller
+who arrives with an empty purse at a provincial town is taken
+for an inspector whose arrival is awaited with fear, and he
+receives all the attentions and bribes which are meant to propitiate
+the dreaded investigator of abuses. The play appeared
+on the stage in the spring of 1836, and achieved a full success,
+in spite of the opposition attempted by the official classes whose
+malpractices it exposed. The aim which Gogol had in view
+when writing the <i>Revizor</i> he afterwards fully attained in his
+great novel, <i>Mertvuiya Dushi</i>, or Dead Souls, the first part of
+which appeared in 1842. The hero of the story is an adventurer
+who goes about Russia making fictitious purchases of &ldquo;dead
+souls,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> of serfs who have died since the last census, with the
+view of pledging his imaginary property to the government.
+But his adventures are merely an excuse for drawing a series
+of pictures, of an unfavourable kind, of Russian provincial life,
+and of introducing on the scene a number of types of Russian
+society. Of the force and truth with which these delineations
+are executed the universal consent of Russian critics in their
+favour may be taken as a measure. From the French version
+of the story a general idea of its merits may be formed, and some
+knowledge of its plot and its principal characters may be gathered
+from the English adaptation published in 1854, as an original
+work, under the title of <i>Home Life in Russia</i>. But no one can
+fully appreciate Gogol&rsquo;s merits as a humorist who is not intimate
+with the language in which he wrote as well as with the society
+which he depicted.</p>
+
+<p>In 1836 Gogol for the first time went abroad. Subsequently
+he spent a considerable amount of time out of Russia, chiefly
+in Italy, where much of his <i>Dead Souls</i> was written. His
+residence there, especially at Rome, made a deep impression on
+his mind, which, during his later years, turned towards mysticism.
+The last works which he published, his <i>Confession</i> and <i>Correspondence
+with Friends</i>, offer a painful contrast to the light, bright,
+vigorous, realistic, humorous writings which had gained and have
+retained for him his immense popularity in his native land.
+Asceticism and mystical exaltation had told upon his nervous
+system, and its feeble condition showed itself in his literary
+compositions. In 1848 he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and
+on his return settled down at Moscow, where he died on the 3rd
+of March 1852.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Materials for the Biography of Gogol</i> (in Russian) (1897), by
+Shenrok; &ldquo;Illness and Death of Gogol,&rdquo; by N. Bazhenov, <i>Russkaya
+Muisl</i>, January 1902.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. R. S.-R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOGRA<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Ghagra</span>, a river of northern India. It is an
+important tributary of the Ganges, bringing down to the plains
+more water than the Ganges itself. It rises in Tibet near Lake
+Manasarowar, not far from the sources of the Brahmaputra
+and the Sutlej, passes through Nepal where it is known as the
+Kauriala, and after entering British territory becomes the most
+important waterway in the United Provinces. It joins the Ganges
+at Chapra after a course of 600 m. Its tributary, the Rapti,
+also has considerable commercial importance. The Gogra has
+the alternative name of Sarju, and in its lower course is also
+known as the Deoha.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOHIER, LOUIS JÉRÔME<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1746-1830), French politician,
+was born at Semblançay (Indre-et-Loire) on the 27th of February
+1746, the son of a notary. He was called to the bar at Rennes,
+and practised there until he was sent to represent the town in
+the states-general. In the Legislative Assembly he represented
+Ille-et-Vilaine. He took a prominent part in the deliberations;
+he protested against the exaction of a new oath from priests
+(Nov. 22, 1791), and demanded the sequestration of the emigrants&rsquo;
+property (Feb. 7, 1792). He was minister of justice from March
+1793 to April 1794, and in June 1799 he succeeded Treilhard
+in the Directory, where he represented the republican interest.
+His wife was intimate with Josephine Bonaparte, and when
+Bonaparte suddenly returned from Egypt in October 1799 he
+repeatedly protested his friendship for Gohier, who was then
+president of the Directory, and tried in vain to gain him over.
+After the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of the 18th Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799), he
+refused to abdicate his functions, and sought out Bonaparte
+at the Tuileries &ldquo;to save the republic,&rdquo; as he boldly expressed
+it. He was escorted to the Luxembourg, and on his release
+he retired to his estate at Eaubonne. In 1802 Napoleon made
+him consul-general at Amsterdam, and on the union of the
+Netherlands with France he was offered a similar post in the
+United States. His health did not permit of his taking up a new
+appointment, and he died at Eaubonne on the 29th of May 1830.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Mémoires d&rsquo;un vétéran irréprochable de la Révolution</i> was
+published in 1824, his report on the papers of the civil list preparatory
+to the trial of Louis XVI. is printed in Le <i>Procès de Louis XVI</i>
+(Paris, an III) and elsewhere, while others appear in the <i>Moniteur</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÖHRDE<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span>, a forest of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Hanover, immediately W. of the Elbe, between Wittenberg and
+Lüneburg. It has an area of about 85 sq. m. and is famous for its
+oaks, beeches and game preserves. It is memorable for the
+victory gained here, on the 16th of September 1813, by the allies,
+under Wallmoden, over the French forces commanded by Pecheur.
+The hunting-box situated in the forest was built in 1689 and was
+restored by Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover. It is known to
+history on account of the constitution of Göhrde, promulgated
+here in 1719.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOITO<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span>, a village of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Mantua,
+from which it is 11 m. N.W., on the road to Brescia. Pop.
+(village) 737; (commune) 5712. It is situated on the right bank
+of the Mincio near the bridge. Its position has given it a certain
+military importance in various campaigns and it has been
+repeatedly fortified as a bridge-head. The Piedmontese forces
+won two actions (8th of April and 30th of May 1848) over the
+Austrians here.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOITRE<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>guttur</i>, the throat; synonyms, Bronchocele,
+Derbyshire Neck), a term applied to a swelling in the front of the
+neck caused by enlargement of the thyroid gland. This structure,
+which lies between the skin and the anterior surface of the windpipe,
+and in health is not large enough to give rise to any external
+prominence (except in the pictures of certain artists), is liable to
+variations in size, more especially in females, a temporary
+enlargement of the gland being not uncommon at the catamenial
+periods, as well as during pregnancy. In goitre the swelling is
+conspicuous and is not only unsightly but may occasion much
+discomfort from its pressure upon the windpipe and other
+important parts of the neck. J. L. Alibert recorded cases of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>192</span>
+goitre where the tumour hung down over the breast, or reached
+as low as the middle of the thigh.</p>
+
+<p>Goitre usually appears in early life, often from the eighth to the
+twelfth year; its growth is at first slow, but after several years of
+comparative quiescence a sudden increase is apt to occur. In the
+earlier stages the condition of the gland is simply an enlargement
+of its constituent parts, which retain their normal soft consistence;
+but in the course of time other changes supervene, and it may
+become cystic, or acquire hardness from increase of fibrous tissue
+or from calcareous deposits. Occasionally the enlargement is
+uniform, but more commonly one of the lobes, generally the right,
+is the larger. In rare instances the disease is limited to the
+isthmus which connects the two lobes of the gland. The growth
+is unattended with pain, and is not inconsistent with good health.</p>
+
+<p>Goitre is a marked example of an endemic disease. There are
+few parts of the world where it is not found prevailing in certain
+localities, these being for the most part valleys and elevated plains
+in mountainous districts (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cretinism</a></span>). The malady is generally
+ascribed to the use of drinking water impregnated with the salts of
+lime and magnesia, in which ingredients the water of goitrous
+districts abounds. But in localities not far removed from those in
+which goitre prevails, and where the water is of the same chemical
+composition, the disease may be entirely unknown. The disease
+may be the result of a combination of causes, among which local
+telluric or malarial influences concur with those of the drinking
+water. Goitre is sometimes cured by removal of the individual
+from the district where it prevails, and it is apt to be acquired
+by previously healthy persons who settle in goitrous localities;
+and it is only in such places that the disease exhibits hereditary
+tendencies.</p>
+
+<p>In the early stages, change of air, especially to the seaside, is
+desirable, and small doses of iron and of iodine should be given;
+if this fails small doses of thyroid extract should be tried. If
+palliative measures prove unsuccessful, operation must be undertaken
+for the removal of one lateral lobe and the isthmus of the
+tumour. This may be done under chloroform or after the subcutaneous
+injection of cocaine. If chloroform is used, it must be
+given very sparingly, as the breathing is apt to become seriously
+embarrassed during the operation. After the successful performance
+of the operation great improvement takes place, the
+remaining part of the gland slowly decreasing in size. The whole
+of the gland must not be removed during the operation, lest the
+strange disease known as Myxoedema should be produced (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metabolic Diseases</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In <i>exophthalmic goitre</i> the bronchocele is but one of three
+phenomena, which together constitute the disease, viz. palpitation
+of the heart, <span class="correction" title="amended from elargement">enlargement</span> of the thyroid gland, and protrusion of
+the eyeballs. This group of symptoms is known by the name of
+&ldquo;Graves&rsquo;s disease&rdquo; or &ldquo;Von Basedow&rsquo;s disease&rdquo;&mdash;the physicians
+by whom the malady was originally described. Although
+occasionally observed in men, this affection occurs chiefly in
+females, and in comparatively early life. It is generally preceded
+by impoverishment of blood, and by nervous or hysterical
+disorders, and it is occasionally seen in cases of organic heart
+disease. It has been suddenly developed as the effect of fright or
+of violent emotion. The first symptom is usually the palpitation
+of the heart, which is aggravated by slight exertion, and may be
+so severe as not only to shake the whole frame but even to be
+audible at some distance. A throbbing is felt throughout the
+body, and many of the larger blood-vessels are, like the heart,
+seen to pulsate strongly. The enlargement of the thyroid is
+gradual, and rarely increases to any great size, thus differing
+from the commoner form of goitre. The enlarged gland is of soft
+consistence, and communicates a thrill to the touch from its
+dilated and pulsating blood-vessels. Accompanying the goitre a
+remarkable change is observed in the eyes, which attract attention
+by their prominence, and by the startled expression thus given to
+the countenance. In extreme cases the eyes protrude from their
+sockets to such a degree that the eyelids cannot be closed, and
+injury may thus arise to the constantly exposed eyeballs. Apart
+from such risk, however, the vision is rarely affected. It occasionally
+happens that in undoubted cases of the disease one or other of
+the three above-named phenomena is absent, generally either the
+goitre or the exophthalmos. The palpitation of the heart is the
+most constant symptom. Sleeplessness, irritability, disorders of
+digestion, diarrhoea and uterine derangements, are frequent
+accompaniments. It is a serious disease and, if unchecked, may
+end fatally. Some cases are improved by general hygienic
+measures, others by electric treatment, or by the administration
+of animal extracts or of sera. Some cases, on the other hand, may
+be considered suitable for operative treatment.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. O.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOKAK<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span>, a town of British India, in the Belgaum district of
+Bombay, 8 m. from a station on the Southern Mahratta railway.
+Pop. (1901) 9860. It contains old temples with inscriptions,
+and is known for a special industry of modelled toys. About
+4 m. N.W. are the Gokak Falls, where the Ghatprabha throws
+itself over a precipice 170 ft. high. Close by, the water has been
+impounded for a large reservoir, which supplies not only irrigation
+but also motive power for a cotton-mill employing 2000 hands.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOKCHA<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span>, (<span class="sc">Gök-Chai</span>; Armenian <i>Sevanga</i>; ancient <i>Haosravagha</i>),
+the largest lake of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government
+of Erivan, in 40° 9&prime; to 40° 38&prime; N. and 45° 1&prime; to 45° 40&prime; E.
+Its altitude is 6345 ft., it is of triangular shape, and measures
+from north-west to south-east 45 m., its greatest width being
+25 m., and its maximum depth 67 fathoms. Its area is 540 sq. m.
+It is surrounded by barren mountains of volcanic origin, 12,000
+ft. high. Its outflow is the Zanga, a left bank tributary of the
+Aras (<i>Araxes</i>); it never freezes, and its level undergoes periodical
+oscillations. It contains four species of <i>Salmonidae</i>, and two
+of <i>Cyprinidae</i>, which are only met with in the drainage area
+of this lake. A lava island in the middle is crowned by an
+Armenian monastery.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLCONDA<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span>, a fortress and ruined city of India, in the Niz&#257;m&rsquo;s
+Dominions, 5 m. W. of Hyderabad city. In former times
+Golconda was the capital of a large and powerful kingdom of
+the Deccan, ruled by the Kutb Shahi dynasty which was founded
+in 1512 by a Turkoman adventurer on the downfall of the
+Bahmani dynasty, but the city was subdued by Aurangzeb in
+1687, and annexed to the Delhi empire. The fortress of Golconda,
+situated on a rocky ridge of granite, is extensive, and contains
+many enclosures. It is strong and in good repair, but is commanded
+by the summits of the enormous and massive mausolea
+of the ancient kings about 600 yds. distant. These buildings,
+which are now the chief characteristics of the place, form a vast
+group, situated in an arid, rocky desert. They have suffered
+considerably from the ravages of time, but more from the hand
+of man, and nothing but the great solidity of their walls has
+preserved them from utter ruin. These tombs were erected at a
+great expense, some of them being said to have cost as much
+as £150,000. Golconda fort is now used as the Niz&#257;m&rsquo;s treasury,
+and also as the state prison. Golconda has given its name in
+English literature to the diamonds which were found in other
+parts of the dominions of the Kutb Shahi dynasty, not near
+Golconda itself.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLD<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1), 197.2(O = 16)],
+a metallic chemical element, valued from the earliest ages on
+account of the permanency of its colour and lustre. Gold
+ornaments of great variety and elaborate workmanship have
+been discovered on sites belonging to the earliest known civilizations,
+Minoan, Egyptian, Assyrian, Etruscan (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jewelry</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plate</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegean Civilization</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>),
+and in ancient literature gold is the universal symbol of the
+highest purity and value (cf. passages in the Old Testament,
+<i>e.g.</i> Ps. xix. 10 &ldquo;More to be desired are they than gold, yea, than
+much fine gold&rdquo;). With regard to the history of the metallurgy
+of gold, it may be mentioned that, according to Pliny, mercury
+was employed in his time both as a means of separating the
+precious metals and for the purposes of gilding. Vitruvius also
+gives a detailed account of the means of recovering gold, by
+amalgamation, from cloth into which it had been woven.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physical Properties</i>.&mdash;Gold has a characteristic yellow colour,
+which is, however, notably affected by small quantities of other
+metals; thus the tint is sensibly lowered by small quantities
+of silver, and heightened by copper. When the gold is finely
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193"></a>193</span>
+divided, as in &ldquo;purple of Cassius,&rdquo; or when it is precipitated
+from solutions, the colour is ruby-red, while in very thin leaves
+it transmits a greenish light. It is nearly as soft as lead and
+softer than silver. When pure, it is the most malleable of all
+metals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Goldbeating</a></span>). It is also extremely ductile; a
+single grain may be drawn into a wire 500 ft. in length, and an
+ounce of gold covering a silver wire is capable of being extended
+more than 1300 m. The presence of minute quantities of
+cadmium, lead, bismuth, antimony, arsenic, tin, tellurium and
+zinc renders gold brittle, <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">2000</span>th part of one of the three metals
+first named being sufficient to produce that quality. Gold can
+be readily welded cold; the finely divided metal, in the state
+in which it is precipitated from solution, may be compressed
+between dies into disks or medals. The specific gravity of gold
+obtained by precipitation from solution by ferrous sulphate
+is from 19.55 to 20.72. The specific gravity of cast gold varies
+from 18.29 to 19.37, and by compression between dies the
+specific gravity may be raised from 19.37 to 19.41; by annealing,
+however, the previous density is to some extent recovered, as
+it is then found to be 19.40. The melting-point has been
+variously given, the early values ranging from 1425° C. to 1035° C.
+Using improved methods, C. T. Heycock and F. H. Neville
+determined it to be 1061.7° C.; Daniel Berthelot gives 1064° C.,
+while Jaquerod and Perrot give 1066.1-1067.4° C. At still
+higher temperatures it volatilizes, forming a reddish vapour.
+Macquer and Lavoisier showed that when gold is strongly heated,
+fumes arise which gild a piece of silver held in them. Its volatility
+has also been studied by L. Eisner, and, in the presence of
+other metals, by Napier and others. The volatility is barely
+appreciable at 1075°; at 1250° it is four times as much as at
+1100°. Copper and zinc increase the volatility far more than
+lead, while the greatest volatility is induced, according to T.
+Kirke Rose, by tellurium. It has also been shown that gold
+volatilizes when a gold-amalgam is distilled. Gold is dissipated
+by sending a powerful charge of electricity through it when in the
+form of leaf or thin wire. The electric conductivity is given by
+A. Matthiessen as 73 at 0° C., pure silver being 100; the value
+of this coefficient depends greatly on the purity of the metal,
+the presence of a few thousandths of silver lowering it by 10%.
+Its conductivity for heat has been variously given as 103 (C. M.
+Despretz), 98 (F. Crace-Calvert and R. Johnson), and 60 (G. H.
+Wiedemann and R. Franz), pure silver being 100. Its specific
+heat is between 0.0298 (Dulong and Petit) and 0.03244 (Regnault).
+Its coefficient of expansion for each degree between
+0° and 100° C. is 0.000014661, or for gold which has been
+annealed 0.000015136 (Laplace and Lavoisier). The spark
+spectrum of gold has been mapped by A. Kirchhoff, R. Thalén,
+Sir William Huggins and H. Krüss; the brightest lines are 6277,
+5960, 5955 and 5836 in the orange and yellow, and 5230 and
+4792 in the green and blue.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chemical Properties</i>.&mdash;Gold is permanent in both dry and
+moist air at ordinary or high temperatures. It is insoluble in
+hydrochloric, nitric and sulphuric acids, but dissolves in <i>aqua
+regia</i>&mdash;a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids&mdash;and when
+very finely divided in a heated mixture of strong sulphuric
+acid and a little nitric acid; dilution with water, however,
+precipitates the metal as a violet or brown powder from this
+solution. The metal is soluble in solutions of chlorine, bromine,
+thiosulphates and cyanides; and also in solutions which
+generate chlorine, such as mixtures of hydrochloric acid with
+nitric acid, chromic acid, antimonious acid, peroxides and
+nitrates, and of nitric acid with a chloride. Gold is also attacked
+when strong sulphuric acid is submitted to electrolysis with a
+gold positive pole. W. Skey showed that in substances which
+contain small quantities of gold the precious metal may be
+removed by the solvent action of iodine or bromine in water.
+Filter paper soaked with the clear, solution is burnt, and the
+presence of gold is indicated by the purple colour of the ash. In
+solution minute quantities of gold may be detected by the
+formation of &ldquo;purple of Cassius,&rdquo; a bluish-purple precipitate
+thrown down by a mixture of ferric and stannous chlorides.</p>
+
+<p>The atomic weight of gold was first determined with accuracy
+by Berzelius, who deduced the value 195.7 (H = 1) from the
+amount of mercury necessary to precipitate it from the chloride,
+and 195.2 from the ratio between gold and potassium chloride
+in potassium aurichloride, KAuCl<span class="su">4</span>. Later determinations
+were made by Sir T. E. Thorpe and A. P. Laurie, Krüss and
+J. W. Mallet. Thorpe and Laurie converted potassium auribromide
+into a mixture of metallic gold and potassium bromide
+by careful heating. The relation of the gold to the potassium
+bromide, as well as the amounts of silver and silver bromide
+which are equivalent to the potassium bromide, were determined.
+The mean value thus adduced was 195.86. Krüss worked with
+the same salt, and obtained the value 195.65; while Mallet,
+by analyses of gold chloride and bromide, and potassium auribromide,
+obtained the value 195.77.</p>
+
+<p><i>Occlusion of Gas by Gold.</i>&mdash;T. Graham showed that gold is
+capable of occluding by volume 0.48% of hydrogen, 0.20%
+of nitrogen, 0.29% of carbon monoxide, and 0.16% of carbon
+dioxide. Varrentrapp pointed out that &ldquo;cornets&rdquo; from the
+assay of gold may retain gas if they are not strongly heated.</p>
+
+<p><i>Occurrence and Distribution</i>.&mdash;Gold is found in nature chiefly
+in the metallic state, <i>i.e.</i> as &ldquo;native gold,&rdquo; and less frequently
+in combination with tellurium, lead and silver. These are the
+only certain examples of natural combinations of the metal,
+the minute, though economically valuable, quantity often
+found in pyrites and other sulphides being probably only present
+in mechanical suspension. The native metal crystallizes in the
+cubic system, the octahedron being the commonest form, but
+other and complex combinations have been observed. Owing
+to the softness of the metal, large crystals are rarely well defined,
+the points being commonly rounded. In the irregular crystalline
+aggregates branching and moss-like forms are most common,
+and in Transylvania thin plates or sheets with diagonal structures
+are found. More characteristic, however, than the crystallized
+are the irregular forms, which, when large, are known as &ldquo;nuggets&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;pepites,&rdquo; and when in pieces below ¼ to ½ oz. weight as gold
+dust, the larger sizes being distinguished as coarse or nuggety
+gold, and the smaller as gold dust proper. Except in the larger
+nuggets, which may be more or less angular, or at times even
+masses of crystals, with or without associated quartz or other
+rock, gold is generally found bean-shaped or in some other
+flattened form, the smallest particles being scales of scarcely
+appreciable thickness, which, from their small bulk as compared
+with their surface, subside very slowly when suspended in water,
+and are therefore readily carried away by a rapid current. These
+form the &ldquo;float gold&rdquo; of the miner. The physical properties of
+native gold are generally similar to that of the melted metal.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of the minerals containing gold the most important are sylvanite or
+graphic tellurium (Ag, Au) Te<span class="su">2</span>, with 24 to 26%; calaverite, AuTe<span class="su">2</span>,
+with 42%; nagyagite or foliate tellurium (Pb, Au)<span class="su">16</span> Sb<span class="su">3</span>(S, Te)<span class="su">24</span>,
+with 5 to 9% of gold; petzite, (Ag, Au)<span class="su">2</span>Te, and white tellurium.
+These are confined to a few localities, the oldest and best known
+being those of Nagyag and Offenbanya in Transylvania; they have
+also been found at Red Cloud, Colorado, in Calaveras county, California,
+and at Perth and Boulder, West Australia. The minerals
+of the second class, usually spoken of as &ldquo;auriferous,&rdquo; are comparatively
+numerous. Prominent among these are galena and iron pyrites,
+the former being almost invariably gold-bearing. Iron pyrites,
+however, is of greater practical importance, being in some districts
+exceedingly rich, and, next to the native metal, is the most prolific
+source of gold. Magnetic pyrites, copper pyrites, zinc blende and
+arsenical pyrites are other and less important examples, the last
+constituting the gold ore formerly worked in Silesia. A native gold
+amalgam is found as a rarity in California, and bismuth from
+South America is sometimes rich in gold. Native arsenic and
+antimony are also very frequently found to contain gold and silver.</p>
+
+<p>The association and distribution of gold may be considered under
+two different heads, namely, as it occurs in mineral veins&mdash;&ldquo;reef
+gold,&rdquo; and in alluvial or other superficial deposits which are derived
+from the waste of the former&mdash;&ldquo;alluvial gold.&rdquo; Four distinct
+types of reef gold deposits may be distinguished: (1) Gold may
+occur disseminated through metalliferous veins, generally with
+sulphides and more particularly with pyrites. These deposits seem
+to be the primary sources of native gold. (2) More common are the
+auriferous quartz-reefs&mdash;veins or masses of quartz containing gold
+in flakes visible to the naked eye, or so finely divided as to be invisible.
+(3) The &ldquo;banket&rdquo; formation, which characterizes the goldfields of
+South Africa, consists of a quartzite conglomerate throughout
+which gold is very finely disseminated. (4) The siliceous sinter at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>194</span>
+Mount Morgan, Queensland, which is obviously associated with
+hydrothermal action, is also gold-bearing. The genesis of the last
+three types of deposit is generally assigned to the simultaneous
+percolation of solutions of gold and silica, the auriferous solution
+being formed during the disintegration of the gold-bearing metalliferous
+veins. But there is much uncertainty as to the mechanism
+of the process; some authors hold that the soluble chloride is first
+formed, while others postulate the intervention of a soluble aurate.</p>
+
+<p>In the alluvial deposits the associated minerals are chiefly those
+of great density and hardness, such as platinum, osmiridium and
+other metals of the platinum group, tinstone, chromic, magnetic
+and brown iron ores, diamond, ruby and sapphire, zircon, topaz,
+garnet, &amp;c. which represent the more durable original constituents of
+the rocks whose distintegration has furnished the detritus.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Statistics of Gold Production</i>.&mdash;The supply of gold, and also
+its relation to the supply of silver, has, among civilized nations,
+always been of paramount importance in the economic questions
+concerning money (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Money</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bimetallism</a></span>); in this
+article a summary of the modern gold-producing areas will be
+given, and for further details reference should be made to the
+articles on the localities named. The chief sources of the
+European supply during the middle ages were the mines of
+Saxony and Austria, while Spain also contributed. The supplies
+from Mexico and Brazil were important during the 16th and 17th
+centuries. Russia became prominent in 1823, and for fourteen
+years contributed the bulk of the supply. The United States
+(California) after 1848, and Australia after 1851, were responsible
+for enormous increases in the total production, which has been
+subsequently enhanced by discoveries in Canada, South Africa,
+India, China and other countries.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt1 sc">Table I.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Period.</td> <td class="tcc rb2 tb bb">Oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb tb bb">Period.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Oz.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1801-1810</td> <td class="tcr rb2">590,750</td> <td class="tcc rb">1856-1860</td> <td class="tcc rb">6,350,180</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1811-1820</td> <td class="tcr rb2">380,300</td> <td class="tcc rb">1861-1865</td> <td class="tcc rb">5,951,770</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1821-1830</td> <td class="tcr rb2">472,400</td> <td class="tcc rb">1866-1870</td> <td class="tcc rb">6,169,660</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1831-1840</td> <td class="tcr rb2">674,200</td> <td class="tcc rb">1871-1875</td> <td class="tcc rb">5,487,400</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1841-1850</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1,819,600</td> <td class="tcc rb">1876-1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">5,729,300</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1851-1855</td> <td class="tcr rb2 bb">6,350,180</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&mdash;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&mdash;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The average annual world&rsquo;s production for certain periods
+from 1801 to 1880 in ounces is given in Table I. The average
+production of the five years 1881-1885 was the smallest since the
+Australian and Californian mines began to be worked in 1848-1849;
+the minimum 4,614,588 oz., occurred in 1882. It was
+not until after 1885 that the annual output of the world began
+to expand. Of the total production in 1876, 5,016,488 oz.,
+almost the whole was derived from the United States, Australasia
+and Russia. Since then the proportion furnished by these
+countries has been greatly lowered by the supplies from South
+Africa, Canada, India and China. The increase of production
+has not been uniform, the greater part having occurred most
+notably since 1895. Among the regions not previously important
+as gold-producers which now contribute to the annual output,
+the most remarkable are the goldfields of South Africa (Transvaal
+and Rhodesia, the former of which were discovered in 1885).
+India likewise has been added to the list, its active production
+having begun at about the same time as that of South Africa.
+The average annual product of India for the period 1886 to 1899
+inclusive was £698,208, and its present annual product averages
+about 550,000 oz., or about £2,200,000, obtained almost wholly
+from the free-milling quartz veins of the Colar goldfields in
+Mysore, southern India. In 1900 the output was valued at
+£1,891,804, in 1905 at £2,450,536, and in 1908 at £2,270,000.
+Canada, too, assumed an important rank, having contributed
+in 1900 £5,583,300; but the output has since steadily declined
+to £1,973,000 in 1908. The great increase during the few years
+preceding 1899 was due to the development of the goldfields
+of the North-Western Territory, especially British Columbia.
+From the district of Yukon (Klondike, &amp;c.) £2,800,000 was
+obtained in 1899, wholly from alluvial workings, but the progress
+made since has been slower than was expected by sanguine
+people. It is, however, probable that the North-Western
+Territory will continue to yield gold in important quantities
+for some time to come.</p>
+
+<p>The output of the United States increased from £7,050,000
+in 1881 to £16,085,567 in 1900, £17,916,000 in 1905, and to
+£20,065,000 in 1908. This increase was chiefly due to the
+exploitation of new goldfields. The fall in the price of silver
+stimulated the discovery and development of gold deposits,
+and many states formerly regarded as characteristically silver
+districts have become important as gold producers. Colorado is
+a case in point, its output having increased from about £600,000
+in 1880 to £6,065,000 in 1900; it was £5,139,800 in 1905. Somewhat
+more than one-half of the Colorado gold is obtained from
+the Cripple Creek district. Other states also showed a largely
+augmented product. On the other hand, the output of California,
+which was producing over £3,000,000 per annum in 1876, has
+fallen off, the average annual output from 1876 to 1900
+being £2,800,000; in 1905 the yield was £3,839,000. This
+decrease was largely caused by the practical suspension for
+many years of the hydraulic mining operations, in preparation
+for which millions of dollars had been expended in deep tunnels,
+flumes, &amp;c., and the active continuance of which might have been
+expected to yield some £2,000,000 of gold annually. This interruption,
+due to the practical prohibition of the industry by the
+United States courts, on the ground that it was injuring, through
+the deposit of tailings, agricultural lands and navigable streams,
+was lessened, though not entirely removed, by compromises and
+regulations which permit, under certain restrictions, the renewed
+exploitation of the ancient river-beds by the hydraulic method.
+On the other hand, the progressive reduction of mining and
+metallurgical costs effected by improved transportation and
+machinery, and the use of high explosives, compressed air,
+electric-power transmission, &amp;c., resulted in California (as
+elsewhere) in a notable revival of deep mining. This was
+especially the case on the &ldquo;Mother Lode,&rdquo; where highly promising
+results were obtained. Not only is vein-material formerly
+regarded as unremunerative now extracted at a profit, but in
+many instances increased gold-values have been encountered
+below zones of relative barrenness, and operators have been
+encouraged to make costly preparations for really deep mining&mdash;more
+than 3000 ft. below the surface. The gold product of
+California, therefore, may be fairly expected to maintain itself,
+and, indeed, to show an advance. Alaska appeared in the list
+of gold-producing countries in 1886, and gradually increased its
+annual output until 1897, when the country attracted much attention
+with a production valued at over £500,000; the opening up
+of new workings has increased this figure immensely, from about
+£1,400,000 in 1901 to £3,006,500 in 1905. The Alaska gold
+was derived almost wholly from the large low-grade quartz mines
+of Douglas Island prior to 1899, but in that year an important
+district was discovered at Cape Nome, on the north-western
+coast. The result of a few months&rsquo; working during that year
+was more than £500,000 of gold, and a very much larger annual
+output may reasonably be anticipated in the future; in 1905 it
+was about £900,000. The gold occurs in alluvial deposits
+designated as gulch-, bar-, beach-, tundra- and bench-placers.
+The tundra is a coastal plain, swampy and covered with undergrowth
+and underlaid by gravel. The most interesting and, thus
+far, the most productive are the beach deposits, similar to those
+on the coast of Northern California. These occur in a strip of
+comparatively fine gravel and sand, 150 yds. wide, extending
+along the shore. The gold is found in stratified layers, with
+&ldquo;ruby&rdquo; and black sand. The &ldquo;ruby&rdquo; sand consists chiefly of
+fine garnets and magnetites, with a few rose-quartz grains.
+Further exploration of the interior will probably result in the
+discovery of additional gold districts.</p>
+
+<p>Mexico, from a gold production of £200,000 in 1891, advanced
+to about £1,881,800 in 1900 and to about £3,221,000 in 1905. Of
+this increase, a considerable part was derived from gold-quartz
+mining, though much was also obtained as a by-product in the
+working of the ores of other metals. The product of Colombia,
+Venezuela, the Guianas, Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile,
+Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador amounted in 1900 to £2,481,000 and
+to £2,046,000 in 1905.</p>
+
+<p>In 1876 Australasia produced £7,364,000, of which Victoria
+contributed £3,084,000. The annual output of Victoria declined
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id="page195"></a>195</span>
+until the year 1892, when it began to increase rapidly, but not to
+its former level, the values for 1900 and 1905 being £3,142,000
+and £3,138,000. There has been an important increase in
+Queensland, which advanced from £1,696,000 in 1876 to
+£2,843,000 in 1900, and subsequently declined to £2,489,000
+in 1905. There has been no increase, and, indeed, no large
+fluctuation until quite recently in the output of New Zealand,
+which averaged £1,054,000 per
+annum from 1876 to 1898, but
+the production of the two years
+1900 and 1905 rose to £1,425,459
+and £2,070,407 respectively. By
+far the most important addition
+to the Australasian product has
+come from West Australia, which
+began its production in 1887&mdash;about
+the time of the inception
+of mining at Witwatersrand
+(&ldquo;the Rand&rdquo;) in South
+Africa&mdash;and by continuous increase,
+which assumed large
+proportions towards the close of
+the 19th century, was £6,426,000
+in 1899, £6,179,000 in 1900, and
+£8,212,000 in 1905. The total
+Australasian production in 1908
+was valued at £14,708,000.</p>
+
+<p>Undoubtedly the greatest of
+the gold discoveries made in the
+latter half of the 19th century
+was that of the Witwatersrand
+district in the Transvaal. By
+reason of its unusual geological
+character and great economic
+importance this district deserves
+a more extended description. The gold occurs in conglomerate
+beds, locally known as &ldquo;banket.&rdquo; There are several series of
+parallel beds, interstratified with quartzite and schist, the most
+important being the &ldquo;main reef&rdquo; series. The gold in this conglomerate
+reef is partly of detrital origin and partly of the genetic
+character of ordinary vein-gold. The formation is noted for its
+regularity as regards both the thickness and the gold-tenor of
+the ore-bearing reefs, in which respect it is unparalleled in the
+geology of the auriferous formations. The gold carries, on an
+average, £2 per ton, and is worked by ordinary methods of gold-mining,
+stamp-milling and cyaniding. In 1899, 5762 stamps
+were in operation, crushing 7,331,446 tons of ore, and yielding
+£15,134,000, equivalent to 25.5% of the world&rsquo;s production.
+Of this, 80% came from within 12 m. of Johannesburg. After
+September 1899 operations were suspended, almost entirely
+owing to the Boer War, but on the 2nd of May 1901 they were
+started again. In 1905 the yield was valued at £20,802,074,
+and in 1909 at £30,925,788. So certain is the ore-bearing
+formation that engineers in estimating its auriferous contents
+feel justified in assuming, as a factor in their calculations, a
+vertical extension limited only by the lowest depths at which
+mining is feasible. On such a basis they arrived at more than
+£600,000,000 as the available gold contained in the Witwatersrand
+conglomerates. This was a conservative estimate, and was
+made before the full extent of the reefs was known; in 1904
+Lionel Phillips stated that the main reef series had been
+proved for 61 m., and he estimated the gold remaining to be
+mined to be worth £2,500,000,000. Deposits similar to the
+Witwatersrand banket occur in Zululand, and also on the
+Gold Coast of Africa. In Rhodesia, the country lying north
+of the Transvaal, where gold occurs in well-defined quartz-veins,
+there is unquestionable evidence of extensive ancient
+workings. The economic importance of the region generally
+has been fully proved. Rhodesia produced £386,148 in 1900
+and £722,656 in 1901, in spite of the South African War; the
+product for 1905 was valued at £1,480,449, and for 1908 at
+£2,526,000.</p>
+
+<p>The gold production of Russia has been remarkably constant,
+averaging £4,899,262 per annum; the gold is derived chiefly
+from placer workings in Siberia.</p>
+
+<p>The gold production of China was estimated for 1899 at
+£1,328,238 and for 1900 at £860,000; it increased in 1901 to
+about £1,700,000, to fall to £340,000 in 1905; in 1906 and 1907
+it recovered to about £1,000,000.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt1"><span class="sc">Table II.</span>&mdash;<i>Gold Production of Certain Countries, 1881-1908</i> (<i>in oz.</i>).</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Australasia.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Africa.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Canada.</td> <td class="tccm allb">India.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Mexico.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Russia.</td> <td class="tccm allb">United<br />States.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Totals.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1881</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,475,161</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,483</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">41,545</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,181,853</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,678,612</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,976,980</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1882</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,438,067</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">45,289</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,154,613</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,572,187</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,825,794</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1883</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,333,849</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,150</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,229</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,132,219</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,451,250</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,614,588</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1884</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,352,761</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">57,227</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,055,642</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,489,950</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,902,889</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1885</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,309,804</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">53,987</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,941</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,225,738</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,538,325</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,002,584</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1886</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,257,670</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,061</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,702</td> <td class="tcr rb">922,226</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,693,125</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,044,363</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1887</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,290,202</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,754</td> <td class="tcr rb">59,884</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,403</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,861</td> <td class="tcr rb">971,656</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,596,375</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,061,490</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1888</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,344,002</td> <td class="tcr rb">240,266</td> <td class="tcr rb">53,150</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,034</td> <td class="tcr rb">47,117</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,030,151</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,604,841</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,175,623</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1889</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,540,607</td> <td class="tcr rb">366,023</td> <td class="tcr rb">62,658</td> <td class="tcr rb">78,649</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,862</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,154,076</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,587,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,611,245</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,453,172</td> <td class="tcr rb">497,817</td> <td class="tcr rb">55,625</td> <td class="tcr rb">107,273</td> <td class="tcr rb">37,104</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,134,590</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,588,880</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,726,966</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,518,690</td> <td class="tcr rb">729,268</td> <td class="tcr rb">45,022</td> <td class="tcr rb">131,776</td> <td class="tcr rb">48,375</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,168,764</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,604,840</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,287,591</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1892</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,638,238</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,210,869</td> <td class="tcr rb">43,905</td> <td class="tcr rb">164,141</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,625</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,199,809</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,597,098</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,102,172</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1893</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,711,892</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,478,477</td> <td class="tcr rb">44,853</td> <td class="tcr rb">207,152</td> <td class="tcr rb">63,144</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,345,224</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,739,323</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,772,585</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1894</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,020,180</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,024,164</td> <td class="tcr rb">50,411</td> <td class="tcr rb">210,412</td> <td class="tcr rb">217,688</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,167,455</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,910,813</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,813,848</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,170,505</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,277,640</td> <td class="tcr rb">92,440</td> <td class="tcr rb">257,830</td> <td class="tcr rb">290,250</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,397,767</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,254,760</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,814,505</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,185,872</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,280,892</td> <td class="tcr rb">136,274</td> <td class="tcr rb">323,501</td> <td class="tcr rb">314,437</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,041,794</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,568,132</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,950,861</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897 </td> <td class="tcc rb">2,547,704</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,832,776</td> <td class="tcr rb">294,582</td> <td class="tcr rb">350,585</td> <td class="tcr rb">362,812</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,124,511</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,774,935</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,420,068</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,137,644</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,876,216</td> <td class="tcr rb">669,445</td> <td class="tcr rb">376,431</td> <td class="tcr rb">411,187</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,231,791</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,118,398</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,877,806</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,837,181</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,532,488</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,031,563</td> <td class="tcr rb">418,869</td> <td class="tcr rb">411,187</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,072,333</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,437,210</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,837,775</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,555,506</td> <td class="tcr rb">419,503</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,348,720</td> <td class="tcr rb">456,444</td> <td class="tcr rb">435,375</td> <td class="tcr rb">974,537</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,829,897</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,315,135</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,719,080</td> <td class="tcr rb">439,704</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,167,216</td> <td class="tcr rb">454,527</td> <td class="tcr rb">497,527</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,105,412</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,805,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,698,089</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,946,374</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,887,773</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,003,355</td> <td class="tcr rb">463,824</td> <td class="tcr rb">491,156</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,090,053</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,870,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,313,660</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">4,315,538</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,289,409</td> <td class="tcr rb">911,118</td> <td class="tcr rb">552,873</td> <td class="tcr rb">516,524</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,191,582</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,560,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,852,620</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">4,245,744</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,156,084</td> <td class="tcr rb">793,350</td> <td class="tcr rb">556,097</td> <td class="tcr rb">609,781</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,199,857</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,892,480</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,790,351</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb">4,159,220</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,477,841</td> <td class="tcr rb">700,863</td> <td class="tcr rb">576,889</td> <td class="tcr rb">779,181</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,063,883</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,265,742</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,360,945</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1906</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,984,538</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,449,749</td> <td class="tcr rb">581,709</td> <td class="tcr rb">525,527</td> <td class="tcr rb">896,615</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,087,056</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,565,333</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,620,272</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1907</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,659,693</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,270,464</td> <td class="tcr rb">399,844</td> <td class="tcr rb">495,965</td> <td class="tcr rb">903,672</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,282,635</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,374,827</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,988,144</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1908</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3,557,705</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7,983,348</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">462,467</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">504,309</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,182,445</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,497,076</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4,659,360</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">21,529,300</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Alloys.</i>&mdash;Gold forms alloys with most metals, and of these many
+are of great importance in the arts. The alloy with mercury&mdash;gold
+amalgam&mdash;is so readily formed that mercury is one of the most
+powerful agents for extracting the precious metal. With 10% of
+gold present the amalgam is fluid, and with 12.5% pasty, while with
+13% it consists of yellowish-white crystals. Gold readily alloys with
+silver and copper to form substances in use from remote times for
+money, jewelry and plate. Other metals which find application in
+the metallurgy of gold by virtue of their property of extracting the
+gold as an alloy are lead, which combines very readily when molten,
+and which can afterwards be separated by cupellation, and copper,
+which is separated from the gold by solution in acids or by electrolysis;
+molten lead also extracts gold from the copper-gold alloys.
+The relative amount of gold in an alloy is expressed in two ways:
+(1) as &ldquo;fineness,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the amount of gold in 1000 parts of alloy;
+(2) as &ldquo;carats,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the amount of gold in 24 parts of alloy. Thus,
+pure gold is 1000 &ldquo;fine&rdquo; or 24 carat. In England the following
+standards are used for plate and jewelry: 375, 500, 625, 750 and
+916.6, corresponding to 9, 12, 15, 18 and 22 carats, the alloying
+metals being silver and copper in varying proportions. In France
+three alloys of the following standards are used for jewelry, 920,
+840 and 750. A greenish alloy used by goldsmiths contains 70% of
+silver and 30% of gold. &ldquo;Blue gold&rdquo; is stated to contain 75%
+of gold and 25% of iron. The Japanese use for ornament an alloy
+of gold and silver, the standard of which varies from 350 to 500,
+the colour of the precious metal being developed by &ldquo;pickling&rdquo; in
+a mixture of plum-juice, vinegar and copper sulphate. They may
+be said to possess a series of bronzes, in which gold and silver replace
+tin and zinc, all these alloys being characterized by patina having
+a wonderful range of tint. The common alloy, Shi-ya-ku-Do, contains
+70% of copper and 30% of gold; when exposed to air it
+becomes coated with a fine black patina, and is much used in Japan
+for sword ornaments. Gold wire may be drawn of any quality, but it
+is usual to add 5 to 9 dwts. of copper to the pound. The &ldquo;solders&rdquo;
+used for red gold contain 1 part of copper and 5 of gold; for light
+gold, 1 part of copper, 1 of silver and 4 of gold.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gold and Silver.</i>&mdash;Electrum is a natural alloy of gold and silver.
+Matthiessen observed that the density of alloys, the composition of
+which varies from AuAg<span class="su">6</span> to Au<span class="su">6</span>Ag, is greater than that calculated
+from the densities of the constituent metals. These alloys are
+harder, more fusible and more sonorous than pure gold. The alloys
+of the formulae AuAg, AuAg<span class="su">2</span>, AuAg<span class="su">4</span> and AuAg<span class="su">20</span> are perfectly
+homogeneous, and have been studied by Levol. Molten alloys containing
+more than 80% of silver deposit on cooling the alloy AuAg<span class="su">9</span>,
+little gold remaining in the mother liquor.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gold and Zinc.</i>&mdash;When present in small quantities zinc renders gold
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id="page196"></a>196</span>
+brittle, but it may be added to gold in larger quantities without
+destroying the ductility of the precious metal; Péligot proved that a
+triple alloy of gold, copper and zinc, which contains 5.8% of the last-named,
+is perfectly ductile. The alloy of 11 parts gold and 1 part of
+zinc is, however, stated to be brittle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gold and Tin.</i>&mdash;Alchorne showed that gold alloyed with <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">37</span>th part
+of tin is sufficiently ductile to be rolled and stamped into coin, provided
+the metal is not annealed at a high temperature. The alloys
+of tin and gold are hard and brittle, and the combination of the metals
+is attended with contraction; thus the alloy SnAu has a density
+14.243, instead of 14.828 indicated by calculation. Matthiessen and
+Bose obtained large crystals of the alloy Au<span class="su">2</span>Sn<span class="su">5</span>, having the colour
+of tin, which changed to a bronze tint by oxidation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gold and Iron.</i>&mdash;Hatchett found that the alloy of 11 parts gold
+and 1 part of iron is easily rolled without annealing. In these proportions
+the density of the alloy is less than the mean of its constituent
+metals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gold and Palladium.</i>&mdash;These metals are stated to alloy in all proportions.
+According to Chenevix, the alloy composed of equal parts
+of the two metals is grey, is less ductile than its constituent metals
+and has the specific gravity 11.08. The alloy of 4 parts of gold and 1
+part of palladium is white, hard and ductile. Graham showed that a
+wire of palladium alloyed with from 24 to 25 parts of gold does not
+exhibit the remarkable retraction which, in pure palladium, attends
+its loss of occluded hydrogen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gold and Platinum.</i>&mdash;Clarke states that the alloy of equal parts
+of the two metals is ductile, and has almost the colour of gold.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gold and Rhodium.</i>&mdash;Gold alloyed with ¼th or <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span>th of rhodium is,
+according to Wollaston, very ductile, infusible and of the colour of gold.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gold and Iridium.</i>&mdash;Small quantities of iridium do not destroy the
+ductility of gold, but this is probably because the metal is only disseminated
+through the mass, and not alloyed, as it falls to the bottom
+of the crucible in which the gold is fused.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gold and Nickel.</i>&mdash;Eleven parts of gold and 1 of nickel yield an
+alloy resembling brass.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gold and Cobalt.</i>&mdash;Eleven parts of gold and 1 of cobalt form a
+brittle alloy of a dull yellow colour.</p>
+
+<p><i>Compounds.</i>&mdash;Aurous oxide, Au<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained by cautiously
+adding potash to a solution of aurous bromide, or by boiling
+mixed solutions of auric chloride and mercurous nitrate. It forms
+a dark-violet precipitate which dries to a greyish-violet powder.
+When freshly prepared it dissolves in cold water to form an indigo-coloured
+solution with a brownish fluorescence of colloidal aurous
+oxide; it is insoluble in hot water. This oxide is slightly basic.
+Auric oxide, Au<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, is a brown powder, decomposed into its elements
+when heated to about 250° or on exposure to light. When a concentrated
+solution of auric chloride is treated with caustic potash,
+a brown precipitate of auric hydrate, Au(OH)<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained, which,
+on heating, loses water to form auryl hydrate, AuO(OH), and
+auric oxide, Au<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>. It functions chiefly as an acidic oxide, being
+less basic than aluminium oxide, and forming no stable oxy-salts.
+It dissolves in alkalis to form well-defined crystalline salts; potassium
+aurate, KAuO<span class="su">2</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O, is very soluble in water, and is used in electro-gilding.
+With concentrated ammonia auric oxide forms a black,
+highly explosive compound of the composition AuN<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">3</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O,
+named &ldquo;fulminating gold&rdquo;; this substance is generally considered
+to be Au(NH<span class="su">2</span>)NH·3H<span class="su">2</span>O, but it may be an ammine of the formula
+[Au(NH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>(OH)<span class="su">2</span>]OH. Other oxides, <i>e.g.</i> Au<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, have been described.</p>
+
+<p>Aurous chloride, AuCl, is obtained as a lemon-yellow, amorphous
+powder, insoluble in water, by heating auric chloride to 185°. It
+begins to decompose into gold and chlorine at 185°, the decomposition
+being complete at 230°; water decomposes it into gold and auric
+chloride. Auric chloride, or gold trichloride, AuCl<span class="su">3</span>, is a dark ruby-red
+or reddish-brown, crystalline, deliquescent powder obtained by
+dissolving the metal in aqua regia. It is also obtained by carefully
+evaporating a solution of the metal in chlorine water. The gold
+chloride of commerce, which is used in photography, is really a
+hydrochloride, chlorauric or aurichloric acid, HAuCl<span class="su">4</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O, and
+is obtained in long yellow needles by crystallizing the acid solution.
+Corresponding to this acid, a series of salts, named chloraurates or
+aurichlorides, are known. The potassium salt is obtained by crystallizing
+equivalent quantities of potassium and auric chlorides.
+Light-yellow monoclinic needles of 2KAuCl<span class="su">4</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O are deposited from
+warm, strongly acid solutions, and transparent rhombic tables of
+KAuCl<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O from neutral solutions. By crystallizing an aqueous
+solution, red crystals of AuCl<span class="su">3</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O are obtained. Auric chloride
+combines with the hydrochlorides of many organic bases&mdash;amines,
+alkaloids, &amp;c.&mdash;to form characteristic compounds. Gold dichloride,
+probably Au<span class="su">2</span>Cl<span class="su">4</span>, = Au·AuCl<span class="su">4</span>, aurous chloraurate, is said to be
+obtained as a dark-red mass by heating finely divided gold to 140°-170°
+in chlorine. Water decomposes it into gold and auric chloride.
+The bromides and iodides resemble the chlorides. Aurous bromide,
+AuBr, is a yellowish-green powder obtained by heating the tribromide
+to 140°; auric bromide, AuBr<span class="su">3</span>, forms reddish-black or
+scarlet-red leafy crystals, which dissolve in water to form a reddish-brown
+solution, and combines with bromides to form bromaurates corresponding
+to the chloraurates. Aurous iodide, AuI, is a light-yellow,
+sparingly soluble powder obtained, together with free iodine, by
+adding potassium iodide to auric chloride; auric iodide, AuI<span class="su">3</span>,
+is formed as a dark-green powder at the same time, but it readily
+decomposes to aurous iodide and iodine. Aurous iodide is also
+obtained as a green solid by acting upon gold with iodine. The
+iodaurates correspond to the chlor- and bromaurates; the potassium
+salt, KAuI<span class="su">4</span>, forms highly lustrous, intensely black, four-sided prisms.</p>
+
+<p>Aurous cyanide, AuCN, forms yellow, microscopic, hexagonal
+tables, insoluble in water, and is obtained by the addition of hydrochloric
+acid to a solution of potassium aurocyanide, KAu(CN)<span class="su">2</span>.
+This salt is prepared by precipitating a solution of gold in <i>aqua regia</i>
+by ammonia, and then introducing the well-washed precipitate into
+a boiling solution of potassium cyanide. The solution is filtered
+and allowed to cool, when colourless rhombic pyramids of the
+aurocyanide separate. It is also obtained in the action of potassium
+cyanide on gold in the presence of air, a reaction utilized in the
+MacArthur-Forrest process of gold extraction (see below). Auric
+cyanide, Au(CN)<span class="su">3</span>, is not certainly known; its double salts, however,
+have been frequently described. Potassium auricyanide,
+2KAu(CN)<span class="su">4</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained as large, colourless, efflorescent
+tablets by crystallizing concentrated solutions of auric chloride
+and potassium cyanide. The acid, auricyanic acid, 2HAu(CN)<span class="su">4</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O,
+is obtained by treating the silver salt (obtained by precipitating
+the potassium salt with silver nitrate) with hydrochloric acid; it
+forms tabular crystals, readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether.</p>
+
+<p>Gold forms three sulphides corresponding to the oxides; they
+readily decompose on heating. Aurous sulphide, Au<span class="su">2</span>S, is a brownish-black
+powder formed by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a
+solution of potassium aurocyanide and then acidifying. Sodium
+aurosulphide, NaAuS·4H<span class="su">2</span>O, is prepared by fusing gold with sodium
+sulphide and sulphur, the melt being extracted with water, filtered
+in an atmosphere of nitrogen, and evaporated in a vacuum over
+sulphuric acid. It forms colourless, monoclinic prisms, which turn
+brown on exposure to air. This method of bringing gold into
+solution is mentioned by Stahl in his <i>Observationes Chymico-Physico-Medicae</i>;
+he there remarks that Moses probably destroyed
+the golden calf by burning it with sulphur and alkali (Ex. xxxii. 20).
+Auric sulphide, Au<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span>, is an amorphous powder formed when lithium
+aurichloride is treated with dry sulphuretted hydrogen at -10°.
+It is very unstable, decomposing into gold and sulphur at 200°.</p>
+
+<p>Oxy-salts of gold are almost unknown, but the sulphite and thiosulphate
+form double salts. Thus by adding acid sodium sulphite
+to, or by passing sulphur dioxide at 50° into, a solution of sodium
+aurate, the salt, 3Na<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">3</span>·Au<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">3</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O is obtained, which, when
+precipitated from its aqueous solution by alcohol, forms a purple
+powder, appearing yellow or green by reflected light. Sodium
+aurothiosulphate, 3Na<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·Au<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O, forms colourless needles;
+it is obtained in the direct action of sodium thiosulphate on gold in the
+presence of an oxidizing agent, or by the addition of a dilute solution
+of auric chloride to a sodium thiosulphate solution.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>Mining and Metallurgy.</i></p>
+
+<p>The various deposits of gold may be divided into two classes&mdash;&ldquo;veins&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;placers.&rdquo; The vein mining of gold does not
+greatly differ from that of similar deposits of metals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mineral
+Deposits</a></span>). In the placer or alluvial deposits, the precious metal
+is found usually in a water-worn condition imbedded in earthy
+matter, and the method of working all such deposits is based on
+the disintegration of the earthy matter by the action of a stream
+of water, which washes away the lighter portions and leaves the
+denser gold. In alluvial deposits the richest ground is usually
+found in contact with the &ldquo;bed rock&rdquo;; and, when the overlying
+cover of gravel is very thick, or, as sometimes happens, when the
+older gravel is covered with a flow of basalt, regular mining by
+shafts and levels, as in what are known as tunnel-claims, may be
+required to reach the auriferous ground.</p>
+
+<p>The extraction of gold may be effected by several methods;
+we may distinguish the following leading types:</p>
+
+<p>1. By simple washing, <i>i.e.</i> dressing auriferous sands, gravels, &amp;c.;</p>
+
+<p>2. By amalgamation, <i>i.e.</i> forming a gold amalgam, afterwards
+removing the mercury by distillation;</p>
+
+<p>3. By chlorination, <i>i.e.</i> forming the soluble gold chloride and
+then precipitating the metal;</p>
+
+<p>4. By the cyanide process, <i>i.e.</i> dissolving the gold in potassium
+cyanide solution, and then precipitating the metal;</p>
+
+<p>5. Electrolytically, generally applied to the solutions obtained
+in processes (3) and (4).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. <i>Extraction of Gold by Washing.</i>&mdash;In the early days of gold-washing
+in California and Australia, when rich alluvial deposits
+were common at the surface, the most simple appliances sufficed.
+The most characteristic is the &ldquo;pan,&rdquo; a circular dish of sheet-iron
+or &ldquo;tin,&rdquo; with sloping sides about 13 or 14 in. in diameter.
+The pan, about two-thirds filled with the &ldquo;pay dirt&rdquo; to be washed,
+is held in the stream or in a hole filled with water. The larger
+stones having been removed by hand, gyratory motion is given
+to the pan by a combination of shaking and twisting movements
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page197" id="page197"></a>197</span>
+so as to keep its contents suspended in the stream of water, which
+carries away the bulk of the lighter material, leaving the heavy
+minerals, together with any gold which may have been present. The
+washing is repeated until enough of the enriched sand is collected,
+when the gold is finally recovered by careful washing or &ldquo;panning
+out&rdquo; in a smaller pan. In Mexico and South America, instead of the
+pan, a wooden dish or trough, known as &ldquo;batea,&rdquo; is used.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;cradle&rdquo; is a simple appliance for treating somewhat larger
+quantities, and consists essentially of a box, mounted on rockers,
+and provided with a perforated bottom of sheet iron in which the
+&ldquo;pay dirt&rdquo; is placed. Water is poured on the dirt, and the rocking
+motion imparted to the cradle causes the finer particles to pass through
+the perforated bottom on to a canvas screen, and thence to the base
+of the cradle, where the auriferous particles accumulate on transverse
+bars of wood, called &ldquo;riffles.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;tom&rdquo; is a sort of cradle with an extended sluice placed on
+an incline of about 1 in 12. The upper end contains a perforated
+riddle plate which is placed directly over the riffle box, and under
+certain circumstances mercury may be placed behind the riffles.
+Copper plates amalgamated with mercury are also used when the
+gold is very fine, and in some instances amalgamated silver coins have
+been used for the same purpose. Sometimes the stuff is disintegrated
+with water in a &ldquo;puddling machine,&rdquo; which was used, especially in
+Australia, when the earthy matters are tenacious and water scarce.
+The machine frequently resembles a brickmaker&rsquo;s wash-mill, and is
+worked by horse or steam power.</p>
+
+<p>In workings on a larger scale, where the supply of water is abundant,
+as in California, sluices were generally employed. They are shallow
+troughs about 12 ft. long, about 16 to 20 in. wide and 1 ft. in depth.
+The troughs taper slightly so that they can be joined in series, the
+total length often reaching several hundred feet. The incline of the
+sluice varies with the conformation of the ground and the tenacity of
+the stuff to be washed, from 1 in 16 to 1 in 8. A rectangular trough
+of boards, whose dimensions depend chiefly on the size of the planks
+available, is set up on the higher part of the ground at one side of the
+claim to be worked, upon trestles or piers of rough stone-work, at such
+an inclination that the stream may carry off all but the largest stones,
+which are kept back by a grating of boards about 2 in. apart. The
+gravel is dug by hand and thrown in at the upper end, the stones
+kept back being removed at intervals by two men with four-pronged
+steel forks. The floor of the sluice is laid with riffles made of strips
+of wood 2 in. square laid parallel to the direction of the current, and
+at other points with boards having transverse notches filled with
+mercury. These were known originally as Hungarian riffles.</p>
+
+<p>In larger plant the upper ends of the sluices are often cut in rock
+or lined with stone blocks, the grating stopping the larger stones
+being known as a &ldquo;grizzly.&rdquo; In order to save very fine and especially
+rusty particles of gold, so-called &ldquo;under-current sluices&rdquo; are used;
+these are shallow wooden tanks, 50 sq. yds. and upwards in area,
+which are placed somewhat below the main sluice, and communicate
+with it above and below, the entry being protected by a grating so
+that only the finer material is admitted. These are paved with stone
+blocks or lined with mercury riffles, so that from the greatly reduced
+velocity of flow, due to the sudden increase of surface, the finer
+particles of gold may collect. In order to save finely divided gold,
+amalgamated copper plates are sometimes placed in a nearly level
+position, at a considerable distance from the head of the sluice, the
+gold which is retained in it being removed from time to time. Sluices
+are often made double, and they are usually cleaned up&mdash;that is,
+the deposit rich in gold is removed from them&mdash;once a week.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;pan&rdquo; is now only used by prospectors, while the &ldquo;cradle&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;tom&rdquo; are practically confined to the Chinese; the sluice is
+considered to be the best contrivance for washing gold gravels.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Amalgamation Process.</i>&mdash;This method is employed to
+extract gold from both alluvial and reef deposits: in the first
+case it is combined with &ldquo;hydraulic mining,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> disintegrating
+auriferous gravels by powerful jets of water, and the sluice
+system described above; in the second case the vein stuff is
+prepared by crushing and the amalgamation is carried out in
+mills.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Hydraulic mining has for the most part been confined to the country
+of its invention, California, and the western territories of America,
+where the conditions favourable for its use are more fully developed
+than elsewhere&mdash;notably the presence of thick banks of gravel that
+cannot be utilized by other methods, and abundance of water, even
+though considerable work may be required at times to make it available.
+The general conditions to be observed in such workings
+may be briefly stated as follows: (1) The whole of the auriferous
+gravel, down to the &ldquo;bed rock,&rdquo; must be removed,&mdash;that is, no
+selection of rich or poor parts is possible; (2) this must be accomplished
+by the aid of water alone, or at times by water supplemented
+by blasting; (3) the conglomerate must be mechanically disintegrated
+without interrupting the whole system; (4) the gold must be saved
+without interrupting the continuous flow of water; and (5) arrangements
+must be made for disposing of the vast masses of impoverished
+gravel.</p>
+
+<p>The water is brought from a ditch on the high ground, and through
+a line of pipes to the distributing box, whence the branch pipes
+supplying the jets diverge. The stream issues through a nozzle,
+termed a &ldquo;monitor&rdquo; or &ldquo;giant,&rdquo; which is fitted with a ball and
+socket joint, so that the direction of the jet may be varied through
+considerable angles by simply moving a handle. The material of
+the bank being loosened by blasting and the cutting action of the
+water, crumbles into holes, and the superincumbent mass, often
+with large trees and stones, falls into the lower ground. The
+stream, laden with stones and gravel, passes into the sluices, where
+the gold is recovered in the manner already described. Under the
+most advantageous conditions the loss of gold may be estimated at
+15 or 20%, the amount recovered representing a value of about
+two shillings per ton of gravel treated. The loss of mercury is
+about the same, from 5 to 6 cwt. being in constant use per mile of
+sluice.</p>
+
+<p>In working auriferous river-beds, dredges have been used with
+considerable success in certain parts of New Zealand and on the
+Pacific slope in America. The dredges used in California are almost
+exclusively of the endless-chain bucket or steam-shovel pattern.
+Some dredges have a capacity under favourable conditions of over
+2000 cub. yds. of gravel daily. The gravel is excavated as in the
+ordinary form of endless-chain bucket dredge and dumped on to the
+deck of the dredge. It then passes through screens and grizzlies
+to retain the coarse gravel, the finer material passing on to sluice
+boxes provided with riffles, supplied with mercury. There are
+belt conveyers for discharging the gravel and tailings at the end of the
+vessel remote from the buckets. The water necessary to the process
+is pumped from the river; as much as 2000 gallons per minute is
+used on the larger dredges.</p>
+
+<p>The dressing or mechanical preparation of vein stuff containing gold
+is generally similar to that of other ores (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ore-dressing</a></span>), except
+that the precious metal should be removed from the waste substances
+as quickly as possible, even although other minerals of value that are
+subsequently recovered may be present. In all cases the quartz
+or other vein stuff must be reduced to a very fine powder as a preliminary
+to further operations. This may be done in several ways,
+<i>e.g.</i> either (1) by the Mexican crusher or <i>arrastra</i>, in which the grinding
+is effected upon a bed of stone, over which heavy blocks of stone
+attached to cross arms are dragged by the rotation of the arms about
+a central spindle, or (2) by the Chilean mill or <i>trapiche</i>, also known
+as the edge-runner, where the grinding stones roll upon the floor,
+at the same time turning about a central upright&mdash;contrivances
+which are mainly used for the preparation of silver ores; but
+by far the largest proportion of the gold quartz of California,
+Australia and Africa is reduced by (3) the stamp mill, which is similar
+in principle to that used in Europe for the preparation of tin and other
+ores.</p>
+
+<p>The stamp mill was first used in California, and its use has since
+spread over the whole world. In the mills of the Californian type the
+stamp is a cylindrical iron pestle faced with a chilled cast iron shoe,
+removable so that it can be renewed when necessary, attached to
+a round iron rod or lifter, the whole weighing from 600 to 900 &#8468;;
+stamps weighing 1320 &#8468; are in use in the Transvaal. The lift is
+effected by cams acting on the under surface of tappets, and formed
+by cylindrical boxes keyed on to the stems of the lifter about one-fourth
+of their length from the top. As, however, the cams, unlike
+those of European stamp mills, are placed to one side of the stamp, the
+latter is not only lifted but turned partly round on its own axis, whereby
+the shoes are worn down uniformly. The height of lift may be
+between 4 and 18 in., and the number of blows from 30 to over 100
+per minute. The stamps are usually arranged in batteries of five;
+the order of working is usually 1, 4, 2, 5, 3, but other arrangements,
+<i>e.g.</i> 1, 3, 5, 2, 4, and 1, 5, 2, 4, 3, are common. The stuff, previously
+broken to about 2-in. lumps in a rock-breaker, is fed in through an
+aperture at the back of the &ldquo;battery box,&rdquo; a constant supply of
+water is admitted from above, and mercury in a finely divided state
+is added at frequent intervals. The discharge of the comminuted
+material takes place through an aperture, which is covered by a
+thin steel plate perforated with numerous slits about <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">50</span>th in. broad
+and ½ in. long, a certain volume being discharged at every blow
+and carried forward by the flushing water over an apron or table
+in front, covered by copper plates filled with mercury. Similar
+plates are often used to catch any particles of gold that may be thrown
+back, while the main operation is so conducted that the bulk of the
+gold may be reduced to the state of amalgam by bringing the two
+metals into intimate contact under the stamp head, and remain in the
+battery. The tables in front are laid at an incline of about 8° and are
+about 13 ft. long; they collect from 10 to 15% of the whole gold;
+a further quantity is recovered by leading the sands through a gutter
+about 16 in. broad and 120 ft. long, also lined with amalgamated
+copper plates, after the pyritic and other heavy minerals have been
+separated by depositing in catch pits and other similar contrivances.</p>
+
+<p>When the ore does not contain any considerable amount of free gold
+mercury is not, as a rule, used during the crushing, but the amalgamation
+is carried out in a separate plant. Contrivances of the most
+diverse constructions have been employed. The most primitive is
+the rubbing together of the concentrated crushings with mercury in
+iron mortars. Barrel amalgamation, <i>i.e.</i> mixing the crushings
+with mercury in rotating barrels, is rarely used, the process being
+wasteful, since the mercury is specially apt to be &ldquo;floured&rdquo; (see
+below).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id="page198"></a>198</span></p>
+
+<p>At Schemnitz, Kerpenyes, Kreuzberg and other localities in
+Hungary, quartz vein stuff containing a little gold, partly free and
+partly associated with pyrites and galena, is, after stamping in mills,
+similar to those described above, but without rotating stamps,
+passed through the so-called &ldquo;Hungarian gold mill&rdquo; or &ldquo;quick-mill.&rdquo;
+This consists of a cast-iron pan having a shallow cylindrical bottom
+holding mercury, in which a wooden muller, nearly of the same
+shape as the inside of the pan, and armed below with several projecting
+blades, is made to revolve by gearing wheels. The stuff
+from the stamps is conveyed to the middle of the muller, and is
+distributed over the mercury, when the gold subsides, while the
+quartz and lighter materials are guided by the blades to the circumference
+and are discharged, usually into a second similar mill,
+and subsequently pass over blanket tables, <i>i.e.</i> boards covered
+with canvas or sacking, the gold and heavier particles becoming entangled
+in the fibres. The action of this mill is really more nearly
+analogous to that of a centrifugal pump, as no grinding action takes
+place in it. The amalgam is cleaned out periodically&mdash;fortnightly or
+monthly&mdash;and after filtering through linen bags to remove the excess
+of mercury, it is transferred to retorts for distillation (see below).</p>
+
+<p>Many other forms of pan-amalgamators have been devised. The
+Laszlo is an improved Hungarian mill, while the Piccard is of the
+same type. In the Knox and Boss mills, which are also employed
+for the amalgamation of silver ores, the grinding is effected between
+flat horizontal surfaces instead of conical or curved surfaces as in the
+previously described forms.</p>
+
+<p>One of the greatest difficulties in the treatment of gold by amalgamation,
+and more particularly in the treatment of pyrites, arises from
+the so-called &ldquo;sickening&rdquo; or &ldquo;flouring&rdquo; of the mercury; that is, the
+particles, losing their bright metallic surfaces, are no longer capable
+of coalescing with or taking up other metals. Of the numerous
+remedies proposed the most efficacious is perhaps sodium amalgam.
+It appears that amalgamation is often impeded by the tarnish
+found on the surface of the gold when it is associated with sulphur,
+arsenic, bismuth, antimony or tellurium. Henry Wurtz in America
+(1864) and Sir William Crookes in England (1865) made independently
+the discovery that, by the addition of a small quantity of sodium to
+the mercury, the operation is much facilitated. It is also stated that
+sodium prevents both the &ldquo;sickening&rdquo; and the &ldquo;flouring&rdquo; of the
+mercury which is produced by certain associated minerals. The
+addition of potassium cyanide has been suggested to assist the
+amalgamation and to prevent &ldquo;flouring,&rdquo; but Skey has shown that
+its use is attended with loss of gold.</p>
+
+<p><i>Separation of Gold from the Amalgam.</i>&mdash;The amalgam is first
+pressed in wetted canvas or buckskin in order to remove excess of
+mercury. Lumps of the solid amalgam, about 2 in. in diameter,
+are introduced into an iron vessel provided with an iron tube that
+leads into a condenser containing water. The distillation is then
+effected by heating to dull redness. The amalgam yields about
+30 to 40% of gold. Horizontal cylindrical retorts, holding from
+200 to 1200 &#8468; of amalgam, are used in the larger Californian mills,
+pot retorts being used in the smaller mills. The bullion left in the
+retorts is then melted in black-lead crucibles, with the addition of
+small quantities of suitable fluxes, <i>e.g.</i> nitre, sodium carbonate, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The extraction of gold from auriferous minerals by fusion, except as
+an incident in their treatment for other metals, is very rarely practised.
+It was at one time proposed to treat the concentrated black iron
+obtained in the Ural gold washings, which consists chiefly of magnetite,
+as an iron ore, by smelting it with charcoal for auriferous pig-iron,
+the latter metal possessing the property of dissolving gold in
+considerable quantity. By subsequent treatment with sulphuric acid
+the gold could be recovered. Experiments on this point were made
+by Anossow in 1835, but they have never been followed in practice.</p>
+
+<p>Gold in galena or other lead ores is invariably recovered in the
+refining or treatment of the lead and silver obtained. Pyritic ores
+containing copper are treated by methods analogous to those of
+the copper smelter. In Colorado the pyritic ores containing gold
+and silver in association with copper are smelted in reverberatory
+furnaces for regulus, which, when desilverized by Ziervogel&rsquo;s method,
+leaves a residue containing 20 or 30 oz. of gold per ton. This is
+smelted with rich gold ores, notably those containing tellurium, for
+white metal or regulus; and by a following process of partial reduction
+analogous to that of selecting in copper smelting, &ldquo;bottoms&rdquo;
+of impure copper are obtained in which practically all the gold is
+concentrated. By continuing the treatment of these in the ordinary
+way of refining, poling and granulating, all the foreign matters
+other than gold, copper and silver are removed, and, by exposing the
+granulated metal to a high oxidizing heat for a considerable time the
+copper may be completely oxidized while the precious metals are
+unaltered. Subsequent treatment with sulphuric acid renders the
+copper soluble in water as sulphate, and the final residue contains
+only gold and silver, which is parted or refined in the ordinary way.
+This method of separating gold from copper, by converting the latter
+into oxide and sulphate, is also used at Oker in the Harz.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Extraction by Means of Aqueous Solutions.</i>&mdash;Many processes
+have been suggested in which the gold of auriferous deposits is
+converted into products soluble in water, from which solutions
+the gold may be precipitated. Of these processes, two only are
+of special importance, viz. the chlorination or Plattner process, in
+which the metal is converted into the chloride, and the cyanide or
+MacArthur-Forrest process, in which it is converted into potassium
+aurocyanide.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>(3) <i>Chlorination or Plattner Process.</i>&mdash;In this process moistened gold
+ores are treated with chlorine gas, the resulting gold chloride dissolved
+out with water, and the gold precipitated with ferrous sulphate,
+charcoal, sulphuretted hydrogen or otherwise. The process originated
+in 1848 with C. F. Plattner, who suggested that the residues from
+certain mines at Reichenstein, in Silesia, should be treated with
+chlorine after the arsenical products had been extracted by roasting.
+It must be noticed, however, that Percy independently made the
+same discovery, and stated his results at the meeting of the British
+Association (at Swansea) in 1849, but the Report was not published
+until 1852. The process was introduced in 1858 by Deetken at Grass
+Valley, California, where the waste minerals, principally pyrites from
+tailings, had been worked for a considerable time by amalgamation.
+The process is rarely applied to ores direct; free-milling ores are
+generally amalgamated, and the tailings and slimes, after concentration,
+operated upon. Three stages in the process are to be distinguished:
+(i) calcination, to convert all the metals, except gold
+and silver, into oxides, which are unacted upon by chlorine; (ii.)
+chlorinating the gold and lixiviating the product; (iii.) precipitating
+the gold.</p>
+
+<p>The calcination, or roasting, is conducted at a low temperature in
+some form of reverberatory furnace. Salt is added in the roasting
+to convert any lime, magnesia or lead which may be present, into
+the corresponding chlorides. The auric chloride is, however, decomposed
+at the elevated temperature into finely divided metallic
+gold, which is then readily attacked by the chlorine gas. The high
+volatility of gold in the presence of certain metals must also be
+considered. According to Egleston the loss may be from 40 to 90%
+of the total gold present in cupriferous ores according to the temperature
+and duration of calcination. The roasted mineral, slightly
+moistened, is introduced into a vat made of stoneware or pitched
+planks, and furnished with a double bottom. Chlorine, generally
+prepared by the interaction of pyrolusite, salt and sulphuric acid,
+is led from a suitable generator beneath the false bottom, and rises
+through the moistened ore, which rests on a bed of broken quartz;
+the gold is thus converted into a soluble chloride, which is afterwards
+removed by washing with water. Both fixed and rotating vats are
+employed, the chlorination proceeding more rapidly in the latter
+case; rotating barrels are sometimes used. There have also been
+introduced processes in which the chlorine is generated in the
+chloridizing vat, the reagents used being dilute solutions of bleaching
+powder and an acid. Munktell&rsquo;s process is of this type. In the
+Thies process, used in many districts in the United States, the vats
+are rotating barrels made, in the later forms, of iron lined with lead,
+and provided with a filter formed of a finely perforated leaden
+grating running from one end of the barrel to the other, and rigidly
+held in place by wooden frames. Chlorine is generated within the
+barrel from sulphuric acid and chloride of lime. After charging,
+the barrel is rotated, and when the chlorination is complete the
+contents are emptied on a filter of quartz or some similar material,
+and the filtrate led to settling tanks.</p>
+
+<p>After settling the solution is run into the precipitating tanks. The
+precipitants in use are: ferrous sulphate, charcoal and sulphuretted
+hydrogen, either alone or mixed with sulphur dioxide; the use of
+copper and iron sulphides has been suggested, but apparently these
+substances have achieved no success.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of ferrous sulphate, prepared by dissolving iron in
+dilute sulphuric acid, the reaction follows the equation AuCl<span class="su">3</span> + 3FeSO<span class="su">4</span>
+= FeCl<span class="su">3</span> + Fe<span class="su">2</span>(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span> + Au. At the same time any lead, calcium,
+barium and strontium present are precipitated as sulphates; it is
+therefore advantageous to remove these metals by the preliminary
+addition of sulphuric acid, which also serves to keep any basic iron
+salts in solution. The precipitation is carried out in tanks or vats
+made with wooden sides and a cement bottom. The solutions are
+well mixed by stirring with wooden poles, and the gold allowed to
+settle, the time allowed varying from 12 to 72 hours. The supernatant
+liquid is led into settling tanks, where a further amount
+of gold is deposited, and is then filtered through sawdust or
+sand, the sawdust being afterwards burnt and the gold separated
+from the ashes and the sand treated in the chloridizing vat. The
+precipitated gold is washed, treated with salt and sulphuric acid
+to remove iron salts, roughly dried by pressing in cloths or on filter
+paper, and then melted with salt, borax and nitre in graphite
+crucibles. Thus prepared it has a fineness of 800-960, the chief
+impurities usually being iron and lead.</p>
+
+<p>Charcoal is used as the precipitant at Mount Morgan, Australia.
+Its use was proposed as early as 1818 and 1819 by Hare and Henry;
+Percy advocated it in 1869, and Davis adopted it on the large scale
+at a works in Carolina in 1880. The action is not properly understood;
+it may be due to the reducing gases (hydrogen, hydrocarbons,
+&amp;c.) which are invariably present in wood charcoal. The process
+consists essentially in running the solution over layers of charcoal,
+the charcoal being afterwards burned. It has been found that the
+reaction proceeds faster when the solution is heated.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>199</span></p>
+
+<p>Precipitation with sulphur dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen
+proceeds much more rapidly, and has been adopted at many works.
+Sulphur dioxide, generated by burning sulphur, is forced into the
+solution under pressure, where it interacts with any free chlorine
+present to form hydrochloric and sulphuric acids. Sulphuretted
+hydrogen, obtained by treating iron sulphide or a coarse matte
+with dilute sulphuric acid, is forced in similarly. The gold is
+precipitated as the sulphide, together with any arsenic, antimony,
+copper, silver and lead which may be present. The precipitate
+is collected in a filter-press, and then roasted in muffle furnaces
+with nitre, borax and sodium carbonate. The fineness of the gold so
+obtained is 900 to 950.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Cyanide Process.</i>&mdash;This process depends upon the solubility
+of gold in a dilute solution of potassium cyanide in the presence
+of air (or some other oxidizing agent), and the subsequent precipitation
+of the gold by metallic zinc or by electrolysis. The solubility
+of gold in cyanide solutions was known to K. W. Scheele in 1782;
+and M. Faraday applied it to the preparation of extremely thin
+films of the metal. L. Eisner recognized, in 1846, the part played
+by the atmosphere, and in 1879 Dixon showed that bleaching powder,
+manganese dioxide, and other oxidizing agents, facilitated the solution.
+S. B. Christy (<i>Trans. A.I.M.E.</i>, 1896, vol. 26) has shown that the
+solution is hastened by many oxidizing agents, especially sodium and
+manganese dioxides and potassium ferricyanide. According to
+G. Bodländer (<i>Zeit. f. angew. Chem.</i>, 1896, vol. 19) the rate of solution
+in potassium cyanide depends upon the subdivision of the gold&mdash;the
+finer the subdivision the quicker the solution,&mdash;and on the
+concentration of the solution&mdash;the rate increasing until the solution
+contains 0.25% of cyanide, and remaining fairly stationary with
+increasing concentration. The action proceeds in two stages; in
+the first hydrogen peroxide and potassium aurocyanide are formed,
+and in the second the hydrogen peroxide oxidizes a further quantity
+of gold and potassium cyanide to aurocyanide, thus (1)
+2Au + 4KCN + O<span class="su">2</span> + 2H<span class="su">2</span>O = 2KAu(CN)<span class="su">2</span> + 4KOH + H<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">2</span>; (2) 2Au + 4KCN + 2H<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">2</span> = 2KAu(CN)<span class="su">2</span> + 4KOH.
+The end reaction may be written
+4Au + 8KCN + 2H<span class="su">2</span>O + O<span class="su">2</span> = 4KAu(CN)<span class="su">2</span> + 4KOH.</p>
+
+<p>The commercial process was patented in 1890 by MacArthur and
+Forrest, and is now in use all over the world. It is best adapted for
+free-milling ores, especially after the bulk of the gold has been removed
+by amalgamation. It has been especially successful in the
+Transvaal. In the Witwatersrand the ore, which contains about
+9 dwts. of gold to the metric ton (2000 &#8468;), is stamped and amalgamated,
+and the slimes and tailings, containing about 3½ dwts. per ton,
+are cyanided, about 2 dwts. more being thus extracted. The total
+cost per ton of ore treated is about 6s., of which the cyaniding costs
+from 2s. to 4s.</p>
+
+<p>The process embraces three operations: (1) Solution of the gold;
+(2) precipitation of the gold; (3) treatment of the precipitate.</p>
+
+<p>The ores, having been broken and ground, generally in tube mills,
+until they pass a 150 to 200-mesh sieve, are transferred to the leaching
+vats, which are constructed of wood, iron or masonry; steel vats,
+coated inside and out with pitch, of circular section and holding up to
+1000 tons, have come into use. The diameter is generally 26 ft., but
+may be greater; the best depth is considered to be a quarter of the
+diameter. The vats are fitted with filters made of coco-nut matting
+and jute cloth supported on wooden frames. The leaching is generally
+carried out with a strong, medium, and with a weak liquor, in the
+order given; sometimes there is a preliminary leaching with a weak
+liquor. The strengths employed depend also upon the mode of
+precipitation adopted, stronger solutions (up to 0.25% KCN) being
+used when zinc is the precipitant. For electrolytic precipitation the
+solution may contain up to 0.1% KCN. The liquors are run off
+from the vats to the electrolysing baths or precipitating tanks, and the
+leached ores are removed by means of doors in the sides of the vats
+into wagons. In the Transvaal the operation occupies 3½ to 4 days
+for fine sands, and up to 14 days for coarse sands; the quantity of
+cyanide per ton of tailings varies from 0.26 to 0.28 &#8468;, for electrolytic
+precipitation, and 0.5 &#8468; for zinc precipitation.</p>
+
+<p>The precipitation is effected by zinc in the form of bright turnings,
+or coated with lead, or by electrolysis. According to Christy, the
+precipitation with zinc follows equations 1 or 2 according as potassium
+cyanide is present or not:</p>
+
+<p class="noind">(1) 4KAu(CN)<span class="su">2</span> + 4Zn + 2H<span class="su">2</span>O = 2Zn(CN)<span class="su">2</span> +
+                             K<span class="su">2</span>Zn(CN)<span class="su">4</span> + Zn(OK)<span class="su">2</span> + 4H + 4Au;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">(2) 2KAu(CN)<span class="su">2</span> + 3Zn + 4KCN + 2H<span class="su">2</span>O =
+                             2K<span class="su">2</span>Zn(CN)<span class="su">4</span> + Zn(OK)<span class="su">2</span> + 4H + 2Au;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">one part of zinc precipitating 3.1 parts of gold in the first case, and
+2.06 in the second. It may be noticed that the potassium zinc
+cyanide is useless in gold extraction, for it neither dissolves gold nor
+can potassium cyanide be regenerated from it.</p>
+
+<p>The precipitating boxes, generally made of wood but sometimes of
+steel, and set on an incline, are divided by partitions into alternately
+wide and narrow compartments, so that the liquor travels upwards
+in its passage through the wide divisions and downwards through the
+narrow divisions. In the wider compartments are placed sieves
+having sixteen holes to the square inch and bearing zinc turnings.
+The gold and other metals are precipitated on the under surfaces of
+the turnings and fall to the bottom of the compartment as a black
+slime. The slime is cleaned out fortnightly or monthly, the zinc
+turnings being cleaned by rubbing and the supernatant liquor
+allowed to settle in the precipitating boxes or in separate vessels.
+The slime so obtained consists of finely divided gold and silver
+(5-50%), zinc (30-60%), lead (10%), carbon (10%), together with
+tin, copper, antimony, arsenic and other impurities of the zinc and
+ores. After well washing with water, the slimes are roughly dried in
+bag-filters or filter-presses, and then treated with dilute sulphuric
+acid, the solution being heated by steam. This dissolves out the
+zinc. Lime is added to bring down the gold, and the sediment, after
+washing and drying, is fused in graphite crucibles.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Electrolytic Processes.</i>&mdash;The electrolytic separation of the gold
+from cyanide solutions was first practised in the Transvaal. The
+process, as elaborated by Messrs. Siemens and Halske, essentially
+consists in the electrolysis of weak solutions with iron or steel plate
+anodes, and lead cathodes, the latter, when coated with gold, being
+fused and cupelled. Its advantages over the zinc process are that the
+deposited gold is purer and more readily extracted, and that weaker
+solutions can be employed, thereby effecting an economy in cyanide.</p>
+
+<p>In the process employed at the Worcester Works in the Transvaal,
+the liquors, containing about 150 grains of gold per ton and from
+0.08 to 0.01% of cyanide, are treated in rectangular vats in which is
+placed a series of iron and leaden plates at intervals of 1 in. The
+cathodes, which are sheets of thin lead foil weighing 1½ &#8468; to the
+sq. yd., are removed monthly, their gold content being from 0.5 to
+10%, and after folding are melted in reverberatory furnaces to
+ingots containing 2 to 4% of gold. Cupellation brings up the gold to
+about 900 fine. Many variations of the electrolytic process as above
+outlined have been suggested. S. Cowper Coles has suggested
+aluminium cathodes; Andreoli has recommended cathodes of iron
+and anodes of lead coated with lead peroxide, the gold being removed
+from the iron cathodes by a brief immersion in molten lead; in the
+Pelatan-Cerici process the gold is amalgamated at a mercury cathode
+(see also below).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Refining or Parting of Gold.</i>&mdash;Gold is almost always silver-bearing,
+and it may be also noticed that silver generally contains
+some gold. Consequently the separation of these two metals Is
+one of the most important metallurgical processes. In addition
+to the separation of the silver the operation extends to the
+elimination of the last traces of lead, tin, arsenic, &amp;c. which
+have resisted the preceding cupellation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The &ldquo;parting&rdquo; of gold and silver is of considerable antiquity.
+Thus Strabo states that in his time a process was employed for refining
+and purifying gold in large quantities by cementing or burning
+it with an aluminous earth, which, by destroying the silver, left the
+gold in a state of purity. Pliny shows that for this purpose the gold
+was placed on the fire in an earthen vessel with treble its weight of
+salt, and that it was afterwards again exposed to the fire with two
+parts of salt and one of argillaceous rock, which, in the presence of
+moisture, effected the decomposition of the salt; by this means the
+silver became converted into chloride.</p>
+
+<p>The methods of parting can be classified into &ldquo;dry,&rdquo; &ldquo;wet&rdquo; and
+electrolytic methods. In the &ldquo;dry&rdquo; methods the silver is converted
+into sulphide or chloride, the gold remaining unaltered; in the
+&ldquo;wet&rdquo; methods the silver is dissolved by nitric acid or boiling
+sulphuric acid; and in the electrolytic processes advantage is taken
+of the fact that under certain current densities and other circumstances
+silver passes from an anode composed of a gold-silver alloy
+to the cathode more readily than gold. Of the dry methods only
+F. B. Miller&rsquo;s chlorine process is of any importance, this method, and
+the wet process of refining by sulphuric acid, together with the
+electrolytic process, being the only ones now practised.</p>
+
+<p>The conversion of silver into the sulphide may be effected by
+heating with antimony sulphide, litharge and sulphur, pyrites, or with
+sulphur alone. The antimony, or <i>Guss und Fluss</i>, method was
+practised up till 1846 at the Dresden mint; it is only applicable to
+alloys containing more than 50% of gold. The fusion results in the
+formation of a gold-antimony alloy, from which the antimony is
+removed by an oxidizing fusion with nitre. The sulphur and
+litharge, or <i>Pfannenschmied</i>, process was used to concentrate the
+gold in an alloy in order to make it amenable to &ldquo;quartation,&rdquo; or
+parting with nitric acid. Fusion with sulphur was used for the same
+purpose as the Pfannenschmied process. It was employed in 1797
+at the St Petersburg mint.</p>
+
+<p>The conversion of the silver into the chloride may be effected by
+means of salt&mdash;the &ldquo;cementation&rdquo; process&mdash;or other chlorides, or
+by free chlorine&mdash;Miller&rsquo;s process. The first process consists essentially
+in heating the alloy with salt and brickdust; the latter absorbs
+the chloride formed, while the gold is recovered by washing. It is no
+longer employed. The second process depends upon the fact that, if
+chlorine be led into the molten alloy, the base metals and the silver
+are converted into chlorides. It was proposed in 1838 by Lewis
+Thompson, but it was only applied commercially after Miller&rsquo;s improvements
+in 1867, when it was adopted at the Sydney mint. Sir
+W. C. Roberts-Austen introduced it at the London mint; and it has
+also been used at Pretoria. It is especially suitable to gold containing
+little silver and base metals&mdash;a character of Australian gold&mdash;but it
+yields to the sulphuric acid and electrolytic methods in point of
+economy.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page200" id="page200"></a>200</span></p>
+
+<p>The separation of gold from silver in the wet way may be effected
+by nitric acid, sulphuric acid or by a mixture of sulphuric acid and
+<i>aqua regia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Parting by nitric acid is of considerable antiquity, being mentioned
+by Albertus Magnus (13th cent.), Biringuccio (1540) and Agricola
+(1556). It is now rarely practised, although in some refineries both
+the nitric acid and the sulphuric acid processes are combined, the
+alloy being first treated with nitric acid. It used to be called &ldquo;quartation&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;inquartation,&rdquo; from the fact that the alloy best suited
+for the operation of refining contained 3 parts of silver to 1 of gold.
+The operation may be conducted in vessels of glass or platinum, and
+each pound of granulated metal is treated with a pound and a quarter
+of nitric acid of specific gravity 1.32. The method is sometimes
+employed in the assay of gold.</p>
+
+<p>Refining by sulphuric acid, the process usually adopted for
+separating gold from silver, was first employed on the large scale by
+d&rsquo;Arcet in Paris in 1802, and was introduced into the Mint refinery,
+London, by Mathison in 1829. It is based upon the facts that concentrated
+hot sulphuric acid converts silver and copper into soluble
+sulphates without attacking the gold, the silver sulphate being
+subsequently reduced to the metallic state by copper plates with the
+formation of copper sulphate. It is applicable to any alloy, and is
+the best method for parting gold with the exception of the electrolytic
+method.</p>
+
+<p>The process embraces four operations: (1) the preparation of an
+alloy suitable for parting; (2) the treatment with sulphuric acid;
+(3) the treatment of the residue for gold; (4) the treatment of the
+solution for silver.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to remove as completely as possible any lead, tin,
+bismuth, antimony, arsenic and tellurium, impurities which impair
+the properties of gold and silver, by an oxidizing fusion, <i>e.g.</i> with
+nitre. Over 10% of copper makes the parting difficult; consequently
+in such alloys the percentage of copper is diminished by the
+addition of silver free from copper, or else the copper is removed by a
+chemical process. Other undesirable impurities are the platinum
+metals, special treatment being necessary when these substances are
+present. The alloy, after the preliminary refining, is granulated by
+being poured, while molten, in a thin stream into cold water which is
+kept well agitated.</p>
+
+<p>The acid treatment is generally carried out in cast iron pots;
+platinum vessels used to be employed, while porcelain vessels are only
+used for small operations, <i>e.g.</i> for charges of 190 to 225 oz. as at Oker
+in the Harz. The pots, which are usually cylindrical with a hemispherical
+bottom, may hold as much as 13,000 to 16,000 oz. of alloy.
+They are provided with lids, made either of lead or of wood lined with
+lead, which have openings to serve for the introduction of the alloy
+and acid, and a vent tube to lead off the vapours evolved during the
+operation. The bullion with about twice its weight of sulphuric acid
+of 66° Bé is placed in the pot, and the whole gradually heated.
+Since the action is sometimes very violent, especially when the
+bullion is treated in the granulated form (it is steadier when thin
+plates are operated upon), it is found expedient to add the acid in
+several portions. The heating is continued for 4 to 12 hours according
+to the amount of silver present; the end of the reaction is known
+by the absence of any hissing. Generally the reaction mixture is
+allowed to cool, and the residue, which settles to the bottom of the
+pot, consists of gold together with copper, lead and iron sulphates,
+which are insoluble in strong sulphuric acid; silver sulphate may
+also separate if present in sufficient quantity and the solution be
+sufficiently cooled. The solution is removed by ladles or by siphons,
+and the residue is leached out with boiling water; this removes the
+sulphates. A certain amount of silver is still present and, according
+to M. Pettenkofer, it is impossible to remove all the silver by means
+of sulphuric acid. Several methods are in use for removing the
+silver. Fusion with an alkaline bisulphate converts the silver into the
+sulphate, which may be extracted by boiling with sulphuric acid and
+then with water. Another process consists in treating a mixture of
+the residue with one-quarter of its weight of calcined sodium sulphate
+with sulphuric acid, the residue being finally boiled with a large
+quantity of acid. Or the alloy is dissolved in <i>aqua regia</i>, the solution
+filtered from the insoluble silver chloride, and the gold precipitated
+by ferrous chloride.</p>
+
+<p>The silver present in the solution obtained in the sulphuric acid
+boiling is recovered by a variety of processes. The solution may be
+directly precipitated with copper, the copper passing into solution
+as copper sulphate, and the silver separating as a mud, termed
+&ldquo;cement silver.&rdquo; Or the silver sulphate may be separated from the
+solution by cooling and dilution, and then mixed with iron clippings,
+the interaction being accompanied with a considerable evolution of
+heat. Or Gutzkow&rsquo;s method of precipitating the metal with ferrous
+sulphate may be employed.</p>
+
+<p>The electrolytic parting of gold and silver has been shown to be
+more economical and free from the objections&mdash;such as the poisonous
+fumes&mdash;of the sulphuric acid process. One process depends upon the
+fact that, with a suitable current density, if a very dilute solution of
+silver nitrate be electrolysed between an auriferous silver anode and a
+silver cathode, the silver of the anode is dissolved out and deposited
+at the cathode, the gold remaining at the anode. The silver is quite
+free from gold, and the gold after boiling with nitric acid has a fineness
+of over 999.</p>
+
+<p>Gold is left in the anode slime when copper or silver are refined by
+the usual processes, but if the gold preponderate in the anode these
+processes are inapplicable. A cyanide bath, as used in electroplating,
+would dissolve the gold, but is not suitable for refining, because other
+metals (silver, copper, &amp;c.) passing with gold into the solution would
+deposit with it. Bock, however, in 1880 (<i>Berg- und hüttenmännische
+Zeitung</i>, 1880, p. 411) described a process used at the North German
+Refinery in Hamburg for the refining of gold containing platinum
+with a small proportion of silver, lead or bismuth, and a subsequent
+patent specification (1896) and a paper by Wohlwill (<i>Zeits. f. Elektrochem.</i>,
+1898, pp. 379, 402, 421) have thrown more light upon
+the process. The electrolyte is gold chloride (2.5-3 parts of pure gold
+per 100 of solution) mixed with from 2 to 6% of the strongest
+hydrochloric acid to render the gold anodes readily soluble, which
+they are not in the neutral chloride solution. The bath is used at
+65° to 70° C. (150° to 158° F.), and if free chlorine be evolved, which
+is known at once by its pungent smell, the temperature is raised, or
+more acid is added, to promote the solubility of the gold. The bath
+is used with a current-density of 100 ampères per sq. ft. at 1 volt
+(or higher), with electrodes about 1.2 in. apart. In this process all
+the anode metals pass into solution except iridium and other refractory
+metals of that group, which remain as metals, and silver,
+which is converted into insoluble chloride; lead and bismuth form
+chloride and oxychloride respectively, and these dissolve until the
+bath is saturated with them, and then precipitate with the silver in
+the tank. But if the gold-strength of the bath be maintained, only
+gold is deposited at the cathode&mdash;in a loose powdery condition from
+pure solutions, but in a smooth detachable deposit from impure
+liquors. Under good conditions the gold should contain 99.98% of
+the pure metal. The tank is of porcelain or glazed earthenware, the
+electrodes for impure solutions are ½ in. apart (or more with pure
+solutions), and are on the multiple system, and the potential difference
+at the terminals of the bath is 1 volt. A high current-density
+being employed, the turn-over of gold is rapid&mdash;an essential factor
+of success when the costliness of the metal is taken into account.
+Platinum and palladium dissolved from the anode accumulate in the
+solution, and are removed at intervals of, say, a few months by
+chemical precipitation. It is essential that the bath should not
+contain more than 5% of palladium, or some of this metal will
+deposit with the gold. The slimes are treated chemically for the
+separation of the metals contained in them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Standard works on the metallurgy of gold are the
+treatises of T. Kirke Rose and of M. Eissler. The cyanide process
+is especially treated by M. Eissler, <i>Cyanide Process for the Extraction
+of Gold</i>, which pays particular attention to the Witwatersrand
+methods; Alfred James, <i>Cyanide Practice</i>; H. Forbes Julian and
+Edgar Smart, <i>Cyaniding Gold and Silver Ores</i>. Gold milling is treated
+by Henry Louis, <i>A Handbook of Gold Milling</i>; C. G. Warnford Lock,
+<i>Gold Milling</i>; T. A. Rickard, <i>Stamp Milling of Gold Ores</i>. Gold
+dredging is treated by Captain C. C. Longridge in <i>Gold Dredging</i>, and
+hydraulic mining is discussed by the same author in his <i>Hydraulic
+Mining</i>. For operations in special districts see J. M. Maclaren, <i>Gold</i>
+(1908); J. H. Curle, <i>Gold Mines of the World</i>; Africa: F. H. Hatch
+and J. A. Chalmers, <i>Gold Mines of the Rand</i>; S. J. Truscott, <i>Witwatersrand
+Goldfields Banket and Mining Practice</i>; Australasia: D. Clark,
+<i>Australian Mining and Metallurgy</i>; Karl Schmeisser, <i>Goldfields of
+Australasia</i>; A. G. Charleton, <i>Gold Mining and Milling in Western
+Australia</i>; India: F. H. Hatch, <i>The Kolar Gold-Field</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLD AND SILVER THREAD.<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> Under this heading some
+general account may be given of gold and silver strips, threads
+and gimp used in connexion with varieties of weaving, embroidery
+and twisting and plaiting or lace work. To this day, in many
+oriental centres where it seems that early traditions of the
+knowledge and the use of fabrics wholly or partly woven, ornamented,
+and embroidered with gold and silver have been maintained,
+the passion for such brilliant and costly textiles is still
+strong and prevalent. One of the earliest mentions of the use
+of gold in a woven fabric occurs in the description of the ephod
+made for Aaron (Exod. xxxix. 2, 3), &ldquo;And he made the ephod
+of gold, blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen.
+And they did beat the gold into thin plates, and cut it into wires
+(strips), to work it in the blue, and in the purple, and in the
+scarlet, and in the fine linen, with cunning work.&rdquo; This is
+suggestive of early Syrian or Arabic in-darning or weaving with
+gold strips or tinsel. In both the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> allusion
+is frequently made to inwoven and embroidered golden textiles.
+Assyrian sculpture gives an elaborately designed ornament upon
+the robe of King Assur-nasir-pal (884 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) which was probably
+an interweaving of gold and coloured threads, and testifies
+to the consummate skill of Assyrian or Babylonian workers
+at that date. From Assyrian and Babylonian weavers the
+conquering Persians of the time of Darius derived their celebrity
+as weavers and users of splendid stuffs. Herodotus describes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>201</span>
+the corselet given by Amasis king of Egypt to the Minerva of
+Lindus and how it was inwoven or embroidered with gold. Darius,
+we are told, wore a war mantle on which were figured (probably
+inwoven) two golden hawks as if pecking at each other. Alexander
+the Great is said to have found Eastern kings and princes
+arrayed in robes of gold and purple. More than two hundred
+years later than Alexander the Great was the king of Pergamos
+(the third bearing the name Attalus) who gave much attention
+to working in metals and is mentioned by Pliny as having
+invented weaving with gold, hence the historic Attalic cloths.
+There are several references in Roman writings to costumes
+and stuffs woven and embroidered with gold threads and the
+Graeco-Roman <i>chryso-phrygium</i> and the Roman <i>auri-phrygium</i>
+are evidences not only of Roman work with gold threads but
+also of its indebtedness to Phrygian sources. The famous
+tunics of Agrippina and those of Heliogabalus are said to have
+been of tissues made entirely with gold threads, whereas the
+robes which Marcus Aurelius found in the treasury of Hadrian,
+as well as the costumes sold at the dispersal of the wardrobe
+of Commodus, were different in character, being of fine linen
+and possibly even of silken stuffs inwoven or embroidered with
+gold threads. The same description is perhaps correct of the
+reputedly splendid hangings with which King Dagobert decorated
+the early medieval oratory of St Denis. Reference to these
+and many such stuffs is made by the respectively contemporary
+or almost contemporary writers; and a very full and interesting
+work by Monsieur Francisque Michel (Paris, 1852) is still a
+standard book for consultation in respect of the history of silk,
+gold and silver stuffs.</p>
+
+<p>From indications such as these, as well as those of later date,
+one sees broadly that the art of weaving and embroidering with
+gold and silver threads passed from one great city to another,
+travelling as a rule westward. Babylon, Tarsus, Bagdad,
+Damascus, the islands of Cyprus and Sicily, Constantinople,
+Venice and southern Spain appear successively in the process
+of time as famous centres of these much-prized manufactures.
+During the middle ages European royal personages and high
+ecclesiastical dignitaries used cloth and tissues of gold and silver
+for their state and ceremonial robes, as well as for costly hangings
+and decoration; and various names&mdash;ciclatoun, tartarium,
+naques or nac, baudekin or baldachin (Bagdad) and tissue&mdash;were
+applied to textiles in the making of which gold threads were
+almost always introduced in combination with others. The
+thin flimsy paper known as tissue paper is so called because it
+originally was placed between the folds of gold &ldquo;tissue&rdquo; (or
+weaving) to prevent the contiguous surfaces from fraying each
+other. Under the articles dealing with carpets, embroidery,
+lace and tapestry will be found notices of the occasional use in
+such productions of gold and silver threads. Of early date in
+the history of European weaving are rich stuffs produced in
+Southern Spain by Moors, as well as by Saracenic and Byzantine
+weavers at Palermo and Constantinople in the 12th century,
+in which metallic threads were freely used. Equally esteemed
+at about the same period were corresponding stuffs made in
+Cyprus, whilst for centuries later the merchants in such fabrics
+eagerly sought for and traded in Cyprus gold and silver threads.
+Later the actual manufacture of them was not confined to Cyprus,
+but was also carried on by Italian thread and trimming makers
+from the 14th century onwards. For the most part the gold
+threads referred to were of silver gilt. In rare instances of
+middle-age Moorish or Arabian fabrics the gold threads are
+made with strips of parchment or paper gilt and still rarer are
+instances of the use of real gold wire.</p>
+
+<p>In India the preparation of varieties of gold and silver threads
+is an ancient and important art. The &ldquo;gold wire&rdquo; of the
+manufacturer has been and is as a rule silver wire gilt, the silver
+wire being, of course, composed of pure silver. The wire is
+drawn by means of simple draw-plates, with rude and simple
+appliances, from rounded bars of silver, or gold-plated silver, as
+the case may be. The wire is flattened into strip, tinsel
+or ribbon-like form, by passing fourteen or fifteen strands
+simultaneously, over a fine, smooth, round-topped anvil and
+beating each as it passes with a heavy hammer having a slightly
+convex surface. Such strips or tinsel of wire so flattened are
+woven into Indian <i>soniri</i>, tissue or cloth of gold, the web or warp
+being composed entirely of golden strips, and <i>ruperi</i>, similar tissue
+of silver. Other gold and silver threads suitable for use in
+embroidery, pillow and needlepoint lace making, &amp;c., consist of
+fine strips of flattened wire wound round cores of orange (in the
+case of silver, white) silk thread so as to completely cover them.
+Wires flattened or partially flattened are also twisted into
+exceedingly fine spirals and much used for heavy embroideries.
+Spangles for embroideries, &amp;c., are made from spirals of comparatively
+stout wire, by cutting them down ring by ring, laying each
+C-like ring on an anvil, and by a smart blow with a hammer
+flattening it out into a thin round disk with a slit extending
+from the centre to one edge. The demand for many kinds of
+loom-woven and embroidered gold and silver work in India is
+immense, and the variety of textiles so ornamented is also very
+great, chief amongst which are the golden or silvery tinsel
+fabrics known as kincobs.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst Western communities the demand for gold and
+silver embroideries and braid lace now exists chiefly in connexion
+with naval, military and other uniforms, masonic insignia,
+court costumes, public and private liveries, ecclesiastical robes
+and draperies, theatrical dresses, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The proportions of gold and silver in the gold thread for the
+woven braid lace or ribbon trade varies, but in all cases the
+proportion of gold is exceedingly small. An ordinary gold braid
+wire is drawn from a bar containing 90 parts of silver and 7
+of copper, and plated with 3 of gold. On an average each ounce
+troy of a bar so plated is drawn into 1500 yds. of wire; and therefore
+about 16 grains of gold cover 1 m. of wire.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. S. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDAST AB HAIMINSFELD, MELCHIOR<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1576-1635),
+Swiss writer, an industrious though uncritical collector of
+documents relating to the medieval history and Constitution of
+Germany, was born on the 6th of January 1576 (some say 1578),
+of poor Protestant parents, near Bischofszell, in the Swiss Canton
+of Thurgau. His university career, first at Ingolstadt (1585-1586),
+then at Altdorf near Nuremberg (1597-1598), was cut short
+by his poverty, from which he suffered all his life, and which
+was the main cause of his wanderings. In 1598 he found a rich
+protector in the person of Bartholomaeus Schobinger, of St
+Gall, by whose liberality he was enabled to study at St Gall
+(where he first became interested in medieval documents, which
+abound in the conventual library) and elsewhere in Switzerland.
+Before his patron&rsquo;s death (1604) he became (1603) secretary to
+Henry, duke of Bouillon, with whom he went to Heidelberg and
+Frankfort. But in 1604 he entered the service of the Baron von
+Hohensax, then the possessor of the precious MS. volume of old
+German poems, returned from Paris to Heidelberg in 1888, and,
+partially published by Goldast. Soon he was back in Switzerland,
+and by 1606 in Frankfort, earning his living by preparing and
+correcting books for the press. In 1611 he was appointed
+councillor at the court of Saxe-Weimar, and in 1615 he entered
+the service of the count of Schaumburg at Bückeburg. In 1624
+he was forced by the war to retire to Bremen; there in 1625 he
+deposited his library in that of the town (his books were bought
+by the town in 1646, but many of his MSS. passed to Queen
+Christina of Sweden, and hence are now in the Vatican library),
+he himself returning to Frankfort. In 1627 he became councillor
+to the emperor and to the archbishop-elector of Trèves, and in
+1633 passed to the service of the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt.
+He died at Giessen early in 1635.</p>
+
+<p>His immense industry is shown by the fact that his biographer,
+Senckenburg, gives a list of 65 works published or written by
+him, some extending to several substantial volumes. Among the
+more important are his <i>Paraeneticorum veterum pars i.</i> (1604),
+which contained the old German tales of <i>Kunig Tyrol von Schotten</i>,
+the <i>Winsbeke</i> and the <i>Winsbekin; Suevicarum rerum scriptores</i>
+(Frankfort, 1605, new edition, 1727); <i>Rerum Alamannicarum
+scriptores</i> (Frankfort, 1606, new edition by Senckenburg, 1730);
+<i>Constitutiones imperiales</i> (Frankfort, 1607-1613, 4 vols.); <i>Monarchia
+s. Romani imperii</i> (Hanover and Frankfort, 1612-1614,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202"></a>202</span>
+3 vols.); <i>Commentarii de regni Bohemiae juribus</i> (Frankfort,
+1627, new edition by Schmink, 1719). He also edited De Thou&rsquo;s
+<i>History</i> (1609-1610) and Willibald Pirckheimer&rsquo;s works (1610).
+In 1688 a volume of letters addressed to him by his learned
+friends was published.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Life</i> by Senckenburg, prefixed to his 1730 work. See also R. von
+Raumer&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte d. germanischen Philologie</i> (Munich, 1870).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDBEATING.<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span>&mdash;The art of goldbeating is of great antiquity,
+being referred to by Homer; and Pliny (<i>N.H.</i> 33. 19) states
+that 1 oz. of gold was extended to 750 leaves, each leaf being
+four fingers (about 3 in.) square; such a leaf is three times
+as thick as the ordinary leaf gold of the present time. In all
+probability the art originated among the Eastern nations, where
+the working of gold and the use of gold ornaments have been
+distinguishing characteristics from the most remote periods.
+On Egyptian mummy cases specimens of original leaf-gilding
+are met with, where the gold is so thin that it resembles modern
+gilding (<i>q.v.</i>). The minimum thickness to which gold can be
+beaten is not known with certainty. According to Mersenne
+(1621) 1 oz. was spread out over 105 sq. ft.; Réaumur (1711)
+obtained 146½ sq. ft.; other values are 189 sq. ft. and 300 sq. ft.
+Its malleability is greatly diminished by the presence of other
+metals, even in very minute quantity. In practice the average
+degree of tenuity to which the gold is reduced is not nearly so
+great as the last example quoted above. A &ldquo;book of gold&rdquo;
+containing 25 leaves measuring each 3¼ in., equal to an area of
+264 sq. in., generally weighs from 4 to 5 grains.</p>
+
+<p>The gold used by the goldbeater is variously alloyed, according
+to the colour required. Fine gold is commonly supposed to be
+incapable of being reduced to thin leaves. This, however, is
+not the case, although its use for ordinary purposes is undesirable
+on account of its greater cost. It also adheres on one part of a
+leaf touching another, thus causing a waste of labour by the
+leaves being spoiled; but for work exposed to the weather it is
+much preferable, as it is more durable, and does not tarnish or
+change colour. The external gilding on many public buildings,
+<i>e.g.</i> the Albert Memorial in Kensington Gardens, London, is done
+with pure gold. The following is a list of the principal classes of
+leaf recognized and ordinarily prepared by British beaters, with
+the proportions of alloy per oz. they contain.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Name of leaf.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Proportion<br />of gold.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Proportion<br />of Silver.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Proportion<br />of Copper.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Grains.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Grains.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Red</td> <td class="tcc rb">456-460</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">20-24</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pale red</td> <td class="tcc rb">464</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">16</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Extra deep</td> <td class="tcc rb">456</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;12</td> <td class="tcc rb">12</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Deep</td> <td class="tcc rb">444</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;24</td> <td class="tcc rb">12</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Citron</td> <td class="tcc rb">440</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;30</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Yellow</td> <td class="tcc rb">408</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;72</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pale yellow</td> <td class="tcc rb">384</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;96</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lemon</td> <td class="tcc rb">360</td> <td class="tcc rb">120</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Green or pale</td> <td class="tcc rb">312</td> <td class="tcc rb">168</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">White</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">240</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">240</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The process of goldbeating is as follows: The gold, having been
+alloyed according to the colour desired, is melted in a crucible at a
+higher temperature than is simply necessary to fuse it, as its malleability
+is improved by exposure to a greater heat; sudden cooling
+does not interfere with its malleability, gold differing in this respect
+from some other metals. It is then cast into an ingot, and flattened,
+by rolling between a pair of powerful smooth steel rollers, into a
+ribbon of 1½ in. wide and 10 ft. in length to the oz. After being
+flattened it is annealed and cut into pieces of about 6½ grs. each, or
+about 75 per oz., and placed between the leaves of a &ldquo;cutch,&rdquo; which
+is about ½ in. thick and 3½ in. square, containing about 180 leaves of
+a tough paper. Formerly fine vellum was used for this purpose, and
+generally still it is interleaved in the proportion of about one of
+vellum to six of paper. The cutch is beaten on for about 20 minutes
+with a 17-&#8468; hammer, which rebounds by the elasticity of the skin,
+and saves the labour of lifting, by which the gold is spread to the
+size of the cutch; each leaf is then taken out, and cut into four
+pieces, and put between the skins of a &ldquo;shoder,&rdquo; 4½ in. square and
+¾ in. thick, containing about 720 skins, which have been worn out
+in the finishing or &ldquo;mould&rdquo; process. The shoder requires about
+two hours&rsquo; beating upon with a 9-&#8468; hammer. As the gold will
+spread unequally, the shoder is beaten upon after the larger leaves
+have reached the edges. The effect of this is that the margins of
+larger leaves come out of the edges in a state of dust. This allows
+time for the smaller leaves to reach the full size of the shoder, thus
+producing a general evenness of size in the leaves. Each leaf is again
+cut into four pieces, and placed between the leaves of a &ldquo;mould,&rdquo;
+composed of about 950 of the finest gold-beaters&rsquo; skins, 5 in. square
+and ¾ in. thick, the contents of one shoder filling three moulds.
+The material has now reached the last and most difficult stage of the
+process; and on the fineness of the skin and judgment of the workman
+the perfection and thinness of the leaf of gold depend. During
+the first hour the hammer is allowed to fall principally upon the centre
+of the mould. This causes gaping cracks upon the edges of the
+leaves, the sides of which readily coalesce and unite without leaving
+any trace of the union after being beaten upon. At the second hour,
+when the gold is about the 150,000th part of an inch in thickness, it
+for the first time permits the transmission of the rays of light. Pure
+gold, or gold but slightly alloyed, transmits green rays; gold highly
+alloyed with silver transmits pale violet rays. The mould requires
+in all about four hours&rsquo; beating with a 7-&#8468; hammer, when the
+ordinary thinness for the gold leaf of commerce will be reached. A
+single ounce of gold will at this stage be extended to 75 × 4 × 4 = 1200
+leaves, which will trim to squares of about 3¼ in. each. The finished
+leaf is then taken out of the mould, and the rough edges are trimmed
+off by slips of the ratan fixed in parallel grooves of an instrument
+called a waggon, the leaf being laid upon a leathern cushion. The
+leaves thus prepared are placed into &ldquo;books&rdquo; capable of holding
+25 leaves each, which have been rubbed over with red ochre to
+prevent the gold clinging to the paper. Dentist gold is gold leaf
+carried no farther than the cutch stage, and should be perfectly pure
+gold.</p>
+
+<p>By the above process also silver is beaten, but not so thin, the
+inferior value of the metal not rendering it commercially desirable to
+bestow so much labour upon it. Copper, tin, zinc, palladium, lead,
+cadmium, platinum and aluminium can be beaten into thin leaves,
+but not to the same extent as gold or silver.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fine membrane called goldbeater&rsquo;s skin, used for making
+up the shoder and mould, is the outer coat of the caecum or blind
+gut of the ox. It is stripped off in lengths about 25 or 30 in.,
+and freed from fat by dipping in a solution of caustic alkali and
+scraping with a blunt knife. It is afterwards stretched on a
+frame; two membranes are glued together, treated with a
+solution of aromatic substances or camphor in isinglass, and
+subsequently coated with white of egg. Finally they are cut
+into squares of 5 or 5½ in.; and to make up a mould of 950 pieces
+the gut of about 380 oxen is required, about 2½ skins being got
+from each animal. A skin will endure about 200 beatings in
+the mould, after which it is fit for use in the shoder alone.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The dryness of the cutch, shoder and mould is a matter of extreme
+delicacy. They require to be hot-pressed every time they are used,
+although they may be used daily, to remove the moisture which they
+acquire from the atmosphere, except in extremely frosty weather,
+when they acquire so little moisture that a difficulty arises from their
+over-dryness, whereby the brilliancy of the gold is diminished, and
+it spreads very slowly under the hammer. On the contrary, if the
+cutch or shoder be damp, the gold will become pierced with innumerable
+microscopic holes; and in the moulds in its more attenuated
+state it will become reduced to a pulverulent state. This condition
+is more readily produced in alloyed golds than in fine gold. It is
+necessary that each skin of the mould should be rubbed over with
+calcined gypsum each time the mould may be used, in order to prevent
+the adhesion of the gold to the surface of the skin in beating.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDBERG,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Silesia,<a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> 14 m. by rail S.W. of Liegnitz, on the Katzbach, an
+affluent of the Oder. Pop. (1905) 6804. The principal buildings
+are an old church dating from the beginning of the 13th century,
+the Schwabe-Priesemuth institution, completed in 1876, for the
+board and education of orphans, and the classical school or
+gymnasium (founded in 1524 by Duke Frederick II. of Liegnitz),
+which in the 17th century enjoyed great prosperity, and numbered
+Wallenstein among its pupils. The chief manufactures are
+woollen cloth, flannel, gloves, stockings, leather and beer, and
+there is a considerable trade in corn and fruit. Goldberg
+owes its origin and name to a gold mine in the neighbourhood,
+which, however, has been wholly abandoned since the time of
+the Hussite wars. The town obtained civic rights in 1211. It
+suffered heavily from the Tatars in 1241, from the plague in 1334,
+from the Hussites in 1428, and from the Saxon, Imperial and
+Swedish forces during the Thirty Years&rsquo; War. On the 27th of
+May 1813 a battle took place near it between the French and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>203</span>
+Russians; and on the 23rd and the 27th of August of the same
+year fights between the allies and the French.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sturm, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Goldberg in Schlesien</i> (1887).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Goldberg is also the name of a small town in the grand-duchy of
+Mecklenburg-Schwerin.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLD COAST,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> that portion of the Guinea Coast (West Africa)
+which extends from Assini upon the west to the river Volta on
+the east. It derives its name from the quantities of grains of
+gold mixed with the sand of the rivers traversing the district.
+The term Gold Coast is now generally identified with the British
+Gold Coast colony. This extends from 3° 7&prime; W. to 1° 14&prime; E., the
+length of the coast-line being about 370 m. It is bounded W. by
+the Ivory Coast colony (French), E. by Togoland (German). On
+the north the British possessions, including Ashanti (<i>q.v.</i>) and the
+Northern Territories, extend to the 11th degree of north latitude.
+The frontier separating the colony from Ashanti (fixed by order
+in council, 22nd of October 1906) is in general 130 m. from the
+coast, but in the central portion of the colony the southern limits
+of Ashanti project wedge-like to the confluence of the rivers Ofin
+and Prah, which point is but 60 m. from the sea at Cape Coast.
+The combined area of the Gold Coast, Ashanti and the Northern
+Territories, is about 80,000 sq. m., with a total population
+officially estimated in 1908 at 2,700,000; the Gold Coast colony
+alone has an area of 24,200 sq. m., with a population of over a
+million, of whom about 2000 are Europeans.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:513px; height:760px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img203.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2"><i>Physical features</i>.&mdash;Though the lagoons common to the West
+African coast are found both at the western and eastern extremities
+of the colony (Assini in the west and Kwitta in the east) the greater
+part of the coast-line is of a different character. Cape Three Points
+(4° 44&prime; 40&Prime; N. 2° 5&prime; 45&Prime; W.) juts boldly into the sea, forming the most
+southerly point of the colony. Thence the coast trends E. by N., and
+is but slightly indented. The usually low sandy beach is, however,
+diversified by bold, rocky headlands. The flat belt of country does
+not extend inland any considerable distance, the spurs of the great
+plateau which forms the major part of West Africa advancing in the
+east, in the Akwapim district, near to the coast. Here the hills reach
+an altitude of over 2000 ft. Out of the level plain rise many isolated
+peaks, generally of conical formation. Numerous rivers descend
+from the hills, but bars of sand block their mouths, and the Gold
+Coast possesses no harbours. Great Atlantic rollers break unceasingly
+upon the shore. The chief rivers are the Volta (<i>q.v.</i>), the
+Ankobra and the Prah. The Ankobra or Snake river traverses
+auriferous country, and reaches the sea some 20 m. west of Cape
+Three Points. It has a course of about 150 m., and is navigable in
+steam launches for about 80 m. The Prah (&ldquo;Busum Prah,&rdquo; sacred
+river) is regarded as a fetish stream by the Fanti and Ashanti. One
+of its sub-tributaries has its rise near Kumasi. The Prah rises in the
+N.E. of the colony and flows S.W. Some 60 m. from its mouth it is
+joined by the Ofin, which comes from the north-west. The united
+stream flows S. and reaches the sea in 1° 35&prime; W. As a waterway the
+river, which has a course of 400 m., is almost useless, owing to the
+many cataracts in its course. Another river is the Tano, which for
+some distance in its lower course forms the boundary between the
+colony and the Ivory Coast.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geology</i>.&mdash;Cretaceous rocks occur at intervals along the coast belt,
+but are mostly hidden under an extensive development of superficial
+deposits. Basalt occurs at Axim. Inland is a broad belt of sandstone
+and marl with an occasional band of auriferous conglomerate,
+best known and most extensively worked for gold in the Wasaw
+district. Though the conglomerates bear some resemblance to the
+&ldquo;Banket&rdquo; of South Africa they are most probably of more recent
+date. The alluvial silts and gravels also carry gold.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate</i>.&mdash;The climate on the coast is hot, moist and unhealthy,
+especially for Europeans. The mean temperature in the shade in the
+coast towns is 78° to 80° F. Fevers and dysentery are the diseases
+most to be dreaded by the European. The native inhabitants,
+although they enjoy tolerable health and live to an average age, are
+subject in the rainy season to numerous chest complaints. There are
+two wet seasons. From April to August are the greater rains, whilst
+in October and November occur the &ldquo;smalls&rdquo; or second rains.
+From the end of December to March the dry harmattan wind blows
+from the Sahara. In consequence of the prevalence of the sea-breeze
+from the south-west the western portion of the colony, up to
+the mouth of the Sekum river (a small stream to the west of Accra),
+is called the windward district, the eastward portion being known
+as the leeward. The rainfall at Accra, in the leeward district,
+averages 27 in. in the year, but at places in the windward district is
+much greater, averaging 79 in. at Axim.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora</i>.&mdash;The greater part (probably three-fourths) of the colony is
+covered with primeval forest. Here the vegetation is so luxuriant
+that for great distances the sky is shut out from view. As a result of
+the struggle to reach the sunlight the forest growths are almost
+entirely vertical. The chief trees are silk cottons, especially the
+bombax, and gigantic hard-wood trees, such as the African mahogany,
+ebony, odum and camwood. The bombax rises for over 100 ft., a
+straight column-like shaft, 25 to 30 ft. in circumference, and then
+throws out horizontally a large number of branches. The lowest
+growth in the forest consists of ferns and herbaceous plants. Of
+the ferns some are climbers reaching 30 to 40 ft. up the stems of the
+trees they entwine. Flowering plants are comparatively rare; they
+include orchids and a beautiful white lily. The &ldquo;bush&rdquo; or intermediate
+growth is made up of smaller trees, the rubber vine and
+other creepers, some as thick as hawsers, bamboos and sensitive
+mimosa, and has a height of from 30 to 60 ft. The creepers are found
+not only in the bush, but on the ground and hanging from the branches
+of the highest trees. West of the Prah the forest comes down to the
+edge of the Atlantic. East of that river the coast land is covered
+with bushes 5 to 12 ft. high, occasional large trees and groves of
+oil palms. Still farther east, by Accra, are numerous arborescent
+Euphorbias, and immediately west of the lower Volta forests of oil
+palms and grassy plains with fan palms. Behind all these eastern
+regions is a belt of thin forest country before the denser forest is
+reached. In the north-east are stretches of orchard-like country
+with wild plum, shea-butter and kola trees, baobabs, dwarf date
+and fan palms. The cotton and tobacco plants grow wild. At the
+mouths of the rivers and along the lagoons the mangrove is the
+characteristic tree. There are numerous coco-nut palms along the
+coast. The fruit trees and plants also include the orange, pine-apple,
+mango, papaw, banana and avocado or alligator pear.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna</i>.&mdash;The fauna includes leopards, panthers, hyenas, Potto
+lemurs, jackals, antelopes, buffaloes, wild-hogs and many kinds of
+monkey, including the chimpanzee and the <i>Colobus vellerosus</i>, whose
+skin, with long black silky hair, is much prized in Europe. The
+elephant has been almost exterminated by ivory hunters. The
+snakes include pythons, cobras, horned and puff adders and the
+venomous water snake. Among the lesser denizens of the forest are
+the squirrel and porcupine. Crocodiles and in fewer numbers
+manatees and otters frequent the rivers and lagoons and hippopotami
+are found in the Volta. Lizards of brilliant hue, tortoises and great
+snails are common. Birds, which are not very numerous, include
+parrots and hornbills, kingfishers, ospreys, herons, crossbills, curlews,
+woodpeckers, doves, pigeons, storks, pelicans, swallows, vultures and
+the spur plover (the last-named rare). Shoals of herrings frequent
+the coast, and the other fish include mackerel, sole, skate, mullet,
+bonito, flying fish, fighting fish and shynose. Sharks abound at the
+mouths of all the rivers, edible turtle are fairly common, as are the
+sword fish, dolphin and sting ray (with poisonous caudal spine).
+Oysters are numerous on rocks running into the sea and on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>204</span>
+exposed roots of mangrove trees. Insect life is multitudinous; beetles,
+spiders, ants, fireflies, butterflies and jiggers abound. The earthworm
+is rare. The mosquitos include the <i>Culex</i> or ordinary kind,
+the <i>Anopheles</i>, which carry malarial fever, and the <i>Stegomyia</i>, a
+striped white and black mosquito which carries yellow-fever.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inhabitants</i>.&mdash;The natives are all of the Negro race. The most
+important tribe is the Fanti (<i>q.v.</i>), and the Fanti language is generally
+understood throughout the colony. The Fanti and Ashanti are
+believed to have a common origin. It is certain that the Fanti came
+originally from the north and conquered many of the coast tribes,
+who anciently had owned the rule of the king of Benin. The districts
+in general are named after the tribes inhabiting them. Those in the
+western part of the colony are mainly of Fanti stock; the Accra and
+allied tribes inhabit the eastern portion and are believed to be the
+aboriginal inhabitants. The Akim (Akem), who occupy the north-east
+portion of the colony, have engaged in gold-digging from time
+immemorial. The capital of their country is Kibbi. The Akwapim
+(Aquapem), southern neighbours of the Akim, are extensively engaged
+in agriculture and in trade. The Accra, a clever race, are to be
+found in all the towns of the West African coast as artisans and
+sailors. They are employed by the interior tribes as middlemen and
+interpreters. On the right bank of the Volta occupying the low
+marshy land near the sea are the Adangme. The Krobos live in
+little villages in the midst of the palm tree woods which grow round
+about the Kroboberg, an eminence about 1000 ft. high. Their
+country lies between that of the Akim and the Adangme. In the
+west of the colony is the Ahanta country, formerly an independent
+kingdom. The inhabitants were noted for their skill in war. They
+are one of the finest and most intelligent of the tribes of Accra stock.
+The Apollonia, a kindred race, occupy the coast region nearest the
+Ivory Coast.</p>
+
+<p>The Tshi, Tchwi or Chi language,<a name="fa1q" id="fa1q" href="#ft1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a> which is that spoken on the
+Gold Coast, belongs to the great prefix-pronominal group. It comprises
+many dialects, which may, however, be reduced
+to two classes or types. Akan dialects are spoken in
+<span class="sidenote">Native Languages.</span>
+Assini, Amanahia (Apollonia), Awini, Ahanta, Wasaw,
+Tshuforo (Juffer or Tufel), and Denkyera in the west,
+and in Asen, Akim, and Akwapim in the east, as well as in the
+different parts of Ashanti. Fanti dialects are spoken, not only in
+Fanti proper, but in Afutu or the country round Cape Coast, in
+Abora, Agymako, Akomfi, Gomoa and Agona. The difference
+between the two types is not very great; a Fanti, for example, can
+converse without much difficulty with a native of Akwapim or
+Ashanti, his language being in fact a deteriorated form of the same
+original. Akim is considered the finest and purest of all the Akan
+dialects. The Akwapim, which is based on the Akim but has imbibed
+Fanti influences, has been made the book-language by the
+Basel missionaries. They had reduced it to writing before 1850.
+About a million people in all, it is estimated, speak dialects of the
+Tshi.</p>
+
+<p>The south-eastern corner of the Gold Coast is occupied by another
+language known as the Ga or Accra, which comprises the Ga proper
+and the Adangme and Krobo dialects. Ga proper is spoken by about
+40,000 people, including the inhabitants of Ga and Kinka (<i>i.e.</i> Accra,
+in Tshi, Nkran and Kankan), Osu (<i>i.e.</i> Christiansborg), La, Tessi,
+Ningua and numerous inland villages. It has been reduced to writing
+by the missionaries. The Adangme and Krobo dialects are spoken
+by about 80,000 people. They differ very considerably from Ga
+proper, but books printed in Ga can be used by both the Krobo and
+Adangme natives. Another language known as Guan is used in parts
+of Akwapim and in Anum beyond the Volta; but not much is known
+either about it or the Obutu tongue spoken in a few towns in Agona,
+Gomoa and Akomfi.</p>
+
+<p>Fetishism (<i>q.v.</i>) is the prevailing religion of all the tribes. Belief
+in a God is universal, as also is a belief in a future state. Christianity
+and Mahommedanism are both making progress.
+The natives professing Christianity number about 40,000.
+<span class="sidenote">Religion and education.</span>
+A Moravian mission was started at Christiansborg
+about 1736; the Basel mission (Evangelical) was begun
+in 1828, the missionaries combining manual training and farm
+labour with purely religious work; the Wesleyans started a
+mission among the Fanti in 1835, and the Anglican and Roman
+Catholic Churches are also represented, as well as the Bremen
+Missionary Society. Elementary education is chiefly in the hands of
+the Wesleyan, Basel, Bremen and Roman Catholic missions, who
+have schools at many towns along the coast and in the interior.
+There are also government and Mahommedan schools. The natives
+generally are extremely intelligent. They obtain easily the means of
+subsistence, and are disinclined to unaccustomed labour, such as
+working in mines. They are keen traders. The native custom of
+burying the dead under the floors of the houses prevailed until 1874,
+when it was prohibited by the British authorities.</p>
+
+<p><i>Towns</i>.&mdash;Unlike the other British possessions on the west coast of
+Africa, the colony has many towns along the shore, this being due to
+the multiplicity of traders of rival nations who went thither in quest
+of gold. Beginning at the west, Newtown, on the Assini or Eyi
+lagoon, is just within the British frontier. The first place of importance
+reached is Axim (pop., 1901, 2189), the site of an old Dutch
+fort built near the mouth of the Axim river, and in the pre-railway
+days the port of the gold region. Rounding Cape Three Points,
+whose vicinity is marked by a line of breakers nearly 2½ m. long,
+Dixcove is reached. Twenty miles farther east is Sekondi (<i>q.v.</i>),
+(pop. about 5000), the starting-point of the railway to the goldfields
+and Kumasi. Elmina (<i>q.v.</i>), formerly one of the most important
+posts of European settlement, is reached some distance after passing
+the mouth of the Prah. Eight miles east of Elmina is Cape Coast
+(<i>q.v.</i>), pop. (1901) 28,948. Anamabo is 9 m. farther east. Here, in
+1807, a handful of English soldiers made a heroic and successful
+defence of its fort against the whole Ashanti host. Saltpond, towards
+the end of the 19th century, diverted to itself the trade formerly done
+by Anamabo, from which it is distant 9 m. Saltpond is a well-built,
+flourishing town, and is singular in possessing no ancient fort.
+Between Anamabo and Saltpond is Kormantine (Cormantyne), noted
+as the place whence the English first exported slaves from this coast.
+Hence the general name Coromantynes given in the West Indies to
+slaves from the Gold Coast. Eighty miles from Cape Coast is Accra
+(<i>q.v.</i>) (pop. 17,892), capital of the colony. (Winnebah is passed
+30 m. before Accra is reached. It is an old town noted for the manufacture
+of canoes.) There is no station of much importance in the
+60 m. between Accra and the Volta, on the right bank of which river,
+near its mouth, is the town of Addah (pop. 13,240). Kwitta (pop.
+3018) lies beyond the Volta not far from the German frontier. Of
+the inland towns Akropong, the residence of the king of Akwapim, is
+one of the best known. It is 39 m. N.E. of Accra, stands on a ridge
+1400 ft. above sea-level, and is a healthy place for European residents.
+At Akropong are the headquarters of the Basel Missionary Society.
+Akuse is a large town on the banks of the Volta. Tarkwa is the
+centre of the gold mining industry in the Wasaw district. Its importance
+dates from the beginning of the 20th century. Accra, Cape
+Coast and Sekondi possess municipal government.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture and Trade</i>.&mdash;The soil is everywhere very fertile and the
+needs of the people being few there is little incentive to work. The
+forests alone supply an inexhaustible source of wealth, notably in the
+oil palm. Among vegetable products cultivated are cocoa, cotton,
+Indian corn, yams, cassava, peas, peppers, onions, tomatoes, groundnuts
+(<i>Arachis hypogaea</i>), Guinea corn (<i>Sorghum vulgare</i>) and Guinea
+grains (<i>Amomum grana-paradisi</i>). The most common article of
+cultivation is, however, the kola nut (<i>Sterculia acuminata</i>), the
+favourite substitute in West Africa for the betel nut. In 1890 efforts
+were made by the establishment of a government botanical station at
+Aburi in the Accra district to induce the natives to improve their
+methods of cultivation and to enlarge the number of their crops.
+This resulted in the formation of hundreds of cocoa plantations,
+chiefly in the district immediately north of Accra. Subsequently the
+cultivation of the plant extended to every district of the colony.
+The industry had been founded in 1879 by a native of Accra, but it
+was not until 1901, as the result of the government&rsquo;s fostering care,
+that the export became of importance. In that year the quantity
+exported slightly exceeded 2,000,000 &#8468; and fetched £42,000. In
+1907 the quantity exported was nearly 21,000,000 &#8468; and in value
+exceeded £515,000. In 1904 efforts were begun by the government
+and the British Cotton Growing Association in co-operation to foster
+the growing of cotton for export and by 1907 the cotton industry
+had become firmly established. Tobacco and coffee are grown at
+some of the Basel missionary stations.</p>
+
+<p>The chief exports are gold, palm oil and palm kernels, cocoa,
+rubber, timber (including mahogany) and kola nuts. Of these
+articles the gold and rubber are shipped chiefly to England, whilst
+Germany, France and America, take the palm products and groundnuts.
+The rubber comes chiefly from Ashanti. The imports consist
+of cotton goods, rum, gin and other spirits, rice, sugar, tobacco, beads,
+machinery, building materials and European goods generally.</p>
+
+<p>The value of the trade increased from £1,628,309 in 1896 to
+£4,055,351 in 1906. In the last named year the imports were valued
+at £2,058,839 and the exports at £1,996,412. While the value of
+imports had remained nearly stationary since 1902 the value of
+exports had nearly trebled in that period. In the five years 1903-1907
+the total trade increased from £3,063,486 to £5,007,869. Great
+Britain and British colonies take 66% of the exports and supply
+over 60% of the imports. In both import and export trade Germany
+is second, followed by France and the United States. Specie is included
+in these totals, over a quarter of a million being imported in
+1904.</p>
+
+<p>Fishing is carried on extensively along the coast, and salted and
+sun-dried fish from Addah and Kwitta districts find a ready sale
+inland. Cloths are woven by the natives from home-grown and
+imported yarn; the making of canoes, from the silk-cotton trees,
+is a flourishing industry, and salt from the lagoons near Addah is
+roughly prepared. There are also native artificers in gold and other
+metals, the workmanship in some cases being of conspicuous merit.
+Odum wood is largely used in building and for cabinet work.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gold Mining</i>.&mdash;Gold is found in almost every part of the colony,
+but only in a few districts in paying quantities. Although since the
+discovery of the coast gold had been continuously exported to
+Europe from its ports, it was not until the last twenty years of the
+19th century that efforts were made to extract gold according to
+modern methods. The richness of the Tarkwa main reef was first
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>205</span>
+discovered by a French trader, M. J. Bennat, about 1880. During
+the period 1880 to 1900 the value of the gold exported varied from
+a minimum of £32,000 to a maximum (1889) of £103,000. The
+increased interest shown in the industry led to the construction of a
+railway (see below) to the chief goldfields, whereby the difficulties of
+transport were largely overcome. Consequent upon the taking up of
+a number of concessions, a concessions ordinance was issued in
+August 1900. This was followed in 1901 by the grant of 2825 concessions,
+and a &ldquo;boom&rdquo; in the West African market on the London
+stock exchange. Many concessions were speedily abandoned, and in
+1901 the export of gold dropped to its lowest point, 6162 oz., worth
+£22,186, but in 1902 a large company began crushing ore and the
+output of gold rose to 26,911 oz., valued at £96,880. In 1907 the
+export was 292,125 oz., <span class="correction" title="amended from wotht">worth</span> £1,164,676. It should be noted that one
+of the principal gold mines is not in the colony proper, but at Obuassi
+in Ashanti. Underground labour is performed mainly by Basas and
+Krumen from Liberia. Of native tribes the Apollonia have proved
+the best for underground work, as they have mining traditions dating
+from Portuguese times. A good deal of alluvial gold is obtained by
+dredging apparatus. The use of dredging apparatus is modern, but
+the natives have worked the alluvial soil and the sand of the seashore
+for generations to get the gold they contain.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications</i>.&mdash;The colony possesses a railway, built and
+owned by the government, which serves the gold mines, and has its
+sea terminus at Sekondi. Work was begun in August 1898, but
+owing to the disturbance caused by the Ashanti rising of 1900 the
+rails only reached Tarkwa (39 m.) in May 1901. Thence the line is
+carried to Kumasi, the distance to Obuassi (124 m.) being completed
+by December 1902, whilst the first train entered the Ashanti capital
+on the 1st of October 1903. The total length of the line is 168 m.
+The cost of construction was £1,820,000. The line has a gauge
+3 ft. 6 in. There is a branch line, 20 m. long, from Tarkwa N.W. to
+Prestea on the Ankobra river. Another railway, built 1907-10,
+35 m. in length, runs from Accra to Mangoase, in the centre of the
+chief cocoa plantations. An extension to Kumasi has been surveyed.</p>
+
+<p>Tortuous bush tracks are the usual means of internal communication.
+These are kept in fair order in the neighbourhood of government
+stations. There is a well-constructed road 141 m. long from
+Cape Coast to Kumasi, and roads connecting neighbouring towns are
+maintained by the government. Systematic attempts to make use
+of the upper Volta as a means of conveying goods to the interior were
+first tried in 1900. The rapids about 60 m. from the mouth of the
+river effectually prevent boats of large size passing up the stream.
+Where railways or canoes are not available goods are generally
+carried on the heads of porters, 60 &#8468; being a full load. Telegraphs,
+introduced in 1882, connect all the important towns in the colony,
+and a line starting at Cape Coast stretches far inland, via Kumasi to
+Wa in the Northern Territories. Accra and Sekondi are in telegraphic
+communication with Europe, the Ivory Coast, Lagos and the Cape of
+Good Hope. There is regular and frequent steamship communication
+with Europe by British, Belgian and German lines.</p>
+
+<p><i>Administration, Revenue, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;The country is governed as a crown
+colony, the governor being assisted by a legislative council composed
+of officials and nominated unofficial members. Laws, called ordinances,
+are enacted by the governor with the advice and consent of
+this council. The law of the colony is the common law and statutes
+of general application in force in England in 1874, modified by local
+ordinances passed since that date. The governor is also governor of
+Ashanti and the Northern Territories, but in those dependencies the
+legislative council has no authority.</p>
+
+<p>Native laws and customs&mdash;which are extremely elaborate and
+complicated&mdash;are not interfered with &ldquo;except when repugnant to
+natural justice.&rdquo; Those relating to land tenure and succession may
+be thus summarized. Individual tenure is not unknown, but most
+land is held by the tribe or by the family in common, each member
+having the right to select a part of the common land for his own use.
+Permanent alienation can only take place with the unanimous
+consent of the family and is uncommon, but long leases are granted.
+Succession is through the female, <i>i.e.</i> when a man dies his property
+goes to his sister&rsquo;s children. The government of the tribes is by their
+own kings and chiefs under the supervision of district commissioners.
+Slavery has been abolished in the colony. In the Northern Territories
+the dealing in slaves is unlawful, neither can any person be
+put in pawn for debt; nor will any court give effect to the relations
+between master and slave except in so far as those relations may be
+in accordance with the English laws relating to master and servant.</p>
+
+<p>For administrative purposes the colony is divided into three
+provinces under provincial commissioners, and each province is subdivided
+into districts presided over by commissioners, who exercise
+judicial as well as executive functions. The supreme court consists
+of a chief justice and three puisne judges. The defence of the colony
+is entrusted to the Gold Coast regiment of the West African Frontier
+Force, a force of natives controlled by the Colonial Office but officered
+from the British army. There is also a corps of volunteers (formed
+1892).</p>
+
+<p>The chief source of revenue is the customs and (since 1902) railway
+receipts, whilst the heaviest items of expenditure are transport (including
+railways) and mine surveys, medical and sanitary services,
+and maintenance of the military force. The revenue, which in the
+period 1894-1898 averaged £244,559 yearly, rose in 1898-1903 to an
+average of £556,316 a year. For the five years 1903-1907 the
+average annual revenue was £647,557 and the average annual
+expenditure £615,696. Save for municipal purposes there is no
+direct taxation in the colony and no poor-houses exist. There is a
+public debt of (December 1907) £2,206,964. It should be noted that
+the expenditure on Ashanti and the Northern Territories is included
+in the Gold Coast budget.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>History</i>.&mdash;It is a debated question whether the Gold Coast was
+discovered by French or by Portuguese sailors. The evidence
+available is insufficient to prove the assertion, of which there is
+no contemporary record, that a company of Norman merchants
+established themselves about 1364 at a place they named La
+Mina (Elmina), and that they traded with the natives for nearly
+fifty years, when the enterprise was abandoned. It is well established
+that a Portuguese expedition under Diogo d&rsquo;Azambuja,
+accompanied probably by Christopher Columbus, took possession
+of (or founded) Elmina in 1481-1482. By the Portuguese it was
+called variously São Jorge da Mina or Ora del Mina&mdash;the mouth
+of the (gold) mines. That besides alluvial washings they also
+worked the gold mines was proved by discoveries in the latter
+part of the 19th century. The Portuguese remained undisturbed
+in their trade until the Reformation, when the papal bull which
+had given the country, with many others, to Portugal ceased to
+have a binding power. English ships in 1553 brought back from
+Guinea gold to the weight of 150 &#8468;. The fame of the Gold Coast
+thereafter attracted to it adventurers from almost every European
+nation. The English were followed by French, Danes, Brandenburgers,
+Dutch and Swedes. The most aggressive were the
+Dutch, who from the end of the 16th century sought to oust the
+Portuguese from the Gold Coast, and in whose favour the Portuguese
+did finally withdraw in 1642, in return for the withdrawal
+on the part of the Dutch of their claims to Brazil. The Dutch
+henceforth made Elmina their headquarters on the coast. Traces
+of the Portuguese occupation, which lasted 160 years, are still to
+be found, notably in the language of the natives. Such familiar
+words as palaver, fetish, caboceer and dash (<i>i.e.</i> a gift) have all a
+Portuguese origin.</p>
+
+<p>An English company built a fort at Kormantine previously to
+1651, and some ten years later Cape Coast Castle was built. The
+settlements made by the English provoked the hostility
+of the Dutch and led to war between England and
+<span class="sidenote">Appearance of the English.</span>
+Holland, during which Admiral de Ruyter destroyed
+(1664-1665) all the English forts save Cape Coast
+castle. The treaty of Breda in 1667 confirmed the Dutch in the
+possession of their conquests, but the English speedily opened
+other trading stations. Charles II. in 1672 granted a charter to
+the Royal African Company, which built forts at Dixcove,
+Sekondi, Accra, Whydah and other places, besides repairing Cape
+Coast Castle. At this time the trade both in slaves and gold was
+very great, and at the beginning of the 18th century the value of
+the gold exported annually was estimated by Willem Bosman, the
+chief Dutch factor at Elmina, to be over £200,000. The various
+European traders were constantly quarrelling among themselves
+and exercised scarcely any control over the natives. Piracy was rife
+along the coast, and was not indeed finally stamped out until the
+middle of the 19th century. The Royal African Company, which
+lost its monopoly of trade with England in 1700, was succeeded
+by another, the African Company of Merchants, which was constituted
+in 1750 by act of parliament and received an annual
+subsidy from government. The slave trade was then at its
+height and some 10,000 negroes were exported yearly. Many
+of the slaves were prisoners of war sold to the merchants by
+the Ashanti, who had become the chief native power. The abolition
+of the slave trade (1807) crippled the company, which was
+dissolved in 1821, when the crown took possession of the forts.</p>
+
+<p>Since the beginning of the 19th century the British had begun
+to exercise territorial rights in the towns where they held forts,
+and in 1817 the right of the British to control the natives living in
+the coast towns was recognized by Ashanti. In 1824 the first
+step towards the extension of British authority beyond the coast
+region was taken by Governor Sir Charles M&rsquo;Carthy, who incited
+the Fanti to rise against their oppressors, the Ashanti. (The
+Fanti&rsquo;s country had been conquered by the Ashanti in 1807.)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id="page206"></a>206</span>
+Sir Charles and the Fanti army were defeated, the governor losing
+his life, but in 1826 the English gained a victory over the Ashanti
+at Dodowah. At this period, however, the home government,
+disgusted with the Gold Coast by reason of the perpetual disturbances
+in the protectorate and the trouble it occasioned,
+determined to abandon the settlements, and sent instructions for
+the forts to be destroyed and the Europeans brought home. The
+merchants, backed by Major Rickets, 2nd West India regiments,
+the administrator, protested, and as a compromise the forts were
+handed over to a committee of merchants (Sept. 1828), who were
+given a subsidy of £4000 a year. The merchants secured (1830)
+as their administrator Mr George Maclean&mdash;a gentleman with
+military experience on the Gold Coast and not engaged in trade.
+To Maclean is due the consolidation of British interests in the
+interior. He concluded, 1831, a treaty with the Ashanti advantageous
+to the Fanti, whilst with very inadequate means he contrived
+to extend British influence over the whole region of the present
+colony. In the words of a Fanti trader Maclean understood the
+people, &ldquo;he settled things quietly with them and the people also
+loved him.&rdquo;<a name="fa2q" id="fa2q" href="#ft2q"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Complaints that Maclean encouraged slavery
+reached England, but these were completely disproved, the
+governor being highly commended on his administration by the
+House of Commons Committee. It was decided, nevertheless,
+that the Colonial Office should resume direct control of the forts,
+which was done in 1843, Maclean continuing to direct native
+affairs until his death in 1847. The jurisdiction of England on
+the Gold Coast was defined by the bond of the 6th of March 1844,
+<span class="sidenote">Danish and Dutch forts purchased.</span>
+an agreement with the native chiefs by which the
+crown received the right of trying criminals, repressing
+human sacrifice, &amp;c. The limits of the protectorate
+inland were not defined. The purchase of the Danish
+forts in 1850, and of the Dutch forts and territory in
+1871, led to the consolidation of the British power along the
+coast; and the Ashanti war of 1873-74 resulted in the extension
+of the area of British influence. Since that time the colony has
+been chiefly engaged in the development of its material resources,
+a development accompanied by a slow but substantial advance
+in civilization among the native population. (For further
+historical information see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ashanti</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>For a time the Gold Coast formed officially a limb of the
+&ldquo;West African Settlements&rdquo; and was virtually a dependency of
+Sierra Leone. In 1874 the settlements on the Gold Coast and
+Lagos were created a separate crown colony, this arrangement
+lasting until 1886 when Lagos was cut off from the Gold Coast
+administration.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Northern Territories.</i></p>
+
+<p>The Northern Territories of the Gold Coast form a British
+protectorate to the north of Ashanti. They are bounded W. and
+N.&mdash;where 11° N. is the frontier line except at the eastern
+extremity&mdash;by the French colonies of the Ivory Coast and Upper
+Senegal and Niger, E. by the German colony of Togoland. The
+southern frontier, separating the protectorate from Ashanti, is
+the Black Volta to a point a little above its junction with the
+White Volta. Thence the frontier turns south and afterwards
+east so as to include the Brumasi district in the protectorate,
+the frontier gaining the main Volta below Yeji. The Territories
+include nearly all the country from the meridian of Greenwich
+to 3° W. and between 8° and 11° N., and cover an area of about
+33,000 sq. m.</p>
+
+<p>Lying north of the great belt of primeval forest which extends
+parallel to the Guinea coast, the greater part of the protectorate
+consists of open country, well timbered, and much of it presenting
+a park-like appearance. There are also large stretches of grassy
+plains, and in the south-east an area of treeless steppe. The flora
+and fauna resemble those of Ashanti. The country is well
+watered, the Black Volta forming the west and southern frontier
+for some distance, while the White Volta traverses its central
+regions. Both rivers, and also the united stream, contain rapids
+which impede but do not prevent navigation (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Volta</a></span>). The
+climate is much healthier than that of the coast districts, and the
+fever experienced is of a milder type. The rainfall is less than on
+the coast; the dry season lasts from November (when the
+harmattan begins to blow) to March. The mean temperature at
+Gambaga is 80° F., the mean annual rainfall 43 in. The inhabitants
+were officially estimated in 1907 to number &ldquo;at least
+1,000,000.&rdquo; The Dagomba, Dagarti, Grunshi, Kangarga, Moshi
+and Zebarima, Negro or Negroid tribes, constitute the bulk of the
+people, and Fula, Hausa and Yoruba have settled as traders or
+cattle raisers. A large number of the natives are Moslems, the
+rest are fetish worshippers. The tribal organization is maintained
+by the British authorities, who found comparatively little
+difficulty in putting an end to slave-raiding and gaining the
+confidence of the chiefs. Trained by British officers, the natives
+make excellent soldiers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Agriculture and Trade</i>.&mdash;The chief crops are maize, guinea-corn,
+millet, yams, rice, beans, groundnuts, tobacco and cotton. Cotton is
+grown in most parts of the protectorate, the soil and climate in many
+districts being very suitable for its cultivation. Rubber is found in
+the north-western regions. When the protectorate was assumed by
+Great Britain the Territories were singularly destitute of fruit trees.
+The British have introduced the orange, citron, lime, guava, mango
+and soursop, and among plants the banana, pine-apple and papaw.
+A large number of vegetables and flowers have also been introduced
+by the administration.</p>
+
+<p>Stock-raising is carried on extensively, and besides oxen and sheep
+there are large numbers of horses and donkeys in the Territories.
+The chief exports are cattle, <i>dawa-dawa</i> (a favourite flavouring
+matter for soup among the Ashanti and other tribes) and shea-butter&mdash;the
+latter used in cooking and as an illuminant. The
+principal imports are kola-nuts, salt and cotton goods. A large
+proportion of the European goods imported is German and comes
+through Togoland. The administration levies a tax on traders&rsquo;
+caravans, and in return ensures the safety of the roads. This tax is
+the chief local source of revenue. The revenue and expenditure of the
+Territories, as well as statistics of trade, are included in those of the
+Gold Coast.</p>
+
+<p>Gold exists in quartz formation, chiefly in the valley of the Black
+Volta, and is found equally on the British and French sides of the
+frontier.</p>
+
+<p><i>Towns.</i>&mdash;The headquarters of the administration are at Tamale
+(or Tamari), a town in the centre of the Dagomba country east of the
+White Volta and 200 m. N.E. of Kumasi. Its inhabitants are keen
+traders, and it forms a distributing centre for the whole protectorate.
+Gambaga, an important commercial centre and from 1897 to 1907
+the seat of government, is in Mamprusi, the north-east corner of the
+protectorate and is 85 m. N.N.E. of Tamale. A hundred and forty
+miles due south of Gambaga is Salaga. This town is situated on the
+caravan route from the Hausa states to Ashanti, and has a considerable
+trade in kola-nuts, shea-butter and salt. On the White Volta,
+midway between Gambaga and Salaga, is the thriving town of
+Daboya. On the western frontier are Bole (Baule) and Wa. They
+carry on an extensive trade with Bontuku, the capital of Jaman, and
+other places in the Ivory Coast colony. In all the towns the population
+largely consists of aliens&mdash;Hausa, Ashanti, Mandingos, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications</i>.&mdash;Lack of easy communication with the sea
+hinders the development of the country. The ancient caravan routes
+have been, however, supplemented by roads built by the British,
+who have further organized a service of boats on the Volta. Large
+cargo boats, chiefly laden with salt, ascend that river from Addah to
+Yeji and Daboya. From Yeji, the port of Salaga, a good road, 150
+m. long, has been made to Gambaga. There is also a river service
+from Yeji to Longoro on the Black Volta, the port of Kintampo, in
+northern Ashanti. There is a complete telegraphic system connecting
+the towns of the protectorate with Kumasi and the Gold Coast
+ports.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>History</i>.&mdash;It was not until the last quarter of the 19th century
+that the country immediately north of Ashanti became known
+to Europeans. The first step forward was made by Monsieur
+M. J. Bonnat (one of the Kumasi captives, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ashanti</a></span>) who,
+ascending the Volta, reached Salaga (1875-1876). In 1882
+Captain R. La Trobe Lonsdale, an officer in British colonial
+service, went farther, visiting Yendi in the north and Bontuku
+in the west. Two years later Captain Brandon Kirby made his
+way to Kintampo. In 1887-1889 Captain L. G. Binger, a French
+officer, traversed the country from north to south. Thereafter
+the whole region was visited by British, French and German
+political missions. Prominent among the British agents was
+Mr George E. Ferguson, a native of West Africa, who had
+previously explored northern Ashanti. Between 1892 and 1897
+Ferguson concluded several treaties guarding British interests.
+In 1897 Lieutenant Henderson and Ferguson occupied Wa, where
+they were attacked by the <i>sofas</i> of Samory (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Senegal</a></span>, § 3).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>207</span>
+Henderson, who had gone to the <i>sofa</i> camp to parley, was
+held prisoner for some time, while Ferguson was killed. Meantime
+negotiations were opened in Europe to settle the spheres
+of influence of the respective countries. (The Anglo-French
+agreement of 1889 had fixed the boundaries of the hinterlands
+of the French colony of the Ivory Coast and the British colony
+of the Gold Coast as far as 9° N. only.) A period of considerable
+tension, arising from the proximity of British and French troops
+in the disputed territory, was ended by the signature of a convention
+in Paris (14th of June 1898), in which the western and
+northern boundaries were defined. The British abandoned
+their claim to the important town and district of Wagadugu
+in the north. In the following year (14th of November 1899)
+an agreement defining the eastern frontier was concluded with
+Germany. Previously a square block of territory to the north
+of 8° N. had been regarded as neutral, both by Britain and
+Germany. This was in virtue of an arrangement made in 1888.
+By the 1899 convention the neutral zone was parcelled out
+between the two powers. The delimitation of the frontiers
+agreed upon took place during 1900-1904.</p>
+
+<p>In 1897 the Northern Territories were constituted a separate
+district of the Gold Coast hinterland, and were placed in charge
+of a chief commissioner. Colonel H. P. Northcott (killed in the
+Boer War, 1899-1902) was the first commissioner and commandant
+of the troops. He was succeeded by Col. A. H. Morris.
+In 1901 the Territories were made a distinct administration,
+under the jurisdiction of the governor of the Gold Coast colony.
+The government was at first of a semi-military character, but in
+1907 a civilian staff was appointed to carry on the administration,
+and a force of armed constabulary replaced the troops which
+had been stationed in the protectorate and which were then
+disbanded. The prosperity of the country under British administration
+has been marked.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;A good summary of the condition and history of
+the colony to the close of the 19th century will be found in vol. 3,
+&ldquo;West Africa,&rdquo; of the <i>Historical Geography of the British Empire</i> by
+C. P. Lucas (2nd ed., Oxford, 1900). For current information see
+the <i>Gold Coast Civil Service List</i> (London, yearly), the annual Blue
+Books published in the colony, and the annual <i>Report</i> issued by the
+Colonial Office, London. For fuller information consult the <i>Report
+from the Select Committee on Africa</i> (<i>Western Coast</i>) (London, 1865),
+a mine of valuable information; <i>The Gold Coast, Past and Present</i>,
+by G. Macdonald (London, 1898); <i>History of the Gold Coast and
+Ashanti</i>, by C. C. Reindorf, a native pastor (Basel, 1895); <i>A History
+of the Gold Coast</i>, by Col. A. B. Ellis (London, 1893); <i>Wanderings in
+West Africa</i> (London, 1863) and <i>To the Gold Coast for Gold</i> (London,
+1883), both by Sir Richard Burton. Of the earlier books the most
+notable are <i>The Golden Coast or a Description of Guinney together with
+a relation of such persons as got wonderful estates by their trade thither</i>
+(London, 1665), and <i>A New and Accurate Description of the Coast of
+Guinea</i> written (in Dutch) by Willem Bosman, chief factor for the
+Dutch at Elmina (Eng. trans., 2nd ed., 1721). For a complete survey
+of the Gold Coast under Dutch control see &ldquo;Die Niederländisch
+West-Indische Compagnie an der Gold-Küste&rdquo; by J. G. Doorman
+in <i>Tijds Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenk</i>, vol. 40 (1898). For
+ethnography, religion, law, &amp;c., consult <i>The Land of Fetish</i> (London,
+1883) and <i>The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the West Coast of Africa</i>
+(London, 1887), both by Col. A. B. Ellis; <i>Fanti Customary Law</i> (2nd
+ed., London, 1904) and <i>Fanti Law Report</i> (London, 1904), both by
+J. M. Sarbah. The <i>Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa</i> by Sir Alfred
+Moloney (London, 1887) contains a comprehensive list of economic
+plants. See also <i>Report on Economic Agriculture on the Gold Coast</i>
+(Colonial Office Reports, No. 110, 1890), and <i>Papers relating to the
+Construction of Railways in ... the Gold Coast</i> (London, 1904).
+The best map is that of Major F. G. Guggisberg, over 70 sheets,
+scale 1 : 125,000 (London, 1907-1909). There is a War Office map on
+the scale 1 : 1,000,000 in one sheet. See also the works quoted under
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ashanti</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>For the Northern Territories see L. G. Binger, <i>Du Niger au Golfe
+de Guinée</i> (Paris, 1892), a standard authority; H. P. Northcott,
+<i>Report on the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast</i> (War Office,
+London, 1899), a valuable compilation summarizing the then available
+information. Annual <i>Reports</i> on the protectorate are issued by
+the British Colonial Office. A map on the scale of 1 : 1,000,000 is
+issued by the War Office.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. R. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1q" id="ft1q" href="#fa1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This name appears in a great variety of forms&mdash;Kwi, Ekwi,
+Okwi, Oji, Odschi, Otsui, Tyi, Twi, Tschi, Chwee or Chee.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2q" id="ft2q" href="#fa2q"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Blue Book on <i>Africa</i> (<i>Western Coast</i>) (1865), p. 233.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDEN,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county,
+Colorado, U.S.A., on Clear Creek (formerly called the Vasquez
+fork of the South Platte), about 14 m. W. by N. of Denver.
+Pop. (1900) 2152; (1910) 2477. Golden is a residential suburb
+of Denver, served by the Colorado &amp; Southern, the Denver &amp;
+Intermountain (electric), and the Denver &amp; North-Western
+Electric railways. It is about 5700 ft. above sea-level. About
+600 ft. above the city is Castle Rock, with an amusement park,
+and W. of Golden is Lookout Mountain, a natural park of 3400
+acres. About 1 m. S. of the city is a state industrial school for
+boys, and in Golden is the Colorado State School of Mines
+(opened 1874), which offers courses in mining engineering and
+metallurgical engineering. The Independent Pyritic Smelter
+is at Golden, and among the city&rsquo;s manufactures are pottery,
+firebrick and tile, made from clays found near by, and flour.
+There are deposits of coal, copper and gold in the vicinity.
+Truck-farming and the growing of fruit are important industries
+in the neighbourhood. The first settlement here was a gold
+mining camp, established in 1859, and named in honour of
+Tom Golden, one of the pioneer prospectors. The village was
+laid out in 1860, and Golden was incorporated as a town in 1865
+and was chartered as a city in 1870. Golden was made the
+capital of Colorado Territory in 1862, and several sessions (or
+parts of sessions) of the Assembly were held here between 1864
+and 1868, when the seat of government was formally established
+at Denver; the territorial offices of Colorado, however, were
+at Golden only in 1866-1867.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDEN BULL<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Bulla Aurea</i>), the general designation
+of any charter decorated with a golden seal or <i>bulla</i>, either owing
+to the intrinsic importance of its contents, or to the rank and
+dignity of the bestower or the recipient. The custom of thus
+giving distinction to certain documents is said to be of Byzantine
+origin, though if this be the case it is somewhat strange that the
+word employed as an equivalent for golden bull in Byzantine
+Greek should be the hybrid <span class="grk" title="chrysoboullon">&#967;&#961;&#965;&#963;&#972;&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#955;&#959;&#957;</span> (cf. Codinus Curopalates,
+<span class="grk" title="ho megas logothetês diatattei ta para tou basileôs
+apostellomena prostagmata kai chrysoboulla pros te Hrêgas,
+Soultanas, kai toparchous">&#8001; &#956;&#941;&#947;&#945;&#962; &#955;&#959;&#947;&#959;&#952;&#941;&#964;&#951;&#962; &#948;&#953;&#945;&#964;&#940;&#964;&#964;&#949;&#953; &#964;&#8048; &#960;&#945;&#961;&#8048; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#946;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#955;&#941;&#969;&#962;
+&#7936;&#960;&#959;&#963;&#964;&#949;&#955;&#955;&#972;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#945; &#960;&#961;&#959;&#963;&#964;&#940;&#947;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#967;&#961;&#965;&#963;&#972;&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#955;&#945; &#960;&#961;&#972;&#962; &#964;&#949; &#8172;&#942;&#947;&#945;&#962;,
+&#931;&#959;&#973;&#955;&#964;&#945;&#957;&#945;&#962;, &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#964;&#959;&#960;&#940;&#961;&#967;&#959;&#965;&#962;</span>; and Anna Comnena, Alexiad, lib. iii. <span class="grk" title="dia
+Xpusobouliou logou">&#948;&#953;&#8048; &#967;&#961;&#965;&#963;&#959;&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#943;&#959;&#965; &#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#965;</span>; lib. viii., <span class="grk" title="chrysoboulon logon">&#967;&#961;&#965;&#963;&#972;&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#959;&#957; &#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#957;</span>). In Germany
+a Golden Bull is mentioned under the reign of Henry I. the Fowler
+in Chronica Cassin. ii. 31, and the oldest German example, if it
+be genuine, dates from 983. At first the golden seal was formed
+after the type of a solid coin, but at a later date, while the golden
+surface presented to the eye was greatly increased, the seal was
+really composed of two thin metal plates filled in with wax.
+The number of golden bulls issued by the imperial chancery
+must have been very large; the city of Frankfort, for example,
+preserves no fewer than eight.</p>
+
+<p>The name, however, has become practically restricted to a few
+documents of unusual political importance, the golden bull of
+the Empire, the golden bull of Brabant, the golden bull of
+Hungary and the golden bull of Milan&mdash;and of these the first
+is undoubtedly <i>the</i> Golden Bull <i>par excellence</i>. The main object
+of the Golden Bull was to provide a set of rules for the election
+of the German kings, or kings of the Romans, as they are called
+in this document. Since the informal establishment of the
+electoral college about a century before (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Electors</a></span>), various
+disputes had taken place about the right of certain princes to
+vote at the elections, these and other difficulties having arisen
+owing to the absence of any authoritative ruling. The spiritual
+electors, it is true, had exercised their votes without challenge,
+but far different was the case of the temporal electors. The
+families ruling in Saxony and in Bavaria had been divided into
+two main branches and, as the German states had not yet
+accepted the principles of primogeniture, it was uncertain which
+member of the divided family should vote. Thus, both the
+prince ruling in Saxe-Lauenburg and the prince ruling in Saxe-Wittenberg
+claimed the vote, and the two branches of the
+family of Wittelsbach, one settled in Bavaria and the other in
+the Rhenish palatinate, were similarly at variance, while the
+duke of Bavaria also claimed the vote at the expense of the
+king of Bohemia. Moreover, there had been several disputed
+and double elections to the German crown during the past
+century. In more than one instance a prince, chosen by a
+minority of the electors, had claimed to exercise the functions
+of king, and as often civil war had been the result. Under these
+circumstances the emperor Charles IV. determined by an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208"></a>208</span>
+authoritative pronouncement to make such proceedings impossible
+in the future, and at the same time to add to his own power
+and prestige, especially in his capacity as king of Bohemia.</p>
+
+<p>Having arranged various disputes in Germany, and having in
+April 1355 secured his coronation in Rome, Charles gave instructions
+for the bull to be drawn up. It is uncertain who is responsible
+for its actual composition. The honour has been assigned
+to Bartolo of Sassoferrato, professor of law at Pisa and Perugia,
+to the imperial secretary, Rudolph of Friedberg, and even to
+the emperor himself, but there is no valid authority for giving
+it to any one of the three in preference to the others. In its
+first form the bull was promulgated at the diet of Nuremberg
+on the 10th of January 1356, but it was not accepted by the
+princes until some modifications had been introduced, and in
+its final form it was issued at the diet of Metz on the 25th of
+December following.</p>
+
+<p>The text of the Golden Bull consists of a prologue and of
+thirty-one chapters. Some lines of verse invoking the aid of
+Almighty God are followed by a rhetorical statement of the
+evils which arise from discord and division, illustrations being
+taken from Adam, who was divided from obedience and thus fell,
+and from Helen of Troy who was divided from her husband.
+The early chapters are mainly concerned with details of the
+elaborate ceremonies which are to be observed on the occasion
+of an election. The number of electors is fixed at seven, the duke
+of Saxe-Wittenberg, not the duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, receiving
+the Saxon vote, and the count palatine, not the duke of Bavaria,
+obtaining the vote of the Wittelsbachs. The electors were arranged
+in order of precedence thus: the archbishops of Mainz,
+of Trier and of Cologne, the king of Bohemia, <i>qui inter electores
+laicos ex regiae dignitatis fastigio jure et merito obtinet primatiam</i>,
+the count palatine of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony and the
+margrave of Brandenburg. The three archbishops were respectively
+arch-chancellors of the three principal divisions of the
+Empire, Germany, Arles and Italy, and the four secular electors
+each held an office in the imperial household, the functions of
+which they were expected to discharge on great occasions.
+The king of Bohemia was the arch-cupbearer, the count palatine
+was the arch-steward (<i>dapifer</i>), the duke of Saxony was arch-marshal,
+and the margrave of Brandenburg was arch-chamberlain.
+The work of summoning the electors and of presiding over
+their deliberations fell to the archbishop of Mainz, but if he
+failed to discharge this duty the electors were to assemble without
+summons within three months of the death of a king. Elections
+were to be held at Frankfort; they were to be decided by a
+majority of votes, and the subsequent coronation at Aix-la-Chapelle
+was to be performed by the archbishop of Cologne.
+During a vacancy in the Empire the work of administering the
+greater part of Germany was entrusted to the count palatine
+of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony being responsible, however,
+for the government of Saxony, or rather for the districts <i>ubi
+Saxonica jura servantur</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The chief result of the bull was to add greatly to the power of
+the electors; for, to quote Bryce (<i>Holy Roman Empire</i>), it
+&ldquo;confessed and legalized the independence of the electors and
+the powerlessness of the crown.&rdquo; To these princes were given
+sovereign rights in their dominions, which were declared indivisible
+and were to pass according to the rule of primogeniture.
+Except in extreme cases, there was to be no appeal from the
+sentences of their tribunals, and they were confirmed in the right
+of coining money, of taking tolls, and in other privileges, while
+conspirators against their lives were to suffer the penalties of
+treason. One clause gave special rights and immunities to the
+king of Bohemia, who, it must be remembered, at this time was
+Charles himself, and others enjoined the observance of the public
+peace. Provision was made for an annual meeting of the electors,
+to be held at Metz four weeks after Easter, when matters <i>pro
+bono et salute communi</i> were to be discussed. This arrangement,
+however, was not carried out, although the electors met occasionally.
+Another clause forbade the cities to receive <i>Pfahlbürger</i>,
+<i>i.e.</i> forbade them to take men dwelling outside their walls under
+their protection. It may be noted that there is no admission
+whatever that the election of a king needs confirmation from
+the pope.</p>
+
+<p>The Golden Bull was thus a great victory for the electors, but
+it weakened the position of the German king and was a distinct
+humiliation for the other princes and for the cities. The status
+of those rulers who did not obtain the electoral privilege was
+lowered by this very fact, and the regulations about the <i>Pfahlbürger</i>,
+together with the prohibition of new leagues and associations,
+struck a severe blow at the cities. The German kings were
+elected according to the conditions laid down in the bull until
+the dissolution of the Empire in 1806. At first the document
+was known simply as the Lex Carolina; but gradually the name
+of the Book with the Golden Bull came into use, and the present
+elliptical title was sufficiently established by 1417 to be officially
+employed in a charter by King Sigismund. The original autograph
+was committed to the care of the elector of Mainz, and it
+was preserved in the archives at Mainz till 1789. Official transcripts
+were probably furnished to each of the seven electors at
+the time of the promulgation, and before long many of the other
+members of the Empire secured copies for themselves. The
+transcript which belonged to the elector of Trier is preserved in
+the state archives at Stuttgart, that of the elector of Cologne in
+the court library at Darmstadt, and that of the king of Bohemia
+in the imperial archives at Vienna. Berlin, Munich and Dresden
+also boast the possession of an electoral transcript; and the
+town of Kitzingen has a contemporary copy in its municipal
+archives. There appears, however, to be good reason to doubt
+the genuineness of most of these so-called original transcripts.
+But perhaps the best known example is that of Frankfort-on-Main,
+which was procured from the imperial chancery in 1366,
+and is adorned with a golden seal like the original. Not only
+was it regularly quoted as the indubitable authority in regard
+to the election of the emperors in Frankfort itself, but it
+was from time to time officially consulted by members of the
+Empire.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The manuscript consists of 43 leaves of parchment of medium
+quality, each measuring about 10<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. in height by 7<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in breadth.
+The seal is of the plate and wax type. On the obverse appears a
+figure of the emperor seated on his throne, with the sceptre in his
+right hand and the globe in his left; a shield, with the crowned
+imperial eagle, occupies the space on the one side of the throne, and
+a corresponding shield, with the crowned Bohemian lion with two
+tails, occupies the space on the other side; and round the margin
+runs the legend, <i>Karolus quartus divina favente clementia, Romanorum
+imperator semper Augustus et Boëmiae rex</i>. On the reverse is a castle,
+with the words <i>Aurea Roma</i> on the gate, and the circumscription
+reads, <i>Roma caput mundi regit orbis frena rotundi</i>. The original Latin
+text of the bull was printed at Nuremberg by Friedrich Creussner in
+1474, and a second edition by Anthonius Koburger (d. 1532) appeared
+at the same place in 1477. Since that time it has been frequently
+reprinted from various manuscripts and collections. M. Goldast gave
+the Palatine text, compared with those of Bohemia and Frankfort,
+in his <i>Collectio constitutionum et legum imperialium</i> (Frankfort, 1613).
+Another is to be found in <i>De comitiis imperii</i> of O. Panvinius, and a
+third, of unknown history, is prefixed to the <i>Codex recessuum
+Imperii</i> (Mainz, 1599, and again 1615). The Frankfort text appeared
+in 1742 as <i>Aurea Bulla secundum exemplar originale Frankfurtense</i>,
+edited by W. C. Multz, and the text is also found in J. J. Schmauss,
+Corpus juris publici, edited by R. von Hommel (Leipzig, 1794), and
+in the <i>Ausgewählte Urkunden zur Erläuterung der Verfassungsgeschichte
+Deutschlands im Mittelalter</i>, edited by W. Altmann and
+E. Bernheim (Berlin, 1891, and again 1895). German translations,
+none of which, however, had any official authority, were published
+at Nuremberg about 1474, at Venice in 1476, and at Strassburg in
+1485. Among the earlier commentators on the document are
+H. Canisius and J. Limnaeus who wrote <i>In Auream Bullam</i> (Strassburg,
+1662). The student will find a good account of the older literature
+on the subject in C. G. Biener&rsquo;s <i>Commentarii de origine et progressu
+legum juriumque Germaniae</i> (1787-1795). See also J. D. von
+Olenschläger, <i>Neue Erläuterungen der Guldenen Bulle</i> (Frankfort and
+Leipzig, 1766); H. G. von Thulemeyer, <i>De Bulla Aurea, Argentea</i>, &amp;c.
+(Heidelberg, 1682); J. St Pütter, <i>Historische Entwickelung der
+heutigen Staatsverfassung des teutschen Reichs</i> (Göttingen, 1786-1787),
+and O. Stobbe, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Rechtsquellen</i> (Brunswick,
+1860-1864). Among the more modern works may be
+mentioned: E. Nerger, <i>Die Goldne Bulle nach ihrem Ursprung</i>
+(Göttingen, 1877), O. Hahn, <i>Ursprung und Bedeutung der Goldnen
+Bulle</i> (Breslau, 1903); and M. G. Schmidt, <i>Die staatsrechtliche
+Anwendung der Goldnen Bulle</i> (Halle, 1894). There is a valuable
+contribution to the subject in the <i>Quellensammlung zur Geschichte der
+deutschen Reichsverfassung</i>, edited by K. Zeumer (Leipzig, 1904), and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>209</span>
+another by O. Harnack in his <i>Das Kurfürsten Kollegium bis zur
+Mitte des 14ten Jahrhunderts</i> (Giessen, 1883). There is an English translation
+of the bull in E. F. Henderson&rsquo;s <i>Select Historical Documents of
+the Middle Ages</i> (London, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDEN-EYE,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> a name indiscriminately given in many parts
+of Britain to two very distinct species of ducks, from the rich
+yellow colour of their irides. The commonest of them&mdash;the
+<i>Anas fuligula</i> of Linnaeus and <i>Fuligula cristata</i> of most modern
+ornithologists&mdash;is, however, usually called by English writers
+the tufted duck, while &ldquo;golden-eye&rdquo; is reserved in books for
+the <i>A. clangula</i> and <i>A. glaucion</i> of Linnaeus, who did not know
+that the birds he so named were but examples of the same
+species, differing only in age or sex; and to this day many fowlers
+perpetuate a like mistake, deeming the &ldquo;Morillon,&rdquo; which is the
+female or young male, distinct from the &ldquo;Golden-eye&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;Rattle-wings&rdquo; (as from its noisy flight they oftener call it),
+which is the adult male. This species belongs to the group known
+as diving ducks, and is the type of the very well-marked genus
+<i>Clangula</i> of later systematists, which, among other differences,
+has the posterior end of the sternum prolonged so as to extend
+considerably over, and, we may not unreasonably suppose,
+protect the belly&mdash;a character possessed in a still greater degree
+by the mergansers (<i>Merginae</i>), while the males also exhibit in
+the extraordinarily developed bony labyrinth of their trachea
+and its midway enlargement another resemblance to the members
+of the same subfamily. The golden-eye, <i>C. glaucion</i> of modern
+writers, has its home in the northern parts of both hemispheres,
+whence in winter it migrates southward; but as it is one of the
+ducks that constantly resorts to hollow trees for the purpose
+of breeding it hardly transcends the limit of the Arctic forests
+on either continent. So well known is this habit to the people
+of the northern districts of Scandinavia, that they very commonly
+devise artificial nest-boxes for its accommodation and their own
+profit. Hollow logs of wood are prepared, the top and bottom
+closed, and a hole cut in the side. These are affixed to the trunks
+of living trees in suitable places, at a convenient distance from
+the ground, and, being readily occupied by the birds in the breeding
+season, are regularly robbed, first of the numerous eggs, and
+finally of the down they contain, by those who have set them up.</p>
+
+<p>The adult male golden-eye is a very beautiful bird, mostly
+black above, but with the head, which is slightly crested, reflecting
+rich green lights, a large oval white patch under each eye
+and elongated white scapulars; the lower parts are wholly
+white and the feet bright orange, except the webs, which are
+dusky. In the female and young male, dark brown replaces the
+black, the cheek-spots are indistinct and the elongated white
+scapulars wanting. The golden-eye of North America has been
+by some authors deemed to differ, and has been named <i>C.
+americana</i>, but apparently on insufficient grounds. North
+America, however, has, in common with Iceland, a very distinct
+species, <i>C. islandica</i>, often called Barrow&rsquo;s duck, which is but
+a rare straggler to the continent of Europe, and never, so far
+as known, to Britain. In Iceland and Greenland it is the only
+habitual representative of the genus, and it occurs from thence
+to the Rocky Mountains. In breeding-habits it differs from the
+commoner species, not placing its eggs in tree-holes; but how
+far this difference is voluntary may be doubted, for in the
+countries it frequents trees are wanting. It is a larger and
+stouter bird, and in the male the white cheek-patches take a more
+crescentic form, while the head is glossed with purple rather
+than green, and the white scapulars are not elongated. The New
+World also possesses a third and still more beautiful species of
+the genus in <i>C. albeola</i>, known in books as the buffel-headed duck,
+and to American fowlers as the &ldquo;spirit-duck&rdquo; and &ldquo;butter-ball&rdquo;&mdash;the
+former name being applied from its rapidity in diving, and
+the latter from its exceeding fatness in autumn. This is of small
+size, but the lustre of the feathers in the male is most brilliant,
+exhibiting a deep plum-coloured gloss on the head. It breeds
+in trees, and is supposed to have occurred more than once in
+Britain.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDEN FLEECE,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the fleece of the
+ram on which Phrixus and Helle escaped, for which see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Argonauts</a></span>. For the modern order of the Golden Fleece, see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Knighthood and Chivalry</a></span>, section <i>Orders of Knighthood</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDEN HORDE,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> the name of a body of Tatars who in the
+middle of the 13th century overran a great portion of eastern
+Europe and founded in Russia the Tatar empire of khanate
+known as the Empire of the Golden Horde or Western Kipchaks.
+They invaded Europe about 1237 under the leadership of B&#257;t&#363;
+Khan, a younger son of Juji, eldest son of Jenghiz Khan, passed
+over Russia with slaughter and destruction, and penetrated
+into Silesia, Poland and Hungary, finally defeating Henry II.,
+duke of Silesia, at Liegnitz in the battle known as the Wahlstatt
+on the 9th of April 1241. So costly was this victory, however,
+that B&#257;t&#363;, finding he could not reduce Neustadt, retraced his
+steps and established himself in his magnificent tent (whence
+the name &ldquo;golden&rdquo;) on the Volga. The new settlement was
+known as <i>Sir Orda</i> (&ldquo;Golden Camp,&rdquo; whence &ldquo;Golden <i>Horde</i>&rdquo;).
+Very rapidly the powers of B&#257;t&#363; extended over the Russian
+princes, and so long as the khanate remained in the direct
+descent from B&#257;t&#363; nothing occurred to check the growth of the
+empire. The names of B&#257;t&#363;&rsquo;s successors are Sartak (1256),
+Bereke (Baraka) (1256-1266), Mang&#363;-Tim&#363;r (1266-1280), T&#363;da
+Mang&#363; (1280-1287). (?) T&#363;la Bugh&#257; (1287-1290), T&#333;kt&#363; (1290-1312),
+&#362;zbeg (1312-1340), T&#299;n-Beg (1340), J&#257;n&#299;-Beg (1340-1357).
+The death of J&#257;n&#299;-Beg, however, threw the empire into
+confusion. Bird&#299;-Beg (Berdi-Beg) only reigned for two years,
+after which two rulers, calling themselves sons of J&#257;n&#299;-Beg
+occupied the throne during one year. From that time (1359)
+till 1378 no single ruler held the whole empire under control,
+various members of the other branches of the old house of J&#363;j&#299;
+assuming the title. At last in 1378 T&#333;k&#7789;&#257;mish, of the Eastern
+Kipchaks, succeeded in ousting all rivals, and establishing
+himself as ruler of eastern and western Kipchak. For a short
+time the glory of the Golden Horde was renewed, until it was
+finally crushed by Timur in 1395.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mongols</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Russia</a></span>; Sir Henry Howorth&rsquo;s <i>History
+of the Mongols</i>; S. Lane-Poole&rsquo;s <i>Mohammadan Dynasties</i> (1894),
+pp. 222-231; for the relations of the various descendants of Jenghiz,
+see Stockvis, <i>Manuel d&rsquo;histoire</i>, vol. i. chap. ix. table 7.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDEN ROD,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> in botany, the popular name for <i>Solidago
+virgaurea</i> (natural order Compositae), a native of Britain and
+widely distributed in the north temperate region. It is an old-fashioned
+border-plant flowering from July to September, with
+an erect, sparingly-branched stem and small bright-yellow
+clustered heads of flowers. It grows well in common soil and is
+readily propagated by division in the spring or autumn.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDEN ROSE<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (<i>rosa aurea</i>), an ornament made of wrought
+gold and set with gems, generally sapphires, which is blessed
+by the pope on the fourth (<i>Laetare</i>) Sunday of Lent, and usually
+afterwards sent as a mark of special favour to some distinguished
+individual, to a church, or a civil community. Formerly it
+was a single rose of wrought gold, coloured red, but the form
+finally adopted is a thorny branch with leaves and flowers, the
+petals of which are decked with gems, surmounted by one
+principal rose. The origin of the custom is obscure. From very
+early times popes have given away a rose on the fourth Sunday
+of Lent, whence the name Dominica Rosa, sometimes given to
+this feast. The practice of blessing and sending some such
+symbol (<i>e.g.</i> <i>eulogiae</i>) goes back to the earliest Christian antiquity,
+but the use of the rose itself does not seem to go farther back than
+the 11th century. According to some authorities it was used
+by Leo IX. (1049-1054), but in any case Pope Urban II. sent one
+to Fulk of Anjou during the preparations for the first crusade.
+Pope Urban V., who sent a golden rose to Joanna of Naples in
+1366, is alleged to have been the first to determine that one
+should be consecrated annually. Beginning with the 16th
+century there went regularly with the rose a letter relating the
+reasons why it was sent, and reciting the merits and virtues
+of the receiver. When the change was made from the form
+of the simple rose to the branch is uncertain. The rose sent
+by Innocent IV. in 1244 to Count Raymond Berengar IV. of
+Provence was a simple flower without any accessory ornamentation,
+while the one given by Benedict XI. in 1303 or 1304 to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>210</span>
+church of St Stephen at Perugia consisted of a branch garnished
+with five open and two closed roses enriched with a sapphire,
+the whole having a value of seventy ducats. The value of the
+gift varied according to the character or rank of the recipient.
+John XXII. gave away some weighing 12 oz., and worth
+from £250 to £325. Among the recipients of this honour have
+been Henry VI. of England, 1446; James III. of Scotland, on
+whom the rose (made by Jacopo Magnolio) was conferred by
+Innocent VIII., James IV. of Scotland; Frederick the Wise,
+elector of Saxony, who received a rose from Leo X. in 1518;
+Henry VIII. of England, who received three, the last from Clement
+VII. in 1524 (each had nine branches, and rested on different
+forms of feet, one on oxen, the second on acorns, and the third on
+lions); Queen Mary, who received one in 1555 from Julius III.;
+the republic of Lucca, so favoured by Pius IV., in 1564; the
+Lateran Basilica by Pius V. three years later; the sanctuary
+of Loreto by Gregory XIII. in 1584; Maria Theresa, queen of
+France, who received it from Clement IX. in 1668; Mary
+Casimir, queen of Poland, from Innocent XI. in 1684 in recognition
+of the deliverance of Vienna by her husband, John Sobieski;
+Benedict XIII. (1726) presented one to the cathedral of Capua,
+and in 1833 it was sent by Gregory XVI. to the church of St
+Mark&rsquo;s, Venice. In more recent times it was sent to Napoleon III.
+of France, the empress Eugénie, and the queens Isabella II.,
+Christina (1886) and Victoria (1906) of Spain. The gift of the
+golden rose used almost invariably to accompany the coronation
+of the king of the Romans. If in any particular year no one is
+considered worthy of the rose, it is laid up in the Vatican.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the most famous Italian goldsmiths have been
+employed in making the earlier roses; and such intrinsically
+valuable objects have, in common with other priceless historical
+examples of the goldsmiths&rsquo; art, found their way to the melting-pot.
+It is, therefore, not surprising that the number of existing
+historic specimens is very small. These include one of the 14th
+century in the Cluny Museum, Paris, believed to have been sent
+by Clement V. to the prince-bishop of Basel; another conferred
+in 1458 on his native city of Siena by Pope Pius II.; and the
+rose bestowed upon Siena by Alexander VII., a son of that city,
+which is depicted in a procession in a fresco in the Palazzo
+Pubblico at Siena. The surviving roses of more recent date
+include that presented by Benedict XIII. to Capua cathedral;
+the rose conferred on the empress Caroline by Pius VII., 1819,
+at Vienna; one of 1833 (Gregory XVI.) at St Mark&rsquo;s, Venice;
+and Pope Leo XIII.&rsquo;s rose sent to Queen Christina of Spain,
+which is at Madrid.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Angelo Rocca, <i>Aurea Rosa</i>, &amp;c. (1719); Busenelli,
+<i>De Rosa Aurea. Epistola</i> (1759); Girbal, <i>La Rosa de oro</i> (Madrid,
+1820); C. Joret, <i>La Rose d&rsquo;or dans l&rsquo;antiquité et au moyen âge</i> (Paris,
+1892), pp. 432-435; Eugène Muntz in <i>Revue d&rsquo;art chrétien</i> (1901),
+series v. vol. 12 pp. 1-11; De F. Mely, <i>Le Trésor de Chartres</i>
+(1886); Marquis de Mac Swiney Mashanaglass, <i>Le Portugal et le
+Saint Siège: Les Roses d&rsquo;or envoyées par les Papes aux rois de
+Portugal au XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1904); Sir C. Young, <i>Ornaments and Gift
+consecrated by the Roman Pontiffs: the Golden Rose, the Cap and
+Swords presented to Sovereigns of England and Scotland</i> (1864).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. T. S.*; E. A. J.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDEN RULE,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> the term applied in all European languages
+to the rule of conduct laid down in the New Testament (Matthew
+vii. 12 and Luke vi. 31). &ldquo;whatsoever ye would that men should
+do to you, do ye even so to them, for this is the law and the
+prophets.&rdquo; This principle has often been stated as the fundamental
+precept of social morality. It is sometimes put negatively
+or passively, &ldquo;do not that to another which thou wouldst not
+have done to thyself&rdquo; (cf. Hobbes, <i>Leviathan</i>, xv. 79, xvii. 85),
+but it should be observed that in this form it implies merely
+abstention from evil doing. In either form the precept in ordinary
+application is part of a hedonistic system of ethics, the criterion
+of action being strictly utilitarian in character.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. Sidgwick, <i>History of Ethics</i> (5th ed., 1902), p. 167; James
+Seth, <i>Ethical Principles</i>, p. 97 foll.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDFIELD,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> a town and the county-seat of Esmeralda
+county, Nevada, U.S.A., about 170 m. S.E. of Carson City.
+Pop. (1910, U.S. census) 4838. It is served by the Tonopah
+&amp; Groldfield, Las Vegas &amp; Tonopah, and Tonopah &amp; Tidewater
+railways. The town lies in the midst of a desert abounding in
+high-grade gold ores, and is essentially a mining camp. The
+discovery of gold at Tonopah, about 28 m. N. of Goldfield, in
+1900 was followed by its discovery at Goldfield in 1902 and 1903;
+in 1904 the Goldfield district produced about 800 tons of ore,
+which yielded $2,300,000 worth of gold, or 30% of that of the
+State. This remarkable production caused Goldfield to grow
+rapidly, and it soon became the largest town in the state. In
+addition to the mines, there are large reduction works. In 1907
+Goldfield became the county-seat. The gold output in 1907 was
+$8,408,396; in 1908, $4,880,251. Soon after mining on an extensive
+scale began, the miners organized themselves as a local
+branch of the Western Federation of Miners, and in this branch
+were included many labourers in Goldfield other than miners.
+Between this branch and the mine-owners there arose a series of
+more or less serious differences, and there were several set strikes&mdash;in
+December 1906 and January 1907, for higher wages; in
+March and April 1907, because the mine-owners refused to
+discharge carpenters who were members of the American Federation
+of Labour, but did not belong to the Western Federation of
+Miners or to the Industrial Workers of the World affiliated with
+it, this last organization being, as a result of the strike, forced
+out of Goldfield; in August and September 1907, because a
+rule was introduced at some of the mines requiring miners to
+change their clothing before entering and after leaving the
+mines,&mdash;a rule made necessary, according to the operators, by
+the wholesale stealing (in miners&rsquo; parlance, &ldquo;high-grading&rdquo;)
+of the very valuable ore (some of it valued at as high as $20 a
+pound); and in November and December 1907, because some
+of the mine-owners, avowedly on account of the hard times,
+adopted a system of paying in cashier&rsquo;s checks. Excepting
+occasional attacks upon non-union workmen, or upon persons
+supposed not to be in sympathy with the miners&rsquo; union, there
+had been no serious disturbance in Goldfield; but in December
+1907, Governor Sparks, at the instance of the mine-owners,
+appealed to President Roosevelt to send Federal troops to
+Goldfield, on the ground that the situation there was ominous,
+that destruction of life and property seemed probable, and that
+the state had no militia and would be powerless to maintain order.
+President Roosevelt thereupon (December 4th) ordered General
+Frederick Funston, commanding the Division of California, at
+San Francisco, to proceed with 300 Federal troops to Goldfield.
+The troops arrived in Goldfield on the 6th of December, and
+immediately afterwards the mine-owners reduced wages and
+announced that no members of the Western Federation of Miners
+would thereafter be employed in the mines. President Roosevelt,
+becoming convinced that conditions had not warranted Governor
+Sparks&rsquo;s appeal for Federal assistance, but that the immediate
+withdrawal of the troops might nevertheless lead to serious
+disorders, consented that they should remain for a short time
+on condition that the state should immediately organize an
+adequate militia or police force. Accordingly, a special meeting
+of the legislature was immediately called, a state police force
+was organized, and on the 7th of March 1908 the troops were
+withdrawn. Thereafter work was gradually resumed in the
+mines, the contest having been won by the mine-owners.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDFINCH<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Goldfink</i><a name="fa1r" id="fa1r" href="#ft1r"><span class="sp">1</span></a>), the <i>Fringilla carduelis</i> of
+Linnaeus and the <i>Carduelis elegans</i> of later authors, an extremely
+well-known bird found over the greater parts of Europe and
+North Africa, and eastwards to Persia and Turkestan. Its gay
+plumage is matched by its sprightly nature; and together they
+make it one of the most favourite cage-birds among all classes.
+As a songster it is indeed surpassed by many other species,
+but its docility and ready attachment to its master or mistress
+make up for any defect in its vocal powers. In some parts of
+England the trade in goldfinches is very considerable. In 1860
+Mr Hussey reported (<i>Zool.</i>, p. 7144) the average annual captures
+near Worthing to exceed 11,000 dozens&mdash;nearly all being cock-birds;
+and a witness before a committee of the House of
+Commons in 1873 stated that, when a boy, he could take forty
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>211</span>
+dozens in a morning near Brighton. In these districts and others
+the number has become much reduced, owing doubtless in part
+to the fatal practice of catching the birds just before or during
+the breeding-season; but perhaps the strongest cause of their
+growing scarcity is the constant breaking-up of waste lands, and
+the extirpation of weeds (particularly of the order <i>Compositae</i>)
+essential to the improved system of agriculture; for in many
+parts of Scotland, East Lothian for instance, where goldfinches
+were once as plentiful as sparrows, they are now only rare
+stragglers, and yet there they have not been thinned by netting.
+Though goldfinches may occasionally be observed in the coldest
+weather, incomparably the largest number leave Britain in
+autumn, returning in spring, and resorting to gardens and
+orchards to breed, when the lively song of the cock, and the
+bright yellow wings of both sexes, quickly attract notice. The
+nest is a beautifully neat structure, often placed at no great
+height from the ground, but generally so well hidden by the
+leafy bough on which it is built as not to be easily found, until,
+the young being hatched, the constant visits of the parents reveal
+its site. When the broods leave the nest they move into the
+more open country, and frequenting pastures, commons, heaths
+and downs, assemble in large flocks towards the end of summer.
+Eastward of the range of the present species its place is taken by
+its congener <i>C. caniceps</i>, which is easily recognized by wanting
+the black hood and white ear-coverts of the British bird. Its
+home seems to be in Central Asia, but it moves southward in
+winter, being common at that season in Cashmere, and is not
+unfrequently brought for sale to Calcutta. The position of the
+genus <i>Carduelis</i> in the family <i>Fringillidae</i> is not very clear.
+Structurally it would seem to have some relation to the siskins
+(<i>Chrysomitris</i>), though the members of the two groups have very
+different habits, and perhaps its nearest kinship lies with the
+hawfinches (<i>Coccothraustes</i>). See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Finch</a></span>.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1r" id="ft1r" href="#fa1r"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The more common German name, however, is <i>Distelfink</i> (Thistle-Finch)
+or <i>Stieglitz</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDFISH<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (<i>Cyprinus</i> or <i>Carassius auratus</i>), a small fish
+belonging to the Cyprinid family, a native of China but naturalized
+in other countries. In the wild state its colours do not
+differ from those of a Crucian carp, and like that fish it is tenacious
+of life and easily domesticated. Albinos seem to be rather
+common; and as in other fishes (for instance, the tench, carp,
+eel, flounder), the colour of most of these albinos is a bright
+orange or golden yellow; occasionally even this shade of colour
+is lost, the fish being more or less pure white or silvery. The
+Chinese have domesticated these albinos for a long time, and
+by careful selection have succeeded in propagating all those
+strange varieties, and even monstrosities, which appear in every
+domestic animal. In some individuals the dorsal fin is only
+half its normal length, in others entirely absent; in others the
+anal fin has a double spine; in others all the fins are of nearly
+double the usual length. The snout is frequently malformed,
+giving the head of the fish an appearance similar to that of a
+bull-dog. The variety most highly prized has an extremely
+short snout, eyes which almost wholly project beyond the orbit,
+no dorsal fin, and a very long three- or four-lobed caudal fin
+(Telescope-fish).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:435px; height:322px" src="images/img211.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Telescope-fish.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The domestication of the goldfish by the Chinese dates back
+from the highest antiquity, and they were introduced into Japan
+at the beginning of the 16th century; but the date of their
+importation into Europe is still uncertain. The great German
+ichthyologist, M. E. Bloch, thought he could trace it back in
+England to the reign of James I., whilst other authors fix the
+date at 1691. It appears certain that they were brought to
+France, only much later, as a present to Mme de Pompadour,
+although the de Goncourts, the historians of the mistresses of
+Louis XV., have failed to trace any records of this event. The
+fish has since spread over a considerable part of Europe, and in
+many places it has reverted to its wild condition. In many parts
+of south-eastern Asia, in Mauritius, in North and South Africa,
+in Madagascar, in the Azores, it has become thoroughly acclimatized,
+and successfully competes with the indigenous fresh-water
+fishes. It will not thrive in rivers; in large ponds it readily
+reverts to the coloration of the original wild stock. It flourishes
+best in small tanks and ponds, in which the water is constantly
+changing and does not freeze; in such localities, and with a full
+supply of food, which consists of weeds, crumbs of bread, bran,
+worms, small crustaceans and insects, it attains to a length of
+from 6 to 12 in., breeding readily, sometimes at different times
+of the same year.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDFUSS, GEORG AUGUST<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (1782-1848), German palaeontologist,
+born at Thurnau near Bayreuth on the 18th of April
+1782, was educated at Erlangen, where he graduated Ph.D. in
+1804 and became professor of zoology in 1818. He was subsequently
+appointed professor of zoology and mineralogy in the
+university of Bonn. Aided by Count G. Münster he issued the
+important <i>Petrefacta Germaniae</i> (1826-1844), a work which was
+intended to illustrate the invertebrate fossils of Germany, but it
+was left incomplete after the sponges, corals, crinoids, echinids
+and part of the mollusca had been figured. Goldfuss died at Bonn
+on the 2nd of October 1848.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE DASHWOOD TAUBMAN<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1846-&emsp;&emsp;),
+English administrator, the founder of Nigeria, was born on the
+20th of May 1846 at the Nunnery in the Isle of Man, being the
+youngest son of Lieut.-Colonel John Taubman Goldie-Taubman,
+speaker of the House of Keys, by his second wife Caroline,
+daughter of John E. Hoveden of Hemingford, Cambridgeshire.
+Sir George resumed his paternal name, Goldie, by royal licence in
+1887. He was educated at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich,
+and for about two years held a commission in the Royal
+Engineers. He travelled in all parts of Africa, gaining an extensive
+knowledge of the continent, and first visited the country
+of the Niger in 1877. He conceived the idea of adding to the
+British empire the then little known regions of the lower and
+middle Niger, and for over twenty years his efforts were devoted
+to the realization of this conception. The method by which he
+determined to work was the revival of government by chartered
+companies within the empire&mdash;a method supposed to be buried
+with the East India Company. The first step was to combine all
+British commercial interests in the Niger, and this he accomplished
+in 1879 when the United African Company was formed. In 1881
+Goldie sought a charter from the imperial government (the 2nd
+Gladstone ministry). Objections of various kinds were raised.
+To meet them the capital of the company (renamed the National
+African Company) was increased from £125,000 to £1,000,000, and
+great energy was displayed in founding stations on the Niger.
+At this time French traders, encouraged by Gambetta, established
+themselves on the lower river, thus rendering it difficult for the
+company to obtain territorial rights; but the Frenchmen were
+bought out in 1884, so that at the Berlin conference on West
+Africa in 1885 Mr Goldie, present as an expert on matters relating
+to the river, was able to announce that on the lower Niger the
+British flag alone flew. Meantime the Niger coast line had been
+placed under British protection. Through Joseph Thomson,
+David Mclntosh, D. W. Sargent, J. Flint, William Wallace,
+E. Dangerfield and numerous other agents, over 400 political
+treaties&mdash;drawn up by Goldie&mdash;were made with the chiefs of the
+lower Niger and the Hausa states. The scruples of the British
+government being overcome, a charter was at length granted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>212</span>
+(July 1886), the National African Company becoming the Royal
+Niger Company, with Lord Aberdare as governor and Goldie as
+vice-governor. In 1895, on Lord Aberdare&rsquo;s death, Goldie
+became governor of the company, whose destinies he had guided
+throughout.</p>
+
+<p>The building up of Nigeria as a British state had to be carried
+on in face of further difficulties raised by French travellers with
+political missions, and also in face of German opposition. From
+1884 to 1890, Prince Bismarck was a persistent antagonist, and
+the strenuous efforts he made to secure for Germany the basin of
+the lower Niger and Lake Chad were even more dangerous
+to Goldie&rsquo;s schemes of empire than the ambitions of France.
+Herr E. R. Flegel, who had travelled in Nigeria during 1882-1884
+under the auspices of the British company, was sent out in 1885
+by the newly-formed German Colonial Society to secure treaties
+for Germany, which had established itself at Cameroon. After
+Flegel&rsquo;s death in 1886 his work was continued by his companion
+Dr Staudinger, while Herr Hoenigsberg was despatched to stir
+up trouble in the occupied portions of the Company&rsquo;s territory,&mdash;or,
+as he expressed it, &ldquo;to burst up the charter.&rdquo; He was finally
+arrested at Onitsha, and, after trial by the company&rsquo;s supreme
+court at Asaba, was expelled the country. Prince Bismarck then
+sent out his nephew, Herr von Puttkamer, as German consul-general
+to Nigeria, with orders to report on this affair, and when
+this report was published in a White Book, Bismarck demanded
+heavy damages from the company. Meanwhile Bismarck maintained
+constant pressure on the British government to compel the
+Royal Niger Company to a division of spheres of influence, whereby
+Great Britain would have lost a third, and the most valuable
+part, of the company&rsquo;s territory. But he fell from power in
+March 1890, and in July following Lord Salisbury concluded the
+famous &ldquo;Heligoland&rdquo; agreement with Germany. After this
+event the aggressive action of Germany in Nigeria entirely ceased,
+and the door was opened for a final settlement of the Nigeria-Cameroon
+frontiers. These negotiations, which resulted in an
+agreement in 1893, were initiated by Goldie as a means of arresting
+the advance of France into Nigeria from the direction of the Congo.
+By conceding to Germany a long but narrow strip of territory
+between Adamawa and Lake Chad, to which she had no treaty
+claims, a barrier was raised against French expeditions, semi-military
+and semi-exploratory, which sought to enter Nigeria
+from the east. Later French efforts at aggression were made
+from the western or Dahomeyan side, despite an agreement
+concluded with France in 1890 respecting the northern frontier.</p>
+
+<p>The hostility of certain Fula princes led the company to
+despatch, in 1897, an expedition against the Mahommedan states
+of Nupé and Illorin. This expedition was organized and personally
+directed by Goldie and was completely successful. Internal peace
+was thus secured, but in the following year the differences with
+France in regard to the frontier line became acute, and compelled
+the intervention of the British government. In the negotiations
+which ensued Goldie was instrumental in preserving for Great
+Britain the whole of the navigable stretch of the lower Niger. It
+was, however, evidently impossible for a chartered company to
+hold its own against the state-supported protectorates of France
+and Germany, and in consequence, on the 1st of January 1900,
+the Royal Niger Company transferred its territories to the British
+government for the sum of £865,000. The ceded territory
+together with the small Niger Coast Protectorate, already under
+imperial control, was formed into the two protectorates of
+northern and southern Nigeria (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nigeria</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In 1903-1904, at the request of the Chartered Company of
+South Africa, Goldie visited Rhodesia and examined the situation
+in connexion with the agitation for self-government by the
+Rhodesians. In 1902-1903 he was one of the royal commissioners
+who inquired into the military preparations for the war in South
+Africa (1899-1902) and into the operations up to the occupation
+of Pretoria, and in 1905-1906 was a member of the royal commission
+which investigated the methods of disposal of war stores
+after peace had been made. In 1905 he was elected president
+of the Royal Geographical Society and held that office for three
+years. In 1908 he was chosen an alderman of the London County
+Council. Goldie was created K.C.M.G. in 1887, and a privy
+councillor in 1898. He became an F.R.S., honorary D.C.L. of
+Oxford University (1897) and honorary LL.D. of Cambridge
+(1897). He married in 1870 Matilda Catherine (d. 1898), daughter
+of John William Elliott of Wakefield.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDING, ARTHUR<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1536-<i>c.</i> 1605), English translator, son
+of John Golding of Belchamp St Paul and Halsted, Essex, one of
+the auditors of the exchequer, was born probably in London
+about 1536. His half-sister, Margaret, married John de Vere,
+16th earl of Oxford. In 1549 he was already in the service of
+Protector Somerset, and the statement that he was educated at
+Queen&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, lacks corroboration. He seems to
+have resided for some time in the house of Sir William Cecil, in
+the Strand, with his nephew, the poet, the 17th earl of Oxford,
+whose receiver he was, for two of his dedications are dated from
+Cecil House. His chief work is his translation of Ovid. <i>The
+Fyrst Fower Bookes of P. Ovidius Nasos worke, entitled Metamorphosis,
+translated oute of Latin into Englishe meter</i> (1565),
+was supplemented in 1567 by a translation of the fifteen books.
+Strangely enough the translator of Ovid was a man of strong
+Puritan sympathies, and he translated many of the works of
+Calvin. To his version of the <i>Metamorphoses</i> he prefixed a long
+metrical explanation of his reasons for considering it a work
+of edification. He sets forth the moral which he supposes to
+underlie certain of the stories, and shows how the pagan
+machinery may be brought into line with Christian thought.
+It was from Golding&rsquo;s pages that many of the Elizabethans drew
+their knowledge of classical mythology, and there is little doubt
+that Shakespeare was well acquainted with the book. Golding
+translated also the <i>Commentaries</i> of Caesar (1565), Calvin&rsquo;s
+commentaries on the Psalms (1571), his sermons on the Galatians
+and Ephesians, on Deuteronomy and the book of Job, Theodore
+Beza&rsquo;s <i>Tragedie of Abrahams Sacrifice</i> (1577) and the <i>De Beneficiis</i>
+of Seneca (1578). He completed a translation begun by Sidney
+from Philippe de Mornay, <i>A Worke concerning the Trewnesse of
+the Christian Religion</i> (1604). His only original work is a prose
+<i>Discourse</i> on the earthquake of 1580, in which he saw a judgment
+of God on the wickedness of his time. He inherited three considerable
+estates in Essex, the greater part of which he sold in
+1595. The last trace we have of Golding is contained in an order
+dated the 25th of July 1605, giving him licence to print certain
+of his works.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDINGEN<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (Lettish, <i>Kuldiga</i>), a town of Russia, in the
+government of Courland, 55 m. by rail N.E. of Libau, and on
+Windau river, in 56° 58&prime; N. and 22° E. Pop. (1897) 9733. It
+has woollen mills, needle and match factories, breweries and
+distilleries, a college for teachers, and ruins of a castle of the
+Teutonic Knights, built in 1248 and used in the 17th century as
+the residence of the dukes of Courland.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDMARK, KARL<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1832-&emsp;&emsp;), Hungarian composer, was
+born at Keszthely-am-Plattensee, in Hungary, on the 18th of
+May 1832. His father, a poor cantor in the local Jewish synagogue,
+was unable to assist to any extent financially in the
+development of his son&rsquo;s talents. Yet in the household much
+music was made, and on a cheap violin and home-made flute,
+constructed by Goldmark himself from reeds cut from the riverbank,
+the future composer gave rein to his musical ideas. His
+talent was fostered by the village schoolmaster, by whose aid
+he was able to enter the music-school of the Oedenburger Verein.
+Here he remained but a short time, his success at a school concert
+finally determining his parents to allow him to devote himself
+entirely to music. In 1844, then, he went to Vienna, where
+Jansa took up his cause and eventually obtained for him admission
+to the conservatorium. For two years Goldmark worked
+under Jansa at the violin, and on the outbreak of the revolution,
+after studying all the orchestral instruments he obtained an
+engagement in the orchestra at Raab. There, on the capitulation
+of Raab, he was to have been shot for a spy, and was only saved
+at the eleventh hour by the happy arrival of a former colleague.
+In 1850 Goldmark left Raab for Vienna, where from his friend
+Mittrich he obtained his first real knowledge of the classics.
+There, too, he devoted himself to composition. In 1857 Goldmark,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page213" id="page213"></a>213</span>
+who was then engaged in the Karl-theater band, gave a
+concert of his own works with such success that his first quartet
+attracted very general attention. Then followed the &ldquo;Sakuntala&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Penthesilea&rdquo; overtures, which show how Wagner&rsquo;s
+influence had supervened upon his previous domination by
+Mendelssohn, and the delightful &ldquo;Ländliche Hochzeit&rdquo; symphony,
+which carried his fame abroad. Goldmark&rsquo;s reputation
+was now made, and very largely increased by the production
+at Vienna in 1875 of his first and best opera, <i>Die Königin von
+Saba</i>. Over this opera he spent seven years. Its popularity
+is still almost as great as ever. It was followed in November
+1886, also at Vienna, by <i>Merlin</i>, much of which has been rewritten
+since then. A third opera, a version of Dickens&rsquo;s <i>Cricket
+on the Hearth</i>, was given by the Royal Carl Rosa Company
+in London in 1900. Goldmark&rsquo;s chamber music has not made
+much lasting impression, but the overtures &ldquo;Im Frühling,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Prometheus Bound,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Sapho&rdquo; are fairly well known.
+A &ldquo;programme&rdquo; seems essential to him. In opera he is most
+certainly at his best, and as an orchestral colourist he ranks
+among the very highest.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDONI, CARLO<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1707-1793), Italian dramatist, the real
+founder of modern Italian comedy, was born at Venice, on the
+25th of February 1707, in a fine house near St Thomas&rsquo;s church.
+His father Giulio was a native of Modena. The first playthings
+of the future writer were puppets which he made dance; the
+first books he read were plays,&mdash;among others, the comedies of
+the Florentine Cicognini. Later he received a still stronger
+impression from the <i>Mandragora</i> of Machiavelli. At eight years
+old he had tried to sketch a play. His father, meanwhile, had
+taken his degree in medicine at Rome and fixed himself at
+Perugia, where he made his son join him; but, having soon
+quarrelled with his colleagues in medicine, he departed for
+Chioggia, leaving his son to the care of a philosopher, Professor
+Caldini of Rimini. The young Goldoni soon grew tired of his
+life at Rimini, and ran away with a Venetian company of players.
+He began to study law at Venice, then went to continue the
+same pursuit at Pavia, but at that time he was studying the
+Greek and Latin comic poets much more and much better than
+books about law. &ldquo;I have read over again,&rdquo; he writes in his
+own <i>Memoirs</i>, &ldquo;the Greek and Latin poets, and I have told to
+myself that I should like to imitate them in their style, their
+plots, their precision; but I would not be satisfied unless I
+succeeded in giving more interest to my works, happier issues
+to my plots, better drawn characters and more genuine comedy.&rdquo;
+For a satire entitled <i>Il Colosso</i>, which attacked the honour of
+several families of Pavia, he was driven from that town, and
+went first to study with the jurisconsult Morelli at Udine, then
+to take his degree in law at Modena. After having worked
+some time as clerk in the chanceries of Chioggia and Feltre,
+his father being dead, he went to Venice, to exercise there his
+profession as a lawyer. But the wish to write for the stage
+was always strong in him, and he tried to do so; he made,
+however, a mistake in his choice, and began with a tragedy,
+<i>Amalasunta</i>, which was represented at Milan and proved a failure.
+In 1734 he wrote another tragedy, <i>Belisario</i>, which, though not
+much better, chanced nevertheless to please the public. This
+first success encouraged him to write other tragedies, some of
+which were well received; but the author himself saw clearly
+that he had not yet found his proper sphere, and that a radical
+dramatic reform was absolutely necessary for the stage. He
+wished to create a characteristic comedy in Italy, to follow the
+example of Molière, and to delineate the realities of social life
+in as natural a manner as possible. His first essay of this kind
+was <i>Momolo Cortesan</i> (Momolo the Courtier), written in the
+Venetian dialect, and based on his own experience. Other
+plays followed&mdash;some interesting from their subject, others
+from the characters; the best of that period are&mdash;<i>Le Trentadue
+Disgrazie d&rsquo; Arlecchino</i>, <i>La Notte critica</i>, <i>La Bancarotta</i>, <i>La
+Donna di Garbo</i>. Having, while consul of Genoa at Venice,
+been cheated by a captain of Ragusa, he founded on this his
+play <i>L&rsquo;Impostore</i>. At Leghorn he made the acquaintance of the
+comedian Medebac, and followed him to Venice, with his company,
+for which he began to write his best plays. Once he promised
+to write sixteen comedies in a year, and kept his word; among
+the sixteen are some of his very best, such as <i>Il Caffè</i>, <i>Il Bugiardo</i>,
+<i>La Pamela</i>. When he left the company of Medebac, he passed
+over to that maintained by the patrician Vendramin, continuing
+to write with the greatest facility. In 1761 he was called to
+Paris, and before leaving Venice he wrote <i>Una delle ultime sere
+di Carnevale</i> (One of the Last Nights of Carnival), an allegorical
+comedy in which he said good-bye to his country. At the end
+of the representation of this play, the theatre resounded with
+applause, and with shouts expressive of good wishes. Goldoni,
+at this proof of public sympathy, wept as a child. At Paris,
+during two years, he wrote comedies for the Italian actors; then
+he taught Italian to the royal princesses; and for the wedding
+of Louis XVI. and of Marie Antoinette he wrote in French one
+of his best comedies, <i>Le Bourru bienfaisant</i>, which was a great
+success. When he retired from Paris to Versailles, the king
+made him a gift of 6000 francs, and fixed on him an annual
+pension of 1200 francs. It was at Versailles he wrote his <i>Memoirs</i>,
+which occupied him till he reached his eightieth year. The
+Revolution deprived him all at once of his modest pension, and
+reduced him to extreme misery; he dragged on his unfortunate
+existence till 1793, and died on the 6th of February. The day
+after, on the proposal of André Chénier, the Convention agreed
+to give the pension back to the poet; and as he had already
+died, a reduced allowance was granted to his widow.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best comedies of Goldoni are: <i>La Donna di Garbo</i>, <i>La Bottega
+di Caffè</i>, <i>Pamela nubile</i>, <i>Le Baruffe chiozzotte</i>, <i>I Rusteghi</i>, <i>Todero
+Brontolon</i>, <i>Gli Innamorati</i>, <i>Il Ventaglio</i>, <i>Il Bugiardo</i>, <i>La Casa nova</i>,
+<i>Il Burbero benefico</i>, <i>La Locandiera</i>. A collected edition (Venice,
+1788) was republished at Florence in 1827. See P. G. Molmenti,
+<i>Carlo Goldoni</i> (Venice, 1875); Rabany, <i>Carlo Goldoni</i> (Paris, 1896).
+The <i>Memoirs</i> were translated into English by John Black (Boston,
+1877). with preface by W. D. Howells.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDS,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> a Mongolo-Tatar people, living on the Lower Amur
+in south-eastern Siberia. Their chief settlements are on the right
+bank of the Amur and along the Sungari and Usuri rivers. In
+physique they are typically Mongolic. Like the Chinese they
+wear a pigtail, and from them, too, have learnt the art of silk
+embroidery. The Golds live almost entirely on fish, and are
+excellent boatmen. They keep large herds of swine and dogs,
+which live, like themselves, on fish. Geese, wild duck, eagles,
+bears, wolves and foxes are also kept in menageries. There is
+much reverence paid to the eagles, and hence the Manchus call
+the Golds &ldquo;Eaglets.&rdquo; Their religion is Shamanism.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. Schrenck, <i>Die Völker des Amurlandes</i> (St Petersburg, 1891);
+Laufer, &ldquo;The Amoor Tribes,&rdquo; in <i>American Anthropologist</i> (New
+York, 1900); E. G. Ravenstein, <i>The Russians on the Amur</i> (1861).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDSBORO,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Wayne county,
+North Carolina, U.S.A., on the Neuse river, about 50 m. S.E. of
+Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 4017; (1900) 5877 (2520 negroes); (1910)
+6107. It is served by the Southern, the Atlantic Coast Line
+and the Norfolk &amp; Southern railways. The surrounding country
+produces large quantities of tobacco, cotton and grain, and
+trucking is an important industry, the city being a distributing
+point for strawberries and various kinds of vegetables. The
+city&rsquo;s manufactures include cotton goods, knit goods, cotton-seed
+oil, agricultural implements, lumber and furniture. Goldsboro
+is the seat of the Eastern insane asylum (for negroes) and
+of an Odd Fellows&rsquo; orphan home. The municipality owns and
+operates its water-works and electric-lighting plant. Goldsboro
+was settled in 1838, and was first incorporated in 1841. In the
+campaign of 1865 Goldsboro was the point of junction of the
+Union armies under generals Sherman and Schofield, previous
+to the final advance to Greensboro.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDSCHMIDT, HERMANN<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1802-1866), German painter
+and astronomer, was the son of a Jewish merchant, and was born
+at Frankfort on the 17th of June 1802. He for ten years assisted
+his father in his business; but, his love of art having been
+awakened while journeying in Holland, he in 1832 began the
+study of painting at Munich under Cornelius and Schnorr, and
+in 1836 established himself at Paris, where he painted a number
+of pictures of more than average merit, among which may be
+mentioned the &ldquo;Cumaean Sibyl&rdquo; (1844); an &ldquo;Offering to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>214</span>
+Venus&rdquo; (1845); a &ldquo;View of Rome&rdquo; (1849); the &ldquo;Death of
+Romeo and Juliet&rdquo; (1857); and several Alpine landscapes.
+In 1847 he began to devote his attention to astronomy; and
+from 1852 to 1861 he discovered fourteen asteroids between
+Mars and Jupiter, on which account he received the grand
+astronomical prize from the Academy of Sciences. His observations
+of the protuberances on the sun, made during the total
+eclipse on the 10th of July 1860, are included in the work of
+Mädler on the eclipse, published in 1861. Goldschmidt died at
+Fontainebleau on the 26th of August 1866.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDSMID,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> the name of a family of Anglo-Jewish bankers
+sprung from Aaron Goldsmid (d. 1782), a Dutch merchant who
+settled in England about 1763. Two of his sons, Benjamin
+Goldsmid (<i>c.</i> 1753-1808) and Abraham Goldsmid (<i>c.</i> 1756-1810),
+began business together about 1777 as bill-brokers in London,
+and soon became great powers in the money market, during the
+Napoleonic war, through their dealings with the government.
+Abraham Goldsmid was in 1810 joint contractor with the Barings
+for a government loan, but owing to a depreciation of the scrip
+he was forced into bankruptcy and committed suicide. His
+brother, in a fit of depression, had similarly taken his own life
+two years before. Both were noted for their public and private
+generosity, and Benjamin had a part in founding the Royal
+Naval Asylum. Benjamin left four sons, the youngest being
+Lionel Prager Goldsmid; Abraham a daughter, Isabel.</p>
+
+<p>Their nephew, Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, Bart. (1778-1859),
+was born in London, and began in business with a firm of bullion
+brokers to the Bank of England and the East India Company.
+He amassed a large fortune, and was made Baron da Palmeira
+by the Portuguese government in 1846 for services rendered In
+settling a monetary dispute between Portugal and Brazil, but
+he is chiefly known for his efforts to obtain the emancipation of
+the Jews in England and for his part in founding University
+College, London. The Jewish Disabilities Bill, first introduced
+in Parliament by Sir Robert Grant in 1830, owed its final passage
+to Goldsmid&rsquo;s energetic work. He helped to establish the
+University College hospital in 1834, serving as its treasurer for
+eighteen years, and also aided in the efforts to obtain reform in
+the English penal code. Moreover he assisted by his capital
+and his enterprise to build part of the English southern railways
+and also the London docks. In 1841 he became the first Jewish
+baronet, the honour being conferred upon him by Lord Melbourne.
+He had married his cousin Isabel (see above), and their second
+son was Sir Francis Henry Goldsmid, Bart. (1808-1878), born in
+London, and called to the bar at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn in 1833 (the first
+Jew to become an English barrister; Q.C. 1858). After the
+passing of the Jewish Disabilities Bill, in which he had aided
+his father with a number of pamphlets that attracted great
+attention, he entered Parliament in 1860 (having succeeded to
+the baronetcy) as member for Reading, and represented that
+constituency until his death. He was strenuous on behalf of the
+Jewish religion, and the founder of the great Jews&rsquo; Free School.
+He was a munificent contributor to charities and especially to
+the endowment of University College. He, like his father,
+married a cousin, and, dying without issue, was succeeded in the
+baronetcy by his nephew Sir Julian Goldsmid, Bart. (1838-1896),
+son of Frederick David Goldsmid (1812-1866), long M.P. for
+Honiton. Sir Julian was for many years in Parliament, and his
+wealth, ability and influence made him a personage of considerable
+importance. He was eventually made a privy councillor.
+He had eight daughters, but no son, and his entailed property
+passed to his relation, Mr d&rsquo;Avigdor, his house in Piccadilly
+being converted into the Isthmian Club.</p>
+
+<p>Another distinguished member of the same family, Sir
+Frederic John Goldsmid (1818-1908), son of Lionel Prager
+Goldsmid (see above), was educated at King&rsquo;s College, London,
+and entering the Madras army in 1839 served in the China War
+of 1840-41, with the Turkish troops in eastern Crimea in 1855-56,
+and was given political employment by the Indian government.
+He received the thanks of the commander-in-chief and of the
+war office for services during the Egyptian campaign, and was
+retired a major-general in 1875. Sir Frederic Goldsmid&rsquo;s name
+is, however, associated less with military service than with much
+valuable work in exploration and in surveying, for which he
+repeatedly received the thanks of government. From 1865 to
+1870 he was director-general of the Indo-European telegraph,
+and carried through the telegraph convention with Persia; and
+between 1870 and 1872, as commissioner, he settled with Persia
+the difficult questions of the Perso-Baluch and Perso-Afghan
+boundaries. In the course of his work he had to travel extensively,
+and he followed this up by various responsible missions
+connected with emigration questions. In 1881-1882 he was in
+Egypt, as controller of the Daira Sanieh, and doing other miscellaneous
+military work; and in 1883 he went to the Congo,
+on behalf of the king of the Belgians, as one of the organizers
+of the new state, but had to return on account of illness. From
+his early years he had made studies of several Eastern languages,
+and he ranked among the foremost Orientalists of his day. In
+1886 he was president of the geographical section of the British
+Association meeting held at Birmingham. He had married in
+1849, and had two sons and four daughters. In 1871 he was
+made a K.C.S.I. Besides important contributions to the 9th
+edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> and many periodicals,
+he wrote an excellent and authoritative biography of Sir James
+Outram (2 vols., 1880).</p>
+
+<p>A sister of the last-named married Henry Edward Goldsmid
+(1812-1855), an eminent Indian civil servant, son of Edward
+Goldsmid; his reform of the revenue system in Bombay, and
+introduction of a new system, established after his death, through
+his reports in 1840-1847, and his devoted labour in land-surveys,
+were of the highest importance to western India, and established
+his memory there as a public benefactor.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDSMITH, LEWIS<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1763-1846), Anglo-French publicist,
+of Portuguese-Jewish extraction, was born near London about
+1763. Having published in 1801 <i>The Crimes of Cabinets, or a
+Review of the Plans and Aggressions for Annihilating the Liberties
+of France, and the Dismemberment of her Territories</i>, an attack on
+the military policy of Pitt, he moved, in 1802, from England to
+Paris. Talleyrand introduced him to Napoleon, who arranged
+for him to establish in Paris an English tri-weekly, the <i>Argus</i>,
+which was to review English affairs from the French point of
+view. According to his own account, he was in 1803 entrusted
+with a mission to obtain from the head of the French royal
+family, afterwards Louis XVIII., a renunciation of his claims to
+the throne of France, in return for the throne of Poland. The
+offer was declined, and Goldsmith says that he then received
+instructions to kidnap Louis and kill him if he resisted, but,
+instead of executing these orders, he revealed the plot. He was,
+nevertheless, employed by Napoleon on various other secret
+service missions till 1807, when his Republican sympathies began
+to wane. In 1809 he returned to England, where he was at first
+imprisoned but soon released; and he became a notary in
+London. In 1811, being now violently anti-republican, he founded
+a Sunday newspaper, the <i>Anti-Gallican Monitor</i> and <i>Anti-Corsican
+Chronicle</i>, subsequently known as the <i>British Monitor</i>,
+in which he denounced the French Revolution. In 1811 he
+proposed that a public subscription should be raised to put a
+price on Napoleon&rsquo;s head, but this suggestion was strongly reprobated
+by the British government. In the same year he published
+<i>Secret History of the Cabinet of Bonaparte and Recueil des manifestes,
+or a Collection of the Decrees of Napoleon Bonaparte</i>, and in
+1812 <i>Secret History of Bonaparte&rsquo;s Diplomacy</i>. Goldsmith alleged
+that in the latter year he was offered £200,000 by Napoleon
+to discontinue his attacks. In 1815 he published <i>An Appeal to
+the Governments of Europe on the Necessity of bringing Napoleon
+Bonaparte to a Public Trial</i>. In 1825 he again settled down in
+Paris, and in 1832 published his <i>Statistics of France</i>. His only
+child, Georgiana, became, in 1837, the second wife of Lord
+Lyndhurst. He died in Paris on the 6th of January 1846.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDSMITH, OLIVER<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1728-1774), English poet, playwright,
+novelist and man of letters, came of a Protestant and Saxon
+family which had long been settled in Ireland. He is
+usually said to have been born at Pallas or Pallasmore, Co.
+Longford; but recent investigators have contended, with much
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>215</span>
+show of probability, that his true birthplace was Smith-Hill
+House, Elphin, Roscommon, the residence of his mother&rsquo;s father,
+the Rev. Oliver Jones. His father, Charles Goldsmith, lived at
+Pallas, supporting with difficulty his wife and children on what
+he could earn, partly as a curate and partly as a farmer.</p>
+
+<p>While Oliver was still a child his father was presented to the
+living of Kilkenny West, in the county of West Meath. This
+was worth about £200 a year. The family accordingly quitted
+their cottage at Pallas for a spacious house on a frequented road,
+near the village of Lissoy. Here the boy was taught his letters by
+a relative and dependent, Elizabeth Delap, and was sent in his
+seventh year to a village school kept by an old quartermaster on
+half-pay, who professed to teach nothing but reading, writing
+and arithmetic, but who had an inexhaustible fund of stories
+about ghosts, banshees and fairies, about the great Rapparee
+chiefs, Baldearg O&rsquo;Donnell and galloping Hogan, and about the
+exploits of Peterborough and Stanhope, the surprise of Monjuich
+and the glorious disaster of Brihuega. This man must have been
+of the Protestant religion; but he was of the aboriginal race, and
+not only spoke the Irish language, but could pour forth unpremeditated
+Irish verses. Oliver early became, and through life
+continued to be, a passionate admirer of the Irish music, and
+especially of the compositions of Carolan, some of the last notes
+of whose harp he heard. It ought to be added that Oliver, though
+by birth one of the Englishry, and though connected by numerous
+ties with the Established Church, never showed the least sign of
+that contemptuous antipathy with which, in his days, the ruling
+minority in Ireland too generally regarded the subject majority.
+So far indeed was he from sharing in the opinions and feelings of
+the caste to which he belonged that he conceived an aversion to
+the Glorious and Immortal Memory, and, even when George III.
+was on the throne, maintained that nothing but the restoration
+of the banished dynasty could save the country.</p>
+
+<p>From the humble academy kept by the old soldier Goldsmith
+was removed in his ninth year. He went to several grammar-schools,
+and acquired some knowledge of the ancient languages.
+His life at this time seems to have been far from happy. He had,
+as appears from the admirable portrait of him by Reynolds at
+Knole, features harsh even to ugliness. The small-pox had set its
+mark on him with more than usual severity. His stature was
+small, and his limbs ill put together. Among boys little tenderness
+is shown to personal defects; and the ridicule excited by
+poor Oliver&rsquo;s appearance was heightened by a peculiar simplicity
+and a disposition to blunder which he retained to the last. He
+became the common butt of boys and masters, was pointed at as
+a fright in the play-ground, and flogged as a dunce in the schoolroom.
+When he had risen to eminence, those who had once
+derided him ransacked their memory for the events of his early
+years, and recited repartees and couplets which had dropped
+from him, and which, though little noticed at the time, were
+supposed, a quarter of a century later, to indicate the powers
+which produced the <i>Vicar of Wakefield</i> and the <i>Deserted Village</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On the 11th of June 1744, being then in his sixteenth year,
+Oliver went up to Trinity College, Dublin, as a sizar. The sizars
+paid nothing for food and tuition, and very little for lodging;
+but they had to perform some menial services from which they
+have long been relieved. Goldsmith was quartered, not alone, in
+a garret of what was then No. 35 in a range of buildings which has
+long since disappeared. His name, scrawled by himself on one of
+its window-panes is still preserved in the college library. From
+such garrets many men of less parts than his have made their
+way to the woolsack or to the episcopal bench. But Goldsmith,
+while he suffered all the humiliations, threw away all the
+advantages of his situation. He neglected the studies of the
+place, stood low at the examinations, was turned down to the
+bottom of his class for playing the buffoon in the lecture-room,
+was severely reprimanded for pumping on a constable, and was
+caned by a brutal tutor for giving a ball in the attic storey of the
+college to some gay youths and damsels from the city.</p>
+
+<p>While Oliver was leading at Dublin a life divided between
+squalid distress and squalid dissipation, his father died, leaving
+a mere pittance. In February 1749 the youth obtained his
+bachelor&rsquo;s degree, and left the university. During some time
+the humble dwelling to which his widowed mother had retired
+was his home. He was now in his twenty-first year; it was
+necessary that he should do something; and his education
+seemed to have fitted him to do nothing but to dress himself
+in gaudy colours, of which he was as fond as a magpie, to take a
+hand at cards, to sing Irish airs, to play the flute, to angle in
+summer and to tell ghost stories by the fire in winter. He tried
+five or six professions in turn without success. He applied for
+ordination; but, as he applied in scarlet clothes, he was speedily
+turned out of the episcopal palace. He then became tutor in an
+opulent family, but soon quitted his situation in consequence of a
+dispute about pay. Then he determined to emigrate to America.
+His relations, with much satisfaction, saw him set out for Cork
+on a good horse, with £30 in his pocket. But in six weeks he
+came back on a miserable hack, without a penny, and informed
+his mother that the ship in which he had taken his passage,
+having got a fair wind while he was at a party of pleasure, had
+sailed without him. Then he resolved to study the law. A
+generous uncle, Mr Contarine, advanced £50. With this sum
+Goldsmith went to Dublin, was enticed into a gaming-house
+and lost every shilling. He then thought of medicine. A small
+purse was made up; and in his twenty-fourth year he was sent
+to Edinburgh. At Edinburgh he passed eighteen months in
+nominal attendance on lectures, and picked up some superficial
+information about chemistry and natural history. Thence he
+went to Leiden, still pretending to study physic. He left that
+celebrated university, the third university at which he had
+resided, in his twenty-seventh year, without a degree, with the
+merest smattering of medical knowledge, and with no property
+but his clothes and his flute. His flute, however, proved a useful
+friend. He rambled on foot through Flanders, France and
+Switzerland, playing tunes which everywhere set the peasantry
+dancing, and which often procured for him a supper and a bed.
+He wandered as far as Italy. His musical performances, indeed,
+were not to the taste of the Italians; but he contrived to live on
+the alms which he obtained at the gates of convents. It should,
+however, be observed that the stories which he told about this
+part of his life ought to be received with great caution; for strict
+veracity was never one of his virtues; and a man who is ordinarily
+inaccurate in narration is likely to be more than ordinarily
+inaccurate when he talks about his own travels. Goldsmith,
+indeed, was so regardless of truth as to assert in print that he was
+present at a most interesting conversation between Voltaire and
+Fontenelle, and that this conversation took place at Paris.
+Now it is certain that Voltaire never was within a hundred
+leagues of Paris during the whole time which Goldsmith passed
+on the continent.</p>
+
+<p>In February 1756 the wanderer landed at Dover, without a
+shilling, without a friend and without a calling. He had indeed,
+if his own unsupported evidence may be trusted, obtained a
+doctor&rsquo;s degree on the continent; but this dignity proved
+utterly useless to him. In England his flute was not in request;
+there were no convents; and he was forced to have recourse to
+a series of desperate expedients. There is a tradition that he
+turned strolling player. He pounded drugs and ran about
+London with phials for charitable chemists. He asserted, upon
+one occasion, that he had lived &ldquo;among the beggars in Axe Lane.&rdquo;
+He was for a time usher of a school, and felt the miseries and
+humiliations of this situation so keenly that he thought it a
+promotion to be permitted to earn his bread as a bookseller&rsquo;s
+hack; but he soon found the new yoke more galling than the
+old one, and was glad to become an usher again. He obtained a
+medical appointment in the service of the East India Company;
+but the appointment was speedily revoked. Why it was revoked
+we are not told. The subject was one on which he never liked
+to talk. It is probable that he was incompetent to perform
+the duties of the place. Then he presented himself at Surgeons&rsquo;
+Hall for examination, as &ldquo;mate to an hospital.&rdquo; Even to so
+humble a post he was found unequal. Nothing remained but to
+return to the lowest drudgery of literature. Goldsmith took a
+room in a tiny square off Ludgate Hill, to which he had to climb
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>216</span>
+from Sea-coal Lane by a dizzy ladder of flagstones called Breakneck
+Steps. Green Arbour Court and the ascent have long
+<span class="correction" title="amended from diasppeared">disappeared</span>. Here, at thirty, the unlucky adventurer sat
+down to toil like a galley slave. Already, in 1758, during his first
+bondage to letters, he had translated Marteilhe&rsquo;s remarkable
+<i>Memoirs of a Protestant, Condemned to the Galleys of France for his
+Religion</i>. In the years that now succeeded he sent to the press
+some things which have survived, and many which have perished.
+He produced articles for reviews, magazines and newspapers;
+children&rsquo;s books, which, bound in gilt paper and adorned with
+hideous woodcuts, appeared in the window of Newbery&rsquo;s once
+far-famed shop at the corner of Saint Paul&rsquo;s churchyard; <i>An
+Inquiry into the State of Polite Learning in Europe</i>, which, though
+of little or no value, is still reprinted among his works; a volume
+of essays entitled <i>The Bec; a Life of Beau Nash</i>; a superficial
+and incorrect, but very readable, <i>History of England</i>, in a series
+of letters purporting to be addressed by a nobleman to his son;
+and some very lively and amusing sketches of London Society in
+another series of letters purporting to be addressed by a Chinese
+traveller to his friends. All these works were anonymous;
+but some of them were well known to be Goldsmith&rsquo;s; and he
+gradually rose in the estimation of the booksellers for whom he
+drudged. He was, indeed, emphatically a popular writer. For
+accurate research or grave disquisition he was not well qualified
+by nature or by education. He knew nothing accurately; his
+reading had been desultory; nor had he meditated deeply on
+what he had read. He had seen much of the world; but he had
+noticed and retained little more of what he had seen than some
+grotesque incidents and characters which had happened to strike
+his fancy. But, though his mind was very scantily stored with
+materials, he used what materials he had in such a way as to
+produce a wonderful effect. There have been many greater
+writers; but perhaps no writer was ever more uniformly agreeable.
+His style was always pure and easy, and, on proper
+occasions, pointed and energetic. His narratives were always
+amusing, his descriptions always picturesque, his humour rich
+and joyous, yet not without an occasional tinge of amiable
+sadness. About everything that he wrote, serious or sportive,
+there was a certain natural grace and decorum, hardly to be
+expected from a man a great part of whose life had been passed
+among thieves and beggars, street-walkers and merryandrews,
+in those squalid dens which are the reproach of great capitals.</p>
+
+<p>As his name gradually became known, the circle of his acquaintance
+widened. He was introduced to Johnson, who was then
+considered as the first of living English writers; to Reynolds,
+the first of English painters; and to Burke, who had not yet
+entered parliament, but had distinguished himself greatly by his
+writings and by the eloquence of his conversation. With these
+eminent men Goldsmith became intimate. In 1763 he was one
+of the nine original members of that celebrated fraternity which
+has sometimes been called the Literary Club, but which has
+always disclaimed that epithet, and still glories in the simple
+name of the Club.</p>
+
+<p>By this date Goldsmith had quitted his miserable dwelling
+at the top of Breakneck Steps, and, after living for some time
+at No. 6 Wine Office Court, Fleet Street, had moved into the
+Temple. But he was still often reduced to pitiable shifts, the
+most popular of which is connected with the sale of his solitary
+novel, the <i>Vicar of Wakefield</i>. Towards the close of 1764(?)
+his rent is alleged to have been so long in arrear that his landlady
+one morning called in the help of a sheriff&rsquo;s officer. The debtor,
+in great perplexity, despatched a messenger to Johnson; and
+Johnson, always friendly, though often surly, sent back the
+messenger with a guinea, and promised to follow speedily.
+He came, and found that Goldsmith had changed the guinea,
+and was railing at the landlady over a bottle of Madeira. Johnson
+put the cork into the bottle, and entreated his friend to consider
+calmly how money was to be procured. Goldsmith said that he
+had a novel ready for the press. Johnson glanced at the manuscript,
+saw that there were good things in it, took it to a bookseller,
+sold it for £60 and soon returned with the money. The rent
+was paid; and the sheriff&rsquo;s officer withdrew. (Unfortunately,
+however, for this time-honoured version of the circumstances,
+it has of late years been discovered that as early as October
+1762 Goldsmith had already sold a third of the <i>Vicar</i> to one
+Benjamin Collins of Salisbury, a printer, by whom it was eventually
+printed for F. Newbery, and it is difficult to reconcile this
+fact with Johnson&rsquo;s narrative.)</p>
+
+<p>But before the <i>Vicar of Wakefield</i> appeared in 1766, came the
+great crisis of Goldsmith&rsquo;s literary life. In Christmas week 1764
+he published a poem, entitled the <i>Traveller</i>. It was the first
+work to which he had put his name, and it at once raised him
+to the rank of a legitimate English classic. The opinion of the
+most skilful critics was that nothing finer had appeared in verse
+since the fourth book of the <i>Dunciad</i>. In one respect the
+<i>Traveller</i> differs from all Goldsmith&rsquo;s other writings. In general
+his designs were bad, and his execution good. In the <i>Traveller</i>
+the execution, though deserving of much praise, is far inferior
+to the design. No philosophical poem, ancient or modern, has
+a plan so noble, and at the same time so simple. An English
+wanderer, seated on a crag among the Alps, near the point
+where three great countries meet, looks down on the boundless
+prospect, reviews his long pilgrimage, recalls the varieties of
+scenery, of climate, of government, of religion, of national
+character, which he has observed, and comes to the conclusion,
+just or unjust, that our happiness depends little on political
+institutions, and much on the temper and regulation of our own
+minds.</p>
+
+<p>While the fourth edition of the <i>Traveller</i> was on the counters
+of the booksellers, the <i>Vicar of Wakefield</i> appeared, and rapidly
+obtained a popularity which has lasted down to our own time,
+and which is likely to last as long as our language. The fable
+is indeed one of the worst that ever was constructed. It wants,
+not merely that probability which ought to be found in a tale of
+common English life, but that consistency which ought to be
+found even in the wildest fiction about witches, giants and
+fairies. But the earlier chapters have all the sweetness of pastoral
+poetry, together with all the vivacity of comedy. Moses and his
+spectacles, the vicar and his monogamy, the sharper and his
+cosmogony, the squire proving from Aristotle that relatives are
+related, Olivia preparing herself for the arduous task of converting
+a rakish lover by studying the controversy between Robinson
+Crusoe and Friday, the great ladies with their scandal about Sir
+Tomkyn&rsquo;s amours and Dr Burdock&rsquo;s verses, and Mr Burchell
+with his &ldquo;Fudge,&rdquo; have caused as much harmless mirth as has
+ever been caused by matter packed into so small a number of
+pages. The latter part of the tale is unworthy of the beginning.
+As we approach the catastrophe, the absurdities lie thicker and
+thicker, and the gleams of pleasantry become rarer and rarer.</p>
+
+<p>The success which had attended Goldsmith as a novelist
+emboldened him to try his fortune as a dramatist. He wrote
+the <i>Good Natur&rsquo;d Man</i>, a piece which had a worse fate than it
+deserved. Garrick refused to produce it at Drury Lane. It was
+acted at Covent Garden in January 1768, but was coldly received.
+The author, however, cleared by his benefit nights, and by the
+sale of the copyright, no less than £500, five times as much as he
+had made by the <i>Traveller</i> and the <i>Vicar of Wakefield</i> together.
+The plot of the <i>Good Natur&rsquo;d Man</i> is, like almost all Goldsmith&rsquo;s
+plots, very ill constructed. But some passages are exquisitely
+ludicrous,&mdash;much more ludicrous indeed than suited the taste
+of the town at that time. A canting, mawkish play, entitled
+<i>False Delicacy</i>, had just been produced, and sentimentality
+was all the mode. During some years more tears were shed at
+comedies than at tragedies; and a pleasantry which moved the
+audience to anything more than a grave smile was reprobated
+as low. It is not strange, therefore, that the very best scene in
+the <i>Good Natur&rsquo;d Man</i>, that in which Miss Richland finds her
+lover attended by the bailiff and the bailiff&rsquo;s follower in full
+court dresses, should have been mercilessly hissed, and should
+have been omitted after the first night, not to be restored for
+several years.</p>
+
+<p>In May 1770 appeared the <i>Deserted Village</i>. In mere diction
+and versification this celebrated poem is fully equal, perhaps
+superior, to the <i>Traveller</i>; and it is generally preferred to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id="page217"></a>217</span>
+<i>Traveller</i> by that large class of readers who think, with Bayes
+in the <i>Rehearsal</i>, that the only use of a plot is to bring in fine
+things. More discerning judges, however, while they admire
+the beauty of the details, are shocked by one unpardonable fault
+which pervades the whole. The fault which we mean is not that
+theory about wealth and luxury which has so often been censured
+by political economists. The theory is indeed false; but the
+poem, considered merely as a poem, is not necessarily the worse
+on that account. The finest poem in the Latin language&mdash;indeed,
+the finest didactic poem in any language&mdash;was written
+in defence of the silliest and meanest of all systems of natural
+and moral philosophy. A poet may easily be pardoned for
+reasoning ill; but he cannot be pardoned for describing ill, for
+observing the world in which he lives so carelessly that his
+portraits bear no resemblance to the originals, for exhibiting as
+copies from real life monstrous combinations of things which
+never were and never could be found together. What would
+be thought of a painter who should mix August and January in
+one landscape, who should introduce a frozen river into a harvest
+scene? Would it be a sufficient defence of such a picture to say
+that every part was exquisitely coloured, that the green hedges,
+the apple-trees loaded with fruit, the waggons reeling under the
+yellow sheaves, and the sun-burned reapers wiping their foreheads
+were very fine, and that the ice and the boys sliding were
+also very fine? To such a picture the <i>Deserted Village</i> bears a
+great resemblance. It is made up of incongruous parts. The
+village in its happy days is a true English village. The village
+in its decay is an Irish village. The felicity and the misery
+which Goldsmith has brought close together belong to two
+different countries and to two different stages in the progress
+of society. He had assuredly never seen in his native island such
+a rural paradise, such a seat of plenty, content and tranquillity,
+as his Auburn. He had assuredly never seen in England all
+the inhabitants of such a paradise turned out of their homes in
+one day and forced to emigrate in a body to America. The
+hamlet he had probably seen in Kent; the ejectment he had
+probably seen in Münster; but by joining the two, he has
+produced something which never was and never will be seen in
+any part of the world.</p>
+
+<p>In 1773 Goldsmith tried his chance at Covent Garden with a
+second play, <i>She Stoops to Conquer</i>. The manager was, not
+without great difficulty, induced to bring this piece out. The
+sentimental comedy still reigned, and Goldsmith&rsquo;s comedies were
+not sentimental. The <i>Good Natur&rsquo;d Man</i> had been too funny to
+succeed; yet the mirth of the <i>Good Natur&rsquo;d Man</i> was sober when
+compared with the rich drollery of <i>She Stoops to Conquer</i>, which
+is, in truth, an incomparable farce in five acts. On this occasion,
+however, genius triumphed. Pit, boxes and galleries were in a
+constant roar of laughter. If any bigoted admirer of Kelly
+and Cumberland ventured to hiss or groan, he was speedily
+silenced by a general cry of &ldquo;turn him out,&rdquo; or &ldquo;throw him
+over.&rdquo; Later generations have confirmed the verdict which was
+pronounced on that night.</p>
+
+<p>While Goldsmith was writing the <i>Deserted Village</i> and <i>She
+Stoops to Conquer</i>, he was employed on works of a very different
+kind&mdash;works from which he derived little reputation but much
+profit. He compiled for the use of schools a <i>History of Rome</i>,
+by which he made £250; a <i>History of England</i>, by which he
+made £500; a <i>History of Greece</i>, for which he received £250;
+a <i>Natural History</i>, for which the booksellers covenanted to pay
+him 800 guineas. These works he produced without any
+elaborate research, by merely selecting, abridging and translating
+into his own clear, pure and flowing language, what he found in
+books well known to the world, but too bulky or too dry for boys
+and girls. He committed some strange blunders, for he knew
+nothing with accuracy. Thus, in his <i>History of England</i>, he tells
+us that Naseby is in Yorkshire; nor did he correct this mistake
+when the book was reprinted. He was very nearly hoaxed into
+putting into the <i>History of Greece</i> an account of a battle between
+Alexander the Great and Montezuma. In his <i>Animated Nature</i>
+he relates, with faith and with perfect gravity, all the most
+absurd lies which he could find in books of travels about gigantic
+Patagonians, monkeys that preach sermons, nightingales that
+repeat long conversations. &ldquo;If he can tell a horse from a cow,&rdquo;
+said Johnson, &ldquo;that is the extent of his knowledge of zoology.&rdquo;
+How little Goldsmith was qualified to write about the physical
+sciences is sufficiently proved by two anecdotes. He on one
+occasion denied that the sun is longer in the northern than in the
+southern signs. It was vain to cite the authority of Maupertuis.
+&ldquo;Maupertuis!&rdquo; he cried, &ldquo;I understand those matters better
+than Maupertuis.&rdquo; On another occasion he, in defiance of
+the evidence of his own senses, maintained obstinately, and
+even angrily, that he chewed his dinner by moving his upper
+jaw.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, ignorant as Goldsmith was, few writers have done more
+to make the first steps in the laborious road to knowledge easy
+and pleasant. His compilations are widely distinguished from
+the compilations of ordinary bookmakers. He was a great,
+perhaps an unequalled, master of the arts of selection and condensation.
+In these respects his histories of Rome and of
+England, and still more his own abridgments of these histories,
+well deserved to be studied. In general nothing is less attractive
+than an epitome; but the epitomes of Goldsmith,
+even when most concise, are always amusing; and to read them
+is considered by intelligent children not as a task but as a
+pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>Goldsmith might now be considered as a prosperous man.
+He had the means of living in comfort, and even in what to one
+who had so often slept in barns and on bulks must have been
+luxury. His fame was great and was constantly rising. He
+lived in what was intellectually far the best society of the kingdom,
+in a society in which no talent or accomplishment was
+wanting, and in which the art of conversation was cultivated
+with splendid success. There probably were never four talkers
+more admirable in four different ways than Johnson, Burke,
+Beauclerk and Garrick; and Goldsmith was on terms of intimacy
+with all the four. He aspired to share in their colloquial renown,
+but never was ambition more unfortunate. It may seem strange
+that a man who wrote with so much perspicuity, vivacity and
+grace should have been, whenever he took a part in conversation,
+an empty, noisy, blundering rattle. But on this point the
+evidence is overwhelming. So extraordinary was the contrast
+between Goldsmith&rsquo;s published works and the silly things which
+he said, that Horace Walpole described him as an inspired idiot.
+&ldquo;Noll,&rdquo; said Garrick, &ldquo;wrote like an angel, and talked like poor
+Poll.&rdquo; Charnier declared that it was a hard exercise of faith to
+believe that so foolish a chatterer could have really written the
+<i>Traveller</i>. Even Boswell could say, with contemptuous compassion,
+that he liked very well to hear honest Goldsmith run on.
+&ldquo;Yes, sir,&rdquo; said Johnson, &ldquo;but he should not like to hear himself.&rdquo;
+Minds differ as rivers differ. There are transparent and
+sparkling rivers from which it is delightful to drink as they flow;
+to such rivers the minds of such men as Burke and Johnson may
+be compared. But there are rivers of which the water when first
+drawn is turbid and noisome, but becomes pellucid as crystal
+and delicious to the taste, if it be suffered to stand till it has
+deposited a sediment; and such a river is a type of the mind of
+Goldsmith. His first thoughts on every subject were confused
+even to absurdity, but they required only a little time to work
+themselves clear. When he wrote they had that time, and
+therefore his readers pronounced him a man of genius; but
+when he talked he talked nonsense and made himself the
+laughing-stock of his hearers. He was painfully sensible of
+his inferiority in conversation; he felt every failure keenly; yet
+he had not sufficient judgment and self-command to hold his
+tongue. His animal spirits and vanity were always impelling
+him to try to do the one thing which he could not do. After
+every attempt he felt that he had exposed himself, and writhed
+with shame and vexation; yet the next moment he began
+again.</p>
+
+<p>His associates seem to have regarded him with kindness, which,
+in spite of their admiration of his writings, was not unmixed with
+contempt. In truth, there was in his character much to love,
+but very little to respect. His heart was soft even to weakness;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218"></a>218</span>
+he was so generous that he quite forgot to be just; he forgave
+injuries so readily that he might be said to invite them, and was
+so liberal to beggars that he had nothing left for his tailor and his
+butcher. He was vain, sensual, frivolous, profuse, improvident.
+One vice of a darker shade was imputed to him, envy. But there
+is not the least reason to believe that this bad passion, though it
+sometimes made him wince and utter fretful exclamations, ever
+impelled him to injure by wicked arts the reputation of any of
+his rivals. The truth probably is that he was not more envious,
+but merely less prudent, than his neighbours. His heart was
+on his lips. All those small jealousies, which are but too common
+among men of letters, but which a man of letters who is also a
+man of the world does his best to conceal, Goldsmith avowed
+with the simplicity of a child. When he was envious, instead of
+affecting indifference, instead of damning with faint praise,
+instead of doing injuries slyly and in the dark, he told everybody
+that he was envious. &ldquo;Do not, pray, do not, talk of Johnson in
+such terms,&rdquo; he said to Boswell; &ldquo;you harrow up my very soul.&rdquo;
+George Steevens and Cumberland were men far too cunning
+to say such a thing. They would have echoed the praises of the
+man whom they envied, and then have sent to the newspapers
+anonymous libels upon him. Both what was good and what was
+bad in Goldsmith&rsquo;s character was to his associates a perfect
+security that he would never commit such villainy. He was
+neither ill-natured enough, nor long-headed enough, to be
+guilty of any malicious act which required contrivance and
+disguise.</p>
+
+<p>Goldsmith has sometimes been represented as a man of genius,
+cruelly treated by the world, and doomed to struggle with
+difficulties, which at last broke his heart. But no representation
+can be more remote from the truth. He did, indeed, go through
+much sharp misery before he had done anything considerable
+in literature. But after his name had appeared on the title-page
+of the <i>Traveller</i>, he had none but himself to blame for his distresses.
+His average income, during the last seven years of his
+life, certainly exceeded £400 a year, and £400 a year ranked,
+among the incomes of that day, at least as high as £800 a year
+would rank at present. A single man living in the Temple, with
+£400 a year, might then be called opulent. Not one in ten of the
+young gentlemen of good families who were studying the law
+there had so much. But all the wealth which Lord Clive had
+brought from Bengal and Sir Lawrence Dundas from Germany,
+joined together, would not have sufficed for Goldsmith. He
+spent twice as much as he had. He wore fine clothes, gave
+dinners of several courses, paid court to venal beauties. He had
+also, it should be remembered, to the honour of his heart, though
+not of his head, a guinea, or five, or ten, according to the state of
+his purse, ready for any tale of distress, true or false. But it was
+not in dress or feasting, in promiscuous amours or promiscuous
+charities, that his chief expense lay. He had been from boyhood
+a gambler, and at once the most sanguine and the most unskilful
+of gamblers. For a time he put off the day of inevitable ruin by
+temporary expedients. He obtained advances from booksellers
+by promising to execute works which he never began. But at
+length this source of supply failed. He owed more than £2000;
+and he saw no hope of extrication from his embarrassments.
+His spirits and health gave way. He was attacked by a nervous
+fever, which he thought himself competent to treat. It would
+have been happy for him if his medical skill had been appreciated
+as justly by himself as by others. Notwithstanding the degree
+which he pretended to have received on the continent, he could
+procure no patients. &ldquo;I do not practise,&rdquo; he once said; &ldquo;I
+make it a rule to prescribe only for my friends.&rdquo; &ldquo;Pray, dear
+Doctor,&rdquo; said Beauclerk, &ldquo;alter your rule; and prescribe only
+for your enemies.&rdquo; Goldsmith, now, in spite of this excellent
+advice, prescribed for himself. The remedy aggravated the
+malady. The sick man was induced to call in real physicians;
+and they at one time imagined that they had cured the disease.
+Still his weakness and restlessness continued. He could get no
+sleep. He could take no food. &ldquo;You are worse,&rdquo; said one of his
+medical attendants, &ldquo;than you should be from the degree of
+fever which you have. Is your mind at ease?&rdquo; &ldquo;No; it is
+not,&rdquo; were the last recorded words of Oliver Goldsmith. He
+died on the 4th of April 1774, in his forty-sixth year. He was
+laid in the churchyard of the Temple; but the spot was not
+marked by any inscription and is now forgotten. The coffin
+was followed by Burke and Reynolds. Both these great men
+were sincere mourners. Burke, when he heard of Goldsmith&rsquo;s
+death, had burst into a flood of tears. Reynolds had been so
+much moved by the news that he had flung aside his brush and
+palette for the day.</p>
+
+<p>A short time after Goldsmith&rsquo;s death, a little poem appeared,
+which will, as long as our language lasts, associate the names of
+his two illustrious friends with his own. It has already been
+mentioned that he sometimes felt keenly the sarcasm which his
+wild blundering talk brought upon him. He was, not long
+before his last illness, provoked into retaliating. He wisely
+betook himself to his pen; and at that weapon he proved
+himself a match for all his assailants together. Within a small
+compass he drew with a singularly easy and vigorous pencil
+the characters of nine or ten of his intimate associates.
+Though this little work did not receive his last touches, it
+must always be regarded as a masterpiece. It is impossible,
+however, not to wish that four or five likenesses which have
+no interest for posterity were wanting to that noble gallery,
+and that their places were supplied by sketches of Johnson
+and Gibbon, as happy and vivid as the sketches of Burke and
+Garrick.</p>
+
+<p>Some of Goldsmith&rsquo;s friends and admirers honoured him
+with a cenotaph in Westminster Abbey. Nollekens was the
+sculptor, and Johnson wrote the inscription. It is much to be
+lamented that Johnson did not leave to posterity a more durable
+and a more valuable memorial of his friend. A life of Goldsmith
+would have been an inestimable addition to the Lives of the Poets.
+No man appreciated Goldsmith&rsquo;s writings more justly than
+Johnson; no man was better acquainted with Goldsmith&rsquo;s
+character and habits; and no man was more competent to
+delineate with truth and spirit the peculiarities of a mind in
+which great powers were found in company with great weaknesses.
+But the list of poets to whose works Johnson was requested by
+the booksellers to furnish prefaces ended with Lyttelton, who
+died in 1773. The line seems to have been drawn expressly for
+the purpose of excluding the person whose portrait would have
+most fitly closed the series. Goldsmith, however, has been
+fortunate in his biographers.</p>
+<div class="author">(M.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Goldsmith&rsquo;s life has been written by Prior (1837), by Washington
+Irving (1844-1849), and by John Forster (1848, 2nd ed. 1854).
+The diligence of Prior deserves great praise; the style of Washington
+Irving is always pleasing; but the highest place must, in justice, be
+assigned to the eminently interesting work of Forster. Subsequent
+biographies are by William Black (1878), and Austin Dobson (1888,
+American ed. 1899). The above article by Lord Macaulay has been
+slightly revised for this edition by Mr Austin Dobson, as regards
+questions of fact for which there has been new evidence.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDSTÜCKER, THEODOR<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1821-1872), German Sanskrit
+scholar, was born of Jewish parents at Königsberg on the 18th of
+January 1821, and, after attending the gymnasium of that
+town, entered the university in 1836 as a student of Sanskrit.
+In 1838 he removed to Bonn, and, after graduating at Königsberg
+in 1840, proceeded to Paris; in 1842 he edited a German translation
+of the <i>Prabodha Chandrodaya</i>. From 1847 to 1850 he
+resided at Berlin, where his talents and scholarship were recognized
+by Alexander von Humboldt, but where his advanced
+political views caused the authorities to regard him with suspicion.
+In the latter year he removed to London, where in 1852 he was
+appointed professor of Sanskrit in University College. He now
+worked on a new Sanskrit dictionary, of which the first instalment
+appeared in 1856. In 1861 he published his chief work:
+<i>P&#257;nini: his place in Sanskrit Literature</i>; and he was one of the
+founders and chief promoters of the Sanskrit Text Society;
+he was also an active member of the Philological Society, and of
+other learned bodies. He died in London on the 6th of March
+1872.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>As <i>Literary Remains</i> some of his writings were published in two
+volumes (London, 1879), but his papers were left to the India Office
+with the request that they were not to be published until 1920.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id="page219"></a>219</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDWELL, THOMAS<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (d. 1585), English ecclesiastic, began
+his career as vicar of Cheriton in 1531, after graduating M.A. at
+All Souls College, Oxford. He became chaplain to Cardinal
+Pole and lived with him at Rome, was attainted in 1539, but
+returned to England on Mary&rsquo;s accession, and in 1555 became
+bishop of St Asaph, a diocese which he did much to win back
+to the old faith. On the death of Mary, Goldwell escaped from
+England and in 1561 became superior of the Theatines at Naples.
+He was the only English bishop at the council of Trent, and in
+1562 was again attainted. In the following year he was appointed
+vicar-general to Carlo Borromeo, archbishop of Milan. He died
+in Rome in 1585, the last of the English bishops who had refused
+to accept the Reformation.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1850-&emsp;&emsp;), Jewish Hungarian orientalist,
+was born in Stuhlweissenburg on the 22nd of June
+1850. He was educated at the universities of Budapest, Berlin,
+Leipzig and Leiden, and became privat docent at Budapest in
+1872. In the next year, under the auspices of the Hungarian
+government, he began a journey through Syria, Palestine and
+Egypt, and took the opportunity of attending lectures of
+Mahommedan sheiks in the mosque of el-Azhar in Cairo. He
+was the first Jewish scholar to become professor in the Budapest
+University (1894), and represented the Hungarian government
+and the Academy of Sciences at numerous international congresses.
+He received the large gold medal at the Stockholm
+Oriental Congress in 1889. He became a member of several
+Hungarian and other learned societies, was appointed secretary
+of the Jewish community in Budapest. He was made Litt. D.
+of Cambridge (1904) and LL.D. of Aberdeen (1906). His eminence
+in the sphere of scholarship is due primarily to his careful investigation
+of pre-Mahommedan and Mahommedan law, tradition,
+religion and poetry, in connexion with which he published a large
+number of treatises, review articles and essays contributed to
+the collections of the Hungarian Academy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among his chief works are: <i>Beiträge zur Literaturgeschichte der
+Schi&rsquo;a</i> (1874); <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte der Sprachgelehrsamkeit bei
+den Arabern</i> (Vienna, 1871-1873); <i>Der Mythos bei den Hebräern und
+seine geschichtliche Entwickelung</i> (Leipzig, 1876; Eng. trans., R.
+Martineau, London, 1877); <i>Muhammedanische Studien</i> (Halle,
+1889-1890, 2 vols.); <i>Abhandlungen zur arabischen Philologie</i> (Leiden,
+1896-1899, 2 vols.); <i>Buch v. Wesen d. Seele</i> (ed. 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLETTA<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> [<span class="sc">La Goulette</span>], a town on the Gulf of Tunis in
+36° 50&prime; N. 10° 19&prime; E., a little south of the ruins of Carthage, and
+on the north side of the ship canal which traverses the shallow
+Lake of Tunis and leads to the city of that name. Built on the
+narrow strip of sand which separates the lake from the gulf,
+Goletta is defended by a fort and battery. The town contains
+a summer palace of the bey, the old seraglio, arsenal and customhouse,
+and many villas, gardens and pleasure resorts, Goletta
+being a favourite place for sea-bathing. A short canal, from
+which the name of the town is derived (Arab. <i>Halk-el-Wad</i>,
+&ldquo;throat of the canal&rdquo;), 40 ft. broad and 8½ ft. deep, divides the
+town and affords communication between the ship canal and
+a dock or basin, 1082 ft. long and 541 ft. broad. An electric
+tramway which runs along the north bank of the ship canal
+connects Goletta with the city of Tunis (<i>q.v.</i>). Pop. (1907)
+about 5000, mostly Jews and Italian fishermen.</p>
+
+<p>Beyond Cape Carthage, 5 m. N. of Goletta, is La Marsa, a
+summer resort overlooking the sea. The bey has a palace here,
+and the French resident-general, the British consul, other
+officials, and many Tunisians have country-houses, surrounded
+by groves of olive trees.</p>
+
+<p>Before the opening of the ship canal in 1893 Goletta, as the
+port of Tunis, was a place of considerable importance. The
+basin at the Goletta end of the canal now serves as a subsidiary
+harbour to that of Tunis. The most stirring events in the
+history of the town are connected with the Turkish conquest
+of the Barbary states. Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa having made
+himself master of Tunis and its port, Goletta was attacked in
+1535 by the emperor Charles V., who seized the pirate&rsquo;s fleet,
+which was sheltered in the small canal, his arsenal, and 300 brass
+cannon. The Turks regained possession in 1574. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tunisia</a></span>:
+<i>History</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLF<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (in its older forms <span class="sc">Goff</span>, <span class="sc">Gouff</span> or <span class="sc">Gowff</span>, the last of
+which gives the genuine old pronunciation), a game which
+probably derives its name from the Ger. <i>kolbe</i>, a club&mdash;in Dutch,
+<i>kolf</i>&mdash;which last is nearly in sound identical and might suggest a
+Dutch origin,<a name="fa1s" id="fa1s" href="#ft1s"><span class="sp">1</span></a> which many pictures and other witnesses further
+support.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;One of the most ancient and most interesting of the
+pictures in which the game is portrayed is the tailpiece to an
+illuminated <i>Book of Hours</i> made at Bruges at the beginning of
+the 16th century. The original is in the British Museum. The
+players, three in number, have but one club apiece. The heads
+of the clubs are steel or steel covered. They play with a ball each.
+That which gives this picture a peculiar interest over the many
+pictures of Dutch schools that portray the game in progress is
+that most of them show it on the ice, the putting being at a stake.
+In this <i>Book of Hours</i> they are putting at a hole in the turf, as in
+our modern golf. It is scarcely to be doubted that the game is of
+Dutch origin, and that it has been in favour since very early days.
+Further than that our knowledge does not go. The early Dutchmen
+played golf, they painted golf, but they did not write it.</p>
+
+<p>It is uncertain at what date golf was introduced into Scotland,
+but in 1457 the popularity of the game had already become so
+great as seriously to interfere with the more important pursuit
+of archery. In March of that year the Scottish parliament
+&ldquo;decreted and ordained that <i>wapinshawingis</i> be halden be the
+lordis and baronis spirituale and temporale, four times in the
+zeir; and that the fute-ball and <i>golf be utterly cryit down, and
+nocht usit</i>; and that the bowe-merkis be maid at ilk paroche kirk
+a pair of buttis, and <i>schuttin be usit ilk Sunday</i>.&rdquo; Fourteen years
+afterwards, in May 1471, it was judged necessary to pass another
+act &ldquo;anent wapenshawings,&rdquo; and in 1491 a final and evidently
+angry fulmination was issued on the general subject, with pains
+and penalties annexed. It runs thus&mdash;&ldquo;Futeball and Golfe
+forbidden. Item, it is statut and ordainit that in na place of the
+realme there be usit fute-ball, <i>golfe, or uther sik unprofitabill
+sportis</i>,&rdquo; &amp;c. This, be it noted, is an edict of James IV.; and it is
+not a little curious presently to find the monarch himself setting
+an ill example to his commons, by practice of this &ldquo;unprofitabill
+sport,&rdquo; as is shown by various entries in the accounts of the lord
+high treasurer of Scotland (1503-1506).</p>
+
+<p>About a century later, the game again appears on the surface of
+history, and it is quite as popular as before. In the year 1592
+the town council of Edinburgh &ldquo;ordanis proclamation to be made
+threw this burgh, that na inhabitants of the samyn be seen at ony
+pastymes within or without the toun, upoun the Sabboth day, sic
+as golfe, &amp;c.&rdquo;<a name="fa2s" id="fa2s" href="#ft2s"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The following year the edict was re-announced,
+but with the modification that the prohibition was &ldquo;in tyme of
+sermons.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Golf has from old times been known in Scotland as &ldquo;The
+<i>Royal and Ancient</i> Game of Goff.&rdquo; Though no doubt Scottish
+monarchs handled the club before him, James IV. is the first who
+figures formally in the golfing record. James V. was also very
+partial to the game distinctively known as &ldquo;royal&rdquo;; and there
+is some scrap of evidence to show that his daughter, the unhappy
+Mary Stuart, was a golfer. It was alleged by her enemies that, as
+showing her shameless indifference to the fate of her husband, a
+very few days after his murder, she &ldquo;was seen playing <i>golf</i> and
+pallmall in the fields beside Seton.&rdquo;<a name="fa3s" id="fa3s" href="#ft3s"><span class="sp">3</span></a> That her son, James VI.
+(afterwards James I. of England), was a golfer, tradition confidently
+asserts, though the evidence which connects him with the
+personal practice of the game is slight. Of the interest he took in
+it we have evidence in his act&mdash;already alluded to&mdash;&ldquo;anent <i>golfe
+ballis</i>,&rdquo; prohibiting their importation, except under certain
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220"></a>220</span>
+restrictions. Charles I. (as his brother Prince Henry had been<a name="fa4s" id="fa4s" href="#ft4s"><span class="sp">4</span></a>)
+was devotedly attached to the game. Whilst engaged in it on
+the links of Leith, in 1642, the news reached him of the Irish
+rebellion of that year. He had not the equanimity to finish his
+match, but returned precipitately and in much agitation to
+Holyrood.<a name="fa5s" id="fa5s" href="#ft5s"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Afterwards, while prisoner to the Scots army at
+Newcastle, he found his favourite diversion in &ldquo;the royal game.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;The King was nowhere treated with more honour than at Newcastle,
+as he himself confessed, both he and his train having liberty
+to go abroad and play at goff in the Shield Field, without the
+walls.&rdquo;<a name="fa6s" id="fa6s" href="#ft6s"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Of his son, Charles II., as a golfer, nothing whatever is
+ascertained, but James II. was a known devotee.<a name="fa7s" id="fa7s" href="#ft7s"><span class="sp">7</span></a> After the
+Restoration, James, then duke of York, was sent to Edinburgh in
+1681/2 as commissioner of the king to parliament, and an
+historical monument of his prowess as a golfer remains there to
+this day in the &ldquo;Golfer&rsquo;s Land,&rdquo; as it is still called, 77 Canongate.
+The duke having been challenged by two English noblemen of his
+suite, to play a match against them, for a very large stake, along
+with any Scotch ally he might select, chose as his partner one
+&ldquo;Johne Patersone,&rdquo; a shoemaker. The duke and the said Johne
+won easily, and half of the large stake the duke made over to his
+humble coadjutor, who therewith built himself the house mentioned
+above. In 1834 William IV. became patron of the St
+Andrews Golf Club (St Andrews being then, as now, the most
+famous seat of the game), and approved of its being styled &ldquo;The
+<i>Royal and Ancient</i> Golf Club of St Andrews.&rdquo; In 1837, as
+further proof of royal favour, he presented to it a magnificent gold
+medal, which &ldquo;should be challenged and played for annually&rdquo;;
+and in 1838 the queen dowager, duchess of St Andrews, became
+patroness of the club, and presented to it a handsome gold medal&mdash;&ldquo;The
+Royal Adelaide&rdquo;&mdash;with a request that it should be worn
+by the captain, as president, on all public occasions. In June
+1863 the prince of Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) signified his
+desire to become patron of the club, and in the following September
+was elected captain by acclamation. His engagements did not
+admit of his coming in person to undertake the duties of the
+office, but his brother Prince Leopold (the duke of Albany), having
+in 1876 done the club the honour to become its captain, twice
+visited the ancient city in that capacity.</p>
+
+<p>In more recent days, golf has become increasingly popular in
+a much wider degree. In 1880 the man who travelled about
+England with a set of golf clubs was an object of some astonishment,
+almost of alarm, to his fellow-travellers. In those days the
+commonest of questions in regard to the game was, &ldquo;You have to
+be a fine rider, do you not, to play golf?&rdquo; so confounded was it in
+the popular mind with the game of polo. At Blackheath a few
+Scotsmen resident in London had long played golf. In 1864 the
+Royal North Devon Club was formed at Westward Ho, and this
+was the first of the seaside links discovered and laid out for golf in
+England. In 1869 the Royal Liverpool Club established itself in
+possession of the second English course of this quality at Hoylake, in
+Cheshire. A golf club was formed in connexion with the London
+Scottish Volunteers corps, which had its house on the Putney end
+of Wimbledon Common on Putney Heath; and, after making so
+much of a start, the progress of the game was slow, though steady,
+for many years. A few more clubs were formed; the numbers of
+golfers grew; but it could not be said that the game was yet in
+any sense popular in England. All at once, for no very obvious
+reason, the qualities of the ancient Scottish game seemed to strike
+home, and from that moment its popularity has been wonderfully
+and increasingly great. The English links that rose into most
+immediate favour was the fine course of the St George&rsquo;s Golf
+Club, near Sandwich, on the coast of Kent. To the London golfer
+it was the first course of the first class that was reasonably
+accessible, and the fact made something like an epoch in
+English golf. A very considerable increase, it is true, in the
+number of English golfers and English golf clubs had taken place
+before the discovery for golfing purposes of the links at Sandwich.
+Already there was a chain of links all round the coast, besides
+numerous inland courses; but since 1890 their increase has been
+extraordinary, and the number which has been formed in the
+colonies and abroad is very large also, so that in the <i>Golfer&rsquo;s
+Year Book</i> for 1906 a space of over 300 pages was allotted to the
+Club Directory alone, each page containing, on a rough average,
+six clubs. To compute the average membership of these clubs is
+very difficult. There is not a little overlapping, in the sense that
+a member of one club will often be a member of several others;
+but probably the average may be placed at something like 200
+members for each club.</p>
+
+<p>The immense amount of golf-playing that this denotes, the
+large industry in the making of clubs and balls, in the upkeep
+of links, in the actual work of club-carrying by the caddies,
+and in the instruction given by the professional class, is obvious.
+Golf has taken a strong hold on the affections of the people in
+many parts of Ireland, and the fashion for golf in England has
+reacted strongly on Scotland itself, the ancient home of the game,
+where since 1880 golfers have probably increased in the ratio of
+forty to one. Besides the industry that such a growth of the
+game denotes in the branches immediately connected with it,
+as mentioned above, there is to be taken into further account
+the visiting population that it brings to all lodging-houses and
+hotels within reach of a tolerable golf links, so that many a
+fishing village has risen into a moderate watering-place by virtue
+of no other attractions than those which are offered by its golf
+course. Therefore to the Briton, golf has developed from
+something of which he had a vague idea&mdash;as of &ldquo;curling&rdquo;&mdash;to
+something in the nature of an important business, a business
+that can make towns and has a considerable effect on the receipts
+of railway companies.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, ladies have learned to play golf. Although this
+is a crude and brief sentence, it does not state the fact too
+widely nor too forcibly, for though it is true that before 1885
+many played on the short links of St Andrews, North Berwick,
+Westward Ho and elsewhere, still it was virtually unknown
+that they should play on the longer courses, which till then
+had been in the undisputed possession of the men. At many
+places women now have their separate links, at others they play
+on the same course as the men. But even where links are set
+apart for women, they are far different from the little courses
+that used to be assigned to them. They are links only a little
+less formidable in their bunkers, a little less varied in their
+features than those of men. The ladies have their annual
+championship, which they play on the long links of the men,
+sometimes on one, sometimes on another, but always on courses
+of the first quality, demanding the finest display of golfing skill.</p>
+
+<p>The claim that England made to a golfing fellowship with
+Scotland was conceded very strikingly by the admission of
+three English greens, first those of Hoylake and of Sandwich,
+and in 1909 Deal, into the exclusive list of the links on which
+the open championship of the game is decided. Before England
+had so fully assimilated Scotland&rsquo;s game this great annual
+contest was waged at St Andrews, Musselburgh and Prestwick
+in successive years. Now the ancient green of Musselburgh,
+somewhat worn out with length of hard and gallant service, and
+moreover, as a nine-holes course inadequately accommodating
+the numbers who compete in the championships to-day, has been
+superseded by the course at Muirfield as a championship arena.</p>
+
+<p>While golf had been making itself a force in the southern
+kingdom, the professional element&mdash;men who had learned the
+game from childhood, had become past-masters, were capable
+of giving instruction, and also of making clubs and balls and
+looking after the greens on which golf was played&mdash;had at first
+been taken from the northern side of the Border. But when
+golf had been started long enough in England for the little boys
+who were at first employed as &ldquo;caddies&rdquo;&mdash;in carrying the
+players&rsquo; clubs&mdash;to grow to sufficient strength to drive the ball
+as far as their masters, it was inevitable that out of the number
+who thus began to play in their boyhood some few should
+develop an exceptional talent for the game. This, in fact,
+actually happened, and English golfers, both of the amateur
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>221</span>
+and the professional classes, have proved themselves so adept
+at Scotland&rsquo;s game, that the championships in either the Open
+or the Amateur competitions have been won more often by
+English than by Scottish players of late years. Probably in the
+United Kingdom to-day there are as many English as Scottish
+professional golf players, and their relative number is increasing.</p>
+
+<p>Golf also &ldquo;caught on,&rdquo; to use the American expression, in
+the United States. To the American of 1890 golf was largely an
+unknown thing. Since then, however, golf has become perhaps
+a greater factor in the life of the upper and upper-middle classes
+in the United States than it ever has been in England or Scotland.
+Golf to the English and the Scots meant only one among several
+of the sports and pastimes that take the man and the woman
+of the upper and upper-middle classes into the country and the
+fresh air. To the American of like status golf came as the one
+thing to take him out of his towns and give him a reason for
+exercise in the country. To-day golf has become an interest
+all over North America, but it is in the Eastern States that it
+has made most difference in the life of the classes with whom it
+has become fashionable. Westerners and Southerners found
+more excuses before the coming of golf for being in the open
+country air. It is in the Eastern States more especially that it
+has had so much influence in making the people live and take
+exercise out of doors. In a truly democratic spirit the American
+woman golfer plays on a perfect equality with the American
+man. She does not compete in the men&rsquo;s championships; she
+has championships of her own; but she plays, without question,
+on the same links. There is no suggestion of relegating her, as a
+certain cynical writer in the Badminton volume on golf described
+it, to a waste corner, a kind of &ldquo;Jews&rsquo; Quarter,&rdquo; of the links.
+And the Americans have taken up golf in the spirit of a sumptuous
+and opulent people, spending money on magnificent clubhouses
+beyond the finest dreams of the Englishman or the Scot. The
+greatest success achieved by any American golfer fell to the lot
+of Mr Walter Travis of the Garden City club, who in 1904 won
+the British amateur championship.</p>
+
+<p>So much enthusiasm and so much golf in America have not
+failed to make their influence felt in the United Kingdom.
+Naturally and inevitably they have created a strong demand
+for professional instruction, both by example and by precept,
+and for professional advice and assistance in the laying-out and
+upkeep of the many new links that have been created in all parts
+of the States, sometimes out of the least promising material.
+By the offer of great prizes for exhibition matches, and of wages
+that are to the British rate on the scale of the dollar to the
+shilling, they have attracted many of the best Scottish and
+English professionals to pay them longer or shorter visits as the
+case may be, and thus a new opening has been created for the
+energies of the professional golfing class.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Game.</i>&mdash;The game of golf may be briefly defined as
+consisting in hitting the ball over a great extent of country,
+preferably of that sand-hill nature which is found by the seaside,
+and finally hitting or &ldquo;putting&rdquo; it into a little hole of some
+4 in. diameter cut in the turf. The place of the hole is commonly
+marked by a flag. Eighteen is the recognized number of these
+holes on a full course, and they are at varying distances apart,
+from 100 yds. up to anything between a ¼ and ½ m. For the
+various strokes required to achieve the hitting of the ball over
+the great hills, and finally putting it into the small hole, a number
+of different &ldquo;clubs&rdquo; has been devised to suit the different
+positions in which the ball may be found and the different
+directions in which it is wished to propel it. At the start
+for each hole the ball may be placed on a favourable position
+(<i>e.g.</i> &ldquo;tee&rsquo;d&rdquo; on a small mound of sand) for striking it, but
+after that it may not be touched, except with the club, until
+it is hit into the next hole. A &ldquo;full drive,&rdquo; as the farthest distance
+that the ball can be hit is called, is about 200 yds. in length,
+of which some three-fourths will be traversed in the air, and the
+rest by bounding or running over the ground. It is easily to be
+understood that when the ball is lying on the turf behind a tall
+sand-hill, or in a bunker, a differently-shaped club is required
+for raising it over such an obstacle from that which is needed
+when it is placed on the tee to start with; and again, that
+another club is needed to strike the ball out of a cup or out of
+heavy grass. It is this variety that gives the game its charm.
+Each player plays with his own ball, with no interference from
+his opponent, and the object of each is to hit the ball from the
+starting-point into each successive hole in the fewest strokes.
+The player who at the end of the round (<i>i.e.</i> of the course of
+eighteen holes) has won the majority of the holes is the winner
+of the round; or the decision may be reached before the end
+of the round by one side gaining more holes than there remain to
+play. For instance, if one player be four holes to the good, and
+only three holes remain to be played, it is evident that the
+former must be the winner, for even if the latter win every
+remaining hole, he still must be one to the bad at the finish.</p>
+
+<p>The British Amateur Championship is decided by a tournament
+in matches thus played, each defeated player retiring, and
+his opponent passing on into the next round. In the case of the
+Open Championship, and in most medal competitions, the scores
+are differently reckoned&mdash;each man&rsquo;s total score (irrespective
+of his relative merit at each hole) being reckoned at the finish
+against the total score of the other players in the competition.
+There is also a species of competition called &ldquo;bogey&rdquo; play, in
+which each man plays against a &ldquo;bogey&rdquo; score&mdash;a score fixed
+for each hole in the round before starting&mdash;and his position in
+the competition relatively to the other players is determined
+by the number of holes that he is to the good or to the bad of the
+&ldquo;bogey&rdquo; score at the end of the round. The player who is most
+holes to the good, or fewest holes to the bad, wins the competition.
+It may be mentioned incidentally that golf occupies the almost
+unique position of being the only sport in which even a single
+player can enjoy his game, his opponent in this event being
+&ldquo;Colonel Bogey&rdquo;&mdash;more often than not a redoubtable adversary.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The links which have been thought worthy, by reason of their
+geographical positions and their merits, of being the scenes on which
+the golf championships are fought out, are, as we have already said,
+three in Scotland&mdash;St Andrews, Prestwick and Muirfield&mdash;and three
+in England&mdash;Hoylake, Sandwich and Deal. This brief list is very
+far from being complete as regards links of first-class quality in Great
+Britain. Besides those named, there are in Scotland&mdash;Carnoustie,
+North Berwick, Cruden Bay, Nairn, Aberdeen, Dornoch, Troon,
+Machrihanish, South Uist, Islay, Gullane, Luffness and many more.
+In England there are&mdash;Westward Ho, Bembridge, Littlestone, Great
+Yarmouth, Brancaster, Seaton Carew, Formby, Lytham, Harlech,
+Burnham, among the seaside ones; while of the inland, some of them
+of very fine quality, we cannot even attempt a selection, so large is
+their number and so variously estimated their comparative merits.
+Ireland has Portrush, Newcastle, Portsalon, Dollymount and many
+more of the first class; and there are excellent courses in the Isle of
+Man. In America many fine courses have been constructed. There
+is not a British colony of any standing that is without its golf course&mdash;Australia,
+India, South Africa, all have their golf championships,
+which are keenly contested. Canada has had courses at Quebec and
+Montreal for many years, and the Calcutta Golf Club, curiously
+enough, is the oldest established (next to the Blackheath Club), the
+next oldest being the club at Pau in the Basses-Pyrénées.</p>
+
+<p>The Open Championship of golf was started in 1860 by the
+Prestwick Club giving a belt to be played for annually under the
+condition that it should become the property of any who could win
+it thrice in succession. The following is the list of the champions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">1860.</td> <td class="tcl">W. Park, Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">174&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1861.</td> <td class="tcl">Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick</td> <td class="tcl">163&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1862.</td> <td class="tcl">Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick</td> <td class="tcl">163&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1863.</td> <td class="tcl">W. Park, Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">168&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1864.</td> <td class="tcl">Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick</td> <td class="tcl">160&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1865.</td> <td class="tcl">A. Strath, St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">162&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1866.</td> <td class="tcl">W. Park, Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">169&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1867.</td> <td class="tcl">Tom Morris, sen., St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">170&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1868.</td> <td class="tcl">Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">154&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1869.</td> <td class="tcl">Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">157&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1870.</td> <td class="tcl">Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">149&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Tom Morris, junior, thus won the belt finally, according to the
+conditions. In 1871 there was no competition; but by 1872 the
+three clubs of St Andrews, Prestwick and Musselburgh had subscribed
+for a cup which should be played for over the course of each
+subscribing club successively, but should never become the property
+of the winner. In later years the course at Muirfield was substituted
+for that at Musselburgh, and Hoylake and Sandwich were admitted
+into the list of championship courses. Up to 1891, inclusive, the
+play of two rounds, or thirty-six holes, determined the championship,
+but from 1892 the result has been determined by the play of 72 holes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222"></a>222</span></p>
+
+<p class="noind">After the interregnum of 1871, the following were the champions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">1872.</td> <td class="tcl">Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">166&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1873.</td> <td class="tcl">Tom Kidd, St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">179&mdash;at St Andrews.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1874.</td> <td class="tcl">Mungo Park, Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">159&mdash;at Musselburgh.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1875.</td> <td class="tcl">Willie Park, Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">166&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1876.</td> <td class="tcl">Bob Martin, St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">176&mdash;at St Andrews.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1877.</td> <td class="tcl">Jamie Anderson, St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">160&mdash;at Musselburgh.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1878.</td> <td class="tcl">Jamie Anderson, St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">157&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1879.</td> <td class="tcl">Jamie Anderson, St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">170&mdash;at St Andrews.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1880.</td> <td class="tcl">Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">162&mdash;at Musselburgh.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1881.</td> <td class="tcl">Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">170&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1882.</td> <td class="tcl">Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">171&mdash;at St Andrews.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1883.</td> <td class="tcl">W. Fernie, Dumfries</td> <td class="tcl">159&mdash;at Musselburgh.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1884.</td> <td class="tcl">Jack Simpson, Carnoustie</td> <td class="tcl">160&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1885.</td> <td class="tcl">Bob Martin, St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">171&mdash;at St Andrews.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1886.</td> <td class="tcl">D. Brown, Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">157&mdash;at Musselburgh.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1887.</td> <td class="tcl">Willie Park, jun., Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">161&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1888.</td> <td class="tcl">Jack Burns, Warwick</td> <td class="tcl">171&mdash;at St Andrews.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1889.</td> <td class="tcl">Willie Park, jun., Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">155&mdash;at Musselburgh.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1890.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr John Ball, jun., Hoylake</td> <td class="tcl">164&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1891.</td> <td class="tcl">Hugh Kirkaldy, St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">166&mdash;at St Andrews.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1892.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr H. H. Hilton, Hoylake</td> <td class="tcl">305&mdash;at Muirfield.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1893.</td> <td class="tcl">W. Auchterlonie, St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">322&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1894.</td> <td class="tcl">J. H. Taylor, Winchester</td> <td class="tcl">326&mdash;at Sandwich.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1895.</td> <td class="tcl">J. H. Taylor, Winchester</td> <td class="tcl">322&mdash;at St Andrews.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1896.</td> <td class="tcl">H. Vardon, Scarborough</td> <td class="tcl">316&mdash;at Muirfield.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1897.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr H. H. Hilton, Hoylake</td> <td class="tcl">314&mdash;at Hoylake.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1898.</td> <td class="tcl">H. Vardon, Scarborough</td> <td class="tcl">307&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1899.</td> <td class="tcl">H. Vardon, Scarborough</td> <td class="tcl">310&mdash;at Sandwich.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1900.</td> <td class="tcl">J. H. Taylor, Richmond</td> <td class="tcl">309&mdash;at St Andrews.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1901.</td> <td class="tcl">J. Braid, Romford</td> <td class="tcl">309&mdash;at Muirfield.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1902.</td> <td class="tcl">A. Herd, Huddersfield</td> <td class="tcl">307&mdash;at Hoylake.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1903.</td> <td class="tcl">H. Vardon, Ganton</td> <td class="tcl">300&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1904.</td> <td class="tcl">J. White, Sunningdale</td> <td class="tcl">296&mdash;at Sandwich.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1905.</td> <td class="tcl">J. Braid, Walton Heath</td> <td class="tcl">318&mdash;at St Andrews.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1906.</td> <td class="tcl">J. Braid, Walton Heath</td> <td class="tcl">300&mdash;at Muirfield.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1907.</td> <td class="tcl">Arnaud Massey, La Boulie</td> <td class="tcl">312&mdash;at Hoylake.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1908.</td> <td class="tcl">J. Braid, Walton Heath</td> <td class="tcl">291&mdash;at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1909.</td> <td class="tcl">J. H. Taylor, Richmond</td> <td class="tcl">295&mdash;at Deal.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1910.</td> <td class="tcl">J. Braid, Walton Heath</td> <td class="tcl">298&mdash;at St Andrews.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The Amateur Championship is of far more recent institution.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">1886.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr Horace Hutchinson</td> <td class="tcl">at St Andrews.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1887.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr Horace Hutchinson</td> <td class="tcl">at Hoylake.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1888.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr John Ball</td> <td class="tcl">at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1889.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr J. E. Laidlay</td> <td class="tcl">at St Andrews.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1890.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr John Ball</td> <td class="tcl">at Hoylake.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1891.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr J. E. Laidlay</td> <td class="tcl">at St Andrews.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1892.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr John Ball</td> <td class="tcl">at Sandwich.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1893.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr P. Anderson</td> <td class="tcl">at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1894.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr John Ball</td> <td class="tcl">at Hoylake.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1895.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr L. Balfour-Melville</td> <td class="tcl">at St Andrews.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1896.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr F. G. Tait</td> <td class="tcl">at Sandwich.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1897.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr J. T. Allan</td> <td class="tcl">at Muirfield.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1898.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr John Ball</td> <td class="tcl">at Prestwick.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1899.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr F. G. Tait</td> <td class="tcl">at Hoylake.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1900.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr H. H. Hilton</td> <td class="tcl">at Sandwich.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1901.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr H. H. Hilton</td> <td class="tcl">at St Andrews.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1902.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr C. Hutchings</td> <td class="tcl">at Hoylake.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1903.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr R. Maxwell</td> <td class="tcl">at Muirfield.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1904.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr W. J. Travis</td> <td class="tcl">at Sandwich.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1905.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr A. G. Barry</td> <td class="tcl">at St Andrews.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1906.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr J. Robb</td> <td class="tcl">at Hoylake.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1907.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr John Ball</td> <td class="tcl">at St Andrews.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1908.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr E. A. Lassen</td> <td class="tcl">at Sandwich.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1909.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr Robert Maxwell</td> <td class="tcl">at Muirfield.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1910.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr John Ball</td> <td class="tcl">at Hoylake.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The Ladies&rsquo; Championship was started in 1893.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">1893.</td> <td class="tcl">Lady M. Scott</td> <td class="tcl">at St Annes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1894.</td> <td class="tcl">Lady M. Scott</td> <td class="tcl">at Littlestone.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1895.</td> <td class="tcl">Lady M. Scott</td> <td class="tcl">at Portrush.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1896.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss A. B. Pascoe</td> <td class="tcl">at Hoylake.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1897.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss E. C. Orr</td> <td class="tcl">at Gullane.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1898.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss L. Thompson</td> <td class="tcl">at Yarmouth.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1899.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss M. Hezlet</td> <td class="tcl">at Newcastle.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1900.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss R. K. Adair</td> <td class="tcl">at Westward Ho.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1901.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss M. A. Graham</td> <td class="tcl">at Aberdovy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1902.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss M. Hezlet</td> <td class="tcl">at Deal.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1903.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss R. K. Adair</td> <td class="tcl">at Portrush.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1904.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss L. Dod</td> <td class="tcl">at Troon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1905.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss B. Thompson</td> <td class="tcl">at Cromer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1906.</td> <td class="tcl">Mrs Kennion</td> <td class="tcl">at Burnham.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1907.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss M. Hezlet</td> <td class="tcl">at Newcastle (Co. Down).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1908.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss M. Titterton</td> <td class="tcl">at St Andrews.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1909.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss D. Campbell</td> <td class="tcl">at Birkdale.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1910.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss Grant Suttie</td> <td class="tcl">at Westward Ho.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>There have been some slight changes of detail and arrangement
+as time has gone on, in the rules of the game (the latest edition
+of the Rules should be consulted). A new class of golfer has
+arisen, requiring a code of rules framed rather more exactly
+than the older code. The Scottish golfer, who was &ldquo;teethed&rdquo;
+on a golf club, as Mr Andrew Lang has described it, imbibed all
+the traditions of the game with his natural sustenance. Very
+few rules sufficed for him. But when the Englishman, and still
+more the American (less in touch with the traditions), began to
+play golf as a new game, then they began to ask for a code of
+rules that should be lucid and illuminating on every point&mdash;an
+ideal perhaps impossible to realize. It was found, at least,
+that the code put forward by the Royal and Ancient Club of
+St Andrews did not realize it adequately. Nevertheless the new
+golfers were very loyal indeed to the club that had ever of old
+held, by tacit consent, the position of fount of golfing legislation.
+The Royal and Ancient Club was appealed to by English golfers
+to step into the place, analogous to that of the Marylebone
+Cricket Club in cricket, that they were both willing and anxious
+to give it. It was a place that the Club at St Andrews did not
+in the least wish to occupy, but the honour was thrust so insistently
+upon it, that there was no declining. The latest effort to
+meet the demands for some more satisfactory legislation on the
+thousand and one points that continually must arise for decision
+in course of playing a game of such variety as golf, consists of
+the appointment of a standing committee, called the &ldquo;Rules
+of Golf Committee.&rdquo; Its members all belong to the Royal and
+Ancient Club; but since this club draws its membership from
+all parts of the United Kingdom, this restriction is quite consistent
+with a very general representation of the views of north,
+south, east and west&mdash;from Westward Ho and Sandwich to
+Dornoch, and all the many first-rate links of Ireland&mdash;on the
+committee. Ireland has, indeed, some of the best links in the
+kingdom, and yields to neither Scotland nor England in enthusiasm
+for the game. This committee, after a general revision
+of the rules into the form in which they now stand, consider
+every month, either by meeting or by correspondence, the
+questions that are sent up to it by clubs or by individuals; and
+the committee&rsquo;s answers to these questions have the force of law
+until they have come before the next general meeting of the
+Royal and Ancient Club at St Andrews, which may confirm or
+may reject them at will. The ladies of Great Britain manage
+otherwise. They have a Golfing Union which settles questions
+for them; but since this union itself accepts as binding the
+answers given by the Rules of Golf Committee, they really arrive
+at the same conclusions by a slightly different path. Nor does the
+American Union, governing the play of men and women alike
+in the States, really act differently. The Americans naturally
+reserve to themselves freedom to make their own rules, but in
+practice they conform to the legislation of Scotland, with the
+exception of a more drastic definition of the status of the amateur
+player, and certain differences as to the clubs used.</p>
+
+<p>A considerable modification has been effected in the implements
+of the game. The tendency of the modern wooden clubs is to
+be short in the head as compared with the clubs of, say, 1880 or
+1885. The advantage claimed (probably with justice) for this
+shape is that it masses the weight behind the point on which
+the ball is struck. Better material in the wood of the club is a
+consequence of the increased demand for these articles and the
+increased competition among their makers. Whereas under
+the old conditions a few workers at the few greens then in
+existence were enough to supply the golfing wants, now there
+is a very large industry in golf club and ball making, which not
+only employs workers in the local club-makers&rsquo; shops all the
+kingdom over, but is an important branch of the commerce of
+the stores and of the big athletic outfitters, both in Great Britain
+and in the United States. By far the largest modification in
+the game since the change to gutta-percha balls from balls
+of leather-covering stuffed with feathers, is due to the American
+invention of the india-rubber cased balls. Practically it is as an
+American invention that it is still regarded, although the British
+law courts decided, after a lengthy trial (1905), that there had
+been &ldquo;prior users&rdquo; of the principle of the balls&rsquo; manufacture,
+and therefore that the patent of Mr Haskell, by whose name the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>223</span>
+first balls of the kind were called, was not good. It is singular
+to remark that in the first introduction of the gutta-percha
+balls, superseding the leather and feather compositions, they also
+were called by the name of their first maker, &ldquo;Gourlay.&rdquo; The
+general mode of manufacture of the rubber-cored ball, which is
+now everywhere in use, is interiorly, a hard core of gutta-percha
+or some other such substance; round this is wound, by
+machinery, india-rubber thread or strips at a high tension, and
+over all is an outer coat of gutta-percha. Some makers have
+tried to dispense with the kernel of hard substance, or to substitute
+for it kernels of some fluid or gelatinous substance, but
+in general the above is a sufficient, though rough, description of
+the mode of making all these balls. Their superiority over the
+solid gutta-percha lies in their superior resiliency. The effect
+is that they go much more lightly off the club. It is not so much
+in the tee-shots that this superiority is observed, as in the
+second shots, when the ball is lying badly; balls of the rubber-cored
+kind, with their greater liveliness, are more easy to raise
+in the air from a lie of this kind. They also go remarkably well
+off the iron clubs, and thus make the game easier by placing the
+player within an iron shot of the hole at a distance at which he
+would have to use a wooden club if he were playing with a solid
+gutta-percha ball. They also tend to make the game more easy by
+the fact that if they are at all mis-hit they go much better than
+a gutta-percha ball similarly inaccurately struck. As a slight set-off
+against these qualities, the ball, because of the greater liveliness,
+is not quite so good for the short game as the solid ball; but on
+the whole its advantages distinctly overbalance its disadvantages.</p>
+
+<p>When these balls were first put on the market they were sold
+at two shillings each and even, when the supply was quite
+unequal to the demand, at a greater deal higher price, rising to as
+much as a guinea a ball. But the normal price, until about a
+year after the decision in the British courts of law affirming that
+there was no patent in the balls, was always two shillings for the
+best quality of ball. Subsequently there was a reduction down
+to one shilling for the balls made by many of the manufacturing
+companies, though in 1910 the rise in the price of rubber sent up
+the cost. The rubber-cored ball does not go out of shape so
+quickly as the gutta-percha solid ball and does not show other
+marks of ill-usage with the club so obviously. It has had the
+effect of making the game a good deal easier for the second- and
+third-class players, favouring especially those who were short
+drivers with the old gutta-percha ball. To the best players it has
+made the least difference, nevertheless those who were best with
+the old ball are also best with the new; its effect has merely
+been to bring the second, third and fourth best closer to each
+other and to the best.</p>
+
+<p>Incidentally, the question of the expense of the game has
+been touched on in this notice of the new balls. There is no
+doubt that the balls themselves tend to a greater economy, not
+only because of their own superior durability but also because,
+as a consequence of their greater resiliency, they are not nearly
+so hard on the clubs, and the clubs themselves being perhaps
+made of better material than used to be given to their manufacture,
+the total effect is that a man&rsquo;s necessary annual expenditure
+on them is very small indeed even though he plays pretty
+constantly. Four or five rounds are not more than the average
+of golfers will make an india-rubber cored ball last them, so that
+the outlay on the weapons is very moderate. On the other
+hand the expenditure of the clubs on their courses has increased
+and tends to increase. Demands are more insistent than they
+used to be for a well kept course, for perfectly mown greens,
+renewed teeing grounds and so on, and probably the modern
+golfer is a good deal more luxurious in his clubhouse wants than
+his father used to be. This means a big staff of servants and
+workers on the green, and to meet this a rather heavy subscription
+is required. Such a subscription as five guineas added to a ten
+or fifteen guinea entrance fee is not uncommon, and even this is
+very moderate compared with the subscriptions to some of the
+clubs in the United States, where a hundred dollars a year, or
+twenty pounds of our money, is not unusual. But on the whole
+golf is a very economical pastime, as compared with almost
+any other sport or pastime which engages the attention of
+Britons, and it is a pastime for all the year round, and for all
+the life of a man or woman.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Glossary of Technical Terms used in the Game.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Addressing the Ball.</i>&mdash;Putting oneself in position to strike the ball.</p>
+
+<p><i>All Square.</i>&mdash;Term used to express that the score stands level,
+neither side being a hole up.</p>
+
+<p><i>Baff.</i>&mdash;To strike the ground with the club when playing, and so
+loft the ball unduly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Baffy.</i>&mdash;A short wooden club, with laid-back face, for lofting shots.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bogey.</i>&mdash;The number of strokes which a good average player
+should take to each hole. This imaginary player is usually known
+as &ldquo;Colonel Bogey,&rdquo; and plays a fine game.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brassy.</i>&mdash;A wooden club with a brass sole.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bulger.</i>&mdash;A driver in which the face &ldquo;bulges&rdquo; into a convex shape.
+The head is shorter than in the older-fashioned driver.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bunker.</i>&mdash;A sand-pit.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bye.</i>&mdash;The holes remaining after one side has become more holes up
+than remain for play.</p>
+
+<p><i>Caddie.</i>&mdash;The person who carries the clubs. Diminutive of
+&ldquo;cad&rdquo;; cf. laddie (from Fr. <i>cadet</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Cleek.</i>&mdash;The iron-headed club that is capable of the farthest drive
+of any of the clubs with iron heads.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cup.</i>&mdash;A depression in the ground causing the ball to lie badly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dead.</i>&mdash;A ball is said to be &ldquo;dead&rdquo; when so near the hole that
+the putting it in in the next stroke is a &ldquo;dead&rdquo; certainty. A ball
+is said to &ldquo;fall dead&rdquo; when it pitches with hardly any run.</p>
+
+<p><i>Divot.</i>&mdash;A piece of turf cut out in the act of playing, which, be it
+noted, should always be replaced before the player moves on.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dormy.</i>&mdash;One side is said to be &ldquo;dormy&rdquo; when it is as many
+holes to the good as remain to be played&mdash;so that it cannot be
+beaten.</p>
+
+<p><i>Driver.</i>&mdash;The longest driving club, used when the ball lies very
+well and a long shot is needed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Foozle.</i>&mdash;Any very badly missed or bungled stroke.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Fore!</i>&rdquo;&mdash;A cry of warning to people in front.</p>
+
+<p><i>Foursome.</i>&mdash;A match in which four persons engage, two on each
+side playing alternately with the same ball.</p>
+
+<p><i>Green.</i>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) The links as a whole; (<i>b</i>) the &ldquo;putting-greens&rdquo;
+around the holes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Grip.</i>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) The part of the club-shaft which is held in the hands
+while playing; (<i>b</i>) the grasp itself&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> &ldquo;a firm grip,&rdquo; &ldquo;a loose
+grip,&rdquo; are common expressions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Half-Shot.</i>&mdash;A shot played with something less than a full swing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Halved.</i>&mdash;A hole is &ldquo;halved&rdquo; when both sides have played it in
+the same number of strokes. A round is &ldquo;halved&rdquo; when each side
+has won and lost the same number of holes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Handicap.</i>&mdash;The strokes which a player receives either in match
+play or competition.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hanging.</i>&mdash;Said of a ball that lies on a slope inclining downwards
+in regard to the direction in which it is wished to drive.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hazard.</i>&mdash;A general term for bunker, whin, long grass, roads and
+all kinds of bad ground.</p>
+
+<p><i>Heel.</i>&mdash;To hit the ball on the &ldquo;heel&rdquo; of the club, <i>i.e.</i> the part of
+the face nearest the shaft, and so send the ball to the right, with the
+same result as from a slice.</p>
+
+<p><i>Honour.</i>&mdash;The privilege (which its holder is not at liberty to
+decline) of striking off first from the tee.</p>
+
+<p><i>Iron.</i>&mdash;An iron-headed club intermediate between the cleek and
+lofting mashie. There are driving irons and lofting irons according
+to the purposes for which they are intended.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lie.</i>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) The angle of the club-head with the shaft (<i>e.g.</i> a &ldquo;flat
+lie,&rdquo; &ldquo;an upright lie&rdquo;); (<i>b</i>) the position of the ball on the ground
+(<i>e.g.</i> &ldquo;a good lie,&rdquo; &ldquo;a bad lie&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p><i>Like, The.</i>&mdash;The stroke which makes the player&rsquo;s score equal to
+his opponent&rsquo;s in course of playing a hole.</p>
+
+<p><i>Like-as-we-Lie.</i>&mdash;Said when both sides have played the same
+number of strokes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Line.</i>&mdash;The direction in which the hole towards which the player
+is progressing lies with reference to the present position of his ball.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mashie.</i>&mdash;Ah iron club with a short head. The <i>lofting mashie</i> has
+the blade much laid back, for playing a short lofting shot. The
+<i>driving mashie</i> has the blade less laid back, and is used for longer,
+less lofted shots.</p>
+
+<p><i>Match-Play.</i>&mdash;Play in which the score is reckoned by holes won
+and lost.</p>
+
+<p><i>Medal-Play.</i>&mdash;Play in which the score is reckoned by the total
+of strokes taken on the round.</p>
+
+<p><i>Niblick.</i>&mdash;A short stiff club with a short, laid back, iron head,
+used for getting the ball out of a very bad lie.</p>
+
+<p><i>Odd, The.</i>&mdash;A stroke more than the opponent has played.</p>
+
+<p><i>Press.</i>&mdash;To strive to hit harder than you can hit with accuracy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pull.</i>&mdash;To hit the ball with a pulling movement of the club, so as
+to make it curve to the left.</p>
+
+<p><i>Putt.</i>&mdash;To play the short strokes near the hole (pronounced as in
+&ldquo;but&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p><i>Putter.</i>&mdash;The club used for playing the short strokes near the hole.
+Some have a wooden head, some an iron head.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>224</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Rub-of-the-Green.</i>&mdash;Any chance deflection that the ball receives as
+it goes along.</p>
+
+<p><i>Run Up.</i>&mdash;To send the ball low and close to the ground in
+approaching the hole&mdash;opposite to lofting it up.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scratch Player.</i>&mdash;Player who receives no odds in handicap competitions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Slice.</i>&mdash;To hit the ball with a cut across it, so that it flies curving
+to the right.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stance.</i>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) The place on which the player has to stand when
+playing&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> &ldquo;a bad stance,&rdquo; &ldquo;a good stance,&rdquo; are common expressions;
+(<i>b</i>) the position relative to each other of the player&rsquo;s feet.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stymie.</i>&mdash;When one ball lies in a straight line between another and
+the hole the first is said to &ldquo;stymie,&rdquo; or &ldquo;to be a stymie to&rdquo; the
+other&mdash;from an old Scottish word given by Jamieson to mean &ldquo;the
+faintest form of anything.&rdquo; The idea probably was, the &ldquo;stymie&rdquo;
+only left you the &ldquo;faintest form&rdquo; of the hole to aim at.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tee.</i>&mdash;The little mound of sand on which the ball is generally
+placed for the first drive to each hole.</p>
+
+<p><i>Teeing-Ground.</i>&mdash;The place marked as the limit, outside of which
+it is not permitted to drive the ball off. This marked-out ground is
+also sometimes called &ldquo;the tee.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Top.</i>&mdash;To hit the ball above the centre, so that it does not rise
+much from the ground.</p>
+
+<p><i>Up.</i>&mdash;A player is said to be &ldquo;one up,&rdquo; &ldquo;two up,&rdquo; &amp;c., when he is so
+many holes to the good of his opponent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wrist-Shot.</i>&mdash;A shot less in length than a half-shot, but longer than
+a putt.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The literature of the game has grown to some
+considerable bulk. For many years it was practically comprised in
+the fine work by Mr Robert Clark, <i>Golf: A Royal and Ancient Game</i>,
+together with two handbooks on the game by Mr Chambers and by
+Mr Forgan respectively, and the <i>Golfiana Miscellanea</i> of Mr Stewart.
+A small book by Mr Horace Hutchinson, named <i>Hints on Golf</i>, was
+very shortly followed by a much more important work by Sir Walter
+Simpson, Bart., called <i>The Art of Golf</i>, a title which sufficiently
+explains itself. The Badminton Library book on <i>Golf</i> attempted to
+collect into one volume the most interesting historical facts known
+about the game, with <i>obiter dicta</i> and advice to learners, and, on
+similar didactic lines, books have been written by Mr H. C. S.
+Everard, Mr Garden Smith and W. Park, the professional player.
+Mr H. J. Whigham, sometime amateur champion golfer of the
+United States, has given us a book about the game in that country.
+<i>The Book of Golf and Golfers</i>, compiled, with assistance, by Mr Horace
+Hutchinson, is in the first place a picture-gallery of famous golfers
+in their respective attitudes of play. Taylor, Vardon and Braid have
+each contributed a volume of instruction, and Mr G. W. Beldam has
+published a book with admirable photographs of players in action,
+called <i>Great Golfers: their Methods at a Glance</i>. A work intended for
+the use of green committees is among the volumes of the <i>Country Life</i>
+Library of Sport. Much interesting lore is contained in the <i>Golfing
+Annual</i>, in the <i>Golfer&rsquo;s Year Book</i> and in the pages of <i>Golf</i>, which
+has now become <i>Golf Illustrated</i>, a weekly paper devoted to the game.
+Among works that have primarily a local interest, but yet contain
+much of historical value about the game, may be cited the <i>Golf Book
+of East Lothian</i>, by the Rev. John Kerr, and the <i>Chronicle of Blackheath
+Golfers</i>, by Mr W. E. Hughes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. G. H.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1s" id="ft1s" href="#fa1s"><span class="fn">1</span></a> From an enactment of James VI. (then James I. of England),
+bearing date 1618, we find that a considerable importation of golf
+balls at that time took place from Holland, and as thereby &ldquo;na
+small quantitie of gold and silver is transported zierly out of his
+Hienes&rsquo; kingdome of Scoteland&rdquo; (see letter of His Majesty from
+Salisbury, the 5th of August 1618), he issues a royal prohibition, at
+once as a wise economy of the national moneys, and a protection to
+native industry in the article. From this it might almost seem that
+the game was at that date still known and practised in Holland.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2s" id="ft2s" href="#fa2s"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Records of the City of Edinburgh</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3s" id="ft3s" href="#fa3s"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Inventories of Mary Queen of Scots</i>, preface, p. lxx. (1863).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4s" id="ft4s" href="#fa4s"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Anonymous author of MS. in the Harleian Library.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5s" id="ft5s" href="#fa5s"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See <i>History of Leith</i>, by A. Campbell (1827).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6s" id="ft6s" href="#fa6s"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Local Records of Northumberland</i>, by John Sykes (Newcastle,
+1833).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7s" id="ft7s" href="#fa7s"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Robertson&rsquo;s <i>Historical Notices of Leith</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLIAD,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> an unincorporated village and the county-seat of
+Goliad county, Texas, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the San Antonio
+river, 85 m. S.E. of San Antonio. Pop. (1900) about 1700. It
+is served by the Galveston, Harrisburg &amp; San Antonio railway
+(Southern Pacific System). Situated in the midst of a rich
+farming and stock-raising country, Goliad has flour mills, cotton
+gins and cotton-seed oil mills. Here are the interesting ruins of
+the old Spanish mission of La Bahia, which was removed to this
+point from the Guadaloupe river in 1747. During the struggle
+between Mexico and Spain the Mexican leader Bernardo Gutierrez
+(1778-1814) was besieged here. The name Goliad, probably an
+anagram of the name of the Mexican patriot Hidalgo (1753-1811),
+was first used about 1829. On the outbreak of the Texan War
+of Liberation Goliad was garrisoned by a small force of Mexicans,
+who surrendered to the Texans in October 1835, and on the 20th
+of December a preliminary &ldquo;declaration of independence&rdquo;
+was published here, antedating by several months the official
+Declaration issued at Old Washington, Texas, on the 2nd of
+March 1836. In 1836, when Santa Anna began his advance
+against the Texan posts, Goliad was occupied by a force of about
+350 Americans under Colonel James W. Fannin (<i>c.</i> 1800-1836),
+who was overtaken on the Coletta Creek while attempting to
+carry out orders to withdraw from Goliad and to unite with
+General Houston; he surrendered after a sharp fight (March
+19-20) in which he inflicted a heavy loss on the Mexicans, and
+was marched back with his force to Goliad, where on the morning
+of the 27th of March they were shot down by Santa Anna&rsquo;s
+orders. Goliad was nearly destroyed by a tornado on the 19th
+of May 1903.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLIARD,<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> a name applied to those wandering students
+(<i>vagantes</i>) and clerks in England, France and Germany, during
+the 12th and 13th centuries, who were better known for their
+rioting, gambling and intemperance than for their scholarship.
+The derivation of the word is uncertain. It may come from
+the Lat. <i>gula</i>, gluttony (Wright), but was connected by them
+with a mythical &ldquo;Bishop Golias,&rdquo; also called &ldquo;<i>archipoëta</i>&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;<i>primas</i>&rdquo;&mdash;especially in Germany&mdash;in whose name their satirical
+poems were mostly written. Many scholars have accepted
+Büdinger&rsquo;s suggestion (<i>Über einige Reste der Vagantenpoesie in
+Österreich</i>, Vienna, 1854) that the title of Golias goes back to
+the letter of St Bernard to Innocent II., in which he referred
+to Abelard as Goliath, thus connecting the goliards with the
+keen-witted student adherents of that great medieval critic.
+Giesebrecht and others, however, support the derivation of
+goliard from <i>gailliard</i>, a gay fellow, leaving &ldquo;Golias&rdquo; as the
+imaginary &ldquo;patron&rdquo; of their fraternity.</p>
+
+<p>Spiegel has ingeniously disentangled something of a biography
+of an <i>archipoëta</i> who flourished mainly in Burgundy and at
+Salzburg from 1160 to beyond the middle of the 13th century;
+but the proof of the reality of this individual is not convincing.
+It is doubtful, too, if the jocular references to the rules of the
+&ldquo;gild&rdquo; of goliards should be taken too seriously, though their
+aping of the &ldquo;orders&rdquo; of the church, especially their contrasting
+them with the mendicants, was too bold for church synods.
+Their satires were almost uniformly directed against the church,
+attacking even the pope. In 1227 the council of Trèves forbade
+priests to permit the goliards to take part in chanting the service.
+In 1229 they played a conspicuous part in the disturbances at
+the university of Paris, in connexion with the intrigues of the
+papal legate. During the century which followed they formed
+a subject for the deliberations of several church councils, notably
+in 1289 when it was ordered that &ldquo;no clerks shall be jongleurs,
+goliards or buffoons,&rdquo; and in 1300 (at Cologne) when they were
+forbidden to preach or engage in the indulgence traffic. This
+legislation was only effective when the &ldquo;privileges of clergy&rdquo;
+were withdrawn from the goliards. Those historians who regard
+the middle ages as completely dominated by ascetic ideals, regard
+the goliard movement as a protest against the spirit of the time.
+But it is rather indicative of the wide diversity in temperament
+among those who crowded to the universities in the 13th century,
+and who found in the privileges of the clerk some advantage
+and attraction in the student life. The goliard poems are as
+truly &ldquo;medieval&rdquo; as the monastic life which they despised;
+they merely voice another section of humanity. Yet their
+criticism was most keenly pointed, and marks a distinct step
+in the criticism of abuses in the church.</p>
+
+<p>Along with these satires went many poems in praise of wine
+and riotous living. A remarkable collection of them, now at
+Munich, from the monastery at Benedictbeuren in Bavaria,
+was published by Schmeller (3rd ed., 1895) under the title <i>Carmina
+Burana</i>. Many of these, which form the main part of song-books
+of German students to-day, have been delicately translated by
+John Addington Symonds in a small volume, <i>Wine, Women and
+Song</i> (1884). As Symonds has said, they form a prelude to the
+Renaissance. The poems of &ldquo;Bishop Golias&rdquo; were later
+attributed to Walter Mapes, and have been published by Thomas
+Wright in <i>The Latin Poems commonly attributed to Walter Mapes</i>
+(London, 1841).</p>
+
+<p>The word &ldquo;goliard&rdquo; itself outlived these turbulent bands
+which had given it birth, and passed over into French and
+English literature of the 14th century in the general meaning of
+jongleur or minstrel, quite apart from any clerical association.
+It is thus used in <i>Piers Plowman</i>, where, however, the <i>goliard</i>
+still rhymes in Latin, and in Chaucer.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See, besides the works quoted above, M. Haezner, <i>Goliardendichtung
+und die Satire im 13ten Jahrhundert in England</i> (Leipzig, 1905);
+Spiegel, <i>Die Vaganten und ihr &ldquo;Orden&rdquo;</i> (Spires, 1892); Hubatsch,
+<i>Die lateinischen Vagantenlieder des Mittelalters</i> (Görlitz, 1870); and
+the article in <i>La grande Encyclopédie</i>. All of these have bibliographical
+apparatus.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. T. S.*)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>225</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLIATH,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> the name of the giant by slaying whom David
+achieved renown (1 Sam. xvii.). The Philistines had come up to
+make war against Saul and, as the rival camps lay opposite each
+other, this warrior came forth day by day to challenge to single
+combat. Only David ventured to respond, and armed with a
+sling and pebbles he overcame Goliath. The Philistines, seeing
+their champion killed, lost heart and were easily put to flight.
+The giant&rsquo;s arms were placed in the sanctuary, and it was his
+famous sword which David took with him in his flight from Saul
+(1 Sam. xxi. 1-9). From another passage we learn that Goliath
+of Gath, &ldquo;the shaft of whose spear was like a weaver&rsquo;s beam,&rdquo;
+was slain by a certain Elhanan of Bethlehem in one of David&rsquo;s
+conflicts with the Philistines (2 Sam. xxi. 18-22)&mdash;the parallel
+1 Chron. xx. 5, avoids the contradiction by reading the &ldquo;brother
+of Goliath.&rdquo; But this old popular story has probably preserved
+the more original tradition, and if Elhanan is the son of Dodo
+in the list of David&rsquo;s mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 9, 24), the
+resemblance between the two names may have led to the transference.
+The narratives of David&rsquo;s early life point to some
+exploit by means of which he gained the favour of Saul, Jonathan
+and Israel, but the absence of all reference to his achievement
+in the subsequent chapters (1 Sam. xxi. 11, xxix. 5)
+is evidence of the relatively late origin of a tradition which
+in course of time became one of the best-known incidents in
+David&rsquo;s life (Ps. cxliv., LXX. title, the apocryphal Ps. cli., Ecclus.
+xlvii. 4).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">David</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samuel</a></span> (<span class="sc">Books</span>) and especially Cheyne, <i>Aids and
+Devout Study of Criticism</i>, pp. 80 sqq., 125 sqq. In the old Egyptian
+romance of <i>Sinuhit</i> (ascribed to about 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the story of the
+slaying of the Bedouin hero has several points of resemblance with that
+of David and Goliath. See L. B. Paton, <i>Hist. of Syr. and Pal.</i>, p. 60;
+A. Jeremias, <i>Das A. T. im Lichte d. alten Orients</i>, 2nd ed. pp. 299, 491;
+A. R. S. Kennedy, <i>Century Bible: Samuel</i>, p. 122, argues that David&rsquo;s
+Philistine adversary was originally nameless, in 1 Sam. xvii. he is
+named only in v. 4.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLITSUIN, BORIS ALEKSYEEVICH<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1654-1714), Russian
+statesman, came of a princely family, claiming descent from
+Prince Gedimin of Lithuania. Earlier members of the family
+were Mikhail (d. c. 1552), a famous soldier, and his great-grandson
+Vasily Vasilevich (d. 1619), who was sent as ambassador to Poland
+to offer the Russian crown to Prince Ladislaus. Boris became
+court chamberlain in 1676. He was the young tsar Peter&rsquo;s chief
+supporter when, in 1689, Peter resisted the usurpations of his
+elder sister Sophia, and the head of the loyal council which
+assembled at the Troitsa monastery during the crisis of the struggle.
+Golitsuin it was who suggested taking refuge in that strong
+fortress and won over the boyars of the opposite party. In 1690
+he was created a boyar and shared with Lev Naruishkin, Peter&rsquo;s
+uncle, the conduct of home affairs. After the death of the
+tsaritsa Natalia, Peter&rsquo;s mother, in 1694, his influence increased
+still further. He accompanied Peter to the White Sea (1694-1695);
+took part in the Azov campaign (1695); and was one of
+the triumvirate who ruled Russia during Peter&rsquo;s first foreign
+tour (1697-1698). The Astrakhan rebellion (1706), which affected
+all the districts under his government, shook Peter&rsquo;s confidence
+in him, and seriously impaired his position. In 1707 he was
+superseded in the Volgan provinces by Andrei Matvyeev. A
+year before his death he entered a monastery. Golitsuin was a
+typical representative of Russian society of the end of the 17th
+century in its transition from barbarism to civilization. In
+many respects he was far in advance of his age. He was highly
+educated, spoke Latin with graceful fluency, frequented the society
+of scholars and had his children carefully educated according
+to the best European models. Yet this eminent, this superior
+personage was an habitual drunkard, an uncouth savage who
+intruded upon the hospitality of wealthy foreigners, and was not
+ashamed to seize upon any dish he took a fancy to, and send it
+home to his wife. It was his reckless drunkenness which
+ultimately ruined him in the estimation of Peter the Great,
+despite his previous inestimable services.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See S. Solovev, <i>History of Russia</i> (Rus.), vol. xiv. (Moscow, 1858);
+R. N. Bain, <i>The First Romanovs</i> (London, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLITSUIN, DMITRY MIKHAILOVICH<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (1665-1737),
+Russian statesman, was sent in 1697 to Italy to learn &ldquo;military
+affairs&rdquo;; in 1704 he was appointed to the command of an
+auxiliary corps in Poland against Charles XII.; from 1711 to
+1718 he was governor of Byelogorod. In 1718 he was appointed
+president of the newly erected <i>Kammer Kollegium</i> and a senator.
+In May 1723 he was implicated in the disgrace of the vice-chancellor
+Shafirov and was deprived of all his offices and
+dignities, which he only recovered through the mediation of the
+empress Catherine I. After the death of Peter the Great,
+Golitsuin became the recognized head of the old Conservative
+party which had never forgiven Peter for putting away Eudoxia
+and marrying the plebeian Martha Skavronskaya. But the
+reformers, as represented by Alexander Menshikov and Peter
+Tolstoi, prevailed; and Golitsuin remained in the background
+till the fall of Menshikov, 1727. During the last years of Peter II.
+(1728-1730), Golitsuin was the most prominent statesman in
+Russia and his high aristocratic theories had full play. On the
+death of Peter II. he conceived the idea of limiting the autocracy
+by subordinating it to the authority of the supreme privy council,
+of which he was president. He drew up a form of constitution
+which Anne of Courland, the newly elected Russian empress,
+was forced to sign at Mittau before being permitted to proceed to
+St Petersburg. Anne lost no time in repudiating this constitution,
+and never forgave its authors. Golitsuin was left in peace, however,
+and lived for the most part in retirement, till 1736, when he
+was arrested on suspicion of being concerned in the conspiracy
+of his son-in-law Prince Constantine Cantimir. This, however,
+was a mere pretext, it was for his anti-monarchical sentiments
+that he was really prosecuted. A court, largely composed of
+his antagonists, condemned him to death, but the empress
+reduced the sentence to lifelong imprisonment in Schlüsselburg
+and confiscation of all his estates. He died in his prison on the
+14th of April 1737, after three months of confinement.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. N. Bain, <i>The Pupils of Peter the Great</i> (London, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLITSUIN, VASILY VASILEVICH<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1643-1714), Russian
+statesman, spent his early days at the court of Tsar Alexius
+where he gradually rose to the rank of boyar. In 1676 he was
+sent to the Ukraine to keep in order the Crimean Tatars and
+took part in the Chigirin campaign. Personal experience of the
+inconveniences and dangers of the prevailing system of preferment,
+the so-called <i>myestnichestvo</i>, or rank priority, which had
+paralysed the Russian armies for centuries, induced him to propose
+its abolition, which was accomplished by Tsar Theodore III.
+(1678). The May revolution of 1682 placed Golitsuin at the
+head of the <i>Posolsky Prikaz</i>, or ministry of foreign affairs, and
+during the regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the Great, whose
+lover he became, he was the principal minister of state (1682-1689)
+and &ldquo;keeper of the great seal,&rdquo; a title bestowed upon
+only two Russians before him, Athonasy Orduin-Nashchokin
+and Artamon Matvyeev. In home affairs his influence was
+insignificant, but his foreign policy was distinguished by the
+peace with Poland in 1683, whereby Russia at last recovered
+Kiev. By the terms of the same treaty, he acceded to the
+grand league against the Porte, but his two expeditions against
+the Crimea (1687 and 1689), &ldquo;the First Crimean War,&rdquo; were
+unsuccessful and made him extremely unpopular. Only with the
+utmost difficulty could Sophia get the young tsar Peter to
+decorate the defeated commander-in-chief as if he had returned
+a victor. In the civil war between Sophia and Peter (August-September
+1689), Golitsuin half-heartedly supported his mistress
+and shared her ruin. His life was spared owing to the supplications
+of his cousin Boris, but he was deprived of his boyardom,
+his estates were confiscated and he was banished successively to
+Kargopol, Mezen and Kologora, where he died on the 21st of
+April 1714. Golitsuin was unusually well educated. He understood
+German and Greek as well as his mother-tongue, and could
+express himself fluently in Latin. He was a great friend of
+foreigners, who generally alluded to him as &ldquo;the great Golitsuin.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>His brother <span class="sc">Mikhail</span> (1674-1730) was a celebrated soldier, who
+is best known for his governorship of Finland (1714-1721), where
+his admirable qualities earned the remembrance of the people
+whom he had conquered. And Mikhail&rsquo;s son Alexander (1718-1783)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>226</span>
+was a diplomat and soldier, who rose to be field-marshal
+and governor of St Petersburg.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. N. Bain, <i>The First Romanovs</i> (London, 1905); A.
+Brückner, <i>Fürst Golizin</i> (Leipzig, 1887); S. Solovev, <i>History of
+Russia</i> (Rus.), vols. xiii.-xiv. (Moscow, 1858, &amp;c.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLIUS<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> or (<span class="sc">Gohl</span>), <b>JACOBUS</b> (1596-1667), Dutch Orientalist,
+was born at the Hague in 1596, and studied at the university of
+Leiden, where in Arabic and other Eastern languages he was the
+most distinguished pupil of Erpenius. In 1622 he accompanied
+the Dutch embassy to Morocco, and on his return he was chosen
+to succeed Erpenius (1624). In the following year he set out on a
+Syrian and Arabian tour from which he did not return until 1629.
+The remainder of his life was spent at Leiden where he held the
+chair of mathematics as well as that of Arabic. He died on the
+28th of September 1667.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His most important work is the <i>Lexicon Arabico-Latinum</i>, fol.,
+Leiden, 1653, which, based on the <i>Sihah</i> of Al-Jauhari, was only
+superseded by the corresponding work of Freytag. Among his earlier
+publications may be mentioned editions of various Arabic texts
+(<i>Proverbia quaedam Alis, imperatoris Muslemici, et Carmen Tograipoëtae
+doctissimi, necnon dissertatio quaedam Aben Synae</i>, 1629; and
+<i>Ahmedis Arabsiadae vitae et rerum gestarum Timuri, qui vulgo Tamer,
+lanes dicitur, historia</i>, 1636). In 1656 he published a new edition,
+with considerable additions, of the <i>Grammatica Arabica</i> of Erpenius.
+After his death, there was found among his papers a <i>Dictionarium
+Persico-Latinum</i> which was published, with additions, by Edmund
+Castell in his <i>Lexicon heptaglotton</i> (1669). Golius also edited, translated
+and annotated the astronomical treatise of Alfragan (<i>Muhammedis,
+filii Ketiri Ferganensis, qui vulgo Alfraganus dicitur, elementa
+astronomica Arabice et Latine</i>, 1669).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLLNOW,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Pomerania, on the right bank of the Ihna, 14 m. N.N.E. of Stettin,
+with which it has communication by rail and steamer. Pop.
+(1905) 8539. It possesses two Evangelical churches, a synagogue
+and some small manufactures. Gollnow was founded in 1190,
+and was raised to the rank of a town in 1268. It was for a time
+a Hanse town, and came into the possession of Prussia in 1720,
+having belonged to Sweden since 1648.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLOSH,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Galosh</span> (from the Fr. <i>galoche</i>, Low Lat. <i>calopedes</i>,
+a wooden shoe or clog; an adaptation of the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kalopodion">&#954;&#945;&#955;&#959;&#960;&#972;&#948;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>,
+a diminutive formed of <span class="grk" title="kalon">&#954;&#8118;&#955;&#959;&#957;</span>, wood, and <span class="grk" title="pous">&#960;&#959;&#8166;&#962;</span>, foot), originally
+a wooden shoe or patten, or merely a wooden sole fastened to
+the foot by a strap or cord. In the middle ages &ldquo;galosh&rdquo; was a
+general term for a boot or shoe, particularly one with a wooden
+sole. In modern usage, it is an outer shoe worn in bad weather
+to protect the inner one, and keep the feet dry. Goloshes are
+now almost universally made of rubber, and in the United States
+they are known as &ldquo;rubbers&rdquo; simply, the word golosh being
+rarely if ever used. In the bootmakers&rsquo; trade, a &ldquo;golosh&rdquo;
+is the piece of leather, of a make stronger than, or different from
+that of the &ldquo;uppers,&rdquo; which runs around the bottom part of a
+boot or shoe, just above the sole.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLOVIN, FEDOR ALEKSYEEVICH,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (d. 1706),
+Russian statesman, learnt, like so many of his countrymen in
+later times, the business of a ruler in the Far East. During the
+regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the Great, he was sent to the
+Amur to defend the new Muscovite fortress of Albazin against
+the Chinese. In 1689 he concluded with the Celestial empire the
+treaty of Nerchinsk, by which the line of the Amur, as far as its
+tributary the Gorbitsa, was retroceded to China because of the
+impossibility of seriously defending it. In Peter&rsquo;s grand embassy
+to the West in 1697 Golovin occupied the second place
+immediately after Lefort. It was his chief duty to hire foreign
+sailors and obtain everything necessary for the construction and
+complete equipment of a fleet. On Lefort&rsquo;s death, in March 1699,
+he succeeded him as admiral-general. The same year he was
+created the first Russian count, and was also the first to be
+decorated with the newly-instituted Russian order of St Andrew.
+The conduct of foreign affairs was at the same time entrusted
+to him, and from 1699 to his death he was &ldquo;the premier minister
+of the tsar.&rdquo; Golovin&rsquo;s first achievement as foreign minister was
+to supplement the treaty of Carlowitz, by which peace with
+Turkey had only been secured for three years, by concluding with
+the Porte a new treaty at Constantinople (June 13, 1700), by
+which the term of the peace was extended to thirty years and,
+besides other concessions, the Azov district and a strip of territory
+extending thence to Kuban were ceded to Russia. He also
+controlled, with consummate ability, the operations of the
+brand-new Russian diplomatists at the various foreign courts.
+His superiority over all his Muscovite contemporaries was due
+to the fact that he was already a statesman, in the modern sense,
+while they were still learning the elements of statesmanship.
+His death was an irreparable loss to the tsar, who wrote upon the
+despatch announcing it, the words &ldquo;Peter filled with grief.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. N. Bain, <i>The First Romanovs</i> (London, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLOVKIN, GAVRIIL IVANOVICH,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1660-1734),
+Russian statesman, was attached (1677), while still a lad, to the
+court of the tsarevitch Peter, afterwards Peter the Great, with
+whose mother Natalia he was connected, and vigilantly guarded
+him during the disquieting period of the regency of Sophia,
+sister of Peter the Great (1682-1689). He accompanied the
+young tsar abroad on his first foreign tour, and worked by his
+side in the dockyards of Saardam. In 1706 he succeeded Golovin
+in the direction of foreign affairs, and was created the first Russian
+grand-chancellor on the field of Poltava (1709). Golovkin held
+this office for twenty-five years. In the reign of Catherine I.
+he became a member of the supreme privy council which had
+the chief conduct of affairs during this and the succeeding reigns.
+The empress also entrusted him with her last will whereby she
+appointed the young Peter II. her successor and Golovkin one
+of his guardians. On the death of Peter II. in 1730 he declared
+openly in favour of Anne, duchess of Courland, in opposition
+to the aristocratic Dolgorukis and Golitsuins, and his determined
+attitude on behalf of autocracy was the chief cause of the failure
+of the proposed constitution, which would have converted Russia
+into a limited monarchy. Under Anne he was a member of the
+first cabinet formed in Russia, but had less influence in affairs than
+Ostermann and Münnich. In 1707 he was created a count of
+the Holy Roman empire, and in 1710 a count of the Russian
+empire. He was one of the wealthiest, and at the same time
+one of the stingiest, magnates of his day. His ignorance of any
+language but his own made his intercourse with foreign ministers
+very inconvenient.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. N. Bain, <i>The Pupils of Peter the Great</i> (London, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLOVNIN, VASILY MIKHAILOVICH<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1776-1831), Russian
+vice-admiral, was born on the 20th of April 1776 in the village
+of Gulynki in the province of Ryazan, and received his education
+at the Cronstadt naval school. From 1801 to 1806 he served as
+a volunteer in the English navy. In 1807 he was commissioned
+by the Russian government to survey the coasts of Kamchatka
+and of Russian America, including also the Kurile Islands.
+Golovnin sailed round the Cape of Good Hope, and on the 5th of
+October 1809, arrived in Kamchatka. In 1810, whilst attempting
+to survey the coast of the island of Kunashiri, he was seized by
+the Japanese, and was retained by them as a prisoner, until the
+13th of October 1813, when he was liberated, and in the following
+year he returned to St Petersburg. Soon after this the government
+planned another expedition, which had for its object the
+circumnavigation of the globe by a Russian ship, and Golovnin
+was appointed to the command. He started from St Petersburg
+on the 7th of September 1817, sailed round Cape Horn, and
+arrived in Kamchatka in the following May. He returned to
+Europe by way of the Cape of Good Hope, and landed at St
+Petersburg on the 17th of September 1819. He died on the 12th
+of July 1831.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Golovnin published several works, of which the following are the
+most important:&mdash;<i>Journey to Kamchatka</i> (2 vols., 1819); <i>Journey
+Round the World</i> (2 vols., 1822); and <i>Narrative of my Captivity in
+Japan, 1811-1813</i> (2 vols., 1816). The last has been translated into
+French, German and English, the English edition being in three
+volumes (1824). A complete edition of his works was published at
+St Petersburg in five volumes in 1864, with maps and charts, and a
+biography of the author by N. Grech.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLTZ, BOGUMIL<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1801-1870), German humorist and
+satirist, was born at Warsaw on the 20th of March 1801. After
+attending the classical schools of Marienwerder and Königsberg,
+he learnt farming on an estate near Thorn, and in 1821 entered
+the university of Breslau as a student of philosophy. But he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>227</span>
+soon abandoned an academical career, and, after returning for
+a while to country life, retired to the small town of Gollub,
+where he devoted himself to literary studies. In 1847 he settled
+at Thorn, &ldquo;the home of Copernicus,&rdquo; where he died on the 12th
+of November 1870. Goltz is best known to literary fame by his
+<i>Buch der Kindheit</i> (Frankfort, 1847; 4th ed., Berlin, 1877), in
+which, after the style of Jean Paul, and Adalbert Stifter, but
+with a more modern realism, he gives a charming and idyllic
+description of the impressions of his own childhood. Among his
+other works must be noted <i>Ein Jugendleben</i> (1852); <i>Der Mensch
+und die Leute</i> (1858); <i>Zur Charakteristik und Naturgeschichte
+der Frauen</i> (1859); <i>Zur Geschichte und Charakteristik des deutschen
+Genius</i> (1864), and <i>Die Weltklugheit und die Lebensweisheit</i>
+(1869).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Goltz&rsquo;s works have not been collected, but a selection will be found
+in Reclam&rsquo;s <i>Universalbibliothek</i> (ed. by P. Stein, 1901 and 1906).
+See O. Roquette, <i>Siebzig Jahre</i>, i. (1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLTZ, COLMAR,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr Von Der</span> (1843-&emsp;&emsp;),
+Prussian soldier and military writer, was born at Bielkenfeld,
+East Prussia, on the 12th of August 1843, and entered the
+Prussian infantry in 1861. In 1864 he entered the Berlin
+Military Academy, but was temporarily withdrawn in 1866 to
+serve in the Austrian war, in which he was wounded at Trautenau.
+In 1867 he joined the topographical section of the general staff,
+and at the beginning of the Franco-German War of 1870-71
+was attached to the staff of Prince Frederick Charles. He took
+part in the battles of Vionville and Gravelotte and in the siege
+of Metz. After its fall he served under the Red Prince in the
+campaign of the Loire, including the battles of Orleans and Le
+Mans. He was appointed in 1871 professor at the military school
+at Potsdam, and the same year was promoted captain and placed
+in the historical section of the general staff. It was then he
+wrote <i>Die Operationen der II. Armee bis zur Capitulation von
+Metz</i> and <i>Die Sieben Tage von Le Mans</i>, both published in 1873.
+In 1874 he was appointed to the staff of the 6th division, and
+while so employed wrote <i>Die Operationen der II. Armee an der
+Loire and Léon Gambetta und seine Armeen</i>, published in 1875
+and 1877 respectively. The latter was translated into French
+the same year, and both are impartially written. The views
+expressed in the latter work led to his being sent back to regimental
+duty for a time, but it was not long before he returned
+to the military history section. In 1878 von der Goltz was
+appointed lecturer in military history at the military academy
+at Berlin, where he remained for five years and attained the rank
+of major. He published, in 1883, <i>Rossbach und Jena</i> (new and
+revised edition, <i>Von Rossbach bis Jena und Auerstädt</i>, 1906),
+<i>Das Volk in Waffen</i> (English translation <i>The Nation in Arms</i>),
+both of which quickly became military classics, and during his
+residence in Berlin contributed many articles to the military
+journals. In June 1883 his services were lent to Turkey to
+reorganize the military establishments of the country. He spent
+twelve years in this work, the result of which appeared in the
+Greco-Turkish War of 1897, and he was made a pasha and in
+1895 a <i>mushir</i> or field-marshal. On his return to Germany in
+1896 he became a lieutenant-general and commander of the 5th
+division, and in 1898, head of the Engineer and Pioneer Corps
+and inspector-general of fortifications. In 1900 he was made
+general of infantry and in 1902 commander of the I. army corps.
+In 1907 he was made inspector-general of the newly created
+sixth army inspection established at Berlin, and in 1908 was
+given the rank of colonel-general (<i>Generaloberst</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In addition to the works already named and frequent contributions
+to military periodical literature, he wrote <i>Kriegführung</i> (1895,
+later edition <i>Krieg- und Heerführung</i>, 1901; Eng. trans. <i>The Conduct
+of War</i>); <i>Der thessalische Krieg</i> (Berlin, 1898); <i>Ein Ausflug nach
+Macedonien</i> (1894); <i>Anatolische Ausflüge</i> (1896); a map and description
+of the environs of Constantinople; <i>Von Jena bis Pr. Eylau</i>
+(1907), a most important historical work, carrying on the story of
+<i>Rossbach und Jena</i> to the peace of Tilsit, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1558-1617), Dutch painter and
+engraver, was born in 1558 at Mülebrecht, in the duchy of
+Jülich. After studying painting on glass for some years under
+his father, he was taught the use of the burin by Dirk Volkertsz
+<span class="correction" title="amended from Coornlert">Coornhert</span>, a Dutch engraver of mediocre attainment, whom he
+soon surpassed, but who retained his services for his own
+advantage. He was also employed by Philip Galle to engrave a
+set of prints of the history of Lucretia. At the age of twenty-one
+he married a widow somewhat advanced in years, whose money
+enabled him to establish at Haarlem an independent business;
+but his unpleasant relations with her so affected his health that
+he found it advisable in 1590 to make a tour through Germany
+to Italy, where he acquired an intense admiration for the works
+of Michelangelo, which led him to surpass that master in the
+grotesqueness and extravagance of his designs. He returned
+to Haarlem considerably improved in health, and laboured there
+at his art till his death, on the 1st of January 1617. Goltzius
+ought not to be judged chiefly by the works he valued most,
+his eccentric imitations of Michelangelo. His portraits, though
+mostly miniatures, are master-pieces of their kind, both on
+account of their exquisite finish, and as fine studies of individual
+character. Of his larger heads, the life-size portrait of himself
+is probably the most striking example. His &ldquo;master-pieces,&rdquo;
+so called from their being attempts to imitate the style of the
+old masters, have perhaps been overpraised. In his command
+of the burin Goltzius is not surpassed even by Dürer; but his
+technical skill is often unequally aided by higher artistic qualities.
+Even, however, his eccentricities and extravagances are greatly
+counterbalanced by the beauty and freedom of his execution.
+He began painting at the age of forty-two, but none of his
+works in this branch of art&mdash;some of which are in the imperial
+collection at Vienna&mdash;display any special excellences. He
+also executed a few pieces in chiaroscuro.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His prints amount to more than 300 plates, and are fully described
+in Bartsch&rsquo;s <i>Peintre-graveur</i>, and Weigel&rsquo;s supplement to the same
+work.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOLUCHOWSKI, AGENOR,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1849-&emsp;&emsp;), Austrian
+statesman, was born on the 25th of March 1849. His father,
+descended from an old and noble Polish family, was governor
+of Galicia. Entering the diplomatic service, the son was in
+1872 appointed attaché to the Austrian embassy at Berlin,
+where he became secretary of legation, and thence he was
+transferred to Paris. After rising to the rank of counsellor of
+legation, he was in 1887 made minister at Bucharest, where he
+remained till 1893. In these positions he acquired a great
+reputation as a firm and skilful diplomatist, and on the retirement
+of Count Kalnoky in May 1895 was chosen to succeed him as
+Austro-Hungarian minister for foreign affairs. The appointment
+of a Pole caused some surprise in view of the importance of
+Austrian relations with Russia (then rather strained) and Germany,
+but the choice was justified by events. In his speech of that
+year to the delegations he declared the maintenance of the Triple
+Alliance, and in particular the closest intimacy with Germany,
+to be the keystone of Austrian policy; at the same time he
+dwelt on the traditional friendship between Austria and Great
+Britain, and expressed his desire for a good understanding with
+all the powers. In pursuance of this policy he effected an understanding
+with Russia, by which neither power was to exert any
+separate influence in the Balkan peninsula, and thus removed
+a long-standing cause of friction. This understanding was
+formally ratified during a visit to St Petersburg on which he
+accompanied the emperor in April 1897. He took the lead in
+establishing the European concert during the Armenian troubles
+of 1896, and again resisted isolated action on the part of any of
+the great powers during the Cretan troubles and the Greco-Turkish
+War. In November 1897, when the Austro-Hungarian
+flag was insulted at Mersina, he threatened to bombard the
+town if instant reparation were not made, and by his firm
+attitude greatly enhanced Austrian prestige in the East. In his
+speech to the delegations in 1898 he dwelt on the necessity of
+expanding Austria&rsquo;s mercantile marine, and of raising the fleet
+to a strength which, while not vying with the fleets of the great
+naval powers, would ensure respect for the Austrian flag wherever
+her interests needed protection. He also hinted at the necessity
+for European combination to resist American competition.
+The understanding with Russia in the matter of the Balkan
+States temporarily endangered friendly relations with Italy,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>228</span>
+who thought her interests threatened, until Goluchowski
+guaranteed in 1898 the existing order. He further encouraged
+a good understanding with Italy by personal conferences with
+the Italian foreign minister, Tittoni, in 1904 and 1905. Count
+Lamsdorff visited Vienna in December 1902, when arrangements
+were made for concerted action in imposing on the sultan reforms
+in the government of Macedonia. Further steps were taken after
+Goluchowski&rsquo;s interview with the tsar at Mürzsteg in 1903, and
+two civil agents representing the countries were appointed for
+two years to ensure the execution of the promised reforms. This
+period was extended in 1905, when Goluchowski was the chief
+mover in forcing the Porte, by an international naval demonstration
+at Mitylene, to accept financial control by the powers in
+Macedonia. At the conference assembled at Algeciras to settle
+the Morocco Question, Austria supported the German position,
+and after the close of the conferences the emperor William II.
+telegraphed to Goluchowski: &ldquo;You have proved yourself a
+brilliant second on the duelling ground and you may feel certain
+of like services from me in similar circumstances.&rdquo; This pledge
+was redeemed in 1908, when Germany&rsquo;s support of Austria in
+the Balkan crisis proved conclusive. By the Hungarians,
+however, Goluchowski was hated; he was suspected of having
+inspired the emperor&rsquo;s opposition to the use of Magyar in the
+Hungarian army, and was made responsible for the slight
+offered to the Magyar deputation by Francis Joseph in September
+1905. So long as he remained in office there was no hope of
+arriving at a settlement of a matter which threatened the disruption
+of the Dual monarchy, and on the 11th of October 1906
+he was forced to resign.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOMAL,<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gumal</span>, the name of a river of Afghanistan, and of
+a mountain pass on the Dera Ismail Khan border of the North-West
+Frontier Province of British India. The Gomal river, one
+of the most important rivers in Afghanistan, rises in the unexplored
+regions to the south-east of Ghazni. Its chief tributary
+is the Zhob. Within the limits of British territory the Gomal
+forms the boundary between the North-West Frontier Province
+and Baluchistan, and more or less between the Pathan and
+Baluch races. The Gomal pass is the most important pass on
+the Indian frontier between the Khyber and the Bolan. It
+connects Dera Ismail Khan with the Gomal valley in Afghanistan,
+and has formed for centuries the outlet for the povindah trade.
+Until the year 1889 this pass was almost unknown to the Anglo-Indian
+official; but in that year the government of India
+decided that, in order to maintain the safety of the railway
+as well as to perfect communication between Quetta and the
+Punjab, the Zhob valley should, like the Bori valley, be brought
+under British protection and control, and the Gomal pass should
+be opened. After the Waziristan expedition of 1894 Wana was
+occupied by British troops in order to dominate the Gomal and
+Waziristan; but on the formation of the North-West Frontier
+Province in 1901 it was decided to replace these troops by the
+South Waziristan militia, who now secure the safety of the
+pass.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOMARUS, FRANZ<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (1563-1641), Dutch theologian, was born
+at Bruges on the 30th of January 1563. His parents, having
+embraced the principles of the Reformation, emigrated to the
+Palatinate in 1578, in order to enjoy freedom to profess their
+new faith, and they sent their son to be educated at Strassburg
+under Johann Sturm (1507-1589). He remained there three
+years, and then went in 1580 to Neustadt, whither the professors
+of Heidelberg had been driven by the elector-palatine because
+they were not Lutherans. Here his teachers in theology were
+Zacharius Ursinus (1534-1583), Hieronymus Zanchius (1560-1590),
+and Daniel Tossanus (1541-1602). Crossing to England
+towards the end of 1582, he attended the lectures of John Rainolds
+(1549-1607) at Oxford, and those of William Whitaker (1548-1595)
+at Cambridge. He graduated at Cambridge in 1584, and
+then went to Heidelberg, where the faculty had been by this time
+re-established. He was pastor of a Reformed Dutch church in
+Frankfort from 1587 till 1593, when the congregation was
+dispersed by persecution. In 1594 he was appointed professor
+of theology at Leiden, and before going thither received from
+the university of Heidelberg the degree of doctor. He taught
+quietly at Leiden till 1603, when Jakobus Arminius came to be
+one of his colleagues in the theological faculty, and began to
+teach Pelagian doctrines and to create a new party in the university.
+Gomarus immediately set himself earnestly to oppose
+these views in his classes at college, and was supported by
+Johann B. Bogermann (1570-1637), who afterwards became
+professor of theology at Franeker. Arminius &ldquo;sought to make
+election dependent upon faith, whilst they sought to enforce
+absolute predestination as the rule of faith, according to which
+the whole Scriptures are to be interpreted&rdquo; (J. A. Dorner,
+<i>History of Protestant Theology</i>, i. p. 417). Gomarus then became
+the leader of the opponents of Arminius, who from that circumstance
+came to be known as Gomarists. He engaged twice in
+personal disputation with Arminius in the assembly of the
+estates of Holland in 1608, and was one of five Gomarists who
+met five Arminians or Remonstrants in the same assembly of
+1609. On the death of Arminius shortly after this time, Konrad
+Vorstius (1569-1622), who sympathized with his views, was
+appointed to succeed him, in spite of the keen opposition of
+Gomarus and his friends; and Gomarus took his defeat so ill
+that he resigned his post, and went to Middleburg in 1611, where
+he became preacher at the Reformed church, and taught theology
+and Hebrew in the newly founded <i>Illustre Schule</i>. From this
+place he was called in 1614 to a chair of theology at Saumur,
+where he remained four years, and then accepted a call as
+professor of theology and Hebrew to Groningen, where he stayed
+till his death on the 11th of January 1641. He took a leading
+part in the synod of Dort, assembled in 1618 to judge of the
+doctrines of Arminius. He was a man of ability, enthusiasm
+and learning, a considerable Oriental scholar, and also a keen
+controversialist. He took part in revising the Dutch translation
+of the Old Testament in 1633, and after his death a book by him,
+called the <i>Lyra Davidis</i>, was published, which sought to explain
+the principles of Hebrew metre, and which created some controversy
+at the time, having been opposed by Louis Cappel.
+His works were collected and published in one volume folio,
+in Amsterdam in 1645. He was succeeded at Groningen in 1643
+by his pupil Samuel Maresius (1599-1673).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOMBERVILLE, MARIN LE ROY,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> <span class="sc">Sieur du Parc et de</span>
+(1600-1674), French novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born
+at Paris in 1600. At fourteen years of age he wrote a volume
+of verse, at twenty a <i>Discours sur l&rsquo;histoire</i> and at twenty-two
+a pastoral, <i>La Carithée</i>, which is really a novel. The persons in
+it, though still disguised as shepherds and shepherdesses, represent
+real persons for whose identification the author himself
+provides a key. This was followed by a more ambitious attempt,
+<i>Polexandre</i> (5 vols. 1632-1637). The hero wanders through the
+world in search of the island home of the princess Alcidiane.
+It contains much history and geography; the travels of Polexandre
+extending to such unexpected places as Benin, the Canary
+Islands, Mexico and the Antilles, and incidentally we learn all that
+was then known of Mexican history. <i>Cythérée</i> (4 vols.) appeared
+in 1630-1642, and in 1651 the <i>Jeune Alcidiane</i>, intended to undo
+any harm the earlier novels may have done, for Gomberville
+became a Jansenist and spent the last twenty-five years of his
+life in pious retirement. He was one of the earliest and most
+energetic members of the Academy. He died in Paris on the
+14th of June 1674.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOMER,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> the biblical name of a race appearing in the table
+of nations (Gen. x. 2), as the &ldquo;eldest son&rdquo; of Japheth and the
+&ldquo;father&rdquo; of Ashkenaz, Riphath and Togarmah; and in Ezek.
+xxxviii. 6 as a companion of &ldquo;the house of Togarmah in the
+uttermost parts of the north,&rdquo; and an ally of Gog; both Gomer
+and Togarmah being credited with &ldquo;hordes,&rdquo;<a name="fa1t" id="fa1t" href="#ft1t"><span class="sp">1</span></a> E.V., <i>i.e.</i>
+&ldquo;bands&rdquo; or &ldquo;armies.&rdquo; The &ldquo;sons&rdquo; of Gomer are probably
+tribes of north-east Asia Minor and Armenia, and Gomer is
+identified with the Cimmerians. These are referred to in cuneiform
+inscriptions under the Assyrian name <i>gimmir&#257;</i> (<i>gimirrai</i>)
+as raiding Asia Minor from the north and north-east of the Black
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>229</span>
+Sea, and overrunning Lydia in the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cimmerii</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scythia</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lydia</a></span>). They do not seem to have made
+any permanent settlements, unless some such are indicated by
+the fact that the Armenians called Cappadocia <i>Gamir</i>. It is,
+however, suggested that this name is borrowed from the Old
+Testament.<a name="fa2t" id="fa2t" href="#ft2t"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The name Gomer (Gomer bath Diblaim) was also borne by the
+unfaithful wife of Hosea, whom he pardoned and took back (Hosea
+i. 3). Hosea uses these incidents as symbolic of the sin, punishment
+and redemption of Israel, but there is no need to regard Gomer as a
+purely imaginary person.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. H. Be.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1t" id="ft1t" href="#fa1t"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <span title="agaf">&#1488;&#1490;&#1507;</span> <i>&#258;gaph</i>, a word peculiar to Ezekiel, Clarendon Press <i>Heb.
+Lex.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2t" id="ft2t" href="#fa2t"><span class="fn">2</span></a> A. Jeremias, <i>Das A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients</i>, pp. 145 f.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOMERA,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part of
+the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (<i>q.v.</i>). Pop.
+(1900) 15,358; area 144 sq. m. Gomera lies 20 m. W.S.W. of
+Teneriffe. Its greatest length is about 23 m. The coast is
+precipitous and the interior mountainous, but Gomera has the
+most wood and is the best watered of the group. The inhabitants
+are very poor. Dromedaries are bred on Gomera in large
+numbers. San Sebastian (3187) is the chief town and a port.
+It was visited by Columbus on his first voyage of discovery in
+1492.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOMEZ, DIOGO<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Diego</span>) (fl. 1440-1482), Portuguese seaman,
+explorer and writer. We first trace him as a <i>cavalleiro</i> of the
+royal household; in 1440 he was appointed receiver of the royal
+customs&mdash;in 1466 judge&mdash;at Cintra (<i>juiz das causas e feitorias
+contadas de Cintra</i>); on the 5th of March 1482 he was confirmed
+in the last-named office. He wrote, especially for the benefit
+of Martin Behaim, a Latin chronicle of great value, dealing with
+the life and discoveries of Prince Henry the Navigator, and
+divided into three parts: (1) <i>De prima inventione Guineae</i>;
+(2) <i>De insulis primo inventis in mare</i> (<i>sic</i>) <i>Occidentis</i>; (3) <i>De
+inventione insularum de Açores</i>. This chronicle contains the
+only contemporary account of the rediscovery of the Azores
+by the Portuguese in Prince Henry&rsquo;s service, and is also noteworthy
+for its clear ascription to the prince of deliberate scientific
+and commercial purpose in exploration. For, on the one hand,
+the infante sent out his caravels to search for new lands (<i>ad
+quaerendas terras</i>) from his wish to know the more distant parts
+of the western ocean, and in the hope of finding islands or <i>terra
+firma</i> beyond the limits laid down by Ptolemy (<i>ultra descriptionem
+Tolomei</i>); on the other hand, his information as to the
+native trade from Tunis to Timbuktu and the Gambia helped
+to inspire his persistent exploration of the West African coast&mdash;&ldquo;to
+seek those lands by way of the sea.&rdquo; Chart and quadrant
+were used on the prince&rsquo;s vessels, as by Gomez himself on reaching
+the Cape Verde Islands; Henry, at the time of Diogo&rsquo;s first
+voyage, was in correspondence with an Oran merchant who
+kept him informed upon events even in the Gambia <i>hinterland</i>;
+and, before the discovery of the Senegal and Cape Verde in 1445,
+Gomez&rsquo; royal patron had already gained reliable information
+of <i>some</i> route to Timbuktu. In the first part of his chronicle
+Gomez tells how, no long time after the disastrous expedition
+of the Danish nobleman &ldquo;Vallarte&rdquo; (Adalbert) in 1448, he was
+sent out in command of three vessels along the West African
+coast, accompanied by one Jacob, an Indian interpreter, to be
+employed in the event of reaching India. After passing the Rio
+Grande, beyond Cape Verde, strong currents checked his course;
+his officers and men feared that they were approaching the
+extremity of the ocean, and he put back to the Gambia. He
+ascended this river a considerable distance, to the negro town of
+&ldquo;Cantor,&rdquo; whither natives came from &ldquo;Kukia&rdquo; and Timbuktu
+for trade; he gives elaborate descriptions of the negro world
+he had now penetrated, refers to the Sierra Leone (&ldquo;Serra Lyoa&rdquo;)
+Mountains, sketches the course of this range, and says much of
+Kukia (in the upper Niger basin?), the centre of the West African
+gold trade, and the resort of merchants and caravans from Tunis,
+Fez, Cairo and &ldquo;all the land of the Saracens.&rdquo; Mahommedanism
+was already dominant at the Cambria estuary, but Gomez
+seems to have won over at least one important chief, with his
+court, to Christianity and Portuguese allegiance. Another
+African voyage, apparently made in 1462, two years after Henry
+the Navigator&rsquo;s death (though assigned by some to 1460), resulted
+in a fresh discovery of the Cape Verde Islands, already found by
+Cadamosto (<i>q.v.</i>). To the island of Santiago Gomez, like his
+Venetian forerunner, claims to have given its present name.
+His narrative is a leading authority on the last illness and death
+of Prince Henry, as well as on the life, achievements and purposes
+of the latter; here alone is recorded what appears to have
+been the earliest of the navigator&rsquo;s exploring ventures, that
+which under João de Trasto reached Grand Canary in 1415.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of Gomez&rsquo; chronicle there is only one MS., viz. <i>Cod. Hisp.</i> 27, in the
+Hof- und Staats-Bibliothek, Munich; the original Latin text was
+printed by Schmeller &ldquo;Über Valentim Fernandez Alemão&rdquo; in the
+<i>Abhandlungen der philosoph.-philolog. Kl. der bayerisch. Akademie der
+Wissenschaften</i>, vol. iv., part iii. (Munich, 1847); see also Sophus Ruge,
+&ldquo;Die Entdeckung der Azoren,&rdquo; pp. 149-180 (esp. 178-179) in the
+27th <i>Jahresbericht des Vereins für Erdkunde</i> (Dresden, 1901); Jules
+Mees, <i>Histoire de la découverte des îles Açores</i>, pp. 44-45, 125-127 (Ghent,
+1901); R. H. Major, <i>Life of Prince Henry the Navigator</i>, pp. xviii.,
+xix., 64-65, 287-299, 303-305 (London, 1868); C. R. Beazley, <i>Prince
+Henry the Navigator</i>, 289-298, 304-305; and Introduction to Azurara&rsquo;s
+<i>Discovery and Conquest of Guinea</i>, ii., iv., xiv., xxv.-xxvii., xcii.-xcvi.
+(London, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. R. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA, GERTRUDIS<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1814-1873),
+Spanish dramatist and poet, was born at Puerto Príncipe
+(Cuba) on the 23rd of March 1814, and removed to Spain in 1836.
+Her <i>Poesías líricas</i> (1841), issued with a laudatory preface by
+Gallego, made a most favourable impression and were republished
+with additional poems in 1850. In 1846 she married a diplomatist
+named Pedro Sabater, became a widow within a year,
+and in 1853 married Colonel Domingo Verdugo. Meanwhile
+she had published <i>Sab</i> (1839), <i>Guatimozín</i> (1846), and other
+novels of no great importance. She obtained, however, a series
+of successes on the stage with <i>Alfonso Munio</i> (1844), a tragedy
+in the new romantic manner; with <i>Saúl</i> (1849), a biblical drama
+indirectly suggested by Alfieri; and with <i>Baltasar</i> (1858), a
+piece which bears some resemblance to Byron&rsquo;s <i>Sardanapalus</i>.
+Her commerce with the world had not diminished her natural
+piety, and, on the death of her second husband, she found so
+much consolation in religion that she had thoughts of entering
+a convent. She died at Madrid on the 2nd of February 1873,
+full of mournful forebodings as to the future of her adopted
+country. It is impossible to agree with Villemain that &ldquo;le
+génie de don Luis de Léon et de sainte Thérèse a reparu sous le
+voile funèbre de Gomez de Avellaneda,&rdquo; for she has neither the
+monk&rsquo;s mastery of poetic form <span class="correction" title="amended from not">nor</span> the nun&rsquo;s sublime simplicity of
+soul. She has a grandiose tragical vision of life, a vigorous
+eloquence rooted in pietistic pessimism, a dramatic gift effective
+in isolated acts or scenes; but she is deficient in constructive
+power and in intellectual force, and her lyrics, though instinct
+with melancholy beauty, or the tenderness of resigned devotion,
+too often lack human passion and sympathy. The edition of her
+<i>Obras literarias</i> (5 vols., 1869-1871), still incomplete, shows a
+scrupulous care for minute revision uncommon in Spanish
+writers; but her emendations are seldom happy. But she is
+interesting as a link between the classic and romantic schools of
+poetry, and, whatever her artistic shortcomings, she has no rivals
+of her own sex in Spain during the 19th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOMM, SIR WILLIAM MAYNARD<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (1784-1875), British
+soldier, was gazetted to the 9th Foot at the age of ten, in recognition
+of the services of his father, Lieut.-Colonel William Gomm,
+who was killed in the attack on Guadaloupe (1794). He joined
+his regiment as a lieutenant in 1799, and fought in Holland under
+the duke of York, and subsequently was with Pulteney&rsquo;s Ferrol
+expedition. In 1803 he became Captain, and shortly afterwards
+qualified as a staff officer at the High Wycombe military college.
+On the general staff he was with Cathcart at Copenhagen, with
+Wellington in the Peninsula, and on Moore&rsquo;s staff at Corunna.
+He was also on Chatham&rsquo;s staff in the disastrous Walcheren
+expedition of 1809. In 1810 he rejoined the Peninsular army as
+Leith&rsquo;s staff officer, and took part in all the battles of 1810,
+1811 and 1812, winning his majority after Fuentes d&rsquo;Onor and
+his lieutenant-colonelcy at Salamanca. His careful reconnaissances
+and skilful leading were invaluable to Wellington in the
+Vittoria campaign, and to the end of the war he was one of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>230</span>
+most trusted men of his staff. His reward was a transfer to the
+Coldstream Guards and the K.C.B. In the Waterloo campaign
+he served on the staff of the 5th British Division. From the
+peace until 1839 he was employed on home service, becoming
+colonel in 1829 and major-general in 1837. From 1839 to 1842
+he commanded the troops in Jamaica. He became lieutenant-general
+in 1846, and was sent out to be commander-in-chief in
+India, arriving only to find that his appointment had been
+cancelled in favour of Sir Charles Napier, whom, however, he
+eventually succeeded (1850-1855). In 1854 he became general
+and in 1868 field marshal. In 1872 he was appointed constable
+of the Tower, and he died in 1875. He was twice married, but
+had no children. His <i>Letters and Journals</i> were published by
+F. C. Carr-Gomm in 1881. Five &ldquo;Field Marshal Gomm&rdquo;
+scholarships were afterwards founded in his memory at Keble
+College, Oxford.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOMPERS, SAMUEL<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (1850-&emsp;&emsp;), American labour leader,
+was born in London on the 27th of January 1850. He was
+put to work in a shoe-factory when ten years old, but soon
+became apprenticed to a cigar-maker, removed to New York
+in 1863, became a prominent member of the International
+Cigar-makers&rsquo; Union, was its delegate at the convention of the
+Federation of Organized Trade and Labor Unions of the United
+States and Canada, later known as the American Federation of
+Labor, of which he became first president in 1882. He was
+successively re-elected up to 1895, when the opposition of the
+Socialist Labor Party, then attempting to incorporate the
+Federation into itself, secured his defeat; he was re-elected
+in the following year. In 1894 he became editor of the Federation&rsquo;s
+organ, <i>The American Federationist</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOMPERZ, THEODOR<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (1832-&emsp;&emsp;), German philosopher and
+classical scholar, was born at Brünn on the 29th of March 1832.
+He studied at Brünn and at Vienna under Herman Bonitz.
+Graduating at Vienna in 1867 he became <i>Privatdozent</i>, and
+subsequently professor of classical philology (1873). In 1882
+he was elected a member of the Academy of Science. He
+received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy <i>honoris causa</i> from
+the university of Königsberg, and Doctor of Literature from
+the universities of Dublin and Cambridge, and became correspondent
+for several learned societies. His principal works are:
+<i>Demosthenes der Staatsmann</i> (1864), <i>Philodemi de ira liber</i> (1864).
+<i>Traumdeutung und Zauberei</i> (1866), <i>Herkulanische Studien</i>
+(1865-1866), <i>Beiträge zur Kritik und Erklärung griech. Schriftsteller</i>
+(7 vols., 1875-1900), <i>Neue Bruchstücke Epikurs</i> (1876),
+<i>Die Bruchstücke der griech. Tragiker und Cobets neueste kritische
+Manier</i> (1878), <i>Herodoteische Studien</i> (1883), <i>Ein bisher unbekanntes
+griech. Schriftsystem</i> (1884), <i>Zu Philodems Büchern
+von der Musik</i> (1885), <i>Über den Abschluss des herodoteischen
+Geschichtswerkes</i> (1886), <i>Platonische Aufsätze</i> (3 vols., 1887-1905),
+<i>Zu Heraklits Lehre und den Überresten seines Werkes</i> (1887),
+<i>Zu Aristoteles&rsquo; Poëtik</i> (2 parts, 1888-1896), <i>Über die Charaktere
+Theophrasts</i> (1888), <i>Nachlese zu den Bruchstücken der griech.
+Tragiker</i> (1888), <i>Die Apologie der Heilkunst</i> (1890), <i>Philodem
+und die ästhetischen Schriften der herculanischen Bibliothek</i> (1891),
+<i>Die Schrift vom Staatswesen der Athener</i> (1891), <i>Die jüngst entdeckten
+Überreste einer den Platonischen Phädon enthaltenden Papyrusrolle</i>
+(1892), <i>Aus der Hekale des Kallimachos</i> (1893), <i>Essays
+und Erinnerungen</i> (1905). He supervised a translation of J. S.
+Mill&rsquo;s complete works (12 vols., Leipzig, 1869-1880), and
+wrote a life (Vienna, 1889) of Mill. His <i>Griechische Denker:
+Geschichte der antiken Philosophie</i> (vols. i. and ii., Leipzig, 1893
+and 1902) was translated into English by L. Magnus (vol. i., 1901).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GONAGUAS<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (&ldquo;borderers&rdquo;), descendants of a very old cross
+between the Hottentots and the Kaffirs, on the &ldquo;ethnical divide&rdquo;
+between the two races, apparently before the arrival of the
+whites in South Africa. They have been always a despised race
+and regarded as outcasts by the Bantu peoples. They were
+threatened with extermination during the Kaffir wars, but were
+protected by the British. At present they live in settled communities
+under civil magistrates without any tribal organization,
+and in some districts could be scarcely distinguished from the other
+natives but for their broken Hottentot-Dutch-English speech.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GONÇALVES DIAS, ANTONIO<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1823-1864), Brazilian lyric
+poet, was born near the town of Caxias, in Maranhão. From the
+university of Coimbra, in Portugal, he returned in 1845 to his
+native province, well-equipped with legal lore, but the literary
+tendency which was strong within him led him to try his fortune
+as an author at Rio de Janeiro. Here he wrote for the newspaper
+press, ventured to appear as a dramatist, and in 1846 established
+his reputation by a volume of poems&mdash;<i>Primeiros Cantos</i>&mdash;which
+appealed to the national feelings of his Brazilian readers, were
+remarkable for their autobiographic impress, and by their beauty
+of expression and rhythm placed their author at the head of the
+lyric poets of his country. In 1848 he followed up his success by
+<i>Segundos Cantos e sextilhas de Frei Antão</i>, in which, as the title
+indicates, he puts a number of the pieces in the mouth of a simple
+old Dominican friar; and in the following year, in fulfilment of
+the duties of his new post as professor of Brazilian history in the
+Imperial College of Pedro II. at Rio de Janeiro, he published an
+edition of Berredo&rsquo;s <i>Annaes historicos do Maranhão</i> and added a
+sketch of the migrations of the Indian tribes. A third volume of
+poems, which appeared with the title of <i>Ultimos Cantos</i> in 1851,
+was practically the poet&rsquo;s farewell to the service of the muse, for
+he spent the next eight years engaged under government patronage
+in studying the state of public instruction in the north and the
+educational institutions of Europe. On his return to Brazil in
+1860 he was appointed a member of an expedition for the exploration
+of the province of Ceará, was forced in 1862 by the state of
+his health to try the effects of another visit to Europe, and died in
+September 1864, the vessel that was carrying him being wrecked
+off his native shores. While in Germany he published at Leipzig
+a complete collection of his lyrical poems, which went through
+several editions, the four first cantos of an epic poem called <i>Os
+Tymbiras</i> (1857) and a <i>Diccionario da lingua Tupy</i> (1858).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A complete edition of the works of Dias has made its appearance
+at Rio de Janeiro. See Wolf, <i>Brésil littéraire</i> (Berlin, 1863); Innocencio
+de Silva, <i>Diccionario bibliographico portuguez</i>, viii. 157;
+Sotero dos Reis, <i>Curso de litteratura portugueza e brazileira</i>,
+iv. (Maranhão, 1868); José Verissimo, <i>Estudos de literatura
+brazileira, segunda serie</i> (Rio, 1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GONCHAROV, IVAN ALEXANDROVICH<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1812-1891), Russian
+novelist, was born 6/18 July 1812, being the son of a rich
+merchant in the town of Simbirsk. At the age of ten he was
+placed in one of the gymnasiums at Moscow, from which he passed,
+though not without some difficulty on account of his ignorance
+of Greek, into the Moscow University. He read many French
+works of fiction, and published a translation of one of the novels
+of Eugène Sue. During his university career he devoted himself
+to study, taking no interest in the political and Socialistic agitation
+among his fellow-students. He was first employed as secretary to
+the governor of Simbirsk, and afterwards in the ministry of
+finance at St Petersburg. Being absorbed in bureaucratic work,
+Goncharov paid no attention to the social questions then ardently
+discussed by such men as Herzen, Aksakov and Bielinski. He
+began his literary career by publishing translations from Schiller,
+Goethe and English novelists. His first original work was
+<i>Obuiknovennaya Istoria</i>, &ldquo;A Common Story&rdquo; (1847). In 1856 he
+sailed to Japan as secretary to Admiral Putiatin for the purpose of
+negotiating a commercial treaty, and on his return to Russia he
+published a description of the voyage under the title of &ldquo;The
+Frigate <i>Pallada</i>.&rdquo; His best work is <i>Oblomov</i> (1857), which exposed
+the laziness and apathy of the smaller landed gentry in Russia
+anterior to the reforms of Alexander II. Russian critics have
+pronounced this work to be a faithful characterization of Russia
+and the Russians. Dobrolubov said of it, &ldquo;Oblomofka [the
+country-seat of the Oblomovs] is our fatherland: something of
+Oblomov is to be found in every one of us.&rdquo; Peesarev, another
+celebrated critic, declared that &ldquo;Oblomovism,&rdquo; as Goncharov
+called the sum total of qualities with which he invested the hero
+of his story, &ldquo;is an illness fostered by the nature of the Slavonic
+character and the life of Russian society.&rdquo; In 1858 Goncharov
+was appointed a censor, and in 1868 he published another novel
+called <i>Obreev</i>. He was not a voluminous writer, and during the
+latter part of his life produced nothing of any importance. His
+death occurred on 15/27 September 1891.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id="page231"></a>231</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GONCOURT, DE,<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> a name famous in French literary history.
+<span class="sc">Edmond Louis Antoine Huot de Goncourt</span> was born at
+Nancy on the 26th of May 1822, and died at Champrosay on the
+16th of July 1896. <span class="sc">Jules Alfred Huot de Goncourt</span>, his
+brother, was born in Paris on the 17th of December 1830, and
+died in Paris on the 20th of June 1870.</p>
+
+<p>Writing always in collaboration, until the death of the younger,
+it was their ambition to be not merely novelists, inventing a new
+kind of novel, but historians; not merely historians, but the
+historians of a particular century, and of what was intimate and
+what is unknown in it; to be also discriminating, indeed innovating,
+critics of art, but of a certain section of art, the 18th century, in
+France and Japan; and also to collect pictures and bibelots,
+always of the French and Japanese 18th century. Their histories
+(<i>Portraits intimes du XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1857), <i>La Femme au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span>
+siècle</i> (1862), <i>La du Barry</i> (1878), &amp;c.) are made entirely out of
+documents, autograph letters, scraps of costume, engravings,
+songs, the unconscious self-revelations of the time; their three
+volumes on <i>L&rsquo;Art du XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1859-1875) deal with Watteau
+and his followers in the same scrupulous, minutely enlightening
+way, with all the detail of unpublished documents; and when
+they came to write novels, it was with a similar attempt to give
+the inner, undiscovered, minute truths of contemporary existence,
+the <i>inédit</i> of life. The same morbidly sensitive noting of the
+<i>inédit</i>, of whatever came to them from their own sensations of
+things and people around them, gives its curious quality to the
+nine volumes of the <i>Journal</i>, 1887-1896, which will remain,
+perhaps, the truest and most poignant chapter of human history
+that they have written. Their novels, <i>S&oelig;ur Philomène</i> (1861),
+<i>Renée Mauperin</i> (1864), <i>Germinie Lacerteux</i> (1865), <i>Manette
+Salomon</i> (1865), <i>Madame Gervaisais</i> (1869), and, by Edmond
+alone, <i>La Fille Elisa</i> (1878), <i>Les Frères Zemganno</i> (1879), <i>La
+Faustin</i> (1882), <i>Chérie</i> (1884), are, however, the work by which
+they will live as artists. Learning something from Flaubert, and
+teaching almost everything to Zola, they invented a new kind of
+novel, and their novels are the result of a new vision of the world,
+in which the very element of sight is decomposed, as in a picture
+of Monet. Seen through the nerves, in this conscious abandonment
+to the tricks of the eyesight, the world becomes a thing of
+broken patterns and conflicting colours, and uneasy movement.
+A novel of the Goncourts is made up of an infinite number of
+details, set side by side, every detail equally prominent. While a
+novel of Flaubert, for all its detail, gives above all things an
+impression of unity, a novel of the Goncourts deliberately dispenses
+with unity in order to give the sense of the passing of life, the
+heat and form of its moments as they pass. It is written in little
+chapters, sometimes no longer than a page, and each chapter is a
+separate notation of some significant event, some emotion or sensation
+which seems to throw sudden light on the picture of a soul.
+To the Goncourts humanity is as pictorial a thing as the world it
+moves in; they do not search further than &ldquo;the physical basis
+of life,&rdquo; and they find everything that can be known of that
+unknown force written visibly upon the sudden faces of little
+incidents, little expressive moments. The soul, to them, is a
+series of moods, which succeed one another, certainly without
+any of the too arbitrary logic of the novelist who has conceived of
+character as a solid or consistent thing. Their novels are hardly
+stories at all, but picture-galleries, hung with pictures of the
+momentary aspects of the world. French critics have complained
+that the language of the Goncourts is no longer French, no longer
+the French of the past; and this is true. It is their distinction&mdash;the
+finest of their inventions&mdash;that, in order to render new
+sensations, a new vision of things, they invented a new
+language.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. Sy.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In his will Edmond de Goncourt left his estate for the endowment
+of an academy, the formation of which was entrusted to MM.
+Alphonse Daudet and Léon Hennique. The society was to consist of
+ten members, each of whom was to receive an annuity of 6000 francs,
+and a yearly prize of 5000 francs was to be awarded to the author of
+some work of fiction. Eight of the members of the new academy
+were nominated in the will. They were: Alphonse Daudet, J. K.
+Huysmans, Léon Hennique, Octave Mirbeau, the two brothers
+J. H. Rosny, Gustave Geffroy and Paul Margueritte. On the 19th
+of January 1903, after much litigation, the academy was constituted,
+with Elémir Bourges, Lucien Descaves and Léon Daudet as members
+in addition to those mentioned in de Goncourt&rsquo;s will, the place of
+Alphonse Daudet having been left vacant by his death in 1897.</p>
+
+<p>On the brothers de Goncourt see the <i>Journal des Goncourt</i> already
+cited; also M. A. Belloc (afterwards Lowndes) and M. L. Shedlock,
+<i>Edmond and Jules de Goncourt, with Letters and Leaves from their
+Journals</i> (1895); Alidor Delzant, <i>Les Goncourt</i> (1889) which contains
+a valuable bibliography; <i>Lettres de Jules de Goncourt</i> (1888), with
+preface by H. Céard; R. Doumic, <i>Portraits d&rsquo;écrivains</i> (1892); Paul
+Bourget, <i>Nouveaux Essais de psychologie contemporaine</i> (1886);
+Émile Zola, <i>Les Romanciers naturalistes</i> (1881). &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GONDA,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Fyzabad
+division of the United Provinces. The town is 28 m. N.W. of
+Fyzabad, and is an important junction on the Bengal &amp; North-Western
+railway. The site on which it stands was originally a
+jungle, in the centre of which was a cattle-fold (<i>Gontha</i> or <i>Gothah</i>),
+where the cattle were enclosed at night as a protection against
+wild beasts, and from this the town derives its name. Pop.
+(1901) 15,811. The cantonments were abandoned in 1863.</p>
+
+<p>The district of Gonda has an area of 2813 sq. m. It consists
+of a vast plain with very slight undulations, studded with groves
+of mango trees. The surface consists of a rich alluvial deposit
+which is naturally divided into three great belts known as the
+<i>tarai</i> or swampy tract, the <i>uparhar</i> or uplands, and the <i>tarhar</i>
+or wet lowlands, all three being marvellously fertile. Several
+rivers flow through the district, but only two, the Gogra and
+Rapti, are of any commercial importance, the first being navigable
+throughout the year, and the latter during the rainy season.
+The country is dotted with small lakes, the water of which is
+largely used for irrigation. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in
+1857, the raja of Gonda, after honourably escorting the government
+treasure to Fyzabad, joined the rebels. His estates, along
+with those of the rani of Tulsipur, were confiscated, and conferred
+as rewards upon the maharajas of Balrampur and Ajodhya, who
+had remained loyal. In 1901 the population was 1,403,195,
+showing a decrease of 4% in one decade. The district is traversed
+by the main line and three branches of the Bengal &amp; Northwestern
+railway.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GONDAL,<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> a native state of India, in the Kathiawar political
+agency of Bombay, situated in the centre of the peninsula of
+Kathiawar. Its area is 1024 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 162,859. The
+estimated gross revenue is about £100,000, and the tribute
+£7000. Grain and cotton are the chief products. The chief,
+whose title is Thakur Sahib, is a Jadeja Rajput, of the same clan
+as the Rao of Cutch. The Thakur Sahib, Sir Bhagvat Sinhji
+(b. 1865), was educated at the Rajkot college, and afterwards
+graduated in arts and medicine at the university of Edinburgh.
+He published (in English) a <i>Journal of a Visit to England</i> and
+<i>A Short History of Aryan Medical Science</i>. In 1892 he received
+the honorary degree of D.C.L. of Oxford University. He was
+created K.C.I.E. in 1887 and G.C.I.E. in 1897. The state has
+long been conspicuous for its progressive administration. It
+is traversed by a railway connecting it with Bhaunagar, Rajkot
+and the sea-board. The town of Gondal is 23 m. by rail S. of
+Rajkot; pop. (1901) 19,592.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GONDAR,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> properly <span class="sc">Guendar</span>, a town of Abyssinia, formerly
+the capital of the Amharic kingdom, situated on a basaltic ridge
+some 7500 ft. above the sea, about 21 m. N.E. of Lake Tsana,
+a splendid view of which is obtained from the castle. Two
+streams, the Angreb on the east side and the Gaha or Kaha on
+the west, flow from the ridge, and meeting below the town, pass
+onwards to the lake. In the early years of the 20th century the
+town was much decayed, numerous ruins of castles, palaces
+and churches indicating its former importance. It was never a
+compact city, being divided into districts separated from each
+other by open spaces. The chief quarters were those of the
+Abun-Bed or bishop, the Etchege-Bed or chief of the monks,
+the Debra Berhan or Church of the Light, and the Gemp or
+castle. There was also a quarter for the Mahommedans. Gondar
+was a small village when at the beginning of the 16th century
+it was chosen by the Negus Sysenius (Seged I.) as the capital
+of his kingdom. His son Fasilidas, or A&rsquo;lem-Seged (1633-1667),
+was the builder of the castle which bears his name. Later
+emperors built other castles and palaces, the latest in date being
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>232</span>
+that of the Negus Yesu II. This was erected about 1736, at
+which time Gondar appears to have been at the height of its
+prosperity. Thereafter it suffered greatly from the civil wars
+which raged in Abyssinia, and was more than once sacked. In
+1868 it was much injured by the emperor Theodore, who did
+not spare either the castle or the churches. After the defeat
+of the Abyssinians at Debra Sin in August 1887 Gondar was
+looted and fired by the dervishes under Abu Anga. Although
+they held the town but a short time they inflicted very great
+damage, destroying many churches, further damaging the castles
+and carrying off much treasure. The population, estimated by
+James Bruce in 1770 at 10,000 families, had dwindled in 1905
+to about 7000. Since the pacification of the Sudan by the
+British (1886-1889) there has been some revival of trade between
+Gondar and the regions of the Blue Nile. Among the inhabitants
+are numbers of Mahommedans, and there is a settlement of
+Falashas. Cotton, cloth, gold and silver ornaments, copper
+wares, fancy articles in bone and ivory, excellent saddles and
+shoes are among the products of the local industry.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike any other buildings in Abyssinia, the castles and
+palaces of Gondar resemble, with some modifications, the
+medieval fortresses of Europe, the style of architecture being
+the result of the presence in the country of numbers of Portuguese.
+The Portuguese were expelled by Fasilidas, but his castle was
+built, by Indian workmen, under the superintendence of
+Abyssinians who had learned something of architecture from the
+Portuguese adventurers, helped possibly by Portuguese still in
+the country. The castle has two storeys, is 90 ft. by 84 ft.,
+has a square tower and circular domed towers at the corners.
+The most extensive ruins are a group of royal buildings enclosed
+in a wall. These ruins include the palace of Yesu II., which has
+several fine chambers. Christian Levantines were employed in
+its construction and it was decorated in part with Venetian
+mirrors, &amp;c. In the same enclosure is a small castle attributed
+to Yesu I. The exterior walls of the castles and palaces named
+are little damaged and give to Gondar a unique character among
+African towns. Of the forty-four churches, all in the circular
+Abyssinian style, which are said to have formerly existed in
+Gondar or its immediate neighbourhood, Major Powell-Cotton
+found only one intact in 1900. This church contained some
+well-executed native paintings of St George and the Dragon,
+The Last Supper, &amp;c. Among the religious observances of the
+Christians of Gondar is that of bathing in large crowds in the
+Gaha on the Feast of the Baptist, and again, though in more
+orderly fashion, on Christmas day.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. Rüppell, <i>Reise in Abyssinien</i> (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1838-1840);
+T. von Heuglin, <i>Reise nach Abessinien</i> (Jena, 1868); G.
+Lejean, <i>Voyage en Abyssinie</i> (Paris, 1872); Achille Raffray, <i>Afrique
+orientale; Abyssinie</i> (Paris, 1876); P. H. G. Powell-Cotton, <i>A
+Sporting Trip through Abyssinia</i>, chaps. 27-30 (London, 1902); and
+<i>Boll. Soc. Geog. Italiana</i> for 1909. Views of the castle are given by
+Heuglin, Raffray and Powell-Cotton.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GONDOKORO,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> a government station and trading-place on the
+east bank of the upper Nile, in 4° 54&prime; N., 31° 43&prime; E. It is the
+headquarters of the Northern Province of the (British) Uganda
+protectorate, is 1070 m. by river S. of Khartum and 350 m.
+N.N.W. in a direct line of Entebbe on Victoria Nyanza. The
+station, which is very unhealthy, is at the top of a cliff 25 ft.
+above the river-level. Besides houses for the civil and military
+authorities and the lines for the troops, there are a few huts
+inhabited by Bari, the natives of this part of the Nile. The
+importance of Gondokoro lies in the fact that it is within a few
+miles of the limit of navigability of the Nile from Khartum up
+stream. From this point the journey to Uganda is continued
+overland.</p>
+
+<p>Gondokoro was first visited by Europeans in 1841-1842,
+when expeditions sent out by Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt,
+ascended the Nile as far as the foot of the rapids above Gondokoro.
+It soon became an ivory and slave-trading centre. In 1851 an
+Austrian Roman Catholic mission was established here, but it
+was abandoned in 1859. It was at Gondokoro that J. H. Speke
+and J. A. Grant, descending the Nile after their discovery of its
+source, met, on the 15th of February 1863, Mr (afterwards Sir)
+Samuel Baker and his wife who were journeying up the river.
+In 1871 Baker, then governor-general of the equatorial provinces
+of Egypt, established a military post at Gondokoro which he
+named Ismailia, after the then khedive. Baker made this post
+his headquarters, but Colonel (afterwards General) C. G. Gordon,
+who succeeded him in 1874, abandoned the station on account
+of its unhealthy site, removing to Lado. Gondokoro, however,
+remained a trading-station. It fell into the hands of the Mahdists
+in 1885. After the destruction of the Mahdist power in 1898
+Gondokoro was occupied by British troops and has since formed
+the northernmost post on the Nile of the Uganda protectorate
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sudan</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nile</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Uganda</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GONDOMAR, DIEGO SARMIENTO DE ACUÑA,<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count of</span>
+(1567-1626), Spanish diplomatist, was the son of Garcia Sarmiento
+de Sotomayor, corregidor of Granada, and governor of the
+Canary Islands, by his marriage with Juana de Acuña, an
+heiress. Diego Sarmiento, their eldest son, was born in the
+parish of Gondomar, in the bishopric of Tuy, Galicia, Spain,
+on the 1st of November 1567. He inherited wide estates both
+in Galicia and in Old Castile. In 1583 he was appointed by
+Philip II. to the military command of the Portuguese frontier
+and sea coast of Galicia. He is said to have taken an active
+part in the repulse of an English coast-raid in 1585, and in the
+defence of the country during the unsuccessful English attack
+on Corunna in 1589. In 1593 he was named corregidor of Toro.
+In 1603 he was sent from court to Vigo to superintend the
+distribution of the treasure brought from America by two
+galleons which were driven to take refuge at Vigo, and on his
+return was named a member of the board of finance. In 1609
+he was again employed on the coast of Galicia, this time to repel
+a naval attack made by the Dutch. Although he held military
+commands, and administrative posts, his habitual residence was
+at Valladolid, where he owned the Casa del Sol and was already
+collecting his fine library. He was known as a courtier, and
+apparently as a friend of the favourite, the duke of Lerma.
+In 1612 he was chosen as ambassador in England, but did not
+leave to take up his appointment till May 1613.</p>
+
+<p>His reputation as a diplomatist is based on his two periods
+of service in England from 1613 to 1618 and from 1619 to 1622.
+The excellence of his latinity pleased the literary tastes of James
+I., whose character he judged with remarkable insight. He
+flattered the king&rsquo;s love of books and of peace, and he made
+skilful use of his desire for a matrimonial alliance between the
+prince of Wales and a Spanish infanta. The ambassador&rsquo;s
+task was to keep James from aiding the Protestant states
+against Spain and the house of Austria, and to avert English
+attacks on Spanish possessions in America. His success made
+him odious to the anti-Spanish and puritan parties. The active
+part he took in promoting the execution of Sir Walter Raleigh
+aroused particular animosity. He was attacked in pamphlets,
+and the dramatist Thomas Middleton made him a principal
+person in the strange political play <i>A Game of Chess</i>, which was
+suppressed by order of the council. In 1617 Sarmiento was
+created count of Gondomar. In 1618 he obtained leave to come
+home for his health, but was ordered to return by way of Flanders
+and France with a diplomatic mission. In 1619 he returned to
+London, and remained till 1622, when he was allowed to retire.
+On his return he was named a member of the royal council and
+governor of one of the king&rsquo;s palaces, and was appointed to a
+complimentary mission to Vienna. Gondomar was in Madrid
+when the prince of Wales&mdash;afterwards Charles I.&mdash;made his
+journey there in search of a wife. He died at the house of the
+constable of Castile, near Haro in the Rioja, on the 2nd of
+October 1626.</p>
+
+<p>Gondomar was twice married, first to his niece Beatrix
+Sarmiento, by whom he had no children, and then to his cousin
+Constanza de Acuña, by whom he had four sons and three
+daughters. The hatred he aroused in England, which was
+shown by constant jeers at the intestinal complaint from which
+he suffered for years, was the best tribute to the zeal with which
+he served his own master. Gondomar collected, both before he
+came to London and during his residence there, a very fine
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id="page233"></a>233</span>
+library of printed books and manuscripts. Orders for the
+arrangement, binding and storing of his books in his house at
+Valladolid take a prominent place in his voluminous correspondence.
+In 1785 the library was ceded by his descendant and
+representative the marquis of Malpica to King Charles III.,
+and it is now in the Royal Library at Madrid. A portrait of
+Gondomar, attributed to Valazquez, was formerly at Stowe.
+It was mezzotinted by Robert Cooper.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Gondomar&rsquo;s missions to England are largely dealt
+with in S. R. Gardiner&rsquo;s <i>History of England</i> (London, 1883-1884).
+In Spanish, Don Pascual de Gayangos wrote a useful biographical
+introduction to a publication of a few of his letters&mdash;<i>Cinco Cartas
+politico-literarias de Don Diego Sarmiento de Acuña, Conde de
+Gondomar</i>, issued at Madrid 1869 by the <i>Sociedad de Bibliófilos</i> of the
+Spanish Academy; and there is a life in English by F. H. Lyon
+(1910).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GONDOPHARES,<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gondophernes</span>, an Indo-Parthian king
+who ruled over the Kabul valley and the Punjab. By means
+of his coins his accession may be dated with practical certainty
+at <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 21, and his reign lasted for some thirty years. He is
+notable for his association with St Thomas in early Christian
+tradition. The legend is that India fell to St Thomas, who
+showed unwillingness to start until Christ appeared in a vision
+and ordered him to serve King Gondophares and build him a
+palace. St Thomas accordingly went to India and suffered
+martyrdom there. This legend is not incompatible with what
+is known of the chronology of Gondophares&rsquo; reign.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GONDWANA,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> the historical name for a large tract of hilly
+country in India which roughly corresponds with the greater
+part of the present Central Provinces. It is derived from the
+aboriginal tribe of Gonds, who still form the largest element
+in the population and who were at one time the ruling power.
+From the 12th to as late as the 18th century three or four Gond
+dynasties reigned over this region with a degree of civilization
+that seems surprising when compared with the existing condition
+of the people. They built large walled cities, and accumulated
+immense treasures of gold and silver and jewels. On the whole,
+they maintained their independence fairly well against the
+Mahommedans, being subject only to a nominal submission and
+occasional payment of tribute. But when the Mahratta invaders
+appeared, soon after the beginning of the 18th century, the Gond
+kingdoms offered but a feeble resistance and the aboriginal
+population fled for safety to the hills. Gondwana was thus
+included in the dominions of the Bhonsla raja of Nagpur, from
+whom it finally passed to the British in 1853.</p>
+
+<p>The Gonds, who call themselves Koitur or &ldquo;highlanders,&rdquo;
+are the most numerous tribe of Dravidian race in India. Their
+total number in 1901 was 2,286,913, of whom nearly two millions
+were enumerated in the Central Provinces, where they form 20%
+of the population. They have a language of their own, with
+many dialects, which is intermediate between the two great
+Dravidian languages, Tamil and Telugu. It is unwritten and
+has no literature, except a little provided by the missionaries.
+More than half the Gonds in the Central Provinces have now
+abandoned their own dialects, and have adopted Aryan forms
+of speech. This indicates the extent to which they have become
+Hinduized. The higher class among them, called Raj Gonds,
+have been definitely admitted into Hinduism as a pure cultivating
+caste; but the great majority still retain the animistic beliefs,
+ceremonial observances and impure customs of food which are
+common to most of the aboriginal tribes of India.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GONFALON<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (the late French and Italian form, also found in
+other Romanic languages, of <i>gonfanon</i>, which is derived from
+the O.H. Ger. <i>gundfano</i>, <i>gund</i>, war, and <i>fano</i>, flag, cf. Mod. Ger.
+<i>Fahne</i>, and English &ldquo;vane&rdquo;), a banner or standard of the
+middle ages. It took the form of a small pennon attached below
+the head of a knight&rsquo;s lance, or when used in religious processions
+and ceremonies, or as the banner of a city or state or military
+order, it became a many-streamered rectangular ensign, frequently
+swinging from a cross-bar attached to a pole. This is
+the most frequent use of the word. The title of &ldquo;gonfalonier,&rdquo;
+the bearer of the gonfalon, was in the middle ages both military
+and civil. It was borne by the counts of Vexin, as leaders of the
+men of Saint Denis, and when the Vexin was incorporated in the
+kingdom of France the title of <i>Gonfalonier de Sant Denis</i> passed
+to the kings of France, who thus became the bearers of the
+&ldquo;oriflamme,&rdquo; as the banner of St Denis was called. &ldquo;Gonfalonier&rdquo;
+was the title of civic magistrates of various degrees
+of authority in many of the city republics of Italy, notably of
+Florence, Sienna and Lucca. At Florence the functions of the
+office varied. At first the gonfaloniers were the leaders of the
+various military divisions of the inhabitants. In 1293 was
+created the office of gonfalonier of justice, who carried out the
+orders of the signiory. By the end of the 14th century the
+gonfalonier was the chief of the signiory. At Lucca he was the
+chief magistrate of the republic. At Rome two gonfaloniers
+must be distinguished, that of the church and that of the
+Roman people; both offices were conferred by the pope. The
+first was usually granted to sovereigns, who were bound to
+defend the church and lead her armies. The second bore a
+standard with the letters S.P.Q.R. on any enterprise undertaken
+in the name of the church and the people of Rome, and also at
+ceremonies, processions, &amp;c. This was granted by the pope to
+distinguished families. Thus the Cesarini held the office till
+the end of the 17th century. The Pamphili held it from 1686
+till 1764.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GONG<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (Chinese, <i>gong-gong</i> or <i>tam-tam</i>), a sonorous or musical
+instrument of Chinese origin and manufacture, made in the form
+of a broad thin disk with a deep rim. Gongs vary in diameter
+from about 20 to 40 in., and they are made of bronze containing
+a maximum of 22 parts of tin to 78 of copper; but in many cases
+the proportion of tin is considerably less. Such an alloy, when
+cast and allowed to cool slowly, is excessively brittle, but it can be
+tempered and annealed in a peculiar manner. If suddenly cooled
+from a cherry-red heat, the alloy becomes so soft that it can be
+hammered and worked on the lathe, and afterwards it may be
+hardened by re-heating and cooling it slowly. In these properties
+it will be observed, the alloy behaves in a manner exactly opposite
+to steel, and the Chinese avail themselves of the known peculiarities
+for preparing the thin sheets of which gongs are made. They
+cool their castings of bronze in water, and after hammering out
+the alloy in the soft state, harden the finished gongs by heating
+them to a cherry-red and allowing them to cool slowly. These
+properties of the alloy long remained a secret, said to have been
+first discovered in Europe by Jean Pierre Joseph d&rsquo;Arcet at the
+beginning of the 19th century. Riche and Champion are said
+to have succeeded in producing tam-tams having all the qualities
+and timbre of the Chinese instruments. The composition of the
+alloy of bronze used for making gongs is stated to be as follows:<a name="fa1u" id="fa1u" href="#ft1u"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+Copper, 76.52; Tin, 22.43; Lead, 0.62; Zinc, 0.23; Iron, 0.18.
+The gong is beaten with a round, hard, leather-covered pad,
+fitted on a short stick or handle. It emits a peculiarly sonorous
+sound, its complex vibrations bursting into a wave-like succession
+of tones, sometimes shrill, sometimes deep. In China and Japan
+it is used in religious ceremonies, state processions, marriages
+and other festivals; and it is said that the Chinese can modify
+its tone variously by particular ways of striking the disk.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The gong has been effectively used in the orchestra to intensify the
+impression of fear and horror in melodramatic scenes. The tam-tam
+was first introduced into a western orchestra by François Joseph
+Gossec in the funeral march composed at the death of Mirabeau in
+1791. Gaspard Spontini used it in <i>La Vestale</i> (1807), in the finale of
+act II., an impressive scene in which the high pontiff pronounces the
+anathema on the faithless vestal. It was also used in the funeral
+music played when the remains of Napoleon the Great were brought
+back to France in 1840. Meyerbeer made use of the instrument in the
+scene of the resurrection of the three nuns in <i>Robert le diable</i>. Four
+tam-tams are now used at Bayreuth in <i>Parsifal</i> to reinforce the bell
+instruments, although there is no indication given in the score (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Parsifal</a></span>). The tam-tam has been treated from its ethnographical
+side by Franz Heger.<a name="fa2u" id="fa2u" href="#ft2u"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1u" id="ft1u" href="#fa1u"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See <i>La grande Encyclopédie</i>, vol. viii. (Paris), &ldquo;Bronze,&rdquo; p. 146a.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2u" id="ft2u" href="#fa2u"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Alte Metalltrommeln aus Südost-Asien</i> (Leipzig, 1902). Bd. i.,
+Text; Bd. ii., Tafeln.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÓNGORA Y ARGOTE, LUIS DE<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (1561-1627), Spanish lyric
+poet, was born at Cordova on the 11th of July 1561. His father,
+Francisco de Argote, was <i>corregidor</i> of that city; the poet early
+adopted the surname of his mother, Leonora de Góngora, who
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234"></a>234</span>
+was descended from an ancient family. At the age of fifteen he
+entered as a student of civil and canon law at the university of
+Salamanca; but he obtained no academic distinctions and was
+content with an ordinary pass degree. He was already known
+as a poet in 1585 when Cervantes praised him in the <i>Galatea</i>; in
+this same year he took minor orders, and shortly afterwards
+was nominated to a canonry at Cordova. About 1605-1606
+he was ordained priest, and thenceforth resided principally at
+Valladolid and Madrid, where, as a contemporary remarks, he
+&ldquo;noted and stabbed at everything with his satirical pen.&rdquo; His
+circle of admirers was now greatly enlarged; but the acknowledgment
+accorded to his singular genius was both slight and tardy.
+Ultimately indeed, through the influence of the duke of Sandoval,
+he obtained an appointment as honorary chaplain to Philip III.,
+but even this slight honour he was not permitted long to enjoy.
+In 1626 a severe illness, which seriously impaired his memory,
+compelled his retirement to Cordova, where he died on the 24th
+of May 1627. An edition of his poems was published almost
+immediately after his death by Juan Lopez de Vicuña; the
+frequently reprinted edition by Hozes did not appear till 1633.
+The collection consists of numerous sonnets, odes, ballads, songs
+for the guitar, and of certain larger poems, such as the <i>Soledades</i>
+and the <i>Polifemo</i>. Too many of them exhibit that tortuous
+elaboration of style (<i>estilo culto</i>) with which the name of Góngora
+is inseparably associated; but though Góngora has been justly
+censured for affected Latinisms, unnatural transpositions, strained
+metaphors and frequent obscurity, it must be admitted that he
+was a man of rare genius,&mdash;a fact cordially acknowledged by
+those of his contemporaries who were most capable of judging.
+It was only in the hands of those who imitated Góngora&rsquo;s style
+without inheriting his genius that <i>culteranismo</i> became absurd.
+Besides his lyrical poems Góngora is the author of a play entitled
+<i>Las Firmezas de Isabel</i> and of two incomplete dramas, the
+<i>Comedia venatoria</i> and <i>El Doctor Carlino</i>. The only satisfactory
+edition of his works is that published by R. Foulché-Delbose in
+the <i>Bibliotheca Hispanica</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Edward Churton, <i>Góngora</i> (London, 1862, 2 vols.); M.
+González y Francés, <i>Góngora racionero</i> (Córdoba, 1895); M. González
+y Francés, <i>Don Luis de Góngora vindicando su fama ante el propio
+obispo</i> (Córdoba, 1899); &ldquo;Vingt-six Lettres de Góngora&rdquo; in the <i>Revue
+hispanique</i>, vol. x. pp. 184-225 (Paris, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GONIOMETER<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="gonia">&#947;&#969;&#957;&#943;&#945;</span>, angle, and <span class="grk" title="metron">&#956;&#941;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span>, measure),
+an instrument for measuring the angles of crystals; there are two
+kinds&mdash;the contact goniometer and the reflecting goniometer.
+Nicolaus Stena in 1669 determined the interfacial angles of
+quartz crystals by cutting sections perpendicular to the edges,
+the plane angles of the sections being then the angles between the
+faces which are perpendicular to the sections. The earliest instrument
+was the contact goniometer devised by Carangeot in 1783.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:360px; height:243px" src="images/img234a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Contact Goniometer.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Contact Goniometer</i> (or <i>Hand-Goniometer</i>).&mdash;This consists of
+two metal rules pivoted together at the centre of a graduated semicircle
+(fig. 1). The instrument is placed with its plane perpendicular
+to an edge between
+two faces of the
+crystal to be measured,
+and the rules
+are brought into
+contact with the
+faces; this is best
+done by holding the
+crystal up against
+the light with the
+edge in the line of
+sight. The angle
+between the rules,
+as read on the
+graduated semicircle,
+then gives
+the angle between
+the two faces. The
+rules are slotted, so that they may be shortened and their tips applied
+to a crystal partly embedded in its matrix. The instrument represented
+in fig. 1 is practically the same in all its details as that made
+for Carangeot, and it is employed at the present day for the approximate
+measurement of large crystals with dull and rough faces.
+S. L. Penfield (1900) has devised some cheap and simple forms of
+contact goniometer, consisting of jointed arms and protractors made
+of cardboard or celluloid.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:253px; height:400px" src="images/img234b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Vertical-Circle Goniometer.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>The Reflecting Goniometer.</i>&mdash;This is an instrument of far greater
+precision, and is always used for the accurate measurement of the
+angles when small crystals with bright faces are available. As a rule,
+the smaller the crystal the more even are its faces, and when these are
+smooth and bright they reflect sharply defined images of a bright
+object. By turning the crystal
+about an axis parallel to the
+edge between two faces, the
+image reflected from a second
+face may be brought into the
+same position as that formerly
+occupied by the image reflected
+from the first face; the angle
+through which the crystal has
+been rotated, as determined by
+a graduated circle to which the
+crystal is fixed, is the angle
+between the normals to the
+two faces.</p>
+
+<p>Several forms of instruments
+depending on this principle
+have been devised, the earliest
+being the vertical-circle goniometer
+of W. H. Wollaston,
+made in 1809. This consists
+of a circle <i>m</i> (fig. 2), graduated
+to degrees of arc and reading
+with the vernier <i>h</i> to minutes,
+which turns with the milled
+head <i>t</i> about a horizontal
+axis. The crystal is attached
+with wax (a mixture of beeswax
+and pitch) to the holder
+q, and by means of the pivoted arcs it may be adjusted so that
+the edge between two faces (a zone-axis) is parallel to, and coincident
+with, the axis of the instrument. The crystal-holder and adjustment-arcs,
+together with the milled head s, are carried on an axis which
+passes through the hollow axis of the graduated circle, and may thus
+be rotated independently of the circle. In use, the goniometer is
+placed directly opposite to a window, with its axis parallel to the
+horizontal window-bars, and as far distant as possible. The eye is
+placed quite close to the crystal, and the image of an upper window-bar
+(or better still a slit in a dark screen) as seen in the crystal-face
+is made to coincide with a lower window-bar (or chalk mark on the
+floor) as seen directly: this is done by turning the milled head s,
+the reading of the graduated circle having previously been observed.
+Without moving the eye, the milled head t, together with the crystal,
+is then rotated until the image from a second face is brought into the
+same position; the difference between the first and second readings
+of the graduated circle will then give the angle between the normals
+of the two faces.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:377px; height:379px" src="images/img234c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Horizontal-Circle Goniometer.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Several improvements have been made on Wollaston&rsquo;s goniometer.
+The adjustment-arcs have been modified; a mirror of black
+glass fixed to the stand beneath the crystal gives a reflected image of
+the signal, with
+which the reflection
+from the
+crystal can be
+more conveniently
+made to coincide;
+a telescope
+provided with
+cross-wires gives
+greater precision
+to the direction
+of the reflected
+rays of light; and
+with the telescope
+a collimator has
+sometimes been
+used.</p>
+
+<p>A still greater
+improvement was
+effected by placing
+the graduated
+circle in a horizontal
+position,
+as in the instruments
+of E. L.
+Malus (1810), F.
+C. von Riese (1829) and J. Babinet (1839). Many forms of
+the <i>horizontal-circle goniometer</i> have been constructed; they are
+provided with a telescope and collimator, and in construction are
+essentially the same as a spectrometer, with the addition of arrangements
+for adjusting and centring the crystal. The instrument shown
+in fig. 3 is made by R. Fuess of Berlin. It has four concentric axes,
+which enable the crystal-holder A, together with the adjustment-arcs
+B and centring-slides D, to be raised or lowered, or to be rotated
+independently of the circle H; further, either the crystal-holder or
+the telescope T may be rotated with the circle, while the other
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id="page235"></a>235</span>
+remains fixed. The crystal is placed on the holder and adjusted
+so that the edge (zone-axis) between two faces is coincident with the
+axis of the instrument. Light from an incandescent gas-burner
+passes through the slit of the collimator C, and the image of the slit
+(signal) reflected from the crystal face is viewed in the telescope.
+The clamp a and slow-motion screw F enable the image to be
+brought exactly on the cross-wires of the telescope, and the position
+of the circle with respect to the vernier is read through the lens.
+The crystal and the circle are then rotated together until the image
+from a second face is brought on the cross-wires of the telescope, and
+the angle through which they have been turned is the angle between
+the normals to the two faces. While measuring the angles between
+the faces of crystals the telescope remains fixed by the clamp &beta;, but
+when this is released the instrument may be used as a spectrometer
+or refractometer for determining, by the method of minimum
+deviation, the indices of refraction of an artificially cut prism or of a
+transparent crystal when the faces are suitably inclined to one
+another.</p>
+
+<p>With a one-circle goniometer, such as is described above, it is
+necessary to mount and re-adjust the crystal afresh for the measurement
+of each zone of faces (<i>i.e.</i> each set of faces intersecting in parallel
+edges); with very small crystals this operation takes a considerable
+time, and the minute faces are not readily identified again. Further,
+in certain cases, it is not possible to measure the angles between zones,
+nor to determine the position of small faces which do not lie in prominent
+zones on the crystal. These difficulties have been overcome
+by the use of a two-circle goniometer or theodolite-goniometer,
+which as a combination of a vertical-circle goniometer and one with a
+horizontal-circle was first employed by W. H. Miller in 1874. Special
+forms have been designed by E. S. Fedorov (1889), V. Goldschmidt
+(1893). S. Czapski (1893) and F. Stoeber (1898), which differ mainly
+in the arrangement of the optical parts. In these instruments the
+crystal is set up and adjusted once for all, with the axis of a prominent
+zone parallel to the axis of either the horizontal or the vertical
+circle. As a rule, only in this zone can the angles between the faces be
+measured directly; the positions of all the other faces, which need
+be observed only once, are fixed by the simultaneous readings of the
+two circles. These readings, corresponding to the polar distance and
+azimuth, or latitude and longitude readings of astronomical telescopes,
+must be plotted on a projection before the symmetry of the
+crystal is apparent; and laborious calculations are necessary in
+order to determine the indices of the faces and the angles between
+them, and the other constants of the crystal, or to test whether any
+three faces are accurately in a zone.</p>
+
+<p>These disadvantages are overcome by adding still another graduated
+circle to the instrument, with its axis perpendicular to the axis
+of the vertical circle, thus forming a three-circle goniometer. With
+such an instrument measurements may be made in any zone or
+between any two faces without re-adjusting the crystal; further the
+troublesome calculations are avoided, and, indeed, the instrument
+may be used for solving spherical triangles. Different forms of
+three-circle goniometers have been designed by G. F. H. Smith
+(1899 and 1904), E. S. Fedorov (1900) and J. F. C. Klein (1900).
+Besides being used as a one-, two-, or three-circle goniometer for
+the measurement of the interfacial angles of crystals, and as a refractometer
+for determining refractive indices by the prismatic
+method or by total reflection, Klein&rsquo;s instrument, which is called a
+polymeter, is fitted with accessory optical apparatus which enables
+it to be used for examining a crystal in parallel or convergent polarized
+light and for measuring the optic axial angle.</p>
+
+<p>Goniometers of special construction have been devised for certain
+purposes; for instance, the inverted horizontal-circle goniometer of
+H. A. Miers (1903) for measuring crystals during their growth in the
+mother-liquid. A. E. Tutton (1894) has combined a goniometer with
+lapidaries&rsquo; appliances for cutting section-plates and prisms from
+crystals accurately in any desired direction. The instrument
+commonly employed for measuring the optic axial angle of biaxial
+crystals is really a combination of a goniometer with a polariscope.
+For the optical investigation of minute crystals under the microscope,
+various forms of stage-goniometer with one, two or three graduated
+circles have been constructed. An ordinary microscope fitted with
+cross-wires and a rotating graduated stage serves the purpose of a
+goniometer for measuring the plane angles of a crystal face or section,
+being the same in principle as the contact goniometer.</p>
+
+<p>For fuller descriptions of goniometers reference may be made to
+the text-books of Crystallography and Mineralogy, especially to
+P. H. Groth, <i>Physikalische Krystallographie</i> (4th ed., Leipzig, 1905).
+See also C. Leiss, <i>Die optischen Instrumente der Firma R. Fuess, deren
+Beschreibung, Justierung und Anwendung</i> (Leipzig, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GONTAUT, MARIE JOSÉPHINE LOUISE,<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duchesse de</span>
+(1773-1857). was born in Paris on the 3rd of August 1773,
+daughter of Augustin François, comte de Montaut-Navailles,
+who had been governor of Louis XVI. and his two brothers when
+children. The count of Provence (afterwards Louis XVIII.)
+and his wife stood sponsors to Joséphine de Montaut, and she
+shared the lessons given by Madame de Genlis to the Orleans
+family, with whom her mother broke off relations after the outbreak
+of the Revolution. Mother and daughter emigrated to
+Coblenz in 1792; thence they went to Rotterdam, and finally
+to England, where Joséphine married the marquis Charles
+Michel de Gontaut-Saint-Blacard. They returned to France
+at the Restoration, and resumed their place at court. Madame
+de Gontaut became lady-in-waiting to Caroline, duchess of
+Berry, and, on the birth of the princess Louise (Mlle d&rsquo;Artois,
+afterwards duchess of Parma), governess to the children of
+France. Next year the birth of Henry, duke of Bordeaux
+(afterwards known as the comte de Chambord), added to her
+charge the heir of the Bourbons. She remained faithful to his
+cause all her life. Her husband died in 1822, and in 1827 she
+was created duchesse de Gontaut. She followed the exiled royal
+family in 1830 to Holyrood Palace, and then to Prague, but in
+1834, owing to differences with Pierre Louis, duc de Blacas, who
+thought her comparatively liberal views dangerous for the
+prince and princess, she received a brusque congé from Charles X.
+Her twin daughters, Joséphine (1796-1844) and Charlotte (1796-1818),
+married respectively Ferdinand de Chabot, prince de Léon
+and afterwards duc de Rohan, and François, comte de Bourbon-Busset.
+She herself wrote in her old age some naïve memoirs,
+which throw an odd light on the pretensions of the &ldquo;governess
+of the children of France.&rdquo; She died in Paris in 1857.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See her <i>Memoirs</i> (Eng. ed., 2 vols., 1894), and <i>Lettres inédites</i> (1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GONVILE, EDMUND<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (d. 1351), founder of Gonville Hall,
+now Gonville and Caius College, at Cambridge, England, is
+thought to have been the son of William de Gonvile, and the
+brother of Sir Nicholas Gonvile. In 1320 he was rector of
+Thelnetham, Suffolk, and steward there for William, earl Warren
+and the earl of Lancaster. Six years later he was rector of
+Rushworth, and in 1342 rector of Terrington St John and commissioner
+for the marshlands of Norfolk. In this year he
+founded and endowed a collegiate church at Rushworth, suppressed
+in 1541. The foundation of Gonville Hall at Cambridge
+was effected by a charter granted by Edward III. in 1348.
+It was called, officially, the Hall of the Annunciation of the
+Blessed Virgin, but was usually known as Gunnell or Gonville
+Hall. Its original site was in Free-school Lane, where Corpus
+Christi College now stands. Gonvile apparently wished it to
+be devoted to training for theological study, but after his death
+the foundation was completed by William Bateman, bishop of
+Norwich and founder of Trinity Hall, on a different site and with
+considerably altered statutes. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caius, John</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GONZAGA,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> an Italian princely family named after the town
+where it probably had its origin. Its known history begins with
+the 13th century, when Luigi I. (1267-1360), after fierce struggles
+supplanted his brother-in-law Rinaldo (nicknamed Passerino)
+Bonacolsi as lord of Mantua in August 1328, with the title of
+captain-genera, and afterwards of vicar-general of the empire,
+adding the designation of count of Mirandola and Concordia,
+which fief the Gonzagas held from 1328 to 1354. In July 1335
+his son Guido, with the help of Filippino and Feltrino Gonzaga,
+wrested Reggio from the Scaligeri and held it until 1371. Luigi
+was succeeded by Guido (d. 1369); the latter&rsquo;s son Luigi II.
+came next in succession (d. 1382), and then Giovan Francesco I.
+(d. 1407), who, although at one time allied with the treacherous
+Gian Galeazzo Visconti, incurred the latter&rsquo;s enmity and all but
+lost his estates and his life in consequence; eventually he joined
+the Florentines and Bolognese, enemies of Visconti. He promoted
+commerce and wisely developed the prosperity of his
+dominions. His son Giovan Francesco II. (d. 1444) succeeded him
+under the regency of his uncle Carlo Malatesta and the protection
+of the Venetians. He became a famous general, and was rewarded
+for his services to the emperor Sigismund with the title of
+marquess of Mantua for himself and his descendants (1432), an
+investiture which legitimatized the usurpations of the house of
+Gonzaga. His son Luigi III. &ldquo;il Turco&rdquo; (d. 1478) likewise
+became a celebrated soldier, and was also a learned and liberal
+prince, a patron of literature and the arts. His son Federigo I.
+(d. 1484) followed in his father&rsquo;s footsteps, and served under
+various foreign sovereigns, including Bona of Savoy and Lorenzo
+de&rsquo; Medici; subsequently he upheld the rights of the house of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page236" id="page236"></a>236</span>
+Este against Pope Sixtus IV. and the Venetians, whose ambitious
+claims were a menace to his own dominions of Ferrara and
+Mantova. His son Giovan Francesco III. (d. 1519) continued the
+military traditions of the family, and commanded the allied
+Italian forces against Charles VIII. at the battle of Fornovo;
+he afterwards fought in the kingdom of Naples and in Tuscany,
+until captured by the Venetians in 1509. On his liberation he
+adopted a more peaceful and conciliatory policy, and with the
+help of his wife, the famous Isabella d&rsquo;Este, he promoted the
+fine arts and letters, collecting pictures, statues and other works
+of art with intelligent discrimination. He was succeeded by his
+son Federigo II. (d. 1540), captain-general of the papal forces.
+After the peace of Cambrai (1529) his ally and protector, the
+emperor Charles V., raised his title to that of duke of Mantua in
+1530; in 1536 the emperor decided the controversy for the
+succession of Monferrato between Federigo and the house of
+Savoy in favour of the former. His son Francesco I. succeeded
+him, and, being a minor, was placed under the regency of his
+uncle Cardinal Ercole; he was accidentally drowned in 1550,
+leaving his possessions to his brother Guglielmo. The latter
+was an extravagant spendthrift, but having subdued a revolt
+in Monferrato was presented with that territory by the emperor
+Maximilian II. At his death in 1587 he was succeeded by his
+son Vincenzo I. (d. 1612), who was more addicted to amusements
+than to warfare. Then followed in succession his sons Francesco
+II. (d. 1612), Ferdinando (d. 1626), and Vincenzo II. (d. 1627), all
+three incapable and dissolute princes. The last named appointed
+as his successor Charles, the son of Henriette, the heiress of the
+French family of Nevers-Rethel, who was only able to take
+possession of the ducal throne after a bloody struggle; his
+dominions were laid waste by foreign invasions and he himself
+was reduced to the sorest straits. He died in 1637, leaving his
+possessions to his grandson Charles (Carlo) II. under the regency
+of the latter&rsquo;s mother Maria Gonzaga, which lasted until 1647.
+Charles died in consequence of his own profligacy and was
+succeeded by his son Ferdinand Charles (Ferdinando Carlo),
+who was likewise for some years under the regency of his mother
+Isabella of Austria. Ferdinand Charles, another extravagant
+and dissolute prince, acquired the county of Guastalla by
+marriage in 1678, but lost it soon afterwards; he involved his
+country in useless warfare, with the result that in 1708 Austria
+annexed the duchy. On the 5th of July of the same year he
+died in Venice, and with him the Gonzagas of Mantua came to an
+end.</p>
+
+<p>Of the cadet branches of the house one received the lordship
+of Bozzolo, another the counties of Novellara and Bagnolo, a
+third, of which the founder was Ferrante I. (d. 1557), retained
+the county of Guastalla, raised to a duchy in 1621, and came to
+an end with the death of Giuseppe Maria on the 16th of August
+1746.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;S. Maffei, <i>Annali di Mantova</i> (Tortona, 1675);
+G. Veronesi, <i>Quadro storico della Mirandola</i> (Modena, 1847); T. Affò,
+<i>Storia di Guastalla</i> (Guastalla, 1875, 4 vols.); Alessandro Luzio,
+<i>I Precattori d&rsquo;Isabella d&rsquo;Este</i> (Ancona, 1887); A. Luzio and R. Renier,
+&ldquo;Francesco Gonzaga alla battaglia di Fornovo (1495). secondo i
+documenti Mantovani&rdquo; (in <i>Archivio storico italiano</i>, ser. v. vol. vi.,
+205-246); <i>id.</i>, <i>Mantova e Urbino, Isabella d&rsquo;Este e Elisabeth Gonzaga
+nette relazioni famigliari e nelle vicende politiche</i> (Turin, 1893); L. G.,
+Pélissier, &ldquo;Les Relations de François de Gonzague, marquis de
+Mantoue, avec Ludovico Sforza et Louis XII&rdquo; (in <i>Annales de la
+faculté de Lettres de Bordeaux</i>, 1893); Antonino Bertolotti, &ldquo;Lettere
+del duca di Savoia Emanuele Filiberto a Guglielmo Gonzaga, duca di
+Mantova&rdquo; (<i>Arch. stor. it.</i>, ser. v., vol. ix. pp. 250-283); Edmondo Solari,
+<i>Lettere inedite del card. Gasparo Contarini nel carteggio del card.
+Ercole Gonzaga</i> (Venice, 1904); Arturo Segrè, <i>Il Richiamo di Don
+Ferrante Gonzaga dal governo di Milano, e sue conseguenze</i> (Turin,
+1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GONZAGA, THOMAZ ANTONIO<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (1744-1809), Portuguese
+poet, was a native of Oporto and the son of a Brazilian-born
+judge. He spent a part of his boyhood at Bahia, where his
+father was <i>disembargador</i> of the appeal court, and returning to
+Portugal he went to the university of Coimbra and took his law
+degree at the age of twenty-four. He remained on there for some
+years and compiled a treatise of natural law on regalist lines,
+dedicating it to Pombal, but the fall of the marquis led him to
+leave Coimbra and become a candidate for a magistracy, and in
+1782 he obtained the posts of <i>ouvidor</i> and <i>provedor</i> of the goods of
+deceased and absent persons at Villa Rica in the province of Minas
+Geraes in Brazil. In 1786 he was named <i>disembargador</i> of the
+appeal court at Bahia, and three years later, as he was about to
+marry a young lady of position, D. Maria de Seixas Brandão, the
+<i>Marilia</i> of his verses, he suddenly found himself arrested on the
+charge of being the principal author of a Republican conspiracy in
+Minas. Conducted to Rio, he was imprisoned in a fortress and
+interrogated, but constantly asserted his innocence. However,
+his friendship with the conspirators compromised him in the eyes
+of his absolutist judges, who, on the ground that he had known of
+the plot and not denounced it, sentenced him in April 1792 to
+perpetual exile in Angola, with the confiscation of his property.
+Later, this penalty was commuted into one of ten years of exile to
+Mozambique, with a death sentence if he should return to America.
+After having spent three years in prison, Gonzaga sailed in May
+1792 for Mozambique and shortly after his arrival a violent fever
+almost ended his life. A wealthy Portuguese gentleman, married
+to a lady of colour, charitably received him into his house, and
+when the poet recovered, he married their young daughter who
+had nursed him through the attack. He lived in exile until his
+death, practising advocacy at intervals, but his last years were
+embittered by fits of melancholia, deepening into madness, which
+were brought on by the remembrance of his misfortunes. His
+reputation as a poet rests on a little volume of bucolics entitled
+<i>Marilia</i>, which includes all his published verses and is divided into
+two parts, corresponding with those of his life. The first extends
+to his imprisonment and breathes only love and pleasure, while
+the main theme of the second part, written in prison, is his
+<i>saudade</i> for <i>Marilia</i> and past happiness. Gonzaga borrowed his
+forms from the best models, Anacreon and Theocritus, but the
+matter, except for an occasional imitation of Petrarch, the
+natural, elegant style and the harmonious metrification, are all
+his own. The booklet comprises the most celebrated collection of
+erotic poetry dedicated to a single person in the Portuguese
+tongue; indeed its popularity is so great as to exceed its intrinsic
+merit.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Twenty-nine editions had appeared up to 1854, but the Paris
+edition of 1862 in 2 vols, is in every way the best, although the
+authenticity of the verses in its 3rd part, which do not relate to
+<i>Marilia</i>, is doubtful. A popular edition of the first two parts was
+published in 1888 (Lisbon, Corazzi). A French version of <i>Marilia</i> by
+Monglave and Chalas appeared in Paris in 1825, an Italian by
+Vegezzi Ruscalla at Turin in 1844, a Latin by Dr Castro Lopes at
+Rio in 1868, and there is a Spanish one by Vedia.</p>
+
+<p>See Innocencio da Silva, <i>Diccionario bibliographico portuguez</i>,
+vol. vii. p. 320, also Dr T. Braga, <i>Filinto Elysio e os Dissidentas da
+Arcadia</i> (Oporto, 1901).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Pr.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GONZÁLEZ-CARVAJAL, TOMAS JOSÉ<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (1753-1834), Spanish,
+poet and statesman, was born at Seville in 1753. He studied at
+the university of Seville, and took the degree of LL.D. at Madrid.
+He obtained an office in the financial department of the government;
+and in 1795 was made intendant of the colonies which had
+just been founded in Sierra Morena and Andalusia. During
+1809-1811 he held an intendancy in the patriot army. He
+became, in 1812, director of the university of San Isidro; but
+having offended the government by establishing a chair of international
+law, he was imprisoned for five years (1815-1820). The
+revolution of 1820 reinstated him, but the counter-revolution of
+three years later forced him into exile. After four years he was
+allowed to return, and he died, in 1834, a member of the supreme
+council of war. González-Carvajal enjoyed European fame as
+author of metrical translations of the poetical books of the Bible.
+To fit himself for this work he commenced the study of Hebrew at
+the age of fifty-four. He also wrote other works in verse and
+prose, avowedly taking Luis de Leon as his model.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See biographical notice in <i>Biblioteca de Rivadeneyra</i>, vol. lxvii.,
+<i>Poetas del siglo 18.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GONZALO DE BERCEO<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1180-<i>c.</i> 1246), the earliest Castilian
+poet whose name is known to us, was born at Berceo, a village in
+the neighbourhood of Calahorra in the province of Logroño. In
+1221 he became a deacon and was attached, as a secular priest,
+to the Benedictine monastery of San Millan de la Cogolla, in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page237" id="page237"></a>237</span>
+diocese of Calahorra. His name is to be met with in a number of
+documents between the years 1237 and 1246. He wrote upwards
+of 13,000 verses, all on devotional subjects. His best work is a
+life of St Oria; others treat of the life of St Millan, of St Dominic
+of Silos, of the Sacrifice of the Mass, the Martyrdom of St Laurence,
+the visible signs preceding the Last Judgment, the Praises of
+Our Lady, the Miracles of Our Lady and the Lamentations of the
+Virgin on the Passion of her Son. He writes in the common
+tongue, the <i>roman paladino</i>, and his claim to the name of poet
+rests on his use of the <i>cuaderna via</i> (single-rhymed quatrains,
+each verse being of fourteen syllables). Sometimes, however, he
+takes the more modest title of <i>juglar</i> (<i>jongleur</i>), when claiming
+payment for his poems. His literary attainments are not great,
+and he lacks imagination and animation of style, but he has a
+certain eloquence, and in speaking of the Virgin and the saints a
+certain charm, while his verse bears at times the imprint of a
+passionate devotion, recalling the lyrical style of the great
+Spanish mystics. There is, however, a very strong popular element
+in his writings, which explains his long vogue. The great
+majority of his legends of the Virgin are obviously borrowed
+from the collection of a Frenchman, Gautier de Coinci; but he
+has succeeded in making this material entirely his own by reason
+of a certain conciseness and a realism in detail which make his
+work far superior to the tedious and colourless narrative of his
+model.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Poesías</i> are in the <i>Biblioteca de autores españoles</i> of Rivadeneyra,
+vol. lvii. (1864); <i>La Vida de San Domingo de Silos</i> has been
+edited by J. D. FitzGerald (Paris, 1904; see the <i>Bibliothèque de
+l&rsquo;École des Hautes Études</i>, part 149); see also F. Fernandez y
+Gonzalez in the <i>Razón</i> (vol. i., Madrid, 1860); N. Hergueta, &ldquo;Documentos
+referentes a Gonzalo de Berceo,&rdquo; in the <i>Revista de archivos</i>,
+(3rd series, Feb.-March, 1904, pp. 178-179).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOOCH, SIR DANIEL,<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> Bart. (1816-1889), English mechanical
+engineer, was born at Bedlington, in Northumberland, on the
+16th of August 1816. At the age of fifteen, having shown a taste
+for mechanics, he was put to work at the Tredegar Ironworks,
+Monmouthshire. In 1834 he went to Warrington, where, at the
+Vulcan foundry, under Robert Stephenson, he acquired the
+principles of locomotive design. Subsequently, after passing a
+year at Dundee, he was engaged by the Stephensons at their
+Gateshead works, where he seems to have conceived that predilection
+for the broad gauge for which he was afterwards distinguished,
+through having to design some engines for a 6-foot gauge in
+Russia and noticing the advantages it offered in allowing greater
+space for the machinery, &amp;c., as compared with the standard
+gauge favoured by Stephenson. In 1837, on I. K. Brunel&rsquo;s
+recommendation, he was appointed locomotive superintendent to
+the Great Western railway at a time when the engines possessed
+by the railway were very poor and inefficient. He soon improved
+this state of affairs, and gradually provided his employers with
+locomotives which were unsurpassed for general excellence and
+economy of working. One of the most famous, the &ldquo;Lord of the
+Isles,&rdquo; was awarded a gold medal at the Great Exhibition of 1851,
+and when, thirty years afterwards, it was withdrawn from active
+service it had run more than three-quarters of a million miles, all
+with its original boiler. In 1864 he left the Great Western and
+interested himself in the problem of laying a telegraph cable
+across the Atlantic. At this time the &ldquo;Great Eastern&rdquo; was in
+the hands of the bondholders, of whom he himself was one of the
+most important, and it occurred to him that she might advantageously
+be utilized in the enterprise. Accordingly, at his
+instance she was chartered by the Telegraph Construction
+Company, of which also he was a director, and in 1865 was
+employed in the attempt to lay a cable, Gooch himself superintending
+operations. The cable, however, broke in mid-ocean,
+and the attempt was a failure. Next year it was renewed with
+more success, for not only was a new cable safely put in place, but
+the older one was picked up and spliced, so that there were two
+complete lines between England and America. For this achievement
+Gooch was created a baronet. Meanwhile the Great
+Western railway had fallen on evil days, being indeed on the
+verge of bankruptcy, when in 1866 the directors appealed to him
+to accept the chairmanship of the board and undertake the
+rehabilitation of the company. He agreed to the proposal, and
+was so successful in restoring its prosperity that in 1889, at the
+last meeting over which he presided, a dividend was declared at the
+rate of 7½%. Under his administration the system was greatly
+enlarged and consolidated by the absorption of various smaller
+lines, such as the Bristol and Exeter and the Cornwall railways;
+and his appreciation of its strategic value caused him to be a
+strenuous supporter of the construction of the Severn Tunnel.
+His death occurred on the 15th of October 1889 at his residence,
+Clewer Park, near Windsor.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOOD, JOHN MASON<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (1764-1827), English writer on medical,
+religious and classical subjects, was born on the 25th of May
+1764 at Epping, Essex. After attending a school at Romsey
+kept by his father, the Rev. Peter Good, who was a Nonconformist
+minister, he was, at about the age of fifteen, apprenticed to a
+surgeon-apothecary at Gosport. In 1783 he went to London to
+prosecute his medical studies, and in the autumn of 1784 he
+began to practise as a surgeon at Sudbury in Suffolk. In 1793
+he removed to London, where he entered into partnership with
+a surgeon and apothecary. But the partnership was soon
+dissolved, and to increase his income he began to devote attention
+to literary pursuits. Besides contributing both in prose and
+verse to the <i>Analytical</i> and <i>Critical Reviews</i> and the <i>British</i>
+and <i>Monthly Magazines</i>, and other periodicals, he wrote a large
+number of works relating chiefly to medical and religious subjects.
+In 1794 he became a member of the British Pharmaceutical
+Society, and in that connexion, and especially by the publication
+of his work, <i>A History of Medicine</i> (1795), he did much to effect
+a greatly needed reform in the profession of the apothecary.
+In 1820 he took the diploma of M.D. at Marischal College,
+Aberdeen. He died at Shepperton, Middlesex, on the 2nd of
+January 1827. Good was not only well versed in classical
+literature, but was acquainted with the principal European
+languages, and also with Persian, Arabic and Hebrew. His
+prose works display wide erudition; but their style is dull and
+tedious. His poetry never rises above pleasant and well-versified
+commonplace. His translation of Lucretius, <i>The Nature of
+Things</i> (1805-1807), contains elaborate philological and explanatory
+notes, together with parallel passages and quotations
+from European and Asiatic authors.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOOD FRIDAY<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (probably &ldquo;God&rsquo;s Friday&rdquo;), the English
+name for the Friday before Easter, kept as the anniversary of
+the Crucifixion. In the Greek Church it has been or is known
+as <span class="grk" title="pascha [staurôsimon], paraskeuê, paraskeuê megalê">&#960;&#940;&#963;&#967;&#945; [&#963;&#964;&#945;&#965;&#961;&#974;&#963;&#953;&#956;&#959;&#957;], &#960;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#963;&#954;&#949;&#965;&#942;, &#960;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#963;&#954;&#949;&#965;&#8052; &#956;&#949;&#947;&#940;&#955;&#951;</span> or <span class="grk" title="hagia,
+sôtêria">&#7937;&#947;&#943;&#945;, &#963;&#969;&#964;&#951;&#961;&#943;&#945;</span> or <span class="grk" title="ta sôtêria, hêmepa tou staurou">&#964;&#8048; &#963;&#969;&#964;&#942;&#961;&#953;&#945;, &#7969;&#956;&#941;&#961;&#945; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#963;&#964;&#945;&#965;&#961;&#959;&#8166;</span>, while among the
+Latins the names of most frequent occurrence are Pascha Crucis,
+Dies Dominicae Passionis, Parasceve, Feria Sexta Paschae,
+Feria Sexta Major in Hierusalem, Dies Absolutionis. It was
+called Long Friday by the Anglo-Saxons<a name="fa1v" id="fa1v" href="#ft1v"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and Danes, possibly in
+allusion to the length of the services which marked the day.
+In Germany it is sometimes designated Stiller Freitag (compare
+Greek, <span class="grk" title="hêbdomas apraktos">&#7953;&#946;&#948;&#959;&#956;&#8048;&#962; &#7940;&#960;&#961;&#945;&#954;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>; Latin, <i>hebdomas inofficiosa, non
+laboriosa</i>), but more commonly Charfreitag. The etymology
+of this last name has been much disputed, but there seems now
+to be little doubt that it is derived from the Old High German
+<i>chara</i>, meaning suffering or mourning.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the custom of a yearly commemoration of the
+Crucifixion is somewhat obscure. It may be regarded as certain
+that among Jewish Christians it almost imperceptibly grew out
+of the old habit of annually celebrating the Passover on the
+14th of Nisan, and of observing the &ldquo;days of unleavened bread&rdquo;
+from the 15th to the 21st of that month. In the Gentile churches,
+on the other hand, it seems to be well established that originally
+no yearly cycle of festivals was known at all. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Easter</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>From its earliest observance, the day was marked by a specially
+rigorous fast, and also, on the whole, by a tendency to greater
+simplicity in the services of the church. Prior to the 4th century
+there is no evidence of non-celebration of the eucharist on Good
+Friday; but after that date the prohibition of communion
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" id="page238"></a>238</span>
+became common. In Spain, indeed, it became customary to
+close the churches altogether as a sign of mourning; but this
+practice was condemned by the council of Toledo (633). In the
+Roman Catholic Church the Good Friday ritual at present
+observed is marked by many special features, most of which
+can be traced back to a date at least prior to the close of the 8th
+century (see the Ordo Romanus in Muratori&rsquo;s <i>Liturg. Rom. Vet.</i>).
+The altar and officiating clergy are draped in black, this being the
+only day on which that colour is permitted. Instead of the
+epistle, sundry passages from Hosea, Habakkuk, Exodus and
+the Psalms are read. The gospel for the day consists of the
+history of the Passion as recorded by St John. This is often
+sung in plain-chaunt by three priests, one representing the &ldquo;narrator,&rdquo;
+the other two the various characters of the story. The
+singing of this is followed by bidding prayers for the peace and
+unity of the church, for the pope, the clergy, all ranks and
+conditions of men, the sovereign, for catechumens, the sick and
+afflicted, heretics and schismatics, Jews and heathen. Then
+follows the &ldquo;adoration of the cross&rdquo; (a ceremony derived from
+the church of Jerusalem and said to date back to near the time
+of Helena&rsquo;s &ldquo;invention of the cross&rdquo;); the hymns <i>Pange
+lingua</i> and <i>Vexilla regis</i> are sung, and then follows the &ldquo;Mass
+of the Presanctified.&rdquo; The name is derived from the fact that
+it is celebrated with elements consecrated the day before, the
+liturgy being omitted on this day. The priest merely places the
+Sacrament on the altar, censes it, elevates and breaks the host,
+and communicates, the prayers and responses interspersed being
+peculiar to the day. This again is followed by vespers, with a
+special anthem; after which the altar is stripped in silence.
+In many Roman Catholic countries&mdash;in Spain, for example&mdash;it is
+usual for the faithful to spend much time in the churches in
+meditation on the &ldquo;seven last words&rdquo; of the Saviour; no
+carriages are driven through the streets; the bells and organs
+are silent; and in every possible way it is sought to deepen the
+impression of a profound and universal grief. In the Greek
+Church also the Good Friday fast is excessively strict; as in the
+Roman Church, the Passion history is read and the cross adored;
+towards evening a dramatic representation of the entombment
+takes place, amid open demonstrations of contempt for Judas
+and the Jews. In Lutheran churches the organ is silent on this
+day, and altar, font and pulpit are draped in black, as indeed
+throughout Holy Week. In the Church of England the history
+of the Passion from the gospel according to John is also read;
+the collects for the day are based upon the bidding prayers
+which are found in the Ordo Romanus. The &ldquo;three hours&rdquo;
+service, borrowed from Roman Catholic usage and consisting
+of prayers, addresses on the &ldquo;seven last words from the cross&rdquo;
+and intervals for meditation and silent prayer, has become very
+popular in the Anglican Church, and the observance of the day
+is more marked than formerly among Nonconformist bodies,
+even in Scotland.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1v" id="ft1v" href="#fa1v"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Johnson&rsquo;s <i>Collection of Ecclesiastical Laws</i> (vol. i., anno 957):
+&ldquo;Housel ought not to be hallowed on Long Friday, because Christ
+suffered for us on that day.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOODMAN, GODFREY<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (1583-1656), bishop of Gloucester,
+was born at Ruthin, Denbighshire, and educated at Westminster
+and Cambridge. He took orders in 1603, and in 1606 obtained
+the living of Stapleford Abbots, Essex, which he held together
+with several other livings. He was canon of Windsor from 1617
+and dean of Rochester 1620-1621, and became bishop of
+Gloucester in 1625. From this time his tendencies towards
+Roman Catholicism constantly got him into trouble. He
+preached an unsatisfactory sermon at court in 1626, and in
+1628 incurred charges of introducing popery at Windsor. In
+1633 he secured the see of Hereford by bribery, but Archbishop
+Laud persuaded the king to refuse his consent. In 1638 he was
+said to be converted to Rome, and two years later he was imprisoned
+for refusing to sign the new canons denouncing popery
+and affirming the divine right of kings. He afterwards signed
+and was released on bail, but next year the bishops who had
+signed were all imprisoned in the Tower, by order of parliament,
+on the charge of treason. After eighteen weeks&rsquo; imprisonment
+Goodman was allowed to return to his diocese. About 1650 he
+settled in London, where he died a confessed Roman Catholic.
+His best known book is <i>The Fall of Man</i> (London, 1616).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOODRICH, SAMUEL GRISWOLD<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> (1793-1860), American
+author, better known under the pseudonym of &ldquo;Peter Parley,&rdquo;
+was born, the son of a Congregational minister, at Ridgefield,
+Connecticut, on the 19th of August 1793. He was largely
+self-educated, became an assistant in a country store at Danbury,
+Conn., in 1808, and at Hartford, Conn., in 1811, and from 1816 to
+1822 was a bookseller and publisher at Hartford. He visited
+Europe in 1823-1824, and in 1826 removed to Boston, where
+he continued in the publishing business, and from 1828 to 1842
+he published an illustrated annual, the <i>Token</i>, to which he was
+a frequent contributor both in prose and verse. A selection
+from these contributions was published in 1841 under the title
+<i>Sketches from a Student&rsquo;s Window</i>. The <i>Token</i> also contained
+some of the earliest work of Nathaniel Hawthorne, N. P. Willis,
+Henry W. Longfellow and Lydia Maria Child. In 1841 he
+established <i>Merry&rsquo;s Museum</i>, which he continued to edit till
+1854. In 1827 he began, under the name of &ldquo;Peter Parley,&rdquo; his
+series of books for the young, which embraced geography,
+biography, history, science and miscellaneous tales. Of these
+he was the sole author of only a few, but in 1857 he wrote that he
+was &ldquo;the author and editor of about 170 volumes,&rdquo; and that
+about seven millions had been sold. In 1857 he published
+<i>Recollections of a Lifetime</i>, which contains a list both of the
+works of which he was the author or editor and of the spurious
+works published under his name. By his writings and publications
+he amassed a large fortune. He was chosen a member of
+the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1836, and of the
+state Senate in 1837, his competitor in the last election being
+Alexander H. Everett, and in 1851-1853 he was consul at Paris,
+where he remained till 1855, taking advantage of his stay to have
+several of his works translated into French. After his return
+to America he published, in 1859, <i>Illustrated History of the
+Animal Kingdom</i>. He died, in New York, on the 9th of May
+1860.</p>
+
+<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Charles Augustus Goodrich</span> (1790-1862), a
+Congregational clergyman, published various ephemeral books,
+and helped to compile some of the &ldquo;Peter Parley&rdquo; series.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOODRICH,<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Goodricke</span>, <b>THOMAS</b> (d. 1554), English
+ecclesiastic, was a son of Edward Goodrich of East Kirkby,
+Lincolnshire, and was educated at Corpus Christi College,
+Cambridge, afterwards becoming a fellow of Jesus College in the
+same university. He was among the divines consulted about the
+legality of Henry VIII.&rsquo;s marriage with Catherine of Aragon,
+became one of the royal chaplains about 1530, and was consecrated
+bishop of Ely in 1534. He was favourable to the Reformation,
+helped in 1537 to draw up the <i>Institution of a Christian
+Man</i> (known as the <i>Bishops&rsquo; Book</i>), and translated the Gospel
+of St John for the revised New Testament. On the accession of
+Edward VI. in 1547 the bishop was made a privy councillor,
+and took a conspicuous part in public affairs during the reign.
+&ldquo;A busy secular spirited man,&rdquo; as Burnet calls him, he was
+equally opposed to the zealots of the &ldquo;old&rdquo; and the &ldquo;new
+religion.&rdquo; He assisted to compile the First Prayer Book of
+Edward VI., was one of the commissioners for the trial of Bishop
+Gardiner, and in January 1551-1552 succeeded Rich as lord high
+chancellor. This office he continued to hold during the nine
+days&rsquo; reign of &ldquo;Queen Jane&rdquo; (Lady Jane Grey); but he continued
+to make his peace with Queen Mary, conformed to the
+restored religion, and, though deprived of the chancellorship,
+was allowed to keep his bishopric until his death on the 10th of
+May 1554.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i>, where further authorities are cited.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOODSIR, JOHN<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (1814-1867), Scottish anatomist, born at
+Anstruther, Fife, on the 20th of March 1814, was the son of Dr
+John Goodsir, and grandson of Dr John Goodsir of Largo. He
+was educated at the burgh and grammar-schools of his native
+place and at the university of St Andrews. In 1830 he was
+apprenticed to a surgeon-dentist in Edinburgh, where he studied
+anatomy under Robert Knox, and in 1835 he joined his father
+in practice at Anstruther. Three years later he communicated
+to the British Association a paper on the pulps and sacs of the
+human teeth, his researches on the whole process of dentition
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239"></a>239</span>
+being at this time distinguished by their completeness; and
+about the same date, on the nomination of Edward Forbes, he
+was elected to the famous coterie called the &ldquo;Universal Brotherhood
+of the Friends of Truth,&rdquo; which comprised artists, scholars,
+naturalists and others, whose relationship became a potent
+influence in science. With Forbes he worked at marine zoology,
+but human anatomy, pathology and morphology formed his
+chief study. In 1840 he moved to Edinburgh, where in the
+following year he was appointed conservator of the museum of
+the College of Surgeons, in succession to William Macgillivray.
+Much of his reputation rested on his knowledge of the anatomy of
+tissues. In his lectures in the theatre of the college in 1842-1843
+he evidenced the largeness of his observation of cell-life, both
+physiologically and pathologically, insisting on the importance
+of the cell as a centre of nutrition, and pointing out that the
+organism is subdivided into a number of departments. R.
+Virchow recognized his indebtedness to these discoveries by
+dedicating his <i>Cellular Pathologie</i> to Goodsir, as &ldquo;one of the
+earliest and most acute observers of cell-life.&rdquo; In 1843 Goodsir
+obtained the post of curator in the university of Edinburgh;
+the following year he was appointed demonstrator of anatomy,
+and in 1845 curator of the entire museum. A year later he was
+elected to the chair of anatomy in the university, and devoted
+all his energies to anatomical research and teaching.</p>
+
+<p>Human myology was his strong point; no one had laboured
+harder at the dissecting-table; and he strongly emphasized
+the necessity of practice as a means of research. He believed
+that anatomy, physiology and pathology could never be properly
+advanced without daily consideration and treatment of disease.
+In 1848 he became a fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons,
+and in the same year he joined the Highland and Agricultural
+Society, acting as chairman of the veterinary department, and
+advising on strictly agricultural matters. In 1847 he delivered
+a series of systematic lectures on the comparative anatomy
+of the invertebrata; and, about this period, as member of an
+aesthetic club, he wrote papers on the natural principles of
+beauty, the aesthetics of the ugly, of smell, the approbation or
+disapprobation of sounds, &amp;c. Owing to the failing health of
+Professor Robert Jameson, Goodsir was induced to deliver the
+course of lectures on natural history during the summer of 1853.</p>
+
+<p>The lectures were long remembered for their brilliancy, but
+the infinite amount of thought and exertion which they cost
+broke down the health of the lecturer. Goodsir, nevertheless,
+persevered in his labours, writing in 1855 on organic electricity,
+in 1856 on morphological subjects, and afterwards on the structure
+of organized forms. His speculations in the latter domain gave
+birth to his theory of a triangle as the mathematical figure
+upon which nature had built up both the organic and inorganic
+worlds, and he hoped to complete this triangle theory of formation
+and law as the greatest of his works. In his lectures on the skull
+and brain he held the doctrine that symmetry of brain had more
+to do with the higher faculties than bulk or form. He died at
+Wardie, near Edinburgh, on the 6th of March 1867, in the same
+cottage in which his friend Edward Forbes died. His anatomical
+lectures were remarkable for their solid basis of fact; and no one
+in Britain took so wide a field for survey or marshalled so many
+facts for anatomical tabulation and synthesis.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Anatomical Memoirs of John Goodsir, F.R.S., edited by W.
+Turner, with Memoir by H. Lonsdale</i> (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1868), in
+which Goodsir&rsquo;s lectures, addresses and writings are epitomized;
+<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> vol. iv. (1868); <i>Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin.</i> vol. ix. (1868).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOODWILL,<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> in the law of property, a term of somewhat
+vague significance. It has been defined as every advantage
+which has been acquired in carrying on a business, whether
+connected with the premises in which the business has been
+carried on, or with the name of the firm by whom it has been
+conducted (<i>Churton</i> v. <i>Douglas</i>, 1859, Johns, 174). Goodwill
+may be either professional or trade. Professional goodwill
+usually takes the form of the recommendation by a retiring
+professional man, doctor, solicitor, &amp;c., to his clients of the successor
+or purchaser coupled generally with an undertaking not
+to compete with him. Trade goodwill varies with the nature of
+the business with which it is connected, but there are two rights
+which, whatever the nature of the business may be, are invariably
+associated with it, viz. the right of the purchaser to represent
+himself as the owner of the business, and the right to restrain
+competition. For the purposes of the Stamp Act, the goodwill of
+a business is property, and the proper duty must be paid on the
+conveyance of such. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Partnership</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Patents</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOODWIN, JOHN<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1594-1665), English Nonconformist
+divine, was born in Norfolk and educated at Queens&rsquo; College,
+Cambridge, where he was elected fellow in 1617. He was vicar
+of St Stephen&rsquo;s, Coleman Street, London, from 1633 to 1645,
+when he was ejected by parliament for his attacks on Presbyterianism,
+especially in his <span class="grk" title="Theomachia">&#920;&#949;&#959;&#956;&#945;&#967;&#943;&#945;</span>(1644). He thereupon established
+an independent congregation, and put his literary gifts at Oliver
+Cromwell&rsquo;s service. In 1648 he justified the proceedings of the
+army against the parliament (&ldquo;Pride&rsquo;s Purge&rdquo;) in a pamphlet
+<i>Might and Right Well Met</i>, and in 1649 defended the proceedings
+against Charles I. (to whom he had offered spiritual advice) in
+<span class="grk" title="Hubristodikai">&#8025;&#946;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#948;&#943;&#954;&#945;&#953;</span>. At the Restoration this tract, with some that
+Milton had written to Monk in favour of a republic, was publicly
+burnt, and Goodwin was ordered into custody, though finally indemnified.
+He died in 1665. Among his other writings are <i>Anti-Cavalierisme</i>
+(1642), a translation of the <i>Stratagemata Satanae</i> of
+Giacomo Aconcio, the Elizabethan advocate of toleration, tracts
+against Fifth-Monarchy Men, Cromwell&rsquo;s &ldquo;Triers&rdquo; and
+Baptists, and <i>Redemption Redeemed, containing a thorough
+discussion of ... election, reprobation and the perseverance of
+the saints</i> (1651, reprinted 1840). Goodwin&rsquo;s strongly Arminian
+tendencies brought him into conflict with Robert Baillie, professor
+of divinity of Glasgow, George Kendall, the Calvinist prebendary
+of Exeter, and John Owen (<i>q.v.</i>), who replied to <i>Redemption
+Redeemed</i> in <i>The Doctrine of the Saints&rsquo; Perseverance</i>, paying a
+high tribute to his opponent&rsquo;s learning and controversial skill.
+Goodwin answered all three in the <i>Triumviri</i> (1658). John
+Wesley in later days held him in much esteem and published an
+abridged edition of his <i>Imputatio fidei</i>, a work on justification
+that had originally appeared in 1642.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Life</i> by T. Jackson (London, 1839).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOODWIN, NATHANIEL CARL<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (1857-&emsp;&emsp;), American actor,
+was born in Boston on the 25th of July 1857. While clerk in a
+large shop he studied for the stage, and made his first appearance
+in 1873 in Boston in Stuart Robson&rsquo;s company as the newsboy
+in Joseph Bradford&rsquo;s <i>Law</i>. He made an immediate success by his
+imitations of popular actors. A hit in the burlesque <i>Black-eyed
+Susan</i> led to his taking part in Rice and Goodwin&rsquo;s <i>Evangeline</i>
+company. It was at this time that he married Eliza Weathersby
+(d. 1887), an English actress with whom he played in B. E.
+Woollf&rsquo;s <i>Hobbies</i>. It was not until 1889, however, that Nat
+Goodwin&rsquo;s talent as a comedian of the &ldquo;legitimate&rdquo; type began
+to be recognized. From that time he appeared in a number of
+plays designed to display his drily humorous method, such as
+Brander Matthews&rsquo; and George H. Jessop&rsquo;s <i>A Gold Mine</i>,
+Henry Guy Carleton&rsquo;s <i>A Gilded Fool</i> and <i>Ambition</i>, Clyde Fitch&rsquo;s
+<i>Nathan Hale</i>, H. V. Esmond&rsquo;s <i>When we were Twenty-one</i>, &amp;c.
+Till 1903 he was associated in his performances with his third
+wife, the actress Maxine Elliott (b. 1873), whom he married in
+1898; this marriage was dissolved in 1908.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOODWIN, THOMAS<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> (1600-1680), English Nonconformist
+divine, was born at Rollesby, Norfolk, on the 5th of October
+1600, and was educated at Christ&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, where in
+1616 he graduated B.A. In 1619 he removed to Catharine Hall,
+where in 1620 he was elected fellow. In 1625 he was licensed
+a preacher of the university; and three years afterwards he
+became lecturer of Trinity Church, to the vicarage of which he
+was presented by the king in 1632. Worried by his bishop, who
+was a zealous adherent of Laud, he resigned all his preferments and
+left the university in 1634. He lived for some time in London,
+where in 1638 he married the daughter of an alderman; but in the
+following year he withdrew to Holland, and for some time was
+pastor of a small congregation of English merchants and refugees
+at Arnheim. Returning to London soon after Laud&rsquo;s impeachment
+by the Long Parliament, he ministered for some years to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240"></a>240</span>
+Independent congregation meeting at Paved Alley Church, Lime
+Street, in the parish of St Dunstan&rsquo;s-in-the-East, and rapidly rose
+to considerable eminence as a preacher; in 1643 he was chosen a
+member of the Westminster Assembly, and at once identified
+himself with the Congregational party, generally referred to in
+contemporary documents as &ldquo;the dissenting brethren.&rdquo; He
+frequently preached by appointment before the Commons, and in
+January 1650 his talents and learning were rewarded by the
+House with the presidentship of Magdalen College, Oxford, a post
+which he held until the Restoration. He rose into high favour with
+the protector, and was one of his intimate advisers, attending him
+on his death-bed. He was also a commissioner for the inventory
+of the Westminster Assembly, 1650, and for the approbation of
+preachers, 1653, and together with John Owen (<i>q.v.</i>) drew up an
+amended Westminster Confession in 1658. From 1660 until his
+death on the 23rd of February 1680 he lived in London, and
+devoted himself exclusively to theological study and to the
+pastoral charge of the Fetter Lane Independent Church.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The works published by Goodwin during his lifetime consist
+chiefly of sermons printed by order of the House of Commons; but
+he was also associated with Philip Nye and others in the preparation
+of the <i>Apologeticall Narration</i> (1643). His collected writings, which
+include expositions of the Epistle to the Ephesians and of the
+Apocalypse, were published in five folio volumes between 1681 and
+1704, and were reprinted in twelve 8vo volumes (Edin., 1861-1866).
+Characterized by abundant yet one-sided reading, remarkable at once
+for the depth and for the narrowness of their observation and spiritual
+experience, often admirably thorough in their workmanship, yet in
+style intolerably prolix&mdash;they fairly exemplify both the merits and
+the defects of the special school of religious thought to which they
+belong. Calamy&rsquo;s estimate of Goodwin&rsquo;s qualities may be quoted
+as both friendly and just. &ldquo;He was a considerable scholar and an
+eminent divine, and had a very happy faculty in descanting upon
+Scripture so as to bring forth surprising remarks, which yet generally
+tended to illustration.&rdquo; A memoir, derived from his own papers, by
+his son (Thomas Goodwin, &ldquo;the younger,&rdquo; 1650?-1716?, Independent
+minister at London and Pinner, and author of the <i>History
+of the Reign of Henry V.</i>) is prefixed to the fifth volume of his collected
+works; as a &ldquo;patriarch and Atlas of Independency&rdquo; he is also noticed
+by Anthony Wood in the <i>Athenae Oxonienses</i>. An amusing sketch,
+from Addison&rsquo;s point of view, of the austere and somewhat fanatical
+president of Magdalen is preserved in No. 494 of the <i>Spectator</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (1831-&emsp;&emsp;), American
+classical scholar, was born in Concord, Massachusetts, on the
+9th of May 1831. He graduated at Harvard in 1851, studied in
+Germany, was tutor in Greek at Harvard in 1856-1860, and
+Eliot professor of Greek there from 1860 until his resignation in
+1901. He became an overseer of Harvard in 1903. In 1882-1883
+he was the first director of the American School for Classical
+Studies at Athens. Goodwin edited the <i>Panegyricus</i> of Isocrates
+(1864) and Demosthenes <i>On The Crown</i> (1901); and assisted in
+preparing the seventh edition of Liddell and Scott&rsquo;s <i>Greek-English
+Lexicon</i>. He revised an English version by several
+writers of <i>Plutarch&rsquo;s Morals</i> (5 vols., 1871; 6th ed., 1889), and
+published the Greek text with literal English version of Aeschylus&rsquo;
+<i>Agamemnon</i> (1906) for the Harvard production of that play in
+June 1906. As a teacher he did much to raise the tone of classical
+reading from that of a mechanical exercise to literary study.
+But his most important work was his <i>Syntax of the Moods and
+Tenses of the Greek Verb</i> (1860), of which the seventh revised
+edition appeared in 1877 and another (enlarged) in 1890. This
+was &ldquo;based in part on Madvig and Krüger,&rdquo; but, besides making
+accessible to American students the works of these continental
+grammarians, it presented original matter, including a &ldquo;radical
+innovation in the classification of conditional sentences,&rdquo; notably
+the &ldquo;distinction between particular and general suppositions.&rdquo;
+Goodwin&rsquo;s <i>Greek Grammar</i> (elementary edition, 1870; enlarged
+1879; revised and enlarged 1892) gradually superseded in most
+American schools the <i>Grammar</i> of Hadley and Allen. Both the
+<i>Moods and Tenses</i> and the <i>Grammar</i> in later editions are largely
+dependent on the theories of Gildersleeve for additions and
+changes. Goodwin also wrote a few elaborate syntactical
+studies, to be found in <i>Harvard Studies in Classical Philology</i>,
+the twelfth volume of which was dedicated to him upon the
+completion of fifty years as an alumnus of Harvard and forty-one
+years as Eliot professor.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOODWIN SANDS,<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> a dangerous line of shoals at the entrance
+to the Strait of Dover from the North Sea, about 6 m. from the
+Kent coast of England, from which they are separated by the
+anchorage of the Downs. For this they form a shelter. They
+are partly exposed at low water, but the sands are shifting, and
+in spite of lights and bell-buoys the Goodwins are frequently
+the scene of wrecks, while attempts to erect a lighthouse or
+beacon have failed. Tradition finds in the Goodwins the remnant
+of an island called Lomea, which belonged to Earl Godwine in
+the first half of the 11th century, and was afterwards submerged,
+when the funds devoted to its protection were diverted to build
+the church steeple at Tenterden (<i>q.v.</i>). Four lightships mark
+the limits of the sands, and also signal by rockets to the lifeboat
+stations on the coast when any vessel is in distress on the sands.
+Perhaps the most terrible catastrophe recorded here was the
+wreck of thirteen ships of war during a great storm in November
+1703.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOODWOOD,<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> a mansion in the parish of Boxgrove, in the
+Chichester parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 4 m.
+N.E. of Chichester. It was built from designs of Sir William
+Chambers with additions by Wyatt, after the purchase of the
+property by the first duke of Richmond in 1720. The park is in
+a hilly district, and is enriched with magnificent trees of many
+varieties, including some huge cedars. In it is a building containing
+a Roman slab recording the construction of a temple
+to Minerva and Neptune at Chichester. There is mention of a
+British tributary prince named Cogidubnus, who perhaps served
+also as a Roman official. A reference to early Christianity in
+Britain has been erroneously read into this inscription. On the
+racecourse a famous annual meeting, dating from 1802, is held
+in July. The parish church of SS. Mary and Blaize, Boxgrove,
+is almost entirely a rich specimen of Early English work.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOODYEAR, CHARLES<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (1800-1860), American inventor,
+was born at New Haven, Connecticut, on the 29th of December
+1800, the son of Amasa Goodyear, an inventor (especially of
+farming implements) and a pioneer in the manufacture of hardware
+in America. The family removed to Naugatuck, Conn.,
+when Charles was a boy; he worked in his father&rsquo;s button
+factory and studied at home until 1816, when he apprenticed
+himself to a firm of hardware merchants in Philadelphia. In
+1821 he returned to Connecticut and entered into a partnership
+with his father at Naugatuck, which continued till 1830, when it
+was terminated by business reverses. Already he was interested
+in an attempt to discover a method of treatment by which india-rubber
+could be made into merchandizable articles that would
+stand extremes of heat and cold. To the solution of this problem
+the next ten years of his life were devoted. With ceaseless
+energy and unwavering faith in the successful outcome of his
+labours, in the face of repeated failures and hampered by
+poverty, which several times led him to a debtor&rsquo;s prison, he
+persevered in his endeavours. For a time he seemed to have
+succeeded with a treatment (or &ldquo;cure&rdquo;) of the rubber with
+<i>aqua fortis</i>. In 1836 he secured a contract for the manufacture
+by this process of mail bags for the U.S. government, but the
+rubber fabric was useless at high temperatures. In 1837 he met
+and worked with Nathaniel Hayward (1808-1865), who had been
+an employee of a rubber factory in Roxbury and had made
+experiments with sulphur mixed with rubber. Goodyear bought
+from Hayward the right to use this imperfect process. In 1839,
+by dropping on a hot stove some india-rubber mixed with sulphur,
+he discovered accidentally the process for the vulcanization of
+rubber. Two years more passed before he could find any one who
+had faith enough in his discovery to invest money in it. At
+last, in 1844, by which time he had perfected his process, his
+first patent was granted, and in the subsequent years more than
+sixty patents were granted to him for the application of his
+original process to various uses. Numerous infringements had
+to be fought in the courts, the decisive victory coming in 1852
+in the case of <i>Goodyear</i> v. <i>Day</i>, in which his rights were defended
+by Daniel Webster and opposed by Rufus Choate. In 1852 he
+went to England, where articles made under his patents had
+been displayed at the International Exhibition of 1851, but he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>241</span>
+was unable to establish factories there. In France a company
+for the manufacture of vulcanized rubber by his process failed,
+and in December 1855 he was arrested and imprisoned for debt
+in Paris. Owing to the expense of the litigation in which he was
+engaged and to bad business management, he profited little from
+his inventions. He died in New York City on the 1st of July
+1860. He wrote an account of his discovery entitled <i>Gum-Elastic
+and its Varieties</i> (2 vols., New Haven, 1853-1855).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also B. K. Peirce, <i>Trials of an Inventor, Life and Discoveries of
+Charles Goodyear</i> (New York, 1866); James Parton, <i>Famous
+Americans of Recent Times</i> (Boston, 1867); and Herbert L. Terry,
+<i>India Rubber and its Manufacture</i> (New York, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOOGE, BARNABE<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> (1540-1594), English poet, son of Robert
+Googe, recorder of Lincoln, was born on the 11th of June 1540
+at Alvingham, Lincolnshire. He studied at Christ&rsquo;s College,
+Cambridge, and at New College, Oxford, but does not seem to
+have taken a degree at either university. He afterwards removed
+to Staple&rsquo;s Inn, and was attached to the household of his kinsman,
+Sir William Cecil. In 1563 he became a gentleman pensioner
+to Queen Elizabeth. He was absent in Spain when his poems
+were sent to the printer by a friend, L. Blundeston. Googe then
+gave his consent, and they appeared in 1563 as <i>Eglogs, Epytaphes,
+and Sonettes</i>. There is extant a curious correspondence on the
+subject of his marriage with Mary Darrell, whose father refused
+Googe&rsquo;s suit on the ground that she was bound by a previous
+contract. The matter was decided by the intervention of Sir
+William Cecil with Archbishop Parker, and the marriage took
+place in 1564 or 1565. Googe was provost-marshal of the court
+of Connaught, and some twenty letters of his in this capacity
+are preserved in the record office. He died in February 1594.
+He was an ardent Protestant, and his poetry is coloured by his
+religious and political views. In the third &ldquo;Eglog,&rdquo; for instance,
+he laments the decay of the old nobility and the rise of a new
+aristocracy of wealth, and he gives an indignant account of the
+sufferings of his co-religionists under Mary. The other eclogues
+deal with the sorrows of earthly love, leading up to a dialogue
+between Corydon and Cornix, in which the heavenly love is
+extolled. The volume includes epitaphs on Nicholas Grimald,
+John Bale and on Thomas Phaer, whose translation of Virgil
+Googe is uncritical enough to prefer to the versions of Surrey
+and of Gavin Douglas. A much more charming pastoral than
+any of those contained in this volume, &ldquo;Phyllida was a fayer
+maid&rdquo; (<i>Tottel&rsquo;s Miscellany</i>) has been ascribed to Barnabe
+Googe. He was one of the earliest English pastoral poets, and
+the first who was inspired by Spanish romance, being considerably
+indebted to the <i>Diana Enamorada</i> of Montemayor.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His other works include a translation from Marcellus Palingenius
+(said to be an anagram for Pietro Angelo Manzolli) of a satirical
+Latin poem, <i>Zodiacus vitae</i> (Venice, 1531?), in twelve books, under
+the title of <i>The Zodyake of Life</i> (1560); <i>The Popish Kingdome, or
+reign of Antichrist</i> (1570), translated from Thomas Kirchmayer or
+Naogeorgus; <i>The Spiritual Husbandrie</i> from the same author,
+printed with the last; <i>Foure Bookes of Husbandrie</i> (1577), collected
+by Conradus Heresbachius; and <i>The Proverbes of ... Lopes de
+Mendoza</i> (1579).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOOLE,<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> a market town and port in the Osgoldcross parliamentary
+division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
+at the confluence of the Don and the Ouse, 24 m. W. by S. from
+Hull, served by the North Eastern, Lancashire &amp; Yorkshire,
+Great Central and Asholme joint railways. Pop. of urban
+district (1901) 16,576. The town owes its existence to the
+construction of the Knottingley canal in 1826 by the Aire and
+Calder Navigation Company, after which, in 1829, Goole was
+made a bonding port. Previously it had been an obscure hamlet.
+The port was administratively combined with that of Hull in
+1885. It is 47 m. from the North Sea (mouth of the Humber),
+and a wide system of inland navigation opens from it. There are
+eight docks supplied with timber ponds, quays, warehouses and
+other accommodation. The depth of water is 21 or 22 ft. at high
+water, spring tides. Chief exports are coal, stone, woollen goods
+and machinery; imports, butter, fruit, indigo, logwood, timber
+and wool. Industries include the manufacture of alum, sugar,
+rope and agricultural instruments, and iron-founding. Ship-building
+is also carried on, and there is a large dry dock and a
+patent slip for repairing vessels. Passenger steamship services
+are worked in connexion with the Lancashire &amp; Yorkshire railway
+to Amsterdam, Antwerp, Bruges, Copenhagen, Rotterdam and
+other north European ports. The handsome church of St John
+the Evangelist, with a lofty tower and spire, dates from 1844.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOOSE<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> (a common Teut. word, O. Eng. <i>gós</i>, pl. <i>gés</i>, Ger. <i>Gans</i>,
+O. Norse <i>gás</i>, from Aryan root, <i>ghans</i>, whence Sans. <i>ha&#7751;sá</i>, Lat.
+<i>anser</i> (for <i>hanser</i>), Gr. <span class="grk" title="chên">&#967;&#942;&#957;</span>, &amp;c.), the general English name for a
+considerable number of birds, belonging to the family <i>Anatidae</i>
+of modern ornithologists, which are mostly larger than ducks
+and less than swans. Technically the word goose is reserved
+for the female, the male being called gander (A.-S. <i>gandra</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The most important species of goose, and the type of the
+genus <i>Anser</i>, is undoubtedly that which is the origin of the
+well-known domestic race (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poultry</a></span>), the <i>Anser ferus</i> or
+<i>A. cinereus</i> of most naturalists, commonly called in English the
+grey or grey lag<a name="fa1w" id="fa1w" href="#ft1w"><span class="sp">1</span></a> goose, a bird of exceedingly wide range in the
+Old World, apparently breeding where suitable localities are
+to be found in most European countries from Lapland to Spain
+and Bulgaria. Eastwards it extends to China, but does not
+seem to be known in Japan. It is the only species indigenous
+to the British Islands, and in former days bred abundantly in
+the English Fen-country, where the young were caught in large
+numbers and kept in a more or less reclaimed condition with the
+vast flocks of tame-bred geese that at one time formed so valuable
+a property to the dwellers in and around the Fens. It is impossible
+to determine when the wild grey lag goose ceased from
+breeding in England, but it certainly did so towards the end of
+the 18th century, for Daniell mentions (<i>Rural Sports</i>, iii. 242)
+his having obtained two broods in one season. In Scotland this
+goose continues to breed sparingly in several parts of the Highlands
+and in certain of the Hebrides, the nests being generally
+placed in long heather, and the eggs seldom exceeding five or
+six in number. It is most likely the birds reared here that are
+from time to time obtained in England, for at the present day
+the grey lag goose, though once so numerous, is, and for many
+years has been, the rarest species of those that habitually resort
+to the British Islands. The domestication of this species, as
+Darwin remarks (<i>Animals and Plants under Domestication</i>, i.
+287), is of very ancient date, and yet scarcely any other animal
+that has been tamed for so long a period, and bred so largely in
+captivity, has varied so little. It has increased greatly in size
+and fecundity, but almost the only change in plumage is that
+tame geese commonly lose the browner and darker tints of the
+wild bird, and are more or less marked with white&mdash;being often
+indeed wholly of that colour.<a name="fa2w" id="fa2w" href="#ft2w"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The most generally recognized
+breeds of domestic geese are those to which the distinctive names
+of Emden and Toulouse are applied; but a singular breed, said
+to have come from Sevastopol, was introduced into western
+Europe about the year 1856. In this the upper plumage is
+elongated, curled and spirally twisted, having their shaft
+transparent, and so thin that it often splits into fine filaments,
+which, remaining free for an inch or more, often coalesce again;<a name="fa3w" id="fa3w" href="#ft3w"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
+while the quills are aborted, so that the birds cannot fly.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id="page242"></a>242</span></p>
+
+<p>The other British species of typical geese are the bean-goose
+(<i>A. segetum</i>), the pink-footed (<i>A. brachyrhynchus</i>) and the white-fronted
+(<i>A. albifrons</i>). On the continent of Europe, but not
+yet recognized as occurring in Britain, is a small form of the last
+(<i>A. erythropus</i>) which is known to breed in Lapland. All these,
+for the sake of discrimination, may be divided into <i>two</i> groups&mdash;(1)
+those having the &ldquo;nail&rdquo; at the tip of the bill white, or of a
+very pale flesh colour, and (2) those in which this &ldquo;nail&rdquo; is
+black. To the former belong the grey lag goose, as well as <i>A.
+albifrons</i> and <i>A. erythropus</i>, and to the latter the other two.
+<i>A. albifrons</i> and <i>A. erythropus</i>, which differ little but in size,&mdash;the
+last being not much bigger than a mallard (<i>Anas boschas</i>),&mdash;may
+be readily distinguished from the grey lag goose by their
+bright orange legs and their mouse-coloured upper wing-coverts,
+to say nothing of their very conspicuous white face and the
+broad black bars which cross the belly, though the last two
+characters are occasionally observable to some extent in the
+grey lag goose, which has the bill and legs flesh-coloured, and
+the upper wing-coverts of a bluish-grey. Of the second group,
+with the black &ldquo;nail,&rdquo; <i>A. segetum</i> has the bill long, black at the
+base and orange in the middle; the feet are also orange, and
+the upper wing-coverts mouse-coloured, as in <i>A. albifrons</i> and
+<i>A. erythropus</i>, while <i>A. brachyrhynchus</i> has the bill short, bright
+pink in the middle, and the feet also pink, the upper wing-coverts
+being nearly of the same bluish-grey as in the grey lag goose.
+Eastern Asia possesses in <i>A. grandis</i> a third species of this group,
+which chiefly differs from <i>A. segetum</i> in its larger size. In North
+America there is only one species of typical goose, and that
+belongs to the white-&ldquo;nailed&rdquo; group. It very nearly resembles
+<i>A. albifrons</i>, but is larger, and has been described as distinct
+under the name of <i>A. gambeli</i>. Central Asia and India possess
+in the bar-headed goose (<i>A. indicus</i>) a bird easily distinguished
+from any of the foregoing by the character implied by its English
+name; but it is certainly somewhat abnormal, and, indeed,
+under the name of <i>Eulabia</i>, has been separated from the genus
+<i>Anser</i>, which has no other member indigenous to the Indian
+Region, nor any at all to the Ethiopian, Australian or Neotropical
+Regions.</p>
+
+<p>America possesses by far the greatest wealth of Anserine forms.
+Beside others, presently to be mentioned, its northern portions
+are the home of all the species of snow-geese belonging to the
+genus <i>Chen</i>. The first of these is <i>C. hyperboreus</i>, the snow-goose
+proper, a bird of large size, and when adult of a pure white,
+except the primaries, which are black. This has long been
+deemed a visitor to the Old World, and sometimes in considerable
+numbers, but the later discovery of a smaller form, <i>C. albatus</i>,
+scarcely differing except in size, throws some doubt on the older
+records, especially since examples which have been obtained in
+the British Islands undoubtedly belong to this lesser bird, and
+it would be satisfactory to have the occurrence in the Old World
+of the true <i>C. hyperboreus</i> placed on a surer footing. So nearly
+allied to the species last named as to have been often confounded
+with it, is the blue-winged goose, <i>C. coerulescens</i>, which is said
+never to attain a snowy plumage. Then we have a very small
+species, long ago described as distinct by Samuel Hearne, the
+Arctic traveller, but until 1861 discredited by ornithologists.
+Its distinctness has now been fully recognized, and it has received,
+somewhat unjustly, the name of <i>C. rossi</i>. Its face is adorned
+with numerous papillae, whence it has been removed by Elliot
+to a separate genus, <i>Exanthemops</i>, and for the same reason it
+has long been known to the European residents in the fur
+countries as the &ldquo;horned wavey&rdquo;&mdash;the last word being a
+rendering of a native name, <i>Wawa</i>, which signifies goose. Finally,
+there appears to belong to this section, though it has been
+frequently referred to another (<i>Chloephaga</i>), and has also been
+made the type of a distinct genus (<i>Philacte</i>), the beautiful
+emperor goose, <i>P. canagica</i>, which is almost peculiar to the
+Aleutian Islands, though straying to the continent in winter,
+and may be recognized by the white edging of its remiges.</p>
+
+<p>The southern portions of the New World are inhabited by
+about half a dozen species of geese not nearly akin to the foregoing,
+and separated as the genus <i>Chloephaga</i>. The most
+noticeable of them are the rock or kelp goose, <i>C. antarctica</i>, and
+the upland goose, <i>C. magellanica</i>. In both of these the sexes
+are totally unlike in colour, but in others a greater similarity
+obtains.<a name="fa4w" id="fa4w" href="#ft4w"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Formerly erroneously associated with the birds of
+this group comes one which belongs to the northern hemisphere,
+and is common to the Old World as well as the New. It contains
+the geese which have received the common names of bernacles
+or brents,<a name="fa5w" id="fa5w" href="#ft5w"><span class="sp">5</span></a> and the scientific appellations of <i>Bernicla</i> and <i>Branta</i>&mdash;for
+the use of either of which much may be said by nomenclaturists.
+All the species of this section are distinguished by
+their general dark sooty colour, relieved in some by white of
+greater or less purity, and by way of distinction from the members
+of the genus <i>Anser</i>, which are known as grey geese, are frequently
+called by fowlers black geese. Of these, the best known both
+in Europe and North America is the brent-goose&mdash;the <i>Anas
+bernicla</i> of Linnaeus, and the <i>B. torquata</i> of many modern
+writers&mdash;a truly marine bird, seldom (in Europe at least) quitting
+salt-water, and coming southwards in vast flocks towards
+autumn, frequenting bays and estuaries on the British coasts,
+where it lives chiefly on sea-grass (<i>Zostera maritima</i>). It is
+known to breed in Spitsbergen and in Greenland. A form which
+is by some ornithologists deemed a good species, and called
+by them <i>B. nigricans</i>, occurs chiefly on the Pacific coast of
+North America. In it the black of the neck, which in the common
+brent terminates just above the breast, extends over most of
+the lower parts. The true bernacle-goose,<a name="fa6w" id="fa6w" href="#ft6w"><span class="sp">6</span></a> the <i>B. leucopsis</i> of
+most authors, is but a casual visitor to North America, but is
+said to breed in Iceland, and occasionally in Norway. Its usual
+<i>incunabula</i>, however, still form one of the puzzles of the ornithologist,
+and the difficulty is not lessened by the fact that it will
+breed freely in semi-captivity, while the brent-goose will not.
+From the latter the bernacle-goose is easily distinguished by its
+larger size and white cheeks. Hutchins&rsquo;s goose (<i>B. Hutchinsi</i>)
+seems to be its true representative in the New World. In this
+the face is dark, but a white crescentic or triangular patch
+extends from the throat on either side upwards behind the eye.
+Almost exactly similar in coloration to the last, but greatly
+superior in size, and possessing 18 rectrices, while all the foregoing
+have but 16, is the common wild goose of America, <i>B.
+canadensis</i>, which, for more than two centuries has been introduced
+into Europe, where it propagates so freely that it has been
+included by nearly all the ornithologists of this quarter of the
+globe as a member of its fauna. An allied form, by some
+deemed a species, is <i>B. leucopareia</i>, which ranges over the western
+part of North America, and, though having 18 rectrices, is
+distinguished by a white collar round the lower part of the
+neck. The most diverse species of this group of geese are the
+beautiful <i>B. ruficollis</i>, a native of north-eastern Asia, which
+occasionally strays to western Europe, and has been obtained
+more than once in Britain, and that which is peculiar to the
+Hawaian archipelago, <i>B. sandvicensis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The largest living goose is that called the Chinese, Guinea or
+swan-goose, <i>Cygnopsis cygnoides</i>, and this is the stock whence
+the domestic geese of several eastern countries have sprung.
+It may often be seen in English parks, and it is found to cross
+readily with the common tame goose, the offspring being fertile,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>243</span>
+and Blyth has said that these crosses are very abundant in India.
+The true home of the species is in eastern Siberia or Mongolia.
+It is distinguished by its long smooth neck, marked dorsally
+by a chocolate streak. The reclaimed form is usually distinguished
+by the knob at the base of the bill, but the evidence of
+many observers shows that this is not found in the wild race.
+Of this bird there is a perfectly white breed.</p>
+
+<p>We have next to mention a very curious form, <i>Cereopsis
+novae-hollandiae</i>, which is peculiar to Australia, and is a more
+terrestrial type of goose than any other now existing. Its short,
+decurved bill and green cere give it a very peculiar expression,
+and its almost uniform grey plumage, bearing rounded black
+spots, is also remarkable. It bears captivity well, breeding in
+confinement, but is now seldom seen. It appears to have been
+formerly very abundant in many parts of Australia, from which
+it has of late been exterminated. Some of its peculiarities seem
+to have been still more exaggerated in a bird that is wholly
+extinct, the <i>Cnemiornis calcitrans</i> of New Zealand, the remains
+of which were described in full by Sir R. Owen in 1873
+(<i>Trans. Zool. Society</i>, ix. 253). Among the first portions of this
+singular bird that were found were the <i>tibiae</i>, presenting an
+extraordinary development of the <i>patella</i>, which, united with
+the shank-bone, gave rise to the generic name applied. For some
+time the affinity of the owner of this wonderful structure was
+in doubt, but all hesitation was dispelled by the discovery of a
+nearly perfect skeleton, now in the British Museum, which proved
+the bird to be a goose, of great size, and unable, from the shortness
+of its wings, to fly. In correlation with this loss of power may
+also be noted the dwindling of the keel of the sternum. Generally,
+however, its osteological characters point to an affinity to <i>Cereopsis</i>,
+as was noticed by Dr Hector (<i>Trans. New Zeal. Institute</i>,
+vi. 76-84), who first determined its Anserine character.</p>
+
+<p>Birds of the genera <i>Chenalopex</i> (the Egyptian and Orinoco
+geese), <i>Plectropterus</i>, <i>Sarcidiornis</i>, <i>Chlamydochen</i> and some others,
+are commonly called geese. It seems uncertain whether they
+should be grouped with the <i>Anserinae</i>. The males of all, like
+those of the above-mentioned genus <i>Chloëphaga</i>, appear to have
+that curious enlargement at the junction of the bronchial tubes
+and the trachea which is so characteristic of the ducks or
+<i>Anatinae</i>.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1w" id="ft1w" href="#fa1w"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The meaning and derivation of this word <i>lag</i> had long been a
+puzzle until Skeat suggested (<i>Ibis</i>, 1870, p. 301) that it signified
+late, last, or slow, as in <i>laggard</i>, a loiterer, <i>lagman</i>, the last man,
+<i>lagteeth</i>, the posterior molar or &ldquo;wisdom&rdquo; teeth (as the last to
+appear), and <i>lagclock</i>, a clock that is behind time. Thus the grey
+lag goose is the grey goose which in England when the name was
+given was not migratory but <i>lagged</i> behind the other wild species at
+the season when they betook themselves to their northern breeding-quarters.
+In connexion with this word, however, must be noticed
+the curious fact mentioned by Rowley (<i>Orn. Miscell.</i>, iii. 213),
+that the flocks of tame geese in Lincolnshire are urged on by their
+drivers with the cry of &ldquo;lag&rsquo;em, lag&rsquo;em.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2w" id="ft2w" href="#fa2w"><span class="fn">2</span></a> From the times of the Romans white geese have been held in
+great estimation, and hence, doubtless, they have been preferred as
+breeding stock, but the practice of plucking geese alive, continued
+for so many centuries, has not improbably also helped to perpetuate
+this variation, for it is well known to many bird-keepers that a
+white feather is often produced in place of one of the natural colour
+that has been pulled out.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3w" id="ft3w" href="#fa3w"><span class="fn">3</span></a> In some English counties, especially Norfolk and Lincoln, it
+was no uncommon thing formerly for a man to keep a stock of a
+thousand geese, each of which might be reckoned to rear on an
+average seven goslings. The flocks were regularly taken to pasture
+and water, just as sheep are, and the man who tended them was
+called the gooseherd, corrupted into gozzerd. The birds were
+plucked five times in the year, and in autumn the flocks were driven
+to London or other large markets. They travelled at the rate of
+about a mile an hour, and would get over nearly 10 m. in the day.
+For further particulars the reader may be referred to Pennant&rsquo;s
+<i>British Zoology</i>; Montagu&rsquo;s <i>Ornithological Dictionary</i>; Latham&rsquo;s
+<i>General History of Birds</i>; and Rowley&rsquo;s <i>Ornithological Miscellany</i>
+(iii. 206-215), where some account also may be found of the goose-fatting
+at Strassburg.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4w" id="ft4w" href="#fa4w"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Society (1876), pp. 361-369.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5w" id="ft5w" href="#fa5w"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The etymology of these two words is exceedingly obscure.
+The ordinary spelling bernicle seems to be wrong, if we may judge
+from the analogy of the French <i>Bernache</i>. In both words the <i>e</i>
+should be sounded as <i>a</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6w" id="ft6w" href="#fa6w"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The old fable, perhaps still believed by the uneducated in some
+parts of the world, was that bernacle-geese were produced from the
+barnacles (<i>Lepadidae</i>) that grow on timber exposed to salt-water.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOOSE<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Game of</span>), an ancient French game, said to have been
+derived from the Greeks, very popular at the close of the middle
+ages. It was played on a piece of card-board upon which was
+drawn a fantastic scroll, called the <i>jardin de l&rsquo;Oie</i> (goose-garden),
+divided into 63 spaces marked with certain emblems, such as
+dice, an inn, a bridge, a labyrinth, &amp;c. The emblem inscribed on
+1 and 63, as well as every ninth space between, was a goose.
+The object was to land one&rsquo;s counter in number 63, the number
+of spaces moved through being determined by throwing two
+dice. The counter was advanced or retired according to the space
+on which it was placed. For instance if it rested on the inn it
+must remain there until each adversary, of which there might
+be several, had played twice; if it rested on the <i>death&rsquo;s head</i>
+the player must begin over again; if it went beyond 63 it must
+be retired a certain number of spaces. The game was usually
+played for a stake, and special fines were exacted for resting on
+certain spaces. At the end of the 18th century a variation of
+the game was called the <i>jeu de la Révolution Française</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOOSEBERRY,<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> <i>Ribes Grossularia</i>, a well-known fruit-bush
+of northern and central Europe, placed in the same genus of
+the natural order to which it gives name (Ribesiaceae) as the
+closely allied currants. It forms a distinct section <i>Grossularia</i>,
+the members of which differ from the true currents chiefly in
+their spinous stems, and in their flowers growing on short footstalks,
+solitary, or two or three together, instead of in racemes.</p>
+
+<p>The wild gooseberry is a small, straggling bush, nearly resembling
+the cultivated plant,&mdash;the branches being thickly
+set with sharp spines, standing out singly or in diverging tufts
+of two or three from the bases of the short spurs or lateral leaf
+shoots, on which the bell-shaped flowers are produced, singly
+or in pairs, from the groups of rounded, deeply-crenated 3- or 5-lobed
+leaves. The fruit is smaller than in the garden kinds,
+but is often of good flavour; it is generally hairy, but in one
+variety smooth, constituting the <i>R. Uva-crispa</i> of writers; the
+colour is usually green, but plants are occasionally met with
+having deep purple berries. The gooseberry is indigenous in
+Europe and western Asia, growing naturally in alpine thickets
+and rocky woods in the lower country, from France eastward,
+perhaps as far as the Himalaya. In Britain it is often found in
+copses and hedgerows and about old ruins, but has been so long
+a plant of cultivation that it is difficult to decide upon its claim
+to a place in the native flora of the island. Common as it is now
+on some of the lower slopes of the Alps of Piedmont and Savoy,
+it is uncertain whether the Romans were acquainted with the
+gooseberry, though it may possibly be alluded to in a vague
+passage of Pliny: the hot summers of Italy, in ancient times as
+at present, would be unfavourable to its cultivation. Abundant
+in Germany and France, it does not appear to have been much
+grown there in the middle ages, though the wild fruit was held
+in some esteem medicinally for the cooling properties of its acid
+juice in fevers; while the old English name, <i>Fea-berry</i>, still
+surviving in some provincial dialects, indicates that it was
+similarly valued in Britain, where it was planted in gardens
+at a comparatively early period. William Turner describes the
+gooseberry in his <i>Herball</i>, written about the middle of the 16th
+century, and a few years later it is mentioned in one of Thomas
+Tusser&rsquo;s quaint rhymes as an ordinary object of garden culture.
+Improved varieties were probably first raised by the skilful
+gardeners of Holland, whose name for the fruit, <i>Kruisbezie</i>, may
+have been easily corrupted into the present English vernacular
+word.<a name="fa1x" id="fa1x" href="#ft1x"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Towards the end of the 18th century the gooseberry
+became a favourite object of cottage-horticulture, especially in
+Lancashire, where the working cotton-spinners have raised
+numerous varieties from seed, their efforts having been chiefly
+directed to increasing the size of the fruit. Of the many hundred
+sorts enumerated in recent horticultural works, few perhaps equal
+in flavour some of the older denizens of the fruit-garden, such
+as the &ldquo;old rough red&rdquo; and &ldquo;hairy amber.&rdquo; The climate of
+the British Islands seems peculiarly adapted to bring the gooseberry
+to perfection, and it may be grown successfully even in
+the most northern parts of Scotland; indeed, the flavour of the
+fruit is said to improve with increasing latitude. In Norway
+even, the bush flourishes in gardens on the west coast nearly up
+to the Arctic circle, and it is found wild as far north as 63°.
+The dry summers of the French and German plains are less
+suited to it, though it is grown in some hilly districts with tolerable
+success. The gooseberry in the south of England will grow well
+in cool situations, and may be sometimes seen in gardens near
+London flourishing under the partial shade of apple trees; but
+in the north it needs full exposure to the sun to bring the fruit
+to perfection. It will succeed in almost any soil, but prefers a
+rich loam or black alluvium, and, though naturally a plant of
+rather dry places, will do well in moist land, if drained.</p>
+
+<p>The varieties are most easily propagated by cuttings planted
+in the autumn, which root rapidly, and in a few years form
+good fruit-bearing bushes. Much difference of opinion prevails
+regarding the mode of pruning this valuable shrub; it is probable
+that in different situations it may require varying treatment.
+The fruit being borne on the lateral spurs, and on the shoots of
+the last year, it is the usual practice to shorten the side branches
+in the winter, before the buds begin to expand; some reduce the
+longer leading shoots at the same time, while others prefer to
+nip off the ends of these in the summer while they are still
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244"></a>244</span>
+succulent. When large fruit is desired, plenty of manure should
+be supplied to the roots, and the greater portion of the berries
+picked off while still small. If standards are desired, the gooseberry
+may be with advantage grafted or budded on stocks of
+some other species of <i>Ribes</i>, <i>R. aureum</i>, the ornamental golden
+currant of the flower garden, answering well for the purpose. The
+giant gooseberries of the Lancashire &ldquo;fanciers&rdquo; are obtained
+by the careful culture of varieties specially raised with this
+object, the growth being encouraged by abundant manuring, and
+the removal of all but a very few berries from each plant. Single
+gooseberries of nearly 2 oz. in weight have been occasionally
+exhibited; but the produce of such fanciful horticulture is
+generally insipid. The bushes at times suffer much from the
+ravages of the caterpillars of the gooseberry or magpie moth,
+<i>Abraxas grossulariata</i>, which often strip the branches of leaves
+in the early summer, if not destroyed before the mischief is
+accomplished. The most effectual way of getting rid of this
+pretty but destructive insect is to look over each bush carefully,
+and pick off the larvae by hand; when larger they may be
+shaken off by striking the branches, but by that time the harm
+is generally done&mdash;the eggs are laid on the leaves of the previous
+season. Equally annoying in some years is the smaller larva
+of the V-moth, <i>Halias vanaria</i>, which often appears in great
+numbers, and is not so readily removed. The gooseberry is
+sometimes attacked by the grub of the gooseberry sawfly,
+<i>Nematus ribesii</i>, of which several broods appear in the course of
+the spring and summer, and are very destructive. The grubs
+bury themselves in the ground to pass into the pupal state;
+the first brood of flies, hatched just as the bushes are coming into
+leaf in the spring, lay their eggs on the lower side of the leaves,
+where the small greenish larvae soon after emerge. For the
+destruction of the first broods it has been recommended to syringe
+the bushes with tar-water; perhaps a very weak solution of
+carbolic acid might prove more effective. The powdered root
+of white hellebore is said to destroy both this grub and the
+caterpillars of the gooseberry moth and V-moth; infusion of
+foxglove, and tobacco-water, are likewise tried by some growers.
+If the fallen leaves are carefully removed from the ground in the
+autumn and burnt, and the surface of the soil turned over with
+the fork or spade, most eggs and chrysalids will be destroyed.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:372px; height:263px" src="images/img244a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;A Fungal Disease of the Gooseberry
+(<i>Aecidium Grossulariae</i>.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">1, Leaf showing patches of cluster-cups on
+surface; 2, Fruit, showing same; 3, Cluster-cups
+much enlarged.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The gooseberry was introduced into the United States by the
+early settlers, and in some parts of New England large quantities
+of the green fruit are produced and sold for culinary use in the
+towns; but the excessive heat of the American summer is not
+adapted for the healthy maturation of the berries, especially of
+the English varieties. Perhaps if some of these, or those raised
+in the country, could be crossed with one of the indigenous
+species, kinds might be obtained better fitted for American
+conditions of culture, although the gooseberry does not readily
+hybridize. The attacks of the American gooseberry mildew
+have largely contributed
+to the
+failure of the crop
+in America.</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally the
+gooseberry is attacked
+by the
+fungus till recently
+called <i>Aecidium
+Grossulariae</i>,
+which forms little
+cups with white
+torn edges clustered
+together on
+reddish spots on
+the leaves or fruits
+(fig. 1). It has
+recently been discovered
+that the
+spores contained in these cups will not reproduce the disease on
+the gooseberry, but infect species of <i>Carex</i> (sedges) on which
+they produce a fungus of a totally different appearance. This
+stage in the life-history of the parasite gives its name to the
+whole fungus, so that it is now known as <i>Puccinia Pringsheimiana</i>.
+Both <i>uredospores</i> and
+<i>teleutospores</i> are formed
+on the sedge, and the
+latter live through the
+winter and produce the
+disease on the gooseberry
+in the succeeding
+year. In cases where
+the disease proves
+troublesome the sedges
+in the neighbourhood
+should be destroyed.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:313px; height:424px" src="images/img244b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From George Massee&rsquo;s <i>Text-Book of Plant Diseases</i>,
+by permission of Duckworth &amp; Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Gooseberry Mildew (Microsphaeria
+Grossulariae.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">1, Leaf attacked by the fungus; 2,
+Fructification or <i>perithecium</i>; the end of
+one of its numerous appendages is shown
+more highly magnified in 3, 4, 5, spore
+sacs (<i>asci</i>) from the <i>perithecium</i>, containing
+spores.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A much more prevalent
+disease is that
+caused by <i>Microsphaeria
+Grossulariae</i>.
+This is a mildew growing
+on the surface of
+the leaf and sending
+suckers into the epidermis.
+The white
+mycelium gives the
+leaves of the plant the
+appearance of having
+been whitewashed
+(fig. 2). Numerous
+white spores are produced
+in the summer
+which are able to germinate
+immediately,
+and later small blackish fruits (<i>perithecia</i>) are produced that pass
+uninjured through the winter liberating the spores they contain
+in the spring,
+which infect the
+young developing
+leaves of the
+bush. In bad
+cases the plants
+are greatly injured
+but frequently
+little
+harm is done.
+Attacked plants
+should be sprayed
+with potassium
+sulphide.</p>
+
+<p>An allied fungus,
+<i>Sphaerotheca
+mors-uvae</i>, of
+much greater virulence,
+has recently
+appeared in
+England, causing
+the disease known
+as &ldquo;American
+gooseberry mildew&rdquo;
+(fig. 3A). In
+the main the mode
+of attack is similar
+to that of the
+last-mentioned,
+but not only are
+the leaves attacked,
+but the
+tips of the young
+shoots and the
+fruits become
+covered by the
+cobweb-like mycelium, the attack frequently resulting in the
+death of the shoots and the destruction of the fruits. After a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id="page245"></a>245</span>
+time the mycelium becomes rusty brown and produces the
+winter form of the fungus. Through the winter the shoots
+are covered thickly with the brown mycelium and in the spring
+the spores contained in the perithecia germinate and start the
+infection anew, as in the case of the European mildew. This
+fungus has recently been the subject of legislation, and when it
+appears in a district strong repressive measures are called for.
+In bad cases the attacked bushes should be destroyed, while in
+milder attacks frequent spraying with potassium sulphide and
+the pruning off and immediate destruction by fire of all the
+young shoots showing the mildew should be resorted to.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:380px; height:605px" src="images/img244c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From the <i>Journal of the Board of Agriculture</i> (May 1907),
+by permission of the Dept. of Agriculture and Technical
+Instruction for Ireland.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3A.</span>&mdash;American Gooseberry Mildew (<i>Sphaerotheca
+mors-uvae</i>). Plant with leaves and fruit
+attacked by the fungus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The gooseberry, when ripe, yields a fine wine by the fermentation
+of the juice with water and sugar, the resulting sparkling
+liquor retaining much of the flavour of the fruit. By similarly
+treating the juice of the green fruit, picked just before it ripens,
+an effervescing wine is produced, nearly resembling some kinds
+of champagne, and, when skilfully prepared, far superior to
+much of the liquor sold under that name. Brandy has been
+made from ripe gooseberries by distillation; by exposing the
+juice with sugar to the acetous fermentation a good vinegar
+may be obtained. The gooseberry, when perfectly ripe, contains
+a large quantity of sugar, most abundant in the red and amber
+varieties; in the former it amounts to from 6 to upwards of
+8%. The acidity of the fruit is chiefly due to malic acid.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:418px; height:228px" src="images/img245.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3B.</span>&mdash;1, Fructification (<i>perithecium</i>) bursting, ascus containing
+spores protruding; 2, Ascus with spores more highly magnified.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Several other species of the sub-genus produce edible fruit,
+though none have as yet been brought under economic culture.
+Among them may be noticed <i>R. oxyacanthoides</i> and <i>R. Cynosbati</i>,
+abundant in Canada and the northern parts of the United States,
+and <i>R. gracile</i>, common along the Alleghany range. The
+group is a widely distributed one in the north temperate zone,&mdash;one
+species is found in Europe extending to the Caucasus and
+North Africa (Atlas Mountains), five occur in Asia and nineteen
+in North America, the range extending southwards to Mexico
+and Guatemala.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1x" id="ft1x" href="#fa1x"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The first part of the word has been usually treated as an etymological
+corruption either of this Dutch word or the allied Ger.
+<i>Krausbeere</i>, or of the earlier forms of the Fr. <i>groseille</i>. The <i>New
+English Dictionary</i> takes the obvious derivation from &ldquo;goose&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;berry&rdquo; as probable; &ldquo;the grounds on which plants and fruits
+have received names associating them with animals are so commonly
+inexplicable, that the want of appropriateness in the meaning affords
+no sufficient ground for assuming that the word is an etymologizing
+corruption.&rdquo; Skeat (<i>Etym. Dict.</i>, 1898) connects the French, Dutch
+and German words, and finds the origin in the M.H.G. <i>krus</i>, curling,
+crisped, applied here to the hairs on the fruit. The French word
+was latinized as <i>grossularia</i> and confused with <i>groseus</i>, thick, fat.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOOTY,<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> a town and hill fortress in southern India, in the
+Anantapur district of Madras, 48 m. E. of Bellary. Pop. (1901)
+9682. The town is surrounded by a circle of rocky hills, connected
+by a wall. On the highest of these stands the citadel, 2100 ft.
+above sea-level and 1000 ft. above the surrounding country.
+Here was the stronghold of Morari Rao Ghorpade, a famous
+Mahratta warrior and ally of the English, who was ultimately
+starved into surrender by Hayder Ali in 1775.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOPHER<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> (<i>Testudo polyphemus</i>), the only living representative
+on the North American continent of the genus <i>Testudo</i> of the
+family <i>Testudinidae</i> or land tortoises; it occurs in the south-eastern
+parts of the United States, from Florida in the south to
+the river Savannah in the north. Its carapace, which is oblong
+and remarkably compressed, measures from 12-18 in. in extreme
+length, the shields which cover it being grooved, and of a yellow-brown
+colour. It is characterized by the shape of the front lobe
+of the plastron, which is bent upwards and extends beyond the
+carapace. The gopher abounds chiefly in the forests, but
+occasionally visits the open plains, where it does great damage,
+especially to the potato crops, on which it feeds. It is a nocturnal
+animal, remaining concealed by day in its deep burrow, and
+coming forth at night to feed. The eggs, five in number, almost
+round and 1½ in. in diameter, are laid in a separate cavity near
+the entrance. The flesh of the gopher or mungofa, as it is also
+called, is considered excellent eating.</p>
+
+<p>The name &ldquo;gopher&rdquo; is more commonly applied to certain
+small rodent mammals, particularly the pocket-gopher.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÖPPINGEN,<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg,
+on the right bank of the Fils, 22 m. E.S.E. of Stuttgart on
+the railway to Friedrichshafen. Pop. (1905) 20,870. It possesses
+a castle built, partly with stones from the ruined castle of Hohenstaufen,
+by Duke Christopher of Württemberg in the 16th century
+and now used as public offices, two Evangelical churches, a
+Roman Catholic church, a synagogue, a classical school, and a
+modern school. The manufactures are considerable and include
+linen and woollen cloth, leather, glue, paper and toys. There are
+machine shops and tanneries in the town. Three m. N. of the
+town are the ruins of the castle of Hohenstaufen. Göppingen
+originally belonged to the house of Hohenstaufen, and in 1270
+came into possession of the counts of Württemberg. It was
+surrounded by walls in 1129, and was almost entirely rebuilt after
+a fire in 1782.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Pfeiffer, <i>Beschreibung und Geschichte der Stadt Göppingen</i>
+(1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORAKHPUR,<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> a city, district and division of the United
+Provinces of British India. The city is situated on the left bank
+of the river Rapti. Pop. (1901) 64,148. It is believed to have
+been founded about 1400 <span class="scs">A.D.</span> It is the civil headquarters of the
+district and was formerly a military cantonment. It consists of
+a number of adjacent village sites, sometimes separated by
+cultivated land, and most of the inhabitants are agriculturists.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">District of Gorakhpur</span> has an area of 4535 sq. m. It
+lies immediately south of the lower Himalayan slopes, but itself
+forms a portion of the great alluvial plain. Only a few sandhills
+break the monotony of its level surface, which is, however, intersected
+by numerous rivers studded with lakes and marshes. In
+the north and centre dense forests abound, and the whole country
+has a verdant appearance. The principal rivers are the Rapti,
+the Gogra, the Gandak and Little Gandak, the Kuana, the Rohin,
+the Ami and the Gunghi. Tigers are found in the north, and
+many other wild animals abound throughout the district. The
+lakes are well stocked with fish. The district is not subject to
+very intense heat, from which it is secured by its vicinity to the
+hills and the moisture of its soil. Dust-storms are rare, and cool
+breezes from the north, rushing down the gorges of the Himalayas,
+succeed each short interval of warm weather. The climate is,
+however, relaxing. The southern and eastern portions are as
+healthy as most parts of the province, but the <i>tarai</i> and forest-tracts
+are still subject to malaria.</p>
+
+<p>Gautama Buddha, the founder of the religion bearing his name,
+was born, and died near the boundaries of the district. From the
+beginning of the 6th century the country was the scene of a continuous
+struggle between the Bhars and their Aryan antagonists,
+the Rathors. About 900 the Domhatars or military Brahmans
+appeared, and expelled the Rathors from the town of Gorakhpur,
+but they also were soon driven back by other invaders. During
+the 15th and 16th centuries, after the district had been desolated
+by incessant war, the descendants of the various conquerors held
+parts of the territory, and each seems to have lived quite isolated,
+as no bridges or roads attest any intercourse with each other.
+Towards the end of the 16th century Mussulmans occupied
+Gorakhpur town, but they interfered very little with the district,
+and allowed it to be controlled by the native rajas. In the
+middle of the 18th century a formidable foe, the Banjaras from the
+west, so weakened the power of the rajas that they could not resist
+the fiscal exactions of the Oudh officials, who plundered the
+country to a great extent. The district formed part of the
+territory ceded by Oudh to the British under the treaty of 1801.
+During the Mutiny it was lost for a short time, but under the
+friendly Gurkhas the rebels were driven out. The population in
+1901 was 2,957,074, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade.
+The district is traversed by the main line and several branches of
+the Bengal &amp; North-Western railway, and the Gandak, the Gogra
+and the Rapti are navigable.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>246</span></p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">Division</span> has an area of 9534 sq. m. The population in
+1901 was 6,333,012, giving an average density of 664 persons per
+sq. m., being more than one to every acre, and the highest for
+any large tract in India.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORAL,<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> the native name of a small Himalayan rough-haired
+and cylindrical-horned ruminant classed in the same group as the
+chamois. Scientifically this animal is known as <i>Urotragus</i> (or
+<i>Cemas</i>) <i>goral</i>; and the native name is now employed as the
+designation of all the other members of the same genus. In
+addition to certain peculiarities in the form of the skull, gorals
+are chiefly distinguished from serows (<i>q.v.</i>) by not possessing a
+gland below the eye, nor a corresponding depression in the skull.
+Several species are known, ranging from the Himalaya to Burma,
+Tibet and North China. Of these, the two Himalayan gorals
+(<i>U. goral</i> and <i>U. bedfordi</i>) are usually found in small parties, but
+less commonly in pairs. They generally frequent grassy hills, or
+rocky ground clothed with forest; in fine weather feeding only
+in the mornings and evenings, but when the sky is cloudy grazing
+throughout the day.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORAMY,<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gouramy</span> (<i>Osphromenus olfax</i>), reputed to be one
+of the best-flavoured freshwater fishes in the East Indian archipelago.
+Its original home is Java, Sumatra, Borneo and several
+other East Indian islands, but thence it has been transported to
+and acclimatized in Penang, Malacca, Mauritius and even
+Cayenne. Being an almost omnivorous fish and tenacious of life,
+it seems to recommend itself particularly for acclimatization in
+other tropical countries; and specimens kept in captivity become
+as tame as carps. It attains the size of a large turbot. Its
+shape is flat and short, the body covered with large scales; the
+dorsal and anal fins are provided with numerous spines, and
+the ventral fins produced into long filaments. Like <i>Anabas</i>,
+the climbing perch, it possesses a suprabranchial accessory
+respiratory organ.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:414px; height:242px" src="images/img246.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Goramy.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÖRBERSDORF,<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> a village and climatic health resort of
+Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, romantically
+situated in a deep and well-wooded valley of the Waldenburg
+range, 1900 ft. above the sea, 60 m. S.W. of Breslau by the
+railway to Friedland and 3 m. from the Austrian frontier. Pop.
+700. It has four large sanatoria for consumptives, the earliest of
+which was founded in 1854 by Hermann Brehmer (1826-1889).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORBODUC,<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> a mythical king of Britain. He gave his kingdom
+away during his lifetime to his two sons, Ferrex and Porrex.
+The two quarrelled and the younger stabbed the elder. Their
+mother, loving the latter most, avenged his death by murdering
+her son, and the people, horrified at her act, revolted and
+murdered both her and King Gorboduc. This legend was the
+subject of the earliest regular English tragedy which in 1561
+was played before Queen Elizabeth in the Inner Temple hall.
+It was written by Thomas Sackville, Lord Buckhurst and
+Thomas Norton in collaboration. Under the title of <i>Gorboduc</i> it
+was published first very corruptly in 1565, and in better form as
+<i>The Tragedy of Ferrex and Porrex</i> in 1570.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORCHAKOV,<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gortchakoff</span>, a noble Russian family,
+descended from Michael Vsevolodovich, prince of Chernigov,
+who, in 1246, was assassinated by the Mongols. <span class="sc">Prince Andrey
+Ivanovich</span> (1768-1855), general in the Russian army, took a
+conspicuous part in the final campaigns against Napoleon.
+<span class="sc">Alexander Ivanovich</span> (1769-1825) served with distinction
+under his relative Suvarov in the Turkish Wars, and took part
+as a general officer in the Italian and Swiss operations of 1799,
+and in the war against Napoleon in Poland in 1806-1807 (battle
+of Heilsberg). <span class="sc">Petr Dmitrievich</span> (1790-1868) served under
+Kamenski and Kutusov in the campaign against Turkey, and
+afterwards against France in 1813-1814. In 1820 he suppressed
+an insurrection in the Caucasus, for which service he was raised
+to the rank of major-general. In 1828-1829 he fought under
+Wittgenstein against the Turks, won an action at Aidos, and
+signed the treaty of peace at Adrianople. In 1839 he was made
+governor of Eastern Siberia, and in 1851 retired into private
+life. When the Crimean War broke out he offered his services
+to the emperor Nicholas, by whom he was appointed general of
+the VI. army corps in the Crimea. He commanded the corps
+in the battles of Alma and Inkerman. He retired in 1855 and
+died at Moscow, on the 18th of March 1868.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Prince Mikhail Dmitrievich</span> (1795-1861), brother of the
+last named, entered the Russian army in 1807 and took part
+in the campaigns against Persia in 1810, and in 1812-1815
+against France. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829
+he was present at the sieges of Silistria and Shumla. After
+being appointed, in 1830, a general officer, he was present in the
+campaign in Poland, and was wounded at the battle of Grochow,
+on the 25th of February 1831. He also distinguished himself
+at the battle of Ostrolenka and at the taking of Warsaw. For
+these services he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general.
+In 1846 he was nominated military governor of Warsaw. In
+1849 he commanded the Russian artillery in the war against the
+Hungarians, and in 1852 he visited London as a representative
+of the Russian army at the funeral of the duke of Wellington.
+At this time he was chief of the staff of the Russian army and
+adjutant-general to the tsar. Upon Russia declaring war
+against Turkey in 1853, he was appointed commander-in-chief
+of the troops which occupied Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1854
+he crossed the Danube and besieged Silistria, but was superseded
+in April by Prince Paskevich, who, however, resigned on the 8th
+of June, when Gorchakov resumed the command. In July
+the siege of Silistria was raised, and the Russian armies recrossed
+the Danube; in August they withdrew to Russia. In 1855 he
+was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian forces in the
+Crimea in place of Prince Menshikov. Gorchakov&rsquo;s defence of
+Sevastopol, and final retreat to the northern part of the town,
+which he continued to defend till peace was signed in Paris, were
+conducted with skill and energy. In 1856 he was appointed
+governor-general of Poland in succession to Prince Paskevich.
+He died at Warsaw on the 30th of May 1861, and was buried,
+in accordance with his own wish, at Sevastopol.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Prince Gorchakov, Alexander Mikhailovich</span> (1798-1883).
+Russian statesman, cousin of Princes Petr and Mikhail Gorchakov,
+was born on the 16th of July 1798, and was educated at the
+lyceum of Tsarskoye Selo, where he had the poet Pushkin as a
+school-fellow. He became a good classical scholar, and learnt
+to speak and write in French with facility and elegance. Pushkin
+in one of his poems described young Gorchakov as &ldquo;Fortune&rsquo;s
+favoured son,&rdquo; and predicted his success. On leaving the lyceum
+Gorchakov entered the foreign office under Count Nesselrode.
+His first diplomatic work of importance was the negotiation of a
+marriage between the grand duchess Olga and the crown prince
+Charles of Württemberg. He remained at Stuttgart for some
+years as Russian minister and confidential adviser of the crown
+princess. He foretold the outbreak of the revolutionary spirit
+in Germany and Austria, and was credited with counselling the
+abdication of Ferdinand in favour of Francis Joseph. When the
+German confederation was re-established in 1850 in place of the
+parliament of Frankfort, Gorchakov was appointed Russian
+minister to the diet. It was here that he first met Prince
+Bismarck, with whom he formed a friendship which was afterwards
+renewed at St Petersburg. The emperor Nicholas found
+that his ambassador at Vienna, Baron Meyendorff, was not a
+sympathetic instrument for carrying out his schemes in the East.
+He therefore transferred Gorchakov to Vienna, where the latter
+remained through the critical period of the Crimean War.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id="page247"></a>247</span>
+Gorchakov perceived that Russian designs against Turkey,
+supported by Great Britain and France, were impracticable,
+and he counselled Russia to make no more useless sacrifices,
+but to accept the bases of a pacification. At the same time,
+although he attended the Paris conference of 1856, he purposely
+abstained from affixing his signature to the treaty of peace after
+that of Count Orlov, Russia&rsquo;s chief representative. For the time,
+however, he made a virtue of necessity, and Alexander II.,
+recognizing the wisdom and courage which Gorchakov had
+exhibited, appointed him minister of foreign affairs in place of
+Count Nesselrode. Not long after his accession to office Gorchakov
+issued a circular to the foreign powers, in which he announced
+that Russia proposed, for internal reasons, to keep herself as
+free as possible from complications abroad, and he added the
+now historic phrase, &ldquo;<i>La Russie ne boude pas; elle se recueille</i>.&rdquo;
+During the Polish insurrection Gorchakov rebuffed the suggestions
+of Great Britain, Austria and France for assuaging the
+severities employed in quelling it, and he was especially acrid
+in his replies to Earl Russell&rsquo;s despatches. In July 1863
+Gorchakov was appointed chancellor of the Russian empire
+expressly in reward for his bold diplomatic attitude towards an
+indignant Europe. The appointment was hailed with enthusiasm
+in Russia, and at that juncture Prince Chancellor Gorchakov
+was unquestionably the most powerful minister in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>An <i>approchement</i> now began between the courts of Russia and
+Prussia; and in 1863 Gorchakov smoothed the way for the
+occupation of Holstein by the Federal troops. This seemed
+equally favourable to Austria and Prussia, but it was the latter
+power which gained all the substantial advantages; and when
+the conflict arose between Austria and Prussia in 1866, Russia
+remained neutral and permitted Prussia to reap the fruits and
+establish her supremacy in Germany. When the Franco-German
+War of 1870-71 broke out Russia answered for the neutrality
+of Austria. An attempt was made to form an anti-Prussian
+coalition, but it failed in consequence of the cordial understanding
+between the German and Russian chancellors. In return for
+Russia&rsquo;s service in preventing the aid of Austria from being
+given to France, Gorchakov looked to Bismarck for diplomatic
+support in the Eastern Question, and he received an instalment
+of the expected support when he successfully denounced the
+Black Sea clauses of the treaty of Paris. This was justly regarded
+by him as an important service to his country and one of the
+triumphs of his career, and he hoped to obtain further successes
+with the assistance of Germany, but the cordial relations between
+the cabinets of St Petersburg and Berlin did not subsist much
+longer. In 1875 Bismarck was suspected of a design of again
+attacking France, and Gorchakov gave him to understand, in a
+way which was not meant to be offensive, but which roused the
+German chancellor&rsquo;s indignation, that Russia would oppose any
+such scheme. The tension thus produced between the two
+statesmen was increased by the political complications of 1875-1878
+in south-eastern Europe, which began with the Herzegovinian
+insurrection and culminated at the Berlin congress.
+Gorchakov hoped to utilize the complications in such a way as
+to recover, without war, the portion of Bessarabia ceded by the
+treaty of Paris, but he soon lost control of events, and the
+Slavophil agitation produced the Russo-Turkish campaign of
+1877-78. By the preliminary peace of San Stefano the
+Slavophil aspirations seemed to be realized, but the stipulations
+of that peace were considerably modified by the congress of
+Berlin (13th June to 13th July 1878), at which the aged chancellor
+held nominally the post of first plenipotentiary, but left to the
+second plenipotentiary, Count Shuvalov, not only the task of
+defending Russian interests, but also the responsibility and
+odium for the concessions which Russia had to make to Great
+Britain and Austria. He had the satisfaction of seeing the lost
+portion of Bessarabia restored to his country by the Berlin
+treaty, but at the cost of greater sacrifices than he anticipated.
+After the congress he continued to hold the post of minister for
+foreign affairs, but lived chiefly abroad, and resigned formally in
+1882, when he was succeeded by M. de Giers. He died at Baden-Baden
+on the 11th of March 1883. Prince Gorchakov devoted
+himself entirely to foreign affairs, and took no part in the great
+internal reforms of Alexander II.&rsquo;s reign. As a diplomatist he
+displayed many brilliant qualities&mdash;adroitness in negotiation,
+incisiveness in argument and elegance in style. His statesmanship,
+though marred occasionally by personal vanity and love
+of popular applause, was far-seeing and prudent. In the latter
+part of his career his main object was to raise the prestige of
+Russia by undoing the results of the Crimean War, and it may
+fairly be said that he in great measure succeeded.</p>
+<div class="author">(D. M. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORDIAN,<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gordianus</span>, the name of three Roman
+emperors. The first, Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus
+Romanus Africanus (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 159-238), an extremely wealthy man,
+was descended from the Gracchi and Trajan, while his wife was
+the great-granddaughter of Antoninus Pius. While he gained
+unbounded popularity by his magnificent games and shows, his
+prudent and retired life did not excite the suspicion of Caracalla,
+in whose honour he wrote a long epic called <i>Antoninias</i>. Alexander
+Severus called him to the dangerous honours of government in
+Africa, and during his proconsulship occurred the usurpation of
+Maximin. The universal discontent roused by the oppressive rule
+of Maximin culminated in a revolt in Africa in 238, and Gordian
+reluctantly yielded to the popular clamour and assumed the
+purple. His son, Marcus Antonius Gordianus (192-238), was
+associated with him in the dignity. The senate confirmed the
+choice of the Africans, and most of the provinces gladly sided
+with the new emperors; but, even while their cause was so
+successful abroad, they had fallen before the sudden inroad of
+Cappellianus, legatus of Numidia and a supporter of Maximin.
+They had reigned only thirty-six days. Both the Gordians had
+deserved by their amiable character their high reputation; they
+were men of great accomplishments, fond of literature, and
+voluminous authors; but they were rather intellectual voluptuaries
+than able statesmen or powerful rulers. Having embraced
+the cause of Gordian, the senate was obliged to continue the
+revolt against Maximin, and appointed Pupienus Maximus
+and Caelius Balbinus, two of its noblest and most esteemed
+members, as joint emperors. At their inauguration a sedition
+arose, and the popular outcry for a Gordian was appeased
+by the association with them of M. Antonius Gordianus
+Pius (224-244), grandson of the elder Gordian, then a boy of
+thirteen. Maximin forthwith invaded Italy, but was murdered
+by his own troops while besieging Aquileia, and a revolt of the
+praetorian guards, to which Pupienus and Balbinus fell victims,
+left Gordian sole emperor. For some time he was under the
+control of his mother&rsquo;s eunuchs, till Timesitheus,<a name="fa1y" id="fa1y" href="#ft1y"><span class="sp">1</span></a> his father-in-law
+and praefect of the praetorian guard, persuaded him to assert
+his independence. When the Persians under Shapur (Sapor) I.
+invaded Mesopotamia, the young emperor opened the temple of
+Janus for the last time recorded in history, and marched in person
+to the East. The Persians were driven back over the Euphrates
+and defeated in the battle of Resaena (243), and only the death
+of Timesitheus (under suspicious circumstances) prevented an
+advance into the enemy&rsquo;s territory. Philip the Arabian, who
+succeeded Timesitheus, stirred up discontent in the army, and
+Gordian was murdered by the mutinous soldiers in Mesopotamia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See lives of the Gordians by Capitolinus in the <i>Scriptores historiae
+Augustae</i>; Herodian vii. viii.; Zosimus i. 16, 18; Ammianus
+Marcellinus, xxiii. 5; Eutropius ix. 2; Aurelius Victor, <i>Caesares</i>,
+27; article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shapur</a></span> (I.); Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, i.
+2619 f. (von Rohden).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1y" id="ft1y" href="#fa1y"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For this name see footnote to <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shapur</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORDIUM,<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> an ancient city of Phrygia situated on the Persian
+&ldquo;Royal road&rdquo; from Pessinus to Ancyra, and not far from the
+Sangarius. It lies opposite the village Pebi, a little north of
+the point where the Constantinople-Angora railway crosses the
+Sangarius. It is not to be confused with Gordiou-kome, refounded
+as Juliopolis, a Bithynian town on a small tributary of the
+Sangarius, about 47 m. in an air-line N.W. of Gordium. According
+to the legend, Gordium was founded by Gordius, a Phrygian
+peasant who had been called to the throne by his countrymen in
+obedience to an oracle of Zeus commanding them to select the
+first person that rode up to the temple of the god in a wagon.
+The king afterwards dedicated his car to the god, and another
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248"></a>248</span>
+oracle declared that whoever succeeded in untying the strangely
+entwined knot of cornel bark which bound the yoke to the pole
+should reign over all Asia. Alexander the Great, according to
+the story, cut the knot by a stroke of his sword. Gordium was
+captured and destroyed by the Gauls soon after 189 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and
+disappeared from history. In imperial times only a small village
+existed on the site. Excavations made in 1900 by two German
+scholars, G. and A. Koerte, revealed practically no remains later
+than the middle of the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (when Phrygia fell under
+Persian power).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Jahrbuch des Instituts</i>, Ergänzungsheft v. (1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. G. C. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORDON,<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> the name of a Scottish family, no fewer than 157
+main branches of which are traced by the family historians. A
+laird of Gorden, in Berwickshire, near the English border, is said
+to have fallen in the battle of the Standard (1138). The families
+of the two sons ascribed to him by tradition, Richard Gordon of
+Gordon and Adam Gordon of Huntly, were united by the marriage
+of their great-grandchildren Alicia and Sir Adam, whose grandson
+Sir Adam (killed at Halidon Hill, 1333) at first took the English
+side in the Scottish struggle for independence, and is the first
+member of the family definitely to emerge into history. He was
+justiciar of Scotland in 1310, but after Bannockburn he attached
+himself to Robert Bruce, who granted him in 1318 the lordship of
+Strathbogie in Aberdeenshire, to which Gordon gave the name of
+Huntly from a village on the Gordon estate in Berwickshire. He
+had two sons, Adam and William. The younger son, laird of
+Stitchel in Roxburghshire, was the ancestor of William de
+Gordon of Stitchel and Lochinvar, founder of the Galloway
+branch of the family represented in the Scottish peerage by the
+dormant viscounty of Kenmure (<i>q.v.</i>), created in 1633; most of
+the Irish and Virginian Gordons are offshoots of this stock. The
+elder son, Adam, inherited the Gordon-Huntly estates. He had
+two grandsons, Sir John (d. 1394) and Sir Adam (slain at Homildon
+Hill, 1403). Sir John had two illegitimate sons, Jock of Scurdargue,
+the ancestor of the earls of Aberdeen, and Tam of
+Ruthven. From these two stocks most of the northern Gordon
+families are derived. Sir Adam&rsquo;s daughter and heiress, Elizabeth,
+married Sir Alexander Seton, and with her husband was confirmed
+in 1408 in the possession of the barony of Gordon and Huntly in
+Berwickshire and of the Gordon lands in Aberdeen. The Seton-Gordons
+are their descendants. Their son Alexander was created
+earl of Huntly (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Huntly, Earls and Marquesses of</a></span>),
+probably in 1445; and his heirs became dukes of Gordon, George
+Gordon (<i>c.</i> 1650-1716), 4th marquess of Huntly, being created
+duke of Gordon in 1684. He had been educated in a French
+Catholic seminary, and served in the French army in the campaigns
+of 1673 to 1675. Under James II. he was made keeper of
+Edinburgh Castle on account of his religion, but he refused to
+support James&rsquo;s efforts to impose Roman Catholicism on his
+subjects. He offered little active resistance when the castle was
+besieged by William III.&rsquo;s forces. After his submission he was
+more than once imprisoned on suspicion of Jacobite leanings, and
+was ordered by George I. to reside on parole in Edinburgh. For
+some time before his death he was separated from his wife Elizabeth
+Howard, daughter of the 6th duke of Norfolk. His son Alexander,
+2nd duke of Gordon (<i>c.</i> 1678-1728). joined the Old Pretender, but
+gained the royal pardon after the surrender of Gordon Castle in
+1716. Of his children by his wife Henrietta Mordaunt, second
+daughter of Charles Mordaunt, earl of Peterborough, Cosmo
+George (<i>c.</i> 1720-1752) succeeded as 3rd duke; Lord Lewis Gordon
+(d. 1754) took an active part in the Jacobite rising of 1745; and
+General Lord Adam Gordon (<i>c.</i> 1726-1801) became commander of
+the forces in Scotland in 1782, and governor of Edinburgh Castle
+in 1786. Lord George Gordon (<i>q.v.</i>) was a younger son of the
+3rd duke.</p>
+
+<p>The title, with the earldom of Norwich and the barony of
+Gordon Huntly, became extinct on the death of George, 5th
+duke (1770-1836), a distinguished soldier who raised the corps
+now known as the 2nd battalion of the Gordon Highlanders.
+The marquessate of Huntly passed to his cousin and heir-male,
+George, 5th earl of Aboyne. Lady Charlotte Gordon, sister of
+and co-heiress with the 5th duke, married Charles Lennox, 4th
+duke of Richmond, whose son took the name of Gordon-Lennox.
+The dukedom of Gordon was revived in 1876 in favour of the
+6th duke of Richmond, who thenceforward was styled duke of
+Richmond and Gordon. Adam Gordon of Aboyne (d. 1537)
+took the courtesy title of earl of Sutherland in right of his wife
+Elizabeth, countess of Sutherland in her own right, sister of the
+9th earl. The lawless and turbulent Gordons of Gight were the
+maternal ancestors of Lord Byron.</p>
+
+<p>Among the many soldiers of fortune bearing the name of
+Gordon was Colonel John Gordon, one of the murderers of
+Wallenstein. Patrick Gordon (1635-1699) was born at Auchleuchries
+in Aberdeenshire, entered the service of Charles X.
+of Sweden in 1651 and served against the Poles. He changed
+sides more than once before he found his way to Moscow in 1661
+and took service under the tsar Alexis. He became general in
+1687; in 1688 he helped to secure Peter the Great&rsquo;s ascendancy;
+and later he crushed the revolt of the Streltzi. His diary was
+published in German (3 vols., 1849-1853, Moscow and St Petersburg),
+and selections from the English original by the Spalding
+Club (Aberdeen, 1859).</p>
+
+<p>The Gordons fill a considerable place in Scottish legend and
+ballad. &ldquo;Captain Car,&rdquo; or &ldquo;Edom (Adam) of Gordon&rdquo; describes
+an incident in the struggle between the Forbeses and Gordons
+in Aberdeenshire in 1571; &ldquo;The Duke of Gordon&rsquo;s Daughter&rdquo;
+has apparently no foundation in fact, though &ldquo;Geordie&rdquo; of the
+ballad is sometimes said to have been George, 4th earl of Huntly;
+&ldquo;The Fire of Frendraught&rdquo; goes back to a feud (1630) between
+James Crichton of Frendraught and William Gordon of Rothiemay;
+the &ldquo;Gallant Gordons Gay&rdquo; figure in &ldquo;Chevy Chase&rdquo;;
+William Gordon of Earlston, the Covenanter, appears in &ldquo;Bothwell
+Bridge&rdquo; &amp;c.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See William Gordon (of old Aberdeen), <i>The History of the Ancient,
+Noble, and Illustrious House of Gordon</i> (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1726-1727),
+of which <i>A Concise History of the ... House of Gordon</i>, by
+C. A. Gordon (Aberdeen, 1754) is little more than an abridgment;
+<i>The Records of Aboyne, 1230-1681</i>, edited by Charles, 11th marquess
+of Huntly, &amp;c. (New Spalding Club, Aberdeen, 1894); <i>The Gordon
+Book</i>, ed. J. M. Bulloch (1902); <i>The House of Gordon</i>, ed. J. M.
+Bulloch (Aberdeen, vol. i., 1903); and Mr Bulloch&rsquo;s <i>The First Duke
+of Gordon</i> (1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> (1833-1870), Australian poet,
+was born at Fayal, in the Azores, in 1833, the son of a retired
+Indian officer who taught Hindustani at Cheltenham College.
+Young Gordon was educated there and at Merton College,
+Oxford, but a youthful indiscretion led to his being sent in 1853
+to South Australia, where he joined the mounted police. He then
+became a horsebreaker, but on his father&rsquo;s death he inherited
+a fortune and obtained a seat in the House of Assembly. At
+this time he had the reputation of being the best non-professional
+steeplechase rider in the colony. In 1867 he moved to Victoria
+and set up a livery stable at Ballarat. Two volumes of poems,
+<i>Sea Spray and Smoke Drift</i> and <i>Ashtaroth</i>, were published in this
+year, and two years later he gave up his business and settled
+at New Brighton, near Melbourne. A <span class="correction" title="amended from second">third</span> volume of poetry,
+<i>Bush Ballads and Galloping Rhymes</i>, appeared in 1870. It
+brought him more praise than emolument, and, thoroughly
+discouraged by his failure to make good his claim to some
+property in Scotland to which he believed himself entitled,
+he committed suicide on the 24th of June 1870. His reputation
+rose after his death, and he became the best known and most
+widely popular of Australian poets. Much of Gordon&rsquo;s poetry
+might have been written in England; when, however, it is
+really local, it is vividly so; his genuine feeling frequently
+kindles into passion; his versification is always elastic and
+sonorous, but sometimes too reminiscent of Swinburne. His
+compositions are almost entirely lyrical, and their merit is
+usually in proportion to the degree in which they partake of the
+character of the ballad.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gordon&rsquo;s poems were collected and published in 1880 with a
+biographical introduction by Marcus Clarke.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORDON, ALEXANDER<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1692-<i>c.</i> 1754), Scottish antiquary,
+is believed to have been born in Aberdeen in 1692. He is
+the &ldquo;Sandy Gordon&rdquo; of Scott&rsquo;s <i>Antiquary</i>. Of his parentage
+and early history nothing is known. He appears to have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>249</span>
+distinguished himself in classics at Aberdeen University, and to
+have made a living at first by teaching languages and music.
+When still young he travelled abroad, probably in the capacity of
+tutor. He returned to Scotland previous to 1726, and devoted
+himself to antiquarian work. In 1726 appeared the <i>Itinerarium
+Septentrionale</i>, his greatest and best-known work. He was already
+the friend of Sir John Clerk, of Penicuik, better known as Baron
+Clerk (a baron of the exchequer); and the baron and Roger Gale
+(vice-president of the Society of Antiquaries) are the &ldquo;two
+gentlemen, the honour of their age and country,&rdquo; whose letters
+were published, without their consent it appears, as an appendix
+to the <i>Itinerarium</i>. Subsequently Gordon was appointed secretary
+to the Society for the Encouragement of Learning, with an
+annual salary of £50. Resigning this post, or, as there seems
+reason for believing, being dismissed for carelessness in his
+accounts, he succeeded Dr Stukeley as secretary to the Society
+of Antiquaries, and also acted for a short time as secretary to
+the Egyptian Club, an association composed of gentlemen who
+had visited Egypt. In 1741 he accompanied James Glen (afterwards
+governor), to South Carolina. Through his influence Gordon,
+besides receiving a grant of land in South Carolina, became
+registrar of the province and justice of the peace, and filled
+several other offices. From his will, dated the 22nd of August
+1754, it appears he had a son Alexander and a daughter Frances,
+to whom he bequeathed most of his property, among which were
+portraits of himself and of friends painted by his own hand.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sir Daniel Wilson, <i>Alexander Gordon, the Antiquary</i>; and his
+Papers in the <i>Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland</i>,
+with Additional Notes and an Appendix of Original Letters by
+Dr David Laing (<i>Proc. Soc. of Antiq. of Scot.</i> x. 363-382).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (1833-1885), British soldier
+and administrator, fourth son of General H. W. Gordon, Royal
+Artillery, was born at Woolwich on the 28th of January 1833.
+He received his early education at Taunton school, and was
+given a cadetship in the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich,
+in 1848. He was commissioned as second lieutenant in the
+corps of Royal Engineers on the 23rd of June 1852. After
+passing through a course of instruction at the Royal Engineers&rsquo;
+establishment, Chatham, he was promoted lieutenant in 1854,
+and was sent to Pembroke dock to assist in the construction of
+the fortifications then being erected for the defence of Milford
+Haven. The Crimean War broke out shortly afterwards, and
+Gordon was ordered on active service, and landed at Balaklava
+on the 1st of January 1855. The siege of Sevastopol was in
+progress, and he had his full share of the arduous work in the
+trenches. He was attached to one of the British columns which
+assaulted the Redan on the 18th of June, and was also present
+at the capture of that work on the 8th of September. He took
+part in the expedition to Kinburn, and then returned to Sevastopol
+to superintend a portion of the demolition of the Russian
+dockyard. After peace with Russia had been concluded, Gordon
+was attached to an international commission appointed to delimit
+the new boundary, as fixed by treaty, between Russia and
+Turkey in Bessarabia; and on the conclusion of this work he
+was ordered to Asia Minor on similar duty, with reference to
+the eastern boundary between the two countries. While so
+employed Gordon took the opportunity to make himself well
+acquainted with the geography and people of Armenia, and
+the knowledge of dealing with eastern nations then gained
+was of great use to him in after life.</p>
+
+<p>He returned to England towards the end of 1858, and was
+then selected for the appointment of adjutant and field-works
+instructor at the Royal Engineers&rsquo; establishment,
+and took up his new duties at Chatham after promotion
+<span class="sidenote">In China.</span>
+to the rank of captain in April 1859. But his stay in England
+was brief, for in 1860 war was declared against China, and
+Gordon was ordered out there, arriving at Tientsin in September.
+He was too late for the attack on the Taku forts, but was present
+at the occupation of Peking and destruction of the Summer
+Palace. He remained with the British force of occupation in
+northern China until April 1862, when the British troops,
+under the command of General Staveley, proceeded to Shanghai,
+in order to protect the European settlement at that place from
+the Taiping rebels. The Taiping revolt, which had some remarkable
+points of similarity with the Mahdist rebellion in the Sudan,
+had commenced in 1850 in the province of Kwangsi. The
+leader, Hung Sin Tsuan, a semi-political, semi-religious enthusiast,
+assumed the title of Tien Wang, or Heavenly King,
+and by playing on the feelings of the lower class of people gradually
+collected a considerable force. The Chinese authorities
+endeavoured to arrest him, but the imperialist troops were
+defeated. The area of revolt extended northwards through
+the provinces of Hunan and Hupeh, and down the valley of
+the Yangtsze-kiang as far as the great city of Nanking, which
+was captured by the rebels in 1853. Here the Tien Wang
+established his court, and while spending his own time in heavenly
+contemplation and earthly pleasures, sent the assistant Wangs
+on warlike expeditions through the adjacent provinces. For
+some years a constant struggle was maintained between the
+Chinese imperialist troops and the Taipings, with varying success
+on both sides. The latter gradually advanced eastwards, and approaching
+the important city of Shanghai, alarmed the European
+inhabitants, who subscribed to raise a mixed force of Europeans
+and Manila men for the defence of the town. This force, which
+was placed under the command of an American, Frederick
+Townsend Ward (1831-1862), took up a position in the country
+west of Shanghai to check the advance of the rebels. Fighting
+continued round Shanghai for about two years, but Ward&rsquo;s
+force was not altogether successful, and when General Staveley
+arrived from Tientsin affairs were in a somewhat critical condition.
+He decided to clear the district of rebels within a radius
+of 30 m. from Shanghai, and Gordon was attached to his staff
+as engineer officer. A French force, under the command of
+Admiral Prôtet, co-operated with Staveley and Ward, with his
+little army, also assisted. Kahding, Singpo and other towns
+were occupied, and the country was fairly cleared of rebels
+by the end of 1862. Ward was, unfortunately, killed in the
+assault of Tseki, and his successor, Burgevine, having had a
+quarrel with the Chinese authorities, Li Hung Chang, the governor
+of the Kiang-su province, requested General Staveley to
+appoint a British officer to command the contingent. Staveley
+selected Gordon, who had been made a brevet-major in December
+1862 for his previous services, and the nomination was approved
+by the British government. The choice was judicious as
+further events proved. In March 1863 Gordon proceeded to
+Sungkiang to take command of the force, which had received
+the name of &ldquo;The Ever-Victorious Army,&rdquo; an encouraging
+though somewhat exaggerated title, considering its previous
+history. Without waiting to reorganize his troops he marched
+at once to the relief of Chansu, a town 40 m. north-west of
+Shanghai, which was invested by the rebels. The relief was
+successfully accomplished, and the operation established Gordon
+in the confidence of his troops. He then reorganized his force,
+a matter of no small difficulty, and advanced against Quinsan,
+which was captured, though with considerable loss. Gordon
+then marched through the country, seizing town after town
+from the rebels until at length the great city of Suchow was
+invested by his army and a body of Chinese imperialist troops.
+The city was taken on the 29th of November, and after its
+capture Gordon had a serious dispute with Li Hung Chang,
+as the latter had beheaded certain of the rebel leaders whose
+lives the former had promised to spare if they surrendered. This
+action, though not opposed to Chinese ethics, was so opposed
+to Gordon&rsquo;s ideas of honour that he withdrew his force from
+Suchow and remained inactive at Quinsan until February
+1864. He then came to the conclusion that the subjugation of
+the rebels was more important than his dispute with Li, and
+visited the latter in order to arrange for further operations.
+By mutual consent no allusion was made to the death of the
+Wangs. This was a good example of one of Gordon&rsquo;s marked
+characteristics, that, though a man of strong personal feelings,
+he was always prepared to subdue them for the public benefit.
+He declined, however, to take any decoration or reward from
+the emperor for his services at the capture of Suchow. After
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>250</span>
+the meeting with Li Hung Chang the &ldquo;Ever-Victorious Army&rdquo;
+again advanced and took a number of towns from the rebels,
+ending with Chanchufu, the principal military position of the
+Taipings. This fell in May, when Gordon returned to Quinsan
+and disbanded his force. In June the Tien Wang, seeing his
+cause was hopeless, committed suicide, and the capture of Nanking
+by the imperialist troops shortly afterwards brought the
+Taiping revolt to a conclusion. The suppression of this serious
+movement was undoubtedly due in great part to the skill and
+energy of Gordon, who had shown remarkable qualities as a
+leader of men. The emperor promoted him to the rank of Titu,
+the highest grade in the Chinese army, and also gave him the
+Yellow Jacket, the most important decoration in China. He
+wished to give him a large sum of money, but this Gordon refused.
+He was promoted lieutenant-colonel for his Chinese services,
+and made a Companion of the Bath. Henceforth he was often
+familiarly spoken of as &ldquo;Chinese&rdquo; Gordon.</p>
+
+<p>Gordon was appointed on his return to England Commanding
+Royal Engineer at Gravesend, where he was employed in superintending
+the erection of forts for the defence of the Thames.
+He devoted himself with energy to his official duties, and his
+leisure hours to practical philanthropy. All the acts of kindness
+which he did for the poor during the six years he was stationed
+at Gravesend will never be fully known. In October 1871 he
+was appointed British representative on the international
+commission which had been constituted after the Crimean War
+to maintain the navigation of the mouth of the river Danube,
+with headquarters at Galatz. During 1872 Gordon was sent to
+inspect the British military cemeteries in the Crimea, and when
+passing through Constantinople on his return to Galatz he made
+the acquaintance of Nubar Pasha, prime minister of Egypt,
+who sounded him as to whether he would take service under the
+khedive. Nothing further was settled at the time, but the
+following year he received a definite offer from the khedive,
+which he accepted with the consent of the British government,
+and proceeded to Egypt early in 1874. He was then a colonel
+in the army, though still only a captain in the corps of Royal
+Engineers.</p>
+
+<p>To understand the object of the appointment which Gordon
+accepted in Egypt, it is necessary to give a few facts with reference
+to the Sudan. In 1820-22 Nubia, Sennar and Kordofan
+had been conquered by Egypt, and the authority of the Egyptians
+was subsequently extended southward, eastward to the Red
+Sea and westward over Darfur (conquered by Zobeir Pasha in
+1874). One result of the Egyptian occupation of the country
+was that the slave trade was largely developed, especially in the
+White Nile and Bahr-el-Ghazal districts. Captains Speke and
+Grant, who had travelled through Uganda and came down the
+White Nile in 1863, and Sir Samuel Baker, who went up the
+same river as far as Albert Nyanza, brought back harrowing
+tales of the misery caused by the slave-hunters. Public opinion
+was considerably moved, and in 1869 the khedive Ismail decided
+to send an expedition up the White Nile, with the double object
+of limiting the evils of the slave trade and opening up the district
+to commerce. The command of the expedition was given to
+Sir Samuel Baker, who reached Khartum in February 1870, but,
+owing to the obstruction of the river by the sudd or grass barrier,
+did not reach Gondokoro, the centre of his province, for fourteen
+months. He met with great difficulties, and when his four years&rsquo;
+service came to an end little had been effected beyond establishing
+a few posts along the Nile and placing some steamers on the river.
+It was to succeed Baker as governor of the equatorial regions
+that the khedive asked for Gordon&rsquo;s services, having come to
+the conclusion that the latter was the most likely person to bring
+the affair to a satisfactory conclusion. After a short stay in
+Cairo, Gordon proceeded to Khartum by way of Suakin and
+Berber, a route which he ever afterwards regarded as the best
+mode of access to the Sudan. From Khartum he proceeded up
+the White Nile to Gondokoro, where he arrived in twenty-four
+days, the sudd, which had proved such an obstacle to Baker,
+having been removed since the departure of the latter by the
+Egyptian governor-general. Gordon remained in the equatorial
+provinces until October 1876, and then returned to Cairo. The
+two years and a half thus spent in Central Africa was a time of
+incessant toil. A line of stations was established from the Sobat
+confluence on the White Nile to the frontier of Uganda&mdash;to
+which country he proposed to open a route from Mombasa&mdash;and
+considerable progress was made in the suppression of the slave
+trade. The river and Lake Albert were mapped by Gordon and
+his staff, and he devoted himself with wonted energy to improving
+the condition of the people. Greater results might have been
+obtained but for the fact that Khartum and the whole of the
+Sudan north of the Sobat were in the hands of an Egyptian
+governor, independent of Gordon, and not too well disposed
+towards his proposals for diminishing the slave trade. On
+arriving in Cairo Gordon informed the khedive of his reasons
+for not wishing to return to the Sudan, but did not definitely
+resign the appointment of governor of the equatorial provinces.
+But on reaching London he telegraphed to the British consul-general
+in Cairo, asking him to let the khedive know that he
+would not go back to Egypt. Ismail Pasha, feeling, no doubt,
+that Gordon&rsquo;s resignation would injure his prestige, wrote to him
+saying that he had promised to return, and that he expected him
+to keep his word. Upon this Gordon, to whom the keeping of a
+promise was a sacred duty, decided to return to Cairo, but gave
+an assurance to some friends that he would not go back to the
+Sudan unless he was appointed governor-general of the entire
+country. After some discussion the khedive agreed, and made
+him governor-general of the Sudan, inclusive of Darfur and the
+equatorial provinces.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important questions which Gordon had to
+take up on his appointment was the state of the political relations
+between Egypt and Abyssinia, which had been in an
+unsatisfactory condition for some years. The dispute
+<span class="sidenote">Governor-General</span>
+centred round the district of Bogos, lying not far
+inland from Massawa, which both the khedive and King John of
+Abyssinia claimed as belonging to their respective dominions.
+War broke out in 1875, when an Egyptian expedition was
+despatched to Abyssinia, and was completely defeated by King
+John near Gundet. A second and larger expedition, under
+Prince Hassan, the son of the khedive, was sent the following year
+from Massawa. The force was routed by the Abyssinians at
+Gura, but Prince Hassan and his staff got back to Massawa.
+Matters then remained quiet until March 1877, when Gordon
+proceeded to Massawa to endeavour to make peace with King
+John. He went up to Bogos, and had an interview with Walad
+Michael, an Abyssinian chief and the hereditary ruler of Bogos,
+who had joined the Egyptians with a view to raiding on his own
+account. Gordon, with his usual powers of diplomacy, persuaded
+Michael to remain quiet, and wrote to the king proposing terms
+of peace. But he received no reply at that time, as John, feeling
+pretty secure on the Egyptian frontier after his two successful
+actions against the khedive&rsquo;s troops, had gone southwards to
+fight with Menelek, king of Shoa. Gordon, seeing that the
+Abyssinian difficulty could wait for a few months, proceeded to
+Khartum. Here he took up the slavery question, and proposed
+to issue regulations making the registration of slaves compulsory,
+but his proposals were not approved by the Cairo government.
+In the meantime an insurrection had broken out in Darfur, and
+Gordon proceeded to that province to relieve the Egyptian
+garrisons, which were considerably stronger than the force he
+had available, the insurgents also being far more numerous than
+his little army. On coming up with the main body of rebels he
+saw that diplomacy gave a better chance of success than fighting,
+and, accompanied only by an interpreter, rode into the enemy&rsquo;s
+camp to discuss the situation. This bold move, which probably
+no one but Gordon would have attempted, proved quite successful,
+as part of the insurgents joined him, and the remainder
+retreated to the south. The relief of the Egyptian garrisons was
+successfully accomplished, and Gordon visited the provinces of
+Berber and Dongola, whence he had again to return to the
+Abyssinian frontier to treat with King John. But no satisfactory
+settlement was arrived at, and Gordon came back to Khartum
+in January 1878. There he had scarcely a week&rsquo;s rest when the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id="page251"></a>251</span>
+khedive summoned him to Cairo to assist in settling the financial
+affairs of Egypt. He reached Cairo in March, and was at once
+appointed by Ismail as president of a commission of inquiry into
+the finances, on the understanding that the European commissioners
+of the debt, who were the representatives of the bondholders,
+and whom Ismail regarded as interested parties, should
+not be members of the commission. Gordon accepted the post
+on these terms, but the consuls-general of the different powers
+refused to agree to the constitution of the commission, and it fell
+to the ground, as the khedive was not strong enough to carry
+his point. The attempt of the latter to utilize Gordon as a
+counterpoise to the European financiers having failed, Ismail
+fell into the hands of his creditors, and was deposed by the
+sultan in the following year in favour of his son Tewfik. After
+the conclusion of the financial episode, Gordon proceeded to the
+province of Harrar, south of Abyssinia, and, finding the administration
+in a bad condition, dismissed Raouf Pasha, the governor.
+He then returned to Khartum, and in 1879 went again into
+Darfur to pursue the slave traders, while his subordinate, Gessi
+Pasha, fought them with great success in the Bahr-el-Ghazal
+district and killed Suleiman, their leader and a son of Zobeir.
+This put an end to the revolt, and Gordon went back to Khartum.
+Shortly afterwards he went down to Cairo, and when there was
+requested by the new khedive to pay a visit to King John and
+make a definite treaty of peace with Abyssinia. Gordon had an
+interesting interview with the king, but was not able to do much,
+as the king wanted great concessions from Egypt, and the
+khedive&rsquo;s instructions were that nothing material was to be
+conceded. The matter ended by Gordon being made a prisoner
+and sent back to Massawa. Thence he returned to Cairo and
+resigned his Sudan appointment. He was considerably exhausted
+by the three years&rsquo; incessant work, during which he had
+ridden no fewer than 8500 m. on camels and mules, and was
+constantly engaged in the task of trying to reform a vicious
+system of administration.</p>
+
+<p>In March 1880 Gordon visited the king of the Belgians at
+Brussels, and King Leopold suggested that he should at some
+future date take charge of the Congo Free State.
+In April the government of the Cape Colony telegraphed
+<span class="sidenote">1880-1884.</span>
+to him offering the position of commandant of the
+Cape local forces, but he declined the appointment. In May
+the marquess of Ripon, who had been given the post of governor-general
+of India, asked Gordon to go with him as private secretary.
+This he agreed to do, but a few days later, feeling that he was
+not suitable for the position, asked Lord Ripon to release him.
+The latter refused to do so, and Gordon accompanied him to
+India, but definitely resigned his post on Lord Ripon&rsquo;s staff
+shortly afterwards. Hardly had he resigned when he received
+a telegram from Sir Robert Hart, inspector-general of customs
+in China, inviting him to go to Peking. He started at once
+and arrived at Tientsin in July, where he met Li Hung Chang,
+and learnt that affairs were in a critical condition, and that there
+was risk of war with Russia. Gordon proceeded to Peking and
+used all his influence in favour of peace. His arguments, which
+were given with much plainness of speech, appear to have
+convinced the Chinese government, and war was avoided.
+Gordon returned to England, and in April 1881 exchanged
+with a brother officer, who had been ordered to Mauritius as
+Commanding Royal Engineer, but who for family reasons was
+unable to accept the appointment. He remained in Mauritius
+until the March following, when, on promotion to the rank of
+major-general, he had to vacate the position of Commanding
+Royal Engineer. Just at the same time the Cape ministry
+telegraphed to him to ask if he would go to the Cape to consult
+with the government as regards settling affairs in Basutoland.
+The telegram stated that the position of matters was grave,
+and that it was of the utmost importance that the colony should
+secure the services of someone of proved ability, firmness and
+energy. Gordon sailed at once for the Cape, and saw the governor,
+Sir Hercules Robinson, Mr Thos. Scanlen, the premier, and
+Mr. J. X. Merriman, a member of the ministry, who, for political
+reasons, asked him not to go to Basutoland, but to take the
+appointment of commandant of the colonial forces at King
+William&rsquo;s Town. After a few months, which were spent in
+reorganizing the colonial forces, Gordon was requested to go up
+to Basutoland to try to arrange a settlement with the chief
+Masupha, one of the most powerful of the Basuto leaders.
+Greatly to his surprise, at the very time he was with Masupha,
+Mr. J. W. Sauer, a member of the Cape government, was taking
+steps to induce Lerethodi, another chief, to advance against
+Masupha. This not only placed Gordon in a position of danger,
+but was regarded by him as an act of treachery. He advised
+Masupha not to deal with the Cape government until the hostile
+force was withdrawn, and resigned his appointment. He considered
+that the Basuto difficulty was due to the bad system
+of administration by the Cape government. That Gordon&rsquo;s
+views were correct is proved by the fact that a few years later
+Basutoland was separated from Cape Colony and placed directly
+under the imperial government. After his return to England
+from the Cape, being unemployed, Gordon decided to go to
+Palestine, a country he had long desired to visit. Here he
+remained for a year, and devoted his time to the study of Biblical
+history and of the antiquities of Jerusalem. The king of the
+Belgians then asked him to take charge of the Congo Free State,
+and he accepted the mission and returned to London to make
+the necessary preparations. But a few days after his arrival he
+was requested by the British government to proceed immediately
+to the Sudan. To understand the reasons for this, it is necessary
+briefly to recapitulate the course of events in that country since
+Gordon had left it in 1879.</p>
+
+<p>After his resignation of the post of governor-general, Raouf
+Pasha, an official of the ordinary type, who, as already mentioned,
+had been dismissed by Gordon for misgovernment in 1878, was
+appointed to succeed him. As Raouf was instructed to increase
+the receipts and diminish the expenditure, the system of government
+naturally reverted to the old methods, which Gordon had
+endeavoured to improve. The fact that justice and firmness
+were succeeded by injustice and weakness tended naturally
+to the outbreak of revolt, and unfortunately there was a leader
+ready to head a rebellion&mdash;one Mahommed Ahmed, already
+known for some years as a holy man, who was insulted by an
+Egyptian official, and retiring with some followers to the island
+of Abba on the White Nile, proclaimed himself as the mahdi,
+a successor of the prophet. Raouf endeavoured to take him
+prisoner but without success, and the revolt spread rapidly.
+Raouf was recalled, and succeeded by Abdel Kader Pasha, a
+much stronger governor, who had some success, but whose
+forces were quite insufficient to cope with the rebels. The
+Egyptian government was too busily engaged in suppressing
+Arabi&rsquo;s revolt to be able to send any help to Abdel Kader, and
+in September 1882, when the British troops entered Cairo,
+the position in the Sudan was very perilous. Had the British
+government listened to the representations then made to them,
+that, having conquered Egypt, it was imperative at once to
+suppress the revolt in the Sudan, the rebellion could have been
+crushed, but unfortunately Great Britain would do nothing
+herself, while the steps she allowed Egypt to take ended in the
+disaster to Hicks Pasha&rsquo;s expedition. Then, in December 1883,
+the British government saw that something must be done, and
+ordered Egypt to abandon the Sudan. But abandonment was
+a policy most difficult to carry out, as it involved the withdrawal
+of thousands of Egyptian soldiers, civilian employés and their
+families. Abdel Kader Pasha was asked to undertake the work,
+and he agreed on the understanding that he would be supported,
+and that the policy of abandonment was not to be announced.
+But the latter condition was refused, and he declined the task.
+The British government then asked General Gordon to proceed
+to Khartum to report on the best method of carrying out the
+evacuation. The mission was highly popular in England.
+Sir Evelyn Baring (Lord Cromer) was, however, at first opposed
+to Gordon&rsquo;s appointment. His objections were overcome, and
+Gordon received his instructions in London on the 18th of
+January 1884, and started at once for Cairo, accompanied by
+Lieut.-Colonel J. D. H. Stewart.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page252" id="page252"></a>252</span></p>
+
+<p>At Cairo he received further instructions from Sir Evelyn
+Baring, and was appointed by the khedive as governor-general,
+with executive powers. Travelling by Korosko and
+Berber, he arrived at Khartum on the 18th of February,
+<span class="sidenote">At Khartum.</span>
+and was well received by the inhabitants, who believed
+that he had come to save the country from the rebels. Gordon
+at once commenced the task of sending the women and children
+and the sick and wounded to Egypt, and about two thousand
+five hundred had been removed before the mahdi&rsquo;s forces closed
+upon Khartum. At the same time he was impressed with the
+necessity of making some arrangement for the future government
+of the country, and asked for the help of Zobeir (<i>q.v.</i>), who had
+great influence in the Sudan, and had been detained in Cairo
+for some years. This request was made on the very day Gordon
+reached Khartum, and was in accordance with a similar proposal
+he had made when at Cairo. But, after delays which involved
+the loss of much precious time, the British government refused
+(13th of March) to sanction the appointment, because Zobeir
+had been a notorious slave-hunter. With this refusal vanished
+all hope of a peaceful retreat of the Egyptian garrisons. Wavering
+tribes went over to the mahdi. The advance of the rebels
+against Khartum was combined with a revolt in the eastern
+Sudan, and the Egyptian troops in the vicinity of Suakin met
+with constant defeat. At length a British force was sent to
+Suakin under the command of General Sir Gerald Graham, and
+routed the rebels in several hard-fought actions. Gordon
+telegraphed to Sir Evelyn Baring urging that the road from
+Suakin to Berber should be opened by a small force. But this
+request, though strongly supported by Baring and the British
+military authorities in Cairo, was refused by the government in
+London. In April General Graham and his forces were withdrawn
+from Suakin, and Gordon and the Sudan were seemingly
+abandoned to their fate. The garrison of Berber, seeing that
+there was no chance of relief, surrendered a month later and
+Khartum was completely isolated. Had it not been for the
+presence of Gordon the city would also soon have fallen, but with
+an energy and skill that were almost miraculous, he so organized
+the defence that Khartum held out until January 1885. When
+it is remembered that Gordon was of a different nationality
+and religion to the garrison and population, that he had only
+one British officer to assist him, and that the town was badly
+fortified and insufficiently provided with food, it is just to say
+that the defence of Khartum is one of the most remarkable
+episodes in military history. The siege commenced on the 18th
+of March, but it was not until August that the British government
+under the pressure of public opinion decided to take steps
+to relieve Gordon. General Stephenson, who was in command
+of the British troops in Egypt, wished to send a brigade at once
+to Dongola, but he was overruled, and it was not until the
+beginning of November that the British relief force was ready
+to start from Wadi Haifa under the command of Lord Wolseley.
+The force reached Korti towards the end of December, and from
+that place a column was despatched across the Bayuda desert
+to Metemma on the Nile. After some severe fighting in which
+the leader of the column, Sir Herbert Stewart, was mortally
+wounded, the force reached the river on the 20th of January,
+and the following day four steamers, which had been sent down
+by Gordon to meet the British advance, and which had been
+waiting for them for four months, reported to Sir Charles Wilson,
+who had taken command after Sir Herbert Stewart was wounded.
+<span class="sidenote">Death.</span>
+On the 24th Wilson started with two of the steamers
+for Khartum, but on arriving there on the 28th he
+found that the place had been captured by the rebels and Gordon
+killed two days before. A belief has been entertained that
+Wilson might have started earlier and saved the town, but this
+is quite groundless. In the first place, Wilson could not have
+started sooner than he did; and in the second, even if he had
+been able to do so, it would have made no difference, as the rebels
+could have taken Khartum any time they pleased after the 5th
+of January, when the provisions were exhausted. Another
+popular notion, that the capture of the place was due to treachery
+on the part of the garrison, is equally without foundation. The
+attack was made at a point in the fortifications where the
+rampart and ditch had been destroyed by the rising of the Nile,
+and when the mahdi&rsquo;s troops entered the soldiers were too weak
+to make any effectual resistance. Gordon himself expected the
+town to fall before the end of December, and it is really difficult
+to understand how he succeeded in holding out until the 26th
+of January. Writing on the 14th of December he said, &ldquo;Now,
+mark this, if the expeditionary force&mdash;and I ask for no more
+than two hundred men&mdash;does not come in ten days, the town
+may fall, and I have done my best for the honour of my country.&rdquo;
+He had indeed done his best, and far more than could have been
+regarded as possible. To understand what he went through
+during the latter months of the siege, it is only necessary to read
+his own journal, a portion of which, dating from 10th September
+to 14th December 1884, was fortunately preserved and published.</p>
+
+<p>Gordon was not an author, but he wrote many short
+memoranda on subjects that interested him, and a considerable
+number of these have been utilized, especially in the work by
+his brother, Sir Henry Gordon, entitled <i>Events in the Life of
+Charles George Gordon, from its Beginning to its End</i>. He was
+a voluminous letter-writer, and much of his correspondence has
+been published. His character was remarkable, and the influence
+he had over those with whom he came in contact was very
+striking. His power to command men of non-European races
+was probably unique. He had no fear of death, and cared but
+little for the opinion of others, adhering tenaciously to the course
+he believed to be right in the face of all opposition. Though
+not holding to outward forms of religion, he was a truly religious
+man in the highest sense of the word, and was a constant student
+of the Bible. To serve God and to do his duty were the great
+objects of his life, and he died as he had lived, carrying out the
+work that lay before him to the best of his ability. The last
+words of his last letter to his sister, written when he knew that
+death was very near, sum up his character: &ldquo;I am quite happy,
+thank God, and, like Lawrence, I have <i>tried</i> to do my duty.&rdquo;<a name="fa1z" id="fa1z" href="#ft1z"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" id="page253"></a>253</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>The Journals of Major-General Gordon at Khartoum</i>
+(1885); Lord Cromer, <i>Modern Egypt</i> (2 vols., 1908); F. R. Wingate,
+<i>Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan</i> (1891); the <i>British Parliamentary
+Paper on Egypt</i> (1884-1885); C. G. Gordon, <i>Reflections
+in Palestine</i> (1884); edited by D. C. Boulger, <i>General Gordon&rsquo;s
+Letters from the Crimea, the Danube, and Armenia</i> (1884); edited by
+G. B. Hill, <i>Colonel Gordon in Central Africa</i> (1881); <i>Letters of
+General C. G. Gordon to his Sister</i> (1888); H. W. Gordon, <i>Events in
+the Life of C. G. Gordon</i> (1886); Commander L. Brine, <i>The Taeping
+Rebellion in China</i> (1862); A. Wilson, <i>Gordon&rsquo;s Campaigns and the
+Taeping Rebellion</i> (1868); D. C. Boulger, <i>Life of Gordon</i> (1896);
+A. Egmont Hake, <i>The Story of Chinese Gordon</i> (1st vol. 1884, 2nd
+vol. 1885); Colonel Sir W. F. Butler, <i>Charles George Gordon</i> (1889);
+Archibald Forbes, <i>Chinese Gordon</i> (1884); edited by A. Egmont Hake,
+<i>Events in the Taeping Rebellion</i> (1891); S. Mossman, <i>General Gordon&rsquo;s
+Diary in China</i> (1885); Lieutenant T. Lister, R.E., <i>With Gordon in
+the Crimea</i> (1891); Lieutenant-General Sir G. Graham, <i>Last Words
+with Gordon</i> (1887); &ldquo;War Correspondent,&rdquo; <i>Why Gordon Perished</i>
+(1896).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. M. W.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1z" id="ft1z" href="#fa1z"><span class="fn">1</span></a> With this estimate of Gordon&rsquo;s character may be contrasted
+those of Lord Cromer (the most severe of Gordon&rsquo;s critics), and of
+Lord Morley of Blackburn; in their strictures as in their praise
+they help to explain both the causes of the extraordinary influence
+wielded by Gordon over all sorts and conditions of men and also
+his difficulties. Lord Cromer&rsquo;s criticism, it should be remembered,
+does not deal with Gordon&rsquo;s career as a whole but solely with his last
+mission to the Sudan; Lord Morley&rsquo;s is a more general judgment.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Cromer (<i>Modern Egypt</i>, vol. i., ch. xxvii., p. 565-571) says:
+&ldquo;We may admire, and for my own part I do very much admire
+General Gordon&rsquo;s personal courage, his disinterestedness and his
+chivalrous feeling in favour of the beleaguered garrisons, but admiration
+of these qualities is no sufficient plea against a condemnation
+of his conduct on the ground that it was quixotic. In his last
+letter to his sister, dated December 14, 1884, he wrote: &lsquo;I am
+quite happy, thank God, and, like Lawrence, I have tried to do my
+duty&rsquo; ... I am not now dealing with General Gordon&rsquo;s character,
+which was in many respects noble, or with his military defence of
+Khartoum, which was heroic, but with the political conduct of his
+mission, and from this point of view I have no hesitation in saying
+that General Gordon cannot be considered to have tried to do his
+duty unless a very strained and mistaken view be taken of what
+his duty was.... As a matter of public morality I cannot think
+that General Gordon&rsquo;s process of reasoning is defensible.... I
+do not think that it can be held that General Gordon made any
+serious effort to carry out the main ends of British and Egyptian
+policy in the Sudan. He thought more of his personal opinions
+than of the interests of the state.... In fact, except personal
+courage, great fertility in military resource, a lively though sometimes
+ill-directed repugnance to injustice, oppression and meanness
+of every description, and a considerable power of acquiring influence
+over those, necessarily limited in numbers, with whom he was
+brought into personal contact, General Gordon does not appear to
+have possessed any of the qualities which would have fitted him
+to undertake the difficult task he had in hand.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Lord Morley (<i>Life of Gladstone</i>, vol. iii., 1st ed., 1903, ch. 9,
+p. 151) says: &ldquo;Gordon, as Mr Gladstone said, was a hero of heroes.
+He was a soldier of infinite personal courage and daring, of striking
+military energy, initiative and resource; a high, pure and single
+character, dwelling much in the region of the unseen. But as all
+who knew him admit, and as his own records testify, notwithstanding
+an undercurrent of shrewd common sense, he was the creature,
+almost the sport, of impulse; his impressions and purposes changed
+with the speed of lightning; anger often mastered him; he went
+very often by intuitions and inspirations rather than by cool
+inference from carefully surveyed fact; with many variations of
+mood he mixed, as we often see in people less famous, an invincible
+faith in his own rapid prepossessions while they lasted. Everybody
+now discerns that to despatch a soldier of this temperament on a
+piece of business [the mission to the Sudan in 1884] that was not
+only difficult and dangerous, as Sir E. Baring said, but profoundly
+obscure, and needing vigilant sanity and self-control, was little
+better than to call in a wizard with his magic. Mr Gladstone always
+professed perplexity in understanding why the violent end of the
+gallant Cavagnari in Afghanistan stirred the world so little in
+comparison with the fate of Gordon. The answer is that Gordon
+seized the imagination of England, and seized it on its higher side.
+His religion was eccentric, but it was religion; the Bible was the
+rock on which he founded himself, both old dispensation and new;
+he was known to hate forms, ceremonies and all the &lsquo;solemn plausibilities&rsquo;;
+his speech was sharp, pithy, rapid and ironic; above
+all, he knew the ways of war and would not bear the sword for
+nought.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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@@ -0,0 +1,20017 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 12, Slice 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 2
+       "Gloss" to "Gordon, Charles George"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: October 29, 2011 [EBook #37880]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 12 SL 2 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE GLUTARIC ACID: "By distillation of the ammonium salt
+      glutarimide, CH2(CH2.CO)2NH ..." 'CH2(CH2.CO)2NH' amended from
+      'CH2(CH2.CP)2NH'.
+
+    ARTICLE GNOSTICISM: "In this respect the opposition to Gnosticism
+      led to a reactionary movement." 'respect' amended from 'repect'.
+
+    ARTICLE GODEFROY: "Other members of the family who attained
+      distinction in the same branch of learning were the two sons of
+      Denis Godefroy--Denis (1653-1719) ..." 'Godefroy' amended from
+      'Godefroi'.
+
+    ARTICLE GODWIT: "In Turner's days (1544) it was worth three times
+      as much as a snipe, and at the same period Belon said of it ..."
+      'period' amended from 'peroid'.
+
+    ARTICLE GOITRE: "In exophthalmic goitre the bronchocele is but one
+      of three phenomena, which together constitute the disease, viz.
+      palpitation of the heart, enlargement of the thyroid gland, and
+      protrusion of the eyeballs." 'enlargement' amended from
+      'elargement'.
+
+    ARTICLE GOLD COAST: "In 1907 the export was 292,125 oz.,
+      L1,164,676." 'worth' amended from 'wotht'.
+
+    ARTICLE GOLDSMITH, OLIVER: "Green Arbour Court and the ascent have
+      long disappeared. Here, at thirty, the unlucky adventurer sat down
+      to toil like a galley slave." 'disappeared' amended from
+      'diasppeared'.
+
+    ARTICLE GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK: "After studying painting on glass for
+      some years under his father, he was taught the use of the burin by
+      Dirk Volkertsz Coornhert, a Dutch engraver of mediocre attainment
+      ..." 'Coornhert' amended from 'Coornlert'.
+
+    ARTICLE GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA, GERTRUDIS: "... for she has neither
+      the monk's mastery of poetic form nor the nun's sublime simplicity
+      of soul." 'nor' amended from 'not'.
+
+    ARTICLE GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY: "A third volume of poetry, Bush
+      Ballads and Galloping Rhymes, appeared in 1870." 'third' amended
+      from 'second'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME XII, SLICE II
+
+          Gloss to Gordon, Charles
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  GLOSS, GLOSSARY                    GOLDBEATING
+  GLOSSOP                            GOLDBERG
+  GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF     GOLD COAST
+  GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE       GOLDEN
+  GLOUCESTER, HUMPHREY               GOLDEN BULL
+  GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE       GOLDEN-EYE
+  GLOUCESTER, ROBERT                 GOLDEN FLEECE
+  GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK    GOLDEN HORDE
+  GLOUCESTER (city of England)       GOLDEN ROD
+  GLOUCESTER (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) GOLDEN ROSE
+  GLOUCESTER CITY                    GOLDEN RULE
+  GLOUCESTERSHIRE                    GOLDFIELD
+  GLOVE                              GOLDFINCH
+  GLOVER, SIR JOHN HAWLEY            GOLDFISH
+  GLOVER, RICHARD                    GOLDFUSS, GEORG AUGUST
+  GLOVERSVILLE                       GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE DASHWOOD TAUBMAN
+  GLOW-WORM                          GOLDING, ARTHUR
+  GLOXINIA                           GOLDINGEN
+  GLUCINUM                           GOLDMARK, KARL
+  GLUCK, CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD         GOLDONI, CARLO
+  GLUCKSBURG                         GOLDS
+  GLUCKSTADT                         GOLDSBORO
+  GLUCOSE                            GOLDSCHMIDT, HERMANN
+  GLUCOSIDE                          GOLDSMID
+  GLUE                               GOLDSMITH, LEWIS
+  GLUTARIC ACID                      GOLDSMITH, OLIVER
+  GLUTEN                             GOLDSTUCKER, THEODOR
+  GLUTTON                            GOLDWELL, THOMAS
+  GLYCAS, MICHAEL                    GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ
+  GLYCERIN                           GOLETTA
+  GLYCOLS                            GOLF
+  GLYCONIC                           GOLIAD
+  GLYPH                              GOLIARD
+  GLYPTODON                          GOLIATH
+  GLYPTOTHEK                         GOLITSUIN, BORIS ALEKSYEEVICH
+  GMELIN                             GOLITSUIN, DMITRY MIKHAILOVICH
+  GMUND                              GOLITSUIN, VASILY VASILEVICH
+  GMUNDEN                            GOLIUS, JACOBUS
+  GNAT                               GOLLNOW
+  GNATHOPODA                         GOLOSH
+  GNATIA                             GOLOVIN, FEDOR ALEKSYEEVICH
+  GNEISENAU, AUGUST WILHELM ANTON    GOLOVKIN, GAVRIIL IVANOVICH
+  GNEISS                             GOLOVNIN, VASILY MIKHAILOVICH
+  GNEIST, HEINRICH FRIEDRICH VON     GOLTZ, BOGUMIL
+  GNESEN                             GOLTZ, COLMAR
+  GNOME, and GNOMIC POETRY           GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK
+  GNOMES                             GOLUCHOWSKI, AGENOR
+  GNOMON                             GOMAL
+  GNOSTICISM                         GOMARUS, FRANZ
+  GNU                                GOMBERVILLE, MARIN LE ROY
+  GO                                 GOMER
+  GOA                                GOMERA
+  GOAL                               GOMEZ, DIOGO
+  GOALPARA                           GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA, GERTRUDIS
+  GOAT                               GOMM, SIR WILLIAM MAYNARD
+  GOATSUCKER                         GOMPERS, SAMUEL
+  GOBAT, SAMUEL                      GOMPERZ, THEODOR
+  GOBEL, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH        GONAGUAS
+  GOBELIN                            GONCALVES DIAS, ANTONIO
+  GOBI                               GONCHAROV, IVAN ALEXANDROVICH
+  GOBLET, RENE                       GONCOURT, DE
+  GOBLET                             GONDA
+  GOBY                               GONDAL
+  GOCH                               GONDAR
+  GOD                                GONDOKORO
+  GODALMING                          GONDOMAR, DIEGO SARMIENTO DE ACUNA
+  GODARD, BENJAMIN LOUIS PAUL        GONDOPHARES
+  GODAVARI (river of India)          GONDWANA
+  GODAVARI (district of India)       GONFALON
+  GODEFROY                           GONG
+  GODESBERG                          GONGORA Y ARGOTE, LUIS DE
+  GODET, FREDERIC LOUIS              GONIOMETER
+  GODFREY, SIR EDMUND BERRY          GONTAUT, MARIE JOSEPHINE LOUISE
+  GODFREY OF BOUILLON                GONVILE, EDMUND
+  GODFREY OF VITERBO                 GONZAGA
+  GODHRA                             GONZAGA, THOMAZ ANTONIO
+  GODIN, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRE         GONZALEZ-CARVAJAL, TOMAS JOSE
+  GODIVA                             GONZALO DE BERCEO
+  GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE             GOOCH, SIR DANIEL
+  GODMANCHESTER                      GOOD, JOHN MASON
+  GODOLLO                            GOOD FRIDAY
+  GODOLPHIN, SIDNEY GODOLPHIN        GOODMAN, GODFREY
+  GODOY, ALVAREZ DE FARIA, MANUEL DE GOODRICH, SAMUEL GRISWOLD
+  GODROON                            GOODRICH, THOMAS
+  GODWIN, FRANCIS                    GOODSIR, JOHN
+  GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT        GOODWILL
+  GODWIN, WILLIAM                    GOODWIN, JOHN
+  GODWIN-AUSTEN, ROBERT CLOYNE       GOODWIN, NATHANIEL CARL
+  GODWINE                            GOODWIN, THOMAS
+  GODWIT                             GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON
+  GOEBEN, AUGUST KARL VON            GOODWIN SANDS
+  GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE              GOODWOOD
+  GOES, DAMIAO DE                    GOODYEAR, CHARLES
+  GOES, HUGO VAN DER                 GOOGE, BARNABE
+  GOES                               GOOLE
+  GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON        GOOSE (bird)
+  GOETZ, HERMANN                     GOOSE (game)
+  GOFFE, WILLIAM                     GOOSEBERRY
+  GOFFER                             GOOTY
+  GOG                                GOPHER
+  GOGO                               GOPPINGEN
+  GOGOL, NIKOLAI VASILIEVICH         GORAKHPUR
+  GOGRA                              GORAL
+  GOHIER, LOUIS JEROME               GORAMY
+  GOHRDE                             GORBERSDORF
+  GOITO                              GORBODUC
+  GOITRE                             GORCHAKOV
+  GOKAK                              GORDIAN
+  GOKCHA                             GORDIUM
+  GOLCONDA                           GORDON
+  GOLD                               GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY
+  GOLD AND SILVER THREAD             GORDON, ALEXANDER
+  GOLDAST AB HAIMINSFELD, MELCHIOR   GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE
+
+
+
+
+GLOSS, GLOSSARY, &c. The Greek word [Greek: glossa] (whence our
+"gloss"), meaning originally a tongue, then a language or dialect,
+gradually came to denote any obsolete, foreign, provincial, technical or
+otherwise peculiar word or use of a word (see Arist. _Rhet._ iii. 3. 2).
+The making of collections and explanations[1] of such [Greek: glossai]
+was at a comparatively early date a well-recognized form of literary
+activity. Even in the 5th century B.C., among the many writings of
+Abdera was included a treatise entitled [Greek: Peri Homerou e
+orthoepeies kai glosseon]. It was not, however, until the Alexandrian
+period that the [Greek: glossographoi], glossographers (writers of
+glosses), or glossators, became numerous. Of many of these perhaps even
+the names have perished; but Athenaeus the grammarian alone (c. A.D.
+250) alludes to no fewer than thirty-five. Among the earliest was
+Philetas of Cos (d. c. 290 B.C.), the elegiac poet, to whom Aristarchus
+dedicated the treatise [Greek: Pros Philptan]; he was the compiler of a
+lexicographical work, arranged probably according to subjects, and
+entitled [Greek: Hatakta] or [Greek: Glossai] (sometimes [Greek: Ataktoi
+glossai]). Next came his disciple Zenodotus of Ephesus (c. 280 B.C.),
+one of the earliest of the Homeric critics and the compiler of [Greek:
+Glossai Homerikai]; Zenodotus in turn was succeeded by his greater pupil
+Aristophanes of Byzantium (c. 200 B.C.), whose great compilation [Greek:
+Peri lexeon] (still partially preserved in that of Pollux), is known to
+have included [Greek: Attikai lexeis, Lakonikai glossai], and the like.
+From the school of Aristophanes issued more than one glossographer of
+name,--Diodorus, Artemidorus ([Greek: Glossai], and a collection of
+[Greek: lexeis opsartutikai]), Nicander of Colophon ([Greek: Glossai],
+of which some twenty-six fragments still survive), and Aristarchus (c.
+210 B.C.), the famous critic, whose numerous labours included an
+arrangement of the Homeric vocabulary ([Greek: lexeis]) in the order of
+the books. Contemporary with the last named was Crates of Mallus, who,
+besides making some new contributions to Greek lexicography and
+dialectology, was the first to create at Rome a taste for similar
+investigations in connexion with the Latin idioms. From his school
+proceeded Zenodotus of Mallus, the compiler of [Greek: Ethnikai lexeis]
+or [Greek: glossai], a work said to have been designed chiefly to
+support the views of the school of Pergamum as to the allegorical
+interpretation of Homer.[2] Of later date were Didymus (Chalcenterus, c.
+50 B.C.), who made collections of [Greek: lexeis tragodoumenai komikai],
+&c.; Apollonius Sophista (c. 20 B.C.), whose Homeric Lexicon has come
+down to modern times; and Neoptolemus, known distinctively as [Greek: ho
+glossographos]. In the beginning of the 1st century of the Christian era
+Apion, a grammarian and rhetorician at Rome during the reigns of
+Tiberius and Claudius, followed up the labours of Aristarchus and other
+predecessors with [Greek: Glossai Homerikai], and a treatise [Greek:
+Peri tes Hromaikes dialekton]; Heliodorus or Herodorus was another
+almost contemporary glossographer; Erotian also, during the reign of
+Nero, prepared a special glossary for the writings of Hippocrates, still
+preserved. To this period also Pamphilus, the author of the [Greek:
+Leimon], from which Diogenian and Julius Vestinus afterwards drew so
+largely, most probably belonged. In the following century one of the
+most prominent workers in this department of literature was Aelius
+Herodianus, whose treatise [Greek: Peri monerous lexeos] has been edited
+in modern times, and whose [Greek: Epimerismoi] we still possess in an
+abridgment; also Pollux, Diogenian ([Greek: Lexis pantodape]), Julius
+Vestinus ([Greek: 'Epitome ton Pamphilou glosson]) and especially
+Phrynichus, who flourished towards the close of the 2nd century, and
+whose _Eclogae nominum et verborum Atticorum_ has frequently been
+edited. To the 4th century belongs Ammonius of Alexandria (c. 389), who
+wrote [Greek: Peri Homoion kai diaphoron lexeon], a dictionary of words
+used in senses different from those in which they had been employed by
+older and approved writers. Of somewhat later date is the well-known
+Hesychius, whose often-edited [Greek: Lexikon] superseded all previous
+works of the kind; Cyril, the celebrated patriarch of Alexandria, also
+contributed somewhat to the advancement of glossography by his [Greek:
+Sunagoge ton pros diaphoron semasian diaphoros tonoumenon lexeon]; while
+Orus, Orion, Philoxenus and the two Philemons also belong to this
+period. The works of Photius, Suidas and Zonaras, as also the
+_Etymologicum magnum_, to which might be added the _Lexica Sangermania_
+and the _Lexica Segueriana_, are referred to in the article DICTIONARY.
+
+To a special category of technical glossaries belongs a large and
+important class of works relating to the law-compilations of Justinian.
+Although the emperor forbade under severe penalties all commentaries
+([Greek: hupomnemata]) on his legislation (_Const. Deo Auctore_, sec.
+12; _Const. Tanta_, sec. 21), yet indices ([Greek: indikes]) and
+references ([Greek: paratitla]), as well as translations ([Greek:
+ermeneiai kata poda]) and paraphrases ([Greek: hermeneiai eis platos]),
+were expressly permitted, and lavishly produced. Among the numerous
+compilers of alphabetically arranged [Greek: lexeis Rhomaikai] or
+[Greek: Lateinikai], and [Greek: glossai nomikai] (glossae nomicae),
+Cyril and Philoxenus are particularly noted; but the authors of [Greek:
+paragraphai], or [Greek: semeioseis], whether [Greek: exothen] or
+[Greek: esothen keimenai], are too numerous to mention. A collection of
+these [Greek: paragraphai ton palaion], combined with [Greek: neai
+paragraphai] on the revised code called [Greek: ta basilika], was made
+about the middle of the 12th century by a disciple of Michael
+Hagiotheodorita. This work is known as the _Glossa ordinaria_ [Greek:
+ton basilikon].[3]
+
+In Italy also, during the period of the Byzantine ascendancy, various
+glossae (glosae) and scholia on the Justinian code were produced[4];
+particularly the Turin gloss (reprinted by Savigny), to which, apart
+from later additions, a date prior to 1000 is usually assigned. After
+the total extinction of the Byzantine authority in the West the study of
+law became one of the free arts, and numerous schools for its
+cultivation were instituted. Among the earliest of these was that of
+Bologna, where Pepo (1075) and Irnerius (1100-1118) began to give their
+expositions. They had a numerous following, who, besides delivering
+exegetical lectures ("ordinariae" on the _Digest_ and _Code_,
+"extraordinariae" on the rest of the _Corpus juris civilis_), also wrote
+Glossae, first interlinear, afterwards marginal.[5] The series of these
+glossators was closed by Accursius (q.v.) with the compilation known as
+the _Glossa ordinaria_ or _magistralis_, the authority of which soon
+became very great, so that ultimately it came to be a recognized maxim,
+"Quod non agnoscit glossa, non agnoscit curia."[6] For some account of
+the glossators on the canon law, see CANON LAW.
+
+In late classical and medieval Latin, _glosa_ was the vulgar and romanic
+(e.g. in the early 8th century Corpus Glossary, and the late 8th century
+Leiden Glossary), _glossa_ the learned form (Varro, _De ling. Lat._ vii.
+10; Auson. _Epigr_. 127. 2 (86. 2), written in Greek, Quint, i. 1. 34).
+The diminutive _glossula_ occurs in Diom. 426. 26 and elsewhere. The
+same meaning has _glossarium_ (Gell. xviii. 7. 3 _glosaria_ = [Greek:
+glossarion]), which also occurs in the modern sense of "glossary"
+(Papias, "unde _glossarium_ dictum quod omnium fere partium glossas
+contineat"), as do the words _glossa_, _glossae_, _glossulae_,
+_glossemata_ (Steinmeyer, _Alth. Gloss._ iv. 408, 410), expressed in
+later times by _dictionarium_, _dictionarius_, _vocabularium_,
+_vocabularius_ (see DICTIONARY). _Glossa_ and _glossema_ (Varro vii. 34.
+107; Asinius Gallus, ap. Suet. _De gramm._ 22; Fest. 166^b. 8, 181^a.
+18; Quint. i. 8. 15, &c.) are synonyms, signifying (a) the word which
+requires explanation; or (b) such a word (called _lemma_) together with
+the interpretation (_interpretamentum_); or (c) the interpretation alone
+(so first in the _Anecd. Helv._).
+
+Latin, like Greek glossography, had its origin chiefly in the practical
+wants of students and teachers, of whose names we only know a few. No
+doubt even in classical times collections of glosses ("glossaries") were
+compiled, to which allusion seems to be made by Varro (_De ling. Lat._
+vii. 10, "tesca, aiunt sancta esse qui glossas scripserunt") and
+Verrius-Festus (166^b .6, "naucum ... glossematorum ... scriptures fabae
+grani quod haereat in fabulo"), but it is not known to what extent
+Varro, for instance, used them, or retained their original forms. The
+_scriptores glossematorum_ were distinguished from the learned
+glossographers like Aurelius Opilius (cf. his _Musae_, ap. Suet. _De
+gramm._ 6; Gell. i. 25. 17; Varro vii. 50, 65, 67, 70, 79, 106), Servius
+Clodius (Varro vii. 70. 106), Aelius Stilo, L. Ateius Philol., whose
+_liber glossematorum_ Festus mentions (181^{a}.18).
+
+  Verrius Flaccus and his epitomists, Festus and Paulus, have preserved
+  many treasures of early glossographers who are now lost to us. He
+  copied Aelius Stilo (Reitzenstein, "Verr. Forsch.," in vol. i. of
+  _Breslauer philol. Abhandl._, p. 88; Kriegshammer, _Comm. phil. Ien._
+  vii. 1. 74 sqq.), Aurelius Opilius, Ateius Philol., the treatise _De
+  obscuris Catonis_ (Reitzenstein, ib. 56. 92). He often made use of
+  Varro (Willers, _De Verrio Flacco_, Halle, 1898), though not of his
+  _ling. lat._ (Kriegshammer, 74 sqq.); and was also acquainted with
+  later glossographers. Perhaps we owe to him the _glossae asbestos_
+  (Goetz, _Corpus_, iv.; _id., Rhein. Mus._ xl. 328). Festus was used by
+  Ps.-Philoxenus (Dammann, "De Festo Ps.-Philoxeni auctore," _Comm.
+  Ien._ v. 26 sqq.), as appears from the _glossae ab absens_ (Goetz, "De
+  Astrabae Pl. fragmentis," _Ind. Ien._, 1893, iii. sqq.). The distinct
+  connexions with Nonius need not be ascribed to borrowing, as Plinius
+  and Caper may have been used (P. Schmidt, _De Non. Marc. auctt.
+  gramm._ 145; Nettleship, _Lect. and Ess._ 229; Frohde, _De Non. Marc.
+  et Verrio Flacco_, 2; W. M. Lindsay, "Non. Marc.," _Dict. of Repub.
+  Latin_, 100, &c.).
+
+  The _bilingual_ (Gr.-Lat., Lat.-Gr.) glossaries also point to an early
+  period, and were used by the grammarians (1) to explain the
+  peculiarities (_idiomata_) of the Latin language by comparison with
+  the Greek, and (2) for instruction in the two languages (Charis. 254.
+  9, 291. 7, 292. 16 sqq.; Marschall, _De Q. Remmii P. libris gramm.
+  22_; Goetz, _Corp. gloss. lat._ ii. 6).
+
+  For the purposes of grammatical instruction (Greek for the Romans,
+  Latin for the Hellenistic world), we have systematic works, a
+  translation of Dositheus and the so-called _Hermeneutica_, parts of
+  which may be dated as early as the 3rd century A.D., and lexica (cf.
+  Schoenemann, _De lexicis ant._ 122; Knaack, in _Phil. Rundsch._, 1884,
+  372; Traube, in _Byzant. Ztschr._ iii. 605; David, _Comment. Ien._ v.
+  197 sqq.).
+
+  The most important remains of bilingual glossaries are two well-known
+  lexica; one (Latin-Greek), formerly attributed (but wrongly, see
+  Rudorff, in _Abh.. Akad. Berl._, 1865, 220 sq.; Loewe, _Prodr._ 183,
+  190; Mommsen, _C.I.L._ v. 8120; A. Dammann, _De Festo Pseudo-philoxeni
+  auctore_, 12 sqq.; Goetz, _Corp._ ii. 1-212) to Philoxenus (consul
+  A.D. 525), clearly consists of two closely allied glossaries
+  (containing glosses to Latin authors, as Horace, Cicero, Juvenal,
+  Virgil, the Jurists, and excerpts from Festus), worked into one by
+  some Greek grammarian, or a person who worked under Greek influence
+  (his alphabet runs A, B, G, D, E, &c.); the other (Greek-Latin) is
+  ascribed to Cyril (Stephanus says it was found at the end of some of
+  his writings), and is considered to be a compilation of not later than
+  the 6th century (Macrobius is used, and the _Cod. Harl._, which is the
+  source of all the other MSS., belongs to the 7th century); cf. Goetz,
+  _Corp._ ii. 215-483, 487-506, praef. _ibid._ p. xx. sqq. Furthermore,
+  the bilingual medico-botanic glossaries had their origin in old lists
+  of plants, as Ps.-Apuleius in the treatise _De herbarum virtutibus_,
+  and Ps.-Dioscorides (cf. M. Wellmann, _Hermes_, xxxiii. 360 sqq., who
+  thinks that the latter work is based on Pamphilus, q.v.; Goetz,
+  _Corp._ iii.); the glossary, entitled _Hermeneuma_, printed from the
+  _Cod. Vatic._ reg. Christ. 1260, contains names of diseases.
+
+  Just as grammar developed, so we see the original form of the glosses
+  extend. If _massucum edacem_ in Placidus indicates the original form,
+  the allied gloss of Festus (_masucium edacem a mandendo scilicet_)
+  shows an etymological addition. Another extension consists in adding
+  special references to the original source, as e.g. at the gloss
+  _Ocrem_ (Fest. 181^a. 17), which is taken from Ateius Philol. In this
+  way collections arose like the _priscorum verborum cum exemplis_, a
+  title given by Fest. (218^b. 10) to a particular work. Further the
+  _glossae veterum_ (Charis. 242. 10); the _glossae antiquitatum_ (id.
+  229. 30); the _idonei vocum antiquarum enarratores_ (Gell. xviii. 6.
+  8); the _libri rerum verborumque veterum_ (_id._ xiii. 24. 25). L.
+  Cincius, according to Festus (330^b. 2), wrote _De verbis priscis_;
+  Santra, _De antiquitate verborum_ (Festus 277^a. 2).
+
+  Of Latin glossaries of the first four centuries of the Roman emperors
+  few traces are left, if we except Verrius-Festus. Charis, 229. 30,
+  speaks of _glossae antiquitatum_ and 242. 10 of _glossae veterum_, but
+  it is not known whether these glosses are identic, or in what relation
+  they stand to the _glossemata per litteras Latinas ordine composita_,
+  which were incorporated with the works of this grammarian according to
+  the index in Keil, p. 6. Latin glosses occur in Ps.-Philoxenus, and
+  Nonius must have used Latin glossaries; there exists a _glossarium
+  Plautinum_ (Ritschl, Op. ii. 234 sqq.), and the bilingual glossaries
+  have been used by the later grammarian Martyrius; but of this early
+  period we know by name only Fulgentius and Placidus, who is sometimes
+  called Luctatius Placidus, by confusion with the Statius scholiast,
+  with whom the _glossae Placidi_ have no connexion. All that we know of
+  him tends to show that he lived in North Africa (like Fulgentius and
+  Nonius and perhaps Charisius) in the 6th century, from whence his
+  glosses came to Spain, and were used by Isidore and the compiler of
+  the _Liber glossarum_ (see below). These glosses we know from (1)
+  Codices Romani (15th and 16th century); (2) the _Liber glossarum_; (3)
+  the Cod. Paris. nov. acquis. 1298 (saec. xi.), a collection of
+  glossaries, in which the Placidus-glosses are kept separate from the
+  others, and still retain traces of their original order (cf. the
+  editions published by A. Mai, _Class. auct._ iii. 427-503, and
+  Deuerling, 1875; Goetz, _Corp._ v.; P. Karl, "De Placidi glossis,"
+  _Comm. Ien._ vii. 2. 99, 103 sqq.; Loewe, _Gloss. Nom._ 86; F.
+  Bucheler, in _Thesaur. gloss. emend._). His collection includes
+  glosses from Plautus and Lucilius.
+
+  (Fabius Planciades) Fulgentius (c. A.D. 468-533) wrote _Expositio
+  sermonum antiquorum_ (ed. Rud. Helm, Lips. 1898; cf. Wessner,
+  _Comment. Ien._ vi. 2. 135 sqq.) in sixty-two paragraphs, each
+  containing a lemma (sometimes two or three) with an explanation giving
+  quotations and names of authors. Next to him come the _glossae
+  Nonianae_, which arose from the contents of the various paragraphs in
+  Nonius Marcellus' work being written in the margin without the words
+  of the text; these epitomized glosses were alphabetized and afterwards
+  copied for other collections (see Goetz, _Corp._ v. 637 sqq., id. v.
+  Praef. xxxv.; Onions and Lindsay, _Harvard Stud._ ix. 67 sqq.;
+  Lindsay, _Nonii praef._ xxi.). In a similar way arose the _glossae
+  Eucherii_ or _glossae spiritales secundum Eucherium episcopum_ found
+  in many MSS. (cf. K. Wotke, _Sitz. Ber. Akad. Wien_, cxv. 425 sqq.; =
+  the _Corpus Glossary_, first part), which are an alphabetical extract
+  from the _formulae spiritalis intelligentiae_ of St Eucherius, bishop
+  of Lyons, c. 434-450.[7]
+
+  Other sources were the _Differentiae_, already known to Placidus and
+  much used in the medieval glossaries; and the _Synonyma Ciceronis_;
+  cf. Goetz, "Der Liber glossarum," in _Abhandl. der philol.-hist. Cl.
+  der sachs. Gesellsch. d. Wiss._, 1893, p. 215; id. in _Berl. philol.
+  Wochenschr._, 1890, p. 195 sqq.; Beck, in _Wochenschr._, p. 297 sqq.,
+  and Sittls, _ibid._ p. 267; _Archiv f. lat. Lex._ vi. 594; W. L.
+  Mahne, (Leid. 1850, 1851); also various collections of _scholia_. By
+  the side of the scholiasts come the grammarians, as Charisius, or an
+  ars similar to that ascribed to him; further, treatises _de dubiis
+  generibus_, the _scriptores orthographici_ (especially Caper and
+  Beda), and Priscianus, the chief grammarian of the middle ages (cf.
+  Goetz in _Melanges Boissier_, 224).
+
+  During the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries glossography developed in
+  various ways; old glossaries were worked up into new forms, or
+  amalgamated with more recent ones. It ceased, moreover, to be
+  exclusively Latin-Latin, and interpretations in Germanic (Old High
+  German, Anglo-Saxon) and Romanic dialects took the place of or were
+  used side by side with earlier Latin ones. The origin and development
+  of the late classic and medieval glossaries preserved to us can be
+  traced with certainty. While reading the manuscript texts of classical
+  authors, the Bible or early Christian and profane writers, students
+  and teachers, on meeting with any obscure or out-of-the-way words
+  which they considered difficult to remember or to require elucidation,
+  wrote above them, or in the margins, interpretations or explanations
+  in more easy or better-known words. The interpretations written above
+  the line are called "interlinear," those written in the margins of the
+  MSS. "marginal glosses." Again, MSS. of the Bible or portions of the
+  Bible were often provided with literal translations in the vernacular
+  written above the lines of the Latin version (interlinear versions).
+
+  Of such glossed MSS. or translated texts, photographs may be seen in
+  the various palaeographical works published in recent years; cf. _The
+  Palaeogr. Society_, 1st ser. vol. ii. pls. 9 (Terentius MS. of 4th or
+  5th century, interlinear glosses) and 24 (Augustine's epistles, 6th or
+  7th century, marginal glosses); see further, plates 10, 12, 33, 40,
+  50-54, 57, 58, 63, 73, 75, 80; vol. iii. plates 10, 24, 31, 39, 44,
+  54, 80.
+
+  From these glossed or annotated MSS. and interlinear versions
+  glossaries were compiled; that is, the obscure and difficult Latin
+  words, together with the interpretations, were excerpted and collected
+  in separate lists, in the order in which they appeared, one after the
+  other, in the MSS., without any alphabetical arrangement, but with the
+  names of the authors or the titles of the books whence they were
+  taken, placed at the head of each separate collection or chapter. In
+  this arrangement each article by itself is called a gloss; when
+  reference is made only to the word explained it is called the _lemma_,
+  while the explanation is termed the _interpretamentum_. In most cases
+  the form of the lemma was retained just as it stood in its source, and
+  explained by a single word (_tesca: sancta_, Varro vii. 10;
+  _clucidatus: suavis, id._ vii. 107; cf. Isid. _Etym._ i. 30. 1, "quid
+  enim illud sit in uno verbo positum declarat [_scil._ glossa] ut
+  conticescere est tacere"), so that we meet with lemmata in the
+  accusative, dative and genitive, likewise explained by words in the
+  same cases; the forms of verbs being treated in the same way. Of this
+  first stage in the making of glossaries, many traces are preserved,
+  for instance, in the late 8th century Leiden Glossary (Voss. 69, ed.
+  J. H. Hessels), where chapter iii. contains words or glosses excerpted
+  from the _Life of St Martin_ by Sulpicius Severus; chs. iv., v. and
+  xxxv. glosses from Rufinus; chs. vi. and xl. from Gildas; chs. vii. to
+  xxv. from books of the Bible (Paralipomenon; Proverbs, &c., &c.); chs.
+  xxvi. to xlviii, from Isidore, the _Vita S. Anthonii_, Cassiodorus, St
+  Jerome, Cassianus, Orosius, St Augustine, St Clement, Eucherius, St
+  Gregory, the grammarians Donatus, Phocas, &c. (See also Goetz, _Corp._
+  v. 546. 23-547. 6. and i. 5-40 from Ovid's _Metam._; v. 657 from
+  Apuleius, _De deo Socratis_; cf. Landgraf, in _Arch._ ix. 174).
+
+  By a second operation the glosses came to be arranged in
+  _alphabetical_ order according to the first letter of the lemma, but
+  still retained in separate chapters under the names of authors or the
+  titles of books. Of this _second_ stage the Leiden Glossary contains
+  traces also: ch. i. (_Verba de Canonibus_) and ii. (_Sermones de
+  Regulis_); see Goetz, _Corp._ v. 529 sqq. (from Terentius), iv. 427
+  sqq. (Virgil).
+
+  The third operation collected all the accessible glosses in
+  alphabetical order, in the first instance according to the first
+  letters of the lemmata. In this arrangement the names of the authors
+  or the titles of the books could no longer be preserved, and
+  consequently the sources whence the glosses were excerpted became
+  uncertain, especially if the grammatical forms of the lemmata had been
+  normalized.
+
+  A fourth arrangement collected the glosses according to the first two
+  letters of the lemmata, as in the Corpus Glossary and in the still
+  earlier _Cod. Vat._ 3321 (Goetz, _Corp._ iv. 1 sqq.), where even many
+  attempts were made to arrange them according to the first three
+  letters of the alphabet. A peculiar arrangement is seen in the
+  _Glossae affatim_ (Goetz, _Corp._ iv. 471 sqq.), where all words are
+  alphabetized, first according to the initial letter of the word (a, b,
+  c, &c.), and then further according to the first _vowel_ in the word
+  (a, e, i, o, u).
+
+  No date or period can be assigned to any of the above stages or
+  arrangements. For instance, the first and second are both found in the
+  Leiden Glossary, which dates from the end of the 8th century, whereas
+  the Corpus Glossary, written in the beginning of the same century,
+  represents already the fourth stage.
+
+  For the purpose of identification titles have of late years been given
+  to the various nameless collections of glosses, derived partly from
+  their first lemma, partly from other characteristics, as glossae
+  _abstrusae_; glossae _abavus major_ and _minor_; g. _affatim_; g. _ab
+  absens_; g. _abactor_; g. _Abba Pater_; g. a, a; g. _Vergilianae_; g.
+  _nominum_ (Goetz, _Corp._ ii. 563, iv.); g. _Sangallenses_ (Warren,
+  _Transact. Amer. Philol. Assoc._ xv., 1885, p. 141 sqq.).
+
+  A chief landmark in glossography is represented by the _Origines_
+  (_Etymologiae_) of Isidore (d. 636), an encyclopedia in which he, like
+  Cassiodorus, mixed human and divine subjects together. In many places
+  we can trace his sources, but he also used glossaries. His work became
+  a great mine for later glossographers. In the tenth book he deals with
+  the etymology of many substantives and adjectives arranged
+  alphabetically according to the first letter of the words, perhaps by
+  himself from various sources. His principal source is Servius, then
+  the fathers of the Church (Augustine, Jerome, Lactantius) and Donatus
+  the grammarian. This tenth book was also copied and used separately,
+  and mixed up with other works (cf. Loewe, _Prodr._ 167. 21). Isidore's
+  _Differentiae_ have also had a great reputation.
+
+  Next comes the _Liber glossarum_, chiefly compiled from Isidore, but
+  all articles arranged alphabetically; its author lived in Spain c.
+  A.D. 690-750; he has been called Ansileubus, but not in any of the
+  MSS., some of which belong to the 8th century; hence this name is
+  suspected to be merely that of some owner of a copy of the book (cf.
+  Goetz, "Der Liber Glossarum," in _Abhandl. der philol.-hist. Class,
+  der kon. sachs. Ges._ xiii., 1893; _id._, _Corp._ v., praef. xx. 161).
+
+  Here come, in regard to time, some Latin glossaries already largely
+  mixed with Germanic, more especially Anglo-Saxon interpretations: (1)
+  the Corpus Glossary (ed. J. H. Hessels), written in the beginning of
+  the 8th century, preserved in the library of Corpus Christi College,
+  Cambridge; (2) the Leiden Glossary (end of 8th century, ed. Hessels;
+  another edition by Plac. Glogger), preserved in the Leiden MS. Voss.
+  Q^o. 69; (3) the Epinal Glossary, written in the beginning of the 9th
+  century[8] and published in facsimile by the London Philol. Society
+  from a MS. in the town library at Epinal; (4) the _Glossae
+  Amplonianae_, i.e. three glossaries preserved in the Amplonian library
+  at Erfurt, known as Erfurt^1, Erfurt^2 and Erfurt^3. The first,
+  published by Goetz (_Corp._ v. 337-401; cf. also Loewe, _Prodr._ 114
+  sqq.) with the various readings of the kindred Epinal, consists, like
+  the latter, of different collections of glosses (also some from
+  Aldhelm), some arranged alphabetically according to the first letter
+  of the lemma, others according to the first two letters. The title of
+  Erfurt^2 (_incipit II. conscriptio glosarum in unam_) shows that it is
+  also a combination of various glossaries; it is arranged
+  alphabetically according to the first two letters of the lemmata, and
+  contains the _affatim_ and _abavus maior_ glosses, also a collection
+  from Aldhelm; Erfurt^3 are the _Glossae nominum_, mixed also with
+  Anglo-Saxon interpretations (Goetz, _Corp._ ii. 563). The form in
+  which the three Erfurt glossaries have come down to us points back to
+  the 8th century.
+
+  The first great glossary or collection of various glosses and
+  glossaries is that of Salomon, bishop of Constance, formerly abbot of
+  St Gall, who died A.D. 919. An edition of it in two parts was printed
+  c. 1475 at Augsburg, with the headline _Salemonis ecclesie
+  Constantiensis episcopi glosse ex illustrissimis collecte auctoribus_.
+  The oldest MSS. of this work date from the 11th century. Its sources
+  are the _Liber glossarum_ (Loewe, _Prodr._ 234 sqq.), the glossary
+  preserved in the 9th-century MS. _Lat. Monac._ 14429 (Goetz, "Lib.
+  Gloss." 35 sqq.), and the great Abavus Gloss (_id., ibid._ p. 37;
+  _id._, _Corp._ iv. praef. xxxvii.).
+
+  The _Lib. glossarum_ has also been the chief source for the important
+  (but not original) glossary of Papias, of A.D. 1053 (cf. Goetz in
+  _Sitz. Ber. Akad. Munch._, 1903, p. 267 sqq., who enumerates
+  eighty-seven MSS. of the 12th to the 15th centuries), of whom we only
+  know that he lived among clerics and dedicated his work to his two
+  sons. An edition of it was published at Milan "per Dominicum de
+  Vespolate" on the 12th of December 1476; other editions followed in
+  1485, 1491, 1496 (at Venice). He also wrote a grammar, chiefly
+  compiled from Priscianus (Hagen, _Anecd. Helv._ clxxix. sqq.).
+
+  The same _Lib. gloss._ is the source (1) for the _Abba Pater_ Glossary
+  (cf. Goetz, _ibid._ p. 39), published by G. M. Thomas (_Sitz. Ber.
+  Akad. Munch._, 1868, ii. 369 sqq.); (2) the Greek glossary _Absida
+  lucida_ (Goetz, ib. p. 41); and (3) the Lat.-Arab. glossary in the
+  _Cod. Leid. Scal. Orient._ No. 231 (published by Seybold in _Semit.
+  Studien_, Heft xv.-xvii., Berlin, 1900).
+
+  The Paulus-Glossary (cf. Goetz, "Der Liber Glossarum," p. 215) is
+  compiled from the second Salomon-Glossary (_abacti magistratus_), the
+  _Abavus major_ and the _Liber glossarum_, with a mixture of Hebraica.
+  Many of his glosses appear again in other compilations, as in the Cod.
+  Vatic. 1469 (cf. Goetz, _Corp._ v. 520 sqq.), mixed up with glosses
+  from Beda, Placidus, &c. (cf. a glossary published by Ellis in _Amer.
+  Journ. of Philol._ vi. 4, vii. 3, containing besides Paulus glosses,
+  also excerpts from Isidore; Cambridge _Journ. of Philol._ viii. 71
+  sqq., xiv. 81 sqq.).
+
+  Osbern of Gloucester (c. 1123-1200) compiled the glossary entitled
+  _Panormia_ (published by Angelo Mai as _Thesaurus novus Latinitatis_,
+  from Cod. Vatic. reg. Christ. 1392; cf. W. Meyer, _Rhein. Mus._ xxix.,
+  1874; Goetz in _Sitzungsber. sachs. Ges. d. Wiss._, 1903, p. 133 sqq.;
+  _Berichte ub. die Verhandl. der kon. sachs. Gesellsch. der Wiss._,
+  Leipzig, 1902); giving derivations, etymologies, testimonia collected
+  from Paulus, Priscianus, Plautus, Horace, Virgil, Ovid, Mart. Capella,
+  Macrobius, Ambrose, Sidonius, Prudentius, Josephus, Jerome, &c., &c.
+  Osbern's material was also used by Hugucio, whose compendium was still
+  more extensively used (cf. Goetz, l.c., p. 121 sqq., who enumerates
+  one hundred and three MSS. of his treatise), and contains many
+  biblical glosses, especially Hebraica, some treatises on Latin
+  numerals, &c. (cf. Hamann, _Weitere Mitteil. aus dem Breviloquus
+  Benthemianus_, Hamburg, 1882; A. Thomas, "Glosses provencales ined."
+  in _Romania_, xxxiv. p. 177 sqq; P. Toynbee, _ibid._ xxv. p. 537
+  sqq.).
+
+  The great work of Johannes de Janua, entitled _Summa quae vocatur
+  catholicon_, dates from the year 1286, and treats of (1) accent, (2)
+  etymology, (3) syntax, and (4) so-called prosody, i.e. a lexicon,
+  which also deals with quantity. It mostly uses Hugucio and Papias;
+  its classical quotations are limited, except from Horace; it quotes
+  the Vulgate by preference, frequently independently from Hugucio; it
+  excerpts Priscianus, Donatus, Isidore, the fathers of the Church,
+  especially Jerome, Gregory, Augustine, Ambrose; it borrows many Hebrew
+  glosses, mostly from Jerome and the other collections then in use; it
+  mentions the _Graecismus_ of Eberhardus Bethuniensis, the works of
+  Hrabanus Maurus, the _Doctrinale_ of Alexander de Villa Dei, and the
+  _Aurora_ of Petrus de Riga. Many quotations from the _Catholicon_ in
+  Du Cange are really from Hugucio, and may be traced to Osbern. There
+  exist many MSS. of this work, and the Mainz edition of 1460 is well
+  known (cf. Goetz in _Berichte ub. die Verhandl. der kon. sachs.
+  Gesellsch. der Wiss._, Leipzig, 1902).
+
+  The gloss MSS. of the 9th and 10th centuries are numerous, but a
+  diminution becomes visible towards the 11th. We then find grammatical
+  treatises arise, for which also glossaries were used. The chief
+  material was (1) the _Liber glossarum_; (2) the Paulus glosses; (3)
+  the _Abavus major_; (4) excerpts from Priscian and glosses to
+  Priscian; (5) Hebrew-biblical collections of proper names (chiefly
+  from Jerome). After these comes medieval material, as the
+  _derivationes_ which are found in many MSS. (cf. Goetz in
+  _Sitzungsber. sachs. Ges. d. Wiss._, 1903, p. 136 sqq.; Traube in
+  _Archiv f. lat. Lex._ vi. 264), containing quotations from Plautus,
+  Ovid, Juvenal, Persius, Terence, occasionally from Priscian, Eutyches,
+  and other grammarians, with etymological explanations. These
+  _derivationes_ were the basis for the grammatical works of Osbern,
+  Hugucio and Joannes of Janua.
+
+  A peculiar feature of the late middle ages are the medico-botanic
+  glossaries based on the earlier ones (see Goetz, _Corp._ iii.). The
+  additions consisted in Arabic words with Latin explanations, while
+  Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Arabic, interchange with English, French,
+  Italian and German forms. Of glossaries of this kind we have (1) the
+  _Glossae alphita_ (published by S. de Renzi in the 3rd vol. of the
+  _Collect. Salernitana_, Naples, 1854, from two Paris MSS. of the 14th
+  and 15th centuries, but some of the glosses occur already in earlier
+  MSS.); (2) _Sinonoma Bartholomei_, collected by John Mirfeld, towards
+  the end of the 14th century, ed. J. L. G. Mowat (_Anecd. Oxon._ i. 1,
+  1882, cf. Loewe, _Gloss. Nom._ 116 sqq.); it seems to have used the
+  same or some similar source as No. 1; (3) the compilations of Simon de
+  Janua (_Clavis sanationis_, end of 13th century), and of Matthaeus
+  Silvaticus (_Pandectae medicinae_, 14th century; cf. H. Stadler,
+  "Dioscor. Longob." in _Roman. Forsch._ x. 3. 371; Steinmeyer,
+  _Althochd. Gloss._ iii.).
+
+  Of biblical glossaries we have a large number, mostly mixed with
+  glosses on other, even profane, subjects, as Hebrew and other biblical
+  proper names, and explanations of the text of the Vulgate in general,
+  and the prologues of Hieronymus. So we have the _Glossae veteris ac
+  novi testamenti_ (beginning "Prologus graece latine praelocutio sive
+  praefatio") in numerous MSS. of the 9th to 14th centuries, mostly
+  retaining the various books under separate headings (cf. Arevalo,
+  _Isid._ vii. 407 sqq.; Loewe, _Prodr._ 141; Steinmeyer iv. 459; S.
+  Berger, _De compendiis exegeticis quibusdam medii aevi_, Paris, 1879).
+  Special mention should be made of Guil. Brito, who lived about 1250,
+  and compiled a _Summa_ (beginning "difficiles studeo partes quas
+  Biblia gestat Pandere"), contained in many MSS. especially in French
+  libraries. This _Summa_ gave rise to the _Mammotrectus_ of Joh.
+  Marchesinus, about 1300, of which we have editions printed in 1470,
+  1476, 1479, &c.
+
+  Finally we may mention such compilations as the _Summa Heinrici_; the
+  work of Johannes de Garlandia, which he himself calls _dictionarius_
+  (cf. Scheler in _Jahrb. f. rom. u. engl. Philol._ vi., 1865, p. 142
+  sqq.); and that of Alexander Neckam (ib. vii. p. 60 sqq., cf. R.
+  Ellis, in _Amer. Journ. of Phil._ x. 2); which are, strictly speaking,
+  not glossographic. The _Breviloquus_ drew its chief material from
+  Papias, Hugucio, Brito, &c. (K. Hamann, _Mitteil. aus dem Breviloquus
+  Benthemianus_, Hamburg, 1879; id., _Weitere Mitteil._, &c., Hamburg,
+  1882); so also the _Vocabularium Ex quo_; the various _Gemmae_;
+  _Vocabularia rerum_ (cf. Diefenbach, _Glossar. Latino-Germanicum_).
+
+  After the revival of learning, J. Scaliger (1540-1609) was the first
+  to impart to glossaries that importance which they deserve (cf. Goetz,
+  in _Sitzungsber. sachs. Ger. d. Wiss._, 1888, p. 219 sqq.), and in his
+  edition of Festus made great use of Ps.-Philoxenus, which enabled O.
+  Muller, the later editor of Festus, to follow in his footsteps.
+  Scaliger also planned the publication of a _Corpus glossarum_, and
+  left behind a collection of glosses known as _glossae Isidori_ (Goetz,
+  _Corp._ v. p. 589 sqq.; id. in _Sitzungsber. sachs. Ges._, 1888, p.
+  224 sqq.; Loewe, _Prodr._ 23 sqq.), which occurs also in old
+  glossaries, clearly in reference to the tenth book of the
+  _Etymologiae_.
+
+  The study of glosses spread through the publication, in 1573, of the
+  bilingual glossaries by H. Stephanus (Estienne), containing, besides
+  the two great glossaries, also the _Hermeneumata Stephani_, which is a
+  recension of the _Ps.-Dositheana_ (republished Goetz, _Corp._ iii.
+  438-474), and the _glossae Stephani_, excerpted from a collection of
+  the _Hermeneumata_ (ib. iii. 438-474).
+
+  In 1600 Bonav. Vulcanius republished the same glossaries, adding (1)
+  the glossae _Isidori_, which now appeared for the first time; (2) the
+  _Onomasticon_; (3) _notae_ and _castigationes_, derived from Scaliger
+  (Loewe, _Prodr._ 183).
+
+  In 1606 Carolus and Petrus Labbaeus published, with the effective help
+  of Scaliger, another collection of glossaries, republished, in 1679,
+  by Du Cange, after which the 17th and 18th centuries produced no
+  further glossaries (Erasm. Nyerup published extracts from the Leiden
+  Glossary, Voss. 69, in 1787, _Symbolae ad Literat. Teut._), though
+  glosses were constantly used or referred to by Salmasius, Meursius,
+  Heraldus, Barth, Fabricius and Burman at Leiden, where a rich
+  collection of glossaries had been obtained by the acquisition of the
+  Vossius library (cf. Loewe, _Prodr._ 168). In the 19th century came
+  Osann's _Glossarii Latini specimen_ (1826); the glossographic
+  publications of Angelo Mai (_Classici auctores_, vols. iii., vi.,
+  vii., viii., Rome, 1831-1836, containing Osbern's _Panormia_, Placidus
+  and various glosses from Vatican MSS.); Fr. Oehler's treatise (1847)
+  on the _Cod. Amplonianus_ of Osbern, and his edition of the three
+  Erfurt glossaries, so important for Anglo-Saxon philology; in 1854 G.
+  F. Hildebrand's _Glossarium Latinum_ (an extract from _Abavus minor_),
+  preserved in a Cod. Paris. lat. 7690; 1857, Thomas Wright's vol. of
+  Anglo-Saxon glosses, which were republished with others in 1884 by R.
+  Paul Wulcker under the title _Anglo-Saxon and Old English
+  Vocabularies_ (London, 2 vols., 1857); L. Diefenbach's supplement to
+  Du Cange, entitled _Glossarium Latino-Germanicum mediae et infimae
+  aetatis_, containing mostly glosses collected from glossaries,
+  vocabularies, &c., enumerated in the preface; Ritschl's treatise
+  (1870) on Placidus, which called forth an edition (1875) of Placidus
+  by Deuerling; G. Loewe's _Prodromus_ (1876), and other treatises by
+  him, published after his death by G. Goetz (Leipzig, 1884); 1888, the
+  second volume of Goetz's own great _Corpus glossariorum Latinorum_, of
+  which seven volumes (except the first) had seen the light by 1907, the
+  last two being separately entitled _Thesaurus glossarum emendatarum_,
+  containing many emendations and corrections of earlier glossaries by
+  the author and other scholars; 1900, Arthur S. Napier, _Old English
+  Glosses_ (Oxford), collected chiefly from Aldhelm MSS., but also from
+  Augustine, Avianus, Beda, Boethius, Gregory, Isidore, Juvencus,
+  Phocas, Prudentius, &c.
+
+  There are a very great number of glossaries still in MS. scattered in
+  various libraries of Europe, especially in the Vatican, at Monte
+  Cassino, Paris, Munich, Bern, the British Museum, Leiden, Oxford,
+  Cambridge, &c. Much has already been done to make the material
+  contained in these MSS. accessible in print, and much may yet be done
+  with what is still unpublished, though we may find that the
+  differences between the glossaries which often present themselves at
+  first sight are mere differences in form introduced by successive more
+  or less qualified copyists.
+
+  Some Celtic (Breton, Cornish, Welsh, Irish) glossaries have been
+  preserved to us, the particulars of which may be learnt from the
+  publications of Whitley Stokes, Sir John Rhys, Kuno Meyer, L. C.
+  Stern, G. I. Ascoli, Heinr. Zimmer, Ernst Windisch, Nigra, and many
+  others; these are published separately as books or in Zeuss's
+  _Grammatica Celtica_, A. Kuhn's _Beitrage zur vergleich.
+  Sprachforschung, Zeitschr. fur celtische Philologie, Archiv fur
+  Celtische Lexicographie, the Revue celtique, Transactions of the
+  London Philological Society_, &c.
+
+  The first Hebrew author known to have used glosses was R. Gershom of
+  Metz (1000) in his commentaries on the Talmud. But he and other Hebrew
+  writers after him mostly used the Old French language (though
+  sometimes also Italian, Slavonic, German) of which an example has been
+  published by Lambert and Brandin, in their _Glossaire hebreu-francais
+  du XIII^e siecle: recueil de mots hebreux bibliques avec traduction
+  francaise_ (Paris, 1905). See further _The Jewish Encyclopedia_ (New
+  York and London, 1903), article "Gloss."
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For a great part of what has been said above, the writer
+  is indebted to G. Goetz's article on "Latein. Glossographie" in
+  Pauly's _Realencyklopadie_. By the side of Goetz's _Corpus_ stands the
+  great collection of Steinmeyer and Sievers, _Die althochdeutschen
+  Glossen_ (in 4 vols., 1879-1898), containing a vast number of (also
+  Anglo-Saxon) glosses culled from Bible MSS. and MSS. of classical
+  Christian authors, enumerated and described in the 4th vol. Besides
+  the works of the editors of, or writers on, glosses, already
+  mentioned, we refer here to a few others, whose writings may be
+  consulted: Hugo Blumner; _Catholicon Anglicum_ (ed. Hertage); De-Vit
+  (at end of Forcellini's _Lexicon_); F. Deycks; Du Cange; Funck; J. H.
+  Gallee (_Altsachs. Sprachdenkm._, 1894); Grober; K. Gruber
+  (_Hauptquellen des Corpus, Epin. u. Erfurt Gloss._, Erlangen, 1904);
+  Hattemer; W. Heraeus (_Die Sprache des Petronius und die Glossen_,
+  Leipzig, 1899); Kettner; Kluge; Krumbacher; Lagarde; Landgraf; Marx;
+  W. Meyer-Lubke ("Zu den latein. Glossen" in _Wiener Stud._ xxv. 90
+  sqq.); Henry Nettleship; Niedermann, _Notes d'etymol. lat._ (Macon,
+  1902), _Contribut. a la critique des glosses latines_ (Neuchatel,
+  1905); Pokrowskij; Quicherat; Otto B. Schlutter (many important
+  articles in _Anglia, Englische Studien, Archiv f. latein.
+  Lexicographie_, &c.); Scholl; Schuchardt; Leo Sommer; Stadler;
+  Stowasser; Strachan; H. Sweet; Usener (_Rhein. Mus._ xxiii. 496, xxiv.
+  382); A. Way, _Promptorium parvulorum sive clericorum_ (3 vols.,
+  London, 1843-1865); Weyman; Wilmanns (in _Rhein. Mus._ xxiv. 363);
+  Wolfflin in _Arch. fur lat. Lexicogr._; Zupitza. Cf. further, the
+  various volumes of the following periodicals: _Romania_; _Zeitschr.
+  fur deutsches Alterthum_; _Anglia_; _Englische Studien_; _Journal of
+  English and German Philology_ (ed. Cook and Karsten); _Archiv fur
+  latein. Lexicogr._, and others treating of philology, lexicography,
+  grammar, &c.     (J. H. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The history of the literary gloss in its proper sense has given
+    rise to the common English use of the word to mean an interpretation,
+    especially in a disingenuous, sinister or false way; the form
+    "gloze," more particularly associated with explaining away,
+    palliating or talking speciously, is simply an alternative spelling.
+    The word has thus to some extent influenced, or been influenced by,
+    the meaning of the etymologically different "gloss" = lustrous
+    surface (from the same root as "glass"; cf. "glow"), in its extended
+    sense of "outward fair seeming."
+
+  [2] See Matthaei, _Glossaria Graeca_ (Moscow, 1774/5).
+
+  [3] See Labbe, _Veteres glossae verborum juris quae passim in
+    Basilicis reperiuntur_ (1606); Otto, _Thesaurus juris Romani_, iii.
+    (1697); Stephens, _Thesaurus linguae Graecae_, viii. (1825).
+
+  [4] See Biener, _Geschichte der Novellen_, p. 229 sqq.
+
+  [5] Irnerius himself is with some probability believed to have been
+    the author of the Brachylogus (q.v.).
+
+  [6] Thus Fil. Villani (_De origine civitatis Florentiae_, ed. 1847,
+    p. 23), speaking of the Glossator Accursius, says of the Glossae that
+    "tantae auctoritatis gratiaeque fuere, ut omnium consensu publice
+    approbarentur, et reiectis aliis, quibuscumque penitus abolitis,
+    solae juxta textum legum adpositae sunt et ubique terrarum sine
+    controversia pro legibus celebrantur, ita ut nefas sit, non secus
+    quam textui, Glossis Accursii contraire." For similar testimonies see
+    Bayle's _Dictionnaire_, s.v. "Accursius," and Rudorff, _Rom.
+    Rechtsgeschichte_, i. 338 (1857).
+
+  [7] The so-called _Malberg_ glosses, found in various texts of the
+    Lex Salica, are not glosses in the ordinary sense of the word, but
+    precious remains of the parent of the present literary Dutch, namely,
+    the Low German dialect spoken by the Salian Franks who conquered Gaul
+    from the Romans at the end of the 5th century. It is supposed that
+    the conquerors brought their Frankish law with them, either written
+    down, or by oral tradition; that they translated it into Latin for
+    the sake of the Romans settled in the country, and that the
+    translators, not always knowing a proper Latin equivalent for certain
+    things or actions, retained in their translations the Frankish
+    technical names or phrases which they had attempted to translate into
+    Latin. E.g. in chapter ii., by the side of "_porcellus lactans_" (a
+    sucking-pig), we find the Frankish "_chramnechaltio_," lit. a
+    stye-porker. The person who stole such a pig (still kept in an
+    enclosed place, in a stye) was fined three times as much as one who
+    stole a "_porcellus de campo qui sine matre vivere possit_," as the
+    Latin text has it, for which the Malberg technical expression appears
+    to have been _ingymus_, that is, a one year (winter) old animal, i.e.
+    a yearling. Nearly all these glosses are preceded by "_mal_" or
+    "_malb_," which is thought to be a contraction for "_malberg_," the
+    Frankish for "forum." The antiquity and importance of these glosses
+    for philology may be realized from the fact that the Latin
+    translation of the Lex Salica probably dates from the latter end of
+    the 5th century. For further information cf. Jac. Grimm's preface to
+    Joh. Merkel's ed. (1850), and H. Kern's notes to J. H. Hessels's ed.
+    (London, 1880) of the Lex Salica.
+
+  [8] Anglo-Saxon scholars ascribe an earlier date to the text of the
+    MS. on account of certain archaisms in its Anglo-Saxon words.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSOP, a market town and municipal borough, in the High Peak
+parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, on the extreme northern
+border of the county; 13 m. E. by S. of Manchester by the Great Central
+railway. Pop. (1901) 21,526. It is the chief seat of the cotton
+manufacture in Derbyshire, and it has also woollen and paper mills, dye
+and print works, and bleaching greens. The town consists of three main
+divisions, the Old Town (or Glossop proper), Howard Town (or Glossop
+Dale) and Mill Town. An older parish church was replaced by that of All
+Saints in 1830; there is also a very fine Roman Catholic church. In the
+immediate neighbourhood is Glossop Hall, the seat of Lord Howard, lord
+of the manor, a picturesque old building with extensive terraced
+gardens. On a hill near the town is Melandra Castle, the site of a Roman
+fort guarding Longdendale and the way into the hills of the Peak
+District. In the neighbourhood also a great railway viaduct spans the
+Dinting valley with sixteen arches. To the north, in Longdendale, there
+are five lakes belonging to the water-supply system of Manchester,
+formed by damming the Etherow, a stream which descends from the high
+moors north-east of Glossop. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen
+and 18 councillors. Area, 3052 acres.
+
+Glossop was granted by Henry I. to William Peverel, on the attainder of
+whose son it reverted to the crown. In 1157 it was gifted by Henry II.
+to the abbey of Basingwerk. Henry VIII. bestowed it on the earl of
+Shrewsbury. It was made a municipal borough in 1866.
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The English earldom of Gloucester was
+held by several members of the royal family, including Robert, a natural
+son of Henry I., and John, afterwards king, and others, until 1218, when
+Gilbert de Clare was recognized as earl of Gloucester. It remained in
+the family of Clare (q.v.) until 1314, when another Earl Gilbert was
+killed at Bannockburn; and after this date it was claimed by various
+relatives of the Clares, among them by the younger Hugh le Despenser (d.
+1326) and by Hugh Audley (d. 1347), both of whom had married sisters of
+Earl Gilbert. In 1397 Thomas le Despenser (1373-1400), a descendant of
+the Clares, was created earl of Gloucester; but in 1399 he was degraded
+from his earldom and in January 1400 was beheaded.
+
+The dukedom dates from 1385, when Thomas of Woodstock, a younger son of
+Edward III., was created duke of Gloucester, but his honours were
+forfeited when he was found guilty of treason in 1397. The next holder
+of the title was Humphrey, a son of Henry IV., who was created duke of
+Gloucester in 1414. He died without sons in 1447, and in 1461 the title
+was revived in favour of Richard, brother of Edward IV., who became king
+as Richard III. in 1483.
+
+In 1659 Henry (1639-1660), a brother of Charles II., was formally
+created duke of Gloucester, a title which he had borne since infancy.
+This prince, sharing the exile of the Stuarts, had incensed his mother,
+Queen Henrietta Maria, by his firm adherence to the Protestant religion,
+and had fought among the Spaniards at Dunkirk in 1658. Having returned
+to England with Charles II., he died unmarried in London on the 13th of
+September 1660. The next duke was William (1689-1700), son of the
+princess Anne, who was, after his mother, the heir to the English
+throne, and who was declared duke of Gloucester by his uncle, William
+III., in 1689, but no patent for this creation was ever passed. William
+died on the 30th of July 1700, and again the title became extinct.
+
+Frederick Louis, the eldest son of George II., was known for some time
+as duke of Gloucester, but when he was raised to the peerage in 1726 it
+was as duke of Edinburgh only. In 1764 Frederick's third son, William
+Henry (1743-1805), was created duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh by his
+brother, George III. This duke's secret marriage with Maria (d. 1807),
+an illegitimate daughter of Sir Edward Walpole and widow of James, 2nd
+Earl Waldegrave, in 1766, greatly incensed his royal relatives and led
+to his banishment from court. Gloucester died on the 25th of August
+1805, leaving an only son, William Frederick (1776-1834), who now became
+duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh. The duke, who served with the British
+army in Flanders, married his cousin Mary (1776-1857), a daughter of
+George III. He died on the 30th of November 1834, leaving no children,
+and his widow, the last survivor of the family of George III., died on
+the 30th of April 1857.
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE, EARL OF (1243-1295), was a son of Richard
+de Clare, 7th earl of Gloucester and 8th earl of Clare, and was born at
+Christchurch, Hampshire, on the 2nd of September 1243. Having married
+Alice of Angouleme, half-sister of king Henry III., he became earl of
+Gloucester and Clare on his father's death in July 1262, and almost at
+once joined the baronial party led by Simon de Montfort, earl of
+Leicester. With Simon Gloucester was at the battle of Lewes in May 1264,
+when the king himself surrendered to him, and after this victory he was
+one of the three persons selected to nominate a council. Soon, however,
+he quarrelled with Leicester. Leaving London for his lands on the Welsh
+border he met Prince Edward, afterwards king Edward I., at Ludlow, just
+after his escape from captivity, and by his skill contributed largely to
+the prince's victory at Evesham in August 1265. But this alliance was as
+transitory as the one with Leicester. Gloucester took up the cudgels on
+behalf of the barons who had surrendered at Kenilworth in November and
+December 1266, and after putting his demands before the king, secured
+possession of London. This happened in April 1267, but the earl quickly
+made his peace with Henry III. and with Prince Edward, and, having
+evaded an obligation to go on the Crusade, he helped to secure the
+peaceful accession of Edward I. to the throne in 1272. Gloucester then
+passed several years in fighting in Wales, or on the Welsh border; in
+1289 when the barons were asked for a subsidy he replied on their behalf
+that they would grant nothing until they saw the king in person (_nisi
+prius personaliter viderent in Anglia faciem regis_), and in 1291 he was
+fined and imprisoned on account of his violent quarrel with Humphrey de
+Bohun, earl of Hereford. Having divorced his wife Alice, he married in
+1290 Edward's daughter Joan, or Johanna (d. 1307). Earl Gilbert, who is
+sometimes called the "Red," died at Monmouth on the 7th of December
+1295, leaving in addition to three daughters a son, Gilbert, earl of
+Gloucester and Clare, who was killed at Bannockburn.
+
+  See C. Bemont, _Simon de Montfort, comte de Leicester_ (1884), and G.
+  W. Prothero, _Simon de Montfort_ (1877).
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTER, HUMPHREY, DUKE OF (1391-1447), fourth son of Henry IV. by
+Mary de Bohun, was born in 1391. He was knighted at his father's
+coronation on the 11th of October 1399, and created duke of Gloucester
+by Henry V. at Leicester on the 16th of May 1414. He served in the war
+next year, and was wounded at Agincourt, where he owed his life to his
+brother's valour. In April 1416 Humphrey received the emperor Sigismund
+at Dover and, according to a 16th-century story, did not let him land
+till he had disclaimed all title to imperial authority in England. In
+the second invasion of France Humphrey commanded the force which during
+1418 reduced the Cotentin and captured Cherbourg. Afterwards he joined
+the main army before Rouen, and took part in subsequent campaigns till
+January 1420. He then went home to replace Bedford as regent in England,
+and held office till Henry's own return in February 1421. He was again
+regent for his brother from May to September 1422.
+
+Henry V. measured Humphrey's capacity, and by his will named him merely
+deputy for Bedford in England. Humphrey at once claimed the full
+position of regent, but the parliament and council allowed him only the
+title of protector during Bedford's absence, with limited powers. His
+lack of discretion soon justified this caution. In the autumn of 1422 he
+married Jacqueline of Bavaria, heiress of Holland, to whose lands Philip
+of Burgundy had claims. Bedford, in the interest of so important an
+ally, endeavoured vainly to restrain his brother. Finally in October
+1424 Humphrey took up arms in his wife's behalf, but after a short
+campaign in Hainault went home, and left Jacqueline to be overwhelmed by
+Burgundy. Returning to England in April 1425 he soon entangled himself
+in a quarrel with the council and his uncle Henry Beaufort, and stirred
+up a tumult in London. Open war was averted only by Beaufort's prudence,
+and Bedford's hurried return. Humphrey had charged his uncle with
+disloyalty to the late and present kings. With some difficulty Bedford
+effected a formal reconciliation at Leicester in March 1426, and forced
+Humphrey to accept Beaufort's disavowal. When Bedford left England next
+year Humphrey renewed his intrigues. But one complication was removed by
+the annulling in 1428 of his marriage with Jacqueline. His open adultery
+with his mistress, Eleanor Cobham, also made him unpopular. To check his
+indiscretion the council, in November 1429, had the king crowned, and so
+put an end to Humphrey's protectorate. However, when Henry VI. was soon
+afterwards taken to be crowned in France, Humphrey was made lieutenant
+and warden of the kingdom, and thus ruled England for nearly two years.
+His jealousy of Bedford and Beaufort still continued, and when the
+former died in 1435 there was no one to whom he would defer. The
+defection of Burgundy roused English feeling, and Humphrey won
+popularity as leader of the war party. In 1436 he commanded in a short
+invasion of Flanders. But he had no real power, and his political
+importance lay in his persistent opposition to Beaufort and the
+councillors of his party. In 1439 he renewed his charges against his
+uncle without effect. His position was further damaged by his connexion
+with Eleanor Cobham, whom he had now married. In 1441 Eleanor was
+charged with practising sorcery against the king, and Humphrey had to
+submit to see her condemned, and her accomplices executed. Nevertheless,
+he continued his political opposition, and endeavoured to thwart
+Suffolk, who was now taking Beaufort's place in the council, by opposing
+the king's marriage to Margaret of Anjou. Under Suffolk's influence
+Henry VI. grew to distrust his uncle altogether. The crisis came in the
+parliament of Bury St Edmunds in February 1447. Immediately on his
+arrival there Humphrey was arrested, and four days later, on the 23rd of
+February, he died. Rumour attributed his death to foul play. But his
+health had been long undermined by excesses, and his end was probably
+only hastened by the shock of his arrest.
+
+Humphrey was buried at St Albans Abbey, in a fine tomb, which still
+exists. He was ambitious and self-seeking, but unstable and
+unprincipled, and, lacking the fine qualities of his brothers, excelled
+neither in war nor in peace. Still he was a cultured and courtly prince,
+who could win popularity. He was long remembered as the good Duke
+Humphrey, and in his lifetime was a liberal patron of letters. He had
+been a great collector of books, many of which he presented to the
+university of Oxford. He contributed also to the building of the
+Divinity School, and of the room still called Duke Humphrey's library.
+His books were dispersed at the Reformation and only three volumes of
+his donation now remain in the Bodleian library. Titus Livius, an
+Italian in Humphrey's service, wrote a life of Henry V. at his patron's
+bidding. Other Italian scholars, as Leonardo Aretino, benefited by his
+patronage. Amongst English men of letters he befriended Reginald Pecock,
+Whethamstead of St Albans, Capgrave the historian, Lydgate, and Gilbert
+Kymer, who was his physician and chancellor of Oxford university. A
+popular error found Humphrey a fictitious tomb in St Paul's Cathedral.
+The adjoining aisle, called Duke Humphrey's Walk, was frequented by
+beggars and needy adventurers. Hence the 16th-century proverb "to dine
+with Duke Humphrey," used of those who loitered there dinnerless.
+
+  The most important contemporary sources are Stevenson's _Wars of the
+  English in France_, Whethamstead's _Register_, and Beckington's
+  _Letters_ (all in Rolls Ser.), with the various _London Chronicles_,
+  and the works of Waurin and Monstrelet. For his relations with
+  Jacqueline see F. von Loher's _Jacobaa von Bayern und ihre Zeit_ (2
+  vols., Nordlingen, 1869). For other modern authorities consult W.
+  Stubbs's _Constitutional History_; J. H. Ramsay's _Lancaster and
+  York_; _Political History of England_, vol. iv.; R. Pauli, _Pictures
+  of Old England_, pp. 373-401 (1861); and K. H. Viekers, _Humphrey,
+  Duke of Gloucester_ (1907). For Humphrey's correspondence with Piero
+  Candido Decembrio see the _English Historical Review_, vols. x., xix.,
+  xx.     (C. L. K.)
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE, EARL OF (1222-1262), was a son of Gilbert
+de Clare, 6th earl of Gloucester and 7th earl of Clare, and was born on
+the 4th of August 1222, succeeding to his father's earldoms on the
+death of the latter in October 1230. His first wife was Margaret,
+daughter of Hubert de Burgh, and after her death in 1237 he married
+Maud, daughter of John de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, and passed his early
+years in tournaments and pilgrimages, taking for a time a secondary and
+undecided part in politics. He refused to help Henry III. on the French
+expedition of 1250, but was afterwards with the king at Paris; then he
+went on a diplomatic errand to Scotland, and was sent to Germany to work
+among the princes for the election of his stepfather, Richard, earl of
+Cornwall, as king of the Romans. About 1258 Gloucester took up his
+position as a leader of the barons in their resistance to the king, and
+he was prominent during the proceedings which followed the Mad
+Parliament at Oxford in 1258. In 1259, however, he quarrelled with Simon
+de Montfort, earl of Leicester; the dispute, begun in England, was
+renewed in France and he was again in the confidence and company of the
+king. This attitude, too, was only temporary, and in 1261 Gloucester and
+Leicester were again working in concord. The earl died at his residence
+near Canterbury on the 15th of July 1262. A large landholder like his
+son and successor, Gilbert, Gloucester was the most powerful English
+baron of his time; he was avaricious and extravagant, but educated and
+able. He left several children in addition to Earl Gilbert.
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTER, ROBERT, EARL OF (d. 1147), was a natural son of Henry I. of
+England. He was born, before his father's accession, at Caen in
+Normandy; but the exact date of his birth, and his mother's name are
+unknown. He received from his father the hand of a wealthy heiress,
+Mabel of Gloucester, daughter of Robert Fitz Hamon, and with her the
+lordships of Gloucester and Glamorgan. About 1121 the earldom of
+Gloucester was created for his benefit. His rank and territorial
+influence made him the natural leader of the western baronage. Hence, at
+his father's death, he was sedulously courted by the rival parties of
+his half-sister the empress Matilda and of Stephen. After some
+hesitation he declared for the latter, but tendered his homage upon
+strict conditions, the breach of which should be held to invalidate the
+contract. Robert afterwards alleged that he had merely feigned
+submission to Stephen with the object of secretly furthering his
+half-sister's cause among the English barons. The truth appears to be
+that he was mortified at finding himself excluded from the inner
+councils of the king, and so resolved to sell his services elsewhere.
+Robert left England for Normandy in 1137, renewed his relations with the
+Angevin party, and in 1138 sent a formal defiance to the king. Returning
+to England in the following year, he raised the standard of rebellion in
+his own earldom with such success that the greater part of western
+England and the south Welsh marches were soon in the possession of the
+empress. By the battle of Lincoln (Feb. 2, 1141), in which Stephen was
+taken prisoner, the earl made good Matilda's claim to the whole kingdom.
+He accompanied her triumphal progress to Winchester and London; but was
+unable to moderate the arrogance of her behaviour. Consequently she was
+soon expelled from London and deserted by the bishop Henry of Winchester
+who, as legate, controlled the policy of the English church. With
+Matilda the earl besieged the legate at Winchester, but was forced by
+the royalists to beat a hasty retreat, and in covering Matilda's flight
+fell into the hands of the pursuers. So great was his importance that
+his party purchased his freedom by the release of Stephen. The earl
+renewed the struggle for the crown and continued it until his death
+(Oct. 31, 1147); but the personal unpopularity of Matilda, and the
+estrangement of the Church from her cause, made his efforts unavailing.
+His loyalty to a lost cause must be allowed to weigh in the scale
+against his earlier double-dealing. But he hardly deserves the
+extravagant praise which is lavished upon him by William of Malmesbury.
+The sympathies of the chronicler are too obviously influenced by the
+earl's munificence towards literary men.
+
+  See the _Historia novella_ by William of Malmesbury (Rolls edition);
+  the _Historia Anglorum_ by Henry of Huntingdon (Rolls edition); J. H.
+  Round's _Geoffrey de Mandeville_ (1892); and O. Rossler's _Kaiserin
+  Mathilde_ (Berlin, 1897).     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK, DUKE OF (1355-1397), seventh and
+youngest son of the English king Edward III., was born at Woodstock on
+the 7th of January 1355. Having married Eleanor (d. 1399), daughter and
+co-heiress of Humphrey de Bohun, earl of Hereford, Essex and Northampton
+(d. 1373), Thomas obtained the office of constable of England, a
+position previously held by the Bohuns, and was made earl of Buckingham
+by his nephew, Richard II., at the coronation in July 1377. He took part
+in defending the English coasts against the attacks of the French and
+Castilians, after which he led an army through northern and central
+France, and besieged Nantes, which town, however, he failed to take.
+
+Returning to England early in 1381, Buckingham found that his brother,
+John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, had married his wife's sister, Mary
+Bohun, to his own son, Henry, afterwards King Henry IV. The relations
+between the brothers, hitherto somewhat strained, were not improved by
+this proceeding, as Thomas, doubtless, was hoping to retain possession
+of Mary's estates. Having taken some part in crushing the rising of the
+peasants in 1381, Buckingham became more friendly with Lancaster; and
+while marching with the king into Scotland in 1385 was created duke of
+Gloucester, a mark of favour, however, which did not prevent him from
+taking up an attitude of hostility to Richard. Lancaster having left the
+country, Gloucester placed himself at the head of the party which
+disliked the royal advisers, Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk and
+Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, whose recent elevation to the dignity of
+duke of Ireland had aroused profound discontent. The moment was
+propitious for interference, and supported by those who were indignant
+at the extravagance and incompetence, real or alleged, of the king,
+Gloucester was soon in a position of authority. He forced on the
+dismissal and impeachment of Suffolk; was a member of the commission
+appointed in 1386 to reform the kingdom and the royal household; and
+took up arms when Richard began proceedings against the commissioners.
+Having defeated Vere at Radcot in December 1387 the duke and his
+associates entered London to find the king powerless in their hands.
+Gloucester, who had previously threatened his uncle with deposition, was
+only restrained from taking this extreme step by the influence of his
+colleagues; but, as the leader of the "lords appellant" in the
+"Merciless Parliament," which met in February 1388 and was packed with
+his supporters, he took a savage revenge upon his enemies, while not
+neglecting to add to his own possessions.
+
+He was not seriously punished when Richard regained his power in May
+1389, but he remained in the background, although employed occasionally
+on public business, and accompanying the king to Ireland in 1394. In
+1396, however, uncle and nephew were again at variance. Gloucester
+disliked the peace with France and Richard's second marriage with
+Isabella, daughter of King Charles VI.; other causes of difference were
+not wanting, and it has been asserted that the duke was plotting to
+seize the king. At all events Richard decided to arrest him. By refusing
+an invitation to dinner the duke frustrated the first attempt, but on
+the 11th of July 1397 he was arrested by the king himself at his
+residence, Pleshey castle in Essex. He was taken at once to Calais, and
+it is probable that he was murdered by order of the king on the 9th of
+September following. The facts seem to be as follows. At the beginning
+of September it was reported that he was dead. The rumour, probably a
+deliberate one, was false, and about the same time a justice, Sir
+William Rickhill (d. 1407), was sent to Calais with instructions dated
+the 17th of August to obtain a confession from Gloucester. On the 8th of
+September the duke confessed that he had been guilty of treason, and his
+death immediately followed this avowal. Unwilling to meet his parliament
+so soon after his uncle's death, Richard's purpose was doubtless to
+antedate this occurrence, and to foster the impression that the duke had
+died from natural causes in August. When parliament met in September he
+was declared guilty of treason and his estates forfeited. Gloucester had
+one son, Humphrey (c. 1381-1399), who died unmarried, and four
+daughters, the most notable of whom was Anne (c. 1380-1438), who was
+successively the wife of Thomas, 3rd earl of Stafford, Edmund, 5th earl
+of Stafford, and William Bourchier, count of Eu. Gloucester is supposed
+to have written _L'Ordonnance d'Angleterre pour le camp a l'outrance, ou
+gaige de bataille_.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See T. Walsingham, _Historia Anglicana_, edited by H.
+  T. Riley (London, 1863-1864); The Monk of Evesham, _Historia vitae et
+  regni Ricardi II._, edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1729); _Chronique de
+  la traison et mort de Richard II_, edited by B. Williams (London,
+  1846); J. Froissart, _Chroniques_, edited by S. Luce and G. Raynaud
+  (Paris, 1869-1897); W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. ii.
+  (Oxford, 1896); J. Tait in _Owens College Historical Essays_ and S.
+  Armitage-Smith, _John of Gaunt_ (London, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTER (abbreviated as pronounced _Glo'ster_), a city, county of a
+city, municipal and parliamentary borough and port, and the county town
+of Gloucestershire, England, on the left (east) bank of the river
+Severn, 114 m. W.N.W. of London. Pop. (1901) 47,955. It is served by the
+Great Western railway and the west-and-north branch of the Midland
+railway; while the Berkeley Ship Canal runs S.W. to Sharpness Docks in
+the Severn estuary (16-1/2 m.). Gloucester is situated on a gentle
+eminence overlooking the Severn and sheltered by the Cotteswolds on the
+east, while the Malverns and the hills of the Forest of Dean rise
+prominently to the west and north-west.
+
+The cathedral, in the north of the city near the river, originates in
+the foundation of an abbey of St Peter in 681, the foundations of the
+present church having been laid by Abbot Serlo (1072-1104); and Walter
+Froucester (d. 1412) its historian, became its first mitred abbot in
+1381. Until 1541, Gloucester lay in the see of Worcester, but the
+separate see was then constituted, with John Wakeman, last abbot of
+Tewkesbury, for its first bishop. The diocese covers the greater part of
+Gloucestershire, with small parts of Herefordshire and Wiltshire. The
+cathedral may be succinctly described as consisting of a Norman nucleus,
+with additions in every style of Gothic architecture. It is 420 ft.
+long, and 144 ft. broad, with a beautiful central tower of the 15th
+century rising to the height of 225 ft. and topped by four graceful
+pinnacles. The nave is massive Norman with Early English roof; the crypt
+also, under the choir, aisles and chapels, is Norman, as is the
+chapter-house. The crypt is one of the four apsidal cathedral crypts in
+England, the others being at Worcester, Winchester and Canterbury. The
+south porch is Perpendicular, with fan-tracery roof, as also is the
+north transept, the south being transitional Decorated. The choir has
+Perpendicular tracery over Norman work, with an apsidal chapel on each
+side. The choir-vaulting is particularly rich, and the modern scheme of
+colouring is judicious. The splendid late Decorated east window is
+partly filled with ancient glass. Between the apsidal chapels is a cross
+Lady chapel, and north of the nave are the cloisters, with very early
+example of fan-tracery, the carols or stalls for the monks' study and
+writing lying to the south. The finest monument is the canopied shrine
+of Edward II. who was brought hither from Berkeley. By the visits of
+pilgrims to this the building and sanctuary were enriched. In a
+side-chapel, too, is a monument in coloured bog oak of Robert Curthose,
+a great benefactor to the abbey, the eldest son of the Conqueror, who
+was interred there; and those of Bishop Warburton and Dr Edward Jenner
+are also worthy of special mention. A musical festival (the Festival of
+the Three Choirs) is held annually in this cathedral and those of
+Worcester and Hereford in turn. Between 1873 and 1890 and in 1897 the
+cathedral was extensively restored, principally by Sir Gilbert Scott.
+Attached to the deanery is the Norman prior's chapel. In St Mary's
+Square outside the Abbey gate, Bishop Hooper suffered martyrdom under
+Queen Mary in 1555.
+
+Quaint gabled and timbered houses preserve the ancient aspect of the
+city. At the point of intersection of the four principal streets stood
+the Tolsey or town hall, replaced by a modern building in 1894. None of
+the old public buildings, in fact, is left, but the New Inn in Northgate
+Street is a beautiful timbered house, strong and massive, with external
+galleries and courtyards, built in 1450 for the pilgrims to Edward II.'s
+shrine, by Abbot Sebroke, a traditional subterranean passage leading
+thence to the cathedral. The timber is principally chestnut. There are a
+large number of churches and dissenting chapels, and it may have been
+the old proverb, "as sure as God's in Gloucester," which provoked Oliver
+Cromwell to declare that the city had "more churches than godliness." Of
+the churches four are of special interest: St Mary de Lode, with a
+Norman tower and chancel, and a monument of Bishop Hooper, on the site
+of a Roman temple which became the first Christian church in Britain; St
+Mary de Crypt, a cruciform structure of the 12th century, with later
+additions and a beautiful and lofty tower; the church of St Michael,
+said to have been connected with the ancient abbey of St Peter; and St
+Nicholas church, originally of Norman erection, and possessing a tower
+and other portions of later date. In the neighbourhood of St Mary de
+Crypt are slight remains of Greyfriars and Blackfriars monasteries, and
+also of the city wall. Early vaulted cellars remain under the Fleece and
+Saracen's Head inns.
+
+There are three endowed schools: the College school, refounded by Henry
+VIII. as part of the cathedral establishment; the school of St Mary de
+Crypt, founded by Dame Joan Cooke in the same reign; and Sir Thomas
+Rich's Blue Coat hospital for 34 boys (1666). At the Crypt school the
+famous preacher George Whitefield (1714-1770) was educated, and he
+preached his first sermon in the church. The first Sunday school was
+held in Gloucester, being originated by Robert Raikes, in 1780.
+
+The noteworthy modern buildings include the museum and school of art and
+science, the county gaol (on the site of a Saxon and Norman castle), the
+Shire Hall and the Whitefield memorial church. A park in the south of
+the city contains a spa, a chalybeate spring having been discovered in
+1814. West of this, across the canal, are the remains (a gateway and
+some walls) of Llanthony Priory, a cell of the mother abbey in the vale
+of Ewyas, Monmouthshire, which in the reign of Edward IV. became the
+secondary establishment.
+
+Gloucester possesses match works, foundries, marble and slate works,
+saw-mills, chemical works, rope works, flour-mills, manufactories of
+railway wagons, engines and agricultural implements, and boat and
+ship-building yards. Gloucester was declared a port in 1882. The
+Berkeley canal was opened in 1827. The Gloucester canal-harbour and that
+at Sharpness on the Severn are managed by a board. Principal imports are
+timber and grain; and exports, coal, salt, iron and bricks. The salmon
+and lamprey fisheries in the Severn are valuable. The tidal bore in the
+river attains its extreme height just below the city, and sometimes
+surmounts the weir in the western branch of the river, affecting the
+stream up to Tewkesbury lock. The parliamentary borough returns one
+member. The city is governed by a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors.
+Area, 2315 acres.
+
+_History._--The traditional existence of a British settlement at
+Gloucester (Caer Glow, Gleawecastre, Gleucestre) is not confirmed by any
+direct evidence, but Gloucester was the Roman municipality or _colonia_
+of _Glevum_, founded by Nerva (A.D. 96-98). Parts of the walls can be
+traced, and many remains and coins have been found, though inscriptions
+(as is frequently the case in Britain) are somewhat scarce. Its
+situation on a navigable river, and the foundation in 681 of the abbey
+of St Peter by Aethelred favoured the growth of the town; and before the
+Conquest Gloucester was a borough governed by a portreeve, with a castle
+which was frequently a royal residence, and a mint. The first overlord,
+Earl Godwine, was succeeded nearly a century later by Robert, earl of
+Gloucester. Henry II. granted the first charter in 1155 which gave the
+burgesses the same liberties as the citizens of London and Winchester,
+and a second charter of Henry II. gave them freedom of passage on the
+Severn. The first charter was confirmed in 1194 by Richard I. The
+privileges of the borough were greatly extended by the charter of John
+(1200) which gave freedom from toll throughout the kingdom and from
+pleading outside the borough. Subsequent charters were numerous.
+Gloucester was incorporated by Richard III. in 1483, the town being made
+a county in itself. This charter was confirmed in 1489 and 1510, and
+other charters of incorporation were received by Gloucester from
+Elizabeth in 1560, James I. in 1604, Charles I. in 1626 and Charles II.
+in 1672. The chartered port of Gloucester dates from 1580. Gloucester
+returned two members to parliament from 1275 to 1885, since when it has
+been represented by one member. A seven days' fair from the 24th of June
+was granted by Edward I. in 1302, and James I. licensed fairs on the
+25th of March and the 17th of November, and fairs under these grants are
+still held on the first Saturday in April and July and the last Saturday
+in November. The fair now held on the 28th of September was granted to
+the abbey of St Peter in 1227. A market on Wednesday existed in the
+reign of John, was confirmed by charter in 1227 and is still held. The
+iron trade of Gloucester dates from before the Conquest, tanning was
+carried on before the reign of Richard III., pin-making and
+bell-founding were introduced in the 16th, and the long-existing coal
+trade became important in the 18th century. The cloth trade flourished
+from the 12th to the 16th century. The sea-borne trade in corn and wine
+existed before the reign of Richard I.
+
+  See W. H. Stevenson, _Records of the Corporation of Gloucester_
+  (Gloucester, 1893); _Victoria County History, Gloucestershire_.
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTER, a city and port of entry of Essex county, Massachusetts,
+U.S.A., beautifully situated on Cape Ann. Pop. (1890) 24,651; (1900)
+26,121, of whom 8768 were foreign-born, including 4388 English
+Canadians, 800 French Canadians, 665 Irish, 653 Finns and 594
+Portuguese; (1910 census) 24,398. Area, 53.6 sq. m. It is served by the
+Boston & Maine railway and by a steamboat line to Boston. The surface is
+sterile, naked and rugged, with bold, rocky ledges, and a most
+picturesque shore, the beauties of which have made it a favourite summer
+resort, much frequented by artists. Included within the city borders are
+several villages, of which the principal one, also known as Gloucester,
+has a deep and commodious harbour. Among the other villages, all summer
+resorts, are Annisquam, Bay View and Magnolia (so called from the
+_Magnolia glauca_, which grows wild there, this being probably its most
+northerly habitat); near Magnolia are Rafe's Chasm (60 ft. deep and 6-10
+ft. wide) and Norman's Woe, the scene of the wreck of the "Hesperus"
+(which has only tradition as a basis), celebrated in Longfellow's poem.
+There is some slight general commerce--in 1909 the imports were valued
+at $130,098; the exports at $7853--but the principal business is
+fishing, and has been since early colonial days. The pursuit of cod,
+mackerel, herring and halibut fills up, with a winter coasting trade,
+the round of the year. In this industry Gloucester is the most important
+place in the United States; and is, indeed, one of the greatest fishing
+ports of the world. Most of the adult males are engaged in it. The
+"catch" was valued in 1895 at $3,212,985 and in 1905 at $3,377,330. The
+organization of the industry has undergone many transformations, but a
+notable feature is the general practice--especially since modern methods
+have necessitated larger vessels and more costly gear, and
+correspondingly greater capital--of profit-sharing; all the crew
+entering on that basis and not independently. There are some
+manufactures, chiefly connected with the fisheries. The total factory
+product in 1905 was valued at $6,920,984, of which the canning and
+preserving of fish represented $4,068,571, and glue represented
+$752,003. An industry of considerable importance is the quarrying of the
+beautiful, dark Cape Ann granite that underlies the city and all the
+environs.
+
+Gloucester harbour was probably noted by Champlain (as La Beauport), and
+a temporary settlement was made by English fishermen sent out by the
+Dorchester Company of "merchant adventurers" in 1623-1625; some of these
+settlers returned to England in 1625, and others, with Roger Conant, the
+governor, removed to what is now Salem.[1] Permanent settlement
+ante-dated 1639 at least, and in 1642 the township was incorporated. From
+Gosnold's voyages onward the extraordinary abundance of cod about Cape
+Ann was well known, and though the first settlers characteristically
+enough tried to live by farming, they speedily became perforce a
+sea-faring folk. The active pursuit of fishing as an industry may be
+dated as beginning about 1700, for then began voyages beyond Cape Sable.
+Voyages to the Grand Banks began about 1741. Mackerel was a relatively
+unimportant catch until about 1821, and since then has been an important
+but unstable return; halibut fishing has been vigorously pursued since
+about 1836 and herring since about 1856. At the opening of the War of
+Independence Gloucester, whose fisheries then employed about 600 men, was
+second to Marblehead as a fishing-port. The war destroyed the fisheries,
+which steadily declined, reaching their lowest ebb from 1820 to 1840.
+Meanwhile foreign commerce had greatly expanded. The cod take had
+supported in the 18th century an extensive trade with Bilbao, Lisbon and
+the West Indies, and though changed in nature with the decline of the
+Bank fisheries after the War of Independence, it continued large through
+the first quarter of the 19th century. Throughout more than half of the
+same century also Gloucester carried on a varied and valuable trade with
+Surinam, hake being the chief article of export and molasses and sugar
+the principal imports. "India Square" remains, a memento of a bygone day.
+About 1850 the fisheries revived, especially after 1860, under the
+influence of better prices, improved methods and the discovery of new
+grounds, becoming again the chief economic interest; and since that time
+the village of Gloucester has changed from a picturesque hamlet to a
+fairly modern, though still quaint and somewhat foreign, settlement.
+Gasoline boats were introduced in 1900. Ship-building is another industry
+of the past. The first "schooner" was launched at Gloucester in 1713.
+From 1830 to 1907, 776 vessels and 5242 lives were lost in the fisheries;
+but the loss of life has been greatly reduced by the use of better
+vessels and by improved methods of fishing. Gloucester became a city in
+1874.
+
+  Gloucester life has been celebrated in many books; among others in
+  Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward's _Singular Life_ and _Old Maid's
+  Paradise_, in Rudyard Kipling's _Captains Courageous_, and in James B.
+  Connolly's _Out of Gloucester_ (1902), _The Deep Sea's Toll_ (1905),
+  and _The Crested Seas_ (1907).
+
+  See J. J. Babson, _History of the Town of Gloucester_ (Gloucester,
+  1860; with _Notes and Additions_, on genealogy, 1876, 1891); and J. R.
+  Pringle, _History of the Town and City of Gloucester_ (Gloucester,
+  1892).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] According to some authorities (e.g. Pringle) a few settlers
+    remained on the site of Gloucester, the permanent settlement thus
+    dating from 1623 to 1625; of this, however, there is no proof, and
+    the contrary opinion is the one generally held.
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTER CITY, a city of Camden county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the
+Delaware river, opposite Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 6564; (1900) 6840, of
+whom 1094 were foreign-born; (1905) 8055; (1910) 9462. The city is
+served by the West Jersey & Seashore and the Atlantic City railways, and
+by ferry to Philadelphia, of which it is a residential suburb. Among its
+manufactures are incandescent gas-burners, rugs, cotton yarns, boats and
+drills. The municipality owns and operates the water works. It was near
+the site of Gloucester City that the Dutch in 1623 planted the
+short-lived colony of Fort Nassau, the first European settlement on the
+Delaware river, but it was not until after the arrival of English
+Quakers on the Delaware, in 1677, that a permanent settlement, at first
+called Axwamus, was established on the site of the present city. This
+was surveyed and laid out as a town in 1689. During the War of
+Independence the place was frequently occupied by troops, and a number
+of skirmishes were fought in its vicinity. The most noted of these was a
+successful attack upon a detachment of Hessians on the 25th of November
+1777 by American troops under the command of General Lafayette. In 1868
+Gloucester City was chartered as a city. In Camden county there is a
+township named GLOUCESTER (pop. in 1905, 2300), incorporated in 1798,
+and originally including the present township of Clementon and parts of
+the present townships of Waterford, Union and Winslow.
+
+
+
+
+GLOUCESTERSHIRE, a county of the west midlands of England, bounded N. by
+Worcestershire, N.E. by Warwickshire, E. by Oxfordshire, S.E. by
+Berkshire and Wiltshire, S. by Somerset, and W. by Monmouth and
+Herefordshire. Its area is 1243-3 sq. m. The outline is very irregular,
+but three physical divisions are well marked--the hills, the vale and
+the forest. (1) The first (the eastern part of the county) lies among
+the uplands of the Cotteswold Hills (q.v.), whose westward face is a
+line of heights of an average elevation of 700 ft., but exceeding 1000
+ft. at some points. This line bisects the county from S.W. to N.E. The
+watershed between the Thames and Severn valleys lies close to it, so
+that Gloucestershire includes Thames Head itself, in the south-east near
+Cirencester, and most of the upper feeders of the Thames which join the
+main stream, from narrow and picturesque valleys on the north. (2) The
+western Cotteswold line overlooks a rich valley, that of the lower
+Severn, usually spoken of as "The Vale," or, in two divisions, as the
+vale of Gloucester and the vale of Berkeley. This great river receives
+three famous tributaries during its course through Gloucestershire. Near
+Tewkesbury, on the northern border, the Avon joins it on the left and
+forms the county boundary for 4 m. This is the river known variously as
+the Upper, Worcestershire, Warwickshire, Stratford or Shakespeare's
+Avon, which descends a lovely pastoral valley through the counties
+named. It is to be distinguished from the Bristol Avon, which rises as
+an eastward flowing stream of the Cotteswolds, in the south-east of
+Gloucestershire, sweeps southward and westward through Wiltshire,
+pierces the hills through a narrow valley which becomes a wooded gorge
+where the Clifton suspension bridge crosses it below Bristol, and enters
+the Severn estuary at Avonmouth. For 17 m. from its mouth it forms the
+boundary between Gloucestershire and Somersetshire, and for 8 m. it is
+one of the most important commercial waterways in the kingdom,
+connecting the port of Bristol with the sea. The third great tributary
+of the Severn is the Wye. From its mouth in the estuary, 8 m. N. of that
+of the Bristol Avon, it forms the county boundary for 16 m. northward,
+and above this, over two short reaches of its beautiful winding course,
+it is again the boundary. (3) Between the Wye and the Severn lies a
+beautiful and historic tract, the forest of Dean, which, unlike the
+majority of English forests, maintains its ancient character.
+Gloucestershire has thus a share in the courses of five of the most
+famous of English rivers, and covers two of the most interesting
+physical districts in the country. The minor rivers of the county are
+never long. The vale is at no point within the county wider than 24 m.,
+and so does not permit the formation of any considerable tributary to
+the Severn from the Dean Hills on the one hand or the Cotteswolds on the
+other. The Leadon rises east of Hereford, forms part of the
+north-western boundary, and joins the Severn near Gloucester, watering
+the vale of Gloucester, the northern part of the vale. In the southern
+part, the vale of Berkeley, the Stroudwater traverses a narrow,
+picturesque and populous valley, and the Little Avon flows past the town
+of Berkeley, joining the Severn estuary on the left. The Frome runs
+southward to the Bristol Avon at Bristol. The principal northern feeders
+of the Thames are the Churn (regarded by some as properly the headwater
+of the main river) rising in the Seven Springs, in the hills above
+Cheltenham, and forming the southern county boundary near its junction
+with the Thames at Cricklade; the Coln, a noteworthy trout-stream,
+joining above Lechlade, and the Lech (forming part of the eastern county
+boundary) joining below the same town; while from the east of the county
+there pass into Oxfordshire the Windrush and the Evenlode, much larger
+streams, rising among the bare uplands of the northern Cotteswolds.
+
+  _Geology._--No county in England has a greater variety of geological
+  formations. The pre-Cambrian is represented by the gneissic rocks at
+  the south end of the Malvern Hills and by grits at Huntley. At Damory,
+  Charfield and Woodford is a patch of greenstone, the cause of the
+  upheaval of the Upper Silurian basin of Tortworth, in which are the
+  oldest stratified rocks of the county. Of these the Upper Llandovery
+  is the dominant stratum, exposed near Damory mill, Micklewood chase
+  and Purton passage, wrapping round the base of May and Huntley hills,
+  and reappearing in the vale of Woolhope. The Wenlock limestone is
+  exposed at Falfield mill and Whitfield, and quarried for burning at
+  May hill. The Lower Ludlow shales or mudstones are seen at Berkeley
+  and Purton, where the upper part is probably Aymestry limestone. The
+  series of sandy shales and sandstones which, as Downton sandstones and
+  Ledbury shales, form a transition to the Old Red Sandstone are
+  quarried at Dymock. The "Old Red" itself occurs at Berkeley, Tortworth
+  Green, Thornbury, and several places in the Bristol coal-field, in
+  anticlinal folds forming hills. It forms also the great basin
+  extending from Ross to Monmouth and from Dymock to Mitcheldean,
+  Abenhall, Blakeney, &c., within which is the Carboniferous basin of
+  the forest. It is cut through by the Wye from Monmouth to Woolaston.
+  This formation is over 8000 ft. thick in the forest of Dean. The
+  Bristol and Forest Carboniferous basins lie within the synclinal folds
+  of the Old Red Sandstone; and though the seams of coal have not yet
+  been correlated, they must have been once continuous, as further
+  appears from the existence of an intermediate basin, recently pierced,
+  under the Severn. The lower limestone shales are 500 ft. thick in the
+  Bristol area and only 165 in the forest, richly fossiliferous and
+  famous for their bone bed. The great marine series known as the
+  Mountain Limestone, forming the walls of the grand gorges of the Wye
+  and Avon, is over 2000 ft. thick in the latter district, but only 480
+  in the former, where it yields the brown hematite in pockets so
+  largely worked for iron even from Roman times. It is much used too for
+  lime and road metal. Above this comes the Millstone Grit, well seen at
+  Brandon hill, where it is 1000 ft. in thickness, though but 455 in the
+  forest. On this rest the Coal Measures, consisting in the Bristol
+  field of two great series, the lower 2000 ft. thick with 36 seams, the
+  upper 3000 ft. with 22 seams, 9 of which reach 2 ft. in thickness.
+  These two series are separated by over 1700 ft. of hard sandstone
+  (Pennant Grit), containing only 5 coal-seams. In the Forest coal-field
+  the whole series is not 3000 ft. thick, with but 15 seams. At Durdham
+  Down a dolomitic conglomerate, of the age known as Keuper or Upper
+  Trias, rests unconformably on the edges of the Palaeozoic rocks, and
+  is evidently a shore deposit, yielding dinosaurian remains. Above the
+  Keuper clays come the Penarth beds, of which classical sections occur
+  at Westbury, Aust, &c. The series consists of grey marls, black paper
+  shales containing much pyrites and a celebrated bone bed, the Cotham
+  landscape marble, and the White Lias limestone, yielding _Ostrea
+  Liassica_ and _Cardium Rhaeticum_. The district of Over Severn is
+  mainly of Keuper marls. The whole vale of Gloucester is occupied by
+  the next formation, the Lias, a warm sea deposit of clays and clayey
+  limestones, characterized by ammonites, belemnites and gigantic
+  saurians. At its base is the insect-bearing limestone bed. The
+  pastures producing Gloucester cheese are on the clays of the Lower
+  Lias. The more calcareous Middle Lias or marlstone forms hillocks
+  flanking the Oolite escarpment of the Cotteswolds, as at
+  Wotton-under-Edge and Churchdown. The Cotteswolds consist of the great
+  limestone series of the Lower Oolite. At the base is a transition
+  series of sands, 30 to 40 ft. thick, well developed at Nailsworth and
+  Frocester. Leckhampton hill is a typical section of the Lower Oolite,
+  where the sands are capped by 40 ft. of a remarkable pea grit. Above
+  this are 147 ft. of freestone, 7 ft. of oolite marl, 34 ft. of upper
+  freestone and 38 ft. of ragstone. The Painswick stone belongs to lower
+  freestone. Resting on the Inferior Oolite, and dipping with it to
+  S.E., is the "fuller's earth," a rubbly limestone about 100 ft. thick,
+  throwing out many of the springs which form the head waters of the
+  Thames. Next comes the Great or Bath Oolite, at the base of which are
+  the Stonesfield "slate" beds, quarried for roofing, paling, &c., at
+  Sevenhampton and elsewhere. From the Great Oolite Minchinhampton stone
+  is obtained, and at its top is about 40 ft. of flaggy Oolite with
+  bands of clay known as the Forest Marble. Ripple marks are abundant on
+  the flags; in fact all the Oolites seem to have been near shore or in
+  shallow water, much of the limestone being merely comminuted coral.
+  The highest bed of the Lower Oolite is the Cornbrash, about 40 ft. of
+  rubble, productive in corn, forming a narrow belt from Siddington to
+  Fairford. Near the latter town and Lechlade is a small tract of blue
+  Oxford Clay of the Middle Oolite. The county has no higher Secondary
+  or Tertiary rocks; but the Quaternary series is represented by much
+  northern drift gravel in the vale and Over Severn, by accumulations of
+  Oolitic detritus, including post-Glacial extinct mammalian remains on
+  the flanks of the Cotteswolds, and by submerged forests extending from
+  Sharpness to Gloucester.
+
+  _Agriculture._--The climate is mild. Between three-quarters and
+  seven-eighths of the total area is under cultivation, and of this some
+  four-sevenths is in permanent pasture. Wheat is the chief grain crop.
+  In the vale the deep rich black and red loamy soil is well adapted for
+  pasturage, and a moist mild climate favours the growth of grasses and
+  root crops. The cattle, save on the frontier of Herefordshire, are
+  mostly shorthorns, of which many are fed for distant markets, and many
+  reared and kept for dairy purposes. The rich grazing tract of the vale
+  of Berkeley produces the famous "double Gloucester" cheeses, and the
+  vale in general has long been celebrated for cheese and butter. The
+  vale of Gloucester is the chief grain-growing district. Turnips, &c.,
+  occupy about three-fourths of the green crop acreage, potatoes
+  occupying only about a twelfth. A feature of the county is its apple
+  and pear orchards, chiefly for the manufacture of cider and perry,
+  which are attached to nearly every farm. The Cotteswold district is
+  comparatively barren except in the valleys, but it has been famous
+  since the 15th century for the breed of sheep named after it. Oats and
+  barley are here the chief crops.
+
+  _Other Industries._--The manufacture of woollen cloth followed upon
+  the early success in sheep-farming among the Cotteswolds. This
+  industry is not confined to the hill country or even to
+  Gloucestershire itself in the west of England. The description of
+  cloth principally manufactured is broadcloth, dressed with teazles to
+  produce a short close nap on the face, and made of all shades of
+  colour, but chiefly black, blue and scarlet. The principal centre of
+  the industry lies in and at the foot of the south-western Cotteswolds.
+  Stroud is the centre for a number of manufacturing villages, and
+  south-west of this are Wotton-under-Edge, North Nibley and others.
+  Machinery and tools, paper, furniture, pottery and glass are also
+  produced. Ironstone, clay, limestone and sandstone are worked, and the
+  coal-fields in the forest of Dean are important. Of less extent is the
+  field in the south of the county, N.E. of Bristol. Strontium sulphate
+  is dug from shallow pits in the red marl of Gloucestershire and
+  Somersetshire.
+
+  _Communications._--Railway communications are provided principally by
+  the Great Western and Midland companies. Of the Great Western lines,
+  the main line serves Bristol from London. It divides at Bristol, one
+  section serving the south-western counties, another South Wales,
+  crossing beneath the Severn by the Severn Tunnel, 4-1/3 m. in length,
+  a remarkable engineering work. A more direct route, by this tunnel,
+  between London and South Wales, is provided by a line from Wootton
+  Bassett on the main line, running north of Bristol by Badminton and
+  Chipping Sodbury. Other Great Western lines are that from Swindon on
+  the main line, by the Stroud valley to Gloucester, crossing the Severn
+  there, and continuing by the right bank of the river into Wales, with
+  branches north-west into Herefordshire; the Oxford and Worcester trunk
+  line, crossing the north-east of the county, connected with Cheltenham
+  and Gloucester by a branch through the Cotteswolds from Chipping
+  Norton junction; and the line from Cheltenham by Broadway to
+  Honeybourne. The west-and-north line of the Midland railway follows
+  the vale from Bristol by Gloucester and Cheltenham with a branch into
+  the forest of Dean by Berkeley, crossing the Severn at Sharpness by a
+  great bridge 1387 yds. in length, with 22 arches. The coal-fields of
+  the forest of Dean are served by several branch lines. In the north,
+  Tewkesbury is served by a Midland branch from Ashchurch to Malvern.
+  The Midland and South-western Junction railway runs east and south
+  from Cheltenham by Cirencester, affording communication with the south
+  of England. The East Gloucester line of the Great Western from Oxford
+  terminates at Fairford. The Thames and Severn canal, rising to a
+  summit level in the tunnel through the Cotteswolds at Sapperton, is
+  continued from Wallbridge (Stroud) by the Stroudwater canal, and gives
+  communication between the two great rivers. The Berkeley Ship Canal
+  (16-1/2 m.) connects the port of Gloucester with its outport of
+  Sharpness on Severn.
+
+  _Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is
+  795,709 acres, with a population in 1891 of 599,947 and in 1901 of
+  634,729. The area of the administrative county is 805,482 acres. The
+  county contains 28 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are--Bristol, a
+  city and county borough (pop. 328,945); Cheltenham (49,439);
+  Gloucester, a city and county borough (47,955); Tewkesbury (5419). The
+  other urban districts are--Awre (1096), Charlton Kings (3806),
+  Circenester (7536), Coleford (2541), Kingswood, on the eastern
+  outskirts of Bristol (11,961), Nailsworth (3028), Newnham (1184),
+  Stow-on-the-Wold (1386), Stroud (9153), Tetbury (1989),
+  Westbury-on-Severn (1866). The number of small ancient market towns is
+  large, especially in the southern part of the vale, on the outskirts
+  of the forest, and among the foot hills of the wolds. Those in the
+  forest district are mostly connected with the coal trade, such as
+  Lydney (3559), besides Awre and Coleford; and, to the north, besides
+  Newnham, Cinderford and Mitcheldean. South from Stroud there are
+  Minchinhampton (3737) and Nailsworth; near the south-eastern boundary
+  Tetbury and Marshfield; Stonehouse (2183), Dursley (2372),
+  Wotton-under-Edge (2992) and Chipping Sodbury along the western line
+  of the hills; and between them and the Severn, Berkeley and Thornbury
+  (2594). Among the uplands of the Cotteswolds there are no towns, and
+  villages are few, but in the east of the county, in the upper Thames
+  basin, there are, besides Cirencester, Fairford on the Coln and
+  Lechlade, close to the head of the navigation on the Thames itself.
+  Far up in the Lech valley, remote from railway communication, is
+  Northleach, once a great posting station on the Oxford and Cheltenham
+  road. In the north-east are Stow-on-the-Wold, standing high, and
+  Moreton-in-the-Marsh near the headwaters of the Evenlode. In a
+  northern prolongation of the county, almost detached, is Chipping
+  Campden. Winchcomb (2699) lies 6 m. N.E. of Cheltenham. In the
+  north-west, Newent (2485) is the only considerable town.
+  Gloucestershire is in the Oxford circuit, and assizes are held at
+  Gloucester. It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into
+  24 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Bristol, Gloucester and
+  Tewkesbury have separate commissions of the peace and courts of
+  quarter sessions. There are 359 civil parishes. Gloucestershire is
+  principally in the diocese of Gloucester, but part is in that of
+  Bristol, and small parts in those of Worcester and Oxford. There are
+  408 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the
+  county. There are five parliamentary divisions, namely, Tewkesbury or
+  northern, Cirencester or eastern, Stroud or mid, Thornbury or
+  southern, and Forest of Dean, each returning one member. The county
+  also includes the boroughs of Gloucester and Cheltenham, each
+  returning one member; and the greater part of the borough of Bristol,
+  which returns four members.
+
+_History._--The English conquest of the Severn valley began in 577 with
+the victory of Ceawlin at Deorham, followed by the capture of
+Cirencester, Gloucester and Bath. The Hwiccas who occupied the district
+were a West Saxon tribe, but their territory had become a dependency of
+Mercia in the 7th century, and was not brought under West Saxon dominion
+until the 9th century. No important settlements were made by the Danes
+in the district. Gloucestershire probably originated as a shire in the
+10th century, and is mentioned by name in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in
+1016. Towards the close of the 11th century the boundaries were
+readjusted to include Winchcomb, hitherto a county by itself, and at the
+same time the forest district between the Wye and the Severn was added
+to Gloucestershire. The divisions of the county for a long time remained
+very unsettled, and the thirty-nine hundreds mentioned in the Domesday
+Survey and the thirty-one hundreds of the Hundred Rolls of 1274 differ
+very widely in name and extent both from each other and from the
+twenty-eight hundreds of the present day.
+
+Gloucestershire formed part of Harold's earldom at the time of the
+Norman invasion, but it offered slight resistance to the Conqueror. In
+the wars of Stephen's reign the cause of the empress Maud was supported
+by Robert of Gloucester who had rebuilt the castle at Bristol, and the
+castles at Gloucester and Cirencester were also garrisoned on her
+behalf. In the barons' war of the reign of Henry III. Gloucester was
+garrisoned for Simon de Montfort, but was captured by Prince Edward in
+1265, in which year de Montfort was slain at Evesham. Bristol and
+Gloucester actively supported the Yorkist cause during the Wars of the
+Roses. In the religious struggles of the 16th century Gloucester showed
+strong Protestant sympathy, and in the reign of Mary Bishop Hooper was
+sent to Gloucester to be burnt as a warning to the county, while the
+same Puritan leanings induced the county to support the Parliamentary
+cause in the civil war of the 17th century. In 1643 Bristol and
+Cirencester were captured by the Royalists, but the latter was recovered
+in the same year and Bristol in 1645. Gloucester was garrisoned for the
+parliament throughout the struggle.
+
+On the subdivision of the Mercian diocese in 680 the greater part of
+modern Gloucestershire was included in the diocese of Worcester, and
+shortly after the Conquest constituted the archdeaconry of Gloucester,
+which in 1290 comprised the deaneries of Campden, Stow, Cirencester,
+Fairford, Winchcombe, Stonehouse, Hawkesbury, Bitton, Bristol, Dursley
+and Gloucester. The district west of the Severn, with the exception of a
+few parishes in the deaneries of Ross and Staunton, constituted the
+deanery of the forest within the archdeaconry and diocese of Hereford.
+In 1535 the deanery of Bitton had been absorbed in that of Hawkesbury.
+In 1541 the diocese of Gloucester was created, its boundaries being
+identical with those of the county. On the erection of Bristol to a see
+in 1542 the deanery of Bristol was transferred from Gloucester to that
+diocese. In 1836 the sees of Gloucester and Bristol were united; the
+archdeaconry of Bristol was created out of the deaneries of Bristol,
+Cirencester, Fairford and Hawkesbury; and the deanery of the forest was
+transferred to the archdeaconry of Gloucester. In 1882 the archdeaconry
+of Cirencester was constituted to include the deaneries of Campden,
+Stow, Northleach north and south, Fairford and Cirencester. In 1897 the
+diocese of Bristol was recreated, and included the deaneries of Bristol,
+Stapleton and Bitton.
+
+After the Conquest very extensive lands and privileges in the county
+were acquired by the church, the abbey of Cirencester alone holding
+seven hundreds at fee-farm, and the estates of the principal lay-tenants
+were for the most part outlying parcels of baronies having their "caput"
+in other counties. The large estates held by William Fitz Osbern, earl
+of Hereford, escheated to the crown on the rebellion of his son Earl
+Roger in 1074-1075. The Berkeleys have held lands in Gloucestershire
+from the time of the Domesday Survey, and the families of Basset, Tracy,
+Clifton, Dennis and Poyntz have figured prominently in the annals of the
+county. Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, and Richard of Cornwall
+claimed extensive lands and privileges in the shire in the 13th century,
+and Simon de Montfort owned Minsterworth and Rodley.
+
+Bristol was made a county in 1425, and in 1483 Richard III. created
+Gloucester an independent county, adding to it the hundreds of Dudston
+and King's Barton. The latter were reunited to Gloucestershire in 1673,
+but the cities of Bristol and Gloucester continued to rank as
+independent counties, with separate jurisdiction, county rate and
+assizes. The chief officer of the forest of Dean was the warden, who was
+generally also constable of St Briavel Castle. The first justice-seat
+for the forest was held at Gloucester Castle in 1282, the last in 1635.
+The hundred of the duchy of Lancaster is within the jurisdiction of the
+duchy of Lancaster for certain purposes.
+
+The physical characteristics of the three natural divisions of
+Gloucestershire have given rise in each to a special industry, as
+already indicated. The forest district, until the development of the
+Sussex mines in the 16th century, was the chief iron-producing area of
+the kingdom, the mines having been worked in Roman times, while the
+abundance of timber gave rise to numerous tanneries and to an important
+ship-building trade. The hill district, besides fostering agricultural
+pursuits, gradually absorbed the woollen trade from the big towns, which
+now devoted themselves almost entirely to foreign commerce. Silk-weaving
+was introduced in the 17th century, and was especially prosperous in the
+Stroud valley. The abundance of clay and building-stone in the county
+gave rise to considerable manufactures of brick, tiles and pottery.
+Numerous minor industries sprang up in the 17th and 18th centuries, such
+as flax-growing and the manufacture of pins, buttons, lace, stockings,
+rope and sailcloth.
+
+Gloucestershire was first represented in parliament in 1290, when it
+returned two members. Bristol and Gloucester acquired representation in
+1295, Cirencester in 1572 and Tewkesbury in 1620. Under the Reform Act
+of 1832 the county returned four members in two divisions; Bristol,
+Gloucester, Cirencester, Stroud and Tewkesbury returned two members
+each, and Cheltenham returned one member. The act of 1868 reduced the
+representation of Cirencester and Tewkesbury to one member each.
+
+_Antiquities._--The cathedrals of Gloucester and Bristol, the
+magnificent abbey church of Tewkesbury, and the church of Cirencester
+with its great Perpendicular porch, are described under their separate
+headings. Of the abbey of Hayles near Winchcomb, founded by Richard,
+earl of Cornwall, in 1246, little more than the foundations are left,
+but these have been excavated with great care, and interesting fragments
+have been brought to light. Most of the old market towns have fine
+parish churches. At Deerhurst near Tewkesbury, and Cleeve near
+Cheltenham, there are churches of special interest on account of the
+pre-Norman work they retain. The Perpendicular church at Lechlade is
+unusually perfect; and that at Fairford was built (c. 1500), according
+to tradition, to contain the remarkable series of stained-glass windows
+which are said to have been brought from the Netherlands. These are,
+however, adjudged to be of English workmanship, and are one of the
+finest series in the country. The great Decorated Calcot Barn is an
+interesting relic of the monastery of Kingswood near Tetbury. The castle
+at Berkeley is a splendid example of a feudal stronghold. Thornbury
+Castle, in the same district, is a fine Tudor ruin, the pretensions of
+which evoked the jealousy of Cardinal Wolsey against its builder, Edward
+Stafford, duke of Buckingham, who was beheaded in 1521. Near Cheltenham
+is the fine 15th-century mansion of Southam de la Bere, of timber and
+stone. Memorials of the de la Bere family appear in the church at
+Cleeve. The mansion contains a tiled floor from Hayles Abbey. Near
+Winchcomb is Sudeley Castle, dating from the 15th century, but the
+inhabited portion is chiefly Elizabethan. The chapel is the burial place
+of Queen Catherine Parr. At Great Badminton is the mansion and vast
+domain of the Beauforts (formerly of the Botelers and others), on the
+south-eastern boundary of the county.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Gloucestershire_; Sir R. Atkyns, _The
+  Ancient and Present State of Gloucestershire_ (London, 1712; 2nd ed.,
+  London, 1768); Samuel Rudder, _A New History of Gloucestershire_
+  (Cirencester, 1779); Ralph Bigland, _Historical, Monumental and
+  Genealogical Collections relative to the County of Gloucester_ (2
+  vols., London, 1791); Thomas Rudge, _The History of the County of
+  Gloucester_ (2 vols., Gloucester, 1803); T. D. Fosbroke _Abstract of
+  Records and Manuscripts respecting the County of Gloucestershire
+  formed into a History_ (2 vols., Gloucester, 1807); _Legends, Tales
+  and Songs in the Dialect of the Peasantry of Gloucestershire_ (London,
+  1876); J. D. Robertson, _Glossary of Dialect and Archaic Words of
+  Gloucester_ (London, 1890); W. Bazeley and F. A. Hyett,
+  _Bibliographers' Manual of Gloucestershire_ (3 vols., London,
+  1895-1897); W. H. Hutton, _By Thames and Cotswold_ (London, 1903). See
+  also _Transactions of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological
+  Society_.
+
+
+
+
+GLOVE (O. Eng. _glof_, perhaps connected with Gothic _lofa_, the palm of
+the hand), a covering for the hand, commonly with a separate sheath for
+each finger.
+
+The use of gloves is of high antiquity, and apparently was known even to
+the pre-historic cave dwellers. In Homer Laertes is described as wearing
+gloves ([Greek: cheiridas epi chersi]) while walking in his garden
+(_Od._ xxiv. 230). Herodotus (vi. 72) tells how Leotychides filled a
+glove ([Greek: cheiris]) with the money he received as a bribe, and
+Xenophon (_Cyrop._ viii. 8. 17) records that the Persians wore fur
+gloves having separate sheaths for the fingers ([Greek: cheiridas
+daseias kai daktylethras]). Among the Romans also there are occasional
+references to the use of gloves. According to the younger Pliny (Ep.
+iii. 5. 15) the secretary whom his uncle had with him when ascending
+Vesuvius wore gloves (_manicae_) so that he might not be impeded in his
+work by the cold, and Varro (_R.R._ i. 55. 1) remarks that olives
+gathered with the bare fingers are better than those gathered with
+gloves (_digitabula_ or _digitalia_). In the northern countries the
+general use of gloves would be more natural than in the south, and it is
+not without significance that the most common medieval Latin word for
+glove (_guantus_ or _wantus_, Mod. Fr. _gant_) is of Teutonic origin (O.
+H. Ger. _want_). Thus in the life of Columbanus by Jonas, abbot of
+Bobbio (d. c. 665), gloves for protecting the hands in doing manual
+labour are spoken of as _tegumenta manuum quae Galli wantos vocant_.
+Among the Germans and Scandinavians, in the 8th and 9th centuries, the
+use of gloves, fingerless at first, would seem to have been all but
+universal; and in the case of kings, prelates and nobles they were often
+elaborately embroidered and bejewelled. This was more particularly the
+case with the gloves which formed part of the pontifical vestments (see
+below). In war and in the chase gloves of leather, or with the backs
+armoured with articulated iron plates, were early worn; yet in the
+Bayeux tapestry the warriors on either side fight ungloved. The fact
+that gloves are not represented by contemporary artists does not prove
+their non-existence, since this might easily be an omission due to lack
+of observation or of skill; but, so far as the records go, there is no
+evidence to prove that gloves were in general use in England until the
+13th century. It was in this century that ladies began to wear gloves as
+ornaments; they were of linen and sometimes reached to the elbow. It
+was, however, not till the 16th century that they reached their greatest
+elaboration, when Queen Elizabeth set the fashion for wearing them
+richly embroidered and jewelled.
+
+The symbolic sense of the middle ages early gave to the use of gloves a
+special significance. Their liturgical use by the Church is dealt with
+below (_Pontifical gloves_); this was imitated from the usage of civil
+life. Embroidered and jewelled gloves formed part of the _insignia_ of
+the emperors, and also, and that quite early, of the kings of England.
+Thus Matthew of Paris, in recording the burial of Henry II. in 1189,
+mentions that he was buried in his coronation robes, with a golden crown
+on his head and gloves on his hands. Gloves were also found on the hands
+of King John when his tomb was opened in 1797, and on those of King
+Edward I. when his tomb was opened in 1774.
+
+  See W. B. Redfern, _Royal and Historic Gloves and Shoes_, with
+  numerous examples.
+
+_Gages._--Of the symbolical uses of the glove one of the most widespread
+and important during the middle ages was the practice of tendering a
+folded glove as a gage for waging one's law. The origin of this custom
+is probably not far to seek. The promise to fulfil a judgment of a court
+of law, a promise secured by the delivery of a _wed_ or gage, is one of
+the oldest, if not the very oldest, of all enforceable contracts. This
+gage was originally a chattel of value, which had to be deposited at
+once by the defendant as security into his adversary's hand; and that
+the glove became the formal symbol of such deposit is doubtless due to
+its being the most convenient loose object for the purpose. The custom
+survived after the contract with the _vadium_, _wed_ or gage had been
+superseded by the contract with pledges (personal sureties). In the
+rules of procedure of a baronial court of the 14th century we find: "He
+shall wage his law with his folded glove (_de son gaunt plyee_) and
+shall deliver it into the hand of the other, and then take his glove
+back and find pledges for his law." The delivery of the glove had, in
+fact, become a mere ceremony, because the defendant had his sureties
+close at hand.[1]
+
+Associated with this custom was the use of the glove in the wager of
+battle (_vadium in duello_). The glove here was thrown down by the
+defendant in open court as security that he would defend his cause in
+arms; the accuser by picking it up accepted the challenge (see WAGER).
+This form is still prescribed for the challenge of the king's champion
+at the coronation of English sovereigns, and was actually followed at
+that of George IV. (see CHAMPION). The phrase "to throw down the
+gauntlet" is still in common use of any challenge.
+
+_Pledges of Service._--The use of the glove as a pledge of fulfilment is
+exemplified also by the not infrequent practice of enfeoffing vassals by
+investing them with the glove; similarly the emperors symbolized by the
+bestowal of a glove the concession of the right to found a town or to
+establish markets, mints and the like; the "hands" in the armorial
+bearings of certain German towns are really gloves, reminiscent of this
+investiture. Conversely, fiefs were held by the render of presenting
+gloves to the sovereign. Thus the manor of Little Holland in Essex was
+held in Queen Elizabeth's time by the service of one knight's fee and
+the rent of a pair of gloves turned up with hare's skin (Blount's
+_Tenures_, ed. Beckwith, p. 130). The most notable instance in England,
+however, is the grand serjeanty of finding for the king a glove for his
+right hand on coronation day, and supporting his right arm as long as he
+holds the sceptre. The right to perform this "honourable service" was
+originally granted by William the Conqueror to Bertram de Verdun,
+together with the manor of Fernham (Farnham Royal) in Buckinghamshire.
+The male descendants of Bertram performed this serjeanty at the
+coronations until the death of Theobald de Verdun in 1316, when the
+right passed, with the manor of Farnham, to Thomas Lord Furnival by his
+marriage with the heiress Joan. His son William Lord Furnival performed
+the ceremony at the coronation of Richard II. He died in 1383, and his
+daughter and heiress Jean de Furnival having married Sir Thomas Nevill,
+Lord Furnival in her right, the latter performed the ceremony at the
+coronation of Henry IV. His heiress Maud married Sir John Talbot (1st
+earl of Shrewsbury) who, as Lord Furnival, presented the glove
+embroidered with the arms of Verdun at the coronation of Henry V. When
+in 1541 Francis earl of Shrewsbury exchanged the manor of Farnham with
+King Henry VIII. for the site and precincts of the priory of Worksop in
+Nottinghamshire he stipulated that the right to perform this serjeanty
+should be reserved to him, and the king accordingly transferred the
+obligation from Farnham to Worksop. On the 3rd of April 1838 the manor
+of Worksop was sold to the duke of Newcastle and with it the right to
+perform the service, which had hitherto always been carried out by a
+descendant of Bertram de Verdun. At the coronation of King Edward VII.
+the earl of Shrewsbury disputed the duke of Newcastle's right, on the
+ground that the serjeanty was attached not to the manor but to the
+priory lands at Worksop, and that the latter had been subdivided by sale
+so that no single person was entitled to perform the ceremony and the
+right had therefore lapsed. His petition for a regrant to himself as
+lineal heir of Bertram de Verdun, however, was disallowed by the court
+of claims, and the serjeanty was declared to be attached to the manor of
+Worksop (G. Woods Wollaston, _Coronation Claims_, London, 1903, p. 133).
+
+_Presentations._--From the ceremonial and symbolic use of gloves the
+transition was easy to the custom which grew up of presenting them to
+persons of distinction on special occasions. When Queen Elizabeth
+visited Cambridge in 1578 the vice-chancellor offered her a "paire of
+gloves, perfumed and garnished with embroiderie and goldsmithe's wourke,
+price 60s.," and at the visit of James I. there in 1615 the mayor and
+corporation of the town "delivered His Majesty a fair pair of perfumed
+gloves with gold laces." It was formerly the custom in England for
+bishops at their consecrations to make presents of gloves to those who
+came to their consecration dinners and others, but this gift became such
+a burden to them that by an order in council in 1678 It was commuted for
+the payment of a sum of L50 towards the rebuilding of St Paul's.
+Serjeants at law, on their appointment, were given a pair of gloves
+containing a sum of money which was termed "regards"; this custom is
+recorded as early as 1495, when according to the _Black Book_ of
+Lincoln's Inn each of the new Serjeants received L6, 13s. 4d. and a pair
+of gloves costing 4d., and it persisted to a late period. At one time it
+was the practice for a prisoner who pleaded the king's pardon on his
+discharge to present the judges with gloves by way of a fee.
+Glove-silver, according to Jacob's _Law Dictionary_, was a name used of
+extraordinary rewards formerly given to officers of courts, &c., or of
+money given by the sheriff of a county in which no offenders were left
+for execution to the clerk of assize and judge's officers; the
+explanation of the term is that the glove given as a perquisite or fee
+was in some cases lined with money to increase its value, and thus came
+to stand for money ostensibly given in lieu of gloves. It is still the
+custom in the United Kingdom to present a pair of white gloves to a
+judge or magistrate who when he takes his seat for criminal business at
+the appointed time finds no cases for trial. By ancient custom judges
+are not allowed to wear gloves while actually sitting on the bench, and
+a witness taking the oath must remove the glove from the hand that holds
+the book. (See J. W. Norton-Kyshe, _The Law and Customs relating to
+Gloves_, London, 1901.)
+
+_Pontifical gloves_ (Lat. _chirothecae_) are liturgical ornaments
+peculiar to the Western Church and proper only to the pope, the
+cardinals and bishops, though the right to wear them is often granted by
+the Holy See to abbots, cathedral dignitaries and other prelates, as in
+the case of the other episcopal insignia. According to the present use
+the gloves are of silk and of the liturgical colour of the day, the edge
+of the opening ornamented with a narrow band of embroidery or the like,
+and the middle of the back with a cross. They may be worn only at the
+celebration of mass (except masses for the dead). In vesting, the gloves
+are put on the bishop immediately after the dalmatic, the right hand one
+by the deacon, the other by the subdeacon. They are worn only until the
+ablution before the canon of the mass, after which they may not again be
+put on.
+
+At the consecration of a bishop the consecrating prelate puts the gloves
+on the new bishop immediately after the mitre, with a prayer that his
+hands may be kept pure, so that the sacrifice he offers may be as
+acceptable as the gift of venison which Jacob, his hands wrapped in the
+skin of kids, brought to Isaac. This symbolism (as in the case of the
+other vestments) is, however, of late growth. The liturgical use of
+gloves itself cannot, according to Father Braun, be traced beyond the
+beginning of the 10th century, and their introduction was due, perhaps
+to the simple desire to keep the hands clean for the holy mysteries, but
+more probably merely as part of the increasing pomp with which the
+Carolingian bishops were surrounding themselves. From the Frankish
+kingdom the custom spread to Rome, where liturgical gloves are first
+heard of in the earlier half of the 11th century. The earliest authentic
+instance of the right to wear them being granted to a non-bishop is a
+bull of Alexander IV. in 1070, conceding this to the abbot of S. Pietro
+in Cielo d' Oro.
+
+During the middle ages the occasions on which pontifical gloves (often
+_wanti_, _guanti_, and sometimes _manicae_ in the inventories) were
+worn were not so carefully defined as now, the use varying in different
+churches. Nor were the liturgical colours prescribed. The most
+characteristic feature of the medieval pontifical glove was the ornament
+(_tasellus_, _fibula_, _monile_, _paratura_) set in the middle of the
+back of the glove. This was usually a small plaque of metal, enamelled
+or jewelled, generally round, but sometimes square or irregular in
+shape. Sometimes embroidery was substituted; still more rarely the whole
+glove was covered, even to the fingers, with elaborate needlework
+designs.
+
+Liturgical gloves have not been worn by Anglican bishops since the
+Reformation, though they are occasionally represented as wearing them on
+their effigies.
+
+  See J. Braun, S.J., _Die liturgische Gewandung_ (Freiburg im Breisgau,
+  1907), pp. 359-382, where many beautiful examples are illustrated.
+
+_Manufacture of Gloves._--Three countries, according to an old proverb,
+contribute to the making of a good glove--Spain dressing the leather,
+France cutting it and England sewing it. But the manufacture of gloves
+was not introduced into Great Britain till the 10th or 11th century. The
+incorporation of glovers of Perth was chartered in 1165, and in 1190 a
+glove-makers' gild was formed in France, with the object of regulating
+the trade and ensuring good workmanship. The glovers of London in 1349
+framed their ordinances and had them approved by the corporation, the
+city regulations at that time fixing the price of a pair of common
+sheepskin gloves at 1d. In 1464, when the gild received armorial
+bearings, they do not seem to have been very strong, but apparently
+their position improved subsequently and in 1638 they were incorporated
+as a new company. In 1580 it is recorded that both French and Spanish
+gloves were on sale in London shops, and in 1661 a company of glovers
+was incorporated at Worcester, which still remains an important seat of
+the English glove Industry. In America the manufacture of gloves dates
+from about 1760, when Sir William Johnson brought over several families
+of glove makers from Perth; these settled in Fulton county, New York,
+which is now the largest seat of the glove trade in the United States.
+
+  Gloves may be divided into two distinct categories, according as these
+  are made of leather or are woven or knitted from fibres such as silk,
+  wool or cotton. The manufacture of the latter kinds is a branch of the
+  hosiery industry. For leather gloves skins of various animals are
+  employed--deer, calves, sheep and lambs, goats and kids, &c.--but kids
+  have had nothing to do with the production of many of the "kid gloves"
+  of commerce. The skins are prepared and dressed by special processes
+  (see LEATHER) before going to the glove-maker to be cut. Owing to the
+  elastic character of the material the cutting is a delicate operation,
+  and long practice is required before a man becomes expert at it.
+  Formerly it was done by shears, the workmen following an outline
+  marked on the leather, but now steel dies are universally employed not
+  only for the bodies of the gloves but also for the thumb-pieces and
+  fourchettes or sides of the fingers. When hand sewing is employed the
+  pieces to be sewn together are placed between a pair of jaws, the
+  holding edges of which are serrated with fine saw-teeth, and the sewer
+  by passing the needle forwards and backwards between each of these
+  teeth secures neat uniform stitching. But sewing machines are now
+  widely employed on the work. The labour of making a glove is much
+  subdivided, different operators sewing different pieces, and others
+  again embroidering the back, forming the button-holes, attaching the
+  buttons, &c. After the gloves are completed, they undergo the process
+  of "laying off," in which they are drawn over metal forms, shaped like
+  a hand and heated internally by steam; in this way they are finally
+  smoothed and shaped before being wrapped in paper and packed in boxes.
+
+  Gloves made of thin india-rubber or of white cotton are worn by some
+  surgeons while performing operations, on account of the ease with
+  which they can be thoroughly sterilized.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] F. W. Maitland and W. P. Baildon, _The Court Baron_ (Selden
+    Society, London, 1891), p. 17. Maitland wrongly translates _gaunt
+    plyee_ as "twisted" glove, adding "why it should be twisted I cannot
+    say." An earlier instance of the delivery of a folded glove as gage
+    is quoted from the 13th-century Anglo-Norman poem known as _The Song
+    of Dermott and the Earl_ (ed. G. H. Orpen, Oxford, 1892) in J. H.
+    Round's _Commune of London_, p. 153.
+
+
+
+
+GLOVER, SIR JOHN HAWLEY (1829-1885), captain in the British navy,
+entered the service in 1841 and passed his examination as lieutenant in
+1849, but did not receive a commission till May 1851. He served on
+various stations, and was wounded severely in an action with the Burmese
+at Donabew (4th February 1853). But his reputation was not gained at sea
+and as a naval officer, but on shore and as an administrative official
+in the colonies. During his years of service as lieutenant in the navy
+he had had considerable experience of the coast of Africa, and had taken
+part in the expedition of Dr W. B. Baikie (1824-1864) up the Niger. On
+the 21st of April 1863 he was appointed administrator of the government
+of Lagos, and in that capacity, or as colonial secretary, he remained
+there till 1872. During this period he had been much employed in
+repelling the marauding incursions of the Ashantis. When the Ashanti war
+broke out in 1873, Captain Glover undertook the hazardous and doubtful
+task of organizing the native tribes, whom hatred of the Ashantis might
+be expected to make favourable to the British authorities--to the extent
+at least to which their fears would allow them to act. His services were
+accepted, and in September of 1873 he landed at Cape Coast, and, after
+forming a small trustworthy force of Hausa, marched to Accra. His
+influence sufficed to gather a numerous native force, but neither he nor
+anybody else could overcome their abject terror of the ferocious
+Ashantis to the extent of making them fight. In January 1874 Captain
+Glover was able to render some assistance in the taking of Kumasi, but
+it was at the head of a Hausa force. His services were acknowledged by
+the thanks of parliament and by his creation as G.C.M.G. In 1875 he was
+appointed governor of Newfoundland and held the post till 1881, when he
+was transferred to the Leeward Islands. He returned to Newfoundland in
+1883, and died in London on the 30th September 1885.
+
+  Lady Glover's _Life_ of her husband appeared in 1897.
+
+
+
+
+GLOVER, RICHARD (1712-1785), English poet, son of Richard Glover, a
+Hamburg merchant, was born in London in 1712. He was educated at Cheam
+in Surrey. While there he wrote in his sixteenth year a poem to the
+memory of Sir Isaac Newton, which was prefixed by Dr Pemberton to his
+_View of Newton's Philosophy_, published in 1728. In 1737 he published
+an epic poem in praise of liberty, _Leonidas_, which was thought to have
+a special reference to the politics of the time; and being warmly
+commended by the prince of Wales and his court, it soon passed through
+several editions. In 1739 Glover published a poem entitled _London, or
+the Progress of Commerce_; and in the same year, with a view to exciting
+the nation against the Spaniards, he wrote a spirited ballad, _Hosier's
+Ghost_, very popular in its day. He was also the author of two
+tragedies, _Boadicea_ (1753) and _Medea_ (1761), written in close
+imitation of Greek models. The success of Glover's _Leonidas_ led him to
+take considerable interest in politics, and in 1761 he entered
+parliament as member for Weymouth. He died on the 25th of November 1785.
+The _Athenaid_, an epic in thirty books, was published in 1787, and his
+diary, entitled _Memoirs of a distinguished literary and political
+Character from 1742 to 1757_, appeared in 1813. Glover was one of the
+reputed authors of _Junius_; but his claims--which were advocated in an
+_Inquiry concerning the author of the Letters of Junius_ (1815), by R.
+Duppa--rest on very slight grounds.
+
+
+
+
+GLOVERSVILLE, a city of Fulton county, New York, U.S.A., at the
+foot-hills of the Adirondacks, about 55 m. N.W. of Albany. Pop. (1890)
+13,864; (1900) 18,349, of whom 2542 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
+20,642. It is served by the Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville railway
+(connecting at Fonda, about 9 m. distant, with the New York Central),
+and by electric lines connecting with Johnstown, Amsterdam and
+Schenectady. The city has a public library (26,000 volumes in 1908), the
+Nathan Littauer memorial hospital, a state armoury and a fine government
+building. Gloversville is the principal glove-manufacturing centre in
+the United States. In 1900 Fulton county produced more than 57%, and
+Gloversville 38.8%, of all the leather gloves and mittens made in the
+United States; in 1905 Gloversville produced 29.9% of the leather gloves
+and mittens made in the United States, its products being valued at
+$5,302,196. Gloversville has more than a score of tanneries and
+leather-finishing factories, and manufactures fur goods. In 1905 the
+city's total factory product was valued at $9,340,763. The extraordinary
+localization of the glove-making industry in Gloversville, Johnstown and
+other parts of Fulton county, is an incident of much interest in the
+economic history of the United States. The industry seems to have had
+its origin among a colony of Perthshire families, including many
+glove-makers, who were settled in this region by Sir William Johnson
+about 1760. For many years the entire product seems to have been
+disposed of in the neighbourhood, but about 1809 the goods began to find
+more distant markets, and by 1825 the industry was firmly established on
+a prosperous basis, the trade being handed down from father to son. An
+interesting phase of the development is that, in addition to the factory
+work, a large amount of the industry is in the hands of "home workers"
+both in the town and country districts. Gloversville, settled originally
+about 1770, was known for some time as Stump City, its present name
+being adopted in 1832. It was incorporated as a village in 1851 and was
+chartered as a city in 1890.
+
+
+
+
+GLOW-WORM, the popular name of the wingless female of the beetle
+_Lampyris noctiluca_, whose power of emitting light has been familiar
+for many centuries. The luminous organs of the glow-worm consist of
+cells similar to those of the fat-body, grouped into paired masses in
+the ventral region of the hinder abdominal segments. The light given out
+by the wingless female insect is believed to serve as an attraction to
+the flying male, whose luminous organs remain in a rudimentary
+condition. The common glow-worm is a widespread European and Siberian
+insect, generally distributed in England and ranging in Scotland
+northwards to the Tay, but unknown in Ireland. Exotic species of
+_Lampyris_ are similarly luminous, and light-giving organs are present
+in many genera of the family _Lampyridae_ from various parts of the
+world. Frequently--as in the south European _Luciola italica_--both
+sexes of the beetle are provided with wings, and both male and female
+emit light. These luminous, winged Lampyrids are generally known as
+"fire-flies." In correspondence with their power of emitting light, the
+insects are nocturnal in habit.
+
+Elongate centipedes of the family _Geophilidae_, certain species of
+which are luminous, are sometimes mistaken for the true glow-worm.
+
+
+
+
+GLOXINIA, a charming decorative plant, botanically a species of
+_Sinningia_ (_S. speciosa_), a member of the natural order Gesneraceae
+and a native of Brazil. The species has given rise under cultivation to
+numerous forms showing a wonderful variety of colour, and hybrid forms
+have also been obtained between these and other species of _Sinningia_.
+A good strain of seed will produce many superb and charmingly coloured
+varieties, and if sown early in spring, in a temperature of 65 deg. at
+night, they may be shifted on into 6-in. pots, and in these may be
+flowered during the summer. The bulbs are kept at rest through the
+winter in dry sand, in a temperature of 50 deg., and to yield a
+succession should be started at intervals, say at the end of February
+and the beginning of April. To prolong the blooming season, use weak
+manure water when the flower-buds show themselves.
+
+
+
+
+GLUCINUM, an alternative name for Beryllium (q.v.). When L. N. Vauquelin
+in 1798 published in the _Annales de chimie_ an account of a new earth
+obtained by him from beryl he refrained from giving the substance a
+name, but in a note to his paper the editors suggested glucine, from
+[Greek: glykys], sweet, in reference to the taste of its salts, whence
+the name Glucinum or Glucinium (symbol Gl. or sometimes G). The name
+beryllium was given to the metal by German chemists and was generally
+used until recently, when the earlier name was adopted.
+
+
+
+
+GLUCK,[1] CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD (1714-1787), operatic composer, German by
+his nationality, French by his place in art, was born at Weidenwang,
+near Neumarkt, in the upper Palatinate, on the 2nd of July 1714. He
+belonged to the lower middle class, his father being gamekeeper to
+Prince Lobkowitz; but the boy's education was not neglected on that
+account. From his twelfth to his eighteenth year he frequented the
+Jesuit school of Kommotau in the neighbourhood of Prince Lobkowitz's
+estate in Bohemia, where he not only received a good general education,
+but also had lessons in music. At the age of eighteen Gluck went to
+Prague, where he continued his musical studies under Czernohorsky, and
+maintained himself by the exercise of his art, sometimes in the very
+humble capacity of fiddler at village fairs and dances. Through the
+introductions of Prince Lobkowitz, however, he soon gained access to the
+best families of the Austrian nobility; and when in 1736 he proceeded to
+Vienna he was hospitably received at his protector's palace. Here he met
+Prince Melzi, an ardent lover of music, whom he accompanied to Milan,
+continuing his education under Giovanni Battista San Martini, a great
+musical historian and contrapuntist, who was also famous in his own day
+as a composer of church and chamber music. We soon find Gluck producing
+operas at the rapid rate necessitated by the omnivorous taste of the
+Italian public in those days. Nine of these works were produced at
+various Italian theatres between 1741 and 1745. Although their artistic
+value was small, they were so favourably received that in 1745 Gluck was
+invited to London to compose for the Haymarket. The first opera produced
+there was called _La Caduta dei giganti_; it was followed by a revised
+version of one of his earlier operas. Gluck also appeared in London as a
+performer on the musical glasses (see HARMONICA).
+
+The success of his two operas, as well as that of a _pasticcio_ (i.e. a
+collection of favourite arias set to a new libretto) entitled _Piramo e
+Tisbe_, was anything but brilliant, and he accordingly left London. But
+his stay in England was not without important consequences for his
+subsequent career. Gluck at this time was rather less than an ordinary
+producer of Italian opera. Handel's well-known saying that Gluck "knew
+no more counterpoint than his cook" must be taken in connexion with the
+less well-known fact that that cook was an excellent bass singer who
+performed in many of Handel's own operas. But it indicates the musical
+reason of Gluck's failure, while Gluck himself learnt the dramatic
+reason through his surprise at finding that arias which in their
+original setting had been much applauded lost all effect when adapted to
+new words in the _pasticcio_. Irrelevant as Handel's criticism appears,
+it was not without bearing on Gluck's difficulties. The use of
+counterpoint has very little necessary connexion with contrapuntal
+display; its real and final cause is a certain depth of harmonic
+expression which Gluck attained only in his most dramatic moments, and
+for want of which he, even in his finest works, sometimes moved very
+lamely. And in later years his own mature view of the importance of
+harmony, which he upheld in long arguments with Gretry, who believed
+only in melody, shows that he knew that the dramatic expression of music
+must strike below the surface. At this early period he was simply
+producing Handelian opera in an amateurish style, suggesting an
+unsuccessful imitation of Hasse; but the failure of his _pasticcio_ is
+as significant to us as it was to him, since it shows that already the
+effect of his music depended upon its characteristic treatment of
+dramatic situations. This characterizing power was as yet not directly
+evident, and it needed all the influence of the new instrumental
+resources of the rising sonata-forms before music could pass out of what
+we may call its architectural and decorative period and enter into
+dramatic regions at all.
+
+It is highly probable that the chamber music of his master, San Martini,
+had already indicated to Gluck a new direction which was more or less
+incompatible with the older art; and there is nothing discreditable
+either to Gluck or to his contemporaries in the failure of his earlier
+works. Had the young composer been successful in the ordinary _opera
+seria_, there is reason to fear that the great dramatic reform,
+initiated by him, might not have taken place. The critical temper of the
+London public fortunately averted this calamity. It may also be assumed
+that the musical atmosphere of the English capital, and especially the
+great works of Handel, were not without beneficial influence upon the
+young composer. But of still greater importance in this respect was a
+short trip to Paris, where Gluck became for the first time acquainted
+with the classic traditions and the declamatory style of the French
+opera--a sphere of music in which his own greatest triumphs were to be
+achieved. Of these great issues little trace, however, is to be found in
+the works produced by Gluck during the fifteen years after his return
+from England. In this period Gluck, in a long course of works by no
+means free from the futile old traditions, gained technical experience
+and important patronage, though his success was not uniform. His first
+opera written for Vienna, _La Semiramide riconosciuta_, is again an
+ordinary _opera seria_, and little more can be said of _Telemacco_,
+although thirty years later Gluck was able to use most of its overture
+and an energetic duet in one of his greatest works, _Armide_.
+
+Gluck settled permanently at Vienna in 1756, having two years previously
+been appointed court chapel-master, with a salary of 2000 florins, by
+the empress Maria Theresa. He had already received the order of
+knighthood from the pope in consequence of the successful production of
+two of his works in Rome. During the long interval from 1756 to 1762
+Gluck seems to have matured his plans for the reform of the opera; and,
+barring a ballet named _Don Giovanni_, and some _airs nouveaux_ to
+French words with pianoforte accompaniment, no compositions of any
+importance have to be recorded. Several later _pieces d'occasion_, such
+as _Il Trionfo di Clelia_ (1763), are still written in the old manner,
+though already in 1762 _Orfeo ed Euridice_ shows that the composer had
+entered upon a new career. Gluck had for the first time deserted
+Metastasio for Raniero Calzabigi, who, as Vernon Lee suggests, was in
+all probability the immediate cause of the formation of Gluck's new
+ideas, as he was a hot-headed dramatic theorist with a violent dislike
+for Metastasio, who had hitherto dominated the whole sphere of operatic
+libretto.
+
+Quite apart from its significance in the history of dramatic music,
+_Orpheus_ is a work which, by its intrinsic beauty, commands the highest
+admiration. Orpheus's air, _Che faro_, is known to every one; but still
+finer is the great scena in which the poet's song softens even the
+_ombre sdegnose_ of Tartarus. The ascending passion of the entries of
+the solo (_Deh! placatevi_; _Mille pene_; _Men tiranne_), interrupted by
+the harsh but gradually softening exclamations of the Furies, is of the
+highest dramatic effect. These melodies, moreover, as well as every
+declamatory passage assigned to Orpheus, are made subservient to the
+purposes of dramatic characterization; that is, they could not possibly
+be assigned to any other person in the drama, any more than Hamlet's
+monologue could be spoken by Polonius. It is in this power of musically
+realizing a character--a power all but unknown in the serious opera of
+his day--that Gluck's genius as a dramatic composer is chiefly shown.
+After a short relapse into his earlier manner, Gluck followed up his
+_Orpheus_ by a second classical music-drama (1767) named _Alceste_. In
+his dedication of the score to the grand-duke of Tuscany, he fully
+expressed his aims, as well as the reasons for his total breach with the
+old traditions. "I shall try," he wrote, "to reduce music to its real
+function, that of seconding poetry by intensifying the expression of
+sentiments and the interest of situations without interrupting the
+action by needless ornament. I have accordingly taken care not to
+interrupt the singer in the heat of the dialogue, to wait for a tedious
+_ritornel_, nor do I allow him to stop on a sonorous vowel, in the
+middle of a phrase, in order to show the nimbleness of a beautiful voice
+in a long _cadenza_." Such theories, and the stern consistency with
+which they were carried out, were little to the taste of the
+pleasure-loving Viennese; and the success of _Alceste_, as well as that
+of _Paris and Helena_, which followed two years later, was not such as
+Gluck had desired and expected. He therefore eagerly accepted the chance
+of finding a home for his art in the centre of intellectual and more
+especially dramatic life, Paris. Such a chance was opened to him through
+the _bailli_ Le Blanc du Roullet, attache of the French embassy at
+Vienna, and a musical amateur who entered into Gluck's ideas with
+enthusiasm. A classic opera for the Paris stage was accordingly
+projected, and the friends fixed upon Racine's _Iphigenie en Aulide_.
+After some difficulties, overcome chiefly by the intervention of Gluck's
+former pupil the dauphiness Marie Antoinette, the opera was at last
+accepted and performed at the Academie de Musique, on the 19th of April
+1774.
+
+The great importance of the new work was at once perceived by the
+musical amateurs of the French capital, and a hot controversy on the
+merits of _Iphigenie_ ensued, in which some of the leading literary men
+of France took part. Amongst the opponents of Gluck were not only the
+admirers of Italian vocalization and sweetness, but also the adherents
+of the earlier French school, who refused to see in the new composer the
+legitimate successor of Lulli and Rameau. Marmontel, Laharpe and
+D'Alembert were his opponents, the Abbe Arnaud and others his
+enthusiastic friends. Rousseau took a peculiar position in the struggle.
+In his early writings he is a violent partisan of Italian music, but
+when Gluck himself appeared as the French champion Rousseau acknowledged
+the great composer's genius; although he did not always understand it,
+as for example when he suggested that in _Alceste_, "Divinites du Styx,"
+perhaps the most majestic of all Gluck's arias, ought to have been set
+as a rondo. Nevertheless in a letter to Dr Burney, written shortly
+before his death, Rousseau gives a close and appreciative analysis of
+_Alceste_, the first Italian version of which Gluck had submitted to him
+for suggestions; and when, on the first performance of the piece not
+being received favourably by the Parisian audience, the composer
+exclaimed, "_Alceste est tombee_," Rousseau is said to have comforted
+him with the flattering _bonmot_, "_Oui, mais elle est tombee du ciel_."
+The contest received a still more personal character when Piccinni, a
+celebrated and by no means incapable composer, came to Paris as the
+champion of the Italian party at the invitation of Madame du Barry, who
+held a rival court to that of the young princess (see OPERA). As a
+dramatic controversy it suggests a parallel with the Wagnerian and
+anti-Wagnerian warfare of a later age; but there is no such radical
+difference between Gluck's and Piccinni's musical methods as the
+comparison would suggest. Gluck was by far the better musician, but his
+deficiencies in musical technique were of a kind which contemporaries
+could perceive as easily as they could perceive Piccinni's. Both
+composers were remarkable inventors of melody, and both had the gift of
+making incorrect music sound agreeable. Gluck's indisputable dramatic
+power might be plausibly dismissed as irrelevant by upholders of music
+for music's sake, even if Piccinni himself had not chosen, as he did, to
+assimilate every feature in Gluck's style that he could understand. The
+rivalry between the two composers was soon developed into a quarrel by
+the skilful engineering of Gluck's enemies. In 1777 Piccinni was given a
+libretto by Marmontel on the subject of _Roland_, to Gluck's intense
+disgust, as he had already begun an opera on that subject himself. This,
+and the failure of an attempt to show his command of a lighter style by
+furbishing up some earlier works at the instigation of Marie Antoinette,
+inspired Gluck to produce his _Armide_, which appeared four months
+before Piccinni's _Roland_ was ready, and raised a storm of controversy,
+admiration and abuse. Gluck did not anticipate Wagner more clearly in
+his dramatic reforms than in his caustic temper; and, as in Gluck's own
+estimation the difference between _Armide_ and _Alceste_ is that "_l'un
+(Alceste) doit faire pleurer et l'autre faire eprouver une voluptueuse
+sensation_," it was extremely annoying for him to be told by Laharpe
+that he had made Armide a sorceress instead of an enchantress, and that
+her part was "_une criaillerie monotone et fatiguante_." He replied to
+Laharpe in a long public letter worthy of Wagner in its venomous sarcasm
+and its tremendous value as an advertisement for its recipient.
+
+Gluck's next work was _Iphigenie en Tauride_, the success of which
+finally disposed of Piccinni, who produced a work on the same subject at
+the same time and who is said to have acknowledged Gluck's superiority.
+Gluck's next work was _Echo et Narcisse_, the comparative failure of
+which greatly disappointed him; and during the composition of another
+opera, _Les Danaides_, an attack of apoplexy compelled him to give up
+work. He left Paris for Vienna, where he lived for several years in
+dignified leisure, disturbed only by his declining health. He died on
+the 15th of November 1787.     (F. H.; D. F. T.)
+
+The great interest of the dramatic aspect of Gluck's reforms is apt to
+overshadow his merit as a musician, and yet in some ways to idealize it.
+One is tempted to regard him as condoning for technical musical
+deficiencies by sheer dramatic power, whereas unprejudiced study of his
+work shows that where his dramatic power asserts itself there is no lack
+of musical technique. Indeed only a great musician could so reform opera
+as to give it scope for dramatic power at all. Where Gluck differs from
+the greatest musicians is in his absolute dependence on literature for
+his inspiration. Where his librettist failed him (as in his last
+complete work, _Echo et Narcisse_), he could hardly write tolerably good
+music; and, even in the finest works of his French period, the less
+emotional situations are sometimes set to music which has little
+interest except as a document in the history of the art. This must not
+be taken to mean merely that Gluck could not, like Mozart and nearly all
+the great song-writers, set good music to a bad text. Such inability
+would prove Gluck's superior literary taste without casting a slur on
+his musicianship. But it points to a certain weakness as a musician that
+Gluck could not be inspired except by the more thrilling portions of his
+libretti. When he was inspired there was no question that he was the
+first and greatest writer of dramatic music before Mozart. To begin
+with, he could invent sublime melodies; and his power of producing great
+musical effects by the simplest means was nothing short of Handelian.
+Moreover, in his peculiar sphere he deserves the title generally
+accorded to Haydn of "father of modern orchestration." It is misleading
+to say that he was the first to use the timbre of instruments with a
+sense of emotional effect, for Bach and Handel well knew how to give a
+whole aria or whole chorus peculiar tone by means of a definite scheme
+of instrumentation. But Gluck did not treat instruments as part of a
+decorative design, any more than he so treated musical forms. Just as
+his sense of musical form is that of Philipp Emmanuel Bach and of
+Mozart, so is his treatment of instrumental tone-colour a thing that
+changes with every shade of feeling in the dramatic situation, and not
+in accordance with any purely decorative scheme. To accompany an aria
+with strings, oboes and flutes, was, for example, a perfectly ordinary
+procedure; nor was there anything unusual in making the wind instruments
+play in unison with the strings for the first part of the aria, and
+writing a passage for one or more of them in the middle section. But it
+was an unheard-of thing to make this passage consist of long
+_appoggiaturas_ once every two bars in rising sequence on the first
+oboe, answered by deep _pizzicato_ bass notes, while Agamemnon in
+despair cries: "_J'entends retentir dans mon sein le cri plaintif de la
+nature_." Some of Gluck's most forcible effects are of great subtlety,
+as, for instance, in _Iphigenie en Tauride_, where Orestes tries to
+reassure himself by saying: "_Le calme rentre dans mon coeur_," while
+the intensely agitated accompaniment of the strings belies him. Again,
+the sense of orchestral climax shown in the oracle scene in _Alceste_
+was a thing inconceivable in older music, and unsurpassed in artistic
+and dramatic spirit by any modern composer. Its influence in Mozart's
+_Idomeneo_ is obvious at a first glance.
+
+The capacity for broad melody always implies a true sense of form,
+whether that be developed by skill or not; and thus Gluck, in rejecting
+the convenient formalities of older styles of opera, was not, like some
+reformers, without something better to substitute for them. Moreover he,
+in consultation with his librettist, achieved great skill in holding
+together entire scenes, or even entire acts, by dramatically apposite
+repetitions of short arias and choruses. And thus in large portions of
+his finest works the music, in spite of frequent full closes, seems to
+move _pari passu_ with the drama in a manner which for naturalness and
+continuity is surpassed only by the finales of Mozart and the entire
+operas of Wagner. This is perhaps most noticeable in the second act of
+_Orfeo_. In its original Italian version both scenes, that in Hades and
+that in Elysium, are indivisible wholes, and the division into single
+movements, though technically obvious, is aesthetically only a natural
+means of articulating the structure. The unity of the scene in Hades
+extends, in the original version, even to the key-system. This was
+damaged when Gluck had to transpose the part of Orpheus from an alto to
+a tenor in the French version. And here, we have one of many instances
+in which the improvements his French experience enabled him to make in
+his great Italian works were not altogether unmixed. Little harm,
+however, was done to _Orfeo_ which has not been easily remedied by
+transposing Orpheus's part back again; and in a suitable compromise
+between the two versions _Orfeo_ remains Gluck's most perfect and
+inspired work. The emotional power of the music is such that the
+inevitable spoiling of the story by a happy ending has not the aspect of
+mere conventionality which it had in cases where the music produced no
+more than the normal effect upon 18th-century audiences. Moreover
+Gluck's genius was of too high an order for him to be less successful in
+portraying a sufficiently intense happiness than in portraying grief. He
+failed only in what may be called the business capacities of artistic
+technique; and there is less "business" in _Orfeo_ than in almost any
+other music-drama. It was Gluck's first great inspiration, and his
+theories had not had time to take action in paper warfare. _Alceste_
+contains his grandest music and is also very free from weak pages; but
+in its original Italian version the third act did not give Gluck scope
+for an adequate climax. This difficulty so accentuated itself in the
+French version that after continual retouchings a part for Hercules was,
+in Gluck's absence, added by Gossec; and three pages of Gluck's music,
+dealing with the supreme crisis where Alceste is rescued from Hades
+(either by Apollo or by Hercules) were no longer required in performance
+and have been lost. The Italian version is so different from the French
+that it cannot help us to restore this passage, in which Gluck's music
+now stops short just at the point where we realize the full height of
+his power. The comparison between the Italian and French _Alceste_ is
+one of the most interesting that can be made in the study of a
+musician's development. It would have been far easier for Gluck to write
+a new opera if he had not been so justly attached to his second Italian
+masterpiece. So radical are the differences that in retranslating the
+French libretto into Italian for performance with the French music not
+one line of Calzabigi's original text can be retained.
+
+In _Iphigenie en Aulide_ and _Iphigenie en Tauride_, Gluck shows signs
+that the controversies aroused by his methods began to interfere with
+his musical spontaneity. He had not, in _Orfeo_, gone out of his way to
+avoid rondos, or we should have had no "_Che faro senza Euridice_." We
+read with a respectful smile Gluck's assurance to the bailli Le Blanc du
+Roullet that "you would not believe _Armide_ to be by the same composer"
+as _Alceste_. But there is no question that _Armide_ is a very great
+work, full of melody, colour and dramatic point; and that Gluck has
+availed himself of every suggestion that his libretto afforded for
+orchestral and emotional effects of an entirely different type from any
+that he had attempted before. And it is hardly relevant to blame him for
+his inability to write erotic music. In the first place, the libretto is
+not erotic, though the subject would no doubt become so if treated by a
+modern poet. In the second place a conflict of passions (as, for
+instance, where Armide summons the demons of Hate to exorcise love from
+her heart, and her courage fails her as soon as they begin) has never,
+even in _Alceste_, been treated with more dramatic musical force. The
+work as a whole is unequal, partly because there is a little too much
+action in it to suit Gluck's methods; but it shows, as does no other
+opera until Mozart's _Don Giovanni_, a sense of the _development_ of
+characters, as distinguished from the mere presentation of them as
+already fixed.
+
+In _Iphigenie en Aulide_ and _Iphigenie en Tauride_, the very subtlety
+of the finest features indicates a certain self-consciousness which,
+when inspiration is lacking, becomes mannerism. Moreover, in both cases
+the libretti, though skilfully managed, tell a rather more complicated
+story than those which Gluck had hitherto so successfully treated; and,
+where inspiration fails, the musical technique becomes curiously
+amateurish without any corresponding naivete. Still these works are
+immortal, and their finest passages are equal to anything in _Alceste_
+and _Orfeo_. _Echo et Narcisse_ we must, like Gluck's contemporaries,
+regard as a failure. As in _Orfeo_, the pathetic story is ruined by a
+violent happy ending, but here this artistic disaster takes place before
+the pathos has had time to assert itself. Gluck had no opportunities in
+this work for any higher qualities, musical or dramatic, than
+prettiness; and with him beauty, without visible emotion, was indeed
+skin-deep. It is a pity that the plan of the great Pelletan-Damcke
+critical _edition de luxe_ of Gluck's French operas forbids the
+inclusion of his Italian _Paride e Elena_, his third opera to
+Calzabigi's libretto, which was never given in a French version; for
+there can be no question that, whatever he owed to France, the period
+of his greatness began with his collaboration with Calzabigi.
+     (D. F. T.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Not, as frequently spelt, Gluck.
+
+
+
+
+GLUCKSBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Schleswig-Holstein, romantically situated among pine woods on the
+Flensburg Fjord off the Baltic, 6 m. N.E. from Flensburg by rail. Pop.
+(1905) 1551. It has a Protestant church and some small manufactures and
+is a favourite sea-bathing resort. The castle, which occupies the site
+of a former Cistercian monastery, was, from 1622 to 1779, the residence
+of the dukes of Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg, passing then to the king
+of Denmark and in 1866 to Prussia. King Frederick VII. of Denmark died
+here on the 15th of November 1863.
+
+
+
+
+GLUCKSTADT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Schleswig-Holstein, on the right bank of the Elbe, at the confluence of
+the small river Rhin, and 28 m. N.W. of Altona, on the railway from
+Itzehoe to Elmshorn. Pop. (1905) 6586. It has a Protestant and a Roman
+Catholic church, a handsome town-hall (restored in 1873-1874), a
+gymnasium, a provincial prison and a penitentiary. The inhabitants are
+chiefly engaged in commerce and fishing; but the frequent losses from
+inundations have greatly retarded the prosperity of the town. Gluckstadt
+was founded by Christian IV. of Denmark in 1617, and fortified in 1620.
+It soon became an important trading centre. In 1627-28 it was besieged
+for fifteen weeks by the imperialists under Tilly, without success. In
+1814 it was blockaded by the allies and capitulated, whereupon its
+fortifications were demolished. In 1830 it was made a free port. It came
+into the possession of Prussia together with the rest of
+Schleswig-Holstein in 1866.
+
+  See Lucht, _Gluckstadt. Beitrage zur Geschichte dieser Stadt_ (Kiel,
+  1854).
+
+
+
+
+GLUCOSE (from Gr. [Greek: glykys], sweet), a carbohydrate of the formula
+C6H12O6; it may be regarded as the aldehyde of sorbite. The name is
+applied in commerce to a complex mixture of carbohydrates obtained by
+boiling starch with dilute mineral acids; in chemistry, it denotes, with
+the prefixes d, l and d + l (or i), the dextro-rotatory, laevo-rotatory
+and inactive forms of the definite chemical compound defined above. The
+d modification is of the commonest occurrence, the other forms being
+only known as synthetic products; for this reason it is usually termed
+glucose, simply; alternative names are dextrose, grape sugar and
+diabetic sugar, in allusion to its right-handed optical rotation, its
+occurrence in large quantity in grapes, and in the urine of diabetic
+patients respectively. In the vegetable kingdom glucose occurs, always
+in admixture with fructose, in many fruits, especially grapes, cherries,
+bananas, &c.; and in combination, generally with phenols and aldehydes
+belonging to the aromatic series, it forms an extensive class of
+compounds termed glucosides. It appears to be synthesized in the plant
+tissues from carbon dioxide and water, formaldehyde being an
+intermediate product; or it may be a hydrolytic product of a glucoside
+or of a polysaccharose, such as cane sugar, starch, cellulose, &c. In
+the plant it is freely converted into more complex sugars,
+poly-saccharoses and also proteids. In the animal kingdom, also, it is
+very widely distributed, being sometimes a normal and sometimes a
+pathological constituent of the fluids and tissues; in particular, it is
+present in large amount in the urine of those suffering from diabetes,
+and may be present in nearly all the body fluids. It also occurs in
+honey, the white appearance of candied honey being due to its
+separation.
+
+Pure d-glucose, which may be obtained synthetically (see SUGAR) or by
+adding crystallized cane sugar to a mixture of 80% alcohol and 1/15
+volume of fuming hydrochloric acid so long as it dissolves on shaking,
+crystallizes from water or alcohol at ordinary temperatures in nodular
+masses, composed of minute six-sided plates, and containing one molecule
+of water of crystallization. This product melts at 86 deg. C., and
+becomes anhydrous when heated to 110 deg. C. The anhydrous compound can
+also be prepared, as hard crusts melting at 146 deg., by crystallizing
+concentrated aqueous solutions at 30 deg. to 35 deg. It is very soluble
+in water, but only slightly soluble in strong alcohol. Its taste is
+somewhat sweet, its sweetening power being estimated at from 1/2 to 3/5
+that of cane sugar. When heated to above 200 deg. it turns brown and
+produces caramel, a substance possessing a bitter taste, and used, in
+its aqueous solution or otherwise, under various trade names, for
+colouring confectionery, spirits, &c. The specific rotation of the plane
+of polarized light by glucose solutions is characteristic. The specific
+rotation of a freshly prepared solution is 105 deg., but this value
+gradually diminishes to 52.5 deg., 24 hours sufficing for the transition
+in the cold, and a few minutes when the solution is boiled. This
+phenomenon has been called mutarotation by T. M. Lowry. The specific
+rotation also varies with the concentration; this is due to the
+dissociation of complex molecules into simpler ones, a view confirmed by
+cryoscopic measurements.
+
+Glucose may be estimated by means of the polarimeter, i.e. by
+determining the rotation of the plane of polarization of a solution, or,
+chemically, by taking advantage of its property of reducing alkaline
+copper solutions. If a glucose solution be added to copper sulphate and
+much alkali added, a yellowish-red precipitate of cuprous hydrate
+separates, slowly in the cold, but immediately when the liquid is
+heated; this precipitate rapidly turns red owing to the formation of
+cuprous oxide. In 1846 L. C. A. Barreswil found that a strongly alkaline
+solution of copper sulphate and potassium sodium tartrate (Rochelle
+salt) remained unchanged on boiling, but yielded an immediate
+precipitate of red cuprous oxide when a solution of glucose was added.
+He suggested that the method was applicable for quantitatively
+estimating glucose, but its acceptance only followed after H. von
+Fehling's investigation. "Fehling's solution" is prepared by dissolving
+separately 34.639 grammes of copper sulphate, 173 grammes of Rochelle
+salt, and 71 grammes of caustic soda in water, mixing and making up to
+1000 ccs.; 10 ccs. of this solution is completely reduced by 0.05
+grammes of hexose. Volumetric methods are used, but the uncertainty of
+the end of the reaction has led to the suggestion of special indicators,
+or of determining the amount of cuprous oxide gravimetrically.
+
+  _Chemistry._--In its chemical properties glucose is a typical
+  oxyaldehyde or aldose. The aldehyde group reacts with hydrocyanic acid
+  to produce two stereo-isomeric cyanhydrins; this isomerism is due to
+  the conversion of an originally non-asymmetric carbon atom into an
+  asymmetric one. The cyanhydrin is hydrolysable to an acid, the lactone
+  of which may be reduced by sodium amalgam to a glucoheptose, a
+  non-fermentable sugar containing seven carbon atoms. By repeating the
+  process a non-fermentable gluco-octose and a fermentable glucononose
+  may be prepared. The aldehyde group also reacts with phenyl hydrazine
+  to form two phenylhydrazones; under certain conditions a hydroxyl
+  group adjacent to the aldehyde group is oxidized and glucosazone is
+  produced; this glucosazone is decomposed by hydrochloric acid into
+  phenyl hydrazine and the keto-aldehyde glucosone. These
+  transformations are fully discussed in the article SUGAR. On reduction
+  glucose appears to yield the hexahydric alcohol _d_-sorbite, and on
+  oxidation _d_-gluconic and _d_-saccharic acids. Alkalis partially
+  convert it into _d_-mannose and _d_-fructose. Baryta and lime yield
+  saccharates, e.g. C6H12O6.BaO, precipitable by alcohol.
+
+        CH2OH             CH2OH
+        .                 .
+        CH.OH             CH.OH
+        .                 .
+        CH                CH
+      /                /
+    O<               O<
+      \ .               \ .
+       (CH.OH)2          (CH.OH2
+        .                 .
+       HC.OH           HO.CH
+
+    [alpha]-glucose  [beta]-glucose
+
+  The constitution of glucose was established by H. Kiliani in
+  1885-1887, who showed it to be CH2OH.(CH.OH)4.CHO. The subject was
+  taken up by Emil Fischer, who succeeded in synthesizing glucose, and
+  also several of its stereo-isomers, there being 16 according to the Le
+  Bel-van't Hoff theory (see Stereo-Isomerism and Sugar). This open
+  chain structure is challenged in the views put forward by T. M. Lowry
+  and E. F. Armstrong. In 1895 C. Tanret showed that glucose existed in
+  more than one form, and he isolated [alpha], [beta] and [gamma]
+  varieties with specific rotations of 105 deg., 52.5 deg. and 22 deg.
+  It is now agreed that the [beta] variety is a mixture of the [alpha]
+  and [gamma]. This discovery explained the mutarotation of glucose. In
+  a fresh solution [alpha]-glucose only exists, but on standing it is
+  slowly transformed into [gamma]-glucose, equilibrium being reached
+  when the [alpha] and [gamma] forms are present in the ratio
+  0.368:0.632 (Tanret, _Zeit. physikal. Chem._, 1905, 53, p. 692). It is
+  convenient to refer to these two forms as [alpha] and [beta]. Lowry
+  and Armstrong represent these compounds by the following spatial
+  formulae which postulate a [gamma]-oxidic structure, and 5 asymmetric
+  carbon atoms, i.e. one more than in the Fischer formulae. These
+  formulae are supported by many considerations, especially by the
+  selective action of enzymes, which follows similar lines with the
+  [alpha]- and [beta]-glucosides, i.e. the compounds formed by the
+  interaction of glucose with substances generally containing hydroxyl
+  groups (see GLUCOSIDE).
+
+  _Fermentation of Glucose._--Glucose is readily fermentable. Of the
+  greatest importance is the alcoholic fermentation brought about by
+  yeast cells (_Saccharomyces cerevisiae seu vini_); this follows the
+  equation C6H12O6 = 2C2H6O + 2CO2, Pasteur considering 94 to 95% of the
+  sugar to be so changed. This character is the base of the plan of
+  adding glucose to wine and beer wort before fermenting, the alcohol
+  content of the liquid after fermentation being increased. Some fusel
+  oil, glycerin and succinic acid appear to be formed simultaneously,
+  but in small amount. Glucose also undergoes fermentation into lactic
+  acid (q.v.) in the presence of the lactic acid bacillus, and into
+  butyric acid if the action of the preceding ferment be continued, or
+  by other bacilli. It also yields, by the so-called mucous
+  fermentation, a mucous, gummy mass, mixed with mannitol and lactic
+  acid.
+
+  We may here notice the frequent production of glucose by the action of
+  enzymes upon other carbohydrates. Of especial note is the
+  transformation of maltose by maltase into glucose, and of cane sugar
+  by invertase into a mixture of glucose and fructose (invert sugar);
+  other instances are: lactose by lactase into galactose and glucose;
+  trehalose by trehalase into glucose; melibiose by melibiase into
+  galactose and glucose; and of melizitose by melizitase into touranose
+  and glucose, touranose yielding glucose also when acted upon by the
+  enzyme touranase.
+
+  _Commercial Glucose._--The glucose of commerce, which may be regarded
+  as a mixture of grape sugar, maltose and dextrins, is prepared by
+  hydrolysing starch by boiling with a dilute mineral acid. In Europe,
+  potato starch is generally employed; in America, corn starch. The acid
+  employed may be hydrochloric, which gives the best results, or
+  sulphuric, which is used in Germany; sulphuric acid is more readily
+  separated from the product than hydrochloric, since the addition of
+  powdered chalk precipitates it as calcium sulphate, which may be
+  removed by a filter press. The processes of manufacture have much in
+  common, although varying in detail. The following is an outline of the
+  process when hydrochloric acid is used: Starch ("green" starch in
+  America) is made into a "milk" with water, and the milk pumped into
+  boiling dilute acid contained in a closed "converter," generally made
+  of copper or cast iron; steam is led in at the same time, and the
+  pressure is kept up to about 25 lb. to the sq. in. When the converter
+  is full the pressure is raised somewhat, and the heating continued
+  until the conversion is complete. The liquid is now run into
+  neutralizing tanks containing sodium carbonate, and, after settling,
+  the supernatant liquid, termed "light liquor," is run through bag
+  filters and then on to bone-char filters, which have been previously
+  used for the "heavy liquor." The colourless or amber-coloured filtrate
+  is concentrated to 27 deg. to 28 deg. B., when it forms the "heavy
+  liquor," just mentioned. This is filtered through fresh bone-char
+  filters, from which it is discharged as a practically colourless
+  liquid. This liquid is concentrated in vacuum pans to a specific
+  gravity of 40 deg. to 44 deg. B., a small quantity of sodium
+  bisulphite solution being added to bleach it, to prevent fermentation,
+  and to inhibit browning. "Syrup glucose" is the commercial name of the
+  product; by continuing the concentration further solid glucose or
+  grape sugar is obtained.
+
+  Several brands are recognized: "Mixing glucose" is used by syrup and
+  molasses manufacturers, "jelly glucose" by makers of jellies,
+  "confectioners' glucose" in confectionery, "brewers' glucose" in
+  brewing, &c.
+
+
+
+
+GLUCOSIDE, in chemistry, the generic name of an extensive group of
+substances characterized by the property of yielding a sugar, more
+commonly glucose, when hydrolysed by purely chemical means, or
+decomposed by a ferment or enzyme. The name was originally given to
+vegetable products of this nature, in which the other part of the
+molecule was, in the greater number of cases, an aromatic aldehydic or
+phenolic compound (exceptions are sinigrin and jalapin or scammonin). It
+has now been extended to include synthetic ethers, such as those
+obtained by acting on alcoholic glucose solutions with hydrochloric
+acid, and also the polysaccharoses, e.g. cane sugar, which appear to be
+ethers also. Although glucose is the commonest sugar present in
+glucosides, many are known which yield rhamnose or iso-dulcite; these
+may be termed pentosides. Much attention has been given to the non-sugar
+parts of the molecules; the constitutions of many have been determined,
+and the compounds synthesized; and in some cases the preparation of the
+synthetic glucoside effected.
+
+The simplest glucosides are the alkyl esters which E. Fischer (_Ber._,
+28, pp. 1151, 3081) obtained by acting with hydrochloric acid on
+alcoholic glucose solutions. A better method of preparation is due to E.
+F. Armstrong and S. L. Courtauld (_Proc. Phys. Soc._, 1905, July 1),
+who dissolve solid anhydrous glucose in methyl alcohol containing
+hydrochloric acid. A mixture of [alpha]- and [beta]-glucose result,
+which are then etherified, and if the solution be neutralized before the
+[beta]-form isomerizes and the solvent removed, a mixture of the
+[alpha]- and [beta]-methyl ethers is obtained. These may be separated by
+the action of suitable ferments. Fischer found that these ethers did not
+reduce Fehling's solution, neither did they combine with phenyl
+hydrazine at 100 deg.; they appear to be stereo-isomeric [gamma]-oxidic
+compounds of the formulae I., II.: The difference between the [alpha]-
+and [beta]-forms is best shown by the selective action of enzymes.
+Fischer found that maltase, an enzyme occurring in yeast cells,
+hydrolysed [alpha]-glucosides but not the [beta]; while emulsin, an
+enzyme occurring in bitter almonds, hydrolyses the [beta] but not the
+[alpha]. The ethers of non-fermentable sugars are themselves
+non-fermentable. By acting with these enzymes on the natural glucosides,
+it is found that the majority are of the [beta]-form; e.g. emulsin
+hydrolyses salicin, helicin, aesculin, coniferin, syringin, &c.
+
+       CH2OH                   CH2OH
+       .                       .
+       CHOH                    CHOH
+       .                       .
+     / CH                    / CH
+  O <  .                  O <  .
+     \(CHOH)2                \(CHOH)2
+       .                       .
+     H.C.OCH3             CH3O.C.H
+
+  I. [alpha]-methyl     II. [beta]-methyl
+     _d_-glucoside        _d_-glucoside
+
+Classification of the glucosides is a matter of some difficulty. One
+based on the chemical constitution of the non-glucose part of the
+molecules has been proposed by Umney, who framed four groups: (1)
+ethylene derivatives, (2) benzene derivatives, (3) styrolene
+derivatives, (4) anthracene derivatives. A group may also be made to
+include the cyanogenetic glucosides, i.e. those containing prussic acid.
+J. J. L. van Rijn (_Die Glykoside_, 1900) follows a botanical
+classification, which has several advantages; in particular, plants of
+allied genera contain similar compounds. In this article the chemical
+classification will be followed. Only the more important compounds will
+be noticed, the reader being referred to van Rijn (_loc. cit._) and to
+Beilstein's _Handbuch der organischen Chemie_ for further details.
+
+  1. _Ethylene Derivatives._--These are generally mustard oils, and are
+  characterized by a burning taste; their principal occurrence is in
+  mustard and _Tropaeolum seeds_. Sinigrin or the potassium salt of
+  myronic acid, C10H16NS2KO9.H2O, occurs in black pepper and in
+  horse-radish root. Hydrolysis with baryta, or decomposition by the
+  ferment myrosin, gives glucose, allyl mustard oil and potassium
+  bisulphate. Sinalbin, C30H42N2S2O15, occurs in white pepper; it
+  decomposes to the mustard oil HO.C6H4.CH2.NCS, glucose and sinapin, a
+  compound of choline and sinapinic acid. Jalapin or scammonin,
+  C34H56O16, occurs in scammony; it hydrolyses to glucose and
+  jalapinolic acid. The formulae of sinigrin, sinalbin, sinapin and
+  jalapinolic acid are:--
+
+                 / N.C3H5                     / N.CH2.C6H4.OH
+    C6H11O5.S.C <                C6H11O5.S.C <
+                 \ O.SO2.OK                   \ O.SO2.OC16H24O5N
+              Sinigrin                     Sinalbin
+
+              (CH3O)2 \                          / (CH3)3
+                       > C6H2.CH:CH.CO.C2H4.O.N <
+                   HO /                          \ OH
+                                Sinapin
+
+                     CH3 \
+                          > CH.CH(OH).C10H20.CO2H
+                    C2H6 /
+                       Jalapinolic acid (Kramer)
+
+  2. _Benzene Derivatives._--These are generally oxy and oxyaldehydic
+  compounds. Arbutin, C12H16O7, which occurs in bearberry along with
+  methyl arbutin, hydrolyses to hydroquinone and glucose.
+  Pharmacologically it acts as a urinary antiseptic and diuretic; the
+  benzoyl derivative, cellotropin, has been used for tuberculosis.
+  Salicin, also termed "saligenin" and "glucose," C13H18O7, occurs in
+  the willow. The enzymes ptyalin and emulsin convert it into glucose
+  and saligenin, ortho-oxybenzylalcohol, HO.C6H4.CH2OH. Oxidation gives
+  the aldehyde helicin. Populin, C20H22O8, which occurs in the leaves
+  and bark of _Populus tremula_, is benzoyl salicin.
+
+  3. _Styrolene Derivatives._--This group contains a benzene and also an
+  ethylene group, being derived from styrolene C6H5.CH:CH2. Coniferin,
+  C16H22O8, occurs in the cambium of coniferous woods. Emulsin converts
+  it into glucose and coniferyl alcohol, while oxidation gives
+  glycovanillin, which yields with emulsin glucose and vanillin (see
+  EUGENOL and VANILLA). Syringin, which occurs in the bark of _Syringa
+  vulgaris_, is methoxyconiferin. Phloridzin, C21H24O10, occurs in the
+  root-bark of various fruit trees; it hydrolyses to glucose and
+  phloretin, which is the phloroglucin ester of para-oxyhydratropic acid.
+  It is related to the pentosides naringin, C21H26O11, which hydrolyses
+  to rhamnose and naringenin, the phloroglucin ester of para-oxycinnamic
+  acid, and hesperidin, C50H60O22(?), which hydrolyses to rhamnose and
+  hesperetin, C16H14O6, the phloroglucin ester of
+  meta-oxy-para-methoxycinnamic acid or isoferulic acid, C10H10O4. We may
+  here include various coumarin and benzo-[gamma]-pyrone derivatives.
+  Aesculin, C15H16O9, occurring in horse-chestnut, and daphnin, occurring
+  in _Daphne alpina_, are isomeric; the former hydrolyses to glucose and
+  aesculetin (4.5-dioxycoumarin), the latter to glucose and daphnetin
+  (3.4-dioxycoumarin). Fraxin, C16H18O10, occurring in _Fraxinus
+  excelsior_, and with aesculin in horse-chestnut, hydrolyses to glucose
+  and fraxetin, the monomethyl ester of a trioxycoumarin. Flavone or
+  benzo-[gamma]-pyrone derivatives are very numerous; in many cases they
+  (or the non-sugar part of the molecule) are vegetable dyestuffs.
+  _Quercitrin_, C21H22O12, is a yellow dyestuff found in _Quercus
+  tinctoria_; it hydrolyses to rhamnose and quercetin, a
+  dioxy-[beta]-phenyl-trioxybenzo-[gamma]-pyrone. Rhamnetin, a splitting
+  product of the glucosides of _Rhamnus_, is monomethyl quercetin;
+  fisetin, from _Rhus cotinus_, is monoxyquercetin; chrysin is
+  phenyl-dioxybenzo-[gamma]-pyrone. Saponarin, a glucoside found in
+  _Saponaria officinalis_, is a related compound. Strophanthin is the
+  name given to three different compounds, two obtained from
+  _Strophanthus Kombe_ and one from _S. hispidus_.
+
+  4. _Anthracene Derivatives._--These are generally substituted
+  anthraquinones; many have medicinal applications, being used as
+  purgatives, while one, ruberythric acid, yields the valuable dyestuff
+  madder, the base of which is alizarin (q.v.). Chrysophanic acid, a
+  dioxymethylanthraquinone, occurs in rhubarb, which also contains
+  emodin, a trioxymethylanthraquinone; this substance occurs in
+  combination with rhamnose in frangula bark.
+
+  The most important cyanogenetic glucoside is amygdalin, which occurs
+  in bitter almonds. The enzyme maltase decomposes it into glucose and
+  mandelic nitrile glucoside; the latter is broken down by emulsin into
+  glucose, benzaldehyde and prussic acid. Emulsin also decomposes
+  amygdalin directly into these compounds without the intermediate
+  formation of mandelic nitrile glucoside. Several other glucosides of
+  this nature have been isolated. The saponins are a group of substances
+  characterized by forming a lather with water; they occur in soap-bark
+  (q.v.). Mention may also be made of indican, the glucoside of the
+  indigo plant; this is hydrolysed by the indigo ferment, indimulsin, to
+  indoxyl and indiglucin.
+
+
+
+
+GLUE (from the O. Fr. _glu_, bird-lime, from the Late Lat. _glutem_,
+_glus_, glue), a valuable agglutinant, consisting of impure gelatin and
+widely used as an adhesive medium for wood, leather, paper and similar
+substances. Glues and gelatins merge into one another by imperceptible
+degrees. The difference is conditioned by the degree of purity: the more
+impure form is termed glue and is only used as an adhesive, the purer
+forms, termed gelatin, have other applications, especially in culinary
+operations and confectionery. Referring to the article GELATIN for a
+general account of this substance, it is only necessary to state here
+that gelatigenous or glue-forming tissues occur in the bones, skins and
+intestines of all animals, and that by extraction with hot water these
+agglutinating materials are removed, and the solution on evaporating and
+cooling yields a jelly-like substance--gelatin or glue.
+
+Glues may be most conveniently classified according to their sources:
+bone glue, skin glue and fish glue; these may be regarded severally as
+impure forms of bone gelatin, skin gelatin and isinglass.
+
+_Bone Glue._--For the manufacture of glue the bones are supplied fresh
+or after having been used for making soups; Indian and South American
+bones are unsuitable, since, by reason of their previous treatment with
+steam, both their fatty and glue-forming constituents have been already
+removed (to a great extent). On the average, fresh bones contain about
+50% of mineral matter, mainly calcium and magnesium phosphates, about
+12% each of moisture and fat, the remainder being other organic matter.
+The mineral matter reappears in commerce chiefly as artificial manure;
+the fat is employed in the candle, soap and glycerin industries, while
+the other organic matter supplies glue.
+
+The separation of the fat, or "de-greasing of the bones" is effected (1)
+by boiling the bones with water in open vessels; (2) by treatment with
+steam under pressure; or (3) by means of solvents. The last process is
+superseding the first two, which give a poor return of fat--a valuable
+consideration--and also involve the loss of a certain amount of glue.
+Many solvents have been proposed; the greatest commercial success
+appears to attend Scottish shale oil and natural petroleum (Russian or
+American) boiling at about 100 deg. C. The vessels in which the
+extraction is carried out consist of upright cylindrical boilers,
+provided with manholes for charging, a false bottom on which the bones
+rest, and with two steam coils--one for heating only, the other for
+leading in "live" steam. There is a pipe from the top of the vessel
+leading to a condensing plant. The vessels are arranged in batteries. In
+the actual operation the boiler is charged with bones, solvent is run
+in, and the mixture gradually heated by means of the dry coil; the
+spirit distils over, carrying with it the water present in the bones;
+and after a time the extracted fat is run off from discharge cocks in
+the bottom of the extractor.[1] A fresh charge of solvent is introduced,
+and the cycle repeated; this is repeated a third and fourth time, after
+which the bones contain only about 0.2% of fat, and a little of the
+solvent, which is removed by blowing in live steam under 70 to 80 lb.
+pressure. The de-greased bones are now cleansed from all dirt and flesh
+by rotation in a horizontal cylindrical drum covered with stout wire
+gauze. The attrition accompanying this motion suffices to remove the
+loosely adherent matter, which falls through the meshes of the gauze;
+this meal contains a certain amount of glue-forming matter, and is
+generally passed through a finer mesh, the residuum being worked up in
+the glue-house, and the flour which passes through being sold as a
+bone-meal, or used as a manure.
+
+The bones, which now contain 5 to 6% of glue-forming nitrogen and about
+60% of calcium phosphate, are next treated for glue. The most economical
+process consists in steaming the bones under pressure (15 lb. to start
+with, afterwards 5 lb.) in upright cylindrical boilers fitted with false
+bottoms. The glue-liquors collect beneath the false bottoms, and when of
+a strength equal to about 20% dry glue they are run off to the
+clarifiers. The first runnings contain about 65 to 70% of the total
+glue; a second steaming extracts another 25 to 30%. For clarifying the
+solutions, ordinary alum is used, one part being used for 200 parts of
+dry glue. The alum is added to the hot liquors, and the temperature
+raised to 100 deg.; it is then allowed to settle, and the surface scum
+removed by filtering through coarse calico or fine wire filters.
+
+The clear liquors are now concentrated to a strength of about 32% dry
+glue in winter and 35% in summer. This is invariably effected in vacuum
+pans--open boiling yields a dark-coloured and inferior product. Many
+types of vacuum plant are in use; the Yaryan form, invented by H. T.
+Yaryan, is perhaps the best, and the double effect system is the most
+efficient. After concentration the liquors are bleached by blowing in
+sulphur dioxide, manufactured by burning sulphur; by this means the
+colour can be lightened to any desired degree. The liquors are now run
+into galvanized sheet-iron troughs, 2 ft. long, 6 in. wide and 5 in.
+deep, where they congeal to a firm jelly, which is subsequently removed
+by cutting round the edges, or by warming with hot water, and turning
+the cake out. The cake is sliced to sheets of convenient thickness,
+generally by means of a wire knife, i.e. a piece of wire placed in a
+frame. Mechanical slicers acting on this principle are in use. Instead
+of allowing the solution to congeal in troughs, it may be "cast" on
+sheets of glass, the bottoms of which are cooled by running water. After
+congealing, the tremulous jelly is dried; this is an operation of great
+nicety: the desiccation must be slow and is generally effected by
+circulating a rapid current of air about the cakes supported on nets set
+in frames; it occupies from four to five days, and the cake contains on
+the average from 10 to 13% of water.
+
+_Skin Glue._--In the preparation of skin glue the materials used are the
+parings and cuttings of hides from tan-yards, the ears of oxen and
+sheep, the skins of rabbits, hares, cats, dogs and other animals, the
+parings of tawed leather, parchment and old gloves, and many other
+miscellaneous scraps of animal matter. Much experience is needed in
+order to prepare a good glue from such heterogeneous materials; one
+blending may be a success and another a failure. The raw material has
+been divided into three great divisions: (1) sheep pieces and fleshings
+(ears, &c.); (2) ox fleshings and trimmings; (3) ox hides and pieces;
+the best glue is obtained from a mixture of the hide, ear and face
+clippings of the ox and calf. The raw material or "stock" is first
+steeped for from two to ten weeks, according to its nature, in wooden
+vats or pits with lime water, and afterwards carefully dried and stored.
+The object of the lime steeping is to remove any blood and flesh which
+may be attached to the skin, and to form a lime soap with the fatty
+matter present. The "scrows" or glue pieces, which may be kept a long
+time without undergoing change, are washed with a dilute hydrochloric
+acid to remove all lime, and then very thoroughly with water; they are
+now allowed to drain and dry. The skins are then placed in hemp nets and
+introduced into an open boiler which has a false bottom, and a tap by
+which liquid may be run off. As the boiling proceeds test quantities of
+liquid are from time to time examined, and when a sample is found on
+cooling to form a stiff jelly, which happens when it contains about 32%
+dry glue, it is ready to draw off. The solution is then run to a
+clarifier, in which a temperature sufficient to keep it fluid is
+maintained, and in this way any impurity is permitted to subside. The
+glue solution is then run into wooden troughs or coolers in which it
+sets to a firm jelly. The cakes are removed as in the case of bone glue
+(see above), and, having been placed on nets, are, in the Scottish
+practice, dried by exposure to open air. This primitive method has many
+disadvantages: on a hot day the cake may become unshapely, or melt and
+slip through the net, or dry so rapidly as to crack; a frost may produce
+fissures, while a fog or mist may precipitate moisture on the surface
+and occasion a mouldy appearance. The surface of the cake, which is
+generally dull after drying, is polished by washing with water. The
+practice of boiling, clarification, cooling and drying, which has been
+already described in the case of bone glue, has been also applied to the
+separation of skin glue.
+
+_Fish Glue._--Whereas isinglass, a very pure gelatin, is yielded by the
+sounds of a limited number of fish, it is found that all fish offals
+yield a glue possessing considerable adhesive properties. The
+manufacture consists in thoroughly washing the offal with water, and
+then discharging it into extractors with live steam. After digestion,
+the liquid is run off, allowed to stand, the upper oily layer removed,
+and the lower gluey solution clarified with alum. The liquid is then
+filtered, concentrated in open vats, and bleached with sulphur
+dioxide.[2] Fish glue is a light-brown viscous liquid which has a
+distinctly disagreeable odour and an acrid taste; these disadvantages to
+its use are avoided if it be boiled with a little water and 1% of sodium
+phosphate, and 0.025% of saccharine added.
+
+_Properties of Glue._--A good quality of glue should be free from all
+specks and grit, have a uniform, light brownish-yellow, transparent
+appearance, and should break with a glassy fracture. Steeped for some
+time in cold water it softens and swells up without dissolving, and when
+again dried it ought to resume its original properties. Under the
+influence of heat it entirely dissolves in water, forming a thin syrupy
+fluid with a not disagreeable smell. The adhesiveness of different
+qualities of glue varies considerably; the best adhesive is formed by
+steeping the glue, broken in small pieces, in water until they are quite
+soft, and then placing them with just sufficient water to effect
+solution in the glue-pot. The hotter the glue, the better the joint;
+remelted glue is not so strong as the freshly prepared; and newly
+manufactured glue is inferior to that which has been long in stock. It
+is therefore seen that many factors enter into the determination of the
+cohesive power of glue; a well-prepared joint may, under favourable
+conditions, withstand a pull of about 700 lb. per sq. in. The following
+table, after Kilmarsch, shows the holding power of glued joints with
+various kinds of woods.
+
+    +---------+-----------------------------+
+    |         |       lb. per sq. in.       |
+    |  Wood.  +-------------+---------------+
+    |         | With grain. | Across grain. |
+    +---------+-------------+---------------+
+    | Beech   |     852     |     434.5     |
+    | Maple   |     484     |     346       |
+    | Oak     |     704     |     302       |
+    | Fir     |     605     |     132       |
+    +---------+-------------+---------------+
+
+  _Special Kinds of Glues, Cements, &c._--By virtue of the fact that the
+  word "glue" is frequently used to denote many adhesives, which may or
+  may not contain gelatin, there will now be given an account of some
+  special preparations. These may be conveniently divided into: (1)
+  liquid glues, mixtures containing gelatin which do not jelly at
+  ordinary temperatures but still possess adhesive properties; (2)
+  water-proof glues, including mixtures containing gelatin, and also the
+  "marine glues," which contain no glue; (3) glues or cements for
+  special purposes, e.g. for cementing glass, pottery, leather, &c., for
+  cementing dissimilar materials, such as paper or leather to iron.
+
+  _Liquid Glues._--The demand for liquid glues is mainly due to the
+  disadvantages--the necessity of dissolving and using while hot--of
+  ordinary glue. They are generally prepared by adding to a warm glue
+  solution some reagent which destroys the property of gelatinizing. The
+  reagents in common use are acetic acid; magnesium chloride, used for a
+  glue employed by printers; hydrochloric acid and zinc sulphate; nitric
+  acid and lead sulphate; and phosphoric acid and ammonium carbonate.
+
+  _Water-proof Glues._--Numerous recipes for water-proof glues have been
+  published; glue, having been swollen by soaking in water, dissolved in
+  four-fifths its weight of linseed oil, furnishes a good water-proof
+  adhesive; linseed oil varnish and litharge, added to a glue solution,
+  is also used; resin added to a hot glue solution in water, and
+  afterwards diluted with turpentine, is another recipe; the best glue
+  is said to be obtained by dissolving one part of glue in one and a
+  half parts of water, and then adding one-fiftieth part of potassium
+  bichromate. Alcoholic solutions of various gums, and also tannic acid,
+  confer the same property on glue solutions. The "marine glues" are
+  solutions of india-rubber, shellac or asphaltum, or mixtures of these
+  substances, in benzene or naphtha. Jeffrey's marine glue is formed by
+  dissolving india-rubber in four parts of benzene and adding two parts
+  of shellac; it is extensively used, being easily applied and drying
+  rapidly and hard. Another water-proof glue which contains no gelatin
+  is obtained by heating linseed oil with five parts of quicklime; when
+  cold it forms a hard mass, which melts on heating like ordinary glue.
+
+  _Special Glues._--There are innumerable recipes for adhesives
+  specially applicable to certain substances and under certain
+  conditions. For repairing glass, ivory, &c. isinglass (q.v.), which
+  may be replaced by fine glue, yields valuable cements; bookbinders
+  employ an elastic glue obtained from an ordinary glue solution and
+  glycerin, the water being expelled by heating; an efficient cement for
+  mounting photographs is obtained by dissolving glue in ten parts of
+  alcohol and adding one part of glycerin; portable or mouth glue--so
+  named because it melts in the mouth--is prepared by dissolving one
+  part of sugar in a solution of four parts of glue. An india-rubber
+  substitute is obtained by adding sodium tungstate and hydrochloric
+  acid to a strong glue solution; this preparation may be rolled out
+  when heated to 60 deg.
+
+  For further details see Thomas Lambert, _Glue, Gelatine and their
+  Allied Products_ (London, 1905); R. L. Fernbach, _Glues and Gelatine_
+  (1907); H. C. Standage, _Agglutinants of all Kinds for all Purposes_
+  (1907).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] This fat contains a small quantity of solvent, which is removed
+    by heating with steam, when the solvent distils off. Hot water is
+    then run in to melt the fat, which rises to the surface of the water
+    and is floated off. Another boiling with water, and again floating
+    off, frees the fat from dirt and mineral matter, and the product is
+    ready for casking.
+
+  [2] The residue in the extractors is usually dried in steam-heated
+    vessels, and mixed with potassium and magnesium salts; the product is
+    then put on the market as fish-potash guano.
+
+
+
+
+GLUTARIC ACID, or NORMAL PYROTARIC ACID, HO2C.CH2.CH2.CH2.CO2H, an
+organic acid prepared by the reduction of [alpha]-oxyglutaric acid with
+hydriodic acid, by reducing glutaconic acid, HO2C.CH2.CH:CH.CO2H, with
+sodium amalgam, by conversion of trimethylene bromide into the cyanide
+and hydrolysis of this compound, or from acetoacetic ester, which, in
+the form of its sodium derivative, condenses with [beta]-iodopropionic
+ester to form acetoglutaric ester, CH3.CO.CH(CO2C2H5).CH2.CH2.CO2C2H5,
+from which glutaric acid is obtained by hydrolysis. It is also obtained
+when sebacic, stearic and oleic acids are oxidized with nitric acid. It
+crystallizes in large monoclinic prisms which melt at 97.5 deg. C., and
+distils between 302 deg. and 304 deg. C., practically without
+decomposition. It is soluble in water, alcohol and ether. By long
+heating the acid is converted into its anhydride, which, however, is
+obtained more readily by heating the silver salt of the acid with acetyl
+chloride. By distillation of the ammonium salt glutarimide,
+CH2(CH2.CO)2NH, is obtained; it forms small crystals melting at 151 deg.
+to 152 deg. C. and sublimes unchanged.
+
+  On the alkyl glutaric acids, see C. Hell (_Ber._, 1889, 22, pp. 48,
+  60), C. A. Bischoff (_Ber._, 1891, 24, p. 1041), K. Auwers (_Ber._,
+  1891, 24, p. 1923) and W. H. Perkin, junr. (_Journ. Chem. Soc._, 1896,
+  69, p. 268).
+
+
+
+
+GLUTEN, a tough, tenacious, ductile, somewhat elastic, nearly tasteless
+and greyish-yellow albuminous substance, obtained from the flour of
+wheat by washing in water, in which it is insoluble. Gluten, when dried,
+loses about two-thirds of its weight, becoming brittle and
+semi-transparent; when strongly heated it crackles and swells, and burns
+like feather or horn. It is soluble in strong acetic acid, and in
+caustic alkalis, which latter may be used for the purification of starch
+in which it is present. When treated with .1 to .2% solution of
+hydrochloric acid it swells up, and at length forms a liquid resembling
+a solution of albumin, and laevorotatory as regards polarized light.
+Moistened with water and exposed to the air gluten putrefies, and
+evolves carbon dioxide, hydrogen and sulphuretted hydrogen, and in the
+end is almost entirely resolved into a liquid, which contains leucin and
+ammonium phosphate and acetate. On analysis gluten shows a composition
+of about 53% of carbon, 7% of hydrogen, and nitrogen 15 to 18%, besides
+oxygen, and about 1% of sulphur, and a small quantity of inorganic
+matter. According to H. Ritthausen it is a mixture of _glutencasein_
+(Liebig's vegetable fibrin), _glutenfibrin_, _gliadin_ (Pflanzenleim),
+_glutin_ or vegetable gelatin, and _mucedin_, which are all closely
+allied to one another in chemical composition. It is the gliadin which
+confers upon gluten its capacity of cohering to form elastic masses, and
+of separating readily from associated starch. In the so-called gluten of
+the flour of barley, rye and maize, this body is absent (H. Ritthausen
+and U. Kreusler). The gluten yielded by wheat which has undergone
+fermentation or has begun to sprout is devoid of toughness and
+elasticity. These qualities can be restored to it by kneading with salt,
+lime-water or alum. Gluten is employed in the manufacture of gluten
+bread and biscuits for the diabetic, and of chocolate, and also in the
+adulteration of tea and coffee. For making bread it must be used fresh,
+as otherwise it decomposes, and does not knead well. Granulated gluten
+is a kind of vermicelli, made in some starch manufactories by mixing
+fresh gluten with twice its weight of flour, and granulating by means of
+a cylinder and contained stirrer, each armed with spikes, and revolving
+in opposite directions. The process is completed by the drying and
+sifting of the granules.
+
+
+
+
+GLUTTON, or WOLVERINE (_Gulo luscus_), a carnivorous mammal belonging to
+the _Mustelidae_, or weasel family, and the sole representative of its
+genus. The legs are short and stout, with large feet, the toes of which
+terminate in strong, sharp claws considerably curved. The mode of
+progression is semi-plantigrade. In size and form the glutton is
+something like the badger, measuring from 2 to 3 ft. in length,
+exclusive of the thick bushy tail, which is about 8 in. long. The head
+is broad, the eyes are small and the back arched. The fur consists of an
+undergrowth of short woolly hair, mixed with long straight hairs, to the
+abundance and length of which on the sides and tail the creature owes
+its shaggy appearance. The colour of the fur is blackish-brown, with a
+broad band of chestnut stretching from the shoulders along each side of
+the body, the two meeting near the root of the tail. Unlike the majority
+of arctic animals, the fur of the glutton in winter grows darker. Like
+other _Mustelidae_, the glutton is provided with anal glands, which
+secrete a yellowish fluid possessing a highly foetid odour. It is a
+boreal animal, inhabiting the northern regions of both hemispheres, but
+most abundant in the circumpolar area of the New World, where it occurs
+throughout the British provinces and Alaska, being specially numerous in
+the neighbourhood of the Mackenzie river, and extending southwards as
+far as New York and the Rocky Mountains. The wolverine is a voracious
+animal, and also one with an inquisitive disposition. It feeds on
+grouse, the smaller rodents and foxes, which it digs from their burrows
+during the breeding-season; but want of activity renders it dependent
+for most of its food on dead carcases, which it frequently obtains by
+methods that have made it peculiarly obnoxious to the hunter and
+trapper. Should the hunter, after succeeding in killing his game, leave
+the carcase insufficiently protected for more than a single night, the
+glutton, whose fear of snares is sufficient to prevent him from touching
+it during the first night, will, if possible, get at and devour what he
+can on the second, hiding the remainder beneath the snow. It annoys the
+trapper by following up his lines of marten-traps, often extending to a
+length of 40 to 50 m., each of which it enters from behind, extracting
+the bait, pulling up the traps, and devouring or concealing the
+entrapped martens. So persistent is the glutton in this practice, when
+once it discovers a line of traps, that its extermination along the
+trapper's route is a necessary preliminary to the success of his
+business. This is no easy task, as the glutton is too cunning to be
+caught by the methods successfully employed on the other members of the
+weasel family. The trap generally used for this purpose is made to
+resemble a cache, or hidden store of food, such as the Indians and
+hunters are in the habit of forming, the discovery and rifling of which
+is one of the glutton's most congenial occupations--the bait, instead of
+being paraded as in most traps, being carefully concealed, to lull the
+knowing beast's suspicions. One of the most prominent characteristics of
+the wolverine is its propensity to steal and hide things, not merely
+food which it might afterwards need, or traps which it regards as
+enemies, but articles which cannot possibly have any interest except
+that of curiosity. The following instance of this is quoted by Dr E.
+Coues in his work on the _Fur-bearing Animals of North America_: "A
+hunter and his family having left their lodge unguarded during their
+absence, on their return found it completely gutted--the walls were
+there, but nothing else. Blankets, guns, kettles, axes, cans, knives and
+all the other paraphernalia of a trapper's tent had vanished, and the
+tracks left by the beast showed who had been the thief. The family set
+to work, and, by carefully following up all his paths, recovered, with
+some trifling exceptions, the whole of the lost property." The cunning
+displayed by the glutton in unravelling the snares set for it forms at
+once the admiration and despair of every trapper, while its great
+strength and ferocity render it a dangerous antagonist to animals larger
+than itself, occasionally including man. The rutting-season occurs in
+March, and the female, secure in her burrow, produces her young--four or
+five at a birth--in June or July. In defence of these, she is
+exceedingly bold, and the Indians, according to Dr Coues, "have been
+heard to say that they would sooner encounter a she-bear with her cubs
+than a carcajou (the Indian name of the glutton) under the same
+circumstances." On catching sight of its enemy, man, the wolverine
+before finally determining on flight, is said to sit on its haunches,
+and, in order to get a clearer view of the danger, shade its eyes with
+one of its fore-paws. When pressed for food it becomes fearless, and has
+been known to come on board an ice-bound vessel, and in presence of the
+crew seize a can of meat. The glutton is valuable for its fur, which,
+when several skins are sewn together, forms elegant hearth and carriage
+rugs.     (R. L.*)
+
+[Illustration: The Glutton, or Wolverine (_Gulo luscus_).]
+
+
+
+
+GLYCAS, MICHAEL, Byzantine historian (according to some a Sicilian,
+according to others a Corfiote), flourished during the 12th century A.D.
+His chief work is his _Chronicle_ of events from the creation of the
+world to the death of Alexius I. Comnenus(1118). It is extremely brief
+and written in a popular style, but too much space is devoted to
+theological and scientific matters. Glycas was also the author of a
+theological treatise and a number of letters on theological questions. A
+poem of some 600 "political" verses, written during his imprisonment on
+a charge of slandering a neighbour and containing an appeal to the
+emperor Manuel, is still extant. The exact nature of his offence is not
+known, but the answer to his appeal was that he was deprived of his
+eyesight by the emperor's orders.
+
+  Editions: "Chronicle and Letters," in J. P. Migne, _Patrologia
+  Graeca_, clviii.; poem in E. Legrand, _Bibliotheque grecque vulgaire_,
+  i.; see also F. Hirsch, _Byzantinische Studien_ (1876); C. Krumbacher
+  in _Sitzungsberichte bayer. Acad._, 1894; C. F. Bahr in Ersch and
+  Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopadie_.
+
+
+
+
+GLYCERIN, GLYCERINE or GLYCEROL (in pharmacy _Glycerinum_) (from Gr.
+[Greek: glykys], sweet), a trihydric alcohol, trihydroxypropane,
+C3H5(OH)3. It is obtainable from most natural fatty bodies by the action
+of alkalis and similar reagents, whereby the fats are decomposed, water
+being taken up, and glycerin being formed together with the alkaline
+salt of some particular acid (varying with the nature of the fat). Owing
+to their possession of this common property, these natural fatty bodies
+and various artificial derivatives of glycerin, which behave in the same
+way when treated with alkalis, are known as glycerides. In the ordinary
+process of soap-making the glycerin remains dissolved in the aqueous
+liquors from which the soap is separated.
+
+Glycerin was discovered in 1779 by K. W. Scheele and named _Olsuss_
+(_principe doux des huiles_--sweet principle of oils), and more fully
+investigated subsequently by M. E. Chevreul, who named it glycerin, M.
+P. E. Berthelot, and many other chemists, from whose researches it
+results that glycerin is a trihydric alcohol indicated by the formula
+C3H5(OH)3, the natural fats and oils, and the glycerides generally,
+being substances of the nature of compound esters formed from glycerin
+by the replacement of the hydrogen of the OH groups by the radicals of
+certain acids, called for that reason "fatty acids." The relationship of
+these glycerides to glycerin is shown by the series of bodies formed
+from glycerin by replacement of hydrogen by "stearyl" (C18H35O), the
+radical of stearic acid (C18H35O.OH):--
+
+  Glycerin.   Monostearin.      Distearin.      Tristearin.
+
+  CH2.OH     CH2.O(C18H35O)   CH2.O(C18H35O)   CH2.O(C18H35O)
+  |          |                |                |
+  CH.OH      CH.OH            CH.O(C18H35O)    CH.O(C18H35O)
+  |          |                |                |
+  CH2.OH     CH2.OH           CH2.OH           CH2.O(C18H35O)
+
+The process of saponification may be viewed as the gradual progressive
+transformation of tristearin, or some analogously constituted substance,
+into distearin, monostearin and glycerin, or as the similar
+transformation of a substance analogous to distearin or to monostearin
+into glycerin. If the reaction is brought about in presence of an
+alkali, the acid set free becomes transformed into the corresponding
+alkaline salt; but if the decomposition is effected without the presence
+of an alkali (i.e. by means of water alone or by an acid), the acid set
+free and the glycerin are obtained together in a form which usually
+admits of their ready separation. It is noticeable that with few
+exceptions the fatty and oily matters occurring in nature are substances
+analogous to tristearin, i.e. they are trebly replaced glycerins.
+Amongst these glycerides may be mentioned the following:
+
+  _Tristearin_--C3H5(O.C18H35O)3. The chief constituent of hard animal
+  fats, such as beef and mutton tallow, &c.; also contained in many
+  vegetable fats in smaller quantity.
+
+  _Triolein_--C3H5(O.C18H33O)3. Largely present in olive oil and other
+  saponifiable vegetable oils and soft fats; also present in animal
+  fats, especially hog's lard.
+
+  _Tripalmitin_--C3H5(O.C16H31O)3. The chief constituent of palm oil;
+  also contained in greater or less quantities in human fat, olive oil,
+  and other animal and vegetable fats.
+
+  _Triricinolein_--C3H5(O.C18H33O2)3. The main constituent of castor
+  oil.
+
+Other analogous glycerides are apparently contained in greater or
+smaller quantity in certain other oils. Thus in cows' butter,
+_tributyrin_, C3H5(O.C4H7O)3, and the analogous glycerides of other
+readily volatile acids closely resembling butyric acid, are present in
+small quantity; the production of these acids on saponification and
+distillation with dilute sulphuric acid is utilized as a test of a
+purity of butter as sold. _Triacetin_, C3H5(O.C2H3O)3, is apparently
+contained in cod-liver oil. Some other glycerides isolated from natural
+sources are analogous in composition to tristearin, but with this
+difference, that the three radicals which replace hydrogen in glycerin
+are not all identical; thus kephalin, myelin and lecithin are glycerides
+in which two hydrogens are replaced by fatty acid radicals, and the
+third by a complex phosphoric acid derivative.
+
+Glycerin is also a product of certain kinds of fermentation, especially
+of the alcoholic fermentation of sugar; consequently it is a constituent
+of many wines and other fermented liquors. According to Louis Pasteur,
+about 1/30th of the sugar transformed under ordinary conditions in the
+fermentation of grape juice and similar saccharine liquids into alcohol
+and other products become converted into glycerin. In certain natural
+fatty substances, e.g. palm oil, it exists in the free state, so that it
+can be separated by washing with boiling water, which dissolves the
+glycerin but not the fatty glycerides.
+
+_Properties._--Glycerin is a viscid, colourless liquid of sp. gr. 1.265
+at 15 deg. C., possessing a somewhat sweet taste; below 0 deg. C. it
+solidifies to a white crystalline mass, which melts at 17 deg. C. When
+heated alone it partially volatilizes, but the greater part decomposes;
+under a pressure of 12 mm. of mercury it boils at 170 deg. C. In an
+atmosphere of steam it distils without decomposition under ordinary
+barometric pressure. It dissolves readily in water and alcohol in all
+proportions, but is insoluble in ether. It possesses considerable
+solvent powers, whence it is employed for numerous purposes in pharmacy
+and the arts. Its viscid character, and its non-liability to dry and
+harden by exposure to air, also fit it for various other uses, such as
+lubrication, &c., whilst its peculiar physical characters, enabling it
+to blend with either aqueous or oily matters under certain
+circumstances, render it a useful ingredient in a large number of
+products of varied kinds.
+
+  _Manufacture._--The simplest modes of preparing pure glycerin are
+  based on the saponification of fats, either by alkalis or by
+  superheated steam, and on the circumstance that, although glycerin
+  cannot be distilled by itself under the ordinary pressure without
+  decomposition, it can be readily volatilized in a current of
+  superheated steam. Commercial glycerin is mostly obtained from the
+  "spent lyes" of the soap-maker. In the van Ruymbeke process the spent
+  lyes are allowed to settle, and then treated with "persulphate of
+  iron," the exact composition of which is a trade secret, but it is
+  possibly a mixture of ferric and ferrous sulphates. Ferric hydrate,
+  iron soaps and all insoluble impurities are precipitated. The liquid
+  is filter-pressed, and any excess of iron in the filtrate is
+  precipitated by the careful addition of caustic soda and then removed.
+  The liquid is then evaporated under a vacuum of 27 to 28 in. of
+  mercury, and, when of specific gravity 1.295 (corresponding to about
+  80% of glycerin), it is distilled under a vacuum of 28 to 29 in. In
+  the Glatz process the lye is treated with a little milk of lime, the
+  liquid then neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and the liquid
+  filtered. Evaporation and subsequent distillation under a high vacuum
+  gives crude glycerin. The impure glycerin obtained as above is
+  purified by redistillation in steam and evaporation in vacuum pans.
+
+  _Technical Uses._--Besides its use as a starting-point in the
+  production of "nitroglycerin" (q.v.) and other chemical products,
+  glycerin is largely employed for a number of purposes in the arts, its
+  application thereto being due to its peculiar physical properties.
+  Thus its non-liability to freeze (when not absolutely anhydrous, which
+  it practically never is when freely exposed to the air) and its
+  non-volatility at ordinary temperatures, combined with its power of
+  always keeping fluid and not drying up and hardening, render it
+  valuable as a lubricating agent for clockwork, watches, &c., as a
+  substitute for water in wet gas-meters, and as an ingredient in
+  cataplasms, plasters, modelling clay, pasty colouring matters, dyeing
+  materials, moist colours for artists, and numerous other analogous
+  substances which are required to be kept in a permanently soft
+  condition. Glycerin acts as a preservative against decomposition,
+  owing to its antiseptic qualities, which also led to its being
+  employed to preserve untanned leather (especially during transit when
+  exported, the hides being, moreover, kept soft and supple); to make
+  solutions of gelatin, albumen, gum, paste, cements, &c. which will
+  keep without decomposition; to preserve meat and other edibles; to
+  mount anatomical preparations; to preserve vaccine lymph unchanged;
+  and for many similar purposes. Its solvent power is also utilized in
+  the production of various colouring fluids, where the colouring matter
+  would not dissolve in water alone; thus aniline violet, the tinctorial
+  constituents of madder, and various allied colouring matters dissolve
+  in glycerin, forming liquids which remain coloured even when diluted
+  with water, the colouring matters being either retained in suspension
+  or dissolved by the glycerin present in the diluted fluid. Glycerin is
+  also employed in the manufacture of formic acid (q.v.). Certain kinds
+  of copying inks are greatly improved by the substitution of glycerin,
+  in part or entirely, for the sugar or honey usually added.
+
+  In its medicinal use glycerin is an excellent solvent for such
+  substances as iodine, alkaloids, alkalis, &c., and is therefore used
+  for applying them to diseased surfaces, especially as it aids in their
+  absorption. It does not evaporate or turn rancid, whilst its marked
+  hygroscopic action ensures the moistness and softness of any surface
+  that it covers. Given by the mouth glycerin produces purging if large
+  doses are administered, and has the same action if only a small
+  quantity be introduced into the rectum. For this purpose it is very
+  largely used either as a suppository or in the fluid form (one or two
+  drachms). The result is prompt, safe and painless. Glycerin is useless
+  as a food and is not in any sense a substitute for cod-liver oil. Very
+  large doses in animals cause lethargy, collapse and death.
+
+
+
+
+GLYCOLS, in organic chemistry, the generic name given to the aliphatic
+dihydric alcohols. These compounds may be obtained by heating the
+alkylen iodides or bromides (e.g. ethylene dibromide) with silver
+acetate or with potassium acetate and alcohol, the esters so produced
+being then hydrolysed with caustic alkalis, thus:
+
+  C2H4Br2 + 2 C2H3O2.Ag --> C2H4(O.C2H3O)2 --> C2H4(OH)2 + 2 K.C2H3O2;
+
+by the direct union of water with the alkylen oxides; by oxidation of
+the olefines with cold potassium permanganate solution (G. Wagner,
+_Ber._, 1888, 21, p. 1231), or by the action of nitrous acid on the
+diamines.
+
+Glycols may be classified as _primary_, containing two -CH2OH groups;
+_primary-secondary_, containing the grouping -CH(OH).CH2OH; _secondary_,
+with the grouping -CH(OH).CH(OH)-; and _tertiary_, with the grouping
+>C(OH).(OH)C<. The secondary glycols are prepared by the action of
+alcoholic potash on aldehydes, thus:
+
+  3(CH3)2CH.CHO + KHO = (CH3)2CHCO2K + (CH3)2CH.CH(OH).CH(OH).CH(CH3)2.
+
+The tertiary glycols are known as _pinacones_ and are formed on the
+reduction of ketones with sodium amalgam.
+
+The glycols are somewhat thick liquids, of high boiling point, the
+pinacones only being crystalline solids; they are readily soluble in
+water and alcohol, but are insoluble in ether. By the action of
+dehydrating agents they are converted into aldehydes or ketones. In
+their general behaviour towards oxidizing agents the primary glycols
+behave very similarly to the ordinary primary alcohols (q.v.), but the
+secondary and tertiary glycols break down, yielding compounds with a
+smaller carbon content.
+
+  Ethylene glycol, C2H4(OH)2, was first prepared by A. Wurtz (_Ann.
+  chim._, 1859 [3], 55, p. 400) from ethylene dibromide and silver
+  acetate. It is a somewhat pleasant smelling liquid, boiling at 197
+  deg. to 197.5 deg. C. and having a specific gravity of 1.125 (0 deg.).
+  On fusion with solid potash at 250 deg. C. it completely decomposes,
+  giving potassium oxalate and hydrogen,
+
+    C2H6O2 + 2 KHO = K2C2O4 + 4H2.
+
+  Two propylene glycols, C3H8O2, are known, viz. [alpha]-propylene
+  glycol, CH3.CH(OH).CH2OH, a liquid boiling at 188 deg. to 189 deg.,
+  and obtained by heating glycerin with sodium hydroxide and distilling
+  the mixture; and trimethylene glycol, CH2OH.CH2.CH2OH, a liquid
+  boiling at 214 deg. C. and prepared by boiling trimethylene bromide
+  with potash solution (A. Zander, _Ann._, 1882, 214, p. 178).
+
+
+
+
+GLYCONIC (from Glycon, a Greek lyric poet), a form of verse, best known
+in Catullus and Horace (usually in the catalectic variety _ [u_] _ u u _
+u [u_]), with three feet--a spondee and two dactyls; or four--three
+trochees and a dactyl, or a dactyl and three chorees. Sir R. Jebb
+pointed out that the last form might be varied by placing the dactyl
+second or third, and according to its place this verse was called a
+First, Second or Third Glyconic.
+
+  Cf. J. W. White, in _Classical Quarterly_ (Oct. 1909).
+
+
+
+
+GLYPH (from Gr. [Greek: glyphein], to carve), in architecture, a
+vertical channel in a frieze (see TRIGLYPH).
+
+
+
+
+GLYPTODON (Greek for "fluted-tooth"), a name applied by Sir R. Owen to
+the typical representative of a group of gigantic, armadillo-like, South
+American, extinct Edentata, characterized by having the carapace
+composed of a solid piece (formed by the union of a multitude of bony
+dermal plates) without any movable rings. The facial portion of the
+skull is very short; a long process of the maxillary bone descends from
+the anterior part of the zygomatic arch; and the ascending ramus of the
+mandible is remarkably high. The teeth, 8/8 in the later species, are
+much alike, having two deep grooves or flutings on each side, so as to
+divide them into three distinct lobes (fig.). They are very tall and
+grew throughout life. The vertebral column is almost entirely welded
+into a solid tube, but there is a complex joint at the base of the neck,
+to allow the head being retracted within the carapace. The limbs are
+very strong, and the feet short and broad, resembling externally those
+of an elephant or tortoise.
+
+[Illustration: Two views of the tooth of a _Glyptodon_; the upper figure
+showing one side, and the lower the crown.]
+
+  Glyptodonts constitute a family, the _Glyptodontidae_, whose position
+  is next to the armadillos (_Dasypodidae_); the group being represented
+  by a number of generic types. The Pleistocene forms, whose remains
+  occur abundantly in the silt of the Buenos Aires pampas, are by far
+  the largest, the skull and tail-sheath in some instances having a
+  length of from 12 to 16 ft. In _Glyptodon_ (with which
+  _Schistopleurum_ is identical) the tail-sheath consists of a series of
+  coronet-like rings, gradually diminishing in diameter from base to
+  tip. _Daedicurus_, in which the tail-sheath is in the form of a huge
+  solid club, is the largest member of the family, in _Panochthus_ and
+  _Sclerocalyptus_ (_Hoplophorus_) the tail-sheath consists basally of a
+  small number of smooth rings, and terminally of a tube. In some
+  specimens of these genera the horny shields covering the bony scutes
+  of the carapace have been preserved, and since the foramina, which
+  often pierce the latter, stop short of the former, it is evident that
+  these were for the passage of blood-vessels and not receptacles for
+  bristles. In the early Pleistocene epoch, when South America became
+  connected with North America, some of the glyptodonts found their way
+  into the latter continent. Among these northern forms some from Texas
+  and Florida have been referred to _Glyptodon_. One large species from
+  Texas has, however, been made the type of a separate genus, under the
+  name of _Glyptotherium texanum_. In some respects it shows affinity
+  with _Panochthus_, although in the simple structure of the tail-sheath
+  it recalls the undermentioned _Propalaeohoplophorus_. All the above
+  are of Pleistocene and perhaps Pliocene age, but in the Santa Cruz
+  beds of Patagonia there occur the two curious genera
+  _Propalaeohoplophorus_ and _Peltephilus_, the former of which is a
+  primitive and generalized type of glyptodont, while the latter seems
+  to come nearer to the armadillos. Both are represented by species of
+  comparatively small size. In _Propalaeohoplophorus_ the scutes of the
+  carapace, which are less deeply sculptured than in the larger
+  glyptodonts, are arranged in distinct transverse rows, in three of
+  which they partially overlap near the border of the carapace after the
+  fashion of the armadillos. The skull and limb-bones exhibit several
+  features met with in the latter, and the vertebrae of the back are not
+  welded into a continuous tube. There are eight pairs of teeth, the
+  first four of which are simpler than the rest, and may perhaps
+  therefore be regarded as premolars. More remarkable is _Peltephilus_,
+  on account of the fact that the teeth, which are simple, with a
+  chevron-shaped section, form a continuous series from the front of the
+  jaw backwards, the number of pairs being seven. Accordingly, a
+  modification of the character, even of the true Edentata, as given in
+  the earlier article, is rendered necessary. The head bears a pair of
+  horn-like scutes, and the scutes of the carapace and tail, which are
+  loosely opposed or slightly overlapping, form a number of transverse
+  rows.
+
+  LITERATURE.--R. Lydekker, "The Extinct Edentates of Argentina," _An.
+  Mus. La Plata_--_Pal. Argent._ vol. iii. p. 2 (1904); H. F. Osborn,
+  "'Glyptotherium texanum,' a Glyptodont from the Lower Pleistocene of
+  Texas," _Bull. Amer. Mus._, vol. xvii. p. 491 (1903); W. B. Scott,
+  "Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds--Edentata," _Rep. Princeton Exped. to
+  Patagonia_, vol. v. (1903-1904).     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+GLYPTOTHEK (from Gr. [Greek: glyptos], carved, and [Greek: theke], a
+place of storage), an architectural term given to a gallery for the
+exhibition of sculpture, and first employed at Munich, where it was
+built to exhibit the sculptures from the temple of Aegina.
+
+
+
+
+GMELIN, the name of several distinguished German scientists, of a
+Tubingen family. Johann Georg Gmelin (1674-1728), an apothecary in
+Tubingen, and an accomplished chemist for the times in which he lived,
+had three sons. The first, Johann Conrad (1702-1759), was an apothecary
+and surgeon in Tubingen. The second, Johann Georg (1709-1755), was
+appointed professor of chemistry and natural history in St Petersburg in
+1731, and from 1733 to 1743 was engaged in travelling through Siberia.
+The fruits of his journey were _Flora Sibirica_ (4 vols., 1749-1750) and
+_Reisen durch Sibirien_ (4 vols., 1753). He ended his days as professor
+of medicine at Tubingen, a post to which he was appointed in 1749. The
+third son, Philipp Friedrich (1721-1768), was extraordinary professor of
+medicine at Tubingen in 1750, and in 1755 became ordinary professor of
+botany and chemistry. In the second generation Samuel Gottlieb
+(1743-1774), the son of Johann Conrad, was appointed professor of
+natural history at St Petersburg in 1766, and in the following year
+started on a journey through south Russia and the regions round the
+Caspian Sea. On his way back he was captured by Usmey Khan, of the
+Kaitak tribe, and died from the ill-treatment he suffered, on the 27th
+of July 1774. One of his nephews, Ferdinand Gottlob von Gmelin
+(1782-1848), became professor of medicine and natural history at
+Tubingen in 1805, and another, Christian Gottlob (1792-1860), who in
+1828 was one of the first to devise a process for the artificial
+manufacture of ultramarine, was professor of chemistry and pharmacy in
+the same university. In the youngest branch of the family, Philipp
+Friedrich had a son, Johann Friedrich (1748-1804), who was appointed
+professor of medicine in Tubingen in 1772, and in 1775 accepted the
+chair of medicine and chemistry at Gottingen. In 1788 he published the
+13th edition of Linnaeus' _Systema Naturae_ with many additions and
+alterations. His son Leopold (1788-1853), was the best-known member of
+the family. He studied medicine and chemistry at Gottingen, Tubingen and
+Vienna, and in 1813 began to lecture on chemistry at Heidelberg, where
+in 1814 he was appointed extraordinary, and in 1817 ordinary, professor
+of chemistry and medicine. He was the discoverer of potassium
+ferricyanide (1822), and wrote the _Handbuch der Chemie_ (1st ed.
+1817-1819, 4th ed. 1843-1855), an important work in its day, which was
+translated into English for the Cavendish Society by H. Watts
+(1815-1884) in 1848-1859. He resigned his chair in 1852, and died on the
+13th of April in the following year at Heidelberg.
+
+
+
+
+GMUND, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg,[1] in a
+charming and fruitful valley on the Rems, here spanned by a beautiful
+bridge, 31 m. E.N.E. of Stuttgart on the railway to Nordlingen. Pop.
+(1905) 18,699. It is surrounded by old walls, flanked with towers, and
+has a considerable number of ancient buildings, among which are the fine
+church of the Holy Cross; St John's church, which dates from the time of
+the Hohenstaufen; and, situated on a height near the town, partly hewn
+out of the rock, the pilgrimage church of the Saviour. Among the modern
+buildings are the gymnasium, the drawing and trade schools, the Roman
+Catholic seminary, the town hall and the industrial art museum. Clocks
+and watches are manufactured here and also other articles of silver,
+while the town has a considerable trade in corn, hops and fruit. The
+scenery in the neighbourhood is very beautiful, near the town being the
+district called Little Switzerland.
+
+Gmund was surrounded by walls in the beginning of the 12th century by
+Duke Frederick of Swabia. It received town rights from Frederick
+Barbarossa, and after the extinction of the Hohenstaufen became a free
+imperial town. It retained its independence till 1803, when it came into
+the possession of Wurttemberg. Gmund is the birth-place of the painter
+Hans Baldung (1475-1545) and of the architect Heinrich Arler or Parler
+(fl. 1350). In the middle ages the population was about 10,000.
+
+  See Kaiser, _Gmund und seine Umgebung_ (1888).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] There are two places of this name in Austria. (1) Gmund, a town
+    in Lower Austria, containing a palace belonging to the imperial
+    family, (2) a town in Carinthia, with a beautiful Gothic church and
+    some interesting ruins.
+
+
+
+
+GMUNDEN, a town and summer resort of Austria, in Upper Austria, 40 m.
+S.S.W. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 7126. It is situated at the efflux
+of the Traun river from the lake of the same name and is surrounded by
+high mountains, as the Traunstein (5446 ft.), the Erlakogel (5150 ft.),
+the Wilde Kogel (6860 ft.) and the Hollen Gebirge. It is much frequented
+as a health and summer resort, and has a variety of lake, brine,
+vegetable and pine-cone baths, a hydropathic establishment, inhalation
+chambers, whey cure, &c. There are a great number of excursions and
+points of interest round Gmunden, specially worth mentioning being the
+Traun Fall, 10 m. N. of Gmunden. It is also an important centre of the
+salt industry in Salzkammergut. Gmunden was a town encircled with walls
+already in 1186. On the 14th of November 1626, Pappenheim completely
+defeated here the army of the rebellious peasants.
+
+  See F. Krackowizer, _Geschichte der Stadt Gmunden in Oberosterreich_
+  (Gmunden, 1898-1901, 3 vols.).
+
+
+
+
+GNAT (O. Eng. _gnaet_), the common English name for the smaller dipterous
+flies (see DIPTERA) of the family _Culicidae_, which are now included
+among "mosquitoes" (see MOSQUITO). The distinctive term has no
+zoological significance, but in England the "mosquito" has commonly been
+distinguished from the "gnat" as a variety of larger size and more
+poisonous bite.
+
+
+
+
+GNATHOPODA, a term in zoological classification, suggested as an
+alternative name for the group Arthropoda (q.v.). The word, which means
+"jaw-footed," refers to the fact that in the members of the group, some
+of the lateral appendages or "feet" in the region of the mouth act as
+jaws.
+
+
+
+
+GNATIA (also EGNATIA or IGNATIA, mod. _Anazzo_, near Fasano), an ancient
+city of the Peucetii, and their frontier town towards the Sallentini
+(i.e. of Apulia towards Calabria), in Roman times of importance for its
+trade, lying as it did on the sea, at the point where the Via Traiana
+joined the coast road,[1] 38 m. S.E. of Barium. The ancient city walls
+have been almost entirely destroyed in recent times to provide building
+material,[2] and the place is famous for the discoveries made in its
+tombs. A considerable collection of antiquities from Gnatia is preserved
+at Fasano, though the best are in the museum at Bari. Gnatia was the
+scene of the prodigy at which Horace mocks (_Sat._ i. 5. 97). Near
+Fasano are two small subterranean chapels with paintings of the 11th
+century A.D. (E. Bertaux, _L'Art dans l'Italie meridionale_, Paris,
+1904, 135).     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] There is no authority for calling the latter Via Egnatia.
+
+  [2] H. Swinburne, _Travels in the Two Sicilies_ (London, 1790), ii.
+    15, mentions the walls as being 8 yds. thick and 16 courses high.
+
+
+
+
+GNEISENAU, AUGUST WILHELM ANTON, COUNT NEITHARDT VON (1760-1831),
+Prussian field marshal, was the son of a Saxon officer named Neithardt.
+Born in 1760 at Schildau, near Torgau, he was brought up in great
+poverty there, and subsequently at Wurzburg and Erfurt. In 1777 he
+entered Erfurt university; but two years later joined an Austrian
+regiment there quartered. In 1782 taking the additional name of
+Gneisenau from some lost estates of his family in Austria, he entered as
+an officer the service of the margrave of Baireuth-Anspach. With one of
+that prince's mercenary regiments in English pay he saw active service
+and gained valuable experience in the War of American Independence, and
+returning in 1786, applied for Prussian service. Frederick the Great
+gave him a commission as first lieutenant in the infantry. Made
+_Stabskapitan_ in 1790, Gneisenau served in Poland, 1793-1794, and,
+subsequently to this, ten years of quiet garrison life in Jauer enabled
+him to undertake a wide range of military studies. In 1796 he married
+Caroline von Kottwitz. In 1806 he was one of Hohenlohe's staff-officers,
+fought at Jena, and a little later commanded a provisional infantry
+brigade which fought under Lestocq in the Lithuanian campaign. Early in
+1807 Major von Gneisenau was sent as commandant to Colberg, which, small
+and ill-protected as it was, succeeded in holding out until the peace of
+Tilsit. The commandant received the much-prized order "pour le merite,"
+and was promoted lieutenant-colonel.
+
+A wider sphere of work was now opened to him. As chief of engineers, and
+a member of the reorganizing committee, he played a great part, along
+with Scharnhorst, in the work of reconstructing the Prussian army. A
+colonel in 1809, he soon drew upon himself, by his energy, the suspicion
+of the dominant French, and Stein's fall was soon followed by Gneisenau's
+retirement. But, after visiting Russia, Sweden and England, he returned
+to Berlin and resumed his place as a leader of the patriotic party. In
+open military work and secret machinations his energy and patriotism were
+equally tested, and with the outbreak of the War of Liberation,
+Major-General Gneisenau became Blucher's quartermaster-general. Thus
+began the connexion between these two soldiers which has furnished
+military history with its best example of the harmonious co-operation
+between the general and his chief-of-staff. With Blucher, Gneisenau
+served to the capture of Paris; his military character was the exact
+complement of Blucher's, and under this happy guidance the young troops
+of Prussia, often defeated but never discouraged, fought their way into
+the heart of France. The plan of the march on Paris, which led directly
+to the fall of Napoleon, was specifically the work of the chief-of-staff.
+In reward for his distinguished service he was in 1814, along with York,
+Kleist and Bulow, made count at the same time as Blucher became prince of
+Wahlstatt; an annuity was also assigned to him.
+
+In 1815, once more chief of Blucher's staff, Gneisenau played a very
+conspicuous part in the Waterloo campaign (q.v.). Senior generals, such
+as York and Kleist, had been set aside in order that the chief-of-staff
+should have the command in case of need, and when on the field of Ligny
+the old field marshal was disabled, Gneisenau at once assumed the
+control of the Prussian army. Even in the light of the evidence that
+many years' research has collected, the precise part taken by Gneisenau
+in the events which followed is much debated. It is known that Gneisenau
+had the deepest distrust of the British commander, who, he considered,
+had left the Prussians in the lurch at Ligny, and that to the hour of
+victory he had grave doubts as to whether he ought not to fall back on
+the Rhine. Blucher, however, soon recovered from his injuries, and, with
+Grolmann, the quartermaster-general, he managed to convince Gneisenau.
+The relations of the two may be illustrated by Brigadier-General
+Hardinge's report. Blucher burst into Hardinge's room at Wavre, saying
+"_Gneisenau has given way_, and we are to march at once to your chief."
+
+On the field of Waterloo, however, Gneisenau was quick to realize the
+magnitude of the victory, and he carried out the pursuit with a
+relentless vigour which has few parallels in history. His reward was
+further promotion and the insignia of the "Black Eagle" which had been
+taken in Napoleon's coach. In 1816 he was appointed to command the
+VIIIth Prussian Corps, but soon retired from the service, both because
+of ill-health and for political reasons. For two years he lived in
+retirement on his estate, Erdmannsdorf in Silesia, but in 1818 he was
+made governor of Berlin in succession to Kalkreuth, and member of the
+_Staatsrath_. In 1825 he became general field marshal. In 1831 he was
+appointed to the command of the Army of Observation on the Polish
+frontier, with Clausewitz as his chief-of-staff. At Posen he was struck
+down by cholera and died on the 24th of August 1831, soon followed by
+his chief-of staff, who fell a victim to the same disease in November.
+
+As a soldier, Gneisenau was the greatest Prussian general since
+Frederick; as a man, his noble character and virtuous life secured him
+the affection and reverence, not only of his superiors and subordinates
+in the service, but of the whole Prussian nation. A statue by Rauch was
+erected in Berlin in 1855, and in memory of the siege of 1807 the
+Colberg grenadiers received his name in 1889. One of his sons led a
+brigade of the VIIIth Army Corps in the war of 1870.
+
+  See G. H. Pertz, _Das Leben des Feldmarschalls Grafen Neithardt von
+  Gneisenau_, vols. 1-3 (Berlin, 1864-1869); vols. 4 and 5, G. Delbruck
+  (ib. 1879, 1880), with numerous documents and letters; H. Delbruck,
+  _Das Leben des G. F. M. Grafen von Gneisenau_ (2 vols., 2nd ed.,
+  Berlin, 1894), based on Pertz's work, but containing much new
+  material; Frau von Beguelin, _Denkwurdigkeiten_ (Berlin, 1892);
+  Hormayr, _Lebensbilder aus den Befreiungskriegen_ (Jena, 1841); Pick,
+  _Aus dem brieflichen Nachlass Gneisenaus_; also the histories of the
+  campaigns of 1807 and 1813-15.
+
+
+
+
+GNEISS, a term long used by the miners of the Harz Mountains to
+designate the country rock in which the mineral veins occur; it is
+believed to be a word of Slavonic origin meaning "rotted" or
+"decomposed." It has gradually passed into acceptance as a generic term
+signifying a large and varied series of metamorphic rocks, which mostly
+consist of quartz and felspar (orthoclase and plagioclase) with
+muscovite and biotite, hornblende or augite, iron oxides, zircon and
+apatite. There is also a long list of accessory minerals which are
+present in gneisses with more or less frequency, but not invariably, as
+garnet, sillimanite, cordierite, graphite and graphitoid, epidote,
+calcite, orthite, tourmaline and andalusite. The gneisses all possess a
+more or less marked parallel structure or foliation, which is the main
+feature by which many of them are separated from the granites, a group
+of rocks having nearly the same mineralogical composition and closely
+allied to many gneisses.
+
+The felspars of the gneisses are predominantly orthoclase (often
+perthitic), but microcline is common in the more acid types and
+oligoclase occurs also very frequently, especially in certain
+sedimentary gneisses, while more basic varieties of plagioclase are
+rare. Quartz is very seldom absent and may be blue or milky and
+opalescent. Muscovite and biotite may both occur in the same rock; in
+other cases only one of them is present. The commonest and most
+important types of gneiss are the mica-gneisses. Hornblende is green,
+rarely brownish; augite pale green or nearly colourless; enstatite
+appears in some granulite-gneisses. Epidote, often with enclosures of
+orthite, is by no means rare in gneisses from many different parts of
+the world. Sillimanite and andalusite are not infrequent ingredients of
+gneiss, and their presence has been accounted for in more than one way.
+Cordierite-gneisses are a special group of great interest and possessing
+many peculiarities; they are partly, if not entirely, foliated
+contact-altered sedimentary rocks. Kyanite and staurolite may also be
+mentioned as occasionally occurring.
+
+Many varieties of gneiss have received specific names according to the
+minerals they consist of and the structural peculiarities they exhibit.
+Muscovite-gneiss, biotite-gneiss and muscovite-biotite-gneiss, more
+common perhaps than all the others taken together, are grey or pinkish
+rocks according to the colour of their prevalent felspar, not unlike
+granites, but on the whole more often fine-grained (though
+coarse-grained types occur) and possessing a gneissose or foliated
+structure. The latter consists in the arrangement of the flakes of mica
+in such a way that their faces are parallel, and hence the rock has the
+property of splitting more readily in the direction in which the mica
+plates are disposed. This fissility, though usually marked, is not so
+great as in the schists or slates, and the split faces are not so smooth
+as in these latter rocks. The films of mica may be continuous and are
+usually not flat, but irregularly curved. In some gneisses the parallel
+flakes of mica are scattered through the quartz and felspar; in others
+these minerals form discrete bands, the quartz and felspar being grouped
+into lenticles separated by thin films of mica. When large felspars, of
+rounded or elliptical form, are visible in the gneiss, it is said to
+have augen structure (Ger. _Augen_ = eyes). It should also be remarked
+that the essential component minerals of the rocks of this family are
+practically always determinable by naked eye inspection or with the aid
+of a simple lens. If the rock is too fine grained for this it is
+generally relegated to the schists. When the bands of folia are very
+fine and tortuous the structure is called helizitic.
+
+In mica-gneisses sillimanite, kyanite, andalusite and garnet may occur.
+The significance of these minerals is variously interpreted; they may
+indicate that the gneiss consists wholly or in part of sedimentary
+material which has been contact-altered, but they have also been
+regarded as having been developed by metamorphic action out of biotite
+or other primary ingredients of the rock.
+
+Hornblende-gneisses are usually darker in colour and less fissile than
+mica-gneisses; they contain more plagioclase, less orthoclase and
+microcline, and more sphene and epidote. Many of them are rich in
+hornblende and thus form transitions to amphibolites. Pyroxene-gneisses
+are less frequent but occur in many parts of both hemispheres. The
+"charnockite" series are very closely allied to the pyroxene-gneisses.
+Hypersthene and scapolite both may occur in these rocks and they are
+sometimes garnetiferous.
+
+  In every country where the lowest and oldest rocks have come to the
+  surface and been exposed by the long continued action of denudation in
+  stripping away the overlying formations, gneisses are found in great
+  abundance and of many different kinds. They are in fact the typical
+  rocks of the Archean (Lewisian, Laurentian, &c.) series. In the Alps,
+  Harz, Scotland, Norway and Sweden, Canada, South America, Peninsular
+  India, Himalayas (to mention only a few localities) they occupy wide
+  areas and exhibit a rich diversity of types. From this it has been
+  inferred that they are of great geological age, and in fact this can
+  be definitely proved in many cases, for the oldest known fossiliferous
+  formations may be seen to rest unconformably on these gneisses and are
+  made up of their debris. It was for a long time believed that they
+  represented the primitive crust of the earth, and while this is no
+  longer generally taught there are still geologists who hold that these
+  gneisses are necessarily of pre-Cambrian age. Others, while admitting
+  the general truth of this hypothesis, consider that there are
+  localities in which typical gneisses can be shown to penetrate into
+  rocks which may be as recent as the Tertiary period, or to pass into
+  these rocks so gradually and in such a way as to make it certain that
+  the gneisses are merely altered states of comparatively recent
+  sedimentary or igneous rocks. Much controversy has arisen on these
+  points; but this is certain, that gneisses are far the most common
+  among Archean rocks, and where their age is not known the presumption
+  is strong that they are at least pre-Cambrian.
+
+  Many gneisses are undoubtedly sedimentary rocks that have been brought
+  to their present state by such agents of metamorphism as heat,
+  movement, crushing and recrystallization. This may be demonstrated
+  partly by their mode of occurrence: they accompany limestones,
+  graphitic schists, quartzites and other rocks of sedimentary type;
+  some of them where least altered may even show remains of bedding or
+  of original pebbly character (conglomerate gneisses). More conclusive,
+  however, is the chemical composition of these rocks, which often is
+  such as no igneous masses possess, but resembles that of many impure
+  argillaceous sediments. These sedimentary gneisses (or paragneisses,
+  as they are often called) are often rich in biotite and garnet and may
+  contain kyanite and sillimanite, or less frequently calcite. Some of
+  them, however, are rich in felspar and quartz, with muscovite and
+  biotite; others may even contain hornblende and augite, and all these
+  may bear so close a resemblance to gneisses of igneous origin that by
+  no single character, chemical or mineralogical, can their original
+  nature be definitely established. In these cases, however, a careful
+  study of the relations of the rock in the field and of the different
+  types which occur together will generally lead to some positive
+  conclusion.
+
+  Other gneisses are igneous (orthogneisses). These have very much the
+  same composition as acid igneous rocks such as granite, aplite,
+  hornblende granite, or intermediate rocks such as syenite and quartz
+  diorite. Many of these orthogneisses are not equally well foliated
+  throughout, but are massive or granitoid in places. They are sometimes
+  subdivided into granite gneiss, diorite gneiss, syenite gneiss and so
+  on. The sedimentary schists into which these rocks have been intruded
+  may show contact alteration by the development of such minerals as
+  cordierite, andalusite and sillimanite. In many of these orthogneisses
+  the foliation is primitive, being an original character of the rock
+  which was produced either by fluxion movements in a highly viscous,
+  semi-solid mass injected at great pressure into the surrounding
+  strata, or by folding stresses acting immediately after consolidation.
+  That the foliation in other orthogneisses is subsequent or
+  superinduced, having been occasioned by pressure and deformation of
+  the solid mass long after it had consolidated and cooled, admits of no
+  doubt, but it is very difficult to establish criteria by which these
+  types may be differentiated. Those gneisses in which the minerals have
+  been crushed and broken by fluxion or injection movements have been
+  called protoclastic, while those which have attained their gneissose
+  state by crushing long after consolidation are distinguished as
+  cataclastic. There are also many examples of gneisses of mixed or
+  synthetic origin. They may be metamorphosed sediments (granulites and
+  schists) into which tongues and thin veins of granitic character have
+  been intruded, following the more or less parallel foliation planes
+  already present in the country rock. These veinlets produce that
+  alternation in mineral composition and banded structure which are
+  essential in gneisses. This intermixture of igneous and sedimentary
+  material may take place on the finest scale and in the most intricate
+  manner. Often there has been resorption of the older rocks, whether
+  sedimentary or igneous, by those which have invaded them, and movement
+  has gone on both during injection and at a later period, so that the
+  whole complex becomes amalgamated and its elements are so completely
+  confused that the geologist can no longer disentangle them.
+
+  When we remember that in the earlier stages of the earth's history, to
+  which most gneisses belong, and in the relatively deep parts of the
+  earth's crust, where they usually occur, there has been most igneous
+  injection and greatest frequency of earth movements, it is not
+  difficult to understand the geological distribution of gneissose
+  rocks. All the factors which are required for their production, heat,
+  movement, plutonic intrusions, contact alteration, interstitial
+  moisture at high temperatures, are found at great depths and have
+  acted most frequently and with greatest power on the older rock
+  masses. But locally, where the conditions were favourable, the same
+  processes may have gone on in comparatively recent times. Hence,
+  though most gneisses are Archean, all gneisses are not necessarily so.
+       (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+GNEIST, HEINRICH RUDOLF HERMANN FRIEDRICH VON (1816-1895), German jurist
+and politician, was born at Berlin on the 13th of August 1816, the son
+of a judge attached to the "Kammergericht" (court of appeal) in that
+city. After receiving his school education at the gymnasium at Eisleben
+in Prussian Saxony, he entered the university of Berlin in 1833 as a
+student of jurisprudence, and became a pupil of the famous Roman law
+teacher von Savigny. Proceeding to the degree of _doctor juris_ in 1838,
+young Gneist immediately established himself as a _Privatdozent_ in the
+faculty of law. He had, however, already chosen the judicial branch of
+the legal profession as a career, and having while yet a student acted
+as _Auscultator_, was admitted _Assessor_ in 1841. He soon found leisure
+and opportunity to fulfil a much-cherished wish, and spent the next few
+years on a lengthened tour in Italy, France and England. He utilized his
+_Wanderjahre_ for the purposes of comparative study, and on his return
+in 1844 was appointed extraordinary professor of Roman law in Berlin
+university, and thus began a professorial connexion which ended only
+with his death. The first-fruits of his activity as a teacher were seen
+in his brilliant work, _Die formellen Vertrage des heutigen romischen
+Obligationen-Rechtes_ (Berlin, 1845). _Pari passu_ with his academic
+labours he continued his judicial career, and became in due course
+successively assistant judge of the superior court and of the supreme
+tribunal. But to a mind constituted such as his, the want of elasticity
+in the procedure of the courts was galling. "Brought up," he tells, in
+the preface to his _Englische Verfassungsgeschichte_, "in the laborious
+and rigid school of Prussian judges, at a time when the duty of
+formulating the matter in litigation was entailed upon the judge who
+personally conducted the pleadings, I became acquainted both with the
+advantages possessed by the Prussian bureau system as also with its weak
+points." Feeling the necessity for fundamental reforms in legal
+procedure, he published, in 1849, his _Trial by Jury_, in which, after
+pointing out that the origin of that institution was common to both
+Germany and England, and showing in a masterly way the benefits which
+had accrued to the latter country through its more extended application,
+he pleaded for its freer admission in the tribunals of his own country.
+
+The period of "storm and stress" in 1848 afforded Gneist an opportunity
+for which he had yearned, and he threw himself with ardour into the
+constitutional struggles of Prussia. Although his candidature for
+election to the National Assembly of that year was unsuccessful, he felt
+that "the die was cast," and deciding for a political career, retired in
+1850 from his judicial position. Entering the ranks of the National
+Liberal party, he began both in writing and speeches actively to
+champion their cause, now busying himself pre-eminently with the study
+of constitutional law and history. In 1853 appeared his _Adel und
+Ritterschaft in England_, and in 1857 the _Geschichte und heutige
+Gestalt der Amter in England_, a pamphlet primarily written to combat
+the Prussian abuses of administration, but for which the author also
+claimed that it had not been without its effect in modifying certain
+views that had until then ruled in England itself. In 1858 Gneist was
+appointed ordinary professor of Roman law, and in the same year
+commenced his parliamentary career by his election for Stettin to the
+Abgeordnetenhaus (House of Deputies) of the Prussian Landtag, in which
+assembly he sat thenceforward uninterruptedly until 1893. Joining the
+Left, he at once became one of its leading spokesmen. His chief
+oratorical triumphs are associated with the early period of his
+membership of the House; two noteworthy occasions being his violent
+attack (September 1862) upon the government budget in connexion with the
+reorganization of the Prussian army, and his defence (1864) of the
+Polish chiefs of the (then) grand-duchy of Posen, who were accused of
+high treason. In 1857-1863 was published _Das heutige englische
+Verfassungsund Verwaltungsrecht_, a work which, contrasting English and
+German constitutional law and administration, aimed at exercising
+political pressure upon the government of the day. In 1868 Gneist became
+a member of the North German parliament, and acted as a member of the
+commission for organizing the federal army, and also of that for the
+settlement of ecclesiastical controversial questions. On the
+establishment of German unity his mandate was renewed for the Reichstag,
+and in this he sat, an active and prominent member of the National
+Liberal party, until 1884. In the Kulturkampf he sided with the
+government against the attacks of the Clericals, whom he bitterly
+denounced, and whose implacable enemy he ever showed himself. In 1879,
+together with his colleague, von Hanel, he violently attacked the motion
+for the prosecution of certain Socialist members, which as a result of
+the vigour of his opposition was almost unanimously rejected. He was
+parliamentary reporter for the committees on all great financial and
+administrative questions, and his profound acquaintance with
+constitutional law caused his advice to be frequently sought, not only
+in his own but also in other countries. In Prussia he largely influenced
+legislation, the reform of the judicial and penal systems and the new
+constitution of the Evangelical Church being largely his work. He was
+also consulted by the Japanese government when a constitution was being
+introduced into that country. In 1875 he was appointed a member of the
+supreme administrative court (_Oberverwaltungsgericht_) of Prussia, but
+only held office for two years. In 1882 was published his _Englische
+Verfassungsgeschichte_ (trans. _History of the English Constitution_,
+London, 1886), which may perhaps be described as his _magnum opus_. It
+placed the author at once on the level of such writers on English
+constitutional history as Hallam and Stubbs, and supplied English
+literature with a text-book almost unrivalled in point of historical
+research. In 1888 one of the first acts of the ill-fated emperor
+Frederick III., who had always, as crown prince, shown great admiration
+for him, was to ennoble Gneist, and attach him as instructor in
+constitutional law to his son, the emperor William II., a charge of
+which he worthily acquitted himself. The last years of his life were
+full of energy, and, in the possession of all his faculties, he
+continued his wonted academic labours until a short time before his
+death, which occurred at Berlin on the 22nd of July 1895.
+
+As a politician, Gneist's career cannot perhaps be said to have been
+entirely successful. In a country where parliamentary institutions are
+the living exponents of the popular will he might have risen to a
+foremost position in the state; as it was, the party to which he allied
+himself could never hope to become more than what it remained, a
+parliamentary faction, and the influence it for a time wielded in the
+counsels of the state waned as soon as the Social-Democratic party grew
+to be a force to be reckoned with. It is as a writer and a teacher that
+Gneist is best known to fame. He was a jurist of a special type. To him
+law was not mere theory, but living force; and this conception of its
+power animates all his schemes of practical reform. As a teacher he
+exercised a magnetic influence, not only by reason of the clearness and
+cogency of his exposition, but also because of the success with which he
+developed the talents and guided the aspirations of his pupils. He was a
+man of noble bearing, religious, and imbued with a stern sense of duty.
+He was proud of being a "Preussischer Junker" (a member of the Prussian
+squirearchy), and throughout his writings, despite their liberal
+tendencies, may be perceived the loyalty and affection with which he
+clung to monarchical institutions. A great admirer and a true friend of
+England, to which country he was attached by many personal ties, he
+surpassed all other Germans in his efforts to make her free
+institutions, in which he found his ideal, the common heritage of the
+two great nations of the Teutonic race.
+
+  Gneist was a prolific writer, especially on the subject he had made
+  peculiarly his own, that of constitutional law and history, and among
+  his works, other than those above named, may be mentioned the
+  following: _Budget und Gesetz nach dem constitutionellen Staatsrecht
+  Englands_ (Berlin, 1867); _Freie Advocatur_ (ib., 1867); _Der
+  Rechtsstaat_ (ib., 1872, and 2nd edition, 1879); _Zur
+  Verwaltungsreform in Preussen_ (Leipzig, 1880); _Das englische
+  Parlament_ (Berlin, 1886); in English translation, _The English
+  Parliament_ (London, 1886; 3rd edition, 1889); _Die Militar-Vorlage
+  von 1892 und der preussische Verfassungsconflikt von 1862 bis 1866_
+  (Berlin, 1893); _Die nationale Rechtsidee von den Standen und das
+  preussische Dreiklassenwahlsystem_ (ib., 1895); _Die
+  verfassungsmassige Stellung des preussischen Gesamtministeriums_ (ib.,
+  1895). See O. Gierke, _Rudolph von Gneist, Gedachtnisrede_ (Berlin,
+  1895), an In Memoriam address delivered in Berlin.     (P. A. A.)
+
+
+
+
+GNESEN (Polish, _Gniezno_), a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Posen, in an undulating and fertile country, on the Wrzesnia, 30 m.
+E.N.E. of Posen by the railway to Thorn. Pop. (1905) 23,727. Besides the
+cathedral, a handsome Gothic edifice with twin towers, which contains
+the remains of St Adalbert, there are eight Roman Catholic churches, a
+Protestant church, a synagogue, a clerical seminary and a convent of the
+Franciscan nuns. Among the industries are cloth and linen weaving,
+brewing and distilling. A great horse and cattle market is held here
+annually. Gnesen is one of the oldest towns in the former kingdom of
+Poland. Its name, _Gniezno_, signifies "nest," and points to early
+Polish traditions. The cathedral is believed to have been founded
+towards the close of the 9th century, and, having received the bones of
+St Adalbert, it was visited in 1000 by the emperor Otto III., who made
+it the seat of an archbishop. Here, until 1320, the kings of Poland were
+crowned; and the archbishop, since 1416 primate of Poland, acted as
+protector pending the appointment of a new king. In 1821 the see of
+Posen was founded and the archbishop removed his residence thither,
+though its cathedral chapter still remains at Gnesen. After a long
+period of decay the town revived after 1815, when it came under the rule
+of Prussia.
+
+  See S. Karwowski, _Gniezno_ (Posen, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+GNOME, AND GNOMIC POETRY. Sententious maxims, put into verse for the
+better aid of the memory, were known by the Greeks as gnomes, [Greek:
+gnomai], from [Greek: gnome], an opinion. A gnome is defined by the
+Elizabethan critic Henry Peacham (1576?-1643?) as "a saying pertaining
+to the manners and common practices of men, which declareth, with an apt
+brevity, what in this our life ought to be done, or not done." The
+Gnomic Poets of Greece, who flourished in the 6th century B.C., were
+those who arranged series of sententious maxims in verse. These were
+collected in the 4th century, by Lobon of Argos, an orator, but his
+collection has disappeared. The chief gnomic poets were Theognis, Solon,
+Phocylides, Simonides of Amorgos, Demodocus, Xenophanes and Euenus. With
+the exception of Theognis, whose gnomes were fortunately preserved by
+some schoolmaster about 300 B.C., only fragments of the Gnomic Poets
+have come down to us. The moral poem attributed to Phocylides, long
+supposed to be a masterpiece of the school, is now known to have been
+written by a Jew in Alexandria. Of the gnomic movement typified by the
+moral works of the poets named above, Prof. Gilbert Murray has remarked
+that it receives its special expression in the conception of the Seven
+Wise Men, to whom such proverbs as "Know thyself" and "Nothing too much"
+were popularly attributed, and whose names differed in different lists.
+These gnomes or maxims were extended and put into literary shape by the
+poets. Fragments of Solon, Euenus and Mimnermus have been preserved, in
+a very confused state, from having been written, for purposes of
+comparison, on the margins of the MSS. of Theognis, whence they have
+often slipped into the text of that poet. Theognis enshrines his moral
+precepts in his elegies, and this was probably the custom of the rest;
+it is improbable that there ever existed a species of poetry made up
+entirely of successive gnomes. But the title "gnomic" came to be given
+to all poetry which dealt in a sententious way with questions of
+ethics. It was, unquestionably, the source from which moral philosophy
+was directly developed, and theorists upon life and infinity, such as
+Pythagoras and Xenophanes, seem to have begun their career as gnomic
+poets. By the very nature of things, gnomes, in their literary sense,
+belong exclusively to the dawn of literature; their naivete and their
+simplicity in moralizing betray it. But it has been observed that many
+of the ethical reflections of the great dramatists, and in particular of
+Sophocles and Euripides, are gnomic distiches expanded. It would be an
+error to suppose that the ancient Greek gnomes are all of a solemn
+character; some are voluptuous and some chivalrous; those of Demodocus
+of Leros had the reputation of being droll. In modern times, the gnomic
+spirit has occasionally been displayed by poets of a homely philosophy,
+such as Francis Quarles (1592-1644) in England and Gui de Pibrac
+(1529-1584) in France. The once-celebrated _Quatrains_ of the latter,
+published in 1574, enjoyed an immense success throughout Europe; they
+were composed in deliberate imitation of the Greek gnomic writers of the
+6th century B.C. These modern effusions are rarely literature and
+perhaps never poetry. With the gnomic writings of Pibrac it was long
+customary to bind up those of Antoine Favre (or Faber) (1557-1624) and
+of Pierre Mathieu (1563-1621). Gnomes are frequently to be found in the
+ancient literatures of Arabia, Persia and India, and in the Icelandic
+staves. The _priamel_, a brief, sententious kind of poem, which was in
+favour in Germany from the 12th to the 16th century, belonged to the
+true gnomic class, and was cultivated with particular success by Hans
+Rosenblut, the lyrical goldsmith of Nuremberg, in the 15th century.
+     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+GNOMES (Fr. _gnomes_, Ger. _Gnomen_), in folk-lore, the name now
+commonly given to the earth and mountain spirits who are supposed to
+watch over veins of precious metals and other hidden treasures. They are
+usually pictured as bearded dwarfs clad in brown close-fitting garments
+with hoods. The word "gnome" as applied to these is of comparatively
+modern and somewhat uncertain origin. By some it is said to have been
+coined by Paracelsus (so Hatzfeld and Darmesteter, _Dictionnaire_), who
+uses _Gnomi_ as a synonym of _Pygmaei_, from the Greek [Greek: gnome],
+intelligence. The _New English Dictionary_, however, suggests a
+derivation from _genomus_, i.e. a Greek type [Greek: genomos],
+"earth-dweller," on the analogy of [Greek: thalassonomos], "dwelling in
+the sea," adding, however, that though there is no evidence that the
+term was not used before Paracelsus, it is possibly "a mere arbitrary
+invention, like so many others found in Paracelsus" (_N.E.D._ s.v.).
+
+
+
+
+GNOMON, the Greek word for the style of a sundial, or any object,
+commonly a vertical column, the shadow of which was observed in former
+times in order to learn the altitude of the sun, especially when on the
+meridian. The art of constructing a sundial is sometimes termed
+_gnomonics_. In geometry, a gnomon is a plane figure formed by removing
+a parallelogram from a corner of a larger parallelogram; in the figure
+ABCDEFA is a gnomon. Gnomonic projection is a projection of a sphere in
+which the centre of sight is the centre of the sphere.
+
+       A                  B
+        -------------------
+       /                 /
+      /                 /
+   F /------- E        /
+    /       /         /
+   /       /         /
+  -------------------
+          D        C
+
+
+
+
+GNOSTICISM (Gr. [Greek: gnosis], knowledge), the name generally applied
+to that spiritual movement existing side by side with genuine
+Christianity, as it gradually crystallized into the old Catholic Church,
+which may roughly be defined as a distinct religious syncretism bearing
+the strong impress of Christian influences.
+
+I. The term "Gnosis" first appears in a technical sense in 1 Tim. vi. 20
+([Greek: he pseudonymos gnosis]). It seems to have at first been applied
+exclusively, or at any rate principally, to a particular tendency within
+the movement as a whole, i.e. to those sections of (the Syrian) Gnostics
+otherwise generally known as Ophites or Naasseni (see Hippolytus,
+_Philosophumena_, v. 2: [Greek: Naassenoi ... hoi heautous Gnostikous
+apokalountes]; Irenaeus i. 11. 1; Epiphanius, _Haeres._ xxvi. Cf. also
+the self-assumed name of the Carpocratiani, Iren. i. 25. 6). But in
+Irenaeus the term has already come to designate the whole movement. This
+first came into prominence in the opening decades of the 2nd century
+A.D., but is certainly older; it reached its height in the second third
+of the same century, and began to wane about the 3rd century, and from
+the second half of the 3rd century onwards was replaced by the
+closely-related and more powerful Manichaean movement. Offshoots of it,
+however, continued on into the 4th and 5th centuries. Epiphanius still
+had the opportunity of making personal acquaintance with Gnostic sects.
+
+II. Of the actual writings of the Gnostics, which were extraordinarily
+numerous,[1] very little has survived; they were sacrificed to the
+destructive zeal of their ecclesiastical opponents. Numerous fragments
+and extracts from Gnostic writings are to be found in the works of the
+Fathers who attacked Gnosticism. Most valuable of all are the long
+extracts in the 5th and 6th books of the _Philosophumena_ of Hippolytus.
+The most accessible and best critical edition of the fragments which
+have been preserved word for word is to be found in Hilgenfeld's
+_Ketzergeschichte des Urchristentums_. One of the most important of
+these fragments is the letter of Ptolemaeus to Flora, preserved in
+Epiphanius, _Haeres_. xxxiii. 3-7 (see on this point Harnack in the
+_Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie_, 1902, pp. 507-545). Gnostic
+fragments are certainly also preserved for us in the _Acts of Thomas_.
+Here we should especially mention the beautiful and much-discussed _Song
+of the Pearl_, or _Song of the Soul_, which is generally, though without
+absolute clear proof, attributed to the Gnostic Bardesanes (till lately
+it was known only in the Syrian text; edited and translated by Bevan,
+_Texts and Studies_,[2] v. 3, 1897; Hofmann, _Zeitschrift fur
+neutestamentliche Wissenschaft_, iv.; for the newly-found Greek text see
+_Acta apostolorum_, ed. Bonnet, ii. 2, c. 108, p. 219). Generally also
+much Gnostic matter is contained in the apocryphal histories of the
+Apostles. To the school of Bardesanes belongs the "Book of the Laws of
+the Lands," which does not, however, contribute much to our knowledge of
+Gnosticism. Finally, we should mention in this connexion the text on
+which are based the pseudo-Clementine _Homilies_ and _Recognitiones_
+(beginning of the 3rd century). It is, of course, already permeated with
+the Catholic spirit, but has drawn so largely upon sources of a
+Judaeo-Christian Gnostic character that it comes to a great extent
+within the category of sources for Gnosticism. Complete original Gnostic
+works have unfortunately survived to us only from the period of the
+decadence of Gnosticism. Of these we should mention the comprehensive
+work called the _Pistis-Sophia_, probably belonging to the second half
+of the 3rd century.[3] Further, the Coptic-Gnostic texts of the _Codex
+Brucianus_; both the books of Ieu, and an anonymous third work (edited
+and translated by C. Schmidt, _Texte und Untersuchungen_, vol. viii.,
+1892; and a new translation by the same in _Koptische-gnostische
+Schriften_, i.) which, contrary to the opinion of their editor and
+translator, the present writer believes to represent, in their existing
+form, a still later period and a still more advanced stage in the
+decadence of Gnosticism. For other and older Coptic-Gnostic texts, in
+one of which is contained the source of Irenaeus's treatises on the
+Barbelognostics, but which have unfortunately not yet been made
+completely accessible, see C. Schmidt in _Sitzungsberichte der Berl.
+Akad._ (1896), p. 839 seq., and "Philotesia," dedicated to Paul Kleinert
+(1907); p. 315 seq.
+
+On the whole, then, for an exposition of Gnosticism we are thrown back
+upon the polemical writings of the Fathers in their controversy with
+heresy. The most ancient of these is Justin, who according to his
+_Apol._ i. 26 wrote a _Syntagma_ against all heresies (c. A.D. 150), and
+also, probably, a special polemic against Marcion (fragment in Irenaeus
+iv. 6. 2). Both these writings are lost. He was followed by Irenaeus,
+who, especially in the first book of his treatise _Adversus haereses_
+([Greek: elegchou kai anatropes tes pseudonymou gnoseos biblia pente],
+c. A.D. 180), gives a detailed account of the Gnostic heresies. He
+founds his work upon that of his master Justin, but adds from his own
+knowledge among many other things, notably the detailed account of
+Valentinianism at the beginning of the book. On Irenaeus, and probably
+also on Justin, Hippolytus drew for his _Syntagma_ (beginning of the 3rd
+century), a work which is also lost, but can, with great certainty, be
+reconstructed from three recensions of it: in the _Panarion_ of
+Epiphanius (after 374), in Philaster of Brescia, _Adversus haereses_,
+and the Pseudo-Tertullian, _Liber adversus omnes haereses_. A second
+work of Hippolytus [Greek: Kata pason haipeseov elegchos] is preserved
+in the so-called _Philosophumena_ which survives under the name of
+Origen. Here Hippolytus gave a second exposition supplemented by fresh
+Gnostic original sources with which he had become acquainted in the
+meanwhile. These sources quoted in Hippolytus have lately met with very
+unfavourable criticisms. The opinion has been advanced that Hippolytus
+has here fallen a victim to the mystification of a forger. The truth of
+the matter must be that Hippolytus probably made use of a collection of
+Gnostic texts, put together by a Gnostic, in which were already
+represented various secondary developments of the genuine Gnostic
+schools. It is also possible that the compiler has himself attempted
+here and there to harmonize to a certain extent the various Gnostic
+doctrines, yet in no case is this collection of sources given by
+Hippolytus to be passed over; it should rather be considered as
+important evidence for the beginnings of the decay of Gnosticism. Very
+noteworthy references to Gnosticism are also to be found scattered up
+and down the _Stromateis_ of Clement of Alexandria. Especially important
+are the _Excerpta ex Theodoto_, the author of which is certainly
+Clement, which are verbally extracted from Gnostic writings, and have
+almost the value of original sources. The writings of Origen also
+contain a wealth of material. In the first place should be mentioned the
+treatise _Contra Celsum_, in which the expositions of Gnosticism by both
+Origen and Celsus are of interest (see especially v. 61 seq. and vi. 25
+seq.). Of Tertullian's works should be mentioned: _De praescriptione
+haereticorum_, especially _Adversus Marcionem_, _Adversus Hermogenem_,
+and finally _Adversus Valentinianos_ (entirely founded on Irenaeus).
+Here must also be mentioned the dialogue of Adamantius with the
+Gnostics, _De recta in deum fide_ (beginning of 4th century). Among the
+followers of Hippolytus, Epiphanius in his _Panarion_ gives much
+independent and valuable information from his own knowledge of
+contemporary Gnosticism. But Theodoret of Cyrus (d. 455) is already
+entirely dependent on previous works and has nothing new to add. With
+the 4th century both Gnosticism and the polemical literature directed
+against it die out.[4]
+
+III. If we wish to grasp the peculiar character of the great Gnostic
+movement, we must take care not to be led astray by the catchword
+"Gnosis." It is a mistake to regard the Gnostics as pre-eminently the
+representatives of intellect among Christians, and Gnosticism as an
+intellectual tendency chiefly concerned with philosophical speculation,
+the reconciliation of religion with philosophy and theology. It is true
+that when Gnosticism was at its height it numbered amongst its followers
+both theologians and men of science, but that is not its main
+characteristic. Among the majority of the followers of the movement
+"Gnosis" was understood not as meaning "knowledge" or "understanding,"
+in our sense of the word, but "revelation." These little Gnostic sects
+and groups all lived in the conviction that they possessed a secret and
+mysterious knowledge, in no way accessible to those outside, which was
+not to be proved or propagated, but believed in by the initiated, and
+anxiously guarded as a secret. This knowledge of theirs was not based on
+reflection, on scientific inquiry and proof, but on revelation. It was
+derived directly from the times of primitive Christianity; from the
+Saviour himself and his disciples and friends, with whom they claimed to
+be connected by a secret tradition, or else from later prophets, of whom
+many sects boasted. It was laid down in wonderful mystic writings, which
+were in the possession of the various circles (Liechtenhahn, _Die
+Offenbarung im Gnosticismus_, 1901).
+
+In short, Gnosticism, in all its various sections, its form and its
+character, falls under the great category of mystic religions, which
+were so characteristic of the religious life of decadent antiquity. In
+Gnosticism as in the other mystic religions we find the same contrast of
+the initiated and the uninitiated, the same loose organization, the same
+kind of petty sectarianism and mystery-mongering. All alike boast a
+mystic revelation and a deeply-veiled wisdom. As in many mystical
+religions, so in Gnosticism, the ultimate object is individual
+salvation, the assurance of a fortunate destiny for the soul after
+death. As in the others, so in this the central object of worship is a
+redeemer-deity who has already trodden the difficult way which the
+faithful have to follow. And finally, as in all mystical religions, so
+here too, holy rites and formulas, acts of initiation and consecration,
+all those things which we call sacraments, play a very prominent part.
+The Gnostic religion is full of such sacraments. In the accounts of the
+Fathers we find less about them; yet here Irenaeus' account of the
+Marcosians is of the highest significance (i. 21 seq.). Much more
+material is to be found in the original Gnostic writings, especially in
+the _Pistis-Sophia_ and the two books of Ieu, and again in the _Excerpta
+ex Theodoto_, the _Acts of Thomas_, and here and there also in the
+pseudo-Clementine writings. Above all we can see from the original
+sources of the Mandaean religion, which also represents a branch of
+Gnosticism, how great a part the sacraments played in the Gnostic sects
+(Brandt, _Mandaische Religion_, p. 96 seq.). Everywhere we are met with
+the most varied forms of holy rites--the various baptisms, by water, by
+fire, by the spirit, the baptism for protection against demons,
+anointing with oil, sealing and stigmatizing, piercing the ears, leading
+into the bridal chamber, partaking of holy food and drink. Finally,
+sacred formulas, names and symbols are of the highest importance among
+the Gnostic sects. We constantly meet with the idea that the soul, on
+leaving the body, finds its path to the highest heaven opposed by the
+deities and demons of the lower realms of heaven, and only when it is in
+possession of the names of these demons, and can repeat the proper holy
+formula, or is prepared with the right symbol, or has been anointed with
+the holy oil, finds its way unhindered to the heavenly home. Hence the
+Gnostic must above all things learn the names of the demons, and equip
+himself with the sacred formulas and symbols, in order to be certain of
+a good destiny after death. The exposition of the system of the Ophites
+given by Celsus (in Origen vi. 25 seq.), and, in connexion with Celsus,
+by Origen, is particularly instructive on this point. The two "Coptic
+Ieu" books unfold an immense system of names and symbols. This system
+again was simplified, and as the supreme secret was taught in a single
+name or a single formula, by means of which the happy possessor was able
+to penetrate through all the spaces of heaven (cf. the name "Caulacau"
+among the Basilidians; Irenaeus, _Adv. haer._ i. 24. 5, and among other
+sects). It was taught that even the redeemer-god, when he once descended
+on to this earth, to rise from it again, availed himself of these names
+and formulas on his descent and ascent through the world of demons.
+Traces of ideas of this kind are to be met with almost everywhere. They
+have been most carefully collected by Anz (_Ursprung des Gnosticismus,
+Texte und Untersuchungen_ xv. 4 _passim_) who would see in them the
+central doctrine of Gnosticism.
+
+IV. All these investigations point clearly to the fact that Gnosticism
+belongs to the group of mystical religions. We must now proceed to
+define more exactly the peculiar and distinctive character of the
+Gnostic system. The basis of the Gnostic religion and world-philosophy
+lies in a decided Oriental dualism. In sharp contrast are opposed the
+two worlds of the good and of the evil, the divine world and the
+material world [Greek: hule], the worlds of light and of darkness. In
+many systems there seems to be no attempt to derive the one world from
+the other. The true Basilides (q.v.), perhaps also Satornil, Marcion and
+a part of his disciples, Bardesanes and others, were frankly dualists.
+In the case of other systems, owing to the inexactness of our
+information, we are unable to decide; the later systems of Mandaeism and
+Manichaeanism, so closely related to Gnosticism, are also based upon a
+decided dualism. And even when there is an attempt at reconciliation, it
+is still quite clear how strong was the original dualism which has to be
+overcome. Thus the Gnostic systems make great use of the idea of a fall
+of the Deity himself; by the fall of the Godhead into the world of
+matter, this matter, previously insensible, is animated into life and
+activity, and then arise the powers, both partly and wholly hostile, who
+hold sway over this world. Such figures of fallen divinities, sinking
+down into the world of matter are those of Sophia (i.e. Ahamoth) among
+the Gnostics (Ophites) in the narrower sense of the word, the Simoniani
+(the figure of Helena), the Barbelognostics, and in the system of the
+_Pistis-Sophia_ or the Primal Man, among the Naasseni and the sect,
+related to them, as described by Hippolytus.[5] A further weakening of
+the dualism is indicated when, in the systems of the Valentinian school,
+the fall of Sophia takes place within the godhead, and Sophia, inflamed
+with love, plunges into the Bythos, the highest divinity, and when the
+attempt is thus made genetically to derive the lower world from the
+sufferings and passions of fallen divinity. Another attempt at
+reconciliation is set forth in the so-called "system of emanations" in
+which it is assumed that from the supreme divinity emanated a somewhat
+lesser world, from this world a second, and so on, until the divine
+element (of life) became so far weakened and attenuated, that the
+genesis of a partly, or even wholly, evil world appears both possible
+and comprehensible. A system of emanations of this kind, in its purest
+form, is set forth in the expositions coming from the school of
+Basilides, which are handed down by Irenaeus, while the propositions
+which are set forth in the _Philosophumena_ of Hippolytus as being
+doctrines of Basilides represent a still closer approach to a monistic
+philosophy. Occasionally, too, there is an attempt to establish at any
+rate a threefold division of the world, and to assume between the worlds
+of light and darkness a middle world connecting the two; this is
+clearest among the Sethiani mentioned by Hippolytus (and cf. the
+Gnostics in Irenaeus i. 30. 1). Quite peculiar in this connexion are the
+accounts in Books xix. and xx. of the Clementine _Homilies_. After a
+preliminary examination of all possible different attempts at a solution
+of the problem of evil, the attempt is here made to represent the devil
+as an instrument of God. Christ and the devil are the two hands of God,
+Christ the right hand, and the devil the left, the devil having power
+over this world-epoch and Christ over the next. The devil here assumes
+very much the characteristics of the punishing and just God of the Old
+Testament, and the prospect is even held out of his ultimate pardon. All
+these efforts at reconciliation show how clearly the problem of evil was
+realized in these Gnostic and half-Gnostic sects, and how deeply they
+meditated on the subject; it was not altogether without reason that in
+the ranks of its opponents Gnosticism was judged to have arisen out of
+the question, [Greek: pothen to kakon].
+
+This dualism had not its origin in Hellenic soil, neither is it related
+to that dualism which to a certain extent existed also in late Greek
+religion. For the lower and imperfect world, which in that system too is
+conceived and assumed, is the nebulous world of the non-existent and the
+formless, which is the necessary accompaniment of that which exists, as
+shadow is of light.
+
+In Gnosticism, on the contrary, the world of evil is full of active
+energy and hostile powers. It is an Oriental (Iranian) dualism which
+here finds expression, though in one point, it is true, the mark of
+Greek influence is quite clear. When Gnosticism recognizes in this
+corporeal and material world the true seat of evil, consistently
+treating the bodily existence of mankind as essentially evil and the
+separation of the spiritual from the corporeal being as the object of
+salvation, this is an outcome of the contrast in Greek dualism between
+spirit and matter, soul and body. For in Oriental (Persian) dualism it
+is within this material world that the good and evil powers are at war,
+and this world beneath the stars is by no means conceived as entirely
+subject to the influence of evil. Gnosticism has combined the two, the
+Greek opposition between spirit and matter, and the sharp Zoroastrian
+dualism, which, where the Greek mind conceived of a higher and a lower
+world, saw instead two hostile worlds, standing in contrast to each
+other like light and darkness. And out of the combination of these two
+dualisms arose the teaching of Gnosticism, with its thoroughgoing
+pessimism and fundamental asceticism.
+
+Another characteristic feature of the Gnostic conception of the universe
+is the role played in almost all Gnostic systems by the seven
+world-creating powers. There are indeed certain exceptions; for
+instance, in the systems of the Valentinian schools there is the figure
+of the one Demiurge who takes the place of the Seven. But how widespread
+was the idea of seven powers, who created this lower material world and
+rule over it, has been clearly proved, especially by the systematic
+examination of the subject by Anz (_Ursprung des Gnosticismus_). These
+Seven, then, are in most systems half-evil, half-hostile powers; they
+are frequently characterized as "angels," and are reckoned as the last
+and lowest emanations of the Godhead; below them--and frequently
+considered as derived from them--comes the world of the actually
+devilish powers. On the other hand, among the speculations of the
+Mandaeans, we find a different and perhaps more primitive conception of
+the Seven, according to which they, together with their mother Namrus
+(Ruha) and their father (Ur), belong entirely to the world of darkness.
+They and their family are looked upon as captives of the god of light
+(Manda-d'hayye, Hibil-Ziva), who pardons them, sets them on chariots of
+light, and appoints them as rulers of the world (cf. chiefly Genza, in
+_Tractat_. 6 and 8; W. Brandt, _Mandaische Schriften_, 125 seq. and 137
+seq.; _Mandaische Religion_, 34 seq., &c.). In the Manichaean system it
+is related how the helper of the Primal Man, the spirit of life,
+captured the evil _archontes_, and fastened them to the firmament, or
+according to another account, flayed them, and formed the firmament from
+their skin (F. C. Baur, _Das manichaische Religionssystem_, v. 65), and
+this conception is closely related to the other, though in this
+tradition the number (seven) of the _archontes_ is lost. Similarly, the
+last book of the _Pistis-Sophia_ contains the myth of the capture of the
+rebellious _archontes_, whose leaders here appear as five in number
+(Schmidt, _Koptisch-gnostische Schriften_, p. 234 seq.).[6] There can
+scarcely be any doubt as to the origin of these seven (five) powers;
+they are the seven planetary divinities, the sun, moon and five planets.
+
+In the Mandaean speculations the Seven are introduced with the
+Babylonian names of the planets. The connexion of the Seven with the
+planets is also clearly established by the expositions of Celsus and
+Origen (_Contra Celsum_, vi. 22 seq.) and similarly by the above-quoted
+passage in the _Pistis-Sophia_, where the _archontes_, who are here
+mentioned as five, are identified with the five planets (excluding the
+sun and moon). This collective grouping of the seven (five) planetary
+divinities is derived from the late Babylonian religion, which can
+definitely be indicated as the home of these ideas (Zimmern,
+_Keilinschriften in dem alten Testament_, ii. p. 620 seq.; cf.
+particularly Diodorus ii. 30). And if in the old sources it is only the
+first beginnings of this development that can be traced, we must assume
+that at a later period the Babylonian religion centred in the adoration
+of the seven planetary deities. Very instructive in this connexion is
+the later (Arabian) account of the religion of the Mesopotamian
+Sabaeans. The religion of the Sabaeans, evidently a later offshoot from
+the stock of the old Babylonian religion, actually consists in the cult
+of the seven planets (cf. the great work of Daniel Chwolsohn, _Die
+Ssabier u. der Ssabismus_). But this reference to Babylonian religion
+does not solve the problem which is here in question. For in the
+Babylonian religion the planetary constellations are reckoned as the
+supreme deities. And here the question arises, how it came about that in
+the Gnostic systems the Seven appear as subordinate, half-daemonic
+powers, or even completely as powers of darkness. This can only be
+explained on the assumption that some religion hostile to, and stronger
+than the Babylonian, has superimposed itself upon this, and has degraded
+its principal deities into daemons. Which religion can this have been?
+We are at first inclined to think of Christianity itself, but it is
+certainly most improbable that at the time of the rise of Christianity
+the Babylonian teaching about the seven planet-deities governing the
+world should have played so great a part throughout all Syria, Asia
+Minor and Egypt, that the most varying sections of syncretic
+Christianity should over and over again adopt this doctrine and work it
+up into their system. It is far more probable that the combination which
+we meet with in Gnosticism is older than Christianity, and was found
+already in existence by Christianity and its sects. We must also reject
+the theory that this degradation of the planetary deities into daemons
+is due to the influence of Hebrew monotheism, for almost all the Gnostic
+sects take up a definitely hostile attitude towards the Jewish religion,
+and almost always the highest divinity among the Seven is actually the
+creator-God of the Old Testament. There remains, then, only one religion
+which can be used as an explanation, namely the Persian, which in fact
+fulfils all the necessary conditions. The Persian religion was at an
+early period brought into contact with the Babylonian, through the
+triumphant progress of Persian culture towards the West; at the time of
+Alexander the Great it was already the prevailing religion in the
+Babylonian plain (cf. F. Cumont, _Textes et monuments rel. aux mysteres
+de Mithra_, i. 5, 8-10, 14, 223 seq., 233). It was characterized by a
+main belief, tending towards monotheism, in the Light-deity Ahuramazda
+and his satellites, who appeared in contrast with him as powers of the
+nature of angels.
+
+A combination of the Babylonian with the Persian religion could only be
+effected by the degradation of the Babylonian deities into half-divine,
+half-daemonic beings, infinitely remote from the supreme God of light
+and of heaven, or even into powers of darkness. Even the characteristic
+dualism of Gnosticism has already proved to be in part of Iranian
+origin; and now it becomes clear how from that mingling of late Greek
+and Persian dualism the idea could arise that these seven half-daemonic
+powers are the creators or rulers of this material world, which is
+separated infinitely from the light-world of the good God. Definite
+confirmation of this conjecture is afforded us by later sources of the
+Iranian religion, in which we likewise meet with the characteristic
+fundamental doctrine of Gnosticism. Thus the _Bundahish_ (iii. 25, v. 1)
+is able to inform us that in the primeval strife of Satan against the
+light-world, seven hostile powers were captured and set as
+constellations in the heavens, where they are guarded by good
+star-powers and prevented from doing harm. Five of the evil powers are
+the planets, while here the sun and moon are of course not reckoned
+among the evil powers--for the obvious reason that in the Persian
+official religion they invariably appear as good divinities (cf. similar
+ideas in the Arabic treatise on Persian religion _Ulema-i-Islam_,
+Vullers, _Fragmente uber die Religion Zoroasters_, p. 49, and in other
+later sources for Persian religion, put together in Spiegel, _Eranische
+Altertumskunde_, Bd. ii. p. 180). These Persian fancies can hardly be
+borrowed from the Christian Gnostic systems, their definiteness and much
+more strongly dualistic character recalling the exposition of the
+Mandaean (and Manichaean) system, are proofs to the contrary. They are
+derived from the same period in which the underlying idea of the
+Gnostic systems also originated, namely, the time at which the ideas of
+the Persian and Babylonian religions came into contact, the remarkable
+results of which have thus partly found their way into the official
+documents of Parsiism.
+
+With this fundamental doctrine of Gnosticism is connected, as Anz has
+shown in his book which we have so often quoted, a side of their
+religious practices to which we have already alluded. Gnosticism is to a
+great extent dominated by the idea that it is above all and in the
+highest degree important for the Gnostic's soul to be enabled to find
+its way back through the lower worlds and spheres of heaven ruled by the
+Seven to the kingdom of light of the supreme deity of heaven. Hence, a
+principal item in their religious practice consisted in communications
+about the being, nature and names of the Seven (or of any other hostile
+daemons barring the way to heaven), the formulas with which they must be
+addressed, and the symbols which must be shown to them. But names,
+symbols and formulas are not efficacious by themselves: the Gnostic must
+lead a life having no part in the lower world ruled by these spirits,
+and by his knowledge he must raise himself above them to the God of the
+world of light. Throughout this mystic religious world it was above all
+the influence of the late Greek religion, derived from Plato, that also
+continued to operate; it is filled with the echo of the song, the first
+note of which was sounded by the Platonists, about the heavenly home of
+the soul and the homeward journey of the wise to the higher world of
+light.
+
+But the form in which the whole is set forth is Oriental, and it must be
+carefully noted that the Mithras mysteries, so closely connected with
+the Persian religion, are acquainted with this doctrine of the ascent of
+the soul through the planetary spheres (Origen, _Contra Celsum_, vi.
+22).
+
+V. We cannot here undertake to set forth and explain in detail all the
+complex varieties of the Gnostic systems; but it will be useful to take
+a nearer view of certain principal figures which have had an influence
+upon at least one series of Gnostic systems, and to examine their
+origins in the history of religion. In almost all systems an important
+part is played by the Great Mother ([Greek: meter]) who appears under
+the most varied forms (cf. GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS). At an early
+period, and notably in the older systems of the Ophites (a fairly exact
+account of which has been preserved for us by Epiphanius and
+Hippolytus), among the Gnostics in the narrower sense of the word, the
+Archontici, the Sethites (there are also traces among the Naasseni, cf.
+the _Philosophumena_ of Hippolytus), the [Greek: meter] is the most
+prominent figure in the light-world, elevated above the [Greek:
+hebdomas], and the great mother of the faithful. The sect of the
+Barbelognostics takes its name from the female figure of the Barbelo
+(perhaps a corruption of [Greek: Parthenos]; cf. the form [Greek:
+Barthenos] for "virgin" in Epiphanius, _Haer._ xxvi. 1). But Gnostic
+speculation gives various accounts of the descent or fall of this
+goddess of heaven. Thus the "Helena" of the Simoniani descends to this
+world in order by means of her beauty to provoke to sensual passion and
+mutual strife the angels who rule the world, and thus again to deprive
+them of the powers of light, stolen from heaven, by means of which they
+rule over the world. She is then held captive by them in extreme
+degradation. Similar ideas are to be found among the "Gnostics" of
+Epiphanius. The kindred idea of the light-maiden, who, by exciting the
+sensual passions of the rulers ([Greek: archontes]), takes from them
+those powers of light which still remain to them, has also a central
+place in the Manichaean scheme of salvation (F. C. Baur, _Das
+manichaische Religionssystem_, pp. 219, 315, 321). The light-maiden also
+plays a prominent part in the _Pistis-Sophia_ (cf. the index to the
+translation by C. Schmidt). With this figure of the mother-goddess who
+descends into the lower world seems to be closely connected the idea of
+the fallen Sophia, which is so widespread among the Gnostic systems.
+This Sophia then is certainly no longer the dominating figure of the
+light-world, she is a lower aeon at the extreme limit of the world of
+light, who sinks down into matter (Barbelognostics, the anonymous
+Gnostic of Irenaeus, Bardesanes, _Pistis-Sophia_), or turns in
+presumptuous love towards the supreme God ([Greek: Buthos]), and thus
+brings the Fall into the world of the _aeons_ (Valentinians). This
+Sophia then appears as the mother of the "seven" gods (see above).
+
+The origin of this figure is not far to seek. It is certainly not
+derived from the Persian religious system, to the spirit of which it is
+entirely opposed. Neither would it be correct to identify her entirely
+with the great goddess Ishtar of the old Babylonian religion. But there
+can hardly be any doubt that the figure of the great mother-goddess or
+goddess of heaven, who was worshipped throughout Asia under various
+forms and names (Astarte, Beltis, Atargatis, Cybele, the Syrian
+Aphrodite), was the prototype of the [Greek: meter] of the Gnostics (cf.
+GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS). The character of the great goddess of heaven
+is still in many places fairly exactly preserved in the Gnostic
+speculations. Hence we are able to understand how the Gnostic [Greek:
+meter], the Sophia, appears as the mother of the Hebdomas ([Greek:
+hebdomas]). The great goddess of heaven is the mother of the stars.
+Particularly instructive in this connexion is the fact that in those
+very sects, in the systems of which the figure of the [Greek: meter]
+plays a special part, unbridled prostitution appears as a distinct and
+essential part of the cult (cf. the accounts of particular branches of
+the Gnostics, Nicolaitans, Philionites, Borborites, &c. in Epiphanius,
+_Haer._ xxv., xxvi.). The meaning of this cult is, of course,
+reinterpreted in the Gnostic sense: by this unbridled prostitution the
+Gnostic sects desired to prevent the sexual propagation of mankind, the
+origin of all evil. But the connexion is clear, and hence it also
+explained the curious Gnostic myth mentioned above, namely that the
+[Greek: meter] (the light-maiden) by appearing to the archontes ([Greek:
+archontes]), the lower powers of this world, inflames them to sexual
+lusts, in order to take from them that share of light which they have
+stolen from the upper world. This is a Gnostic interpretation of the
+various myths of the great mother-goddess's many loves and
+love-adventures with other gods and heroes. And when the pagan legend of
+the Syrian Astarte tells how she lived for ten years in Tyre as a
+prostitute, this directly recalls the Gnostic myth of how Simon found
+Helena in a brothel in Tyre (Epiphanius, _Ancoratus_, c. 104). From the
+same group of myths must be derived the idea of the goddess who descends
+to the under-world, and is there taken prisoner against her will by the
+lower powers; the direct prototype of this myth is to be found, e.g. in
+Ishtar's journey to hell. And finally, just as the mother-goddess of
+south-western Asia stands in particularly intimate connexion with the
+youthful god of spring (Tammuz, Adonis, Attis), so we ought perhaps to
+compare here as a parallel the relation of Sophia with the Soter in
+certain Gnostic systems (see below).
+
+Another characteristic figure of Gnosticism is that of the Primal Man
+([Greek: protos anthropos]). In many systems, certainly, it has already
+been forced quite into the background. But on closer examination we can
+clearly see that it has a wide influence on Gnosticism. Thus in the
+system of the Naasseni (see Hippolytus, _Philosophumena_), and in
+certain related sects there enumerated, the Primal Man has a central and
+predominant position. Again, in the text on which are based the
+pseudo-Clementine writings (_Recognitions_, i. 16, 32, 45-47, 52, ii.
+47; and _Homilies_, iii. 17 seq. xviii. 14), as in the closely related
+system of the Ebionites in Epiphanius (_Haer._ xxx. 3-16; cf. liii. 1),
+we meet with the man who existed before the world, the prophet who goes
+through the world in various forms, and finally reveals himself in
+Christ. Among the Barbelognostics (Irenaeus i. 29. 3), the Primal Man
+(Adamas, _homo perfectus et verus_) and Gnosis appear as a pair of
+aeons, occupying a prominent place in the whole series. In the
+Valentinian systems the pair of aeons, Anthropos and Ekklesia, occupy
+the third or fourth place within the _Oydoas_, but incidentally we learn
+that with some representatives of this school the Anthropos took a still
+more prominent place (first or second; Hilgenfeld, _Ketzergeschichte_,
+p. 294 seq.). And even in the _Pistis-Sophia_ the Primal Man "Ieu" is
+frequently alluded to as the King of the Luminaries (cf. index to C.
+Schmidt's translation). We also meet with speculations of this kind
+about man in the circles of non-Christian Gnosis. Thus in the
+_Poimandres_ of Hermes man is the most prominent figure in the
+speculation; numerous pagan and half-pagan parallels (the "Gnostics" of
+Plotinus, Zosimus, Bitys) have been collected by Reitzenstein in his
+work _Poimandres_ (pp. 81-116). Reitzenstein has shown (p. 81 seq.) that
+very probably the system of the Naasseni described by Hippolytus was
+originally derived from purely pagan circles, which are probably
+connected in some way with the mysteries of the Attis cult. The figure
+in the Mandaean system most closely corresponding to the Primal Man,
+though this figure also actually occurs in another part of the system
+(cf. the figure of Adakas Mana; Brandt, _Mandaische Religion_, p. 36
+seq.) is that of Manda d'hayye ([Greek: gnosis tes zoes]; cf. the pair
+of aeons, Adamas and Gnosis, among the Barbelognostics, in Irenaeus i.
+29. 3). Finally, in the Manichaean system, as is well known, the Primal
+Man again assumes the predominant place (Baur, _Manich.
+Religionssystem_, 49 seq.).
+
+This figure of the Primal Man can particularly be compared with that of
+the Gnostic Sophia. Wherever this figure has not become quite obscure,
+it represents that divine power which, whether simply owing to a fall,
+or as the hero who makes war on, and is partly vanquished by darkness,
+descends into the darkness of the material world, and with whose descent
+begins the great drama of the world's development. From this power are
+derived those portions of light existing and held prisoner in this lower
+world. And as he has raised himself again out of the material world, or
+has been set free by higher powers, so shall also the members of the
+Primal Man, the portions of light still imprisoned in matter, be set
+free.
+
+The question of the derivation of the myth of the Primal Man is still
+one of the unsolved problems of religious history. It is worthy of
+notice that according to the old Persian myth also, the development of
+the world begins with the slaying of the primal man Gayomart by
+Angra-Mainyu (Ahriman); further, that the Primal Man ("son of man" =
+man) also plays a part in Jewish apocalyptic literature (Daniel, Enoch,
+iv. Ezra), whence this figure passes into the Gospels; and again, that
+the dogma of Christ's descent into hell is directly connected with this
+myth. But these parallels do not carry us much further. Even the Persian
+myth is entirely obscure, and has hitherto defied interpretation. It is
+certainly true that in some way an essential part in the formation of
+the myth has been played by the sun-god, who daily descends into
+darkness, to rise from it again victoriously. But how to explain the
+combination of the figure of the sun-god with that of the Primal Man is
+an unsolved riddle. The meaning of this figure in the Gnostic
+speculations is, however, clear. It answers the question: how did the
+portions of light to be found in this lower world, among which certainly
+belong the souls of the Gnostics, enter into it?
+
+A parallel myth to that of the Primal Man are the accounts to be found
+in most of the Gnostic systems of the creation of the first man. In all
+these accounts the idea is expressed that so far as his body is
+concerned man is the work of the angels who created the world. So e.g.
+Satornil relates (Irenaeus i. 24. 1) that a brilliant vision appeared
+from above to the world-creating angels; they were unable to hold it
+fast, but formed man after its image. And as the man thus formed was
+unable to move, but could only crawl like a worm, the supreme Power put
+into him a spark of life, and man came into existence. Imaginations of
+the same sort are also to be found, e.g. in the genuine fragments of
+Valentinus (Hilgenfeld, _Ketzergeschichte_, p. 293), the Gnostics of
+Irenaeus i. 30. 6, the Mandaeans (Brandt, _Religion der Mandaer_, p.
+36), and the Manichaeans (Baur, _Religionssystem_, p. 118 seq.). The
+Naasseni (Hippolytus, _Philosophumena_, v. 7) expressly characterize the
+myth as Chaldean (cf. the passage from Zosimus, in Reitzenstein's
+_Poimandres_, p. 104). Clearly then the question which the myth of the
+Primal Man is intended to answer in relation to the whole universe is
+answered in relation to the nature of man by this account of the coming
+into being of the first man, which may, moreover, have been influenced
+by the account in the Old Testament. That question is: how does it
+happen that in this inferior body of man, fallen a prey to corruption,
+there dwells a higher spark of the divine Being, or in other words, how
+are we to explain the double nature of man?
+
+VI. Of all the fundamental ideas of Gnosticism of which we have so far
+treated, it can with some certainty be assumed that they were in
+existence before the rise of Christianity and the influence of Christian
+ideas on the development of Gnosticism. The main question with which we
+have now to deal is that of whether the dominant figure of the Saviour
+([Greek: Soter]) in Gnosticism is of specifically Christian derivation,
+or whether this can also be explained apart from the assumption of
+Christian influence. And here it must be premised that, intimately as
+the conception of salvation is bound up with the Gnostic religion, the
+idea of salvation accomplished in a definite historical moment to a
+certain extent remained foreign to it. Indeed, nearly all the Christian
+Gnostic systems clearly exhibit the great difficulty with which they had
+to contend in order to reconcile the idea of an historical redeemer,
+actually occurring in the form of a definite person, with their
+conceptions of salvation. In Gnosticism salvation always lies at the
+root of all existence and all history. The fundamental conception varies
+greatly. At one time the Primal Man, who sank down into matter, has
+freed himself and risen out of it again, and like him his members will
+rise out of darkness into the light (_Poimandres_); at another time the
+Primal Man who was conquered by the powers of darkness has been saved by
+the powers of light, and thus too all his race will be saved
+(Manichaeism); at another time the fallen Sophia is purified by her
+passions and sorrows and has found her _Syzygos_, the Soter, and wedded
+him, and thus all the souls of the Gnostics who still languish in matter
+will become the brides of the angels of the _Soter_ (Valentinus). In
+fact salvation, as conceived in Gnosticism, is always a myth, a history
+of bygone events, an allegory or figure, but not an historical event.
+And this decision is not affected by the fact that in certain Gnostic
+sects figured historical personages such as Simon Magus and Menander.
+The Gnostic ideas of salvation were in the later schools and sects
+transferred to these persons whom we must consider as rather obscure
+charlatans and miracle-mongers, just as in other cases they were
+transferred to the person of Christ. The "Helena" of the Simonian system
+was certainly not an historical but a mythical figure. This explains the
+laborious and artificial way in which the person of Jesus is connected
+in many Gnostic systems with the original Gnostic conception of
+redemption. In this patchwork the joins are everywhere still clearly to
+be recognized. Thus, e.g. in the Valentinian system, the myth of the
+fallen Sophia and the Soter, of their ultimate union, their marriage and
+their 70 sons (Irenaeus i. 4. 5; Hippolytus, _Philos._ vi. 34), has
+absolutely nothing to do with the Christian conceptions of salvation.
+The subject is here that of a high goddess of heaven (she has 70 sons)
+whose friend and lover finds her in the misery of deepest degradation,
+frees her, and bears her home as his bride. To this myth the idea of
+salvation through the earthly Christ can only be attached with
+difficulty. And it was openly maintained that the Soter only existed for
+the Gnostic, the Saviour Jesus who appeared on earth only for the
+"Psychicus" (Irenaeus i. 6. 1).
+
+VII. Thus the essential part of most of the conceptions of what we call
+Gnosticism was already in existence and fully developed before the rise
+of Christianity. But the fundamental ideas of Gnosticism and of early
+Christianity had a kind of magnetic attraction for each other. What drew
+these two forces together was the energy exerted by the universal idea
+of salvation in both systems. Christian Gnosticism actually introduced
+only one new figure into the already existing Gnostic theories, namely
+that of the historical Saviour Jesus Christ. This figure afforded, as it
+were, a new point of crystallization for the existing Gnostic ideas,
+which now grouped themselves round this point in all their manifold
+diversity. Thus there came into the fluctuating mass a strong movement
+and formative impulse, and the individual systems and sects sprang up
+like mushrooms from this soil.
+
+It must now be our task to make plain the position of Gnosticism within
+the Christian religion, and its significance for the development of the
+latter. Above all the Gnostics represented and developed the distinctly
+anti-Jewish tendency in Christianity. Paul was the apostle whom they
+reverenced, and his spiritual influence on them is quite unmistakable.
+The Gnostic Marcion has been rightly characterized as a direct disciple
+of Paul. Paul's battle against the law and the narrow national
+conception of Christianity found a willing following in a movement, the
+syncretic origin of which directed it towards a universal religion. St
+Paul's ideas were here developed to their extremest consequences, and in
+an entirely one-sided fashion such as was far from being in his
+intention. In nearly all the Gnostic systems the doctrine of the seven
+world-creating spirits is given an anti-Jewish tendency, the god of the
+Jews and of the Old Testament appearing as the highest of the seven. The
+demiurge of the Valentinians always clearly bears the features of the
+Old Testament creator-God.
+
+The Old Testament was absolutely rejected by most of the Gnostics. Even
+the so-called Judaeo-Christian Gnostics (Cerinthus), the Ebionite
+(Essenian) sect of the Pseudo-Clementine writings (the Elkesaites), take
+up an inconsistent attitude towards Jewish antiquity and the Old
+Testament. In this respect the opposition to Gnosticism led to a
+reactionary movement. If the growing Christian Church, in quite a
+different fashion from Paul, laid stress on the literal authority of the
+Old Testament, interpreted, it is true, allegorically; if it took up a
+much more friendly and definite attitude towards the Old Testament, and
+gave wider scope to the legal conception of religion, this must be in
+part ascribed to the involuntary reaction upon it of Gnosticism.
+
+The attitude of Gnosticism to the Old Testament and to the creator-God
+proclaimed in it had its deeper roots, as we have already seen, in the
+dualism by which it was dominated. With this dualism and the recognition
+of the worthlessness and absolutely vicious nature of the material world
+is combined a decided spiritualism. The conception of a resurrection of
+the body, of a further existence for the body after death, was
+unattainable by almost all of the Gnostics, with the possible exception
+of a few Gnostic sects dominated by Judaeo-Christian tendencies. With
+the dualistic philosophy is further connected an attitude of absolute
+indifference towards this lower and material world, and the practice of
+asceticism. Marriage and sexual propagation are considered either as
+absolute Evil or as altogether worthless, and carnal pleasure is
+frequently looked upon as forbidden. Then again asceticism sometimes
+changes into wild libertinism. Here again Gnosticism has exercised an
+influence on the development of the Church by way of contrast and
+opposition. If here a return was made to the old material view of the
+resurrection (the apostolic [Greek: anastasis tes sarkos]), entirely
+abandoning the more spiritual conception which had been arrived at as a
+compromise by Paul, this is probably the result of a reaction from the
+views of Gnosticism. It was just at this point, too, that Gnosticism
+started a development which was followed later by the Catholic Church.
+In spite of the rejection of the ascetic attitude of the Gnostics, as a
+blasphemy against the Creator, a part of this ascetic principle became
+at a later date dominant throughout all Christendom. And it is
+interesting to observe how, e.g., St Augustine, though desperately
+combating the dualism of the Manichaeans, yet afterwards introduced a
+number of dualistic ideas into Christianity, which are distinguishable
+from those of Manichaeism only by a very keen eye, and even then with
+difficulty.
+
+The Gnostic religion also anticipated other tendencies. As we have seen,
+it is above all things a religion of sacraments and mysteries. Through
+its syncretic origin Gnosticism introduced for the first time into
+Christianity a whole mass of sacramental, mystical ideas, which had
+hitherto existed in it only in its earliest phases. But in the long run
+even genuine Christianity has been unable to free itself from the magic
+of the sacraments; and the Eastern Church especially has taken the same
+direction as Gnosticism. Gnosticism was also the pioneer of the
+Christian Church in the strong emphasis laid on the idea of salvation in
+religion. And since the Gnostics were compelled to draw the figure of
+the Saviour into a world of quite alien myths, their Christology became
+so complicated in character that it frequently recalls the Christology
+of the later dogmatic of the Greek Fathers.
+
+Finally, it was Gnosticism which gave the most decided impulse to the
+consolidation of the Christian Church as a church. Gnosticism itself is
+a free, naturally-growing religion, the religion of isolated minds, of
+separate little circles and minute sects. The homogeneity of wide
+circles, the sense of responsibility engendered by it, and continuity
+with the past are almost entirely lacking in it. It is based upon
+revelation, which even at the present time is imparted to the
+individual, upon the more or less convincing force of the religious
+imagination and speculations of a few leaders, upon the voluntary and
+unstable grouping of the schools round the master. Its adherents feel
+themselves to be the isolated, the few, the free and the enlightened, as
+opposed to the sluggish and inert masses of mankind degraded into
+matter, or the initiated as opposed to the uninitiated, the Gnostics as
+opposed to the "Hylici" ([Greek: hulikoi]); at most in the later and
+more moderate schools a middle place was given to the adherents of the
+Church as Psychici ([Greek: psychikoi]).
+
+This freely-growing Gnostic religiosity aroused in the Church an
+increasingly strong movement towards unity and a firm and inelastic
+organization, towards authority and tradition. An organized hierarchy, a
+definitive canon of the Holy Scriptures, a confession of faith and rule
+of faith, and unbending doctrinal discipline, these were the means
+employed. A part was also played in this movement by a free theology
+which arose within the Church, itself a kind of Gnosticism which aimed
+at holding fast whatever was good in the Gnostic movement, and obtaining
+its recognition within the limits of the Church (Clement of Alexandria,
+Origen). But the mightiest forces, to which in the end this theology too
+had absolutely to give way, were outward organization and tradition.
+
+It must be considered as an unqualified advantage for the further
+development of Christianity, as a universal religion, that at its very
+outset it prevailed against the great movement of Gnosticism. In spite
+of the fact that in a few of its later representatives Gnosticism
+assumed a more refined and spiritual aspect, and even produced blossoms
+of a true and beautiful piety, it is fundamentally and essentially an
+unstable religious syncretism, a religion in which the determining
+forces were a fantastic oriental imagination and a sacramentalism which
+degenerated into the wildest superstitions, a weak dualism fluctuating
+unsteadily between asceticism and libertinism. Indirectly, however,
+Gnosticism was certainly one of the most powerful factors in the
+development of Christianity in the 1st century.
+
+VIII. This sketch may be completed by a short review of the various
+separate sects and their probable connexion with each other. As a point
+of departure for the history of the development of Gnosticism may be
+taken the numerous little sects which were apparently first included
+under the name of "Gnostics" in the narrower sense. Among these probably
+belong the Ophites of Celsus (in Origen), the many little sects included
+by Epiphanius under the name of Nicolaitans and Gnostics (_Haer._ 25,
+26); the Archontici (Epiphanius, _Haer._ xl.), Sethites (Cainites)
+should also here be mentioned, and finally the Carpocratians. Common to
+all these is the dominant position assumed by the "Seven" (headed by
+Ialdabaoth); the heavenly world lying above the spheres of the Seven is
+occupied by comparatively few figures, among which the most important
+part is played by the [Greek: meter], who is sometimes enthroned as the
+supreme goddess in heaven, but in a few systems has already descended
+from there into matter, been taken prisoner, &c. Numerous little groups
+are distinguished from the mass, sometimes by one peculiarity, sometimes
+by another. On the one hand we have sects with a strongly ascetic
+tendency, on the other we find some characterized by unbridled
+libertinism; in some the most abandoned prostitution has come to be the
+most sacred mystery; in others again appears the worship of serpents,
+which here appears to be connected in various and often very loose ways
+with the other ideas of these Gnostics--hence the names of the
+"Ophites," "Naasseni." To this class also fundamentally belong the
+Simoniani, who have included the probably historical figure of Simon
+Magus in a system which seems to be closely connected with those we have
+mentioned, especially if we look upon the "Helena" of this system as a
+mythical figure. A particular branch of the "Gnostic" sects is
+represented by those systems in which the figure of Sophia sinking down
+into matter already appears. To these belong the Barbelognostics (in the
+description given by Irenaeus the figure of the Spirit takes the place
+of that of Sophia), and the Gnostics whom Irenaeus (i. 30) describes
+(cf. Epiphanius, _Haer._ xxvi.). And here may best be included
+Bardesanes, a famous leader of a Gnostic school of the end of the 2nd
+century. Most scholars, it is true, following an old tradition, reckon
+Bardesanes among the Valentinians. But from the little we know of
+Bardesanes, his system bears no trace of relationship with the
+complicated Valentinian system, but is rather completely derived from
+the ordinary Gnosticism, and is distinguished from it apparently only by
+its more strongly dualistic character. The systems of Valentinus and his
+disciples must be considered as a further development of what we have
+just characterized as the popular Gnosticism, and especially of that
+branch of it to which the figure of Sophia is already known. In them
+above all the world of the higher aeons is further extended and filled
+with a throng of varied figures. They also exhibit a variation from the
+characteristic dualism of Gnosticism into monism, in their conception of
+the fall of Sophia and their derivation of matter from the passions of
+the fallen Sophia. The figures of the Seven have here entirely
+disappeared, the remembrance of them being merely preserved in the name
+of the [Greek: Demiourgos (hebdomas)]. In general, Valentinianism
+displays a particular resemblance to the dominant ideas of the Church,
+both in its complicated Christology, its triple division of mankind into
+[Greek: pneumatikoi, psychikoi] and [Greek: hulikoi], and its
+far-fetched interpretation of texts.[7] A quite different position from
+those mentioned above is taken by Basilides (q.v.). From what little we
+know of him he was an uncompromising dualist. Both the systems which are
+handed down under his name by Irenaeus and Hippolytus, that of
+emanations and the monistic-evolutionary system, represent further
+developments of his ideas with a tendency away from dualism towards
+monism. Characteristically, in these Basilidian systems the figure of
+the "Mother" or of Sophia does not appear. This peculiarity the
+Basilidian system shares with that of Satornil of Antioch, which has
+only come down to us in a very fragmentary state, and in other respects
+recalls in many ways the popular Gnosticism. By itself, on the other
+hand, stands the system preserved for us by Hippolytus in the
+_Philosophumena_ under the name of the Naasseni, with its central figure
+of "the Man," which, as we have seen, is very closely related with
+certain specifically pagan Gnostic speculations which have come down to
+us (in the _Poimandres_, in Zosimus and Plotinus, _Ennead_ ii. 9). With
+the Naasseni, moreover, are related also the other sects of which
+Hippolytus alone gives us a notice in his _Philosophumena_ (Docetae,
+Perates, Sethiani, the adherents of Justin, the Gnostic of Monoimos).
+Finally, apart from all other Gnostics stands Marcion. With him, as far
+as we are able to conclude from the scanty notices of him, the manifold
+Gnostic speculations are reduced essentially to the one problem of the
+good and the just God, the God of the Christians and the God of the Old
+Testament. Between these two powers Marcion affirms a sharp and, as it
+appears, originally irreconcilable dualism which with him rests moreover
+on a speculative basis. Thanks to the noble simplicity and specifically
+religious character of his ideas, Marcion was able to found not only
+schools, but a community, a church of his own, which gave trouble to the
+Church longer than any other Gnostic sect. Among his disciples the
+speculative and fantastic element of Gnosticism again became more
+apparent. As we have already intimated, Gnosticism had such a power of
+attraction that it now drew within its limits even Judaeo-Christian
+sects. Among these we must mention the Judaeo-Christian Gnostic
+Cerinthus, also the Gnostic Ebionites, of whom Epiphanius (_Haer._)
+gives us an account, and whose writings are to be found in a recension
+in the collected works of the Pseudo-Clementine _Recognitions and
+Homilies_; to the same class belong the Elkesaites with their mystical
+scripture, the _Elxai_, extracts of which are given by Hippolytus in the
+_Philos._ (ix. 13). Later evidence of the decadence of Gnosticism occurs
+in the _Pistis-Sophia_ and the Coptic Gnostic writings discovered and
+edited by Schmidt. In these confused records of human imagination gone
+mad, we possess a veritable herbarium of all possible Gnostic ideas,
+which were once active and now rest peacefully side by side. None the
+less, the stream of the Gnostic religion is not yet dried up, but
+continues on its way; and it is beyond a doubt that the later
+Mandaeanism and the great religious movement of Mani are most closely
+connected with Gnosticism. These manifestations are all the more
+characteristic since in them we meet with a Gnosticism which remained
+essentially more untouched by Christian influences than the Gnostic
+systems of the 2nd century A.D. Thus these systems throw an important
+light on the past, and a true perception of the nature and purpose of
+Gnosticism is not to be obtained without taking them into consideration.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A. Neander, _Genetische Entwicklung d. vornehmsten
+  gnostischen Systeme_ (Berlin, 1818); F. Chr. Baur, _Die christl.
+  Gnosis in ihrer geschichtl. Entwicklung_ (Tubingen, 1835); E. W.
+  Moller, _Gesch. der Kosmologie in der griechischen Kirche bis
+  Origenes_ (Halle, 1860); R. A. Lipsius, _Der Gnosticismus_ (Leipzig,
+  1860; originally in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyclopadie_); H. L. Mansel,
+  _The Gnostic Heresies of the 1st and 2nd Centuries_ (London, 1875); K.
+  Kepler, _Uber Gnosis und altbabylonische Religion_, a lecture
+  delivered at the Congress of Orientalists (Berlin, 1881); A.
+  Hilgenfeld, _Ketzergeschichte des Urchristentums_ (Leipzig, 1884); and
+  in _Ztschr. fur wissenschaftl. Theol._ 1890, i. "Der Gnosticismus"; A.
+  Harnack, _Dogmengeschichte_, i. 271 seq. (cf. the corresponding
+  sections of the _Dogmengeschichten_ of Loofs and Seeberg); W. Anz,
+  "Zur Frage nach dem Ursprung des Gnosticismus," _Texte u.
+  Untersuchungen_, xv. 4 (Leipzig, 1897); R. Liechtenhahn, _Die
+  Offenbarung im Gnosticismus_ (Gottingen, 1901); C. Schmidt, "Plotins
+  Stellung zum Gnosticismus u. kirchl. Christentum" _Texte u.
+  Untersuch._ xx. 4 (1902); E. de Faye, _Introduction a l'etude du
+  Gnosticisme_ (Paris, 1903); R. Reitzenstein, _Poimandres_ (Leipzig,
+  1904); G. Kruger, article "Gnosticismus" in Herzog-Hauck's
+  _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed.) vi. 728 ff.; Bousset, "Hauptprobleme der
+  Gnosis," _Forschungen z. Relig. u. Lit. d. alten u. neuen Testaments_,
+  10 (1907); T. Wendland, _Hellenistisch-romische Kultur in ihren
+  Beziehungen zu Judentum und Christentum_ (1907), p. 161 seq. See
+  further among important monographs on the individual Gnostic systems,
+  R. A. Lipsius, "Die ophitischen Systeme," _Ztschr. f. wissensch.
+  Theologie_ (1863); G. Heinrici, _Die valentinianische Gnosis u. d.
+  Heilige Schrift_ (Berlin, 1871); A. Merx, _Bardesanes von Edessa_
+  (Halle, 1863); A. Hilgenfeld, _Bardesanes, der letzte Gnostiker_
+  (Leipzig, 1864); A. Harnack, "Uber das gnostische Buch Pistis-Sophia,"
+  _Texte u. Untersuch._ vii. 2; C. Schmidt, "Gnostische Schriften,"
+  _Texte u. Untersuch._ viii. 1, 2; and also the works mentioned under S
+  II. of this article.     (W. Bo.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See the list of their titles in A. Harnack, _Geschichte der
+    altchristlichen Literatur_, Teil I. v. 171; ib. Teil II. _Chronologie
+    der altchristl. Literatur_, i. 533 seq.; also Liechtenhahn, _Die
+    Offenbarung im Gnosticismus_ (1901).
+
+  [2] For the text see A. Merx, _Bardesanes von Edessa_ (1863), and A.
+    Hilgenfeld, _Bardesanes der letzte Gnostiker_ (1864).
+
+  [3] Ed. Petermann-Schwartze; newly translated by C. Schmidt,
+    _Koptisch-gnostische Schriften_, i. (1905), in the series _Die
+    griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei
+    Jahrhunderte_; see also A. Harnack, _Texte und Untersuchungen_, Bd.
+    vii. Heft 2 (1891), and _Chronologie der altchristlichen Literatur_,
+    ii. 193-195.
+
+  [4] See R. A. Lipsius, _Die Quellen der altesten Ketzergeschichte_
+    (1875); A. Harnack, _Zur Quellenkritik der Geschichte des
+    Gnosticismus_ (1873); A. Hilgenfeld, _Ketzergeschichte_, pp. 1-83;
+    Harnack, _Geschichte der altchristlich. Literatur_, i. 171 seq., ii.
+    533 seq., 712 seq.; J. Kunze, _De historiae Gnostic. fontibus_
+    (1894). On the _Philosophumena_ of Hippolytus see G. Salmon, the
+    cross-references in the Philosophumena, _Hermathena_, vol. xi. (1885)
+    p. 5389 seq.; H. Staehelin, _Die gnostischen Quellen Hippolyts_,
+    _Texte und Unters._ Bd. vi. Hft. 3 (1890).
+
+  [5] Cf. the same idea of the fall of mankind in the pagan Gnosticism
+    of "Poimandres"; see Reitzenstein, _Poimandres_ (1904); and the
+    position of the Primal Man (_Urmensch_) among the Manichaeans is
+    similar.
+
+  [6] These ideas may possibly be traced still further back, and
+    perhaps even underlie St Paul's exposition in Col. ii. 15.
+
+  [7] For the disciples of Valentinus, especially Marcus, after whom
+    was named a separate sect, the Marcosians, with their Pythagorean
+    theories of numbers and their strong tincture of the mystical, magic,
+    and sacramental, see VALENTINUS AND VALENTINIANS.
+
+
+
+
+GNU, the Hottentot name for the large white-tailed South African
+antelope (q.v.), now nearly extinct, know to the Boers as the black
+wildebeest, and to naturalists as Connochaetes (or Catoblepas) gnu. A
+second and larger species is the brindled gnu or blue wildebeest (_C.
+taurinus_ or _Catoblepas gorgon_), also known by the Bechuana name
+_kokon_ or _kokoon_; and there are several East African forms more or
+less closely related to the latter which have received distinct names.
+
+[Illustration: White-tailed Gnu, or Black Wildebeest (_Connochaetes
+gnu_).]
+
+
+
+
+GO, or GO-BANG (Jap. _Go-ban_, board for playing _Go_), a popular table
+game. It is of great antiquity, having been invented in Japan, according
+to tradition, by the emperor Yao, 2350 B.C., but it is probably of
+Chinese origin. According to Falkener the first historical mention of it
+was made about the year 300 B.C., but there is abundant evidence that it
+was a popular game long before that period. The original Japanese Go is
+played on a board divided into squares by 19 horizontal and 19 vertical
+lines, making 361 intersections, upon which the flat round men, 181
+white and 181 black, are placed one by one as the game proceeds. The men
+are placed by the two players on any intersections (_me_) that may seem
+advantageous, the object being to surround with one's men as many
+unoccupied intersections as possible, the player enclosing the greater
+number of vacant points being the winner. Completely surrounded men are
+captured and removed from the board. This game is played in England upon
+a board divided into 361 squares, the men being placed upon these
+instead of upon the intersections.
+
+A much simpler variety of Go, mostly played by foreigners, has for its
+object to get five men into line. This may have been the earliest form
+of the game, as the word _go_ means five. Except in Japan it is often
+played on an ordinary draughts-board, and the winner is he who first
+gets five men into line, either vertically, horizontally or diagonally.
+
+  See _Go-Bang_, by A. Howard Cady, in Spalding's Home Library (New
+  York, 1896); _Games Ancient and Oriental_, by Edward Falkener (London,
+  1892); _Das japan.-chinesische Spiel Go_, by O. Korschelt (Yokohama,
+  1881); _Das Nationalspiel der Japanesen_, by G. Schurig (Leipzig,
+  1888).
+
+
+
+
+GOA, the name of the past and present capitals of Portuguese India, and
+of the surrounding territory more exactly described as Goa settlement,
+which is situated on the western coast of India, between 15 deg. 44' and
+14 deg. 53' N., and between 73 deg. 45' and 74 deg. 26' E. Pop. (1900)
+475,513, area 1301 sq. m.
+
+_Goa Settlement._--With Damaun (q.v.) and Diu (q.v.) Goa settlement
+forms a single administrative province ruled by a governor-general, and
+a single ecclesiastical province subject to the archbishop of Goa; for
+judicial purposes the province includes Macao in China, and Timor in the
+Malay Archipelago. It is bounded on the N. by the river Terakhul or
+Araundem, which divides it from the Sawantwari state, E. by the Western
+Ghats, S. by Kanara district, and W. by the Arabian Sea. It comprises
+the three districts of Ilhas, Bardez and Salsette, conquered early in
+the 16th century and therefore known as the Velhas Conquistas (Old
+Conquests), seven districts acquired later and known as the Novas
+Conquistas, and the island of Anjidiv or Anjadiva. The settlement, which
+has a coast-line of 62 m., is a hilly region, especially the Novas
+Conquistas; its distinguishing features are the Western Ghats, though
+the highest summits nowhere reach an altitude of 4000 ft., and the
+island of Goa. Numerous short but navigable rivers water the lowlands
+skirting the coast. The two largest rivers are the Mandavi and the
+Juari, which together encircle the island of Goa (Ilhas), being
+connected on the landward side by a creek. The island (native name
+Tisvadi, Tissuvaddy, Tissuary) is a triangular territory, the apex of
+which, called the _cabo_ or cape, is a rocky headland separating the
+harbour of Goa into two anchorages--Agoada or Aguada at the mouth of the
+Mandavi, on the north, and Mormugao or Marmagao at the mouth of the
+Juari, on the south. The northern haven is exposed to the full force of
+the south-west monsoon, and is liable to silt up during the rains. The
+southern, sheltered by the promontory of Salsette, is always open, but
+is less used, owing to its greater distance from the city of Goa, which
+is built on the island. A railway connects Mormagao, south of the Juari
+estuary, with Castle Rock on the Western Ghats. Goa imports textiles
+and foodstuffs, and exports coco-nuts, areca-nuts, spices, fish, poultry
+and timber. Its trade is carried on almost entirely with Bombay, Madras,
+Kathiawar and Portugal. Manganese is mined in large quantities, some
+iron is obtained, and other products are salt, palm-spirit, betel and
+bananas.
+
+_Cities of Goa._--1. The ancient Hindu city of Goa, of which hardly a
+fragment survives, was built at the southernmost point of the island,
+and was famous in early Hindu legend and history for its learning,
+wealth and beauty. In the Puranas and certain inscriptions its name
+appears as Gove, Govapuri, Gomant, &c.; the medieval Arabian geographers
+knew it as Sindabur or Sandabur, and the Portuguese as Goa Velha. It was
+ruled by the Kadamba dynasty from the 2nd century A.D. to 1312, and by
+Mahommedan invaders of the Deccan from 1312 until about 1370, during
+which period it was visited and described by Ibn Batuta. It was then
+annexed to the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, of which, according to
+Ferishta, it still formed part in 1469, when it was conquered by the
+Bahmani sultan of the Deccan; but two of the best Portuguese chroniclers
+state that it became independent in 1440, when the second city (Old Goa)
+was founded.
+
+2. Old Goa is, for the most part, a city of ruins without inhabitants
+other than ecclesiastics and their dependents. The chief surviving
+buildings are the cathedral, founded by Albuquerque in 1511 to
+commemorate his entry into Goa on St Catherine's day 1510, and rebuilt
+in 1623, and still used for public worship; the convent of St Francis
+(1517), a converted mosque rebuilt in 1661, with a portal of carved
+black stone, which is the only relic of Portuguese architecture in India
+dating from the first quarter of the 16th century; the chapel of St
+Catherine (1551); the church of Bom Jesus (1594-1603), a superb example
+of Renaissance architecture as developed by the Jesuits, containing the
+magnificent shrine and tomb of St Francis Xavier (see XAVIER, FRANCISCO
+DE); and the 17th-century convents of St Monica and St Cajetan. The
+college of St Paul (see below) is in ruins.
+
+3. Panjim, Pangim or New Goa, originally a suburb of Old Goa, is, like
+the parent city, built on the left bank of the Mandavi estuary, in 15
+deg. 30' N. and 73 deg. 33' E. Pop. (1901) 9500. It is a modern port
+with few pretensions to architectural beauty. Ships of the largest size
+can anchor in the river, but only small vessels can load or discharge at
+the quay. Panjim became the residence of the viceroy in 1759 and the
+capital of Portuguese India in 1843. It possesses a lyceum, a school for
+teachers, a seminary, a technical school and an experimental
+agricultural station.
+
+_Political History._--With the subdivision of the Bahmani kingdom, after
+1482, Goa passed into the power of Yusuf Adil Shah, king of Bijapur, who
+was its ruler when the Portuguese first reached India. At this time Goa
+was important as the starting-point of pilgrims from India to Mecca, as
+a mart with no rival except Calicut on the west coast, and especially as
+the centre of the import trade in horses (Gulf Arabs) from Hormuz, the
+control of which was a vital matter to the kingdoms warring in the
+Deccan. It was easily defensible by any power with command of the sea,
+as the encircling rivers could only be forded at one spot, and had been
+deliberately stocked with crocodiles. It was attacked on the 10th of
+February 1510 by the Portuguese under Albuquerque. As a Hindu ascetic
+had foretold its downfall and the garrison of Ottoman mercenaries was
+outnumbered, the city surrendered without a struggle, and Albuquerque
+entered it in triumph, while the Hindu townsfolk strewed filagree
+flowers of gold and silver before his feet. Three months later Yusuf
+Adil Shah returned with 60,000 troops, forced the passage of the ford,
+and blockaded the Portuguese in their ships from May to August, when the
+cessation of the monsoon enabled them to put to sea. In November
+Albuquerque returned with a larger force, and after overcoming a
+desperate resistance, recaptured the city, permitted his soldiers to
+plunder it for three days, and massacred the entire Mahommedan
+population.
+
+Goa was the first territorial possession of the Portuguese in Asia.
+Albuquerque intended it to be a colony and a naval base, as distinct
+from the fortified factories which had been established in certain
+Indian seaports. He encouraged his men to marry native women, and to
+settle in Goa as farmers, retail traders or artisans. These married men
+soon became a privileged caste, and Goa acquired a large Eurasian
+population. Albuquerque and his successors left almost untouched the
+customs and constitutions of the 30 village communities on the island,
+only abolishing the rite of suttee. A register of these customs (_Foral
+de usos e costumes_) was published in 1526, and is an historical
+document of much value; an abstract of it is given in R. S. Whiteway's
+_Rise of the Portuguese Empire in India_ (London, 1898).
+
+Goa became the capital of the whole Portuguese empire in the East. It
+was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon. Its senate or municipal
+chamber maintained direct communications with the king and paid a
+special representative to attend to its interests at court. In 1563 the
+governor even proposed to make Goa the seat of a parliament, in which
+all parts of the Portuguese east were to be represented; this was vetoed
+by the king.
+
+In 1542 St Francis Xavier mentions the architectural splendour of the
+city; but it reached the climax of its prosperity between 1575 and 1625.
+_Goa Dourada_, or Golden Goa, was then the wonder of all travellers, and
+there was a Portuguese proverb, "He who has seen Goa need not see
+Lisbon." Merchandise from all parts of the East was displayed in its
+bazaar, and separate streets were set aside for the sale of different
+classes of goods--Bahrein pearls and coral, Chinese porcelain and silk,
+Portuguese velvet and piece-goods, drugs and spices from the Malay
+Archipelago. In the main street slaves were sold by auction. The houses
+of the rich were surrounded by gardens and palm groves; they were built
+of stone and painted red or white. Instead of glass, their balconied
+windows had thin polished oyster-shells set in lattice-work.
+
+The social life of Goa was brilliant, as befitted the headquarters of
+the viceregal court, the army and navy, and the church; but the luxury
+and ostentation of all classes had become a byword before the end of the
+16th century. Almost all manual labour was done by slaves; common
+soldiers assumed high-sounding titles, and it was even customary for the
+poor noblemen who congregated together in boarding-houses to subscribe
+for a few silken cloaks, a silken umbrella and a common man-servant, so
+that each could take his turn to promenade the streets, fashionably
+attired and with a proper escort. There were huge gambling saloons,
+licensed by the municipality, where determined players lodged for weeks
+together; and every form of vice, except drunkenness, was practised by
+both sexes, although European women were forced to lead a kind of zenana
+life, and never ventured unveiled into the streets; they even attended
+at church in their palanquins, so as to avoid observation.
+
+The appearance of the Dutch in Indian waters was followed by the gradual
+ruin of Goa. In 1603 and 1639 the city was blockaded by Dutch fleets,
+though never captured, and in 1635 it was ravaged by an epidemic. Its
+trade was gradually monopolized by the Jesuits. Thevenot in 1666,
+Baldaeus in 1672, Fryer in 1675 describe its ever-increasing poverty and
+decay. In 1683 only the timely appearance of a Mogul army saved it from
+capture by a horde of Mahratta raiders, and in 1739 the whole territory
+was attacked by the same enemies, and only saved by the unexpected
+arrival of a new viceroy with a fleet. This peril was always imminent
+until 1759, when a peace with the Mahrattas was concluded. In the same
+year the proposal to remove the seat of government to Panjim was carried
+out; it had been discussed as early as 1684. Between 1695 and 1775 the
+population dwindled from 20,000 to 1600, and in 1835 Goa was only
+inhabited by a few priests, monks and nuns.
+
+_Ecclesiastical History._--Some Dominican friars came out to Goa in
+1510, but no large missionary enterprise was undertaken before the
+arrival of the Franciscans in 1517. From their headquarters in Goa the
+Franciscan preachers visited many parts of western India, and even
+journeyed to Ceylon, Pegu and the Malay Archipelago. For nearly
+twenty-five years they carried on the work of evangelization almost
+alone, with such success that in 1534 Pope Paul III. made Goa a
+bishopric, with spiritual jurisdiction over all Portuguese possessions
+between China and the Cape of Good Hope, though itself suffragan to the
+archbishopric of Funchal in Madeira. A Franciscan friar, Joao de
+Albuquerque, came to Goa as its first bishop in 1538. In 1542 St Francis
+Xavier came to Goa, and took over the Franciscan college of Santa Fe,
+for the training of native missionaries; this was renamed the College of
+St Paul, and became the headquarters of all Jesuit missions in the East,
+where the Jesuits were commonly styled _Paulistas_. By a Bull dated the
+4th of February 1557 Goa was made an archbishopric, with jurisdiction
+over the sees of Malacca and Cochin, to which were added Macao (1575),
+Japan (1588), Angamale or Cranganore (1600), Meliapur (Mylapur) (1606),
+Peking and Nanking (1610), together with the bishopric of Mozambique,
+which included the entire coast of East Africa. In 1606 the archbishop
+received the title of Primate of the East, and the king of Portugal was
+named Patron of the Catholic Missions in the East; his right of
+patronage was limited by the Concordat of 1857 to Goa, Malacca, Macao
+and certain parts of British India. The Inquisition was introduced into
+Goa in 1560: a vivid account of its proceedings is given by C. Dellon,
+_Relation de l'inquisition de Goa_ (1688). Five ecclesiastical councils,
+which dealt with matters of discipline, were held at Goa--in 1567, 1575,
+1585, 1592 and 1606; the archbishop of Goa also presided over the more
+important synod of Diamper (Udayamperur, about 12 m. S.E. of Cochin),
+which in 1599 condemned as heretical the tenets and liturgy of the
+Indian Nestorians, or Christians of St Thomas (q.v.). In 1675 Fryer
+described Goa as "a Rome in India, both for absoluteness and fabrics,"
+and Hamilton states that early in the 18th century the number of
+ecclesiastics in the settlement had reached the extraordinary total of
+30,000. But the Jesuits were expelled in 1759, and by 1800 Goa had lost
+much even of its ecclesiastical importance. The Inquisition was
+abolished in 1814 and the religious orders were secularized in 1835.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. N. da Fonseca, _An Historical and Archaeological
+  Sketch of Goa_ (Bombay, 1878) is a minute study of the city from the
+  earliest times, illustrated. For the early history of Portuguese rule
+  the chief authorities are _The Commentaries ... of Dalboquerque_
+  (Hakluyt Society's translation, London, 1877), the _Cartas_ of
+  Albuquerque (Lisbon, 1884), the _Historia ... da India_ of F. L. de
+  Castanheda (Lisbon, 1833, written before 1552), the _Lendas da India
+  of G. Correa_ (Lisbon, 1860, written 1514-1566), and the _Decadas da
+  India_ of Joao de Barros and D. do Couto (Lisbon, 1778-1788, written
+  about 1530-1616). Couto's _Soldado pratico_ (Lisbon, 1790) and S.
+  Botelho's _Cartas and Tombo_, written 1547-1554, published in
+  "Subsidios" of the Lisbon Academy (1868), are valuable studies of
+  military life and administration. The _Archivo Portuguez oriental_ (6
+  parts, New Goa, 1857-1877) is a most useful collection of documents
+  dating from 1515; part 2 contains the privileges, &c. of the city of
+  Goa, and part 4 contains the minutes of the ecclesiastical councils
+  and of the synod of Diamper. The social life of Goa has been
+  graphically described by many writers; see especially the travels of
+  Varthema (c. 1505), Linschoten (c. 1580), Pyrard (1608) in the Hakluyt
+  Society's translations; J. Mocquet, _Voyages_ (Paris, 1830, written
+  1608-1610); P. Baldaeus, in _Churchill's Voyages_, vol. 3 (London,
+  1732); J. Fryer, _A New Account of East India and Persia_ (London,
+  1698); A. de Mandelslo, _Voyages_ (London, 1669); _Les Voyages de M.
+  de Thevenot aux Indes Orientales_ (Amsterdam, 1779), and A. Hamilton,
+  _A New Account of the East Indies_ (London, 1774). For Goa in the 20th
+  century see _The Imperial Gazetteer of India_.     (K. G. J.)
+
+
+
+
+GOAL, originally an object set up as the place where a race ends, the
+winning-post, and so used figuratively of the end to which any effort is
+directed. It is thus used to translate the Lat. _meta_, the boundary
+pillar, set one at each end of the circus to mark the turning-point. The
+word was quite early used in various games for the two posts, with or
+without a cross-bar, through or over which the ball has to be driven to
+score a point towards winning the game. The _New English Dictionary_
+quotes the use in Richard Stanyhurst's _Description of Ireland_ (1577);
+but the word _gol_ in the sense of a boundary appears as early as the
+beginning of the 14th century in the religious poems of William de
+Shoreham (c. 1315). The origin of the word is obscure. It is usually
+taken to be derived from a French word _gaule_, meaning a pole or stick,
+but this meaning does not appear in the English usage, nor does the
+usual English meaning appear in the French. There is an O. Eng.
+_gaelan_, to hinder, which may point to a lost _gal_, barrier, but there
+is no evidence in other Teutonic languages for such a word.
+
+
+
+
+GOALPARA, a town and district of British India, in the Brahmaputra
+valley division of eastern Bengal and Assam. The town (pop. 6287)
+overlooks the Brahmaputra. It was the frontier outpost of the Mahommedan
+power, and has long been a flourishing seat of river trade. The civil
+station is built on the summit of a small hill commanding a magnificent
+view of the valley of the Brahmaputra, bounded on the north by the snowy
+ranges of the Himalayas and on the south by the Garo hills. The native
+town is built on the western slope of the hill, and the lower portion is
+subject to inundation from the marshy land which extends in every
+direction. It has declined in importance since the district headquarters
+were removed to Dhubri in 1879, and it suffered severely from the
+earthquake of the 12th of June 1897.
+
+The DISTRICT comprises an area of 3961 sq. m. It is situated along the
+Brahmaputra, at the corner where the river takes its southerly course
+from Assam into Bengal. The scenery is striking. Along the banks of the
+river grow clumps of cane and reed; farther back stretch fields of rice
+cultivation, broken only by the fruit trees surrounding the villages,
+and in the background rise the forest-clad hills overtopped by the white
+peaks of the Himalayas. The soil of the hills is of a red ochreous
+earth, with blocks of granite and sandstone interspersed; that of the
+plains is of alluvial formation. Earthquakes are common and occasionally
+severe shocks have been experienced. The Brahmaputra annually inundates
+vast tracts of country. Numerous extensive forests yield valuable
+timber. Wild animals of all kinds are found. In 1901 the population was
+462,083, showing an increase of 2% in the decade. Rice forms the staple
+crop. Mustard and jute are also largely grown. The manufactures consist
+of the making of brass and iron utensils and of gold and silver
+ornaments, weaving of silk cloth, basket-work and pottery. The
+cultivation of tea has been introduced but does not flourish anywhere in
+the district. Local trade is in the hands of Marwari merchants, and is
+carried on at the _bazars_, weekly _hats_ or markets and periodical
+fairs. The chief exports are mustard-seed, jute, cotton, timber, lac,
+silk cloth, india-rubber and tea; the imports, Bengal rice, European
+piece goods, salt, hardware, oil and tobacco.
+
+Dhubri (pop. 3737), the administrative headquarters of the district,
+stands on the Brahmaputra where that river takes its great bend south.
+It is the termination of the emigration road from North Bengal and of
+the river steamers that connect with the North Bengal railway. It is
+also served by the eastern Bengal State railway.
+
+
+
+
+GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. _gat_, Goth. _gaits_, Mod. Ger.
+_Geiss_, cognate with Lat. _haedus_, a kid), properly the name of the
+well-known domesticated European ruminant (_Capra hircus_), which has
+for all time been regarded as the emblem of everything that is evil, in
+contradistinction to the sheep, which is the symbol of excellence and
+purity. Although the more typical goats are markedly distinct from
+sheep, there is, both as regards wild and domesticated forms, an almost
+complete gradation from goats to sheep, so that it is exceedingly
+difficult to define either group. The position of the genus _Capra_ (to
+all the members of which, as well as some allied species, the name
+"goat" in its wider sense is applicable) in the family _Bovidae_ is
+indicated in the article BOVIDAE, and some of the distinctions between
+goats and sheep are mentioned in the article SHEEP. Here then it will
+suffice to mention that goats are characterized by the strong and
+offensive odour of the males, which are furnished with a beard on the
+chin; while as a general rule glands are present between the middle toes
+of the fore feet only.
+
+Goats, in the wild state, are an exclusively old-world group, of which
+the more typical forms are confined to Europe and south-western and
+central Asia, although there are two outlying species in northern
+Africa. The wild goat, or pasang, is represented in Europe in the
+Cyclades and Crete by rather small races. more or less mingled with
+domesticated breeds, the Cretan animal being distinguished as _Capra
+hircus creticus_; but the large typical race _C. h. aegagrus_ is met
+with in the mountains of Asia Minor and Persia, whence it extends to
+Sind, where it is represented by a somewhat different race known as _C.
+h. blythi_. The horns of the old bucks are of great length and beauty,
+and characterized by their bold scimitar-like backward sweep and sharp
+front edge, interrupted at irregular intervals by knots or bosses.
+Domesticated goats have run wild in many islands, such as the Hebrides,
+Shetland, Canaries, Azores, Ascension and Juan Fernandez. Some of these
+reverted breeds have developed horns of considerable size, although not
+showing that regularity of curve distinctive of the wild race. In the
+Azores the horns are remarkably upright and straight, whence the name of
+"antelope-goat" which has been given to these animals. The concretions
+known as _bezoar-stones_, formerly much used in medicine and as
+antidotes of poison, are obtained from the stomach of the wild goat.
+
+Although there have in all probability been more or less important local
+crosses with other wild species, there can be no doubt that domesticated
+goats generally are descended from the wild goat. It is true that many
+tame goats show spirally twisted horns recalling those of the
+under-mentioned Asiatic markhor; but in nearly all such instances it
+will be found that the spiral twists in the opposite direction. Among
+the domesticated breeds the following are some of the more important.
+
+Firstly, we have the common or European goats, of which there are
+several more or less well-marked breeds, differing from each other in
+length of hair, in colour and slightly in the configuration of the
+horns. The ears are more or less upright, sometimes horizontal, but
+never actually pendent, as in some Asiatic breeds. The horns are rather
+flat at the base and not unfrequently corrugated; they rise vertically
+from the head, curving to the rear, and are more or less laterally
+inclined. The colour varies from dirty white to dark-brown, but when
+pure-bred is never black, which indicates eastern blood. Most European
+countries possess more than one description of the common goat. In the
+British Isles there are two distinct types, one short and the other long
+haired. In the former the hair is thick and close, with frequently an
+under-coat resembling wool. The horns are large in the male, and of
+moderate size in the female, flat at the base and inclining outwards.
+The head is short and tapering, the forehead flat and wide, and the nose
+small; while the legs are strong, thick and well covered with hair. The
+colour varies from white or grey to black, but is frequently fawn, with
+a dark line down the spine and another across the shoulders. The other
+variety has a shaggy coat, generally reddish-black, though sometimes
+grey or pied and occasionally white. The head is long, heavy and ugly,
+the nose coarse and prominent, with the horns situated close together,
+often continuing parallel almost to the extremities, being also large,
+corrugated and pointed. The legs are long and the sides flat, the animal
+itself being generally gaunt and thin. This breed is peculiar to
+Ireland, the Welsh being of a similar type, but more often white. The
+short-haired goat is the English goat proper. Both British breeds, as
+well as those from abroad, are frequently ornamented with two
+tassel-like appendages, hanging near together under the throat. It has
+been supposed by many that these are traceable to foreign blood; but
+although there are foreign breeds that possess them, they appear to
+pertain quite as much to the English native breeds as to those of
+distant countries, the peculiarity being mentioned in very old works on
+the goats of the British Islands. The milk-produce in the common goat as
+well as other kinds varies greatly with individuals. Irish goats often
+yield a quantity of milk, but the quality is poor. The goats of France
+are similar to those of Britain, varying in length of hair, colour and
+character of horns. The Norway breed is frequently white with long hair;
+it is rather small in size, with small bones, a short rounded body, head
+small with a prominent forehead, and short, straight, corrugated horns.
+The facial line is concave. The horns of the males are very large, and
+curve round after the manner of the wild goat, with a tuft of hair
+between and in front.
+
+The Maltese goat has the ears long, wide and hanging down below the jaw.
+The hair is long and cream-coloured. The breed is usually hornless.
+
+The Syrian goat is met with in various parts of the East, in Lower
+Egypt, on the shores of the Indian Ocean and in Madagascar. The hair and
+ears are excessively long, the latter so much so that they are sometimes
+clipped to prevent their being torn by stones or thorny shrubs. The
+horns are somewhat erect and spiral, with an outward bend.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Male Angora Goat.]
+
+The Angora goat is often confounded with the Kashmir, but is in reality
+quite distinct. The principal feature of this breed, of which there are
+two or three varieties, is the length and quantity of the hair, which
+has a particularly soft and silky texture, covering the whole body and a
+great part of the legs with close matted ringlets. The horns of the male
+differ from those of the female, being directed vertically and in shape
+spiral, whilst in the female they have a horizontal tendency, somewhat
+like those of a ram. The coat is composed of two kinds of hair, the one
+short and coarse and of the character of hair, which lies close to the
+skin, the other long and curly and of the nature of wool, forming the
+outer covering. Both are used by the manufacturer, but the exterior
+portion, which makes up by far the greater bulk, is much the more
+valuable. The process of shearing takes place in early spring, the
+average amount of wool yielded by each animal being about 2-1/2 lb. The
+best quality comes from castrated males, females producing the next
+best.
+
+The breed was introduced at the Cape about 1864. The Angora is a bad
+milker and an indifferent mother, but its flesh is better than that of
+any other breed, and in its native country is preferred to mutton. The
+kids are born small, but grow fast, and arrive early at maturity. The
+Kashmir, or rather Tibet, goat has a delicate head, with semi-pendulous
+ears, which are both long and wide. The hair varies in length, and is
+coarse and of different colours according to the individual. The horns
+are very erect, and sometimes slightly spiral, inclining inwards and to
+such an extent in some cases as to cross. The coat is composed, as in
+the Angora, of two materials; but in this breed it is the under-coat
+that partakes of the nature of wool and is valued as an article of
+commerce. This under-coat, or _pushm_, which is of a uniform
+greyish-white tint, whatever the colour of the hair may be, is
+beautifully soft and silky, and of a fluffy description resembling down.
+It makes its appearance in the autumn, and continues to grow until the
+following spring, when, if not removed, it falls off naturally; its
+collection then commences, occupying from eight to ten days. The animal
+undergoes during that time a process of combing by which all the wool
+and a portion of the hair, which of necessity comes with it, is removed.
+The latter is afterwards carefully separated, when the fleece in a good
+specimen weighs about half a pound. This is the material of which the
+far-famed and costly shawls are made, which at one time had such a
+demand that, it is stated, 16,000 looms were kept in constant work at
+Kashmir in their manufacture. Those goats having a short, neat head,
+long, thin, ears, a delicate skin, small bones, and a long heavy coat,
+are for this purpose deemed the best. There are several varieties
+possessing this valuable quality, but those of Kashmir, Tibet and
+Mongolia are the most esteemed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Nubian Goat.]
+
+The Nubian goat, which is met with in Nubia, Upper Egypt and Abyssinia,
+differs greatly in appearance from those previously described. The coat
+of the female is extremely short, almost like that of a race-horse, and
+the legs are long. This breed therefore stands considerably higher than
+the common goat. One of its peculiarities is the convex profile of the
+face, the forehead being prominent and the nostrils sunk in, the nose
+itself extremely small, and the lower lip projecting from the upper. The
+ears are long, broad and thin, and hang down by the side of the head
+like a lop-eared rabbit. The horns are black, slightly twisted and very
+short, flat at the base, pointed at the tips, and recumbent on the head.
+Among goats met with in England a good many show signs of a more or less
+remote cross with this breed, derived probably from specimens brought
+from the East on board ships for supplying milk during the voyage.
+
+The Theban goat, of the Sudan, which is hornless, displays the
+characteristic features of the last in an exaggerated degree, and in the
+form of the head and skull is very sheep-like.
+
+The Nepal goat appears to be a variety of the Nubian breed, having the
+same arched facial line, pendulous ears and long legs. The horns,
+however, are more spiral. The colour of the hair, which is longer than
+in the Nubian, is black, grey or white, with black blotches.
+
+Lastly the Guinea goat is a dwarf breed originally from the coast whence
+its name is derived. There are three varieties. Besides the commonest
+_Capra recurva_, there is a rarer breed, _Capra depressa_, inhabiting
+the Mauritius and the islands of Bourbon and Madagascar. The other
+variety is met with along the White Nile, in Lower Egypt, and at various
+points on the African coast of the Mediterranean.
+
+As regards wild goats other than the representatives of _Capra hircus_,
+the members of the ibex-group are noticed under IBEX, while another
+distinctive type receives mention under MARKHOR. The ibex are connected
+with the wild goat by means of _Capra nubiana_, in which the front edge
+of the horns is thinner than in either the European _C. ibex_ or the
+Asiatic _C. sibirica_; while the Spanish _C. pyrenaica_ shows how the
+ibex-type of horn may pass into the spirally twisted one distinctive of
+the markhor, _C. falconeri_. In the article IBEX mention is made of the
+Caucasus ibex, or tur, _C. caucasica_, as an aberrant member of that
+group, but beside this animal the Caucasus is the home of another very
+remarkable goat, or tur, known as _C. pallasi_. In this ruminant, which
+is of a dark-brown colour, the relatively smooth black horns diverge
+outwards in a manner resembling those of the bharal among the sheep
+rather than in goat-fashion; and, in fact, this tur, which has only a
+very short beard, is so bharal-like that it is commonly called by
+sportsmen the Caucasian bharal. It is one of the species which render
+it so difficult to give a precise definition of either sheep or goats.
+
+The short-horned Asiatic goats of the genus _Hemitragus_ receive mention
+in the article TAHR; but it may be added that fossil species of the same
+genus are known from the Lower Pliocene formations of India, which have
+also yielded remains of a goat allied to the markhor of the Himalayas.
+The Rocky Mountain goat (q.v.) of America has no claim to be regarded as
+a member of the goat-group.
+
+  For full descriptions of the various wild species, see R. Lydekker,
+  _Wild Oxen, Sheep, and Goats_ (London, 1898).     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+GOATSUCKER, a bird from very ancient times absurdly believed to have the
+habit implied by the common name it bears in many European tongues
+besides English--as testified by the Gr.[Greek: aigothelas], the Lat.
+_caprimulgus_, Ital. _succiacapre_, Span. _chotacabras_, Fr.
+_tettechevre_, and Ger. _Ziegenmelker_. The common goatsucker
+(_Caprimulgus europaeus_, Linn.), is admittedly the type of a very
+peculiar and distinct family, _Caprimulgidae_, a group remarkable for the
+flat head, enormously wide mouth, large eyes, and soft, pencilled plumage
+of its members, which vary in size from a lark to a crow. Its position
+has been variously assigned by systematists. Though now judiciously
+removed from the _Passeres_, in which Linnaeus placed all the species
+known to him, Huxley considered it to form, with two other families--the
+swifts (_Cypselidae_) and humming-birds (_Trochilidae_)--the division
+_Cypselomorphae_ of his larger group Aegithognathae, which is equivalent
+in the main to the Linnaean _Passeres_. There are two ways of regarding
+the _Caprimulgidae_--one including the genus _Podargus_ and its allies,
+the other recognizing them as a distinct family, _Podargidae_. As a
+matter of convenience we shall here comprehend these last in the
+_Caprimulgidae_, which will then contain two subfamilies, _Caprimulginae_
+and _Podarginae_; for what, according to older authors, constitutes a
+third, though represented only by _Steatornis_, the singular oil-bird, or
+guacharo, certainly seems to require separation as an independent family
+(see GUACHERO).
+
+[Illustration: Common Goatsucker.]
+
+Some of the differences between the _Caprimulginae_ and _Podarginae_
+have been pointed out by Sclater (_Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1866, p. 123), and
+are very obvious. In the former, the outer toes have _four_ phalanges
+only, thus presenting a very uncommon character among birds, and the
+middle claws are pectinated; while in the latter the normal number of
+five phalanges is found, and the claws are smooth, and other
+distinctions more recondite have also been indicated by him (_tom. cit._
+p. 582). The Caprimulginae may be further divided into those having the
+gape thickly beset by strong bristles, and those in which there are few
+such bristles or none--the former containing the genera _Caprimulgus_,
+_Antrostomus_, _Nyctidromus_ and others, and the latter _Podargus_,
+_Chordiles_, _Lyncornis_ and a few more.
+
+The common goatsucker of Europe (_C. europaeus_) arrives late in spring
+from its winter-retreat in Africa, and its presence is soon made known
+by its habit of chasing its prey, consisting chiefly of moths and
+cockchafers, in the evening-twilight. As the season advances the song
+of the cock, from its singularity, attracts attention amid all rural
+sounds. This song seems to be always uttered when the bird is at rest,
+though the contrary has been asserted, and is the continuous repetition
+of a single burring note, as of a thin lath fixed at one end and in a
+state of vibration at the other, and loud enough to reach in still
+weather a distance of half-a-mile or more. On the wing, while toying
+with its mate, or performing its rapid evolutions round the trees where
+it finds its food, it has the habit of occasionally producing another
+and equally extraordinary sound, sudden and short, but somewhat
+resembling that made by swinging a thong in the air, though whether this
+noise proceeds from its mouth is not ascertained. In general its flight
+is silent, but at times when disturbed from its repose, its wings may be
+heard to smite together. The goatsucker, or, to use perhaps its commoner
+English name, nightjar,[1] passes the day in slumber, crouching on the
+ground or perching on a tree--in the latter case sitting not across the
+branch but lengthways, with its head lower than its body. In hot
+weather, however, its song may sometimes be heard by day and even at
+noontide, but it is then uttered, as it were, drowsily, and without the
+vigour that characterizes its crepuscular or nocturnal performance.
+Towards evening the bird becomes active, and it seems to pursue its prey
+throughout the night uninterruptedly, or only occasionally pausing for a
+few seconds to alight on a bare spot--a pathway or road--and then
+resuming its career. It is one of the few birds that absolutely make no
+nest, but lays its pair of beautifully-marbled eggs on the ground,
+generally where the herbage is short, and often actually on the soil. So
+light is it that the act of brooding, even where there is some vegetable
+growth, produces no visible depression of the grass, moss or lichens on
+which the eggs rest, and the finest sand equally fails to exhibit a
+trace of the parental act. Yet scarcely any bird shows greater local
+attachment, and the precise site chosen one year is almost certain to be
+occupied the next. The young, covered when hatched with dark-spotted
+down, are not easily found, nor are they more easily discovered on
+becoming fledged, for their plumage almost entirely resembles that of
+the adults, being a mixture of reddish-brown, grey and black, blended
+and mottled in a manner that passes description. They soon attain their
+full size and power of flight, and then take to the same manner of life
+as their parents. In autumn all leave their summer haunts for the south,
+but the exact time of their departure has hardly been ascertained. The
+habits of the nightjar, as thus described, seem to be more or less
+essentially those of the whole subfamily--the differences observable
+being apparently less than are found in other groups of birds of similar
+extent.
+
+A second species of goatsucker (_C. ruficollis_), which is somewhat
+larger, and has the neck distinctly marked with rufous, is a summer
+visitant to the south-western parts of Europe, and especially to Spain
+and Portugal. The occurrence of a single example of this bird at
+Killingworth, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, in October 1856, has been recorded
+by Mr Hancock (_Ibis_, 1862, p. 39); but the season of its appearance
+argues the probability of its being but a casual straggler from its
+proper home. Many other species of _Caprimulgus_ inhabit Africa, Asia
+and their islands, while one (_C. macrurus_) is found in Australia. Very
+nearly allied to this genus is _Antrostomus_, an American group
+containing many species, of which the chuck-will's-widow (_A.
+carolinensis_) and the whip-poor-will (_A. vociferus_) of the eastern
+United States (the latter also reaching Canada) are familiar examples.
+Both these birds take their common name from the cry they utter, and
+their habits seem to be almost identical, with those of the old world
+goatsuckers. Passing over some other forms which need not here be
+mentioned, the genus _Nyctidromus_, though consisting of only one
+species (_N. albicollis_) which inhabits Central and part of South
+America, requires remark, since it has tarsi of sufficient length to
+enable it to run swiftly on the ground, while the legs of most birds of
+the family are so short that they can make but a shuffling progress.
+_Heleothreptes_, with the unique form of wing possessed by the male,
+needs mention. Notice must also be taken of two African species,
+referred by some ornithologists to as many genera (_Macrodipteryx_ and
+_Cosmetornis_), though probably one genus would suffice for both. The
+males of each of them are characterized by the wonderful development of
+the ninth primary in either wing, which reaches in fully adult specimens
+the extraordinary length of 17 in. or more. The former of these birds,
+the _Caprimulgus macrodipterus_ of Adam Afzelius, is considered to
+belong to the west coast of Africa, and the shaft of the elongated
+remiges is bare for the greater part of its length, retaining the web,
+in a spatulate form, only near the tip. The latter, to which the
+specific name of _vexillarius_ was given by John Gould, has been found
+on the east coast of that continent, and is reported to have occurred in
+Madagascar and Socotra. In this the remigial streamers do not lose their
+barbs, and as a few of the next quills are also to some extent
+elongated, the bird, when flying, is said to look as though it had four
+wings. Specimens of both are rare in collections, and no traveller seems
+to have had the opportunity of studying the habits of either so as to
+suggest a reason for this marvellous sexual development.
+
+The second group of _Caprimulginae_, those which are but poorly or not
+at all furnished with rictal bristles, contains about five genera, of
+which we may particularize _Lyncornis_ of the old world and _Chordiles_
+of the new. The species of the former are remarkable for the tuft of
+feathers which springs from each side of the head, above and behind the
+ears, so as to give the bird an appearance like some of the "horned"
+owls--those of the genus _Scops_, for example; and remarkable as it is
+to find certain forms of two families, so distinct as are the
+_Strigidae_ and the _Caprimulgidae_, resembling each other in this
+singular external feature, it is yet more remarkable to note that in
+some groups of the latter, as in some of the former, a very curious kind
+of dimorphism takes place. In either case this has been frequently
+asserted to be sexual, but on that point doubt may fairly be
+entertained. Certain it is that in some groups of goatsuckers, as in
+some groups of owls, individuals of the same species are found in
+plumage of two entirely different hues--rufous and grey. The only
+explanation as yet offered of this fact is that the difference is
+sexual, but evidence to that effect is conflicting. It must not,
+however, be supposed that this common feature, any more than that of the
+existence of tufted forms in each group, indicates any close
+relationship between them. The resemblances may be due to the same
+causes, concerning which future observers may possibly enlighten us, but
+at present we must regard them as analogies, not homologies. The species
+of _Lyncornis_ inhabit the Malay Archipelago, one, however, occurring
+also in China. Of _Chordiles_ the best-known species is the night-hawk
+of North America (_C. virginianus_ or _C. popetue_), which has a wide
+range from Canada to Brazil. Others are found in the Antilles and in
+South America. The general habits of all these birds agree with those of
+the typical goatsuckers.
+
+We have next to consider the birds forming the genus _Podargus_ and
+those allied to it, whether they be regarded as a distinct family, or as
+a subfamily of _Caprimulgidae_. As above stated, they have feet
+constructed as those of birds normally are, and their sternum seems to
+present the constant though comparatively trivial difference of having
+its posterior margin elongated into two pairs of processes, while only
+one pair is found in the true goatsuckers. _Podargus_ includes the bird
+(_P. cuvieri_) known from its cry as morepork to the Tasmanians,[2] and
+several other species, the number of which is doubtful, from Australia
+and New Guinea. They have comparatively powerful bills, and it would
+seem feed to some extent on fruits and berries, though they mainly
+subsist on insects, chiefly _Cicadae_ and _Phasmidae_. They also differ
+from the true goatsuckers in having the outer toes partially reversible,
+and they build a flat nest on the horizontal branch of a tree for the
+reception of their eggs, which are of a spotless white. Apparently
+allied to _Podargus_, but differing among other respects in its mode of
+nidification, is _Aegotheles_, which belongs also to the Australian
+sub-region; and farther to the northward, extending throughout the Malay
+Archipelago and into India, comes _Batrachostomus_, wherein we again
+meet with species having aural tufts somewhat like _Lyncornis_. The
+_Podarginae_ are thought by some to be represented in the new world by
+the genus _Nyctibius_, of which several species occur from the Antilles
+and Central America to Brazil. Finally, it may be stated that none of
+the _Caprimulgidae_ seem to occur in Polynesia or in New Zealand, though
+there is scarcely any other part of the world suited to their habits in
+which members of the family are not found.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Other English names of the bird are evejar, fern-owl, churn-owl
+    and wheel-bird--the last from the bird's song resembling the noise
+    made by a spinning-wheel in motion.
+
+  [2] In New Zealand, however, this name is given to an owl
+    (_Sceloglaux novae-zelandiae_).
+
+
+
+
+GOBAT, SAMUEL (1799-1879), bishop of Jerusalem, was born at Cremine,
+Bern, Switzerland, on the 26th of January 1799. After serving in the
+mission house at Basel from 1823 to 1826, he went to Paris and London,
+whence, having acquired some knowledge of Arabic and Ethiopic, he went
+out to Abyssinia under the auspices of the Church Missionary Society.
+The unsettled state of the country and his own ill health prevented his
+making much headway; he returned to Europe in 1835 and from 1839 to 1842
+lived in Malta, where he supervised an Arabic translation of the Bible.
+In 1846 he was consecrated Protestant bishop of Jerusalem, under the
+agreement between the British and Prussian governments (1841) for the
+establishment of a joint bishopric for Lutherans and Anglicans in the
+Holy Land. He carried on a vigorous mission as bishop for over thirty
+years, his diocesan school and orphanage on Mount Zion being specially
+noteworthy. He died on the 11th of May 1879.
+
+  A record of his life, largely autobiographical, was published at Basel
+  in 1884, and an English translation at London in the same year.
+
+
+
+
+GOBEL, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH (1727-1794), French ecclesiastic and
+politician, was born at Thann, in Alsace, on the 1st of September 1727.
+He studied theology in the German College at Rome, and then became
+successively a member of the chapter of Porrentruy, bishop _in partibus_
+of Lydda, and finally suffragan of Basel for that part of the diocese
+situated in French territory. His political life began when he was
+elected deputy to the states-general of 1789 by the clergy of the
+_bailliage_ of Huningue. The turning-point of his life was his action in
+taking the oath of the civil constitution of the clergy (Jan. 3rd,
+1791); in favour of which he had declared himself since the 5th of May
+1790. The civil constitution of the clergy gave the appointment of
+priests to the electoral assemblies, and since taking the oath Gobel had
+become so popular that he was elected bishop in several dioceses. He
+chose Paris, and in spite of the difficulties which he had to encounter
+before he could enter into possession, was consecrated on the 27th of
+March 1791 by eight bishops, including Talleyrand. On the 8th of
+November 1792, Gobel was appointed administrator of Paris. He was
+careful to flatter the politicians by professing anti-clerical opinions,
+declaring himself, among other things, opposed to the celibacy of the
+clergy; and on the 17th Brumaire in the year II. (7th November 1793), he
+came before the bar of the Convention, and, in a famous scene, resigned
+his episcopal functions, proclaiming that he did so for love of the
+people, and through respect for their wishes. The followers of Hebert,
+who were then pursuing their anti-Christian policy, claimed Gobel as one
+of themselves; while, on the other hand, Robespierre looked upon him as
+an atheist, though apostasy cannot strictly speaking be laid to the
+charge of the ex-bishop, nor did he ever make any actual profession of
+atheism. Robespierre, however, found him an obstacle to his religious
+schemes, and involved him in the fate of the Hebertists. Gobel was
+condemned to death, with Chaumette, Hebert and Anacharsis Cloots, and
+was guillotined on the 12th of April 1794.
+
+  See E. Charavay, _Assemblee electorale de Paris_ (Paris, 1890); H.
+  Monin, _La Chanson et l'Eglise sous la Revolution_ (Paris, 1892); A.
+  Aulard, "La Culte de la raison" in the review, _La Revolution
+  Francaise_ (1891). For a bibliography of documents relating to his
+  episcopate see "Episcopat de Gobel" in vol. iii. (1900) of M.
+  Tourneux's _Bibliographie de l'histoire de Paris pendant la Rev. Fr._
+
+
+
+
+GOBELIN, the name of a family of dyers, who in all probability came
+originally from Reims, and who in the middle of the 15th century
+established themselves in the Faubourg Saint Marcel, Paris, on the banks
+of the Bievre. The first head of the firm was named Jehan (d. 1476). He
+discovered a peculiar kind of scarlet dyestuff, and he expended so much
+money on his establishment that it was named by the common people _la
+folie Gobelin_. To the dye-works there was added in the 16th century a
+manufactory of tapestry (q.v.). So rapidly did the wealth of the family
+increase, that in the third or fourth generation some of them forsook
+their trade and purchased titles of nobility. More than one of their
+number held offices of state, among others Balthasar, who became
+successively treasurer general of artillery, treasurer extraordinary of
+war, councillor secretary of the king, chancellor of the exchequer,
+councillor of state and president of the chamber of accounts, and who in
+1601 received from Henry IV. the lands and lordship of Briecomte-Robert.
+He died in 1603. The name of the Gobelins as dyers cannot be found later
+than the end of the 17th century. In 1662 the works in the Faubourg
+Saint Marcel, with the adjoining grounds, were purchased by Colbert on
+behalf of Louis XIV., and transformed into a general upholstery
+manufactory, in which designs both in tapestry and in all kinds of
+furniture were executed under the superintendence of the royal painter,
+Le Brun. On account of the pecuniary embarrassments of Louis XIV., the
+establishment was closed in 1694, but it was reopened in 1697 for the
+manufacture of tapestry, chiefly for royal use and for presentation.
+During the Revolution and the reign of Napoleon the manufacture was
+suspended, but it was revived by the Bourbons, and in 1826 the
+manufacture of carpets was added to that of tapestry. In 1871 the
+building was partly burned by the Communists. The manufacture is still
+carried on under the state.
+
+  See Lacordaire, _Notice historique sur les manufactures imperiales de
+  tapisserie des Gobelin et de tapis de la Savonnerie, precedee du
+  catalogue des tapisseries qui y sont exposes_ (Paris, 1853); Genspach,
+  _Repertoire detaille des tapisseries executees aux Gobelins,
+  1662-1892_ (Paris, 1893); Guiffrey, _Histoire de la tapisserie en
+  France_ (Paris, 1878-1885). The two last-named authors were directors
+  of the manufactory.
+
+
+
+
+GOBI (for which alternative Chinese names are SHA-MO, "sand desert," and
+HAN-HAI, "dry sea"), a term which in its widest significance means the
+long stretch of desert country that extends from the foot of the Pamirs,
+in about 77 deg. E., eastward to the Great Khingan Mountains, in 116
+deg.-118 deg. E., on the border of Manchuria, and from the foothills of
+the Altai, the Sayan and the Yablonoi Mountains on the N. to the
+Astin-tagh or Altyn-tagh and the Nan-shan, the northernmost constituent
+ranges of the Kuen-lun Mountains, on the south. By conventional usage a
+relatively small area on the east side of the Great Khingan, between the
+upper waters of the Sungari and the upper waters of the Liao-ho, is also
+reckoned to belong to the Gobi. On the other hand, geographers and
+Asiatic explorers prefer to regard the W. extremity of the Gobi region
+(as defined above), namely, the basin of the Tarim in E. Turkestan, as
+forming a separate and independent desert, to which they have given the
+name of Takla-makan. The latter restriction governs the present article,
+which accordingly excludes the Takla-makan, leaving it for separate
+treatment. The desert of Gobi as a whole is only very imperfectly known,
+information being confined to the observations which individual
+travellers have made from their respective itineraries across the
+desert. Amongst the explorers to whom we owe such knowledge as we
+possess about the Gobi, the most important have been Marco Polo
+(1273-1275), Gerbillon (1688-1698), Ijsbrand Ides (1692-1694), Lange
+(1727-1728 and 1736), Fuss and Bunge (1830-1831), Fritsche (1868-1873),
+Pavlinov and Matusovski (1870), Ney Elias (1872-1873), N. M. Przhevalsky
+(1870-1872 and 1876-1877), Zosnovsky (1875), M. V. Pjevtsov (1878), G.
+N. Potanin (1877 and 1884-1886), Count Szechenyi and L. von Loczy
+(1879-1880), the brothers Grum-Grzhimailo (1889-1890), P. K. Kozlov
+(1893-1894 and 1899-1900), V. I. Roborovsky (1894), V. A. Obruchev
+(1894-1896), Futterer and Holderer (1896); C. E. Bonin (1896 and 1899),
+Sven Hedin (1897 and 1900-1901), K. Bogdanovich (1898), Ladyghin
+(1899-1900) and Katsnakov (1899-1900).
+
+Geographically the Gobi (a Mongol word meaning "desert") is the deeper
+part of the gigantic depression which fills the interior of the lower
+terrace of the vast Mongolian plateau, and measures over 1000 m. from
+S.W. to N.E. and 450 to 600 m. from N. to S., being widest in the west,
+along the line joining the Baghrash-kol and the Lop-nor (87 deg.-89 deg.
+E.). Owing to the immense area covered, and the piecemeal character of
+the information, no general description can be made applicable to the
+whole of the Gobi. It will be more convenient, therefore, to describe
+its principal distinctive sections _seriatim_, beginning in the west.
+
+  _Ghashiun-Gobi and Kuruk-tagh._--The Yulduz valley or valley of the
+  Khaidyk-gol (83 deg.-86 deg. E., 43 deg. N.) is enclosed by two
+  prominent members of the Tian-shan system, namely the Chol-tagh and
+  the Kuruk-tagh, running parallel and close to one another. As they
+  proceed eastward they diverge, sweeping back on N. and S. respectively
+  so as to leave room for the Baghrash-kol. These two ranges mark the
+  northern and the southern edges respectively of a great swelling,
+  which extends eastward for nearly twenty degrees of longitude. On its
+  northern side the Chol-tagh descends steeply, and its foot is fringed
+  by a string of deep depressions, ranging from Lukchun (425 ft. _below_
+  the level of the sea) to Hami (2800 ft. above sea-level). To the south
+  of the Kuruk-tagh lie the desert of Lop, the desert of Kum-tagh, and
+  the valley of the Bulunzir-gol. To this great swelling, which arches
+  up between the two border-ranges of the Chol-tagh and Kuruk-tagh, the
+  Mongols give the name of Ghashiun-Gobi or Salt Desert. It is some 80
+  to 100 m. across from N. to S., and is traversed by a number of minor
+  parallel ranges, ridges and chains of hills, and down its middle runs
+  a broad stony valley, 25 to 50 m. wide, at an elevation of 3000 to
+  4500 ft. The Chol-tagh, which reaches an average altitude of 6000 ft.,
+  is absolutely sterile, and its northern foot rests upon a narrow belt
+  of barren sand, which leads down to the depressions mentioned above.
+
+  The Kuruk-tagh is the greatly disintegrated, denuded and wasted relic
+  of a mountain range which formerly was of incomparably greater
+  magnitude. In the west, between Baghrash-kol and the Tarim, it
+  consists of two, possibly of three, principal ranges, which, although
+  broken in continuity, run generally parallel to one another, and
+  embrace between them numerous minor chains of heights. These minor
+  ranges, together with the principal ranges, divide the region into a
+  series of long, narrow valleys, mostly parallel to one another and to
+  the enclosing mountain chains, which descend like terraced steps, on
+  the one side towards the depression of Lukchun and on the other
+  towards the desert of Lop. In many cases these latitudinal valleys are
+  barred transversely by ridges or spurs, generally elevations _en
+  masse_ of the bottom of the valley. Where such elevations exist, there
+  is generally found, on the E. side of the transverse ridge, a
+  cauldron-shaped depression, which some time or other has been the
+  bottom of a former lake, but is now nearly a dry salt-basin. The
+  surface configuration is in fact markedly similar to that which occurs
+  in the inter-mont latitudinal valleys of the Kuen-lun. The hydrography
+  of the Ghashiun-Gobi and the Kuruk-tagh is determined by these
+  chequered arrangements of the latitudinal valleys. Most of the
+  principal streams, instead of flowing straight down these valleys,
+  cross them diagonally and only turn west after they have cut their way
+  through one or more of the transverse barrier ranges.[1] To the
+  highest range on the great swelling Grum-Grzhimailo gives the name of
+  Tuge-tau, its altitude being 9000 ft. above the level of the sea and
+  some 4000 ft. above the crown of the swelling itself. This range he
+  considers to belong to the Chol-tagh system, whereas Sven Hedin would
+  assign it to the Kuruk-tagh. This last, which is pretty certainly
+  identical with the range of Khara-teken-ula (also known as the
+  Kyzyl-sanghir, Sinir, and Singher Mountains), that overlooks the
+  southern shore of the Baghrash-kol, though parted from it by the
+  drift-sand desert of Ak-bel-kum (White Pass Sands), has at first a
+  W.N.W. to E.S.E. strike, but it gradually curves round like a scimitar
+  towards the E.N.E. and at the same time gradually decreases in
+  elevation. In 91 deg. E., while the principal range of the Kuruk-tagh
+  system wheels to the E.N.E., four of its subsidiary ranges terminate,
+  or rather die away somewhat suddenly, on the brink of a long narrow
+  depression (in which Sven Hedin sees a N.E. bay of the former great
+  Central Asian lake of Lop-nor), having over against them the echeloned
+  terminals of similar subordinate ranges of the Pe-shan (Bey-san)
+  system (see below). The Kuruk-tagh is throughout a relatively low, but
+  almost completely barren range, being entirely destitute of animal
+  life, save for hares, antelopes and wild camels, which frequent its
+  few small, widely scattered oases. The vegetation, which is confined
+  to these same relatively favoured spots, is of the scantiest and is
+  mainly confined to bushes of saxaul (_Anabasis Ammodendron_), reeds
+  (_kamish_), tamarisks, poplars, _Kalidium_ and _Ephedra_.
+
+  _Desert of Lop._--This section of the Gobi extends south-eastward from
+  the foot of the Kuruk-tagh as far as the present terminal basin of the
+  Tarim, namely Kara-koshun (Przhevalsky's Lop-nor), and is an almost
+  perfectly horizontal expanse, for, while the Baghrash-kol in the N.
+  lies at an altitude of 2940 ft., the Kara-koshun, over 200 m. to the
+  S., is only 300 ft. lower. The characteristic features of this almost
+  dead level or but slightly undulating region are: (i.) broad, unbroken
+  expanses of clay intermingled with sand, the clay (_shor_) being
+  indurated and saliferous and often arranged in terraces; (ii.) hard,
+  level, clay expanses, more or less thickly sprinkled with fine gravel
+  (_say_), the clay being mostly of a yellow or yellow-grey colour;
+  (iii.) benches, flattened ridges and tabular masses of consolidated
+  clay (_jardangs_), arranged in distinctly defined _laminae_, three
+  stories being sometimes superimposed one upon the other, and their
+  vertical faces being abraded, and often undercut, by the wind, while
+  the formations themselves are separated by parallel gullies or
+  wind-furrows, 6 to 20 ft. deep, all sculptured in the direction of the
+  prevailing wind, that is, from N.E. to S.W.; and (iv.) the absence of
+  drift-sand and sand-dunes, except in the south, towards the outlying
+  foothills of the Astin-tagh. Perhaps the most striking characteristic,
+  after the jardangs or clay terraces, is the fact that the whole of
+  this region is not only swept bare of sand by the terrific sandstorms
+  (_burans_) of the spring months, the particles of sand with which the
+  wind is laden acting like a sand-blast, but the actual substantive
+  materials of the desert itself are abraded, filed, eroded and carried
+  bodily away into the network of lakes in which the Tarim loses itself,
+  or are even blown across the lower, constantly shifting watercourses
+  of that river and deposited on or among the gigantic dunes which choke
+  the eastern end of the desert of Takla-makan. Numerous indications,
+  such as salt-stained depressions of a lacustrine appearance, traces of
+  former lacustrine shore-lines, more or less parallel and concentric,
+  the presence in places of vast quantities of fresh-water mollusc
+  shells (species of _Limnaea_ and _Planorbis_), the existence of belts
+  of dead poplars, patches of dead tamarisks and extensive beds of
+  withered reeds, all these always on top of the jardangs, never in the
+  wind-etched furrows, together with a few scrubby poplars and
+  _Elaeagnus_, still struggling hard not to die, the presence of ripple
+  marks of aqueous origin on the leeward sides of the clay terraces and
+  in other wind-sheltered situations, all testify to the former
+  existence in this region of more or less extensive freshwater lakes,
+  now of course completely desiccated. During the prevalence of the
+  spring storms the atmosphere that overhangs the immediate surface of
+  the desert is so heavily charged with dust as to be a veritable pall
+  of desolation. Except for the wild camel which frequents the reed
+  oases on the N. edge of the desert, animal life is even less abundant
+  than in the Ghashiun-Gobi, and the same is true as regards the
+  vegetation.
+
+  _Desert of Kum-tagh._--This section lies E.S.E. of the desert of Lop,
+  on the other side of the Kara-koshun and its more or less temporary
+  continuations, and reaches north-eastwards as far as the vicinity of
+  the town of Sa-chow and the lake of Kara-nor or Kala-chi. Its southern
+  rim is marked by a labyrinth of hills, dotted in groups and irregular
+  clusters, but evidently survivals of two parallel ranges which are now
+  worn down as it were to mere fragments of their former skeletal
+  structure. Between these and the Astin-tagh intervenes a broad
+  latitudinal valley, seamed with watercourses which come down from the
+  foothills of the Astin-tagh and beside which scrubby desert plants of
+  the usual character maintain a precarious existence, water reaching
+  them in some instances at intervals of years only. This part of the
+  desert has a general slope N.W. towards the relative depression of the
+  Kara-koshun. A noticeable feature of the Kum-tagh is the presence of
+  large accumulations of drift-sand, especially along the foot of the
+  crumbling desert ranges, where it rises into dunes sometimes as much
+  as 250 ft. in height and climbs half-way up the flanks of ranges
+  themselves. The prevailing winds in this region would appear to blow
+  from the W. and N.W. during the summer, winter and autumn, though in
+  spring, when they certainly are more violent, they no doubt come from
+  the N.E., as in the desert of Lop. Anyway, the arrangement of the sand
+  here "agrees perfectly with the law laid down by Potanin, that in the
+  basins of Central Asia the sand is heaped up in greater mass on the
+  south, all along the bordering mountain ranges where the floor of the
+  depressions lies at the highest level."[2] The country to the north of
+  the desert ranges is thus summarily described by Sven Hedin:[3] "The
+  first zone of drift-sand is succeeded by a region which exhibits
+  proofs of wind-modelling on an extraordinarily energetic and well
+  developed scale, the results corresponding to the jardangs and the
+  wind-eroded gullies of the desert of Lop. Both sets of phenomena lie
+  parallel to one another; from this we may infer that the winds which
+  prevail in the two deserts are the same. Next comes, sharply
+  demarcated from the zone just described, a more or less thin kamish
+  steppe growing on level ground; and this in turn is followed by
+  another very narrow belt of sand, immediately south of Achik-kuduk....
+  Finally in the extreme north we have the characteristic and sharply
+  defined belt of kamish steppe, stretching from E.N.E. to W.S.W. and
+  bounded on N. and S. by high, sharp-cut clay terraces.... At the
+  points where we measured them the northern terrace was 113 ft. high
+  and the southern 85-1/4 ft.... Both terraces belong to the same level,
+  and would appear to correspond to the shore lines of a big bay of the
+  last surviving remnant of the Central Asian Mediterranean. At the
+  point where I crossed it the depression was 6 to 7 m. wide, and thus
+  resembled a flat valley or immense river-bed."
+
+  _Desert of Hami and the Pe-shan Mountains._--This section occupies the
+  space between the Tian-shan system on the N. and the Nan-shan
+  Mountains on the S., and is connected on the W. with the desert of
+  Lop. The classic account is that of Przhevalsky, who crossed the
+  desert from Hami (or Khami) to Su-chow (not Sa-chow) in the summer of
+  1879. In the middle this desert rises into a vast swelling, 80 m.
+  across, which reaches an average elevation of 5000 ft. and a maximum
+  elevation of 5500 ft. On its northern and southern borders it is
+  overtopped by two divisions of the Bey-san (= Pe-shan) Mountains,
+  neither of which attains any great relative altitude. Between the
+  northern division and the Karlyk-tagh range or E. Tian-shan intervenes
+  a somewhat undulating barren plain, 3900 ft. in altitude and 40 m.
+  from N. to S., sloping downwards from both N. and S. towards the
+  middle, where lies the oasis of Hami (2800 ft.). Similarly from the
+  southern division of the Bey-san a second plain slopes down for 1000
+  ft. to the valley of the river Bulunzir or Su-lai-ho, which comes out
+  of China, from the south side of the Great Wall, and finally empties
+  itself into the lake of Kala-chi or Kara-nor. From the Bulunzir the
+  same plain continues southwards at a level of 3700 ft. to the foot of
+  the Nan-shan Mountains. The total breadth of the desert from N. to S.
+  is here 200 m. Its general character is that of an undulating plain,
+  dotted over with occasional elevations of clay, which present the
+  appearance of walls, table-topped mounds and broken towers
+  (_jardangs_), the surface of the plain being strewn with gravel and
+  absolutely destitute of vegetation. Generally speaking, the Bey-san
+  ranges consist of isolated hills or groups of hills, of low relative
+  elevation (100 to 300 ft.), scattered without any regard to order over
+  the arch of the swelling. They nowhere rise into well-defined peaks.
+  Their axis runs from W.S.W. to E.N.E. But whereas Przhevalsky and Sven
+  Hedin consider them to be a continuation of the Kuruk-tagh, though the
+  latter regards them as separated from the Kuruk-tagh by a well-marked
+  bay of the former Central Asian Mediterranean (Lop-nor), Futterer
+  declares they are a continuation of the Chol-tagh. The swelling or
+  undulating plain between these two ranges of the Bey-san measures
+  about 70 m. across and is traversed by several stretches of high
+  ground having generally an east-west direction.[4] Futterer, who
+  crossed the same desert twenty years after Przhevalsky, agrees
+  generally in his description of it, but supplements the account of the
+  latter explorer with several particulars. He observes that the ranges
+  in this part of the Gobi are much worn down and wasted, like the
+  Kuruk-tagh farther west and the tablelands of S.E. Mongolia farther
+  east, through the effects of century-long insolation, wind erosion,
+  great and sudden changes of temperature, chemical action and
+  occasional water erosion. Vast areas towards the N. consist of
+  expanses of gently sloping (at a mean slope of 3 deg.) clay,
+  intermingled with gravel. He points out also that the greatest
+  accumulations of sand and other products of aerial denudation do not
+  occur in the deepest parts of the depressions but at the outlets of
+  the valleys and glens, and along the foot of the ranges which flank
+  the depressions on the S. Wherever water has been, desert scrub is
+  found, such as tamarisks, _Dodartia orientalis_, _Agriophyllum
+  gobicum_, _Calligonium sinnex_, and _Lycium ruthenicum_, but all with
+  their roots elevated on little mounds in the same way as the tamarisks
+  grow in the Takla-makan and desert of Lop.
+
+  Farther east, towards central Mongolia, the relations, says Futterer,
+  are the same as along the Hami-Su-chow route, except that the ranges
+  have lower and broader crests, and the detached hills are more denuded
+  and more disintegrated. Between the ranges occur broad, flat,
+  cauldron-shaped valleys and basins, almost destitute of life except
+  for a few hares and a few birds, such as the crow and the pheasant,
+  and with scanty vegetation, but no great accumulations of drift-sand.
+  The rocks are severely weathered on the surface, a thick layer of the
+  coarser products of denudation covers the flat parts and climbs a good
+  way up the flanks of the mountain ranges, but all the finer material,
+  sand and clay has been blown away partly S.E. into Ordos, partly into
+  the Chinese provinces of Shen-si and Shan-si, where it is deposited as
+  loess, and partly W., where it chokes all the southern parts of the
+  basin of the Tarim. In these central parts of the Gobi, as indeed in
+  all other parts except the desert of Lop and Ordos, the prevailing
+  winds blow from the W. and N.W. These winds are warm in summer, and it
+  is they which in the desert of Hami bring the fierce sandstorms or
+  burans. The wind does blow also from the N.E., but it is then cold and
+  often brings snow, though it speedily clears the air of the
+  everlasting dust haze. In summer great heat is encountered here on the
+  relatively low (3000-4600 ft.), gravelly expanses (_say_) on the N.
+  and on those of the S. (4000-5000 ft.); but on the higher swelling
+  between, which in the Pe-shan ranges ascends to 7550 ft., there is
+  great cold even in summer, and a wide daily range of temperature.
+  Above the broad and deep accumulations of the products of denudation
+  which have been brought down by the rivers from the Tian-shan ranges
+  (e.g. the Karlyk-tagh) on the N. and from the Nan-shan on the S., and
+  have filled up the cauldron-shaped valleys, there rises a broad
+  swelling, built up of granitic rocks, crystalline schists and
+  metamorphosed sedimentary rocks of both Archaic and Palaeozoic age,
+  all greatly folded and tilted up, and shot through with numerous
+  irruptions of volcanic rocks, predominantly porphyritic and dioritic.
+  On this swelling rise four more or less parallel mountain ranges of
+  the Pe-shan system, together with a fifth chain of hills farther S.,
+  all having a strike from W.N.W. to E.N.E. The range farthest N. rises
+  to 1000 ft. above the desert and 7550 ft. above sea-level, the next
+  two ranges reach 1300 ft. above the general level of the desert, and
+  the range farthest south 1475 ft. or an absolute altitude of 7200 ft.,
+  while the fifth chain of hills does not exceed 650 ft. in relative
+  elevation. All these ranges decrease in altitude from W. to E. In the
+  depressions which border the Pe-shan swelling on N. and S. are found
+  the sedimentary deposits of the Tertiary sea of the Han-hai; but no
+  traces of those deposits have been found on the swelling itself at
+  altitudes of 5600 to 5700 ft. Hence, Futterer infers, in recent
+  geological times no large sea has occupied the central part of the
+  Gobi. Beyond an occasional visit from a band of nomad Mongols, this
+  region of the Pe-shan swelling is entirely uninhabited.[5] And yet it
+  was from this very region, avers G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, that the
+  Yue-chi, a nomad race akin to the Tibetans, proceeded when, towards
+  the middle of the 2nd century B.C., they moved westwards and settled
+  near Lake Issyk-kul; and from here proceeded also the Shanshani, or
+  people who some two thousand years ago founded the state of Shanshan
+  or Lou-lan, ruins of the chief town of which Sven Hedin discovered in
+  the desert of Lop in 1901. Here, says the Russian explorer, the Huns
+  gathered strength, as also did the Tukiu (Turks) in the 6th century,
+  and the Uighur tribes and the rulers of the Tangut kingdom. But after
+  Jenghiz Khan in the 12th century drew away the peoples of this region,
+  and no others came to take their place, the country went out of
+  cultivation and eventually became the barren desert it now is.[6]
+
+  _Ala-shan._--This division of the great desert, known also as the
+  Hsi-tau and the Little Gobi, fills the space between the great N. loop
+  of the Hwang-ho or Yellow river on the E., the Edzin-gol on the W.,
+  and the Nan-shan Mountains on the S.W., where it is separated from the
+  Chinese province of Kan-suh by the narrow rocky chain of Lung-shan
+  (Ala-shan), 10,500 to 11,600 ft. in altitude. It belongs to the middle
+  basin of the three great depressions into which Potanin divides the
+  Gobi as a whole. "Topographically," says Przhevalsky, "it is a
+  perfectly level plain, which in all probability once formed the bed of
+  a huge lake or inland sea." The data upon which he bases this
+  conclusion are the level area of the region as a whole, the hard
+  saline clay and the sand-strewn surface, and lastly the salt lakes
+  which occupy its lowest parts. For hundreds of miles there is nothing
+  to be seen but bare sands; in some places they continue so far without
+  a break that the Mongols call them Tyngheri (i.e. sky). These vast
+  expanses are absolutely waterless, nor do any oases relieve the
+  unbroken stretches of yellow sand which alternate with equally vast
+  areas of saline clay or, nearer the foot of the mountains, with barren
+  shingle. Although on the whole a level country with a general altitude
+  of 3300 to 5000 ft., this section, like most other parts of the Gobi,
+  is crowned by a chequered network of hills and broken ranges going up
+  1000 ft. higher. The vegetation is confined to a few varieties of
+  bushes and a dozen kinds of grasses, the most conspicuous being saxaul
+  and _Agriophyllum gobicum_[7] (a grass). The others include prickly
+  convolvulus, field wormwood, acacia, _Inula ammophila_, _Sophora
+  flavescens_, _Convolvulus Ammani_, _Peganum_ and _Astragalus_, but all
+  dwarfed, deformed and starved. The fauna consists of little else
+  except antelopes, the wolf, fox, hare, hedgehog, marten, numerous
+  lizards and a few birds, e.g. the sand-grouse, lark, stonechat,
+  sparrow, crane, _Podoces Hendersoni_, _Otocorys albigula_ and
+  _Galerita cristata_.[8] The only human inhabitants of Ala-shan are the
+  Torgod Mongols.
+
+  _Ordos._--East of the desert of Ala-shan, and only separated from it
+  by the Hwang-ho, is the desert of Ordos or Ho-tau, "a level steppe,
+  partly bordered by low hills. The soil is altogether sandy or a
+  mixture of clay and sand, ill adapted for agriculture. The absolute
+  height of this country is between 3000 and 3500 ft., so that Ordos
+  forms an intermediate step in the descent to China from the Gobi,
+  separated from the latter by the mountain ranges lying on the N. and
+  E. of the Hwang-ho or Yellow river."[9] Towards the south Ordos rises
+  to an altitude of over 5000 ft., and in the W., along the right bank
+  of the Hwang-ho, the Arbus or Arbiso Mountains, which overtop the
+  steppe by some 3000 ft., serve to link the Ala-shan Mountains with the
+  In-shan. The northern part of the great loop of the river is filled
+  with the sands of Kuzupchi, a succession of dunes, 40 to 50 ft. high.
+  Amongst them in scattered patches grow the shrub _Hedysarum_ and the
+  trees _Calligonium Tragopyrum_ and _Pugionium cornutum_. In some
+  places these sand-dunes approach close to the great river, in others
+  they are parted from it by a belt of sand, intermingled with clay,
+  which terminates in a steep escarpment, 50 ft. and in some localities
+  100 ft. above the river. This belt is studded with little mounds (7 to
+  10 ft. high), mostly overgrown with wormwood (_Artemisia campestris_)
+  and the Siberian pea-tree (_Caragana_); and here too grows one of the
+  most characteristic plants of Ordos, the liquorice root (_Glycyrrhiza
+  uralensis_). Eventually the sand-dunes cross over to the left bank of
+  the Hwang-ho, and are threaded by the beds of dry watercourses, while
+  the level spaces amongst them are studded with little mounds (3 to 6
+  ft. high), on which grow stunted _Nitraria Scoberi_ and _Zygophyllum_.
+  Ordos, which was anciently known as Ho-nan ("the country south of the
+  river") and still farther back in time as Ho-tau, was occupied by the
+  Hiong-nu in the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D., but was almost depopulated
+  during and after the Dungan revolt of 1869. North of the big loop of
+  the Hwang-ho Ordos is separated from the central Gobi by a succession
+  of mountain chains, the Kara-naryn-ula, the Sheiten-ula, and the
+  In-shan Mountains, which link on to the south end of the Great Khingan
+  Mountains. The In-shan Mountains, which stretch from 108 deg. to 112
+  deg. E., have a wild Alpine character and are distinguished from other
+  mountains in the S.E. of Mongolia by an abundance of both water and
+  vegetation. In one of their constituent ranges, the bold Munni-ula, 70
+  m. long and nearly 20 m. wide, they attain elevations of 7500 to 8500
+  ft., and have steep flanks, slashed with rugged gorges and narrow
+  glens. Forests begin on them at 5300 ft. and wild flowers grow in
+  great profusion and variety in summer, though with a striking lack of
+  brilliancy in colouring. In this same border range there is also a
+  much greater abundance and variety of animal life, especially amongst
+  the avifauna.
+
+  _Eastern Gobi._--Here the surface is extremely diversified, although
+  there are no great differences in vertical elevation. Between Urga (48
+  deg. N. and 107 deg. E.) and the little lake of Iren-dubasu-nor (111
+  deg. 50' E. and 43 deg. 45' N.) the surface is greatly eroded, and
+  consists of broad flat depressions and basins separated by groups of
+  flat-topped mountains of relatively low elevation (500 to 600 ft.),
+  through which archaic rocks crop out as crags and isolated rugged
+  masses. The floors of the depressions lie mostly between 2900 and 3200
+  ft. above sea-level. Farther south, between Iren-dubasu-nor and the
+  Hwang-ho comes a region of broad tablelands alternating with flat
+  plains, the latter ranging at altitudes of 3300 to 3600 ft. and the
+  former at 3500 to 4000 ft. The slopes of the plateaus are more or less
+  steep, and are sometimes penetrated by "bays" of the lowlands. As the
+  border-range of the Khingan is approached the country steadily rises
+  up to 4500 ft. and then to 5350 ft. Here small lakes frequently fill
+  the depressions, though the water in them is generally salt or
+  brackish. And both here, and for 200 m. south of Urga, streams are
+  frequent, and grass grows more or less abundantly. There is, however,
+  through all the central parts, until the bordering mountains are
+  reached, an utter absence of trees and shrubs. Clay and sand are the
+  predominant formations, the watercourses, especially in the north,
+  being frequently excavated 6 to 8 ft. deep, and in many places in the
+  flat, dry valleys or depressions farther south beds of loess, 15 to 20
+  ft. thick, are exposed. West of the route from Urga to Kalgan the
+  country presents approximately the same general features, except that
+  the mountains are not so irregularly scattered in groups but have more
+  strongly defined strikes, mostly E. to W., W.N.W. to E.S.E., and
+  W.S.W. to E.N.E. The altitudes too are higher, those of the lowlands
+  ranging from 3300 to 5600 ft., and those of the ranges from 650 to
+  1650 ft. higher, though in a few cases they reach altitudes of 8000
+  ft. above sea-level. The elevations do not, however, as a rule form
+  continuous chains, but make up a congeries of short ridges and groups
+  rising from a common base and intersected by a labyrinth of ravines,
+  gullies, glens and basins. But the tablelands, built up of the
+  horizontal red deposits of the Han-hai (Obruchev's Gobi formation)
+  which are characteristic of the southern parts of eastern Mongolia,
+  are absent here or occur only in one locality, near the Shara-muren
+  river, and are then greatly intersected by gullies or dry
+  watercourses.[10] Here there is, however, a great dearth of water, no
+  streams, no lakes, no wells, and precipitation falls but seldom. The
+  prevailing winds blow from the W. and N.W. and the pall of dust
+  overhangs the country as in the Takla-makan and the desert of Lop.
+  Characteristic of the flora are wild garlic, _Kalidium gracile_,
+  wormwood, saxaul, _Nitraria Scoberi_, _Caragana_, _Ephedra_, saltwort
+  and _dirisun_ (_Lasiagrostis splendens_).
+
+  This great desert country of Gobi is crossed by several trade routes,
+  some of which have been in use for thousands of years. Among the most
+  important are those from Kalgan on the frontier of China to Urga (600
+  m.), from Su-chow (in Kan-suh) to Hami (420 m.) from Hami to Peking
+  (1300 m.), from Kwei-hwa-cheng (or Kuku-khoto) to Hami and Barkul, and
+  from Lanchow (in Kan-suh) to Hami.
+
+  _Climate._--The climate of the Gobi is one of great extremes, combined
+  with rapid changes of temperature, not only at all seasons of the year
+  but even within 24 hours (as much as 58 deg. F.). For instance, at
+  Urga (3770 ft.) the annual mean is 27.5 deg. F., the January mean
+  -15.7 deg., and the July mean 63.5 deg., the extremes being 100.5 deg.
+  and -44.5 deg.; while at Sivantse (3905 ft.) the annual mean is 37
+  deg., the January mean 2.3 deg., and the July mean 66.3 deg., the
+  range being from a recorded maximum of 93 deg. to a recorded minimum
+  of -53 deg. Even in southern Mongolia the thermometer goes down as low
+  as -27 deg., and in Ala-shan it rises day after day in July as high as
+  99 deg. Although the south-east monsoons reach the S.E. parts of the
+  Gobi, the air generally throughout this region is characterized by
+  extreme dryness, especially during the winter. Hence the icy
+  sandstorms and snowstorms of spring and early summer. The rainfall at
+  Urga for the year amounts to only 9.7 in.
+
+  _Sands of the Gobi Deserts._--With regard to the origin of the masses
+  of sand out of which the dunes and chains of dunes (_barkhans_) are
+  built up in the several deserts of the Gobi, opinions differ. While
+  some explorers consider them to be the product of marine, or at any
+  rate lacustrine, denudation (the Central Asian Mediterranean),
+  others--and this is not only the more reasonable view, but it is the
+  view which is gaining most ground--consider that they are the products
+  of the aerial denudation of the border ranges (e.g. Nan-shan,
+  Karlyk-tagh, &c.), and more especially of the terribly wasted ranges
+  and chains of hills, which, like the gaunt fragments of montane
+  skeletal remains, lie littered all over the swelling uplands and
+  tablelands of the Gobi, and that they have been transported by the
+  prevailing winds to the localities in which they are now accumulated,
+  the winds obeying similar transportation laws to the rivers and
+  streams which carry down sediment in moister parts of the world.
+  Potanin points out[11] that "there is a certain amount of regularity
+  observable in the distribution of the sandy deserts over the vast
+  uplands of central Asia. Two agencies are represented in the
+  distribution of the sands, though what they really are is not quite
+  clear; and of these two agencies one prevails in the north-west, the
+  other in the south-east, so that the whole of Central Asia may be
+  divided into two regions, the dividing line between them being drawn
+  from north-east to south-west, from Urga via the eastern end of the
+  Tian-shan to the city of Kashgar. North-west of this line the sandy
+  masses are broken up into detached and disconnected areas, and are
+  almost without exception heaped up around the lakes, and consequently
+  in the lowest parts of the several districts in which they exist.
+  Moreover, we find also that these sandy tracts always occur on the
+  western or south-western shores of the lakes; this is the case with
+  the lakes of Balkash, Ala-kul, Ebi-nor, Ayar-nor (or Telli-nor),
+  Orku-nor, Zaisan-nor, Ulungur-nor, Ubsa-nor, Durga-nor and Kara-nor
+  lying E. of Kirghiz-nor. South-east of the line the arrangement of the
+  sand is quite different. In that part of Asia we have three gigantic
+  but disconnected basins. The first, lying farthest east, is embraced
+  on the one side by the ramifications of the Kentei and Khangai
+  Mountains and on the other by the In-shan Mountains. The second or
+  middle division is contained between the Altai of the Gobi and the
+  Ala-shan. The third basin, in the west, lies between the Tian-shan and
+  the border ranges of western Tibet.... The deepest parts of each of
+  these three depressions occur near their northern borders; towards
+  their southern boundaries they are all alike very much higher....
+  However, the sandy deserts are not found in the low-lying tracts but
+  occur on the higher uplands which foot the southern mountain ranges,
+  the In-shan and the Nan-shan. Our maps show an immense expanse of sand
+  south of the Tarim in the western basin; beginning in the
+  neighbourhood of the city of Yarkent (Yarkand), it extends eastwards
+  past the towns of Khotan, Keriya and Cherchen to Sa-chow. Along this
+  stretch there is only one locality which forms an exception to the
+  rule we have indicated, namely, the region round the lake of Lop-nor.
+  In the middle basin the widest expanse of sand occurs between the
+  Edzin-gol and the range of Ala-shan. On the south it extends nearly as
+  far as a line drawn through the towns of Lian-chow, Kan-chow and
+  Kao-tai at the foot of the Nan-shan; but on the south it does not
+  approach anything like so far as the latitude (42 deg. N.) of the lake
+  of Ghashiun-nor. Still farther east come the sandy deserts of Ordos,
+  extending south-eastward as far as the mountain range which separates
+  Ordos from the (Chinese) provinces of Shan-si and Shen-si. In the
+  eastern basin drift-sand is encountered between the district of Ude in
+  the north (44 deg. 30' N.) and the foot of the In-shan in the south."
+  In two regions, if not in three, the sands have overwhelmed large
+  tracts of once cultivated country, and even buried the cities in which
+  men formerly dwelt. These regions are the southern parts of the desert
+  of Takla-makan (where Sven Hedin and M. A. Stein[12] have discovered
+  the ruins under the desert sands), along the N. foot of the Nan-shan,
+  and probably in part (other agencies having helped) in the north of
+  the desert of Lop, where Sven Hedin discovered the ruins of Lou-lan
+  and of other towns or villages. For these vast accumulations of sand
+  are constantly in movement; though the movement is slow, it has
+  nevertheless been calculated that in the south of the Takla-makan the
+  sand-dunes travel bodily at the rate of roughly something like 160 ft.
+  in the course of a year. The shape and arrangement of the individual
+  sand-dunes, and of the barkhans, generally indicate from which
+  direction the predominant winds blow. On the windward side of the dune
+  the slope is long and gentle, while the leeward side is steep and in
+  outline concave like a horse-shoe. The dunes vary in height from 30 up
+  to 300 ft., and in some places mount as it were upon one another's
+  shoulders, and in some localities it is even said that a third tier is
+  sometimes superimposed.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--See N. M. Przhevalsky, _Mongolia, the Tangut Country,
+  &c._ (Eng. trans., ed. by Sir H. Yule, London, 1876), and _From Kulja
+  across the Tian Shan to Lob Nor_ (Eng. trans, by Delmar Morgan,
+  London, 1879); G. N. Potanin, _Tangutsko-Tibetskaya Okraina Kitaya i
+  Centralnaya Mongoliya, 1884-1886_ (1893, &c.); M. V. Pjevtsov, _Sketch
+  of a Journey to Mongolia_ (in Russian, Omsk, 1883); G. E.
+  Grum-Grzhimailo, _Opisanie Puteshestviya v Sapadniy Kitai_
+  (1898-1899); V. A. Obruchev, _Centralnaya Asiya, Severniy Kitai i
+  Nan-schan, 1892-1894_ (1900-1901); V. I. Roborovsky and P. K. Kozlov,
+  _Trudy Ekspeditsiy Imp. Russ. Geog. Obshchestva Po Centralnoy Asiy,
+  1893-1895_ (1900, &c.); Roborovsky, _Trudy Tibetskoi Ekspeditsiy,
+  1889-1890_; Sven Hedin, _Scientific Results of a Journey in Central
+  Asia, 1899-1902_ (6 vols., 1905-1907); Futterer, _Durch Asien_ (1901,
+  &c.); K. Bogdanovich, _Geologicheskiya Isledovaniya v Vostochnom
+  Turkestane_ and _Trudiy Tibetskoy Ekspeditsiy, 1889-1890_; L. von
+  Loczy, _Die wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse der Reise des Grafen
+  Szechenyi in Ostasien, 1877-1880_ (1883); Ney Elias, in _Journ. Roy.
+  Geog. Soc._ (1873); C. W. Campbell's "Journeys in Mongolia," in
+  _Geographical Journal_ (Nov. 1903); Pozdnievym, _Mongolia and the
+  Mongols_ (in Russian, St Petersburg, 1897 &c.); Deniker's summary of
+  Kozlov's latest journeys in _La Geographie_ (1901, &c.); F. von
+  Richthofen, _China_ (1877).     (J. T. Be.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Cf. G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, _Opisaniye Puteshestviya_, i. 381-417.
+
+  [2] Quoted in Sven Hedin, _Scientific Results_, ii. 499.
+
+  [3] _Op. cit._ ii. 499-500.
+
+  [4] Przhevalsky, _Iz Zayana cherez Hami v Tibet na Vershovya Shaltoy
+    Reki_, pp. 84-91.
+
+  [5] Futterer, _Durch Asien_, i. pp. 206-211.
+
+  [6] G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, _Opisanie Puteshestviya v Sapadniy Kitai_,
+    ii. p. 127.
+
+  [7] Its seeds are pounded by the Mongols to flour and mixed with
+    their tea.
+
+  [8] Przhevalsky, _Mongolia_ (Eng. trans. ed. by Sir H. Yule).
+
+  [9] Przhevalsky, _op. cit._ p. 183.
+
+  [10] Obruchev. in _Izvestia_ of Russ. Geogr. Soc. (1895).
+
+  [11] In _Tangutsko-Tibetskaya Okraina Kitaya i Centralnaya
+    Mongoliya_, i. pp. 96, &c.
+
+  [12] See _Sand-buried Cities of Khotan_ (London, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+GOBLET, RENE (1828-1905), French politician, was born at
+Aire-sur-la-Lys, in the Pas de Calais, on the 26th of November 1828, and
+was educated for the law. Under the Second Empire, he helped to found a
+Liberal journal, _Le Progres de la Somme_, and in July 1871 was sent by
+the department of the Somme to the National Assembly, where he took his
+place on the extreme left. He failed to secure election in 1876, but
+next year was returned for Amiens. He held a minor government office in
+1879, and in 1882 became minister of the interior in the Freycinet
+cabinet. He was minister of education, fine arts and religion in Henri
+Brisson's first cabinet in 1885, and again under Freycinet in 1886, when
+he greatly increased his reputation by an able defence of the
+government's education proposals. Meanwhile his extreme independence and
+excessive candour had alienated him from many of his party, and all
+through his life he was frequently in conflict with his political
+associates, from Gambetta downwards. On the fall of the Freycinet
+cabinet in December he formed a cabinet in which he reserved for himself
+the portfolios of the interior and of religion. The Goblet cabinet was
+unpopular from the outset, and it was with difficulty that anybody could
+be found to accept the ministry of foreign affairs, which was finally
+given to M. Flourens. Then came what is known as the Schnaebele
+incident, the arrest on the German frontier of a French official named
+Schnaebele, which caused immense excitement in France. For some days
+Goblet took no definite decision, but left Flourens, who stood for
+peace, to fight it out with General Boulanger, then minister of war, who
+was for the despatch of an ultimatum. Although he finally intervened on
+the side of Flourens, and peace was preserved, his weakness in face of
+the Boulangist propaganda became a national danger. Defeated on the
+budget in May 1887, his government resigned; but he returned to office
+next year as foreign minister in the radical administration of Charles
+Floquet. He was defeated at the polls by a Boulangist candidate in 1889,
+and sat in the senate from 1891 to 1893, when he returned to the popular
+chamber. In association with MM. E. Lockroy, Ferdinand Sarrien and P. L.
+Peytral he drew up a republican programme which they put forward in the
+_Petite Republique francaise_. At the elections of 1898 he was defeated,
+and thenceforward took little part in public affairs. He died in Paris
+on the 13th of September 1905.
+
+
+
+
+GOBLET, a large type of drinking-vessel, particularly one shaped like a
+cup, without handles, and mounted on a shank with a foot. The word is
+derived from the O. Fr. _gobelet_, diminutive of _gobel_, _gobeau_,
+which Skeat takes to be formed from Low Lat. _cupellus_, cup, diminutive
+of _cupa_, tub, cask (see DRINKING-VESSELS).
+
+
+
+
+GOBY. The gobies (_Gobius_) are small fishes readily recognized by their
+ventrals (the fins on the lower surface of the chest) being united into
+one fin, forming a suctorial disk, by which these fishes are enabled to
+attach themselves in every possible position to a rock or other firm
+substances. They are essentially coast-fishes, inhabiting nearly all
+seas, but disappearing towards the Arctic and Antarctic Oceans. Many
+enter, or live exclusively in, such fresh waters as are at no great
+distance from the sea. Nearly 500 different kinds are known. The largest
+British species, _Gobius capito_, occurring in the rock-pools of
+Cornwall, measures 10 in. _Gobius alcocki_, from brackish and fresh
+waters of Lower Bengal, is one of the very smallest of fishes, not
+measuring over 16 millimetres (= 7 lines). The males are usually more
+brilliantly coloured than the females, and guard the eggs, which are
+often placed in a sort of nest made of the shell of some bivalve or of
+the carapace of a crab, with the convexity turned upwards and covered
+with sand, the eggs being stuck to the inner surface of this roof.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Gobius lentiginosus_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--United Ventrals of Goby.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Periophthalmus koelreuteri_.]
+
+Close allies of the gobies are the walking fish or jumping fish
+(_Periophthalmus_), of which various species are found in great numbers
+on the mud flats at the mouths of rivers in the tropics, skipping about
+by means of the muscular, scaly base of their pectoral fins, with the
+head raised and bearing a pair of strongly projecting versatile eyes
+close together.
+
+
+
+
+GOCH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the Niers, 8
+m. S. of Cleves at the junction of the railways Cologne-Zevenaar and
+Boxtel-Wesel. Pop. (1905) 10,232. It has a Protestant and a Roman
+Catholic church and manufactures of brushes, plush goods, cigars and
+margarine. In the middle ages it was the seat of a large trade in linen.
+Goch became a town in 1231 and belonged to the dukes of Gelderland and
+later to the dukes of Cleves.
+
+
+
+
+GOD, the common Teutonic word for a personal object of religious
+worship. It is thus, like the Gr. [Greek: theos] and Lat. _deus_,
+applied to all those superhuman beings of the heathen mythologies who
+exercise power over nature and man and are often identified with some
+particular sphere of activity; and also to the visible material objects,
+whether an image of the supernatural being or a tree, pillar, &c. used
+as a symbol, an idol. The word "god," on the conversion of the Teutonic
+races to Christianity, was adopted as the name of the one Supreme Being,
+the Creator of the universe, and of the Persons of the Trinity. The _New
+English Dictionary_ points out that whereas the old Teutonic type of the
+word is neuter, corresponding to the Latin _numen_, in the Christian
+applications it becomes masculine, and that even where the earlier
+neuter form is still kept, as in Gothic and Old Norwegian, the
+construction is masculine. Popular etymology has connected the word with
+"good"; this is exemplified by the corruption of "God be with you" into
+"good-bye." "God" is a word common to all Teutonic languages. In Gothic
+it is _Guth_; Dutch has the same form as English; Danish and Swedish
+have _Gud_, German _Gott_. According to the _New English Dictionary_,
+the original may be found in two Aryan roots, both of the form _gheu_,
+one of which means "to invoke," the other "to pour" (cf. Gr. [Greek:
+cheein]); the last is used of sacrificial offerings. The word would thus
+mean the object either of religious invocation or of religious worship
+by sacrifice. It has been also suggested that the word might mean a
+"molten image" from the sense of "pour."
+
+  See RELIGION; HEBREW RELIGION; THEISM, &c.
+
+
+
+
+GODALMING, a market-town and municipal borough in the Guildford
+parliamentary division of Surrey, England, 34 m. S.W. of London by the
+London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 8748. It is beautifully
+situated on the right bank of the Wey, which is navigable thence to the
+Thames, and on the high road between London and Portsmouth. Steep hills,
+finely wooded, enclose the valley. The chief public buildings are the
+church of SS. Peter and Paul, a cruciform building of mixed
+architecture, but principally Early English and Perpendicular; the
+town-hall, Victoria hall, and market-house, and a technical institute
+and school of science and art. Charterhouse School, one of the principal
+English public schools, originally founded in 1611, was transferred from
+Charterhouse Square, London, to Godalming in 1872. It stands within
+grounds 92 acres in extent, half a mile north of Godalming, and consists
+of spacious buildings in Gothic style, with a chapel, library and hall,
+besides boarding-houses, masters' houses and sanatoria. (See
+CHARTERHOUSE.) Godalming has manufactures of paper, leather, parchment
+and hosiery, and some trade in corn, malt, bark, hoops and timber; and
+the Bargate stone, of which the parish church is built, is still
+quarried. The borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
+Area, 812 acres.
+
+Godalming (Godelminge) belonged to King Alfred, and was a royal manor at
+the time of Domesday. The manor belonged to the see of Salisbury in the
+middle ages, but reverted to the crown in the time of Henry VIII.
+Godalming was incorporated by Elizabeth in 1574, when the borough
+originated. The charter was confirmed by James I. in 1620, and a fresh
+charter was granted by Charles II. in 1666. The borough was never
+represented in parliament. The bishop of Salisbury in 1300 received the
+grant of a weekly market to be held on Mondays: the day was altered to
+Wednesday by Elizabeth's charter. The bishop's grant included a fair at
+the feast of St Peter and St Paul (29th of June). Another fair at
+Candlemas (2nd of February) was granted by Elizabeth. The market is
+still held. The making of cloth, particularly Hampshire kerseys, was the
+staple industry of Godalming in the middle ages, but it began to decay
+early in the 17th century and by 1850 was practically extinct. As in
+other cases, dyeing was subsidiary to the cloth industry. Tanning,
+introduced in the 15th century, survives. The present manufacture of
+fleecy hosiery dates from the end of the 18th century.
+
+
+
+
+GODARD, BENJAMIN LOUIS PAUL (1849-1895); French composer, was born in
+Paris, on the 18th of August 1849. He studied at the Conservatoire, and
+competed for the Prix de Rome without success in 1866 and 1867. He began
+by publishing a number of songs, many of which are charming, such as "Je
+ne veux pas d'autres choses," "Ninon," "Chanson de Florian," also a
+quantity of piano pieces, some chamber music, including several violin
+sonatas, a trio for piano and strings, a quartet for strings, a violin
+concerto and a second work of the same kind entitled "Concerto
+Romantique." Godard's chance arrived in the year 1878, when with his
+dramatic cantata, _Le Tasse_, he shared with M. Theodore Dubois the
+honour of winning the musical competition instituted by the city of
+Paris. From that time until his death Godard composed a surprisingly
+large number of works, including four operas, _Pedro de Zalamea_,
+produced at Antwerp in 1884; _Jocelyn_, given in Paris at the Theatre du
+Chateau d'Eau, in 1888; _Dante_, played at the Opera Comique two years
+later; and _La Vivandiere_, left unfinished and partly scored by another
+hand. This last work was heard at the Opera Comique in 1895, and has
+been played in England by the Carl Rosa Opera Company. His other works
+include the "Symphonie legendaire," "Symphonie gothique," "Diane" and
+various orchestral works. Godard's productivity was enormous, and his
+compositions are, for this reason only, decidedly unequal. He was at his
+best in works of smaller dimensions, and has left many exquisite songs.
+Among his more ambitious works the "Symphonie legendaire" may be singled
+out as being one of the most distinctive. He had a decided
+individuality, and his premature death at Cannes on the 10th of January
+1895 was a loss to French art.
+
+
+
+
+GODAVARI, a river of central and western India. It flows across the
+Deccan from the Western to the Eastern Ghats; its total length is 900
+m., the estimated area of its drainage basin, 112,200 sq. m. Its
+traditional source is on the side of a hill behind the village of
+Trimbak in Nasik district, Bombay, where the water runs into a
+reservoir from the lips of an image. But according to popular legend it
+proceeds from the same ultimate source as the Ganges, though
+underground. Its course is generally south-easterly. After passing
+through Nasik district, it crosses into the dominions of the nizam of
+Hyderabad. When it again strikes British territory it is joined by the
+Pranhita, with its tributaries the Wardha, the Penganga and Wainganga.
+For some distance it flows between the nizam's dominions and the Upper
+Godavari district, and receives the Indravati, the Tal and the Sabari.
+The stream has here a channel varying from 1 to 2 m. in breadth,
+occasionally broken by alluvial islands. Parallel to the river stretch
+long ranges of hills. Below the junction of the Sabari the channel
+begins to contract. The flanking hills gradually close in on both sides,
+and the result is a magnificent gorge only 200 yds. wide through which
+the water flows into the plain of the delta, about 60 m. from the sea.
+The head of the delta is at the village of Dowlaishweram, where the main
+stream is crossed by the irrigation anicut. The river has seven mouths,
+the largest being the Gautami Godavari. The Godavari is regarded as
+peculiarly sacred, and once every twelve years the great bathing
+festival called _Pushkaram_ is held on its banks at Rajahmundry.
+
+The upper waters of the Godavari are scarcely utilized for irrigation,
+but the entire delta has been turned into a garden of perennial crops by
+means of the anicut at Dowlaishweram, constructed by Sir Arthur Cotton,
+from which three main canals are drawn off. The river channel here is
+3-1/2 m. wide. The anicut is a substantial mass of stone, bedded in lime
+cement, about 2-1/4 m. long, 130 ft. broad at the base, and 12 ft. high.
+The stream is thus pent back so as to supply a volume of 3000 cubic ft.
+of water per second during its low season, and 12,000 cubic ft. at time
+of flood. The main canals have a total length of 493 m., irrigating
+662,000 acres, and all navigable; and there are 1929 m. of distributary
+channels. In 1864 water-communication was opened between the deltas of
+the Godavari and Kistna. Rocky barriers and rapids obstruct navigation
+in the upper portion of the Godavari. Attempts have been made to
+construct canals round these barriers with little success, and the
+undertaking has been abandoned.
+
+
+
+
+GODAVARI, a district of British India, in the north-east of the Madras
+presidency. It was remodelled in 1907-1908, when part of it was
+transferred to Kistna district. Its present area is 5634 sq. m. Its
+territory now lies mainly east of the Godavari river, including the
+entire delta, with a long narrow strip extending up its valley. The apex
+of the delta is at Dowlaishweram, where a great dam renders the waters
+available for irrigation. Between this point and the coast there is a
+vast extent of rice fields. Farther inland, and enclosing the valley of
+the great river, are low hills, steep and forest-clad. The north-eastern
+part, known as the Agency tract, is occupied by spurs of the Eastern
+Ghats. The coast is low, sandy and swampy, the sea very shallow, so that
+vessels must lie nearly 5 m. from Cocanada, the chief port. The Sabari
+is the principal tributary of the Godavari within the district. The
+Godavari often rises in destructive floods. The population of the
+present area in 1901 was 1,445,961. In the old district the increase
+during the last decade was 11%. The chief towns are Cocanada and
+Rajahmundry. The forests are of great value; coal is known, and graphite
+is worked. The population is principally occupied in agriculture, the
+principal crops being rice, oil-seeds, tobacco and sugar. The cigars
+known in England as Lunkas are partly made from tobacco grown on
+_lankas_ or islands in the river Godavari. Sugar (from the juice of the
+palmyra palm) and rum are made by European processes at Samalkot. The
+administrative headquarters are now at Cocanada, the chief seaport; but
+Rajahmundry, at the head of the delta, is the old capital. A large but
+decreasing trade is conducted at Cocanada, rice being shipped to
+Mauritius and Ceylon, and cotton and oil-seeds to Europe. Rice-cleaning
+mills have been established here and at other places. The district is
+traversed by the main line of the East Coast railway, with a branch to
+Cocanada; the iron girder bridge of forty-two spans over the Godavari
+river near Rajahmundry was opened in 1900. There is a government college
+at Rajahmundry, with a training college attached, and an aided college
+at Cocanada.
+
+The Godavari district formed part of the Andhra division of Dravida, the
+north-west portion being subject to the Orissa kings, and the
+south-western belonging to the Vengi kingdom. For centuries it was the
+battlefield on which various chiefs fought for independence with varying
+success till the beginning of the 16th century, when the whole country
+may be said to have passed under Mahommedan power. At the conclusion of
+the struggle with the French in the Carnatic, Godavari with the Northern
+Circars was conquered by the English, and finally ceded by imperial
+_sanad_ in 1765. The district was constituted in 1859, by the
+redistribution of the territory comprising the former districts of
+Guntur, Rajahmundry and Masulipatam, into what are now the Kistna and
+Godavari districts.
+
+  See H. Morris, _District Manual_ (1878); _District Gazetteer_ (1906).
+
+
+
+
+GODEFROY (GOTHOFREDUS), a French noble family, which numbered among its
+members several distinguished jurists and historians. The family claimed
+descent from Symon Godefroy, who was born at Mons about 1320 and was
+lord of Sapigneulx near Berry-au-bac, now in the department of Aisne.
+
+DENIS GODEFROY (Dionysius Gothofredus) (1549-1622), jurist, son of Leon
+Godefroy, lord of Guignecourt, was born in Paris on the 17th of October
+1549. He was educated at the College de Navarre, and studied law at
+Louvain, Cologne and Heidelberg, returning to Paris in 1573. He embraced
+the reformed religion, and in 1579 left Paris, where his abilities and
+connexions promised a brilliant career, to establish himself at Geneva.
+He became professor of law there, received the freedom of the city in
+1580; and in 1587 became a member of the Council of the Two Hundred.
+Henry IV. induced him to return to France by making him _grand bailli_
+of Gex, but no sooner had he installed himself than the town was sacked
+and his library burnt by the troops of the duke of Savoy. In 1591 he
+became professor of Roman law at Strassburg, where he remained until
+April 1600, when in response to an invitation from Frederick IV.,
+elector palatine, he removed to Heidelberg. The difficulties of his
+position led to his return to Strassburg for a short time, but in
+November 1604 he definitely settled at Heidelberg. He was made head of
+the faculty of law in the university, and was from time to time employed
+on missions to the French court. His repeated refusal of offers of
+advancement in his own country was due to his Calvinism. He died at
+Strassburg on the 7th of September 1622, having left Heidelberg before
+the city was sacked by the imperial troops in 1621. His most important
+work was the _Corpus juris civilis_, originally published at Geneva in
+1583, which went through some twenty editions, the most valuable of them
+being that printed by the Elzevirs at Amsterdam in 1633 and the Leipzig
+edition of 1740.
+
+  Lists of his other learned works may be found in Senebier's _Hist.
+  litt. de Geneve_, vol. ii., and in Niceron's _Memoires_, vol. xvii.
+  Some of his correspondence with his learned friends, with his kinsman
+  President de Thou, Isaac Casaubon, Jean Jacques Grynaeus and others,
+  is preserved in the libraries of the British Museum, of Basel and
+  Paris.
+
+His eldest son, THEODORE GODEFROY (1580-1649), was born at Geneva on the
+14th of July 1580. He abjured Calvinism, and was called to the bar in
+Paris. He became historiographer of France in 1613, and was employed
+from time to time on diplomatic missions. He was employed at the
+congress of Munster, where he remained after the signing of peace in
+1648 as charge d'affaires until his death on the 5th of October of the
+next year. His most important work is _Le Ceremonial de France ..._
+(1619), a work which became a classic on the subject of royal
+ceremonial, and was re-edited by his son in an enlarged edition in 1649.
+
+  Besides his printed works he made vast collections of historical
+  material which remains in MS. and fills the greater part of the
+  Godefroy collection of over five hundred portfolios in the Library of
+  the Institute in Paris. These were catalogued by Ludovic Lalanne in
+  the _Annuaire Bulletin_ (1865-1866 and 1892) of the _Societe de
+  l'histoire de France_.
+
+
+The second son of Denis, JACQUES GODEFROY (1587-1652), jurist, was born
+at Geneva on the 13th of September 1587. He was sent to France in 1611,
+and studied law and history at Bourges and Paris. He remained faithful
+to the Calvinist persuasion, and soon returned to Geneva, where he
+became active in public affairs. He was secretary of state from 1632 to
+1636, and syndic or chief magistrate in 1637, 1641, 1645 and 1649. He
+died on the 23rd of June 1652. In addition to his civic and political
+work he lectured on law, and produced, after thirty years of labour, his
+edition of the _Codex Theodosianus_. This code formed the principal,
+though not the only, source of the legal systems of the countries formed
+from the Western Empire. Godefroy's edition was enriched with a
+multitude of important notes and historical comments, and became a
+standard authority on the decadent period of the Western Empire. It was
+only printed thirteen years after his death under the care of his friend
+Antoine Marville at Lyons (4 vols. 1665), and was reprinted at Leipzig
+(6 vols.) in 1736-1745. Of his numerous other works the most important
+was the reconstruction of the twelve tables of early Roman law.
+
+  See also the dictionary of Moreri, Niceron's _Memoires_ (vol. 17) and
+  a notice in the _Bibliotheque universelle de Geneve_ (Dec. 1837).
+
+DENIS GODEFROY (1615-1681), eldest son of Theodore, succeeded his father
+as historiographer of France, and re-edited various chronicles which had
+been published by him. He was entrusted by Colbert with the care and
+investigation of the records concerning the Low Countries preserved at
+Lille, where great part of his life was spent. He was also the historian
+of the reigns of Charles VII. and Charles VIII.
+
+Other members of the family who attained distinction in the same branch
+of learning were the two sons of Denis Godefroy--Denis (1653-1719), also
+an historian, and Jean, sieur d'Aumont (1656-1732), who edited the
+letters of Louis XII., the memoirs of Marguerite de Valois, of Castelnau
+and Pierre de l'Estoile, and left some useful material for the history
+of the Low Countries; Jean Baptiste Achille Godefroy, sieur de Maillart
+(1697-1759), and Denis Joseph Godefroy, sieur de Maillart (1740-1819),
+son and grandson of Jean Godefroy, who were both officials at Lille, and
+left valuable historical documents which have remained in MS.
+
+  For further details see _Les Savants Godefroy_ (Paris, 1873) by the
+  marquis de Godefroy-Menilglaise, son of Denis Joseph Godefroy.
+
+
+
+
+GODESBERG, a spa of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the left
+bank of the Rhine, almost opposite Konigswinter, and 4 m. S. of Bonn, on
+the railway to Coblenz. It is a fashionable summer resort, and contains
+numerous pretty villas, the residences of merchants from Cologne,
+Elberfeld, Crefeld and other Rhenish manufacturing centres. It has an
+Evangelical and three Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue and several
+educational establishments. Its chalybeate springs annually attract a
+large number of visitors, and the pump-room, baths and public grounds
+are arranged on a sumptuous scale. On a conical basalt hill, close by,
+are the ruins, surmounted by a picturesque round tower, of Godesberg
+castle. Built by Archbishop Dietrich I. of Cologne in the 13th century,
+it was destroyed by the Bavarians in 1583.
+
+  See Dennert, _Godesberg, eine Perle des Rheins_ (Godesberg, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+GODET, FREDERIC LOUIS (1812-1900), Swiss Protestant theologian, was born
+at Neuchatel on the 25th of October 1812. After studying theology at
+Neuchatel, Bonn and Berlin, he was in 1850 appointed professor of
+theology at Neuchatel. From 1851 to 1866 he also held a pastorate. In
+1873 he became one of the founders of the free Evangelical Church of
+Neuchatel, and professor in its theological faculty. He died there on
+the 29th of October 1900. A conservative scholar, Godet was the author
+of some of the most noteworthy French commentaries published in recent
+times.
+
+  His commentaries are on the Gospel of St John (2 vols., 1863-1865; 3rd
+  ed., 1881-1888; Eng. trans. 1886, &c.); St Luke (2 vols., 1871; 3rd
+  ed., 1888; Eng. trans. 1875, &c.); the Epistle to the Romans (2 vols.,
+  1879-1880; 2nd ed., 1883-1890; Eng. trans., 1880, &c.); Corinthians (2
+  vols., 1886-1887; Eng. trans. 1886, &c.). His other works include
+  _Etudes bibliques_ (2 vols., 1873-1874; 4th ed., 1889; Eng. trans.
+  1875 f.), and _Introduction au Nouveau Testament_ (1893 f.; Eng.
+  trans., 1894, &c.); _Lectures in Defence of the Christian Faith_ (Eng.
+  trans. 4th ed., 1900).
+
+
+
+
+GODFREY, SIR EDMUND BERRY (1621-1678), English magistrate and
+politician, younger son of Thomas Godfrey (1586-1664), a member of an
+old Kentish family, was born on the 23rd of December 1621. He was
+educated at Westminster school and at Christ Church, Oxford, and after
+entering Gray's Inn became a dealer in wood. His business prospered. He
+was made a justice of the peace for the city of Westminster, and in
+September 1666 was knighted as a reward for his services as magistrate
+and citizen during the great plague in London; but in 1669 he was
+imprisoned for a few days for instituting the arrest of the king's
+physician, Sir Alexander Fraizer (d. 1681), who owed him money. The
+tragic events in Godfrey's life began in September 1678 when Titus Oates
+and two other men appeared before him with written information about the
+_Popish Plot_, and swore to the truth of their statements. During the
+intense excitement which followed the magistrate expressed a fear that
+his life was in danger, but took no extra precautions for safety. On the
+12th of October he did not return home as usual, and on the 17th his
+body was found on Primrose Hill, Hampstead. Medical and other evidence
+made it certain that he had been murdered, and the excited populace
+regarded the deed as the work of the Roman Catholics. Two committees
+investigated the occurrence without definite result, but in December
+1678 a certain Miles Prance, who had been arrested for conspiracy,
+confessed that he had shared in the murder. According to Prance the deed
+was instigated by some Roman Catholic priests, three of whom witnessed
+the murder, and was committed in the courtyard of Somerset House, where
+Godfrey was strangled by Robert Green, Lawrence Hill and Henry Berry,
+the body being afterwards taken to Hampstead. The three men were
+promptly arrested; the evidence of the informer William Bedloe, although
+contradictory, was similar on a few points to that of Prance, and in
+February 1679 they were hanged. Soon afterwards, however, some doubt was
+cast upon this story; a war of words ensued between Prance and others,
+and it was freely asserted that Godfrey had committed suicide. Later the
+falsehood of Prance's confession was proved and Prance pleaded guilty to
+perjury; but the fact remains that Godfrey was murdered. Godfrey was an
+excellent magistrate, and was very charitable both in public and in
+private life. Mr John Pollock, in the _Popish Plot_ (London, 1903),
+confirms the view that the three men, Green, Hill and Berry, were
+wrongfully executed, and thinks the murder was committed by some Jesuits
+aided by Prance. Godfrey was feared by the Jesuits because he knew,
+through Oates, that on the 24th of April 1678 a Jesuit congregation had
+met at the residence of the duke of York to concert plans for the king's
+murder. He concludes thus: "The success of Godfrey's murder as a
+political move is indubitable. The duke of York was the pivot of the
+Roman Catholic scheme in England, and Godfrey's death saved both from
+utter ruin." On the other hand Mr Alfred Marks in his _Who killed Sir E.
+B. Godfrey?_ (1905) maintains that suicide was the cause of Godfrey's
+death.
+
+  See the article OATES, TITUS, also R. Tuke, _Memoirs of the Life and
+  Death of Sir Edmondbury Godfrey_ (London, 1682); and G. Burnet,
+  _History of my Own Time; The Reign of Charles II._, edited by O. Airy
+  (Oxford, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+GODFREY OF BOUILLON (c. 1060-1100), a leader in the First Crusade, was
+the second son of Eustace II., count of Boulogne, by his marriage with
+Ida, daughter of Duke Godfrey II. of Lower Lorraine. He was designated
+by Duke Godfrey as his successor; but the emperor Henry IV. gave him
+only the mark of Antwerp, in which the lordship of Bouillon was included
+(1076). He fought for Henry, however, both on the Elster and in the
+siege of Rome; and he was invested in 1082 with the duchy of Lower
+Lorraine. Lorraine had been penetrated by Cluniac influences, and
+Godfrey would seem to have been a man of notable piety. Accordingly,
+though he had himself served as an imperialist, and though the Germans
+in general had little sympathy with the Crusaders (_subsannabant ...
+quasi delirantes_), Godfrey, nevertheless, when the call came "to
+follow Christ," almost literally sold all that he had, and followed.
+Along with his brothers Eustace and Baldwin (the future Baldwin I. of
+Jerusalem) he led a German contingent, some 40,000 strong, along
+"Charlemagne's road," through Hungary to Constantinople, starting in
+August 1096, and arriving at Constantinople, after some difficulties in
+Hungary, in November. He was the first of the crusading princes to
+arrive, and on him fell the duty of deciding what the relations of the
+princes to the eastern emperor Alexius were to be. Eventually, after
+several disputes and some fighting, he did homage to Alexius in January
+1097; and his example was followed by the other princes. From this time
+until the beginning of 1099 Godfrey appears as one of the minor princes,
+plodding onwards, and steadily fighting, while men like Bohemund and
+Raymund, Baldwin and Tancred were determining the course of events.
+
+In 1099 he came once more to the front. The mass of the crusaders became
+weary of the political factions which divided some of their leaders; and
+Godfrey, who was more of a pilgrim than a politician, becomes the
+natural representative of this feeling. He was thus able to force the
+reluctant Raymund to march southward to Jerusalem; and he took a
+prominent part in the siege, his division being the first to enter when
+the city was captured. It was natural therefore that, when Raymund of
+Provence refused the offered dignity, Godfrey should be elected ruler of
+Jerusalem (July 22, 1099). He assumed the title not of king, but of
+"advocate"[1] of the Holy Sepulchre. The new dignity proved still more
+onerous than honourable; and during his short reign of a year Godfrey
+had to combat the Arabs of Egypt, and the opposition of Raymund and the
+patriarch Dagobert. He was successful In repelling the Egyptian attack
+at the battle of Ascalon (August 1099); but he failed, owing to
+Raymund's obstinacy and greed, to acquire the town of Ascalon after the
+battle. Left alone, at the end of the autumn, with an army of some 2000
+men, Godfrey was yet able, in the spring of 1100, probably with the aid
+of new pilgrims, to exact tribute from towns like Acre, Ascalon, Arsuf
+and Caesarea. But already, at the end of 1099 Dagobert, archbishop of
+Pisa, had been substituted as patriarch for Arnulf (who had been acting
+as vicar) by the influence of Bohemund; and Dagobert, whose vassal
+Godfrey had at once piously acknowledged himself, seems to have forced
+him to an agreement in April 1100, by which he promised Jerusalem and
+Jaffa to the patriarch, in case he should acquire in their place Cairo
+or some other town, or should die without issue. Thus were the
+foundations of a theocracy laid in Jerusalem; and when Godfrey died
+(July 1100) he left the question to be decided, whether a theocracy or a
+monarchy should be the government of the Holy Land.
+
+Because he had been the first ruler in Jerusalem Godfrey was idolized in
+later saga. He was depicted as the leader of the crusades, the king of
+Jerusalem, the legislator who laid down the assizes of Jerusalem. He was
+none of these things. Bohemund was the leader of the crusades; Baldwin
+was first king; the assizes were the result of a gradual development. In
+still other ways was the figure of Godfrey idealized by the grateful
+tradition of later days; but in reality he would seem to have been a
+quiet, pious, hard-fighting knight, who was chosen to rule in Jerusalem
+because he had no dangerous qualities, and no obvious defects.
+
+  LITERATURE.--The narrative of Albert of Aix may be regarded as
+  presenting the Lotharingian point of view, as the _Gesta_ presents the
+  Norman, and Raymund of Agiles the Provencal. The career of Godfrey has
+  been discussed in modern times by R. Rohricht, _Die Deutschen im
+  heiligen Lande_, Band ii., and _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges,
+  passim_ (Innsbruck, 1901).     (E. Br.)
+
+_Romances._--Godfrey was the principal hero of two French _chansons de
+geste_ dealing with the Crusade, the _Chanson d'Antioche_ (ed. P. Paris,
+2 vols., 1848) and the _Chanson de Jerusalem_ (ed. C. Hippeau, 1868),
+and other poems, containing less historical material, were subsequently
+added. In addition the parentage and early exploits of Godfrey were made
+the subject of legend. His grandfather was said to be Helias, knight of
+the Swan, one of the brothers whose adventures are well known, though
+with some variation, in the familiar fairy tale of "The Seven Swans."
+Helias, drawn by the swan, one day disembarked at Nijmwegen, and
+reconquered her territory for the duchess of Bouillon. Marrying her
+daughter he exacted a promise that his wife should not inquire into his
+origin. The tale, which is almost identical with the Lohengrin legend,
+belongs to the class of the Cupid and Psyche narratives. See LOHENGRIN.
+
+  See also C. Hippeau, _Le Chevalier au cygne_ (Paris, 2 vols.,
+  1874-1877); H. Pigeonneau, _Le Cycle de la croisade et de la famille
+  de Bouillon_ (1877); W. Golther, "Lohengrin," in _Roman. Forsch._
+  (vol. v., 1889); _Hist. litt. de la France_, vol. xxii. pp. 350-402;
+  the English romance of _Helyas, Knyghte of the Swanne_ was printed by
+  W. Copland about 1550.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] An "advocate" was a layman who had been invested with part of an
+    ecclesiastic estate, on condition that he defended the rest, and
+    exercised the blood-ban in lieu of the ecclesiastical owner (see
+    ADVOCATE, sec. _Advocatus ecclesiae_).
+
+
+
+
+GODFREY OF VITERBO (c. 1120-c. 1196), chronicler, was probably an
+Italian by birth, although some authorities assert that he was a Saxon.
+He evidently passed some of his early life at Viterbo, where also he
+spent his concluding days, but he was educated at Bamberg, gaining a
+good knowledge of Latin. About 1140 he became chaplain to the German
+king, Conrad III.; but the greater part of his life was spent as
+secretary (_notarius_) in the service of the emperor Frederick I., who
+appears to have thoroughly trusted him, and who employed him on many
+diplomatic errands. Incessantly occupied, he visited Sicily, France and
+Spain, in addition to many of the German cities, in the emperor's
+interests, and was by his side during several of the Italian campaigns.
+Both before and after Frederick's death in 1190 he enjoyed the favour of
+his son, the emperor Henry VI., for whom he wrote his _Speculum regum_,
+a work of very little value. Godfrey also wrote _Memoria seculorum_, or
+_Liber memorialis_, a chronicle dedicated to Henry VI., which professes
+to record the history of the world from the creation until 1185. It is
+written partly in prose and partly in verse. A revision of this work was
+drawn up by Godfrey himself as _Pantheon_, or _Universitatis libri qui
+chronici appellantur_. The author borrowed from Otto of Freising, but
+the earlier part of his chronicle is full of imaginary occurrences.
+_Pantheon_ was first printed in 1559, and extracts from it are published
+by L. A. Muratori in the _Rerum Italicarum scriptores_, tome vii.
+(Milan, 1725). The only part of Godfrey's work which is valuable is the
+_Gesta Friderici I._, verses relating events in the emperor's career
+from 1155 to 1180. Concerned mainly with affairs in Italy, the poem
+tells of the sieges of Milan, of Frederick's flight to Pavia in 1167, of
+the treaty with Pope Alexander III. at Venice, and of other stirring
+episodes with which the author was intimately acquainted, and many of
+which he had witnessed. Attached to the _Gesta Friderici_ is the _Gesta
+Heinrici VI._, a shorter poem which is often attributed to Godfrey,
+although W. Wattenbach and other authorities think it was not written by
+him. The _Memoria seculorum_ was very popular during the middle ages,
+and has been continued by several writers.
+
+  Godfrey's works are found in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_, Band
+  xxii. (Hanover, 1872). The _Gesta Friderici I. et Heinrici VI._ is
+  published separately with an introduction by G. Waitz (Hanover, 1872).
+  See also H. Ulmann, _Gotfried von Viterbo_ (Gottingen, 1863), and W.
+  Wattenbach, _Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen_, Band ii. (Berlin, 1894).
+       (A. W. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+GODHRA, a town of British India, administrative headquarters of the
+Panch Mahals district of Bombay, and also of the Rewa Kantha political
+agency; situated 52 m. N.E. of Baroda on the railway from Anand to
+Ratlam. Pop. (1901) 20,915. It has a trade in timber from the
+neighbouring forests.
+
+
+
+
+GODIN, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRE (1817-1888), French socialist, was born on
+the 26th of January 1817 at Esqueheries (Aisne). The son of an artisan,
+he entered an iron-works at an early age, and at seventeen made a tour
+of France as journeyman. Returning to Esqueheries in 1837, he started a
+small factory for the manufacture of castings for heating-stoves. The
+business increased rapidly, and for the purpose of railway facilities
+was transferred to Guise in 1846. At the time of Godin's death in 1888
+the annual output was over four millions of francs (L160,000), and in
+1908 the employees numbered over 2000 and the output was over L280,000.
+An ardent disciple of Fourier, he advanced a considerable sum of money
+towards the disastrous Fourierist experiment of V. P. Considerant (q.v.)
+in Texas. He profited, however, by its failure, and in 1859 started the
+_familistere_ or community settlement of Guise on more carefully laid
+plans. It comprises, in addition to the workshops, three large
+buildings, four storeys high, capable of housing all the work-people,
+each family having two or three rooms. Attached to each building is a
+vast central court, covered with a glass roof, under which the children
+can play in all weathers. There are also creches, nurseries, hospital,
+refreshment rooms and recreation rooms of various kinds, stores for the
+purchase of groceries, drapery and every necessity, and a large theatre
+for concerts and dramatic entertainments. In 1880 the whole was turned
+into a co-operative society, with provision by which it eventually
+became the property of the workers. In 1871 Godin was elected deputy for
+Aisne, but retired in 1876 to devote himself to the management of the
+_familistere_. In 1882 he was created a knight of the legion of honour.
+
+  Godin was the author of _Solutions sociales_ (1871); _Les Socialistes
+  et les droits du travail_ (1874); _Mutualite sociale_ (1880); _La
+  Republique du travail et la reforme parlementaire_ (1889). See
+  Bernardot, _Le Familistere de Guise et son fondateur_ (Paris, 1887);
+  Fischer, _Die Familistere Godin's_ (Berlin, 1890); Lestelle, _Etude
+  sur le familistere de Guise_ (Paris, 1904); D. F. P., _Le Familistere
+  illustre, resultats de vingt ans d'association_, 1880-1900 (Eng.
+  trans., _Twenty-eight years of co-partnership at Guise_, by A.
+  Williams, 1908).
+
+
+
+
+GODIVA, a Saxon lady, who, according to the legend, rode naked through
+the streets of Coventry to gain from her husband a remission of the
+oppressive toll imposed on his tenants. The story is that she was the
+beautiful wife of Leofric, earl of Mercia and lord of Coventry. The
+people of that city suffering grievously under the earl's oppressive
+taxation, Lady Godiva appealed again and again to her husband, who
+obstinately refused to remit the tolls. At last, weary of her
+entreaties, he said he would grant her request if she would ride naked
+through the streets of the town. Lady Godiva took him at his word, and
+after issuing a proclamation that all persons should keep within doors
+or shut their windows, she rode through, clothed only in her long hair.
+One person disobeyed her proclamation, a tailor, ever afterwards known
+as Peeping Tom. He bored a hole in his shutters that he might see Godiva
+pass, and is said to have been struck blind. Her husband kept his word
+and abolished the obnoxious taxes.
+
+The oldest form of the legend makes Godiva pass through Coventry market
+from one end to the other when the people were assembled, attended only
+by two soldiers, her long hair down so that none saw her, "apparentibus
+cruribus tamen candidissimis." This version is given in _Flores
+historiarum_ by Roger of Wendover, who quoted from an earlier writer.
+The later story, with its episode of Peeping Tom, has been evolved by
+later chroniclers. Whether the lady Godiva of this story is the Godiva
+or Godgifu of history is undecided. That a lady of this name existed in
+the early part of the 11th century is certain, as evidenced by several
+ancient documents, such as the Stow charter, the Spalding charter and
+the Domesday survey, though the spelling of the name varies
+considerably. It would appear from _Liber Eliensis_ (end of 12th
+century) that she was a widow when Leofric married her in 1040. In or
+about that year she aided in the founding of a monastery at Stow,
+Lincolnshire. In 1043 she persuaded her husband to build and endow a
+Benedictine monastery at Coventry. Her mark, "[cross] Ego Godiva
+Comitissa diu istud desideravi," was found on the charter given by her
+brother, Thorold of Bucknall--sheriff of Lincolnshire--to the
+Benedictine monastery of Spalding in 1051; and she is commemorated as
+benefactress of other monasteries at Leominster, Chester, Wenlock,
+Worcester and Evesham. She probably died a few years before the Domesday
+survey (1085-1086), and was buried in one of the porches of the abbey
+church. Dugdale (1656) says that a window, with representations of
+Leofric and Godiva, was placed in Trinity Church, Coventry, about the
+time of Richard II. The Godiva procession, a commemoration of the
+legendary ride instituted on the 31st of May 1678 as part of Coventry
+fair, was celebrated at intervals until 1826. From 1848 to 1887 it was
+revived, and recently further attempts have been made to popularize the
+pageant. The wooden effigy of Peeping Tom which, since 1812, has looked
+out on the world from a house at the north-west corner of Hertford
+Street, Coventry, represents a man in armour, and was probably an image
+of St George. It was removed from another part of the town to its
+present position.
+
+
+
+
+GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE (1831-1902), American publicist, was born in
+Moyne, county Wicklow, Ireland, on the 2nd of October 1831. His father,
+James Godkin, was a Presbyterian minister and a journalist, and the son,
+after graduating in 1851 at Queen's College, Belfast, and studying law
+in London, was in 1853-1855 war correspondent for the London _Daily
+News_ in Turkey and Russia, being present at the capture of Sevastopol,
+and late in 1856 went to America and wrote letters to the same journal,
+giving his impressions of a tour of the southern states of the American
+Union. He studied law in New York City, was admitted to the bar in 1859,
+travelled in Europe in 1860-1862, wrote for the London _News_ and the
+New York _Times_ in 1862-1865, and in 1865 founded in New York City the
+_Nation_, a weekly projected by him long before, for which Charles Eliot
+Norton gained friends in Boston and James Miller McKim (1810-1874) in
+Philadelphia, and which Godkin edited until the end of the year 1899. In
+1881 he sold the _Nation_ to the New York _Evening Post_, and became an
+associate editor of the _Post_, of which he was editor-in-chief in
+1883-1899, succeeding Carl Schurz. In the 'eighties he engaged in a
+controversy with Goldwin Smith over the Irish question. Under his
+leadership the _Post_ broke with the Republican party in the
+presidential campaign of 1884, when Godkin's opposition to Blaine did
+much to create the so-called Mugwump party (see MUGWUMP), and his organ
+became thoroughly independent, as was seen when it attacked the
+Venezuelan policy of President Cleveland, who had in so many ways
+approximated the ideal of the _Post_ and _Nation_. He consistently
+advocated currency reform, the gold basis, a tariff for revenue only,
+and civil service reform, rendering the greatest aid to the last cause.
+His attacks on Tammany Hall were so frequent and so virulent that in
+1894 he was sued for libel because of biographical sketches of certain
+leaders in that organization--cases which never came up for trial. His
+opposition to the war with Spain and to imperialism was able and
+forcible. He retired from his editorial duties on the 30th of December
+1899, and sketched his career in the _Evening Post_ of that date.
+Although he recovered from a severe apoplectic stroke early in 1900, his
+health was shattered, and he died in Greenway, Devonshire, England, on
+the 21st of May 1902. Godkin shaped the lofty and independent policy of
+the _Post_ and the _Nation_, which had a small but influential and
+intellectual class of readers. But as editor he had none of the personal
+magnetism of Greeley, for instance, and his superiority to the influence
+of popular feeling made Charles Dudley Warner style the Nation the
+"weekly judgment day." He was an economist of the school of Mill, urged
+the necessity of the abstraction called "economic man," and insisted
+that socialism put in practice would not improve social and economic
+conditions in general. In politics he was an enemy of sentimentalism and
+loose theories in government. He published _A History of Hungary, A.D.
+300-1850_ (1856), _Government_ (1871, in the American Science Series),
+_Reflections and Comments_ (1895), _Problems of Modern Democracy_ (1896)
+and _Unforeseen Tendencies of Democracy_ (1898).
+
+  See _Life and Letters of E. L. Godkin_, edited by Rollo Ogden (2
+  vols., New York, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+GODMANCHESTER, a municipal borough in the southern, parliamentary
+division of Huntingdonshire, England, on the right bank of the Ouse, 1
+m. S.S.E. of Huntingdon, on a branch of the Great Eastern railway. Pop.
+(1901) 2017. It has a beautiful Perpendicular church (St Mary's) and an
+agricultural trade, with flour mills. The town is governed by a mayor, 4
+aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 4907 acres.
+
+A Romano-British village occupied the site of Godmanchester. The town
+(_Gumencestre, Gomecestre_) belonged to the king before the Conquest and
+at the time of the Domesday survey. In 1213 King John granted the manor
+to the men of the town at a fee-farm of L120 yearly, and confirmation
+charters were granted by several succeeding kings, Richard II. in
+1391-1392 adding exemption from toll, pannage, &c. James I. granted an
+incorporation charter in 1605 under the title of bailiffs, assistants
+and commonalty, but under the Municipal Reform Act of 1835 the
+corporation was changed to a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
+Godmanchester was formerly included for parliamentary purposes in the
+borough of Huntingdon, which has ceased to be separately represented
+since 1885. The incorporation charter of 1605 recites that the burgesses
+are chiefly engaged in agriculture, and grants them a fair, which still
+continues every year on Tuesday in Easter week.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Huntingdon_; Robert Fox, _The History of
+  Godmanchester_ (1831).
+
+
+
+
+GODOLLO, a market town of Hungary, in the county of
+Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kiskun, 23 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900)
+5875. Godollo is the summer residence of the Hungarian royal family, and
+the royal castle, built in the second half of the 18th century by Prince
+Anton Grassalkovich, was, with the beautiful domain, presented by the
+Hungarian nation to King Francis Joseph I. after the coronation in 1867.
+In its park there are a great number of stags and wild boars. Godollo is
+a favourite summer resort of the inhabitants of Budapest. In its
+vicinity is the famous place of pilgrimage Maria-Besnyo, with a fine
+Franciscan monastery, which contains the tombs of the Grassalkovich
+family.
+
+
+
+
+GODOLPHIN, SIDNEY GODOLPHIN, EARL OF (c. 1645-1712), was a cadet of an
+ancient family of Cornwall. At the Restoration he was introduced into
+the royal household by Charles II., with whom he had previously become a
+favourite, and he also at the same period entered the House of Commons
+as member for Helston. Although he very seldom addressed the House, and,
+when he did so, only in the briefest manner, he gradually acquired a
+reputation as its chief if not its only financial authority. In March
+1679 he was appointed a member of the privy council, and in the
+September following he was promoted, along with Viscount Hyde
+(afterwards earl of Rochester) and the earl of Sunderland, to the chief
+management of affairs. Though he voted for the Exclusion Bill in 1680,
+he was continued in office after the dismissal of Sunderland, and in
+September 1684 he was created Baron Godolphin of Rialton, and succeeded
+Rochester as first lord of the treasury. After the accession of James
+II. he was made chamberlain to the queen, and, along with Rochester and
+Sunderland, enjoyed the king's special confidence. In 1687 he was named
+commissioner of the treasury. He was one of the council of five
+appointed by King James to represent him in London, when he went to join
+the army after the landing of William, prince of Orange, in England,
+and, along with Halifax and Nottingham, he was afterwards appointed a
+commissioner to treat with the prince. On the accession of William,
+though he only obtained the third seat at the treasury board, he had
+virtually the chief control of affairs. He retired in March 1690, but
+was recalled on the November following and appointed first lord. While
+holding this office he for several years continued, in conjunction with
+Marlborough, a treacherous intercourse with James II., and is said even
+to have anticipated Marlborough in disclosing to James intelligence
+regarding the intended expedition against Brest. Godolphin was not only
+a Tory by inheritance, but had a romantic admiration for the wife of
+James II. He also wished to be safe whatever happened, and his treachery
+in this case was mostly due to caution. After Fenwick's confession in
+1696 regarding the attempted assassination of William III., Godolphin,
+who was compromised, was induced to tender his resignation; but when the
+Tories came into power in 1700, he was again appointed lord treasurer
+and retained office for about a year. Though not a favourite with Queen
+Anne, he was, after her accession, appointed to his old office, on the
+strong recommendation of Marlborough. He also in 1704 received the
+honour of knighthood, and in December 1706 he was created Viscount
+Rialton and earl of Godolphin. Though a Tory he had an active share in
+the intrigues which gradually led to the predominance of the Whigs in
+alliance with Marlborough. The influence of the Marlboroughs with the
+queen was, however, gradually supplanted by that of Mrs Masham and
+Harley, earl of Oxford, and with the fortunes of the Marlboroughs those
+of Godolphin were indissolubly united. The services of both were so
+appreciated by the nation that they were able for a time to regard the
+loss of the queen's favour with indifference, and even in 1708 to
+procure the expulsion of Harley from office; but after the Tory reaction
+which followed the impeachment of Dr Sacheverel, who abused Godolphin
+under the name of Volpone, the queen made use of the opportunity to take
+the initiatory step towards delivering herself from the irksome thraldom
+of Marlborough by abruptly dismissing Godolphin from office on the 7th
+of August 1710. He died on the 15th of September 1712.
+
+Godolphin owed his rise to power and his continuance in it under four
+sovereigns chiefly to his exceptional mastery of financial matters; for
+if latterly he was in some degree indebted for his promotion to the
+support of Marlborough, he received that support mainly because
+Marlborough recognized that for the prosecution of England's foreign
+wars his financial abilities were an indispensable necessity. He was
+cool, reserved and cautious, but his prudence was less associated with
+high sagacity than traceable to the weakness of his personal antipathies
+and prejudices, and his freedom from political predilections. Perhaps it
+was his unlikeness to Marlborough in that moral characteristic which so
+tainted Marlborough's greatness that rendered possible between them a
+friendship so intimate and undisturbed: he was, it would appear,
+exceptionally devoid of the passion of avarice; and so little advantage
+did he take of his opportunities of aggrandizement that, though his
+style of living was unostentatious,--and in connexion with his favourite
+pastimes of horse-racing, card-playing and cock-fighting he gained
+perhaps more than he lost,--all that he left behind him did not,
+according to the duchess of Marlborough, amount to more than L12,000.
+
+Godolphin married Margaret Blagge, the pious lady whose life was written
+by Evelyn, on the 16th of May 1675, and married again after her death in
+1678. His son and successor, Francis (1678-1766), held various offices
+at court, and was lord privy seal from 1735 to 1740. He married
+Henrietta Churchill (d. 1733), daughter of the duke of Marlborough, who
+in 1722 became in her own right duchess of Marlborough. He died without
+male issue in January 1766, when the earldom became extinct, and the
+estates passed to Thomas Osborne, 4th duke of Leeds, the husband of the
+earl's daughter Mary, whose descendant is the present representative of
+the Godolphins.
+
+  A life of Godolphin was published in 1888 in London by the Hon. H.
+  Elliot.
+
+
+
+
+GODOY, ALVAREZ DE FARIA, RIOS SANCHEZ Y ZARZOSA, MANUEL DE (1767-1851),
+duke of El Alcudia and prince of the Peace, Spanish royal favourite and
+minister, was born at Badajoz on the 12th of May 1767. His father, Don
+Jose de Godoy, was the head of a very ancient but impoverished family of
+nobles in Estremadura. His mother, whose maiden name was Maria Antonia
+Alvarez de Faria, belonged to a Portuguese noble family. Manuel boasts
+in his memoirs that he had the best masters, but it is certain that he
+received only the very slight education usually given at that time to
+the sons of provincial nobles. In 1784 he entered the Guardia de Corps,
+a body of gentlemen who acted as the immediate body-guard of the king.
+His well-built and stalwart person, his handsome foolish face, together
+with a certain geniality of character which he must have possessed,
+earned him the favour of Maria Luisa of Parma, the princess of Asturias,
+a coarse, passionate woman who was much neglected by her husband, who on
+his part cared for nothing but hunting.
+
+When King Charles III. died in 1788, Godoy's fortune was soon made. The
+princess of Asturias, now queen, understood how to manage her husband
+Charles IV. Godoy says in his memoirs that the king, who had been
+carefully kept apart from affairs during his father's life, and who
+disliked his father's favourite minister Floridablanca, wished to have a
+creature of his own. This statement is no doubt true as far as it goes.
+But it requires to be completed by the further detail that the queen put
+her lover in her husband's way, and that the king was guided by them,
+when he thought he was ruling for himself through a subservient
+minister. In some respects King Charles was obstinate, and Godoy is
+probably right in saying that he never was an absolute "viceroy," and
+that he could not always secure the removal of colleagues whom he knew
+to be his enemies. He could only rule by obeying. Godoy adopted without
+scruple this method of pushing his fortunes. When the king was set on a
+particular course, he followed it; the execution was left to him and the
+queen. His pliability endeared him to his master, whose lasting
+affection he earned. In practice he commonly succeeded in inspiring the
+wishes which he then proceeded to gratify. From the very beginning of
+the new reign he was promoted in the army with scandalous rapidity, made
+duke of El Alcudia, and in 1792 minister under the premiership of
+Aranda, whom he succeeded in displacing by the close of the year.
+
+His official life is fairly divided by himself into three periods. From
+1792 to 1798 he was premier. In the latter year his unpopularity and the
+intrigues of the French government, which had taken a dislike to him,
+led to his temporary retirement, without, however, any diminution of the
+king's personal favour. He asserts that he had no wish to return to
+office, but letters sent by him to the queen show that he begged for
+employment. They are written in a very unpleasant mixture of gush and
+vulgar familiarity. In 1801 he returned to office, and until 1807 he was
+the executant of the disastrous policy of the court. The third period of
+his public life is the last year, 1807-1808, when he was desperately
+striving for his place between the aggressive intervention of Napoleon
+on the one hand, and the growing hatred of the nation, organized behind,
+and about, the prince of Asturias, Ferdinand. On the 17th of March 1808
+a popular outbreak at Aranjuez drove him into hiding. When driven out by
+hunger and thirst he was recognized and arrested. By Ferdinand's order
+he was kept in prison, till Napoleon demanded that he should be sent to
+Bayonne. Here he rejoined his master and mistress. He remained with them
+till Charles IV. died at Rome in 1819, having survived his queen. The
+rest of Godoy's life was spent in poverty and obscurity. After the death
+of Ferdinand VII., in 1833, he returned to Madrid, and endeavoured to
+secure the restoration of his property confiscated in 1808. Part of it
+was the estate of the Soto de Roma, granted by the cortes to the duke of
+Wellington. He failed, and during his last years lived on a small
+pension granted him by Louis Philippe. He died in Paris on the 4th of
+October 1851.
+
+As a favourite Godoy is remarkable for the length of his hold on the
+affection of his sovereigns, and for its completeness. Latterly he was
+supported rather by the husband than by the wife. He got rid of Aranda
+by adopting, in order to please the king, a policy which tended to bring
+on war with France. When the war proved disastrous, he made the peace of
+Basel, and was created prince of the Peace for his services. Then he
+helped to make war with England, and the disasters which followed only
+made him dearer to the king. Indeed it became a main object with Charles
+IV. to protect "Manuelito" from popular hatred, and if possible secure
+him a principality. The queen endured his infidelities to her, which
+were flagrant. The king arranged a marriage for him with Dona Teresa de
+Bourbon, daughter of the infante Don Luis by a morganatic marriage,
+though he was probably already married to Dona Josefa Tudo, and
+certainly continued to live with her. Godoy, in his memoirs, lays claim
+to have done much for Spanish agriculture and industry, but he did
+little more than issue proclamations and appoint officers. His
+intentions may have been good, but the policy of his government was
+financially ruinous. In his private life he was not only profligate and
+profuse, but childishly ostentatious. The best that can be said for him
+is that he was good-natured, and did his best to restrain the
+Inquisition and the purely reactionary parties.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Godoy's _Memoirs_ were published in Spanish, English and
+  French in 1836. A general account of his career will be found in the
+  _Memoires sur la Revolution d'Espagne_, by the Abbe de Pradt (1816).
+
+
+
+
+GODROON, or GADROON (Fr. _godron_, of unknown etymology), in
+architecture, a convex decoration (said to be derived from raised work
+on linen) applied in France to varieties of the bead and reel, in which
+the bead is often carved with ornament. In England the term is
+constantly used by auctioneers to describe the raised convex decorations
+under the bowl of stone or terra-cotta vases. The godroons radiate from
+the vertical support of the vase and rise half-way up the bowl.
+
+
+
+
+GODWIN, FRANCIS (1562-1633), English divine, son of Thomas Godwin,
+bishop of Bath and Wells, was born at Hannington, Northamptonshire, in
+1562. He was elected student of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1578, took his
+bachelor's degree in 1580, and that of master in 1583. After holding two
+Somersetshire livings he was in 1587 appointed subdean of Exeter. In
+1590 he accompanied William Camden on an antiquarian tour through Wales.
+He was created bachelor of divinity in 1593, and doctor in 1595. In 1601
+he published his _Catalogue of the Bishops of England since the first
+planting of the Christian Religion in this Island_, a work which
+procured him in the same year the bishopric of Llandaff. A second
+edition appeared in 1615, and in 1616 he published an edition in Latin
+with a dedication to King James, who in the following year conferred
+upon him the bishopric of Hereford. The work was republished, with a
+continuation by William Richardson, in 1743. In 1616 Godwin published
+_Rerum Anglicarum, Henrico VIII., Edwardo VI. et Maria regnantibus,
+Annales_, which was afterwards translated and published by his son
+Morgan under the title _Annales of England_ (1630). He is also the
+author of a somewhat remarkable story, published posthumously in 1638,
+and entitled _The Man in the Moone, or a Discourse of a Voyage thither,
+by Domingo Gonsales_, written apparently some time between the years
+1599 and 1603. In this production Godwin not only declares himself a
+believer in the Copernican system, but adopts so far the principles of
+the law of gravitation as to suppose that the earth's attraction
+diminishes with the distance. The work, which displays considerable
+fancy and wit, was translated into French, and was imitated in several
+important particulars by Cyrano de Bergerac, from whom (if not from
+Godwin direct) Swift obtained valuable hints in writing of Gulliver's
+voyage to Laputa. Another work of Godwin's, _Nuncius inanimatus
+Utopiae_, originally published in 1629 and again in 1657, seems to have
+been the prototype of John Wilkins's _Mercury, or the Secret and Swift
+Messenger_, which appeared in 1641. He died, after a lingering illness,
+in April 1633.
+
+
+
+
+GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (1759-1797), English miscellaneous writer,
+was born at Hoxton, on the 27th of April 1759. Her family was of Irish
+extraction, and Mary's grandfather, who was a respectable manufacturer
+in Spitalfields, realized the property which his son squandered. Her
+mother, Elizabeth Dixon, was Irish, and of good family. Her father,
+Edward John Wollstonecraft, after dissipating the greater part of his
+patrimony, tried to earn a living by farming, which only plunged him
+into deeper difficulties, and he led a wandering, shifty life. The
+family roamed from Hoxton to Edmonton, to Essex, to Beverley in
+Yorkshire, to Laugharne, Pembrokeshire, and back to London again.
+
+After Mrs Wollstonecraft's death in 1780, soon followed by her husband's
+second marriage, the three daughters, Mary, Everina and Eliza, sought to
+earn their own livelihood. The sisters were all clever women--Mary and
+Eliza far above the average--but their opportunities of culture had been
+few. Mary, the eldest, went in the first instance to live with her
+friend Fanny Blood, a girl of her own age, whose father, like
+Wollstonecraft, was addicted to drink and dissipation. As long as she
+lived with the Bloods, Mary helped Mrs Blood to earn money by taking in
+needlework, while Fanny painted in watercolours. Everina went to live
+with her brother Edward, and Eliza made a hasty and, as it proved,
+unhappy marriage with a Mr Bishop. A legal separation was afterwards
+obtained, and the sisters, together with Fanny Blood, took a house,
+first at Islington, afterwards at Newington Green, and opened a school,
+which was carried on with indifferent success for nearly two years.
+During their residence at Newington Green, Mary was introduced to Dr
+Johnson, who, as Godwin tells us, "treated her with particular kindness
+and attention."
+
+In 1785 Fanny Blood married Hugh Skeys, a merchant, and went with him to
+Lisbon, where she died in childbed after sending for Mary to nurse her.
+"The loss of Fanny," as she said in a letter to Mrs Skeys's brother,
+George Blood, "was sufficient of itself to have cast a cloud over my
+brightest days.... I have lost all relish for pleasure, and life seems a
+burden almost too heavy to be endured." Her first novel, _Mary, a
+Fiction_ (1788), was intended to commemorate her friendship with Fanny.
+After closing the school at Newington Green, Mary became governess in
+the family of Lord Kingsborough, in Ireland. Her pupils were much
+attached to her, especially Margaret King, afterwards Lady Mountcashel;
+and indeed, Lady Kingsborough gave the reason for dismissing her after
+one year's service that the children loved their governess better than
+their mother. Mary now resolved to devote herself to literary work, and
+she was encouraged by Johnson, the publisher in St Paul's churchyard,
+for whom she acted as literary adviser. She also undertook translations,
+chiefly from the French. _The Elements of Morality_ (1790) from the
+German of Salzmann, illustrated by Blake, an old-fashioned book for
+children, and Lavater's _Physiognomy_ were among her translations. Her
+_Original Stories from Real Life_ were published in 1791, and, with
+illustrations by Blake, in 1796. In 1792 appeared _A Vindication of the
+Rights of Woman_, the work with which her name is always associated.
+
+It is not among the least oddities of this book that it is dedicated to
+M. Talleyrand Perigord, late bishop of Autun. Mary Wollstonecraft still
+believed him to be sincere, and working in the same direction as
+herself. In the dedication she states the "main argument" of the work,
+"built on this simple principle that, if woman be not prepared by
+education to become the companion of man, she will stop the progress of
+knowledge, for truth must be common to all, or it will be inefficacious
+with respect to its influence or general practice." In carrying out this
+argument she used great plainness of speech, and it was this that caused
+all, or nearly all, the outcry. For she did not attack the institution
+of marriage, nor assail orthodox religion; her book was really a plea
+for equality of education, passing into one for state education and for
+the joint education of the sexes. It was a protest against the
+assumption that woman was only the plaything of man, and she asserted
+that intellectual companionship was the chief, as it is the lasting,
+happiness of marriage. She thus directly opposed the teaching of
+Rousseau, of whom she was in other respects an ardent disciple.
+
+Mrs Wollstonecraft, as she now styled herself, desired to watch the
+progress of the Revolution in France, and went to Paris in 1792. Godwin,
+in his memoir of his wife, considers that the change of residence may
+have been prompted by the discovery that she was becoming attached to
+Henry Fuseli, but there is little to confirm this surmise; indeed, it
+was first proposed that she should go to Paris in company with him and
+his wife, nor was there any subsequent breach in their friendship. She
+remained in Paris during the Reign of Terror, when communication with
+England was difficult or almost impossible. Some time in the spring or
+summer of 1793 Captain Gilbert Imlay, an American, became acquainted
+with Mary--an acquaintance which ended in a more intimate connexion.
+There was no legal ceremony of marriage, and it is doubtful whether such
+a marriage would have been valid at the time; but she passed as Imlay's
+wife, and Imlay himself terms her in a legal document, "Mary Imlay, my
+best friend and wife." In August 1793 Imlay was called to Havre on
+business, and was absent for some months, during which time most of the
+letters published after her death by Godwin were written. Towards the
+end of the year she joined Imlay at Havre, and there in the spring of
+1794 she gave birth to a girl, who received the name of Fanny, in
+memory of the dear friend of her youth. In this year she published the
+first volume of a never completed _Historical and Moral View of the
+French Revolution_. Imlay became involved in a multitude of
+speculations, and his affection for Mary and their child was already
+waning. He left Mary for some months at Havre. In June 1795, after
+joining him in England, Mary left for Norway on business for Imlay. Her
+letters from Norway, divested of all personal details, were afterwards
+published. She returned to England late in 1795, and found letters
+awaiting her from Imlay, intimating his intention to separate from her,
+and offering to settle an annuity on her and her child. For herself she
+rejected this offer with scorn: "From you," she wrote, "I will not
+receive anything more. I am not sufficiently humbled to depend on your
+beneficence." They met again, and for a short time lived together, until
+the discovery that he was carrying on an intrigue under her own roof
+drove her to despair, and she attempted to drown herself by leaping from
+Putney bridge, but was rescued by watermen. Imlay now completely
+deserted her, although she continued to bear his name.
+
+In 1796, when Mary Wollstonecraft was living in London, supporting
+herself and her child by working, as before, for Mr Johnson, she met
+William Godwin. A friendship sprang up between them,--a friendship, as
+he himself says, which "melted into love." Godwin states that "ideas
+which he is now willing to denominate prejudices made him by no means
+willing to conform to the ceremony of marriage"; but these prejudices
+were overcome, and they were married at St Pancras church on the 29th of
+March 1797. And now Mary had a season of real calm in her stormy
+existence. Godwin, for once only in his life, was stirred by passion,
+and his admiration for his wife equalled his affection. But their
+happiness was of short duration. The birth of her daughter Mary,
+afterwards the wife of Percy Bysshe Shelley, on the 30th of August 1797,
+proved fatal, and Mrs Godwin died on the 10th of September following.
+She was buried in the churchyard of Old St Pancras, but her remains were
+afterwards removed by Sir Percy Shelley to the churchyard of St Peter's,
+Bournemouth.
+
+  Her principal published works are as follows:--_Thoughts on the
+  Education of Daughters, ..._ (1787); _The Female Reader_ (selections)
+  (1789); _Original Stories from Real Life_ (1791); _An Historical and
+  Moral View of the Origin and Progress of the French Revolution, and
+  the effects it has produced in Europe_, vol. i. (no more published)
+  (1790); _Vindication of the Rights of Woman_ (1792); _Vindication of
+  the Rights of Man_ (1793); _Mary, a Fiction_ (1788); _Letters written
+  during a Short Residence in Sweden, Norway and Denmark_ (1796);
+  _Posthumous Works_ (4 vols., 1798). It is impossible to trace the many
+  articles contributed by her to periodical literature.
+
+  A memoir of her life was published by Godwin in 1798. A large portion
+  of C. Kegan Paul's work, _William Godwin, his Friends and
+  Contemporaries_, was devoted to her, and an edition of the _Letters to
+  Imlay_ (1879), of which the first edition was published by Godwin, is
+  prefaced by a somewhat fuller memoir. See also E. Dowden, _The French
+  Revolution and English Literature_ (1897) pp. 82 et seq.; E. R.
+  Pennell, _Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin_ (1885), in the Eminent Women
+  Series; E. R. Clough, _A Study of Mary Wollstonecraft and the Rights
+  of Woman_ (1898); an edition of her _Original Stories_ (1906), with
+  William Blake's illustrations and an introduction by E. V. Lucas; and
+  the _Love Letters of Mary Wollstonecraft to Gilbert Imlay_ (1908),
+  with an introduction by Roger Ingpen.
+
+
+
+
+GODWIN, WILLIAM, (1756-1836), English political and miscellaneous
+writer, son of a Nonconformist minister, was born on the 3rd of March
+1756, at Wisbeach in Cambridgeshire. His family came on both sides of
+middle-class people, and it was probably only as a joke that Godwin, a
+stern political reformer and philosophical radical, attempted to trace
+his pedigree to a time before the Norman conquest and the great earl
+Godwine. Both parents were strict Calvinists. The father died young, and
+never inspired love or much regret in his son; but in spite of wide
+differences of opinion, tender affection always subsisted between
+William Godwin and his mother, until her death at an advanced age.
+
+William Godwin was educated for his father's profession at Hoxton
+Academy, where he was under Andrew Kippis the biographer and Dr Abraham
+Rees of the _Cyclopaedia_, and was at first more Calvinistic than his
+teachers, becoming a Sandemanian, or follower of John Glas (q.v.), whom
+he describes as "a celebrated north-country apostle who, after Calvin
+had damned ninety-nine in a hundred of mankind, has contrived a scheme
+for damning ninety-nine in a hundred of the followers of Calvin." He
+then acted as a minister at Ware, Stowmarket and Beaconsfield. At
+Stowmarket the teachings of the French philosophers were brought before
+him by a friend, Joseph Fawcet, who held strong republican opinions. He
+came to London in 1782, still nominally a minister, to regenerate
+society with his pen--a real enthusiast, who shrank theoretically from
+no conclusions from the premises which he laid down. He adopted the
+principles of the Encyclopaedists, and his own aim was the complete
+overthrow of all existing institutions, political, social and religious.
+He believed, however, that calm discussion was the only thing needful to
+carry every change, and from the beginning to the end of his career he
+deprecated every approach to violence. He was a philosophic radical in
+the strictest sense of the term.
+
+His first published work was an anonymous _Life of Lord Chatham_ (1783).
+Under the inappropriate title _Sketches of History_ (1784) he published
+under his own name six sermons on the characters of Aaron, Hazael and
+Jesus, in which, though writing in the character of an orthodox
+Calvinist, he enunciates the proposition "God Himself has no right to be
+a tyrant." Introduced by Andrew Kippis, he began to write in 1785 for
+the _Annual Register_ and other periodicals, producing also three novels
+now forgotten. The "Sketches of English History" written for the _Annual
+Register_ from 1785 onward still deserve study. He joined a club called
+the "Revolutionists," and associated much with Lord Stanhope, Horne
+Tooke and Holcroft. His clerical character was now completely dropped.
+
+In 1793 Godwin published his great work on political science, _The
+Inquiry concerning Political Justice, and its Influence on General
+Virtue and Happiness_. Although this work is little known and less read
+now, it marks a phase in English thought. Godwin could never have been
+himself a worker on the active stage of life. But he was none the less a
+power behind the workers, and for its political effect, _Political
+Justice_ takes its place with Milton's _Areopagitica_, with Locke's
+_Essay on Education_ and with Rousseau's _Emile_. By the words
+"political justice" the author meant "the adoption of any principle of
+morality and truth into the practice of a community," and the work was
+therefore an inquiry into the principles of society, of government and
+of morals. For many years Godwin had been "satisfied that monarchy was a
+species of government unavoidably corrupt," and from desiring a
+government of the simplest construction, he gradually came to consider
+that "government by its very nature counteracts the improvement of
+original mind." Believing in the perfectibility of the race, that there
+are no innate principles, and therefore no original propensity to evil,
+he considered that "our virtues and our vices may be traced to the
+incidents which make the history of our lives, and if these incidents
+could be divested of every improper tendency, vice would be extirpated
+from the world." All control of man by man was more or less intolerable,
+and the day would come when each man, doing what seems right in his own
+eyes, would also be doing what is in fact best for the community,
+because all will be guided by principles of pure reason. But all was to
+be done by discussion, and matured change resulting from discussion.
+Hence, while Godwin thoroughly approved of the philosophic schemes of
+the precursors of the Revolution, he was as far removed as Burke himself
+from agreeing with the way in which they were carried out. So logical
+and uncompromising a thinker as Godwin could not go far in the
+discussion of abstract questions without exciting the most lively
+opposition in matters of detailed opinion. An affectionate son, and ever
+ready to give of his hard-earned income to more than one ne'er-do-well
+brother, he maintained that natural relationship had no claim on man,
+nor was gratitude to parents or benefactors any part of justice or
+virtue. In a day when the penal code was still extremely severe, he
+argued gravely against all punishments, not only that of death. Property
+was to belong to him who most wanted it; accumulated property was a
+monstrous injustice. Hence marriage, which is law, is the worst of all
+laws, and as property the worst of all properties. A man so passionless
+as Godwin could venture thus to argue without suspicion that he did so
+only to gratify his wayward desires. Portions of this treatise, and only
+portions, found ready acceptance in those minds which were prepared to
+receive them. Perhaps no one received the whole teaching of the book.
+But it gave cohesion and voice to philosophic radicalism; it was the
+manifesto of a school without which liberalism of the present day had
+not been. Godwin himself in after days modified his communistic views,
+but his strong feeling for individualism, his hatred of all restrictions
+on liberty, his trust in man, his faith in the power of reason remained;
+it was a manifesto which enunciated principles modifying action, even
+when not wholly ruling it.
+
+In May 1794 Godwin published the novel of _Caleb Williams, or Things as
+they are_, a book of which the political object is overlooked by many
+readers in the strong interest of the story. The book was dramatized by
+the younger Colman as _The Iron Chest_. It is one of the few novels of
+that time which may be said still to live.[1] A theorist who lived
+mainly in his study, Godwin yet came forward boldly to stand by
+prisoners arraigned of high treason in that same year--1794. The danger
+to persons so charged was then great, and he deliberately put himself
+into this same danger for his friends. But when his own trial was
+discussed in the privy council, Pitt sensibly held that _Political
+Justice_, the work on which the charge could best have been founded, was
+priced at three guineas, and could never do much harm among those who
+had not three shillings to spare.
+
+From this time Godwin became a notable figure in London society, and
+there was scarcely an important person in politics, on the Liberal side,
+in literature, art or science, who does not appear familiarly in the
+pages of Godwin's singular diary. For forty-eight years, beginning in
+1788, and continuing to the very end of his life, Godwin kept a record
+of every day, of the work he did, the books he read, the friends he saw.
+Condensed in the highest degree, the diary is yet easy to read when the
+style is once mastered, and it is a great help to the understanding of
+his cold, methodical, unimpassioned character. He carried his method
+into every detail of life, and lived on his earnings with extreme
+frugality. Until he made a large sum by the publication of _Political
+Justice_, he lived on an average of L120 a year.
+
+In 1797, the intervening years having been spent in strenuous literary
+labour, Godwin married Mary Wollstonecraft (see GODWIN, MARY
+WOLLSTONECRAFT). Since both held the same views regarding the slavery of
+marriage, and since they only married at all for the sake of possible
+offspring, the marriage was concealed for some time, and the happiness
+of the avowed married life was very brief; his wife's death on the 10th
+of September left Godwin prostrated by affliction, and with a charge for
+which he was wholly unfit--his infant daughter Mary, and her stepsister,
+Fanny Imlay, who from that time bore the name of Godwin. His unfitness
+for the cares of a family, far more than love, led him to contract a
+second marriage with Mary Jane Clairmont in 1801. She was a widow with
+two children, one of whom, Clara Mary Jane Clairmont, became the
+mistress of Lord Byron. The second Mrs Godwin was energetic and
+painstaking, but a harsh stepmother; and it may be doubted whether the
+children were not worse off under her care than they would have been
+under Godwin's neglect.
+
+The second novel which proceeded from Godwin's pen was called _St Leon_,
+and published in 1799. It is chiefly remarkable for the beautiful
+portrait of Marguerite, the heroine, drawn from the character of his own
+wife. His opinions underwent a change in the direction of theism,
+influenced, he says, by his acquaintance with Coleridge. He also became
+known to Wordsworth and Lamb. Study of the Elizabethan dramatists led to
+the production in 1800 of the _Tragedy of Antonio_. Kemble brought it
+out at Drury Lane, but the failure of this attempt made him refuse
+_Abbas, King of Persia_, which Godwin offered him in the next year. He
+was more successful with his _Life of Chaucer_, for which he received
+L600.
+
+The events of Godwin's life were few. Under the advice of the second Mrs
+Godwin, and with her active co-operation, he carried on business as a
+bookseller under the pseudonym of Edward Baldwin, publishing several
+useful school books and books for children, among them Charles and Mary
+Lamb's _Tales from Shakespeare_. But the speculation was unsuccessful,
+and for many years Godwin struggled with constant pecuniary
+difficulties, for which more than one subscription was raised by the
+leaders of the Liberal party and by literary men. He became bankrupt in
+1822, but during the following years he accomplished one of his best
+pieces of work, _The History of the Commonwealth_, founded on pamphlets
+and original documents, which still retains considerable value. In 1833
+the government of Earl Grey conferred upon him the office known as
+yeoman usher of the exchequer, to which were attached apartments in
+Palace Yard, where he died on the 7th of April 1836.
+
+In his own time, by his writings and by his conversation, Godwin had a
+great power of influencing men, and especially young men. Though his
+character would seem, from much which is found in his writings, and from
+anecdotes told by those who still remember him, to have been
+unsympathetic, it was not so understood by enthusiastic young people,
+who hung on his words as those of a prophet. The most remarkable of
+these was Percy Bysshe Shelley, who in the glowing dawn of his genius
+turned to Godwin as his teacher and guide. The last of the long series
+of young men who sat at Godwin's feet was Edward Lytton Bulwer,
+afterwards Lord Lytton, whose early romances were formed after those of
+Godwin, and who, in _Eugene Aram_, succeeded to the story as arranged,
+and the plan to a considerable extent sketched out, by Godwin, whose age
+and failing health prevented him from completing it. Godwin's character
+appears in the worst light in connexion with Shelley. His early
+correspondence with Shelley, which began in 1811, is remarkable for its
+genuine good sense and kindness; but when Shelley carried out the
+principles of the author of _Political Justice_ in eloping with Mary
+Godwin, Godwin assumed a hostile attitude that would have been
+unjustifiable in a man of ordinary views, and was ridiculous in the
+light of his professions. He was not, moreover, too proud to accept
+L1000 from his son-in-law, and after the reconciliation following on
+Shelley's marriage in 1816, he continued to demand money until Shelley's
+death. His character had no doubt suffered under his long embarrassments
+and his unhappy marriage.
+
+  Godwin's more important works are--_The Inquiry concerning Political
+  Justice, and its Influence on General Virtue and Happiness_ (1793);
+  _Things as they are, or the Adventures of Caleb Williams_ (1794); _The
+  Inquirer, a series of Essays_ (1797); _Memoirs of the Author of the
+  Rights of Woman_ (1798); _St Leon, a Tale of the Sixteenth Century_
+  (1799); _Antonio, a Tragedy_ (1800); _The Life of Chaucer_ (1803);
+  _Fleetwood, a Novel_ (1805); _Faulkner, a Tragedy_ (1807); _Essay on
+  Sepulchres_ (1809); _Lives of Edward and John Philips, the Nephews of
+  Milton_ (1815); _Mandeville, a Tale of the Times of Cromwell_ (1817);
+  _Of Population, an answer to Malthus_ (1820); _History of the
+  Commonwealth_ (1824-1828); _Cloudesley, a Novel_ (1830); _Thoughts on
+  Man, a series of Essays_ (1831); _Lives of the Necromancers_ (1834). A
+  volume of essays was also collected from his papers and published in
+  1873, as left for publication by his daughter Mrs Shelley. Many other
+  short and anonymous works proceeded from his ever busy pen, but many
+  are irrecoverable, and all are forgotten. Godwin's life was published
+  in 1876 in two volumes, under the title _William Godwin, his Friends
+  and Contemporaries_, by C. Kegan Paul. The best estimate of his
+  literary position is that given by Sir Leslie Stephen in his _English
+  Thought in the 18th Century_ (ii. 264-281; ed., 1902). See also the
+  article on William Godwin in W. Hazlitt's _The Spirit of the Age_
+  (1825), and "Godwin and Shelley" in Sir L. Stephen's _Hours in a
+  Library_ (vol. iii., ed. 1892).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For an analysis of _Caleb Williams_ see the chapter on "Theorists
+    of Revolution" in Professor E. Dowden's _The French Revolution and
+    English Literature_ (1897).
+
+
+
+
+GODWIN-AUSTEN, ROBERT ALFRED CLOYNE (1808-1884), English geologist, the
+eldest son of Sir Henry E. Austen, was born on the 17th of March 1808.
+He was educated at Oriel College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow in
+1830. He afterwards entered Lincoln's Inn. In 1833 he married the only
+daughter and heiress of General Sir Henry T. Godwin, K.C.B., and he took
+the additional name of Godwin by Royal licence in 1854. At Oxford as a
+pupil of William Buckland he became deeply interested in geology, and
+soon afterwards becoming acquainted with De la Beche, he was inspired by
+that great master, and assisted him by making a geological map of the
+neighbourhood of Newton Abbot, which was embodied in the Geological
+Survey map. He also published an elaborate memoir "On the Geology of the
+South-East of Devonshire" (_Trans. Geol. Soc._ ser. 2, vol. viii.). His
+attention was next directed to the Cretaceous rocks of Surrey, his
+home-county, his estates being situated at Chilworth and Shalford near
+Guildford. Later he dealt with the superficial accumulations bordering
+the English Channel, and with the erratic boulders of Selsea. In 1855 he
+brought before the Geological Society of London his celebrated paper "On
+the possible Extension of the Coal-Measures beneath the South-Eastern
+part of England," in which he pointed out on well-considered theoretical
+grounds the likelihood of coal-measures being some day reached in that
+area. In this article he also advocated the freshwater origin of the Old
+Red Sandstone, and discussed the relations of that formation, and of the
+Devonian, to the Silurian and Carboniferous. He was elected F.R.S. in
+1849, and in 1862 he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological
+Society of London, on which occasion he was styled by Sir R. I.
+Murchison "pre-eminently the physical geographer of bygone periods." He
+died at Shalford House near Guildford on the 25th of November 1884.
+
+His son, Lieut-Colonel HENRY HAVERSHAM GODWIN-AUSTEN (b. 1834), entered
+the army in 1851, and served for many years on the Trigonometrical
+Survey of India, retiring in 1877. He gave much attention to geology,
+but is more especially distinguished for his researches on the natural
+history of India and as the author of _The Land and Freshwater Mollusca
+of India_ (1882-1887).
+
+
+
+
+GODWINE (d. 1053), son of Wulfnoth, earl of the West-Saxons, the leading
+Englishman in the first half of the 11th century. His birth and origin
+are utterly uncertain; but he rose to power early in Canute's reign and
+was an earl in 1018. He received in marriage Gytha, a connexion of the
+king's, and in 1020 became earl of the West-Saxons. On the death of
+Canute in 1035 he joined with Queen Emma in supporting the claim of
+Hardicanute, the son of Canute and Emma, to the crown of his father, in
+opposition to Leofric and the northern party who supported Harold
+Harefoot (see HARDICANUTE). While together they held Wessex for
+Hardicanute, the aetheling Aelfred, son of Emma by her former husband
+Aethelred II., landed in England in the hope of winning back his father's
+crown; but falling into the hands of Godwine, he and his followers were
+cruelly done to death. On the death of Hardicanute in 1042 Godwine was
+foremost in promoting the election of Edward (the Confessor) to the
+vacant throne. He was now the first man in the kingdom, though his power
+was still balanced by that of the other great earls, Leofric of Mercia
+and Siward of Northumberland. His sons Sweyn and Harold were promoted to
+earldoms; and his daughter Eadgyth was married to the king (1045). His
+policy was strongly national in opposition to the marked Normanizing
+tendencies of the king. Between him and Edward's foreign favourites,
+particularly Robert of Jumieges, there was deadly feud. The appointment
+of Robert to the archbishopric of Canterbury in 1051 marks the decline
+of Godwine's power; and in the same year a series of outrages committed
+by one of the king's foreign favourites led to a breach between the king
+and the earl, which culminated in the exile of the latter with all his
+family (see EDWARD THE CONFESSOR). But next year Godwine returned in
+triumph; and at a great meeting held outside London he and his family
+were restored to all their offices and possessions, and the archbishop
+and many other Normans were banished. In the following year Godwine was
+smitten with a fit at the king's table, and died three days later on the
+15th of April 1053.
+
+Godwine appears to have had seven sons, three of whom--King Harold,
+Gyrth and Leofwine--were killed at Hastings; two others, Wulfnoth and
+Aelfgar, are of little importance; another was Earl Tostig (q.v.). The
+eldest son was Sweyn, or Swegen (d. 1052), who was outlawed for seducing
+Eadgifu abbess of Leominster. After fighting for the king of Denmark he
+returned to England in 1049, when his murder of his cousin Beorn
+compelled him to leave England for the second time. In 1050, however, he
+regained his earldom, and in 1051 he shared his father's exile. To atone
+for the murder of Beorn, Sweyn went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and on
+the return journey he died on the 29th of September 1052, meeting his
+death, according to one account, at the hands of the Saracens.
+
+
+
+
+GODWIT, a word of unknown origin, the name commonly applied to a
+marsh-bird in great repute, when fattened, for the table, and formerly
+abundant in the fens of Norfolk, the Isle of Ely and Lincolnshire. In
+Turner's days (1544) it was worth three times as much as a snipe, and at
+the same period Belon said of it--"C'est vn Oyseau es delices des
+Francoys." Casaubon, who Latinized its name "_Dei ingenium_"
+(_Ephemerides_, 19th September 1611), was told by the "_ornithotrophaeus_"
+he visited at Wisbech that in London it fetched twenty pence. Its fame as
+a delicacy is perpetuated by many later writers, Ben Jonson among them,
+and Pennant says that in his time (1766) it sold for half-a-crown or five
+shillings. Under the name godwit two perfectly distinct species of British
+birds were included, but that which seems to have been especially prized
+is known to modern ornithologists as the black-tailed godwit, _Limosa
+aegocephala_, formerly called, from its loud cry, a yarwhelp,[1] shrieker
+or barker, in the districts it inhabited. The practice of netting this
+bird in large numbers during the spring and summer, coupled with the
+gradual reclamation of the fens, to which it resorted, has now rendered it
+but a visitor in England; and it probably ceased from breeding regularly
+in England in 1824 or thereabouts, though under favourable conditions it
+may have occasionally laid its eggs for some thirty years later or more
+(Stevenson, _Birds of Norfolk_, ii. 250). This godwit is a species of wide
+range, reaching Iceland, where it is called _Jardraeka_ (= earth-raker),
+in summer, and occurring numerously in India in winter. Its chief
+breeding-quarters seem to extend from Holland eastwards to the south of
+Russia. The second British species is that which is known as the
+bar-tailed godwit, _L. lapponica_, and this seems to have never been more
+than a bird of double passage in the United Kingdom, arriving in large
+flocks on the south coast about the 12th of May, and, after staying a few
+days, proceeding to the north-eastward. It is known to breed in Lapland,
+but its eggs are of great rarity. Towards autumn the young visit the
+English coasts, and a few of them remain, together with some of the other
+species, in favourable situations throughout the winter. One of the local
+names by which the bar-tailed godwit is known to the Norfolk gunners is
+scamell, a word which, in the mouth of Caliban (_Tempest_, II. ii.), has
+been the cause of much perplexity to Shakespearian critics.
+
+The godwits belong to the group _Limicolae_, and are about as big as a
+tame pigeon, but possess long legs, and a long bill with a slight upward
+turn. It is believed that in the genus _Limosa_ the female is larger
+than the male. While the winter plumage is of a sober greyish-brown, the
+breeding-dress is marked by a predominance of bright bay or chestnut,
+rendering the wearer a very beautiful object. The black-tailed godwit,
+though varying a good deal in size, is constantly larger than the
+bar-tailed, and especially longer in the legs. The species may be
+further distinguished by the former having the proximal third of the
+tail-quills pure white, and the distal two-thirds black, with a narrow
+white margin, while the latter has the same feathers barred with black
+and white alternately for nearly their whole length.
+
+America possesses two species of the genus, the very large marbled
+godwit or marlin, _L. fedoa_, easily recognized by its size and the buff
+colour of its axillaries, and the smaller Hudsonian godwit, _L.
+hudsonica_, which has its axillaries of a deep black. This last, though
+less numerous than its congener, seems to range over the whole of the
+continent, breeding in the extreme north, while it has been obtained
+also in the Strait of Magellan and the Falkland Islands. The first seems
+not to go farther southward than the Antilles and the Isthmus of
+Panama.
+
+From Asia, or at least its eastern part, two species have been
+described. One of them, _L. melanuroides_, differs only from _L.
+aegocephala_ in its smaller size, and is believed to breed in Amurland,
+wintering in the islands of the Pacific, New Zealand and Australia. The
+other, _L. uropygialis_, is closely allied to and often mistaken for _L.
+lapponica_, from which it chiefly differs by having the rump barred like
+the tail. This was found breeding in the extreme north of Siberia by Dr
+von Middendorff, and ranges to Australia, whence it was, like the last,
+first described by Gould.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This name seems to have survived in Whelp Moor, near Brandon, in
+    Suffolk.
+
+
+
+
+GOEBEN, AUGUST KARL VON (1816-1880), Prussian general of infantry, came
+of old Hanoverian stock. Born at Stade on the 10th of December 1816, he
+aspired from his earliest years to the Prussian service rather than that
+of his own country, and at the age of seventeen obtained a commission in
+the 24th regiment of Prussian infantry. But there was little scope there
+for the activities of a young and energetic subaltern, and, leaving the
+service in 1836, he entered the Carlist army campaigning in Spain. In
+the five campaigns which he made in the service of Don Carlos he had
+many and various vicissitudes of fortune. He had not fought for two
+months when he fell, severely wounded, into the hands of the Spanish
+Royal troops. After eight months' detention he escaped, but it was not
+long before he was captured again. This time his imprisonment was long
+and painful, and on two occasions he was compelled to draw lots for his
+life with his fellow-captives. When released, he served till 1840 with
+distinction. In that year he made his way back, a beggar without means
+or clothing, to Prussia. The Carlist lieutenant-colonel was glad to be
+re-admitted into the Prussian service as a second lieutenant, but he was
+still young, and few subalterns could at the age of twenty-four claim
+five years' meritorious war service. In a few years we find him serving
+as captain on the Great General Staff, and in 1848 he had the good
+fortune to be transferred to the staff of the IV. army corps, his
+immediate superior being Major von Moltke. The two "coming men" became
+fast friends, and their mutual esteem was never disturbed. In the Baden
+insurrection Goeben served with distinction on the staff of Prince
+William, the future emperor. Staff and regimental duty (as usual in the
+Prussian service) alternated for some years after this, till in 1863 he
+became major-general commanding the 26th infantry brigade. In 1860, it
+should be mentioned, he was present with the Spanish troops in Morocco,
+and took part in the battle of Tetuan.
+
+In the first of Prussia's great wars (1864) he distinguished himself at
+the head of his brigade at Rackebull and Sonderburg. In the war of 1866
+Lieutenant-General von Goeben commanded the 13th division, of which his
+old brigade formed part, and, in this higher sphere, once more displayed
+the qualities of a born leader and skilful tactician. He held almost
+independent command with conspicuous success in the actions of Dermbach,
+Laufach, Kissingen, Aschaffenburg, Gerchsheim, Tauber-Bischofsheim and
+Wurzburg. The mobilization of 1870 placed him at the head of the VIII.
+(Rhineland) army corps, forming part of the First Army under Steinmetz.
+It was his resolute and energetic leading that contributed mainly to the
+victory of Spicheren (6th August), and won the only laurels gained on
+the Prussian right wing at Gravelotte (18th August). Under Manteuffel
+the VIII. corps took part in the operations about Amiens and Bapaume,
+and on the 8th of January 1871 Goeben succeeded that general in the
+command of the First Army, with which he had served throughout the
+campaign as a corps commander. A fortnight later he had brought the war
+in northern France to a brilliant conclusion, by the decisive victory of
+St Quentin (18th and 19th January 1871). The close of the Franco-German
+War left Goeben one of the most distinguished men in the victorious
+army. He was colonel of the 28th infantry, and had the grand cross of
+the Iron Cross. He commanded the VIII. corps at Coblenz until his death
+in 1880.
+
+General von Goeben left many writings. His memoirs are to be found in
+his works _Vier Jahre in Spanien_ (Hanover, 1841), _Reise- und
+Lagerbriefe aus Spanien und vom spanischen Heere in Marokko_ (Hanover,
+1863) and in the Darmstadt _Allgemeine Militarzeitung_. The former
+French port (Queuleu) at Metz was renamed Goeben after him, and the 28th
+infantry bears his name. A statue of Goeben by Schaper was erected at
+Coblenz in 1884.
+
+  See G. Zernin, _Das Leben des Generals August von Goeben_ (2 vols.,
+  Berlin, 1895-1897); H. Barth, _A. von Goeben_ (Berlin, 1906); and, for
+  his share in the war of 1870-71; H. Kunz, _Der Feldzug im N. und N.W.
+  Frankreichs 1870-1871_ (Berlin, 1889), and the 14th Monograph of the
+  Great General Staff (1891).
+
+
+
+
+GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE (1836-1909), Dutch orientalist, was born in
+Friesland in 1836. He devoted himself at an early age to the study of
+oriental languages and became especially proficient in Arabic, under the
+guidance of Dozy and Juynboll, to whom he was afterwards an intimate
+friend and colleague. He took his degree of doctor at Leiden in 1860,
+and then studied for a year in Oxford, where he examined and collated
+the Bodleian MSS. of Idrisi (part being published in 1866, in
+collaboration with R. P. Dozy, as _Description de l'Afrique et de
+l'Espagne_). About the same time he wrote _Memoires de l'histoire et de
+la geographie orientales_, and edited _Expugnatio regionum_. In 1883, on
+the death of Dozy, he became Arabic professor at Leiden, retiring in
+1906. He died on the 17th of May 1909. Though perhaps not a teacher of
+the first order, he wielded a great influence during his long
+professoriate not only over his pupils, but over theologians and eastern
+administrators who attended his lectures, and his many editions of
+Arabic texts have been of the highest value to scholars, the most
+important being his great edition of Tabari. Though entirely averse from
+politics, he took a keen interest in the municipal affairs of Leiden and
+made a special study of elementary education. He took the leading part
+in the International Congress of Orientalists at Algiers in 1905. He was
+a member of the Institut de France, was awarded the German Order of
+Merit, and received an honorary doctorate of Cambridge University. At
+his death he was president of the newly formed International Association
+of Academies of Science. Among his chief works are _Fragmenta
+historicorum Arabicorum_ (1869-1871); _Diwan of Moslim ibn al-Walid_
+(1875); _Bibliotheca geographorum Arabicorum_ (1870-1894); _Annals of
+Tabari_ (1879-1901); edition of Ibn Qutaiba's biographies (1904); of the
+travels of Ibn Jubaye (1907, 5th vol. of Gibb Memorial). He was also the
+chief editor of the _Encyclopaedia of Islam_ (vols. i.-iii.), and
+contributed many articles to periodicals. He wrote for the 9th and the
+present edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_.
+
+
+
+
+GOES, DAMIAO DE (1502-1574), Portuguese humanist, was born of a
+patrician family at Alemquer, in February 1502. Under King John III. he
+was employed abroad for many years from 1523 on diplomatic and
+commercial missions, and he travelled over the greater part of Europe.
+He was intimate with the leading scholars of the time, was acquainted
+with Luther and other Protestant divines, and in 1532 became the pupil
+and friend of Erasmus. Goes took his degree at Padua in 1538 after a
+four years' course. In 1537, at the instance of his friend Cardinal
+Sadoleto, he undertook to mediate between the Church and the Lutherans,
+but failed through the attitude of the Protestants. He married in
+Flanders a rich and noble Dutch lady, D. Joanna de Hargen, and settled
+at Louvain, then the literary centre of the Low Countries, where he was
+living in 1542 when the French besieged the town. He was given the
+command of the defending forces, and saved Louvain, but was taken
+prisoner and confined for nine months in France, till he obtained his
+freedom by a heavy ransom. He was rewarded, however, by a grant of arms
+from Charles V. He finally returned to Portugal in 1545, with a view of
+becoming tutor to the king's son, but he failed to obtain this post,
+owing to the denunciations of Father Simon Rodriguez, provincial of the
+Jesuits, who accused Goes of favouring the Lutheran doctrines and of
+being a disciple of Erasmus. Nevertheless in 1548 he was appointed chief
+keeper of the archives and royal chronicler, and at once introduced some
+much-needed reforms into the administration of his office.
+
+In 1558 he was given a commission to write a history of the reign of
+King Manoel, a task previously confided to Joao de Barros, but
+relinquished by him. It was an onerous undertaking for a conscientious
+historian, since it was necessary to expose the miseries as well as
+relate the glories of the period, and so to offend some of the most
+powerful families. Goes had already written a _Chronicle_ of Prince John
+(afterwards John II.), and when, after more than eight years' labour, he
+produced the First Part of his _Chronicle_ of King Manoel (1566), a
+chorus of attacks greeted it, the edition was destroyed, and he was
+compelled to issue a revised version. He brought out the three other
+parts in 1566-1567, though chapters 23 to 27 of the Third Part were so
+mutilated by the censorship that the printed text differs largely from
+the MS. Hitherto Goes, notwithstanding his Liberalism, had escaped the
+Inquisition, though in 1540 his _Fides, religio, moresque Aethiopum_ had
+been prohibited by the chief inquisitor, Cardinal D. Henrique; but the
+denunciation of Father Rodriguez in 1545, which had been vainly renewed
+in 1550, was now brought into action, and in 1571 he was arrested to
+stand his trial. There seems to be no doubt that the Inquisition made
+itself on this occasion, as on others, the instrument of private enmity;
+for eighteen months Goes lay ill in prison, and then he was condemned,
+though he had lived for thirty years as a faithful Catholic, and the
+worst that could be proved against him was that in his youth he had
+spoken against Indulgences, disbelieved in auricular confession, and
+consorted with heretics. He was sentenced to a term of reclusion, and
+his property was confiscated to the crown. After he had abjured his
+errors in private, he was sent at the end of 1572 to do penance at the
+monastery of Batalha. Later he was allowed to return home to Alemquer,
+where he died on the 30th of January 1574. He was buried in the church
+of Nossa Senhora da Varzea.
+
+Damiao de Goes was a man of wide culture and genial and courtly manners,
+a skilled musician and a good linguist. He wrote both Portuguese and
+Latin with classic strength and simplicity, and his style is free from
+affectation and rhetorical ornaments. His portrait by Albrecht Durer
+shows an open, intelligent face, and the record of his life proves him
+to have been upright and fearless. His prosperity doubtless excited
+ill-will, but above all, his ideas, advanced for Portugal, his foreign
+ways, outspokenness and honesty contributed to the tragedy of his end,
+at a time when the forces of ignorant reaction held the ascendant. He
+had, it may be presumed, given some umbrage to the court by condemning,
+in the _Chronicle of King Manoel_, the royal ingratitude to
+distinguished public servants, though he received a pension and other
+rewards for that work, and he had certainly offended the nobility by his
+administration of the archive office and by exposing false genealogical
+claims in his _Nobiliario_. He paid the penalty for telling the truth,
+as he knew it, in an age when an historian had to choose between
+flattery of the great and silence. The _Chronicle of King Manoel_ was
+the first official history of a Portuguese reign to be written in a
+critical spirit, and Damiao de Goes has the honour of having been the
+first Portuguese royal chronicler to deserve the name of an historian.
+
+  His Portuguese works include _Chronica do felicissimo rei Dom Emanuel_
+  (parts i. and ii., Lisbon, 1566, parts iii. and iv., ib. 1567). Other
+  editions appeared in Lisbon in 1619 and 1749 and in Coimbra in 1790.
+  _Chronica do principe Dom Joam_ (Lisbon, 1558), with subsequent
+  editions in 1567 and 1724 in Lisbon and in 1790 in Coimbra. _Livro de
+  Marco Tullio Ciceram chamado Catam Mayor_ (Venice, 1538). This is a
+  translation of Cicero's _De senectute_. His Latin works, published
+  separately, comprise: (1) _Legatio magni imperatoris Presbiteri
+  Joannis, &c._ (Antwerp, 1532); (2) _Legatio Davidis Ethiopiae regis,
+  &c._ (Bologna, 1533); (3) _Commentarii rerum gestarum in India_
+  (Louvain, 1539); (4) _Fides, religio, moresque Aethiopum_ (Louvain,
+  1540), incorporating Nos. (1) and (2); (5) _Hispania_ (Louvain, 1542);
+  (6) _Aliquot epistolae Sadoleti Bembi et aliorum clarissimorum
+  virorum, &c._ (Louvain, 1544); (7) _Damiani a Goes equitis Lusitani
+  aliquot opuscula_ (Louvain, 1544); (8) _Urbis Lovaniensis obsidia_
+  (Lisbon, 1546); (9) _De bello Cambaico ultimo_ (Louvain, 1549); (10)
+  _Urbis Olisiponensis descriptio_ (Evora, 1554); (11) _Epistola ad
+  Hieronymum Cardosum_ (Lisbon, 1556). Most of the above went through
+  several editions, and many were afterwards included with new works in
+  such collections as No. (7), and seven sets of _Opuscula_ appeared,
+  all incomplete. Nos. (3), (4) and (5) suffered mutilation in
+  subsequent editions, at the hands of the censors, because they
+  offended against religious orthodoxy or family pride.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--(A) Joaquim de Vasconcellos, _Goesiana_ (5 vols.), with
+  the following sub-titles: (1) _O Retrato de Albrecht Durer_ (Porto,
+  1879); (2) _Bibliographia_ (Porto, 1879), which describes 67 numbers
+  of books by Goes; (3) As Variantes das Chronicus Portuguezas (Porto,
+  1881); (4) _Damiao de Goes: Novos Estudos_ (Porto, 1897); (5) _As
+  Cartas Latinas_--in the press (1906). Snr. Vasconcellos only printed a
+  very limited number of copies of these studies for distribution among
+  friends, so that they are rare. (B) Guilherme J. C. Henriques,
+  _Ineditos Goesianos_, vol. i. (Lisbon, 1896), vol. ii. (containing the
+  proceedings at the trial by the Inquisition) (Lisbon, 1898). (C) A. P.
+  Lopes de Mendonca, _Damiao de Goes e a Inquisicao de Portugal_
+  (Lisbon, 1859). (D) Dr Sousa Viterbo, _Damiao de Goes e D. Antonio
+  Pinheiro_ (Coimbra, 1895). (E) Dr Theophilo Braga, _Historia da
+  Universidade de Coimbra_ (Lisbon, 1892), i. 374-380. (F) Menendez y
+  Pelayo, _Historia de los Heter. Espanoles_, ii. 129-143.     (E. Pr.)
+
+
+
+
+GOES, HUGO VAN DER (d. 1482), a painter of considerable celebrity at
+Ghent, was known to Vasari, as he is known to us, by a single picture in
+a Florentine monastery. At a period when the family of the Medici had
+not yet risen from the rank of a great mercantile firm to that of a
+reigning dynasty, it employed as an agent at the port of Bruges Tommaso
+Portinari, a lineal descendant, it was said, of Folco, the father of
+Dante's Beatrix. Tommaso, at that time patron of a chapel in the
+hospital of Santa Maria Nuova at Florence, ordered an altar-piece of
+Hugo van der Goes, and commanded him to illustrate the sacred theme of
+"Quem genuit adoravit." In the centre of a vast triptych, comprising
+numerous figures of life size, Hugo represented the Virgin kneeling in
+adoration before the new-born Christ attended by Shepherds and Angels.
+On the wings he portrayed Tommaso and his two sons in prayer under the
+protection of Saint Anthony and St Matthew, and Tommaso's wife and two
+daughters supported by St Margaret and St Mary Magdalen. The triptych,
+which has suffered much from decay and restoring, was for over 400 years
+at Santa Maria Nuova, and is now in the Uffizi Gallery. Imposing because
+composed of figures of unusual size, the altar-piece is more remarkable
+for portrait character than for charms of ideal beauty.
+
+There are also small pieces in public galleries which claim to have been
+executed by Van der Goes. One of these pictures in the National Gallery
+in London is more nearly allied to the school of Memling than to the
+triptych of Santa Maria Nuova; another, a small and very beautiful "John
+the Baptist," at the Pinakothek of Munich, is really by Memling; whilst
+numerous fragments of an altar-piece in the Belvedere at Vienna, though
+assigned to Hugo, are by his more gifted countryman of Bruges. Van der
+Goes, however, was not habitually a painter of easel pieces. He made his
+reputation at Bruges by producing coloured hangings in distemper. After
+he settled at Ghent, and became a master of his gild in 1465, he
+designed cartoons for glass windows. He also made decorations for the
+wedding of Charles the Bold and Margaret of York in 1468, for the
+festivals of the Rhetoricians and papal jubilees on repeated occasions,
+for the solemn entry of Charles the Bold into Ghent in 1470-1471, and
+for the funeral of Philip the Good in 1474. The labour which he expended
+on these occasions might well add to his fame without being the less
+ephemeral. About the year 1475 he retired to the monastery of Rouge
+Cloitre near Ghent, where he took the cowl. There, though he still clung
+to his profession, he seems to have taken to drinking, and at one time
+to have shown decided symptoms of insanity. But his superiors gradually
+cured him of his intemperance, and he died in the odour of sanctity in
+1482.
+
+
+
+
+GOES, a town in the province of Zeeland, Holland, on the island of South
+Beveland, 11-1/2 m. by rail E. of Middelburg. Pop. (1900) 6919. It is
+connected by a short canal with the East Scheldt, and has a good harbour
+(1819) defended by a fort. The principal buildings are the interesting
+Gothic church (1423) and the picturesque old town hall (restored 1771).
+There are various educational and charitable institutions. Goes has
+preserved for centuries its prosperous position as the market-town of
+the island. The chief industries are boat-building, brewing,
+book-binding and cigar-making. The town had its origin in the castle of
+Oostende, built here by the noble family of Borssele. It received a
+charter early in the 15th century from the countess Jacoba of Holland,
+who frequently stayed at the castle.
+
+
+
+
+GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON (1749-1832), German poet, dramatist and
+philosopher, was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 28th of August 1749.
+He came, on his father's side, of Thuringian stock, his
+great-grandfather, Hans Christian Goethe, having been a farrier at
+Artern-on-the-Unstrut, about the middle of the 17th century. Hans
+Christian's son, Friedrich Georg, was brought up to the trade of a
+tailor, and in this capacity settled in Frankfort in 1686. A second
+marriage, however, brought him into possession of the Frankfort inn,
+"Zum Weidenhof," and he ended his days as a well-to-do innkeeper. His
+son, Johann Kaspar, the poet's father (1710-1782), studied law at
+Leipzig, and, after going through the prescribed courses of practical
+training at Wetzlar, travelled in Italy. He hoped, on his return to
+Frankfort, to obtain an official position in the government of the free
+city, but his personal influence with the authorities was not
+sufficiently strong. In his disappointment he resolved never again to
+offer his services to his native town, and retired into private life, a
+course which his ample means facilitated. In 1742 he acquired, as a
+consolation for the public career he had missed, the title of
+_kaiserlicher Rat_, and in 1748 married Katharina Elisabeth (1731-1808),
+daughter of the _Schultheiss_ or _Burgermeister_ of Frankfort, Johann
+Wolfgang Textor. The poet was the eldest son of this union. Of the later
+children only one, Cornelia, born in 1750, survived the years of
+childhood; she died as the wife of Goethe's friend, J. G. Schlosser, in
+1777. The best elements in Goethe's genius came from his mother's side;
+of a lively, impulsive disposition, and gifted with remarkable
+imaginative power, Frau Rat was the ideal mother of a poet; moreover,
+being hardly eighteen at the time of her son's birth, she was herself
+able to be the companion of his childhood. From his father, whose stern,
+somewhat pedantic nature repelled warmer feelings on the part of the
+children, Goethe Inherited that "holy earnestness" and stability of
+character which brought him unscathed through temptations and passions,
+and held the balance to his all too powerful imagination.
+
+Unforgettable is the picture which the poet subsequently drew of his
+childhood spent in the large house with its many nooks and crannies, in
+the Grosse Hirschgraben at Frankfort. Books, pictures, objects of art,
+antiquities, reminiscences of Rat Goethe's visit to Italy, above all a
+marionette theatre, kindled the child's quick intellect and imagination.
+His training was conducted in its early stages by his father, and was
+later supplemented by tutors. Meanwhile the varied and picturesque life
+of Frankfort was in itself an education. In 1759, during the Seven
+Years' War, the French, as Maria Theresa's allies, occupied the town,
+and, much to the irritation of Goethe's father, who was a stanch
+partisan of Frederick the Great, a French lieutenant, Count Thoranc, was
+quartered on the Goethe household. The foreign occupation also led to
+the establishment of a French troupe of actors, and to their
+performances the boy, through his grandfather's influence, had free
+access. Goethe has also recorded his memories of another picturesque
+event, the coronation of the emperor Joseph II. in the Frankfort Romer
+or town hall in 1764; but these memories were darkened by being
+associated in his mind with the tragic denouement of his first love
+affair. The object of this passion was a certain Gretchen, who seems to
+have taken advantage of the boy's interest in her to further the
+dishonest ends of one of her friends. The discovery of the affair and
+the investigation that followed cooled Goethe's ardour and caused him to
+turn his attention seriously to the studies which were to prepare him
+for the university. Meanwhile the literary instinct had begun to show
+itself; we hear of a novel in letters--a kind of linguistic exercise, in
+which the characters carried on the correspondence in different
+languages--of a prose epic on the subject of Joseph, and various
+religious poems of which one, _Die Hollenfahrt Christi_, found its way
+in a revised form into the poet's complete works.
+
+In October 1765, Goethe, then a little over sixteen, left Frankfort for
+Leipzig, where a wider and, in many respects, less provincial life
+awaited him. He entered upon his university studies with zeal, but his
+own education in Frankfort had not been the best preparation for the
+scholastic methods which still dominated the German universities; of his
+professors, only Gellert seems to have won his interest, and that
+interest was soon exhausted. The literary beginnings he had made in
+Frankfort now seemed to him amateurish and trivial; he felt that he had
+to turn over a new leaf, and, under the guidance of E. W. Behrisch, a
+genial, original comrade, he learned the art of writing those light
+Anacreontic lyrics which harmonized with the tone of polite Leipzig
+society. Artificial as this poetry is, Goethe was, nevertheless,
+inspired by a real passion in Leipzig, namely, for Anna Katharina
+Schonkopf, the daughter of a wine-merchant at whose house he dined. She
+is the "Annette" after whom the recently discovered collection of lyrics
+was named, although it must be added that neither these lyrics nor the
+_Neue Lieder_, published in 1770, express very directly Goethe's
+feelings for Kathchen Schonkopf. To his Leipzig student-days belong also
+two small plays in Alexandrines, _Die Laune des Verliebten_, a pastoral
+comedy in one act, which reflects the lighter side of the poet's love
+affair, and _Die Mitschuldigen_ (published in a revised form, 1769), a
+more sombre picture, in which comedy is incongruously mingled with
+tragedy. In Leipzig Goethe also had time for what remained one of the
+abiding interests of his life, for art; he regarded A. F. Oeser
+(1717-1799), the director of the academy of painting in the
+Pleissenburg, who had given him lessons in drawing, as the teacher who
+in Leipzig had influenced him most. His art studies were also furthered
+by a short visit to Dresden. His stay in Leipzig came, however, to an
+abrupt conclusion; the distractions of student life proved too much for
+his strength; a sudden haemorrhage supervened, and he lay long ill,
+first in Leipzig, and, after it was possible to remove him, at home in
+Frankfort. These months of slow recovery were a time of serious
+introspection for Goethe. He still corresponded with his Leipzig
+friends, but the tone of his letters changed; life had become graver and
+more earnest for him. He pored over books on occult philosophy; he
+busied himself with alchemy and astrology. A friend of his mother's,
+Susanne Katharina von Klettenberg, who belonged to pietist circles in
+Frankfort, turned the boy's thoughts to religious mysticism. On his
+recovery his father resolved that he should complete his legal studies
+at Strassburg, a city which, although then outside the German empire,
+was, in respect of language and culture, wholly German. From the first
+moment Goethe set foot in the narrow streets of the Alsatian capital, in
+April 1770, the whole current of his thought seemed to change. The
+Gothic architecture of the Strassburg minster became to him the symbol
+of a national and German ideal, directly antagonistic to the French
+tastes and the classical and rationalistic atmosphere that prevailed in
+Leipzig. The second moment of importance in Goethe's Strassburg period
+was his meeting with Herder, who spent some weeks in Strassburg
+undergoing an operation of the eye. In this thinker, who was his senior
+by five years, Goethe found the master he sought; Herder taught him the
+significance of Gothic architecture, revealed to him the charm of
+nature's simplicity, and inspired him with enthusiasm for Shakespeare
+and the _Volkslied_. Meanwhile Goethe's legal studies were not
+neglected, and he found time to add to knowledge of other subjects,
+notably that of medicine. Another factor of importance in Goethe's
+Strassburg life was his love for Friederike Brion, the daughter of an
+Alsatian village pastor in Sesenheim. Even more than Herder's precept
+and example, this passion showed Goethe how trivial and artificial had
+been the Anacreontic and pastoral poetry with which he had occupied
+himself in Leipzig; and the lyrics inspired by Friederike, such as
+_Kleine Blumen, kleine Blatter_ and _Wie herrlich leuchtet mir die
+Natur!_ mark the beginning of a new epoch in German lyric poetry. The
+idyll of Sesenheim, as described in _Dichtung und Wahrheit_, is one of
+the most beautiful love-stories in the literature of the world. From the
+first, however, it was clear that Friederike Brion could never become
+the wife of the Frankfort patrician's son; an unhappy ending to the
+romance was unavoidable, and, as is to be seen in passionate outpourings
+like the _Wanderers Sturmlied_, and in the bitter self-accusations of
+_Clavigo_, it left deep wounds on the poet's sensitive soul.
+
+To Strassburg we owe Goethe's first important drama, _Gotz von
+Berlichingen_, or, as it was called in its earliest form, _Geschichte
+Gottfriedens von Berlichingen dramatisiert_ (not published until 1831).
+Revised under the now familiar title, it appeared in 1773, after
+Goethe's return to Frankfort. In estimating this drama we must bear in
+mind Goethe's own Strassburg life, and the turbulent spirit of his own
+age, rather than the historical facts, which the poet found in the
+autobiography of his hero published in 1731. The latter supplied only
+the rough materials; the Gotz von Berlichingen whom Goethe drew, with
+his lofty ideals of right and wrong, and his enthusiasm for freedom, is
+a very different personage from the unscrupulous robber-knight of the
+16th century, the rough friend of Franz von Sickingen and of the
+revolting peasants. Still less historical justification is to be found
+for the vacillating Weisslingen in whom Goethe executed poetic justice
+on himself as the lover of Friederike, or in the women of the play, the
+gentle Maria, the heartless Adelheid. But there is genial, creative
+power in the very subjectivity of these characters, and a vigorous
+dramatic life, which is irresistible in its appeal. With _Gotz von
+Berlichingen_, Shakespeare's art first triumphed on the German stage,
+and the literary movement known as _Sturm und Drang_ was inaugurated.
+
+Having received his degree in Strassburg, Goethe returned home in August
+1771, and began his initiation into the routine of an advocate's
+profession. In the following year, in order to gain insight into another
+side of his calling, he spent four months at Wetzlar, where the imperial
+law-courts were established. But Goethe's professional duties had only a
+small share in the eventful years which lay between his return from
+Strassburg and that visit to Weimar at the end of 1775, which turned the
+whole course of his career, and resulted in his permanent attachment to
+the Weimar court. Goethe's life in Frankfort was a round of stimulating
+literary intercourse; in J. H. Merck (1741-1791), an army official in
+the neighbouring town of Darmstadt, he found a friend and mentor, whose
+irony and common-sense served as a corrective to his own exuberance of
+spirits. Wetzlar brought new friends and another passion, that for
+Charlotte Buff, the daughter of the _Amtmann_ there--a love-story which
+has been immortalized in _Werthers Leiden_--and again the young poet's
+nature was obsessed by a love which was this time strong enough to bring
+him to the brink of that suicide with which the novel ends. A visit to
+the Rhine, where new interests and the attractions of Maximiliane von
+Laroche, a daughter of Wieland's friend, the novelist Sophie von
+Laroche, brought partial healing; his intense preoccupation with
+literary work on his return to Frankfort did the rest. In 1775 Goethe
+was attracted by still another type of woman, Lili Schonemann, whose
+mother was the widow of a wealthy Frankfort banker. A formal betrothal
+took place, and the beauty of the lyrics which Lili inspired leaves no
+room for doubt that here was a passion no less genuine than that for
+Friederike or Charlotte. But Goethe--more worldly wise than on former
+occasions--felt instinctively that the gay, social world in which Lili
+moved was not really congenial to him. A visit to Switzerland in the
+summer of 1775 may not have weakened his interest in her, but it at
+least allowed him to regard her objectively; and, without tragic
+consequences on either side, the passion was ultimately allowed to yield
+to the dictates of common-sense. Goethe's departure for Weimar in
+November made the final break less difficult.
+
+The period from 1771 to 1775 was, in literary respects, the most
+productive of the poet's life. It had been inaugurated with _Gotz von
+Berlichingen_, and a few months later this tragedy was followed by
+another, _Clavigo_, hardly less convincing in its character-drawing, and
+reflecting even more faithfully than the former the experiences Goethe
+had gone through in Strassburg. Again poetic justice is effected on the
+unfortunate hero who has chosen his own personal advancement in
+preference to his duty to the woman he loves; more pointedly than in
+_Gotz_ is the moral enforced by Clavigo's worldly friend Carlos, that
+the ground of Clavigo's tragic end lies not so much in the defiance of a
+moral law as in the hero's vacillation and want of character. With _Die
+Leiden des jungen Werthers_ (1774), the literary precipitate of the
+author's own experiences in Wetzlar, Goethe succeeded in attracting, as
+no German had done before him, the attention of Europe. Once more it was
+the gospel that the world belongs to the strong, which lay beneath the
+surface of this romance. This, however, was not the lesson which was
+drawn from it by Goethe's contemporaries; they shed tears of sympathy
+over the lovelorn youth whose burden becomes too great for him to bear.
+While _Gotz_ inaugurated the manlier side of the _Sturm und Drang_
+literature, _Werther_ was responsible for its sentimental excesses. And
+to the sentimental rather than to the heroic side belongs also _Stella_,
+"a drama for lovers," in which the poet again reproduced, if with less
+fidelity than in _Werther_, certain aspects of his own love troubles. A
+lighter vein is to be observed in various dramatic satires written at
+this time, such as _Gotter_, _Helden und Wieland_ (1774), _Hanswursts
+Hochzeit_, _Fastnachtsspiel vom Pater Brey_, _Satyros_, and in the
+_Singspiele_, _Erwin und Elmire_ (1775) and _Claudine von Villa Bella_
+(1776); while in the _rankfurter Gelehrte Anzeiger_ (1772-1773), Goethe
+drove home the principles of the new movement of _Sturm und Drang_ in
+terse and pointed criticism. The exuberance of the young poet's genius
+is also to be seen in the many unfinished fragments of this period; at
+one time we find him occupied with dramas on _Caesar_ and _Mahomet_, at
+another with an epic on _Der ewige Jude_, and again with a tragedy on
+_Prometheus_, of which a magnificent fragment has passed into his works.
+Greatest of all the torsos of this period, however, was the
+dramatization of _Faust_. Thanks to a manuscript copy of the play in its
+earliest form--discovered as recently as 1887--we are now able to
+distinguish how much of this tragedy was the immediate product of the
+_Sturm und Drang_, and to understand the intentions with which the young
+poet began his masterpiece. Goethe's hero changed with the author's
+riper experience and with his new conceptions of man's place and duties
+in the world, but the Gretchen tragedy was taken over into the finished
+poem, practically unaltered, from the earliest _Faust_ of the _Sturm und
+Drang_. With these wonderful scenes, the most intensely tragic in all
+German literature, Goethe's poetry in this period reaches its climax.
+Still another important work, however, was conceived, and in large
+measure written at this time, the drama of _Egmont_, which was not
+published until 1788. This work may, to some extent, be regarded as
+supplementary to _Faust_; it presents the lighter, more cheerful and
+optimistic side of Goethe's philosophy in these years; Graf Egmont, the
+most winning and fascinating of the poet's heroes, is endowed with that
+"demonic" power over the sympathies of men and women, which Goethe
+himself possessed in so high a degree. But _Egmont_ depends for its
+interest almost solely on two characters, Egmont himself and Klarchen,
+Gretchen's counterpart; regarded as a drama, it demonstrates the
+futility of that defiance of convention and rules with which the _Sturm
+und Drang_ set out. It remained for Goethe, in the next period of his
+life, to construct on classic models a new vehicle for German dramatic
+poetry.
+
+In December 1774 the young "hereditary prince" of Weimar, Charles
+Augustus, passing through Frankfort on his way to Paris, came into
+personal touch with Goethe, and invited the poet to visit Weimar when,
+in the following year, he took up the reins of government. In October
+1775 the invitation was repeated, and on the 7th of November of that
+year Goethe arrived in the little Saxon capital which was to remain his
+home for the rest of his life. During the first few months in Weimar the
+poet gave himself up to the pleasures of the moment as unreservedly as
+his patron; indeed, the Weimar court even looked upon him for a time as
+a tempter who led the young duke astray. But the latter, although
+himself a mere stripling, had implicit faith in Goethe, and a firm
+conviction that his genius could be utilized in other fields besides
+literature. Goethe was not long in Weimar before he was entrusted with
+responsible state duties, and events soon justified the duke's
+confidence. Goethe proved the soul of the Weimar government, and a
+minister of state of energy and foresight. He interested himself in
+agriculture, horticulture and mining, which were of paramount importance
+to the welfare of the duchy, and out of these interests sprang his own
+love for the natural sciences, which took up so much of his time in
+later years. The inevitable love-interest was also not wanting. As
+Friederike had fitted into the background of Goethe's Strassburg life,
+Lotte into that of Wetzlar, and Lili into the gaieties of Frankfort, so
+now Charlotte von Stein, the wife of a Weimar official, was the
+personification of the more aristocratic ideals of Weimar society. We
+possess only the poet's share of his correspondence with Frau von Stein,
+but it is possible to infer from it that, of all Goethe's loves, this
+was intellectually the most worthy of him. Frau von Stein was a woman of
+refined literary taste and culture, seven years older than he and the
+mother of seven children. There was something more spiritual, something
+that partook rather of the passionate friendships of the 18th century
+than of love in Goethe's relations with her. Frau von Stein dominated
+the poet's life for twelve years, until his journey to Italy in
+1786-1788. Of other events of this period the most notable were two
+winter journeys, the first in 1777, to the Harz Mountains, the second,
+two years later, to Switzerland--journeys which gave Goethe scope for
+that introspection and reflection for which his Weimar life left him
+little time. On the second of these journeys he revisited Friederike in
+Sesenheim, saw Lili, who had married and settled in Strassburg, and made
+the personal acquaintance of Lavater in Zurich.
+
+The literary results of these years cannot be compared with those of the
+preceding period; they are virtually limited to a few wonderful lyrics,
+such as _Wanderers Nachtlied_, _An den Mond_, _Gesang der Geister uber
+den Wassern_, or ballads, such as _Der Erlkonig_, a charming little
+drama, _Die Geschwister_ (1776), in which the poet's relations to both
+Lili and Frau von Stein seem to be reflected, a dramatic satire, _Der
+Triumph der Empfindsamkeit_ (1778), and a number of _Singspiele_, _Lila_
+(1777), _Die Fischerin_, _Scherz, List und Rache_, and _Jery und Bately_
+(1780). But greater works were in preparation. A religious epic, _Die
+Geheimnisse_, and a tragedy _Elpenor_, did not, it is true, advance much
+further than plans; but in 1777, under the influence of the theatrical
+experiments at the Weimar court, Goethe conceived and in great measure
+wrote a novel of the theatre, which was to have borne the title _Wilhelm
+Meisters theatralische Sendung_; and in 1779 himself took part in a
+representation before the court at Ettersburg, of his drama _Iphigenie
+auf Tauris_. This _Iphigenie_ was, however, in prose; in the following
+year Goethe remoulded it in iambics, but it was not until he went to
+Rome that the drama finally received the form in which we know it.
+
+In September, 1786 Goethe set out from Karlsbad--secretly and
+stealthily, his plan known only to his servant--on that memorable
+journey to Italy, to which he had looked forward with such intense
+longing; he could not cross the Alps quickly enough, so impatient was he
+to set foot in Italy. He travelled by way of Munich, the Brenner and
+Lago di Garda to Verona and Venice, and from thence to Rome, where he
+arrived on the 29th of October 1786. Here he gave himself up
+unreservedly to the new impressions which crowded on him, and he was
+soon at home among the German artists in Rome, who welcomed him warmly.
+In the spring of 1787 he extended his journey as far as Naples and
+Sicily, returning to Rome in June 1787, where he remained until his
+final departure for Germany on the 2nd of April 1788. It is difficult to
+exaggerate the importance of Goethe's Italian journey. He himself
+regarded it as a kind of climax to his life; never before had he
+attained such complete understanding of his genius and mission in the
+world; it afforded him a vantage-ground from which he could renew the
+past and make plans for the future. In Weimar he had felt that he was no
+longer in sympathy with the _Sturm und Drang_, but it was Italy which
+first taught him clearly what might take the place of that movement in
+German poetry. To the modern reader, who may well be impressed by
+Goethe's extraordinary receptivity, it may seem strange that his
+interests in Italy were so limited; for, after all, he saw comparatively
+little of the art treasures of Italy. He went to Rome in Winckelmann's
+footsteps; it was the antique he sought, and his interest in the artists
+of the Renaissance was virtually restricted to their imitation of
+classic models. This search for the classic ideal is reflected in the
+works he completed or wrote under the Italian sky. The calm beauty of
+Greek tragedy is seen in the new iambic version of _Iphigenie auf
+Tauris_ (1787); the classicism of the Renaissance gives the ground-tone
+to the wonderful drama of _Torquato Tasso_ (1790), in which the conflict
+of poetic genius with the prosaic world is transmuted into imperishable
+poetry. Classic, too, in this sense, were the plans of a drama on
+_Iphigenie auf Delphos_ and of an epic, _Nausikaa_. Most interesting of
+all, however, is the reflection of the classic spirit in works already
+begun in earlier days, such as _Egmont_ and _Faust_. The former drama
+was finished in Italy and appeared in 1788, the latter was brought a
+step further forward, part of it being published as a _Fragment_ in
+1790.
+
+Disappointment in more senses than one awaited Goethe on his return to
+Weimar. He came back from Italy with a new philosophy of life, a
+philosophy at once classic and pagan, and with very definite ideas of
+what constituted literary excellence. But Germany had not advanced; in
+1788 his countrymen were still under the influence of that _Sturm und
+Drang_ from which the poet had fled. The times seemed to him more out of
+joint than ever, and he withdrew into himself. Even his relations to the
+old friends were changed. Frau von Stein had not known of his flight to
+Italy until she received a letter from Rome; but he looked forward to
+her welcome on his return. The months of absence, however, the change he
+had undergone, and doubtless those lighter loves of which the _Romische
+Elegien_ bear evidence, weakened the Weimar memories; if he left Weimar
+as Frau von Stein's lover he returned only as her friend; and she
+naturally resented the change. Goethe, meanwhile, satisfied to continue
+the freer customs to which he had adapted himself in Rome, found a new
+mistress in Christiane Vulpius (1765-1816), the least interesting of all
+the women who attracted him. But Christiane gradually filled up a gap in
+the poet's life; she gave him, quietly, unobtrusively, without making
+demands on him, the comforts of a home. She was not accepted by court
+society; it did not matter to her that even Goethe's intimate friends
+ignored her; and she, who had suited the poet's whim when he desired to
+shut himself off from all that might dim the recollection of Italy,
+became with the years an indispensable helpmate to him. On the birth in
+1789 of his son, Goethe had some thought of legalizing his relations
+with Christiane, but this intention was not realized until 1806, when
+the invasion of Weimar by the French made him fear for both life and
+property.
+
+The period of Goethe's life which succeeded his return from Italy was
+restless and unsettled; relieved of his state duties, he returned in
+1790 to Venice, only to be disenchanted with the Italy he had loved so
+intensely a year or two before. A journey with the duke of Weimar to
+Breslau followed, and in 1792 he accompanied his master on that campaign
+against France which ended so ingloriously for the German arms at Valmy.
+In later years Goethe published his account both of this _Campagne in
+Frankreich_ and of the _Belagerung von Mainz_, at which he was also
+present in 1793. His literary work naturally suffered under these
+distractions. _Tasso_, and the edition of the _Schriften_ in which it
+was to appear, had still to be completed on his return from Italy; the
+_Romische Elegien_, perhaps the most Latin of all his works, were
+published in 1795, and the _Venetianische Epigramme_, the result of the
+second visit to Italy, in 1796. The French Revolution, in which all
+Europe was engrossed, was in Goethe's eyes only another proof that the
+passing of the old regime meant the abrogation of all law and order, and
+he gave voice to his antagonism to the new democratic principles in the
+dramas _Der Grosskophta_ (1792), _Der Burgergeneral_ (1793), and in the
+unfinished fragments _Die Aufgeregten_ and _Das Madchen von Oberkirch_.
+The spirited translation of the epic of _Reinecke Fuchs_ (1794) he took
+up as a relief and an antidote to the social disruption of the time. Two
+new interests, however, strengthened the ties between Goethe and
+Weimar,--ties which the Italian journey had threatened to sever: his
+appointment in 1791 as director of the ducal theatre, a post which he
+occupied for twenty-two years, and his absorption in scientific studies.
+In 1790 he published his important _Versuch, die Metamorphose der
+Pflanzen zu erklaren_, which was an even more fundamental achievement
+for the new science of comparative morphology than his discovery some
+six years earlier of the existence of a formation in the human jaw-bone
+analogous to the intermaxillary bone in apes; and in 1791 and 1792
+appeared two parts of his _Beitrage zur Optik_.
+
+Meanwhile, however, Goethe had again taken up the novel of the theatre
+which he had begun years before, with a view to finishing it and
+including it in the edition of his _Neue Schriften_ (1792-1800).
+_Wilhelm Meisters theatralische Sendung_ became _Wilhelm Meisters
+Lehrjahre_; the novel of purely theatrical interests was widened out to
+embrace the history of a young man's apprenticeship to life. The change
+of plan explains, although it may not exculpate, the formlessness and
+loose construction of the work, its extremes of realistic detail and
+poetic allegory. A hero, who was probably originally intended to
+demonstrate the failure of the vacillating temperament when brought face
+to face with the problems of art, proved ill-adapted to demonstrate
+those precepts for the guidance of life with which the _Lehrjahre_
+closes; unstable of purpose, Wilhelm Meister is not so much an
+illustration of the author's life-philosophy as a lay-figure on which he
+demonstrates his views. _Wilhelm Meister_ is a work of extraordinary
+variety, ranging from the commonplace realism of the troupe of strolling
+players to the poetic romanticism of Mignon and the harper; its flashes
+of intuitive criticism and its weighty apothegms add to its value as a
+_Bildungsroman_ in the best sense of that word. Of all Goethe's works,
+this exerted the most immediate and lasting influence on German
+literature; it served as a model for the best fiction of the next thirty
+years.
+
+In completing _Wilhelm Meister_, Goethe found a sympathetic and
+encouraging critic in Schiller, to whom he owed in great measure his
+renewed interest in poetry. After years of tentative approaches on
+Schiller's part, years in which that poet concealed even from himself
+his desire for a friendly understanding with Goethe, the favourable
+moment arrived; it was in June 1794, when Schiller was seeking
+collaborators for his new periodical _Die Horen_; and his invitation
+addressed to Goethe was the beginning of a friendship which continued
+unbroken until the younger poet's death. The friendship of Goethe and
+Schiller, of which their correspondence is a priceless record, had its
+limitations; it was purely intellectual in character, a certain barrier
+of personal reserve being maintained to the last. But for the literary
+life of both poets the gain was incommensurable. As far as actual work
+was concerned, Goethe went his own way as he had always been accustomed
+to do; but the mere fact that he devoted himself with increasing
+interest to literature was due to Schiller's stimulus. It was Schiller,
+too, who induced him to undertake those studies on the nature of epic
+and dramatic poetry which resulted in the epic of _Hermann und Dorothea_
+and the fragment of the _Achilleis_; without the friendship there would
+have been no _Xenien_ and no ballads, and it was his younger friend's
+encouragement which induced Goethe to betake himself once more to the
+"misty path" of _Faust_, and bring the first part of that drama to a
+conclusion.
+
+Goethe's share in the _Xenien_ (1796) may be briefly dismissed. This
+collection of distichs, written in collaboration with Schiller, was
+prompted by the indifference and animosity of contemporary criticism,
+and its disregard for what the two poets regarded as the higher
+interests of German poetry. The _Xenien_ succeeded as a retaliation on
+the critics, but the masterpieces which followed them proved in the long
+run much more effective weapons against the prevailing mediocrity. Prose
+works like the _Unterhaltungen deutscher Ausgewanderten_ (1795) were
+unworthy of the poet's genius, and the translation of Benvenuto
+Cellini's _Life_ (1796-1797) was only a translation. But in 1798
+appeared _Hermann und Dorothea_, one of Goethe's most perfect poems. It
+is indeed remarkable--when we consider by how much reflection and
+theoretic discussion the composition of the poem was preceded and
+accompanied--that it should make upon the reader so simple and "naive"
+an impression; in this respect it is the triumph of an art that conceals
+art. Goethe has here taken a simple story of village life, mirrored in
+it the most pregnant ideas of his time, and presented it with a skill
+which may well be called Homeric; but he has discriminated with the
+insight of genius between the Homeric method of reproducing the heroic
+life of primitive Greece and the same method as adapted to the
+commonplace happenings of 18th-century Germany. In this respect he was
+undoubtedly guided by a forerunner who has more right than he to the
+attribute "naive," by J. H. Voss, the author of _Luise_. Hardly less
+imposing in their calm, placid perfection are the poems with which, in
+friendly rivalry, Goethe seconded the more popular ballads of his
+friend; _Der Zauberlehrling_, _Der Gott und die Bayadere_, _Die Braut
+von Korinth_, _Alexis und Dora_, _Der neue Pausias_ and _Die schone
+Mullerin_--a cycle of poems in the style of the _Volkslied_--are among
+the masterpieces of Goethe's poetry. On the other hand, even the
+friendship with Schiller did not help him to add to his reputation as a
+dramatist. _Die naturliche Tochter_ (1803), in which he began to embody
+his ideas of the Revolution on a wide canvas, proved impossible on the
+stage, and the remaining dramas, which were to have formed a trilogy,
+were never written. Goethe's classic principles, when applied to the
+swift, direct art of the theatre, were doomed to failure, and _Die
+naturliche Tochter_, notwithstanding its good theoretic intention,
+remains the most lifeless and shadowy of all his dramas. Even less in
+touch with the living present were the various prologues and
+_Festspiele_, such as _Palaophron und Neoterpe_ (1800), _Was wir
+bringen_ (1802), which in these years he composed for the Weimar
+theatre.
+
+Goethe's classicism brought him into inevitable antagonism with the new
+Romantic movement which had been inaugurated in 1798 by the _Athenaeum_,
+edited by the brothers Schlegel. The sharpness of the conflict was,
+however, blunted by the fact that, without exception, the young Romantic
+writers looked up to Goethe as its master; they modelled their fiction
+on _Wilhelm Meister_; they regarded his lyrics as the high-water mark of
+German poetry; Goethe, Novalis declared, was the "Statthalter of poetry
+on earth." With regard to painting and sculpture, however, Goethe felt
+that a protest was necessary, if the insidious ideas propounded in works
+like Wackenroder's _Herzensergiessungen_ were not to do irreparable
+harm, by bringing back the confusion of the _Sturm und Drang_; and, as a
+rejoinder to the Romantic theories, Goethe, in conjunction with his
+friend Heinrich Meyer (1760-1832), published from 1798 to 1800 an art
+review, _Die Propylaen_. Again, in _Winckelmann und seine Zeit_ (1805)
+Goethe vigorously defended the classical ideals of which Winckelmann had
+been the founder. But in the end he proved himself the greatest enemy to
+the strict classic doctrine by the publication in 1808 of the completed
+first part of _Faust_, a work which was accepted by contemporaries as a
+triumph of Romantic art. _Faust_ is a patchwork of many colours. With
+the aid of the vast body of _Faust_ literature which has sprung up in
+recent years, and the many new documents bearing on its history--above
+all, the so-called _Urfaust_, to which reference has already been
+made--we are able now to ascribe to their various periods the component
+parts of the work; it is possible to discriminate between the _Sturm und
+Drang_ hero of the opening scenes and of the Gretchen tragedy--the
+contemporary of Gotz and Clavigo--and the superimposed Faust of calmer
+moral and intellectual ideals--a Faust who corresponds to Hermann and
+Wilhelm Meister. In its original form the poem was the dramatization of
+a specific and individualized story; in the years of Goethe's friendship
+with Schiller it was extended to embody the higher strivings of
+18th-century humanism; ultimately, as we shall see, it became, in the
+second part, a vast allegory of human life and activity. Thus the
+elements of which _Faust_ is composed were even more difficult to blend
+than were those of _Wilhelm Meister_; but the very want of uniformity is
+one source of the perennial fascination of the tragedy, and has made it
+in a peculiar degree the national poem of the German people, the mirror
+which reflects the national life and poetry from the outburst of _Sturm
+und Drang_ to the well-weighed and tranquil classicism of Goethe's old
+age.
+
+The third and final period of Goethe's long life may be said to have
+begun after Schiller's death. He never again lost touch with literature
+as he had done in the years which preceded his friendship with
+Schiller; but he stood in no active or immediate connexion with the
+literary movement of his day. His life moved on comparatively
+uneventfully. Even the Napoleonic regime of 1806-1813 disturbed but
+little his equanimity. Goethe, the cosmopolitan _Weltburger_ of the 18th
+century, had himself no very intense feelings of patriotism, and, having
+seen Germany flourish as a group of small states under enlightened
+despotisms, he had little confidence in the dreamers of 1813 who hoped
+to see the glories of Barbarossa's empire revived. Napoleon, moreover,
+he regarded not as the scourge of Europe, but as the defender of
+civilization against the barbarism of the Slavs; and in the famous
+interview between the two men at Erfurt the poet's admiration was
+reciprocated by the French conqueror. Thus Goethe had no great sympathy
+for the war of liberation which kindled young hearts from one end of
+Germany to the other; and when the national enthusiasm rose to its
+highest pitch he buried himself in those optical and morphological
+studies, which, with increasing years, occupied more and more of his
+time and interest.
+
+The works and events of the last twenty-five years of Goethe's life may
+be briefly summarized. In 1805, as we have seen, he suffered an
+irreparable loss in the death of Schiller; in 1806, Christiane became
+his legal wife, and to the same year belongs the magnificent tribute to
+his dead friend, the _Epilog zu Schillers Glocke_. Two new friendships
+about this time kindled in the poet something of the juvenile fire and
+passion of younger days. Bettina von Arnim came into personal touch with
+Goethe in 1807, and her _Briefwechsel Goethes mit einem Kinde_
+(published in 1835) is, in its mingling of truth and fiction, one of the
+most delightful products of the Romantic mind; but the episode was of
+less importance for Goethe's life than Bettina would have us believe. On
+the other hand, his interest in Minna Herzlieb, foster-daughter of the
+publisher Frommann in Jena, was of a warmer nature, and has left its
+traces on his sonnets.
+
+In 1808, as we have seen, appeared the first part of _Faust_, and in
+1809 it was followed by _Die Wahlverwandtschaften_. The novel, hardly
+less than the drama, effected a change in the public attitude towards
+the poet. Since the beginning of the century the conviction had been
+gaining ground that Goethe's mission was accomplished, that the day of
+his leadership was over; but here were two works which not merely
+re-established his ascendancy, but proved that the old poet was in
+sympathy with the movement of letters, and keenly alive to the change of
+ideas which the new century had brought in its train. The intimate
+psychological study of four minds, which forms the subject of the
+_Wahlverwandtschaften_, was an essay in a new type of fiction, and
+pointed out the way for developments of the German novel after the
+stimulus of _Wilhelm Meister_ had exhausted itself. Less important than
+_Die Wahlverwandtschaften_ was _Pandora_ (1810), the final product of
+Goethe's classicism, and the most uncompromisingly classical and
+allegorical of all his works. And in 1810, too, appeared his treatise on
+_Farbenlehre_. In the following year the first volume of his
+autobiography was published under the title _Aus meinem Leben, Dichtung
+und Wahrheit_. The second and third volumes of this work followed in
+1812 and 1814; the fourth, bringing the story of his life up to the
+close of the Frankfort period in 1833, after his death. Goethe felt,
+even late in life, too intimately bound up with Weimar to discuss in
+detail his early life there, and he shrank from carrying his biography
+beyond the year 1775. But a number of other publications--descriptions
+of travel, such as the _Italienische Reise_ (1816-1817), the materials
+for a continuation of _Dichtung und Wahrheit_ collected in _Tag- und
+Jahreshefte_ (1830)--have also to be numbered among the writings which
+Goethe has left us as documents of his life. Meanwhile no less valuable
+biographical materials were accumulating in his diaries, his voluminous
+correspondence and his conversations, as recorded by J. P. Eckermann,
+the chancellor Muller and F. Soret. Several periodical publications,
+_Uber Kunst und Altertum_ (1816-1832), _Zur Naturwissenschaft uberhaupt_
+(1817-1824). _Zur Morphologie_ (1817-1824), bear witness to the
+extraordinary breadth of Goethe's interests in these years. Art,
+science, literature--little escaped his ken--and that not merely in
+Germany: English writers, Byron, Scott and Carlyle, Italians like
+Manzoni, French scientists and poets, could all depend on friendly words
+of appreciation and encouragement from Weimar.
+
+In _West-ostlicher Diwan_ (1819), a collection of lyrics--matchless in
+form and even more concentrated in expression than those of earlier
+days--which were suggested by a German translation of Hafiz, Goethe had
+another surprise in store for his contemporaries. And, again, it was an
+actual passion--that for Marianne von Willemer, whom he met in 1814 and
+1815--which rekindled in him the lyric fire. Meanwhile the years were
+thinning the ranks of Weimar society: Wieland, the last of Goethe's
+greater literary contemporaries, died in 1813, his wife in 1816,
+Charlotte von Stein in 1827 and Duke Charles Augustus in 1828. Goethe's
+retirement from the direction of the theatre in 1817 meant for him a
+break with the literary life of the day. In 1822 a passion for a young
+girl, Ulrike von Levetzow, whom he met at Marienbad, inspired the fine
+_Trilogie der Leidenschaft_, and between 1821 and 1829 appeared the
+long-expected and long-promised continuation of _Wilhelm Meister,
+Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre_. The latter work, however, was a
+disappointment: perhaps it could not have been otherwise. Goethe had
+lost the thread of his romance and it was difficult for him to resume
+it. Problems of the relation of the individual to society and industrial
+questions were to have formed the theme of the _Wanderjahre_; but since
+the French Revolution these problems had themselves entered on a new
+phase and demanded a method of treatment which it was not easy for the
+old poet to learn. Thus his intentions were only partially carried out,
+and the volumes were filled out by irrelevant stories, which had been
+written at widely different periods.
+
+But the crowning achievement of Goethe's literary life was the
+completion of _Faust_. The poem had accompanied him from early manhood
+to the end and was the repository for the fullest "confession" of his
+life; it is the poetic epitome of his experience. The second part is, in
+form, far removed from the impressive realism of the _Urfaust_. It is a
+phantasmagory; a drama the actors in which are not creatures of flesh
+and blood, but the shadows of an unreal world of allegory. The lover of
+Gretchen had, as far as poetic continuity is concerned, disappeared with
+the close of the first part. In the second part it is virtually a new
+Faust who, at the hands of a new Mephistopheles, goes out into a world
+that is not ours. Yet behind these unconvincing shadows of an imperial
+court with its financial difficulties, of the classical
+_Walpurgisnacht_, of the fantastic creation of the Homunculus, the noble
+Helena episode and the impressive mystery-scene of the close, where the
+centenarian Faust finally triumphs over the powers of evil, there lies a
+philosophy of life, a ripe wisdom born of experience, such as no
+European poet had given to the world since the Renaissance. _Faust_ has
+been well called the "divine comedy" of 18th-century humanism.
+
+The second part of _Faust_ forms a worthy close to the life of Germany's
+greatest man of letters, who died in Weimar on the 22nd of March 1832.
+He was the last of those universal minds which have been able to compass
+all domains of human activity and knowledge; for he stood on the brink
+of an era of rapidly expanding knowledge which has made for ever
+impossible the universality of interest and sympathy which distinguished
+him. As a poet, his fame has undergone many vicissitudes since his
+death, ranging from the indifference of the "Young German" school to the
+enthusiastic admiration of the closing decades of the 19th century--an
+enthusiasm to which we owe the Weimar _Goethe-Gesellschaft_ (founded in
+1885) and a vast literature dealing with the poet's life and work; but
+the fact of his being Germany's greatest poet and the master of her
+classical literature has never been seriously put in question. The
+intrinsic value of his poetic work, regarded apart from his personality,
+is smaller in proportion to its bulk than is the case with many lesser
+German poets and with the greatest poets of other literatures. But
+Goethe was a type of literary man hitherto unrepresented among the
+leading writers of the world's literature; he was a poet whose supreme
+greatness lay in his subjectivity. Only a small fraction of Goethe's
+work was written in an impersonal and objective spirit, and sprang from
+what might be called a conscious artistic impulse; by far the
+larger--and the better--part is the immediate reflex of his feelings and
+experiences.
+
+It is as a lyric poet that Goethe's supremacy is least likely to be
+challenged; he has given his nation, whose highest literary expression
+has in all ages been essentially lyric, its greatest songs. No other
+German poet has succeeded in attuning feeling, sentiment and thought so
+perfectly to the music of words as he; none has expressed so fully that
+spirituality in which the quintessence of German lyrism lies. Goethe's
+dramas, on the other hand, have not, in the eyes of his nation,
+succeeded in holding their own beside Schiller's; but the reason is
+rather because Goethe, from what might be called a wilful obstinacy,
+refused to be bound by the conventions of the theatre, than because he
+was deficient in the cunning of the dramatist. For, as an interpreter of
+human character in the drama, Goethe is without a rival among modern
+poets, and there is not one of his plays that does not contain a few
+scenes or characters which bear indisputable testimony to his mastery.
+_Faust_ is Germany's most national drama, and it remains perhaps for the
+theatre of the future to prove itself capable of popularizing
+psychological masterpieces like _Tasso_ and _Iphigenie_. It is as a
+novelist that Goethe has suffered most by the lapse of time. The
+_Sorrows of Werther_ no longer moves us to tears, and even _Wilhelm
+Meister_ and _Die Wahlverwandtschaften_ require more understanding for
+the conditions under which they were written than do _Faust_ or
+_Egmont_. Goethe could fill his prose with rich wisdom, but he was only
+the perfect artist in verse.
+
+Little attention is nowadays paid to Goethe's work in other fields, work
+which he himself in some cases prized more highly than his poetry. It is
+only as an illustration of his many-sidedness and his manifold activity
+that we now turn to his work as a statesman, as a theatre-director, as a
+practical political economist. His art-criticism is symptomatic of a
+phase of European taste which tried in vain to check the growing
+individualism of Romanticism. His scientific studies and discoveries
+awaken only an historical interest. We marvel at the obstinacy with
+which he, with inadequate mathematical knowledge, opposed the Newtonian
+theory of light and colour; and at his championship of "Neptunism," the
+theory of aqueous origin, as opposed to "Vulcanism," that of igneous
+origin of the earth's crust. Of far-reaching importance was, on the
+other hand, his foreshadowing of the Darwinian theory in his works on
+the metamorphosis of plants and on animal morphology. Indeed, the
+deduction to be drawn from Goethe's contributions to botany and anatomy
+is that he, as no other of his contemporaries, possessed that type of
+scientific mind which, in the 19th century, has made for progress; he
+was Darwin's predecessor by virtue of his enunciation of what has now
+become one of the commonplaces of natural science--organic evolution.
+Modern, too, was the outlook of the aging poet on the changing social
+conditions of the age, wonderfully sympathetic his attitude towards
+modern industry, which steam was just beginning to establish on a new
+basis, and towards modern democracy. The Europe of his later years was
+very different from the idyllic and enlightened autocracy of the 18th
+century, in which he had spent his best years and to which he had
+devoted his energies; yet Goethe was at home in it.
+
+From the philosophic movement, in which Schiller and the Romanticists
+were so deeply involved, Goethe stood apart. Comparatively early in life
+he had found in Spinoza the philosopher who responded to his needs;
+Spinoza taught him to see in nature the "living garment of God," and
+more he did not seek or need to know. As a convinced realist he took his
+standpoint on nature and experience, and could afford to look on
+objectively at the controversies of the metaphysicians. Kant he by no
+means ignored, and under Schiller's guidance he learned much from him;
+but of the younger thinkers, only Schelling, whose mystic
+nature-philosophy was a development of Spinoza's ideas, touched a
+sympathetic chord in his nature. As a moralist and a guide to the
+conduct of life--an aspect of Goethe's work which Carlyle, viewing him
+through the coloured glasses of Fichtean idealism, emphasized and
+interpreted not always justly--Goethe was a powerful force on German
+life in years of political and intellectual depression. It is difficult
+even still to get beyond the maxims of practical wisdom he scattered so
+liberally through his writings, the lessons to be learned from _Meister_
+and _Faust_, or even that calm, optimistic fatalism which never deserted
+Goethe, and was so completely justified by the tenor of his life. If the
+philosophy of Spinoza provided the poet with a religion which made
+individual creeds and dogmas unnecessary and impossible, so Leibnitz's
+doctrine of predestinism supplied the foundations for his faith in the
+divine mission of human life.
+
+This many-sided activity is a tribute to the greatness of Goethe's mind
+and personality; we may regard him merely as the embodiment of his
+particular age, or as a poet "for all time"; but with one opinion all
+who have felt the power of Goethe's genius are in agreement--the opinion
+which was condensed in Napoleon's often cited words, uttered after the
+meeting at Erfurt: _Voila un homme!_ Of all modern men, Goethe is the
+most universal type of genius. It is the full, rich humanity of his life
+and personality--not the art behind which the artist disappears, or the
+definite pronouncements of the thinker or the teacher--that constitutes
+his claim to a place in the front rank of men of letters. His life was
+his greatest work.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(a) _Collected Works, Diaries, Correspondence,
+  Conversations_. The following authorized editions of Goethe's writings
+  appeared in the poet's lifetime: _Schriften_ (8 vols., Leipzig,
+  1787-1790); _Neue Schriften_ (7 vols., Berlin, 1792-1800); _Werke_ (13
+  vols., Stuttgart, 1806-1810); _Werke_ (20 vols., Stuttgart,
+  1815-1819); to which six volumes were added in 1820-1822; Werke
+  (Vollstandige Ausgabe letzter Hand) (40 vols., Stuttgart, 1827-1830).
+  Goethe's _Nachgelassene Werke_ appeared as a continuation of this
+  edition in 15 volumes (Stuttgart, 1832-1834), to which five volumes
+  were added in 1842. These were followed by several editions of
+  Goethe's _Samtliche Werke_, mostly in forty volumes, published by
+  Cotta of Stuttgart. The first critical edition with notes was
+  published by Hempel, Berlin, in thirty-six volumes, 1868-1879; that in
+  Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_, vols. 82-117 (1882-1897) is
+  also important. In 1887 the monumental Weimar edition, which is now
+  approaching completion, began to appear; it is divided into four
+  sections: I. _Werke_ (c. 56 vols.); II. _Naturwissenschaftliche Werke_
+  (12 vols.); III. _Tagebucher_ (13 vols.); IV. _Briefe_ (c. 45 vols.).
+  Of other recent editions the most noteworthy are: Samtliche Werke
+  (Jubilaums-Ausgabe), edited by E. von der Hellen (40 vols., Stuttgart,
+  1902 ff.); _Werke_, edited by K. Heinemann (30 vols., Leipzig, 1900
+  ff.), and the cheap edition of the _Samtliche Werke_, edited by L.
+  Geiger (44 vols., Leipzig, 1901). There are also innumerable editions
+  of selected works; reference need only be made here to the useful
+  collection of the early writings and letters published by S. Hirzel
+  with an introduction by M. Bernays, _Der junge Goethe_ (3 vols.,
+  Leipzig, 1875, 2nd ed., 1887). A French translation of Goethe's
+  _Oeuvres completes_, by J. Porchat, appeared in 9 vols., at Paris, in
+  1860-1863. There is, as yet, no uniform English edition, but Goethe's
+  chief works have all been frequently translated and a number of them
+  will be found in Bohn's standard library.
+
+  The definitive edition of Goethe's diaries and letters is that forming
+  Sections III. and IV. of the Weimar edition. Collections of selected
+  letters based on the Weimar edition have been published by E. von der
+  Hellen (6 vols., 1901 ff.), and by P. Stein (8 vols., 1902 ff.). Of
+  the many separate collections of Goethe's correspondence mention may
+  be made of the _Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Goethe_, edited by
+  Goethe himself (1828-1829; 4th ed., 1881; also several cheap reprints.
+  English translation by L. D. Schmitz, 1877-1879); _Briefwechsel
+  zwischen Goethe und Zelter_ (6 vols., 1833-1834; reprint in Reclam's
+  _Universalbibliothek_, 1904; English translation by A. D. Coleridge,
+  1887); _Bettina von Arnim, Goethes Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde_
+  (1835; 4th ed., 1890; English translation, 1838); _Briefe von und an
+  Goethe_, edited by F. W. Riemer (1846); _Goethes Briefe an Frau von
+  Stein_, edited by A. Scholl (1848-1851; 3rd ed. by J. Wahle,
+  1899-1900); _Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und K. F. von Reinhard_
+  (1850); _Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Knebel_ (2 vols., 1851);
+  _Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Staatsrat Schultz_ (1853);
+  _Briefwechsel des Herzogs Karl August mit Goethe_ (2 vols., 1863);
+  _Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Kaspar Graf von Sternberg_ (1866);
+  _Goethes naturwissenschaftliche Korrespondenz_, and _Goethes
+  Briefwechsel mit den Gebrudern von Humboldt_, edited by F. T.
+  Bratranek (1874-1876); _Goethes und Carlyles Briefwechsel_ (1887),
+  also in English; _Goethe und die Romantik_, edited by C. Schuddekopf
+  and O. Walzel (2 vols., 1898-1899); _Goethe und Lavater_, edited by H.
+  Funck (1901); _Goethe und Osterreich_, edited by A. Sauer (2 vols.,
+  1902-1903). Besides the correspondence with Schiller and Zelter,
+  Bonn's library contains a translation of _Early and Miscellaneous_
+  _Letters_, by E. Bell (1884). The chief collections of Goethe's
+  conversations are: J. P. Eckermann, _Gesprache mit Goethe_ (1836; vol.
+  iii., also containing conversations with Soret, 1848; 7th ed. by H.
+  Duntzer, 1899; also new edition by L. Geiger, 1902; English
+  translation by J. Oxenford, 1850). The complete conversations with
+  Soret have been published in German translation by C. A. H. Burkhardt
+  (1905); _Goethes Unterhaltungen mit dem Kanzler F. von Muller_ (1870).
+  Goethe's collected _Gesprache_ were published by W. von Biedermann in
+  10 vols. (1889-1896).
+
+  (b) _Biography._--Goethe's autobiography, _Aus meinem Leben: Dichtung
+  und Wahrheit_, appeared in three parts between 1811 and 1814, a fourth
+  part, bringing the history of his life as far as his departure for
+  Weimar in 1775, in 1833 (English translation by J. Oxenford, 1846); it
+  is supplemented by other biographical writings, as the _Italienische
+  Reise, Aus einer Reise in die Schweiz im Jahre 1797_; _Aus einer Reise
+  am Rhein, Main und Neckar in den Jahren 1814 und 1815, Tag- und
+  Jahreshefte_, &c., and especially by his diaries and correspondence.
+  The following are the more important biographies: H. Doring, _Goethes
+  Leben_ (1828; subsequent editions, 1833, 1849, 1856); H. Viehoff,
+  _Goethes Leben_ (4 vols., 1847-1854; 5th ed., 1887); J. W. Schafer,
+  _Goethes Leben_ (2 vols., 1851; 3rd ed., 1877); G. H. Lewes, _The Life
+  and Works of Goethe_ (2 vols., 1855; 2nd ed., 1864; 3rd ed., 1875;
+  cheap reprint, 1906; the German translation by J. Frese is in its 18th
+  edition, 1900; a shorter biography was published by Lewes in 1873
+  under the title _The Story of Goethe's Life)_; W. Mezieres, _W.
+  Goethe, les oeuvres expliquees par la vie_ (1872-1873); A. Bossert,
+  _Goethe_ (1872-1873); K. Goedeke, _Goethes Leben und Schriften_ (1874;
+  2nd ed., 1877); H. Grimm, _Goethe: Vorlesungen_ (1876; 8th ed., 1903;
+  English translation, 1880); A. Hayward, _Goethe_ (1878); H. H.
+  Boyesen, _Goethe and Schiller, their Lives and Works_ (1879); H.
+  Duntzer, _Goethes Leben_ (1880; 2nd ed., 1883; English translation,
+  1883); A. Baumgartner, _Goethe, sein Leben und seine Werke_ (1885); J.
+  Sime, _Life of Goethe_ (1888); K. Heinemann, _Goethes Leben und Werke_
+  (1889; 3rd ed., 1903); R. M. Meyer, _Goethe_ (1894; 3rd ed., 1904); A.
+  Bielschowsky, _Goethe, sein Leben und seine Werke_ (vol. i., 1895; 5th
+  ed., 1904; vol. ii., 1903; English translation by W. A. Cooper, 1905
+  ff.); G. Witkowsky, Goethe (1899); H. G. Atkins, _J. W. Goethe_
+  (1904); P. Hansen and R. Meyer, _Goethe, hans Liv og Vaerker_ (1906).
+
+  Of writings on special periods and aspects of Goethe's life the more
+  important are as follows (the titles are arranged as far as possible
+  in the chronological sequence of the poet's life): H. Duntzer,
+  _Goethes Stammbaum_ (1894); K. Heinemann, _Goethes Mutter_ (1891; 6th
+  ed., 1900); P. Bastier, _La Mere de Goethe_ (1902); _Briefe der Frau
+  Rat_ (2 vols., 2nd ed., 1905); F. Ewart, _Goethes Vater_ (1899); G.
+  Witkowski, _Cornelia die Schwester Goethes_ (1903); P. Besson,
+  _Goethe, sa soeur et ses amies_ (1898); H. Duntzer, _Frauenbilder aus
+  Goethes Jugendzeit_ (1852); W. von Biedermann, _Goethe und Leipzig_
+  (1865); P. F. Lucius, _Friederike Brion_ (1878; 3rd ed., 1904); A.
+  Bielschowsky, _Friederike Brion_ (1880); F. E. von Durckheim, _Lili's
+  Bild geschichtlich entworfen_ (1879; 2nd ed., 1894); W. Herbst,
+  _Goethe in Wetzlar_ (1881); A. Diezmann, _Goethe und die lustige Zeit
+  in Weimar_ (1857; 2nd ed., 1901); H. Duntzer, _Goethe und Karl August_
+  (1859-1864; 2nd ed., 1888); also, by the same author, _Aus Goethes
+  Freundeskreise_ (1868) and _Charlotte von Stein_ (2 vols., 1874); J.
+  Haarhuus, _Auf Goethes Spuren in Italien_ (1896-1898); O. Harnack,
+  _Zur Nachgeschichte der italienischen Reise_ (1890); H. Grimm,
+  _Schiller und Goethe_ (_Essays_, 1858; 3rd ed., 1884); G. Berlit,
+  _Goethe und Schiller im personlichen Verkehre, nach brieflichen
+  Mitteilungen von H. Voss_ (1895); E. Pasque, _Goethes Theaterleitung
+  in Weimar_ (2 vols., 1863); C. A. H. Burkhards, _Das Repertoire des
+  weimarischen Theaters unter Goethes Leitung_ (1891); J. Wahle, _Das
+  Weimarer Hoftheater unter Goethes Leitung_ (1892); O. Harnack, _Goethe
+  in der Epoche seiner Vollendung_ (2nd ed., 1901); J. Barbey
+  d'Aurevilly, _Goethe et Diderot_ (1880); A Fischer, _Goethe und
+  Napoleon_ (1899; 2nd ed., 1900); R. Steig, _Goethe und die Gebruder
+  Grimm_ (1892).
+
+  (c) _Criticism._--H. G. Graef, _Goethe uber seine Dichtungen_ (1901
+  ff.); J. W. Braun, _Goethe im Urteile seiner Zeitgenossen_ (3 vols.,
+  1883-1885); T. Carlyle, _Essays on Goethe_ (1828-1832); X. Marmier,
+  _Etudes sur Goethe_ (1835); W. von Biedermann, _Goethe-Forschungen_
+  (1879, 1886); J. Minor and A. Sauer, _Studien zur Goethe-Philologie_
+  (1880); H. Duntzer, _Abhandlungen zu Goethes Leben und Werken_ (1881);
+  A. Scholl, _Goethe in Hauptzugen seines Lebens und Wirkens_ (1882); V.
+  Hehn, _Gedanken uber Goethe_ (1884; 4th ed., 1900); W. Scherer,
+  _Aufsatze uber Goethe_ (1886); J. R. Seeley, _Goethe reviewed after
+  Sixty Years_ (1894); E. Dowden, _New Studies in Literature_ (1895); E.
+  Rod, _Essai sur Goethe_ (1898); A. Luther, _Goethe, sechs Vortrage_
+  (1905); R. Saitschik, _Goethes Charakter_ (1898); W. Bode, _Goethes
+  Lebenskunst_ (1900; 2nd ed., 1902); by the same, _Goethes Asthetik_
+  (1901); T. Vollbehr, _Goethe und die bildende Kunst_ (1895); E.
+  Lichtenberger, _Etudes sur les poesies lyriques de Goethe_ (1878); T.
+  Achelis, _Grundzuge der Lyrik Goethes_ (1900); B. Litzmann, _Goethes
+  Lyrik_ (1903); R. Riemann, _Goethes Romantechnik_ (1901); R. Virchow,
+  _Goethe als Naturforscher_ (1861); E. Caro, _La Philosophie de Goethe_
+  (1866; 2nd ed., 1870); R. Steiner, _Goethes Weltanschauung_ (1897); F.
+  Siebeck, _Goethe als Denker_ (1902); F. Baldensperger, Goethe en
+  France (1904); S. Waetzoldt, _Goethe und die Romantik_ (1888).
+
+  More special treatises dealing with individual works are the
+  following: W. Scherer, _Aus Goethes Fruhzeit_ (1879); R. Weissenfels,
+  _Goethe in Sturm und Drang_, vol. i. (1894); W. Wilmanns,
+  _Quellenstudien zu Goethes Gotz von Berlichingen_ (1874); J.
+  Baechtold, _Goethes Gotz von Berlichingen in dreifacher Gestalt_
+  (1882); J. W. Appell, _Werther und seine Zeit_ (1855; 4th ed., 1896);
+  E. Schmidt, _Richardson, Rousseau und Goethe_ (1875); M. Herrmann,
+  _Das Jahrmarktsfest zu Plundersweilen_ (1900); E. Schmidt, Goethes
+  Faust in ursprunglicher Gestalt (1887; 5th ed., 1901); J. Collin,
+  _Goethes Faust in seiner altesten Gestalt_ (1896); H. Hettner,
+  _Goethes Iphigenie in ihrem Verhaltnis zur Bildungsgeschichte des
+  Dichters_ (1861; in _Kleine Schriften_, 1884); K. Fischer, _Goethes
+  Iphigenie_ (1888); F. T. Bratranek, _Goethes Egmont und Schillers
+  Wallenstein_ (1862); C. Schuchardt, _Goethes italienische Reise_
+  (1862); H. Duntzer, _Iphigenie auf Tauris; die drei altesten
+  Bearbeitungen_ (1854); F. Kern, _Goethes Tasso_ (1890); J. Schubart,
+  _Die philosophischen Grundgedanken in Goethes Wilhelm Meister_ (1896);
+  E. Boas, _Schiller und Goethe in Xenienkampf_ (1851); E. Schmidt and
+  B. Suphan, _Xenien 1796, nach den Handschriften_ (1893); W. von
+  Humboldt, _Asthetische Versuche: Hermann und Dorothea_ (1799); V.
+  Hehn, _Uber Goethes Hermann und Dorothea_ (1893); A. Fries, _Quellen
+  und Komposition der Achilleis_ (1901); K. Alt, _Studien zur
+  Entstehungsgeschichte von Dichtung und Wahrheit_ (1898); A. Jung,
+  _Goethes Wanderjahre und die wichtigsten Fragen des 19. Jahrhunderts_
+  (1854); F. Kreyssig, _Vorlesungen uber Goethes Faust_ (1866); the
+  editions of _Faust_ by G. von Loeper (2 vols., 1879), and K. J.
+  Schroer (2 vols., 3rd and 4th ed., 1898-1903); K. Fischer, _Goethes
+  Faust_ (3 vols., 1893, 1902, 1903); O. Pniower, _Goethes Faust,
+  Zeugnisse und Excurse zu seiner Entstehungsgeschichte_ (1899); J.
+  Minor, _Goethes Faust, Entstehungsgeschichte und Erklarung_ (2 vols.,
+  1901).
+
+  (d) _Bibliographical Works, Goethe-Societies, &c._--L. Unflad, _Die
+  Goethe-Literatur in Deutschland_ (1878); S. Hirzel, _Verzeichnis einer
+  Goethe-Bibliothek_ (1884), to which G. von Loeper and W. von
+  Biedermann have supplied supplements. F. Strehlke, _Goethes Briefe:
+  Verzeichnis unter Angabe der Quelle_ (1882-1884); _British Museum
+  Catalogue of Printed Books: Goethe_ (1888); Goedeke's _Grundriss zur
+  Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung_ (2nd ed., vol. iv. 1891); and the
+  bibliographies in the _Goethe-Jahrbuch_ (since 1880). Also K. Hoyer,
+  _Zur Einfuhrung in die Goethe-Literatur_ (1904). On Goethe in England
+  see E. Oswald, _Goethe in England and America_ (1899; 2nd ed., 1909);
+  W. Heinemann, _A Bibliographical List of the English Translations and
+  Annotated Editions of Goethe's Faust_ (1886). Reference may also be
+  made here to F. Zarncke's _Verzeichnis der Originalaufnahmen von
+  Goethes Bildnissen_ (1888).
+
+  _A Goethe-Gesellschaft_ was founded at Weimar in 1885, and numbers
+  over 2800 members; its publications include the annual
+  _Goethe-Jahrbuch_ (since 1880), and a series of _Goethe-Schriften_. A
+  _Goethe-Verein_ has existed in Vienna since 1887, and an English
+  Goethe society, which has also issued several volumes of publications,
+  since 1886.     (J. G. R.)
+
+_Goethe's Descendants._--Goethe's only son, AUGUST, born on the 25th of
+December 1789 at Weimar, married in 1817 Ottilie von Pogwisch
+(1796-1872), who had come as a child to Weimar with her mother (_nee_
+Countess Henckel von Donnersmarck). The marriage was a very unhappy one,
+the husband having no qualities that could appeal to a woman who,
+whatever the censorious might say of her moral character, was
+distinguished to the last by a lively intellect and a singular charm.
+August von Goethe, whose sole distinction was his birth and his position
+as grand-ducal chamberlain, died in Italy, on the 27th of October 1830,
+leaving three children; WALTHER WOLFGANG, born on April 9, 1818, died on
+April 15, 1885; WOLFGANG MAXIMILIAN, born on September 18, 1820, died on
+January 20, 1883; ALMA, born on October 22, 1827, died on September 29,
+1844.
+
+Of Walther von Goethe little need be said. In youth he had musical
+ambitions, studied under Mendelssohn and Weinlig at Leipzig, under Loewe
+at Stettin, and afterwards at Vienna. He published a few songs of no
+great merit, and had at his death no more than the reputation among his
+friends of a kindly and accomplished man.
+
+Wolfgang or, as he was familiarly called, Wolf von Goethe, was by far
+the more gifted of the two brothers, and his gloomy destiny by so much
+the more tragic. A sensitive and highly imaginative boy, he was the
+favourite of his grandfather, who made him his constant companion. This
+fact, instead of being to the boy's advantage, was to prove his bane.
+The exalted atmosphere of the great man's ideas was too rarefied for the
+child's intellectual health, and a brain well fitted to do excellent
+work in the world was ruined by the effort to live up to an impossible
+ideal. To maintain himself on the same height as his grandfather, and to
+make the name of Goethe illustrious in his descendants also, became
+Wolfgang's ambition; and his incapacity to realize this, very soon borne
+in upon him, paralyzed his efforts and plunged him at last into bitter
+revolt against his fate and gloomy isolation from a world that seemed to
+have no use for him but as a curiosity. From the first, too, he was
+hampered by wretched health; at the age of sixteen he was subjected to
+one of those terrible attacks of neuralgia which were to torment him to
+the last; physically and mentally alike he stood in tragic contrast with
+his grandfather, in whose gigantic personality the vigour of his race
+seems to have been exhausted.
+
+From 1839 to 1845 Wolfgang studied law at Bonn, Jena, Heidelberg and
+Berlin, taking his degree of _doctor juris_ at Heidelberg in 1845.
+During this period he had made his first literary efforts. His
+_Studenten-Briefe_ (Jena, 1842), a medley of letters and lyrics, are
+wholly conventional. This was followed by _Der Mensch und die
+elementarische Natur_ (Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1845), in three parts
+(_Beitrage_): (1) an historical and philosophical dissertation on the
+relations of mankind and the "soul of nature," largely influenced by
+Schelling, (2) a dissertation on the juridical side of the question, _De
+fragmento Vegoiae_, being the thesis presented for his degree, (3) a
+lyrical drama, _Erlinde_. In this last, as in his other poetic attempts,
+Wolfgang showed a considerable measure of inherited or acquired ability,
+in his wealth of language and his easy mastery of the difficulties of
+rhythm and rhyme. But this was all. The work was characteristic of his
+self-centred isolation: ultra-romantic at a time when Romanticism was
+already an outworn fashion, remote alike from the spirit of the age and
+from that of Goethe. The cold reception it met with shattered at a blow
+the dream of Wolfgang's life; henceforth he realized that to the world
+he was interesting mainly as "Goethe's grandson," that anything he might
+achieve would be measured by that terrible standard, and he hated the
+legacy of his name.
+
+The next five years he spent in Italy and at Vienna, tormented by facial
+neuralgia. Returning to Weimar in 1850, he was made a chamberlain by the
+grand-duke, and in 1852, his health being now somewhat restored, he
+entered the Prussian diplomatic service and went as attache to Rome. The
+fruit of his long years of illness was a slender volume of lyrics,
+_Gedichte_ (Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1851), good in form, but seldom
+inspired, and showing occasionally the influence of a morbid sensuality.
+In 1854 he was appointed secretary of legation; but the aggressive
+ultramontanism of the Curia became increasingly intolerable to his
+overwrought nature, and in 1856 he was transferred, at his own request,
+as secretary of legation to Dresden. This post he resigned in 1859, in
+which year he was raised to the rank of _Freiherr_ (baron). In 1866 he
+received the title of councillor of legation; but he never again
+occupied any diplomatic post.
+
+The rest of his life he devoted to historical research, ultimately
+selecting as his special subject the Italian libraries up to the year
+1500. The outcome of all his labours was, however, only the first part
+of _Studies and Researches in the Times and Life of Cardinal Bessarion_,
+embracing the period of the council of Florence (privately printed at
+Jena, 1871), a catalogue of the MSS. in the monastery of Sancta Justina
+at Padua (Jena, 1873), and a mass of undigested material, which he
+ultimately bequeathed to the university of Jena.
+
+In 1870 Ottilie von Goethe, who had resided mainly at Vienna, returned
+to Weimar and took up her residence with her two sons in the Goethehaus.
+So long as she lived, her small salon in the attic storey of the great
+house was a centre of attraction for many of the most illustrious
+personages in Europe. But after her death in 1872 the two brothers lived
+in almost complete isolation. The few old friends, including the
+grand-duke Charles Alexander, who continued regularly to visit the
+house, were entertained with kindly hospitality by Baron Walther;
+Wolfgang refused to be drawn from his isolation even by the advent of
+royalty. "Tell the empress," he cried on one occasion, "that I am not a
+wild beast to be stared at!" In 1879, his increasing illness
+necessitating the constant presence of an attendant, he went to live at
+Leipzig, where he died.
+
+Goethe's grandsons have been so repeatedly accused of having displayed a
+dog-in-the-manger temper in closing the Goethehaus to the public and
+the Goethe archives to research, that the charge has almost universally
+come to be regarded as proven. It is true that the house was closed and
+access to the archives only very sparingly allowed until Baron Walther's
+death in 1885. But the reason for this was not, as Herr Max Hecker
+rather absurdly suggests, Wolfgang's jealousy of his grandfather's
+oppressive fame, but one far more simple and natural. From one cause or
+another, principally Ottilie von Goethe's extravagance, the family was
+in very straitened circumstances; and the brothers, being thoroughly
+unbusinesslike, believed themselves to be poorer than they really
+were.[1] They closed the Goethehaus and the archives, because to have
+opened them would have needed an army of attendants.[2] If they deserve
+any blame it is for the pride, natural to their rank and their
+generation, which prevented them from charging an entrance fee, an
+expedient which would not only have made it possible for them to give
+access to the house and collections, but would have enabled them to save
+the fabric from falling into the lamentable state of disrepair in which
+it was found after their death. In any case, the accusation is
+ungenerous. With an almost exaggerated _Pietat_ Goethe's descendants
+preserved his house untouched, at great inconvenience to themselves, and
+left it, with all its treasures intact, to the nation. Had they been the
+selfish misers they are sometimes painted, they could have realized a
+fortune by selling its contents.
+
+  _Wolf Goethe_ (Weimar, 1889) is a sympathetic appreciation by Otto
+  Mejer, formerly president of the Lutheran consistory in Hanover. See
+  also Jenny v. Gerstenbergk, _Ottilie von Goethe und ihre Sohne Walther
+  und Wolf_ (Stuttgart, 1901), and the article on Maximilian Wolfgang
+  von Goethe by Max F. Hecker in _Allgem. deutsche Biographie_, Bd. 49,
+  _Nachtrage_ (Leipzig, 1904).     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] After Walther's death upwards of L10,000 in bonds, &c., were
+    discovered put away and forgotten in escritoires and odd corners.
+
+  [2] This was the reason given by Baron Walther himself to the
+    writer's mother, an old friend of Frau von Goethe, who lived with her
+    family in the Goethehaus for some years after 1871.
+
+
+
+
+GOETZ, HERMANN (1840-1876), German musical composer, was born at
+Konigsberg in Prussia, on the 17th of December 1840, and began his
+regular musical studies at the comparatively advanced age of seventeen.
+He entered the music-school of Professor Stern at Berlin, and studied
+composition chiefly under Ulrich and Hans von Bulow. In 1863 he was
+appointed organist at Winterthur in Switzerland, where he lived in
+obscurity for a number of years, occupying himself with composition
+during his leisure hours. One of his works was an opera, _The Taming of
+the Shrew_, the libretto skilfully adapted from Shakespeare's play.
+After much delay it was produced at Mannheim (in October 1874), and its
+success was as instantaneous as it has up to the present proved lasting.
+It rapidly made the round of the great German theatres, and spread its
+composer's fame over all the land. But Goetz did not live to enjoy this
+happy result for long. In December 1876 he died at Zurich from overwork.
+A second opera, _Francesco da Rimini_, on which he was engaged, remained
+a fragment; but it was finished according to his directions, and was
+performed for the first time at Mannheim a few months after the
+composer's death on the 4th of December 1876. Besides his dramatic work,
+Goetz also wrote various compositions for chamber-music, of which a trio
+(Op. 1) and a quintet (Op. 16) have been given with great success at the
+London Monday Popular Concerts. Still more important is the _Symphony in
+F_. As a composer of comic opera Goetz lacks the sprightliness and
+artistic _savoir faire_ so rarely found amongst Germanic nations. His
+was essentially a serious nature, and passion and pathos were to him
+more congenial than humour. The more serious sides of the subject are
+therefore insisted upon more successfully than Katherine's ravings and
+Petruchio's eccentricities. There are, however, very graceful passages,
+e.g. the singing lesson Bianca receives from her disguised lover.
+Goetz's style, although influenced by Wagner and other masters, shows
+signs of a distinct individuality. The design of his music is
+essentially of a polyphonic character, and the working out and
+interweaving of his themes betray the musician of high scholarship. But
+breadth and beautiful flow of melody also were his, as is seen in the
+symphony, and perhaps still more in the quintet for pianoforte and
+strings above referred to. The most important of Goetz's posthumous
+works are a setting of the 137th Psalm for soprano solo, chorus and
+orchestra, a "Spring" overture (Op. 15), and a pianoforte sonata for
+four hands (Op. 17).
+
+
+
+
+GOFFE (or GOUGH), WILLIAM (fl. 1642-1660), English parliamentarian, son
+of Stephen Goffe, puritan rector of Stanmer in Essex, began life as an
+apprentice to a London salter, a zealous parliamentarian, but on the
+outbreak of the civil war he joined the army and became captain in
+Colonel Harley's regiment of the new model in 1645. He was imprisoned in
+1642 for his share in the petition to give the control of the militia to
+the parliament. By his marriage with Frances, daughter of General Edward
+Whalley, he became connected with Oliver Cromwell's family and one of
+his most faithful followers. He was a member of the deputation which on
+the 6th of July 1647 brought up the charge against the eleven members.
+He was active in bringing the king to trial and signed the death
+warrant. In 1649 he received the honorary degree of M.A. at Oxford. He
+distinguished himself at Dunbar, commanding a regiment there and at
+Worcester. He assisted in the expulsion of Barebone's parliament in
+1653, took an active part in the suppression of Penruddock's rising in
+July 1654, and in October 1655 was appointed major-general for
+Berkshire, Sussex and Hampshire. Meanwhile he had been elected member
+for Yarmouth in the parliament of 1654 and for Hampshire in that of
+1656. He supported the proposal to bestow a royal title upon Cromwell,
+who greatly esteemed him, was included in the newly-constituted House of
+Lords, obtained Lambert's place as major-general of the Foot, and was
+even thought of as a fit successor to Cromwell. As a member of the
+committee of nine appointed in June 1658 on public affairs, he was
+witness to the protector's appointment of Richard Cromwell as his
+successor. He supported the latter during his brief tenure of power and
+his fall involved his own loss of influence. In November 1659 he took
+part in the futile mission sent by the army to Monk in Scotland, and at
+the Restoration escaped with his father-in-law General Edward Whalley to
+Massachusetts. Goffe's political aims appear not to have gone much
+beyond fighting "to pull down Charles and set up Oliver"; and he was no
+doubt a man of deep religious feeling, who acted throughout according to
+a strict sense of duty as he conceived it. He was destined to pass the
+rest of his life in exile, separated from his wife and children, dying,
+it is supposed, about 1679.
+
+
+
+
+GOFFER, to give a fluted or crimped appearance to anything, particularly
+to linen or lace frills or trimmings by means of heated irons of a
+special shape, called goffering-irons or tongs. "Goffering," or the
+French term _gaufrage_, is also used of the wavey or crimped edging in
+certain forms of porcelain, and also of the stamped or embossed
+decorations on the edges of the binding of books. The French word
+_gaufre_, from which the English form is adapted, means a thin cake
+marked with a pattern like a honeycomb, a "wafer," which is
+etymologically the same word. _Waufre_ appears in the phrase _un fer a
+waufres_, an iron for baking cakes on (quotation of 1433 in J. B.
+Roquefort's _Glossaire de la langue romane_). The word is Teutonic, cf.
+Dutch _wafel_, Ger. _Waffel_, a form seen in "waffle," the name given to
+the well-known batter-cakes of America. The "wafer" was so called from
+its likeness to a honeycomb, _Wabe_, ultimately derived from the root
+_wab_-, to weave, the cells of the comb appearing to be woven together.
+
+
+
+
+GOG (possibly connected with the Gentilic _Gagaya_, "of the land of
+Gag," used in Amarna Letters i. 38, as a synonym for "barbarian," or
+with Ass. _Gagu_, a ruler of the land of _Sahi_, N. of Assyria, or with
+_Gyges_, Ass. _Gugu_, a king of Lydia), a Hebrew name found in Ezek.
+xxxviii.-xxxix. and in Rev. xx., and denoting an antitheocratic power
+that is to manifest itself in the world immediately before the final
+dispensation. In the later passage, Gog and Magog are spoken of as
+co-ordinate; in the earlier, Gog is given as the name of the person or
+people and Magog as that of the land of origin. Magog is perhaps a
+contracted form of Mat-gog, _mat_ being the common Assyrian word for
+"land." The passages are, however, intimately related and both depend
+upon Gen. x. 2, though here Magog alone is mentioned. He is the second
+"son" of Japhet, and the order of the names here and in Ezekiel xxxviii.
+2, indicates a locality between Cappadocia and Media, i.e. in Armenia.
+According to Josephus, who is followed by Jerome, the Scythians were
+primarily intended by this designation; and this plausible opinion has
+been generally followed. The name [Greek: Skythai], it is to be
+observed, however, is often but a vague word for any or all of the
+numerous and but partially known tribes of the north; and any attempt to
+assign a more definite locality to Magog can only be very hesitatingly
+made. According to some, the Maiotes about the Palus Maeotis are meant;
+according to others, the Massagetae; according to Kiepert, the
+inhabitants of the northern and eastern parts of Armenia. The imagery
+employed in Ezekiel's prophetic description was no doubt suggested by
+the Scythian invasion which about the time of Josiah, 630 B.C., had
+devastated Asia (Herodotus i. 104-106; Jer. iv. 3-vi. 30). Following on
+this description, Gog figures largely in Jewish and Mahommedan as well
+as in Christian eschatology. In the district of Astrakhan a legend is
+still to be met with, to the effect that Gog and Magog were two great
+races, which Alexander the Great subdued and banished to the inmost
+recesses of the Caucasus, where they are meanwhile kept in by the terror
+of twelve trumpets blown by the winds, but whence they are destined
+ultimately to make their escape and destroy the world.
+
+The legends that attach themselves to the gigantic effigies (dating from
+1708 and replacing those destroyed in the Great Fire) of Gog and Magog
+in Guildhall, London, are connected only remotely, if at all, with the
+biblical notices. According to the _Recuyell des histoires de Troye_,
+Gog and Magog were the survivors of a race of giants descended from the
+thirty-three wicked daughters of Diocletian; after their brethren had
+been slain by Brute and his companions, Gog and Magog were brought to
+London (Troy-novant) and compelled to officiate as porters at the gate
+of the royal palace. It is known that effigies similar to the present
+existed in London as early as the time of Henry V.; but when this legend
+began to attach to them is uncertain. They may be compared with the
+giant images formerly kept at Antwerp (Antigomes) and Douai (Gayant).
+According to Geoffrey of Monmouth (_Chronicles_, i. 16), Goemot or
+Goemagot (either corrupted from or corrupted into "Gog and Magog") was a
+giant who, along with his brother Corineus, tyrannized in the western
+horn of England until slain by foreign invaders.
+
+
+
+
+GOGO, or GOGHA, a town of British India in Ahmedabad district, Bombay,
+193 m. N.W. of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 4798. About 3/4 m. east of the town
+is an excellent anchorage, in some measure sheltered by the island of
+Piram, which lies still farther east. The natives of this place are
+reckoned the best sailors in India; and ships touching here may procure
+water and supplies, or repair damages. The anchorage is a safe refuge
+during the south-west monsoon, the bottom being a bed of mud and the
+water always smooth. Gogo has lost its commercial importance and has
+steadily declined in population and trade since the time of the American
+Civil War, when it was an important cotton-mart.
+
+
+
+
+GOGOL, NIKOLAI VASILIEVICH (1809-1852), Russian novelist, was born in
+the province of Poltava, in South Russia, on the 31st of March 1809.
+Educated at the Niezhin gymnasium, he there started a manuscript
+periodical, "The Star," and wrote several pieces including a tragedy,
+_The Brigands_. Having completed his course at Niezhin, he went in 1829
+to St Petersburg, where he tried the stage but failed. Next year he
+obtained a clerkship in the department of appanages, but he soon gave it
+up. In literature, however, he found his true vocation. In 1829 he
+published anonymously a poem called _Italy_, and, under the pseudonym of
+V. Alof, an idyll, _Hans Kuchel Garten_, which he had written while
+still at Niezhin. The idyll was so ridiculed by a reviewer that its
+author bought up all the copies he could secure, and burnt them in a
+room which he hired for the purpose at an inn. Gogol then fell back upon
+South Russian popular literature, and especially the tales of Cossackdom
+on which his boyish fancy had been nursed, his father having occupied
+the post of "regimental secretary," one of the honorary officials in
+the Zaporogian Cossack forces.
+
+In 1830 he published in a periodical the first of the stories which
+appeared next year under the title of _Evenings in a Farm near Dikanka:
+by Rudy Panko_. This work, containing a series of attractive pictures of
+that Little-Russian life which lends itself to romance more readily than
+does the monotony of "Great-Russian" existence, immediately obtained a
+great success--its light and colour, its freshness and originality being
+hailed with enthusiasm by the principal writers of the day in Russia.
+Whereupon Gogol planned, not only a history of Little-Russia, but also
+one of the middle ages, to be completed in eight or nine volumes. This
+plan he did not carry out, though it led to his being appointed to a
+professorship in the university of St Petersburg, a post in which he met
+with small success and which he resigned in 1835. Meanwhile he had
+published his _Arabesques_, a collection of essays and stories; his
+_Taras Bulba_, the chief of the _Cossack Tales_ translated into English
+by George Tolstoy; and a number of novelettes, which mark his transition
+from the romantic to the realistic school of fiction, such as the
+admirable sketch of the tranquil life led in a quiet country house by
+two kindly specimens of _Old-world Gentlefolks_, or the description of
+the petty miseries endured by an ill-paid clerk in a government office,
+the great object of whose life is to secure the "cloak" from which his
+story takes its name. To the same period belongs his celebrated comedy,
+the _Revizor_, or government inspector. His aim in writing it was to
+drag into light "all that was bad in Russia," and to hold it up to
+contempt. And he succeeded in rendering contemptible and ludicrous the
+official life of Russia, the corruption universally prevailing
+throughout the civil service, the alternate arrogance and servility of
+men in office. The plot of the comedy is very simple. A traveller who
+arrives with an empty purse at a provincial town is taken for an
+inspector whose arrival is awaited with fear, and he receives all the
+attentions and bribes which are meant to propitiate the dreaded
+investigator of abuses. The play appeared on the stage in the spring of
+1836, and achieved a full success, in spite of the opposition attempted
+by the official classes whose malpractices it exposed. The aim which
+Gogol had in view when writing the _Revizor_ he afterwards fully
+attained in his great novel, _Mertvuiya Dushi_, or Dead Souls, the first
+part of which appeared in 1842. The hero of the story is an adventurer
+who goes about Russia making fictitious purchases of "dead souls," i.e.
+of serfs who have died since the last census, with the view of pledging
+his imaginary property to the government. But his adventures are merely
+an excuse for drawing a series of pictures, of an unfavourable kind, of
+Russian provincial life, and of introducing on the scene a number of
+types of Russian society. Of the force and truth with which these
+delineations are executed the universal consent of Russian critics in
+their favour may be taken as a measure. From the French version of the
+story a general idea of its merits may be formed, and some knowledge of
+its plot and its principal characters may be gathered from the English
+adaptation published in 1854, as an original work, under the title of
+_Home Life in Russia_. But no one can fully appreciate Gogol's merits as
+a humorist who is not intimate with the language in which he wrote as
+well as with the society which he depicted.
+
+In 1836 Gogol for the first time went abroad. Subsequently he spent a
+considerable amount of time out of Russia, chiefly in Italy, where much
+of his _Dead Souls_ was written. His residence there, especially at
+Rome, made a deep impression on his mind, which, during his later years,
+turned towards mysticism. The last works which he published, his
+_Confession_ and _Correspondence with Friends_, offer a painful contrast
+to the light, bright, vigorous, realistic, humorous writings which had
+gained and have retained for him his immense popularity in his native
+land. Asceticism and mystical exaltation had told upon his nervous
+system, and its feeble condition showed itself in his literary
+compositions. In 1848 he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and on his
+return settled down at Moscow, where he died on the 3rd of March 1852.
+
+  See _Materials for the Biography of Gogol_ (in Russian) (1897), by
+  Shenrok; "Illness and Death of Gogol," by N. Bazhenov, _Russkaya
+  Muisl_, January 1902.     (W. R. S.-R.)
+
+
+
+
+GOGRA, or GHAGRA, a river of northern India. It is an important
+tributary of the Ganges, bringing down to the plains more water than the
+Ganges itself. It rises in Tibet near Lake Manasarowar, not far from the
+sources of the Brahmaputra and the Sutlej, passes through Nepal where it
+is known as the Kauriala, and after entering British territory becomes
+the most important waterway in the United Provinces. It joins the Ganges
+at Chapra after a course of 600 m. Its tributary, the Rapti, also has
+considerable commercial importance. The Gogra has the alternative name
+of Sarju, and in its lower course is also known as the Deoha.
+
+
+
+
+GOHIER, LOUIS JEROME (1746-1830), French politician, was born at
+Semblancay (Indre-et-Loire) on the 27th of February 1746, the son of a
+notary. He was called to the bar at Rennes, and practised there until he
+was sent to represent the town in the states-general. In the Legislative
+Assembly he represented Ille-et-Vilaine. He took a prominent part in the
+deliberations; he protested against the exaction of a new oath from
+priests (Nov. 22, 1791), and demanded the sequestration of the
+emigrants' property (Feb. 7, 1792). He was minister of justice from
+March 1793 to April 1794, and in June 1799 he succeeded Treilhard in the
+Directory, where he represented the republican interest. His wife was
+intimate with Josephine Bonaparte, and when Bonaparte suddenly returned
+from Egypt in October 1799 he repeatedly protested his friendship for
+Gohier, who was then president of the Directory, and tried in vain to
+gain him over. After the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th Brumaire (Nov. 9,
+1799), he refused to abdicate his functions, and sought out Bonaparte at
+the Tuileries "to save the republic," as he boldly expressed it. He was
+escorted to the Luxembourg, and on his release he retired to his estate
+at Eaubonne. In 1802 Napoleon made him consul-general at Amsterdam, and
+on the union of the Netherlands with France he was offered a similar
+post in the United States. His health did not permit of his taking up a
+new appointment, and he died at Eaubonne on the 29th of May 1830.
+
+  His _Memoires d'un veteran irreprochable de la Revolution_ was
+  published in 1824, his report on the papers of the civil list
+  preparatory to the trial of Louis XVI. is printed in Le _Proces de
+  Louis XVI_ (Paris, an III) and elsewhere, while others appear in the
+  _Moniteur_.
+
+
+
+
+GOHRDE, a forest of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover,
+immediately W. of the Elbe, between Wittenberg and Luneburg. It has an
+area of about 85 sq. m. and is famous for its oaks, beeches and game
+preserves. It is memorable for the victory gained here, on the 16th of
+September 1813, by the allies, under Wallmoden, over the French forces
+commanded by Pecheur. The hunting-box situated in the forest was built
+in 1689 and was restored by Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover. It is
+known to history on account of the constitution of Gohrde, promulgated
+here in 1719.
+
+
+
+
+GOITO, a village of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Mantua, from
+which it is 11 m. N.W., on the road to Brescia. Pop. (village) 737;
+(commune) 5712. It is situated on the right bank of the Mincio near the
+bridge. Its position has given it a certain military importance in
+various campaigns and it has been repeatedly fortified as a bridge-head.
+The Piedmontese forces won two actions (8th of April and 30th of May
+1848) over the Austrians here.
+
+
+
+
+GOITRE (from Lat. _guttur_, the throat; synonyms, Bronchocele,
+Derbyshire Neck), a term applied to a swelling in the front of the neck
+caused by enlargement of the thyroid gland. This structure, which lies
+between the skin and the anterior surface of the windpipe, and in health
+is not large enough to give rise to any external prominence (except in
+the pictures of certain artists), is liable to variations in size, more
+especially in females, a temporary enlargement of the gland being not
+uncommon at the catamenial periods, as well as during pregnancy. In
+goitre the swelling is conspicuous and is not only unsightly but may
+occasion much discomfort from its pressure upon the windpipe and other
+important parts of the neck. J. L. Alibert recorded cases of goitre
+where the tumour hung down over the breast, or reached as low as the
+middle of the thigh.
+
+Goitre usually appears in early life, often from the eighth to the
+twelfth year; its growth is at first slow, but after several years of
+comparative quiescence a sudden increase is apt to occur. In the earlier
+stages the condition of the gland is simply an enlargement of its
+constituent parts, which retain their normal soft consistence; but in
+the course of time other changes supervene, and it may become cystic, or
+acquire hardness from increase of fibrous tissue or from calcareous
+deposits. Occasionally the enlargement is uniform, but more commonly one
+of the lobes, generally the right, is the larger. In rare instances the
+disease is limited to the isthmus which connects the two lobes of the
+gland. The growth is unattended with pain, and is not inconsistent with
+good health.
+
+Goitre is a marked example of an endemic disease. There are few parts of
+the world where it is not found prevailing in certain localities, these
+being for the most part valleys and elevated plains in mountainous
+districts (see CRETINISM). The malady is generally ascribed to the use
+of drinking water impregnated with the salts of lime and magnesia, in
+which ingredients the water of goitrous districts abounds. But in
+localities not far removed from those in which goitre prevails, and
+where the water is of the same chemical composition, the disease may be
+entirely unknown. The disease may be the result of a combination of
+causes, among which local telluric or malarial influences concur with
+those of the drinking water. Goitre is sometimes cured by removal of the
+individual from the district where it prevails, and it is apt to be
+acquired by previously healthy persons who settle in goitrous
+localities; and it is only in such places that the disease exhibits
+hereditary tendencies.
+
+In the early stages, change of air, especially to the seaside, is
+desirable, and small doses of iron and of iodine should be given; if
+this fails small doses of thyroid extract should be tried. If palliative
+measures prove unsuccessful, operation must be undertaken for the
+removal of one lateral lobe and the isthmus of the tumour. This may be
+done under chloroform or after the subcutaneous injection of cocaine. If
+chloroform is used, it must be given very sparingly, as the breathing is
+apt to become seriously embarrassed during the operation. After the
+successful performance of the operation great improvement takes place,
+the remaining part of the gland slowly decreasing in size. The whole of
+the gland must not be removed during the operation, lest the strange
+disease known as Myxoedema should be produced (see METABOLIC DISEASES).
+
+In _exophthalmic goitre_ the bronchocele is but one of three phenomena,
+which together constitute the disease, viz. palpitation of the heart,
+enlargement of the thyroid gland, and protrusion of the eyeballs. This
+group of symptoms is known by the name of "Graves's disease" or "Von
+Basedow's disease"--the physicians by whom the malady was originally
+described. Although occasionally observed in men, this affection occurs
+chiefly in females, and in comparatively early life. It is generally
+preceded by impoverishment of blood, and by nervous or hysterical
+disorders, and it is occasionally seen in cases of organic heart
+disease. It has been suddenly developed as the effect of fright or of
+violent emotion. The first symptom is usually the palpitation of the
+heart, which is aggravated by slight exertion, and may be so severe as
+not only to shake the whole frame but even to be audible at some
+distance. A throbbing is felt throughout the body, and many of the
+larger blood-vessels are, like the heart, seen to pulsate strongly. The
+enlargement of the thyroid is gradual, and rarely increases to any great
+size, thus differing from the commoner form of goitre. The enlarged
+gland is of soft consistence, and communicates a thrill to the touch
+from its dilated and pulsating blood-vessels. Accompanying the goitre a
+remarkable change is observed in the eyes, which attract attention by
+their prominence, and by the startled expression thus given to the
+countenance. In extreme cases the eyes protrude from their sockets to
+such a degree that the eyelids cannot be closed, and injury may thus
+arise to the constantly exposed eyeballs. Apart from such risk, however,
+the vision is rarely affected. It occasionally happens that in undoubted
+cases of the disease one or other of the three above-named phenomena is
+absent, generally either the goitre or the exophthalmos. The palpitation
+of the heart is the most constant symptom. Sleeplessness, irritability,
+disorders of digestion, diarrhoea and uterine derangements, are frequent
+accompaniments. It is a serious disease and, if unchecked, may end
+fatally. Some cases are improved by general hygienic measures, others by
+electric treatment, or by the administration of animal extracts or of
+sera. Some cases, on the other hand, may be considered suitable for
+operative treatment.     (E. O.*)
+
+
+
+
+GOKAK, a town of British India, in the Belgaum district of Bombay, 8 m.
+from a station on the Southern Mahratta railway. Pop. (1901) 9860. It
+contains old temples with inscriptions, and is known for a special
+industry of modelled toys. About 4 m. N.W. are the Gokak Falls, where
+the Ghatprabha throws itself over a precipice 170 ft. high. Close by,
+the water has been impounded for a large reservoir, which supplies not
+only irrigation but also motive power for a cotton-mill employing 2000
+hands.
+
+
+
+
+GOKCHA, (GOK-CHAI; Armenian _Sevanga_; ancient _Haosravagha_), the
+largest lake of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of Erivan, in
+40 deg. 9' to 40 deg. 38' N. and 45 deg. 1' to 45 deg. 40' E. Its
+altitude is 6345 ft., it is of triangular shape, and measures from
+north-west to south-east 45 m., its greatest width being 25 m., and its
+maximum depth 67 fathoms. Its area is 540 sq. m. It is surrounded by
+barren mountains of volcanic origin, 12,000 ft. high. Its outflow is the
+Zanga, a left bank tributary of the Aras (_Araxes_); it never freezes,
+and its level undergoes periodical oscillations. It contains four
+species of _Salmonidae_, and two of _Cyprinidae_, which are only met
+with in the drainage area of this lake. A lava island in the middle is
+crowned by an Armenian monastery.
+
+
+
+
+GOLCONDA, a fortress and ruined city of India, in the Nizam's Dominions,
+5 m. W. of Hyderabad city. In former times Golconda was the capital of a
+large and powerful kingdom of the Deccan, ruled by the Kutb Shahi
+dynasty which was founded in 1512 by a Turkoman adventurer on the
+downfall of the Bahmani dynasty, but the city was subdued by Aurangzeb
+in 1687, and annexed to the Delhi empire. The fortress of Golconda,
+situated on a rocky ridge of granite, is extensive, and contains many
+enclosures. It is strong and in good repair, but is commanded by the
+summits of the enormous and massive mausolea of the ancient kings about
+600 yds. distant. These buildings, which are now the chief
+characteristics of the place, form a vast group, situated in an arid,
+rocky desert. They have suffered considerably from the ravages of time,
+but more from the hand of man, and nothing but the great solidity of
+their walls has preserved them from utter ruin. These tombs were erected
+at a great expense, some of them being said to have cost as much as
+L150,000. Golconda fort is now used as the Nizam's treasury, and also as
+the state prison. Golconda has given its name in English literature to
+the diamonds which were found in other parts of the dominions of the
+Kutb Shahi dynasty, not near Golconda itself.
+
+
+
+
+GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1), 197.2(O = 16)], a metallic
+chemical element, valued from the earliest ages on account of the
+permanency of its colour and lustre. Gold ornaments of great variety and
+elaborate workmanship have been discovered on sites belonging to the
+earliest known civilizations, Minoan, Egyptian, Assyrian, Etruscan (see
+JEWELRY, PLATE, EGYPT, CRETE, AEGEAN CIVILIZATION, NUMISMATICS), and in
+ancient literature gold is the universal symbol of the highest purity
+and value (cf. passages in the Old Testament, e.g. Ps. xix. 10 "More to
+be desired are they than gold, yea, than much fine gold"). With regard
+to the history of the metallurgy of gold, it may be mentioned that,
+according to Pliny, mercury was employed in his time both as a means of
+separating the precious metals and for the purposes of gilding.
+Vitruvius also gives a detailed account of the means of recovering gold,
+by amalgamation, from cloth into which it had been woven.
+
+_Physical Properties._--Gold has a characteristic yellow colour, which
+is, however, notably affected by small quantities of other metals; thus
+the tint is sensibly lowered by small quantities of silver, and
+heightened by copper. When the gold is finely divided, as in "purple of
+Cassius," or when it is precipitated from solutions, the colour is
+ruby-red, while in very thin leaves it transmits a greenish light. It is
+nearly as soft as lead and softer than silver. When pure, it is the most
+malleable of all metals (see GOLDBEATING). It is also extremely ductile;
+a single grain may be drawn into a wire 500 ft. in length, and an ounce
+of gold covering a silver wire is capable of being extended more than
+1300 m. The presence of minute quantities of cadmium, lead, bismuth,
+antimony, arsenic, tin, tellurium and zinc renders gold brittle,
+1/2000th part of one of the three metals first named being sufficient to
+produce that quality. Gold can be readily welded cold; the finely
+divided metal, in the state in which it is precipitated from solution,
+may be compressed between dies into disks or medals. The specific
+gravity of gold obtained by precipitation from solution by ferrous
+sulphate is from 19.55 to 20.72. The specific gravity of cast gold
+varies from 18.29 to 19.37, and by compression between dies the specific
+gravity may be raised from 19.37 to 19.41; by annealing, however, the
+previous density is to some extent recovered, as it is then found to be
+19.40. The melting-point has been variously given, the early values
+ranging from 1425 deg. C. to 1035 deg. C. Using improved methods, C. T.
+Heycock and F. H. Neville determined it to be 1061.7 deg. C.; Daniel
+Berthelot gives 1064 deg. C., while Jaquerod and Perrot give
+1066.1-1067.4 deg. C. At still higher temperatures it volatilizes,
+forming a reddish vapour. Macquer and Lavoisier showed that when gold is
+strongly heated, fumes arise which gild a piece of silver held in them.
+Its volatility has also been studied by L. Eisner, and, in the presence
+of other metals, by Napier and others. The volatility is barely
+appreciable at 1075 deg.; at 1250 deg. it is four times as much as at
+1100 deg. Copper and zinc increase the volatility far more than lead,
+while the greatest volatility is induced, according to T. Kirke Rose, by
+tellurium. It has also been shown that gold volatilizes when a
+gold-amalgam is distilled. Gold is dissipated by sending a powerful
+charge of electricity through it when in the form of leaf or thin wire.
+The electric conductivity is given by A. Matthiessen as 73 at 0 deg. C.,
+pure silver being 100; the value of this coefficient depends greatly on
+the purity of the metal, the presence of a few thousandths of silver
+lowering it by 10%. Its conductivity for heat has been variously given
+as 103 (C. M. Despretz), 98 (F. Crace-Calvert and R. Johnson), and 60
+(G. H. Wiedemann and R. Franz), pure silver being 100. Its specific heat
+is between 0.0298 (Dulong and Petit) and 0.03244 (Regnault). Its
+coefficient of expansion for each degree between 0 deg. and 100 deg. C.
+is 0.000014661, or for gold which has been annealed 0.000015136 (Laplace
+and Lavoisier). The spark spectrum of gold has been mapped by A.
+Kirchhoff, R. Thalen, Sir William Huggins and H. Kruss; the brightest
+lines are 6277, 5960, 5955 and 5836 in the orange and yellow, and 5230
+and 4792 in the green and blue.
+
+_Chemical Properties._--Gold is permanent in both dry and moist air at
+ordinary or high temperatures. It is insoluble in hydrochloric, nitric
+and sulphuric acids, but dissolves in _aqua regia_--a mixture of
+hydrochloric and nitric acids--and when very finely divided in a heated
+mixture of strong sulphuric acid and a little nitric acid; dilution with
+water, however, precipitates the metal as a violet or brown powder from
+this solution. The metal is soluble in solutions of chlorine, bromine,
+thiosulphates and cyanides; and also in solutions which generate
+chlorine, such as mixtures of hydrochloric acid with nitric acid,
+chromic acid, antimonious acid, peroxides and nitrates, and of nitric
+acid with a chloride. Gold is also attacked when strong sulphuric acid
+is submitted to electrolysis with a gold positive pole. W. Skey showed
+that in substances which contain small quantities of gold the precious
+metal may be removed by the solvent action of iodine or bromine in
+water. Filter paper soaked with the clear, solution is burnt, and the
+presence of gold is indicated by the purple colour of the ash. In
+solution minute quantities of gold may be detected by the formation of
+"purple of Cassius," a bluish-purple precipitate thrown down by a
+mixture of ferric and stannous chlorides.
+
+The atomic weight of gold was first determined with accuracy by
+Berzelius, who deduced the value 195.7 (H = 1) from the amount of
+mercury necessary to precipitate it from the chloride, and 195.2 from
+the ratio between gold and potassium chloride in potassium aurichloride,
+KAuCl4. Later determinations were made by Sir T. E. Thorpe and A. P.
+Laurie, Kruss and J. W. Mallet. Thorpe and Laurie converted potassium
+auribromide into a mixture of metallic gold and potassium bromide by
+careful heating. The relation of the gold to the potassium bromide, as
+well as the amounts of silver and silver bromide which are equivalent to
+the potassium bromide, were determined. The mean value thus adduced was
+195.86. Kruss worked with the same salt, and obtained the value 195.65;
+while Mallet, by analyses of gold chloride and bromide, and potassium
+auribromide, obtained the value 195.77.
+
+_Occlusion of Gas by Gold._--T. Graham showed that gold is capable of
+occluding by volume 0.48% of hydrogen, 0.20% of nitrogen, 0.29% of
+carbon monoxide, and 0.16% of carbon dioxide. Varrentrapp pointed out
+that "cornets" from the assay of gold may retain gas if they are not
+strongly heated.
+
+_Occurrence and Distribution._--Gold is found in nature chiefly in the
+metallic state, i.e. as "native gold," and less frequently in
+combination with tellurium, lead and silver. These are the only certain
+examples of natural combinations of the metal, the minute, though
+economically valuable, quantity often found in pyrites and other
+sulphides being probably only present in mechanical suspension. The
+native metal crystallizes in the cubic system, the octahedron being the
+commonest form, but other and complex combinations have been observed.
+Owing to the softness of the metal, large crystals are rarely well
+defined, the points being commonly rounded. In the irregular crystalline
+aggregates branching and moss-like forms are most common, and in
+Transylvania thin plates or sheets with diagonal structures are found.
+More characteristic, however, than the crystallized are the irregular
+forms, which, when large, are known as "nuggets" or "pepites," and when
+in pieces below 1/4 to 1/2 oz. weight as gold dust, the larger sizes
+being distinguished as coarse or nuggety gold, and the smaller as gold
+dust proper. Except in the larger nuggets, which may be more or less
+angular, or at times even masses of crystals, with or without associated
+quartz or other rock, gold is generally found bean-shaped or in some
+other flattened form, the smallest particles being scales of scarcely
+appreciable thickness, which, from their small bulk as compared with
+their surface, subside very slowly when suspended in water, and are
+therefore readily carried away by a rapid current. These form the "float
+gold" of the miner. The physical properties of native gold are generally
+similar to that of the melted metal.
+
+  Of the minerals containing gold the most important are sylvanite or
+  graphic tellurium (Ag, Au) Te2, with 24 to 26%; calaverite, AuTe2,
+  with 42%; nagyagite or foliate tellurium (Pb, Au)16 Sb3(S, Te)24, with
+  5 to 9% of gold; petzite, (Ag, Au)2Te, and white tellurium. These are
+  confined to a few localities, the oldest and best known being those of
+  Nagyag and Offenbanya in Transylvania; they have also been found at
+  Red Cloud, Colorado, in Calaveras county, California, and at Perth and
+  Boulder, West Australia. The minerals of the second class, usually
+  spoken of as "auriferous," are comparatively numerous. Prominent among
+  these are galena and iron pyrites, the former being almost invariably
+  gold-bearing. Iron pyrites, however, is of greater practical
+  importance, being in some districts exceedingly rich, and, next to the
+  native metal, is the most prolific source of gold. Magnetic pyrites,
+  copper pyrites, zinc blende and arsenical pyrites are other and less
+  important examples, the last constituting the gold ore formerly worked
+  in Silesia. A native gold amalgam is found as a rarity in California,
+  and bismuth from South America is sometimes rich in gold. Native
+  arsenic and antimony are also very frequently found to contain gold
+  and silver.
+
+  The association and distribution of gold may be considered under two
+  different heads, namely, as it occurs in mineral veins--"reef gold,"
+  and in alluvial or other superficial deposits which are derived from
+  the waste of the former--"alluvial gold." Four distinct types of reef
+  gold deposits may be distinguished: (1) Gold may occur disseminated
+  through metalliferous veins, generally with sulphides and more
+  particularly with pyrites. These deposits seem to be the primary
+  sources of native gold. (2) More common are the auriferous
+  quartz-reefs--veins or masses of quartz containing gold in flakes
+  visible to the naked eye, or so finely divided as to be invisible. (3)
+  The "banket" formation, which characterizes the goldfields of South
+  Africa, consists of a quartzite conglomerate throughout which gold is
+  very finely disseminated. (4) The siliceous sinter at Mount Morgan,
+  Queensland, which is obviously associated with hydrothermal action, is
+  also gold-bearing. The genesis of the last three types of deposit is
+  generally assigned to the simultaneous percolation of solutions of
+  gold and silica, the auriferous solution being formed during the
+  disintegration of the gold-bearing metalliferous veins. But there is
+  much uncertainty as to the mechanism of the process; some authors hold
+  that the soluble chloride is first formed, while others postulate the
+  intervention of a soluble aurate.
+
+  In the alluvial deposits the associated minerals are chiefly those of
+  great density and hardness, such as platinum, osmiridium and other
+  metals of the platinum group, tinstone, chromic, magnetic and brown
+  iron ores, diamond, ruby and sapphire, zircon, topaz, garnet, &c.
+  which represent the more durable original constituents of the rocks
+  whose distintegration has furnished the detritus.
+
+_Statistics of Gold Production._--The supply of gold, and also its
+relation to the supply of silver, has, among civilized nations, always
+been of paramount importance in the economic questions concerning money
+(see MONEY and BIMETALLISM); in this article a summary of the modern
+gold-producing areas will be given, and for further details reference
+should be made to the articles on the localities named. The chief
+sources of the European supply during the middle ages were the mines of
+Saxony and Austria, while Spain also contributed. The supplies from
+Mexico and Brazil were important during the 16th and 17th centuries.
+Russia became prominent in 1823, and for fourteen years contributed the
+bulk of the supply. The United States (California) after 1848, and
+Australia after 1851, were responsible for enormous increases in the
+total production, which has been subsequently enhanced by discoveries in
+Canada, South Africa, India, China and other countries.
+
+  TABLE I.
+
+  +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |   Period. |     Oz.   |  Period.  |    Oz.    |
+  +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  | 1801-1810 |   590,750 | 1856-1860 | 6,350,180 |
+  | 1811-1820 |   380,300 | 1861-1865 | 5,951,770 |
+  | 1821-1830 |   472,400 | 1866-1870 | 6,169,660 |
+  | 1831-1840 |   674,200 | 1871-1875 | 5,487,400 |
+  | 1841-1850 | 1,819,600 | 1876-1880 | 5,729,300 |
+  | 1851-1855 | 6,350,180 |     --    |     --    |
+  +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+The average annual world's production for certain periods from 1801 to
+1880 in ounces is given in Table I. The average production of the five
+years 1881-1885 was the smallest since the Australian and Californian
+mines began to be worked in 1848-1849; the minimum 4,614,588 oz.,
+occurred in 1882. It was not until after 1885 that the annual output of
+the world began to expand. Of the total production in 1876, 5,016,488
+oz., almost the whole was derived from the United States, Australasia
+and Russia. Since then the proportion furnished by these countries has
+been greatly lowered by the supplies from South Africa, Canada, India
+and China. The increase of production has not been uniform, the greater
+part having occurred most notably since 1895. Among the regions not
+previously important as gold-producers which now contribute to the
+annual output, the most remarkable are the goldfields of South Africa
+(Transvaal and Rhodesia, the former of which were discovered in 1885).
+India likewise has been added to the list, its active production having
+begun at about the same time as that of South Africa. The average annual
+product of India for the period 1886 to 1899 inclusive was L698,208, and
+its present annual product averages about 550,000 oz., or about
+L2,200,000, obtained almost wholly from the free-milling quartz veins of
+the Colar goldfields in Mysore, southern India. In 1900 the output was
+valued at L1,891,804, in 1905 at L2,450,536, and in 1908 at L2,270,000.
+Canada, too, assumed an important rank, having contributed in 1900
+L5,583,300; but the output has since steadily declined to L1,973,000 in
+1908. The great increase during the few years preceding 1899 was due to
+the development of the goldfields of the North-Western Territory,
+especially British Columbia. From the district of Yukon (Klondike, &c.)
+L2,800,000 was obtained in 1899, wholly from alluvial workings, but the
+progress made since has been slower than was expected by sanguine
+people. It is, however, probable that the North-Western Territory will
+continue to yield gold in important quantities for some time to come.
+
+The output of the United States increased from L7,050,000 in 1881 to
+L16,085,567 in 1900, L17,916,000 in 1905, and to L20,065,000 in 1908.
+This increase was chiefly due to the exploitation of new goldfields. The
+fall in the price of silver stimulated the discovery and development of
+gold deposits, and many states formerly regarded as characteristically
+silver districts have become important as gold producers. Colorado is a
+case in point, its output having increased from about L600,000 in 1880
+to L6,065,000 in 1900; it was L5,139,800 in 1905. Somewhat more than
+one-half of the Colorado gold is obtained from the Cripple Creek
+district. Other states also showed a largely augmented product. On the
+other hand, the output of California, which was producing over
+L3,000,000 per annum in 1876, has fallen off, the average annual output
+from 1876 to 1900 being L2,800,000; in 1905 the yield was L3,839,000.
+This decrease was largely caused by the practical suspension for many
+years of the hydraulic mining operations, in preparation for which
+millions of dollars had been expended in deep tunnels, flumes, &c., and
+the active continuance of which might have been expected to yield some
+L2,000,000 of gold annually. This interruption, due to the practical
+prohibition of the industry by the United States courts, on the ground
+that it was injuring, through the deposit of tailings, agricultural
+lands and navigable streams, was lessened, though not entirely removed,
+by compromises and regulations which permit, under certain restrictions,
+the renewed exploitation of the ancient river-beds by the hydraulic
+method. On the other hand, the progressive reduction of mining and
+metallurgical costs effected by improved transportation and machinery,
+and the use of high explosives, compressed air, electric-power
+transmission, &c., resulted in California (as elsewhere) in a notable
+revival of deep mining. This was especially the case on the "Mother
+Lode," where highly promising results were obtained. Not only is
+vein-material formerly regarded as unremunerative now extracted at a
+profit, but in many instances increased gold-values have been
+encountered below zones of relative barrenness, and operators have been
+encouraged to make costly preparations for really deep mining--more than
+3000 ft. below the surface. The gold product of California, therefore,
+may be fairly expected to maintain itself, and, indeed, to show an
+advance. Alaska appeared in the list of gold-producing countries in
+1886, and gradually increased its annual output until 1897, when the
+country attracted much attention with a production valued at over
+L500,000; the opening up of new workings has increased this figure
+immensely, from about L1,400,000 in 1901 to L3,006,500 in 1905. The
+Alaska gold was derived almost wholly from the large low-grade quartz
+mines of Douglas Island prior to 1899, but in that year an important
+district was discovered at Cape Nome, on the north-western coast. The
+result of a few months' working during that year was more than L500,000
+of gold, and a very much larger annual output may reasonably be
+anticipated in the future; in 1905 it was about L900,000. The gold
+occurs in alluvial deposits designated as gulch-, bar-, beach-, tundra-
+and bench-placers. The tundra is a coastal plain, swampy and covered
+with undergrowth and underlaid by gravel. The most interesting and, thus
+far, the most productive are the beach deposits, similar to those on the
+coast of Northern California. These occur in a strip of comparatively
+fine gravel and sand, 150 yds. wide, extending along the shore. The gold
+is found in stratified layers, with "ruby" and black sand. The "ruby"
+sand consists chiefly of fine garnets and magnetites, with a few
+rose-quartz grains. Further exploration of the interior will probably
+result in the discovery of additional gold districts.
+
+Mexico, from a gold production of L200,000 in 1891, advanced to about
+L1,881,800 in 1900 and to about L3,221,000 in 1905. Of this increase, a
+considerable part was derived from gold-quartz mining, though much was
+also obtained as a by-product in the working of the ores of other
+metals. The product of Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Brazil,
+Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador amounted in 1900 to
+L2,481,000 and to L2,046,000 in 1905.
+
+In 1876 Australasia produced L7,364,000, of which Victoria contributed
+L3,084,000. The annual output of Victoria declined until the year 1892,
+when it began to increase rapidly, but not to its former level, the
+values for 1900 and 1905 being L3,142,000 and L3,138,000. There has been
+an important increase in Queensland, which advanced from L1,696,000 in
+1876 to L2,843,000 in 1900, and subsequently declined to L2,489,000 in
+1905. There has been no increase, and, indeed, no large fluctuation
+until quite recently in the output of New Zealand, which averaged
+L1,054,000 per annum from 1876 to 1898, but the production of the two
+years 1900 and 1905 rose to L1,425,459 and L2,070,407 respectively. By
+far the most important addition to the Australasian product has come
+from West Australia, which began its production in 1887--about the time
+of the inception of mining at Witwatersrand ("the Rand") in South
+Africa--and by continuous increase, which assumed large proportions
+towards the close of the 19th century, was L6,426,000 in 1899,
+L6,179,000 in 1900, and L8,212,000 in 1905. The total Australasian
+production in 1908 was valued at L14,708,000.
+
+Undoubtedly the greatest of the gold discoveries made in the latter half
+of the 19th century was that of the Witwatersrand district in the
+Transvaal. By reason of its unusual geological character and great
+economic importance this district deserves a more extended description.
+The gold occurs in conglomerate beds, locally known as "banket." There
+are several series of parallel beds, interstratified with quartzite and
+schist, the most important being the "main reef" series. The gold in
+this conglomerate reef is partly of detrital origin and partly of the
+genetic character of ordinary vein-gold. The formation is noted for its
+regularity as regards both the thickness and the gold-tenor of the
+ore-bearing reefs, in which respect it is unparalleled in the geology of
+the auriferous formations. The gold carries, on an average, L2 per ton,
+and is worked by ordinary methods of gold-mining, stamp-milling and
+cyaniding. In 1899, 5762 stamps were in operation, crushing 7,331,446
+tons of ore, and yielding L15,134,000, equivalent to 25.5% of the
+world's production. Of this, 80% came from within 12 m. of Johannesburg.
+After September 1899 operations were suspended, almost entirely owing to
+the Boer War, but on the 2nd of May 1901 they were started again. In
+1905 the yield was valued at L20,802,074, and in 1909 at L30,925,788. So
+certain is the ore-bearing formation that engineers in estimating its
+auriferous contents feel justified in assuming, as a factor in their
+calculations, a vertical extension limited only by the lowest depths at
+which mining is feasible. On such a basis they arrived at more than
+L600,000,000 as the available gold contained in the Witwatersrand
+conglomerates. This was a conservative estimate, and was made before the
+full extent of the reefs was known; in 1904 Lionel Phillips stated that
+the main reef series had been proved for 61 m., and he estimated the
+gold remaining to be mined to be worth L2,500,000,000. Deposits similar
+to the Witwatersrand banket occur in Zululand, and also on the Gold
+Coast of Africa. In Rhodesia, the country lying north of the Transvaal,
+where gold occurs in well-defined quartz-veins, there is unquestionable
+evidence of extensive ancient workings. The economic importance of the
+region generally has been fully proved. Rhodesia produced L386,148 in
+1900 and L722,656 in 1901, in spite of the South African War; the
+product for 1905 was valued at L1,480,449, and for 1908 at L2,526,000.
+
+The gold production of Russia has been remarkably constant, averaging
+L4,899,262 per annum; the gold is derived chiefly from placer workings
+in Siberia.
+
+The gold production of China was estimated for 1899 at L1,328,238 and
+for 1900 at L860,000; it increased in 1901 to about L1,700,000, to fall
+to L340,000 in 1905; in 1906 and 1907 it recovered to about L1,000,000.
+
+  TABLE II.--_Gold Production of Certain Countries, 1881-1908 (in oz.)._
+
+  +------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+----------+-----------+-----------+------------+
+  |      |  Austral- |           |          |         |          |           |  United   |            |
+  | Year.|   asia.   |  Africa.  |  Canada. |  India. |  Mexico. |  Russia.  |  States.  |   Totals.  |
+  +------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+----------+-----------+-----------+------------+
+  | 1881 | 1,475,161 |     ..    |   52,483 |    ..   |   41,545 | 1,181,853 | 1,678,612 |  4,976,980 |
+  | 1882 | 1,438,067 |     ..    |   52,000 |    ..   |   45,289 | 1,154,613 | 1,572,187 |  4,825,794 |
+  | 1883 | 1,333,849 |     ..    |   46,150 |    ..   |   46,229 | 1,132,219 | 1,451,250 |  4,614,588 |
+  | 1884 | 1,352,761 |     ..    |   46,000 |    ..   |   57,227 | 1,055,642 | 1,489,950 |  4,902,889 |
+  | 1885 | 1,309,804 |     ..    |   53,987 |    ..   |   46,941 | 1,225,738 | 1,538,325 |  5,002,584 |
+  | 1886 | 1,257,670 |     ..    |   66,061 |    ..   |   29,702 |   922,226 | 1,693,125 |  5,044,363 |
+  | 1887 | 1,290,202 |    28,754 |   59,884 |  15,403 |   39,861 |   971,656 | 1,596,375 |  5,061,490 |
+  | 1888 | 1,344,002 |   240,266 |   53,150 |  35,034 |   47,117 | 1,030,151 | 1,604,841 |  5,175,623 |
+  | 1889 | 1,540,607 |   366,023 |   62,658 |  78,649 |   33,862 | 1,154,076 | 1,587,000 |  5,611,245 |
+  | 1890 | 1,453,172 |   497,817 |   55,625 | 107,273 |   37,104 | 1,134,590 | 1,588,880 |  5,726,966 |
+  | 1891 | 1,518,690 |   729,268 |   45,022 | 131,776 |   48,375 | 1,168,764 | 1,604,840 |  6,287,591 |
+  | 1892 | 1,638,238 | 1,210,869 |   43,905 | 164,141 |   54,625 | 1,199,809 | 1,597,098 |  7,102,172 |
+  | 1893 | 1,711,892 | 1,478,477 |   44,853 | 207,152 |   63,144 | 1,345,224 | 1,739,323 |  7,772,585 |
+  | 1894 | 2,020,180 | 2,024,164 |   50,411 | 210,412 |  217,688 | 1,167,455 | 1,910,813 |  8,813,848 |
+  | 1895 | 2,170,505 | 2,277,640 |   92,440 | 257,830 |  290,250 | 1,397,767 | 2,254,760 |  9,814,505 |
+  | 1896 | 2,185,872 | 2,280,892 |  136,274 | 323,501 |  314,437 | 1,041,794 | 2,568,132 |  9,950,861 |
+  | 1897 | 2,547,704 | 2,832,776 |  294,582 | 350,585 |  362,812 | 1,124,511 | 2,774,935 | 11,420,068 |
+  | 1898 | 3,137,644 | 3,876,216 |  669,445 | 376,431 |  411,187 | 1,231,791 | 3,118,398 | 13,877,806 |
+  | 1899 | 3,837,181 | 3,532,488 |1,031,563 | 418,869 |  411,187 | 1,072,333 | 3,437,210 | 14,837,775 |
+  | 1900 | 3,555,506 |   419,503 |1,348,720 | 456,444 |  435,375 |   974,537 | 3,829,897 | 12,315,135 |
+  | 1901 | 3,719,080 |   439,704 |1,167,216 | 454,527 |  497,527 | 1,105,412 | 3,805,500 | 12,698,089 |
+  | 1902 | 3,946,374 | 1,887,773 |1,003,355 | 463,824 |  491,156 | 1,090,053 | 3,870,000 | 14,313,660 |
+  | 1903 | 4,315,538 | 3,289,409 |  911,118 | 552,873 |  516,524 | 1,191,582 | 3,560,000 | 15,852,620 |
+  | 1904 | 4,245,744 | 4,156,084 |  793,350 | 556,097 |  609,781 | 1,199,857 | 3,892,480 | 16,790,351 |
+  | 1905 | 4,159,220 | 5,477,841 |  700,863 | 576,889 |  779,181 | 1,063,883 | 4,265,742 | 18,360,945 |
+  | 1906 | 3,984,538 | 6,449,749 |  581,709 | 525,527 |  896,615 | 1,087,056 | 4,565,333 | 19,620,272 |
+  | 1907 | 3,659,693 | 7,270,464 |  399,844 | 495,965 |  903,672 | 1,282,635 | 4,374,827 | 19,988,144 |
+  | 1908 | 3,557,705 | 7,983,348 |  462,467 | 504,309 |1,182,445 | 1,497,076 | 4,659,360 | 21,529,300 |
+  +------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+----------+-----------+-----------+------------+
+
+  _Alloys._--Gold forms alloys with most metals, and of these many are
+  of great importance in the arts. The alloy with mercury--gold
+  amalgam--is so readily formed that mercury is one of the most powerful
+  agents for extracting the precious metal. With 10% of gold present the
+  amalgam is fluid, and with 12.5% pasty, while with 13% it consists of
+  yellowish-white crystals. Gold readily alloys with silver and copper
+  to form substances in use from remote times for money, jewelry and
+  plate. Other metals which find application in the metallurgy of gold
+  by virtue of their property of extracting the gold as an alloy are
+  lead, which combines very readily when molten, and which can
+  afterwards be separated by cupellation, and copper, which is separated
+  from the gold by solution in acids or by electrolysis; molten lead
+  also extracts gold from the copper-gold alloys. The relative amount of
+  gold in an alloy is expressed in two ways: (1) as "fineness," i.e. the
+  amount of gold in 1000 parts of alloy; (2) as "carats," i.e. the
+  amount of gold in 24 parts of alloy. Thus, pure gold is 1000 "fine" or
+  24 carat. In England the following standards are used for plate and
+  jewelry: 375, 500, 625, 750 and 916.6, corresponding to 9, 12, 15, 18
+  and 22 carats, the alloying metals being silver and copper in varying
+  proportions. In France three alloys of the following standards are
+  used for jewelry, 920, 840 and 750. A greenish alloy used by
+  goldsmiths contains 70% of silver and 30% of gold. "Blue gold" is
+  stated to contain 75% of gold and 25% of iron. The Japanese use for
+  ornament an alloy of gold and silver, the standard of which varies
+  from 350 to 500, the colour of the precious metal being developed by
+  "pickling" in a mixture of plum-juice, vinegar and copper sulphate.
+  They may be said to possess a series of bronzes, in which gold and
+  silver replace tin and zinc, all these alloys being characterized by
+  patina having a wonderful range of tint. The common alloy,
+  Shi-ya-ku-Do, contains 70% of copper and 30% of gold; when exposed to
+  air it becomes coated with a fine black patina, and is much used in
+  Japan for sword ornaments. Gold wire may be drawn of any quality, but
+  it is usual to add 5 to 9 dwts. of copper to the pound. The "solders"
+  used for red gold contain 1 part of copper and 5 of gold; for light
+  gold, 1 part of copper, 1 of silver and 4 of gold.
+
+  _Gold and Silver._--Electrum is a natural alloy of gold and silver.
+  Matthiessen observed that the density of alloys, the composition of
+  which varies from AuAg6 to Au6Ag, is greater than that calculated from
+  the densities of the constituent metals. These alloys are harder, more
+  fusible and more sonorous than pure gold. The alloys of the formulae
+  AuAg, AuAg2, AuAg4 and AuAg20 are perfectly homogeneous, and have been
+  studied by Levol. Molten alloys containing more than 80% of silver
+  deposit on cooling the alloy AuAg9, little gold remaining in the
+  mother liquor.
+
+  _Gold and Zinc._--When present in small quantities zinc renders gold
+  brittle, but it may be added to gold in larger quantities without
+  destroying the ductility of the precious metal; Peligot proved that a
+  triple alloy of gold, copper and zinc, which contains 5.8% of the
+  last-named, is perfectly ductile. The alloy of 11 parts gold and 1
+  part of zinc is, however, stated to be brittle.
+
+  _Gold and Tin._--Alchorne showed that gold alloyed with 1/37th part of
+  tin is sufficiently ductile to be rolled and stamped into coin,
+  provided the metal is not annealed at a high temperature. The alloys
+  of tin and gold are hard and brittle, and the combination of the
+  metals is attended with contraction; thus the alloy SnAu has a density
+  14.243, instead of 14.828 indicated by calculation. Matthiessen and
+  Bose obtained large crystals of the alloy Au2Sn5, having the colour of
+  tin, which changed to a bronze tint by oxidation.
+
+  _Gold and Iron._--Hatchett found that the alloy of 11 parts gold and 1
+  part of iron is easily rolled without annealing. In these proportions
+  the density of the alloy is less than the mean of its constituent
+  metals.
+
+  _Gold and Palladium._--These metals are stated to alloy in all
+  proportions. According to Chenevix, the alloy composed of equal parts
+  of the two metals is grey, is less ductile than its constituent metals
+  and has the specific gravity 11.08. The alloy of 4 parts of gold and 1
+  part of palladium is white, hard and ductile. Graham showed that a
+  wire of palladium alloyed with from 24 to 25 parts of gold does not
+  exhibit the remarkable retraction which, in pure palladium, attends
+  its loss of occluded hydrogen.
+
+  _Gold and Platinum._--Clarke states that the alloy of equal parts of
+  the two metals is ductile, and has almost the colour of gold.
+
+  _Gold and Rhodium._--Gold alloyed with 1/4th or 1/5th of rhodium is,
+  according to Wollaston, very ductile, infusible and of the colour of
+  gold.
+
+  _Gold and Iridium._--Small quantities of iridium do not destroy the
+  ductility of gold, but this is probably because the metal is only
+  disseminated through the mass, and not alloyed, as it falls to the
+  bottom of the crucible in which the gold is fused.
+
+  _Gold and Nickel._--Eleven parts of gold and 1 of nickel yield an
+  alloy resembling brass.
+
+  _Gold and Cobalt._--Eleven parts of gold and 1 of cobalt form a
+  brittle alloy of a dull yellow colour.
+
+  _Compounds._--Aurous oxide, Au2O, is obtained by cautiously adding
+  potash to a solution of aurous bromide, or by boiling mixed solutions
+  of auric chloride and mercurous nitrate. It forms a dark-violet
+  precipitate which dries to a greyish-violet powder. When freshly
+  prepared it dissolves in cold water to form an indigo-coloured
+  solution with a brownish fluorescence of colloidal aurous oxide; it is
+  insoluble in hot water. This oxide is slightly basic. Auric oxide,
+  Au2O3, is a brown powder, decomposed into its elements when heated to
+  about 250 deg. or on exposure to light. When a concentrated solution
+  of auric chloride is treated with caustic potash, a brown precipitate
+  of auric hydrate, Au(OH)3, is obtained, which, on heating, loses water
+  to form auryl hydrate, AuO(OH), and auric oxide, Au2O3. It functions
+  chiefly as an acidic oxide, being less basic than aluminium oxide, and
+  forming no stable oxy-salts. It dissolves in alkalis to form
+  well-defined crystalline salts; potassium aurate, KAuO2.3H2O, is very
+  soluble in water, and is used in electro-gilding. With concentrated
+  ammonia auric oxide forms a black, highly explosive compound of the
+  composition AuN2H3.3H2O, named "fulminating gold"; this substance is
+  generally considered to be Au(NH2)NH.3H2O, but it may be an ammine of
+  the formula [Au(NH3)2(OH)2]OH. Other oxides, e.g. Au2O2, have been
+  described.
+
+  Aurous chloride, AuCl, is obtained as a lemon-yellow, amorphous
+  powder, insoluble in water, by heating auric chloride to 185 deg. It
+  begins to decompose into gold and chlorine at 185 deg., the
+  decomposition being complete at 230 deg.; water decomposes it into
+  gold and auric chloride. Auric chloride, or gold trichloride, AuCl3,
+  is a dark ruby-red or reddish-brown, crystalline, deliquescent powder
+  obtained by dissolving the metal in aqua regia. It is also obtained by
+  carefully evaporating a solution of the metal in chlorine water. The
+  gold chloride of commerce, which is used in photography, is really a
+  hydrochloride, chlorauric or aurichloric acid, HAuCl4.3H2O, and is
+  obtained in long yellow needles by crystallizing the acid solution.
+  Corresponding to this acid, a series of salts, named chloraurates or
+  aurichlorides, are known. The potassium salt is obtained by
+  crystallizing equivalent quantities of potassium and auric chlorides.
+  Light-yellow monoclinic needles of 2KAuCl4.H2O are deposited from
+  warm, strongly acid solutions, and transparent rhombic tables of
+  KAuCl4.2H2O from neutral solutions. By crystallizing an aqueous
+  solution, red crystals of AuCl3.2H2O are obtained. Auric chloride
+  combines with the hydrochlorides of many organic bases--amines,
+  alkaloids, &c.--to form characteristic compounds. Gold dichloride,
+  probably Au2Cl4, = Au.AuCl4, aurous chloraurate, is said to be
+  obtained as a dark-red mass by heating finely divided gold to 140
+  deg.-170 deg. in chlorine. Water decomposes it into gold and auric
+  chloride. The bromides and iodides resemble the chlorides. Aurous
+  bromide, AuBr, is a yellowish-green powder obtained by heating the
+  tribromide to 140 deg.; auric bromide, AuBr3, forms reddish-black or
+  scarlet-red leafy crystals, which dissolve in water to form a
+  reddish-brown solution, and combines with bromides to form bromaurates
+  corresponding to the chloraurates. Aurous iodide, AuI, is a
+  light-yellow, sparingly soluble powder obtained, together with free
+  iodine, by adding potassium iodide to auric chloride; auric iodide,
+  AuI3, is formed as a dark-green powder at the same time, but it
+  readily decomposes to aurous iodide and iodine. Aurous iodide is also
+  obtained as a green solid by acting upon gold with iodine. The
+  iodaurates correspond to the chlor- and bromaurates; the potassium
+  salt, KAuI4, forms highly lustrous, intensely black, four-sided
+  prisms.
+
+  Aurous cyanide, AuCN, forms yellow, microscopic, hexagonal tables,
+  insoluble in water, and is obtained by the addition of hydrochloric
+  acid to a solution of potassium aurocyanide, KAu(CN)2. This salt is
+  prepared by precipitating a solution of gold in _aqua regia_ by
+  ammonia, and then introducing the well-washed precipitate into a
+  boiling solution of potassium cyanide. The solution is filtered and
+  allowed to cool, when colourless rhombic pyramids of the aurocyanide
+  separate. It is also obtained in the action of potassium cyanide on
+  gold in the presence of air, a reaction utilized in the
+  MacArthur-Forrest process of gold extraction (see below). Auric
+  cyanide, Au(CN)3, is not certainly known; its double salts, however,
+  have been frequently described. Potassium auricyanide, 2KAu(CN)4.3H2O,
+  is obtained as large, colourless, efflorescent tablets by
+  crystallizing concentrated solutions of auric chloride and potassium
+  cyanide. The acid, auricyanic acid, 2HAu(CN)4.3H2O, is obtained by
+  treating the silver salt (obtained by precipitating the potassium salt
+  with silver nitrate) with hydrochloric acid; it forms tabular
+  crystals, readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether.
+
+  Gold forms three sulphides corresponding to the oxides; they readily
+  decompose on heating. Aurous sulphide, Au2S, is a brownish-black
+  powder formed by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a solution of
+  potassium aurocyanide and then acidifying. Sodium aurosulphide,
+  NaAuS.4H2O, is prepared by fusing gold with sodium sulphide and
+  sulphur, the melt being extracted with water, filtered in an
+  atmosphere of nitrogen, and evaporated in a vacuum over sulphuric
+  acid. It forms colourless, monoclinic prisms, which turn brown on
+  exposure to air. This method of bringing gold into solution is
+  mentioned by Stahl in his _Observationes Chymico-Physico-Medicae_; he
+  there remarks that Moses probably destroyed the golden calf by burning
+  it with sulphur and alkali (Ex. xxxii. 20). Auric sulphide, Au2S3, is
+  an amorphous powder formed when lithium aurichloride is treated with
+  dry sulphuretted hydrogen at -10 deg. It is very unstable, decomposing
+  into gold and sulphur at 200 deg.
+
+  Oxy-salts of gold are almost unknown, but the sulphite and
+  thiosulphate form double salts. Thus by adding acid sodium sulphite
+  to, or by passing sulphur dioxide at 50 deg. into, a solution of
+  sodium aurate, the salt, 3Na2SO3.Au2SO3.3H2O is obtained, which, when
+  precipitated from its aqueous solution by alcohol, forms a purple
+  powder, appearing yellow or green by reflected light. Sodium
+  aurothiosulphate, 3Na2S2O3.Au2S2O3.4H2O, forms colourless needles; it
+  is obtained in the direct action of sodium thiosulphate on gold in the
+  presence of an oxidizing agent, or by the addition of a dilute
+  solution of auric chloride to a sodium thiosulphate solution.
+
+
+_Mining and Metallurgy._
+
+The various deposits of gold may be divided into two classes--"veins"
+and "placers." The vein mining of gold does not greatly differ from that
+of similar deposits of metals (see MINERAL DEPOSITS). In the placer or
+alluvial deposits, the precious metal is found usually in a water-worn
+condition imbedded in earthy matter, and the method of working all such
+deposits is based on the disintegration of the earthy matter by the
+action of a stream of water, which washes away the lighter portions and
+leaves the denser gold. In alluvial deposits the richest ground is
+usually found in contact with the "bed rock"; and, when the overlying
+cover of gravel is very thick, or, as sometimes happens, when the older
+gravel is covered with a flow of basalt, regular mining by shafts and
+levels, as in what are known as tunnel-claims, may be required to reach
+the auriferous ground.
+
+The extraction of gold may be effected by several methods; we may
+distinguish the following leading types:
+
+1. By simple washing, i.e. dressing auriferous sands, gravels, &c.;
+
+2. By amalgamation, i.e. forming a gold amalgam, afterwards removing the
+mercury by distillation;
+
+3. By chlorination, i.e. forming the soluble gold chloride and then
+precipitating the metal;
+
+4. By the cyanide process, i.e. dissolving the gold in potassium cyanide
+solution, and then precipitating the metal;
+
+5. Electrolytically, generally applied to the solutions obtained in
+processes (3) and (4).
+
+  1. _Extraction of Gold by Washing._--In the early days of gold-washing
+  in California and Australia, when rich alluvial deposits were common
+  at the surface, the most simple appliances sufficed. The most
+  characteristic is the "pan," a circular dish of sheet-iron or "tin,"
+  with sloping sides about 13 or 14 in. in diameter. The pan, about
+  two-thirds filled with the "pay dirt" to be washed, is held in the
+  stream or in a hole filled with water. The larger stones having been
+  removed by hand, gyratory motion is given to the pan by a combination
+  of shaking and twisting movements so as to keep its contents
+  suspended in the stream of water, which carries away the bulk of the
+  lighter material, leaving the heavy minerals, together with any gold
+  which may have been present. The washing is repeated until enough of
+  the enriched sand is collected, when the gold is finally recovered by
+  careful washing or "panning out" in a smaller pan. In Mexico and South
+  America, instead of the pan, a wooden dish or trough, known as
+  "batea," is used.
+
+  The "cradle" is a simple appliance for treating somewhat larger
+  quantities, and consists essentially of a box, mounted on rockers, and
+  provided with a perforated bottom of sheet iron in which the "pay
+  dirt" is placed. Water is poured on the dirt, and the rocking motion
+  imparted to the cradle causes the finer particles to pass through the
+  perforated bottom on to a canvas screen, and thence to the base of the
+  cradle, where the auriferous particles accumulate on transverse bars
+  of wood, called "riffles."
+
+  The "tom" is a sort of cradle with an extended sluice placed on an
+  incline of about 1 in 12. The upper end contains a perforated riddle
+  plate which is placed directly over the riffle box, and under certain
+  circumstances mercury may be placed behind the riffles. Copper plates
+  amalgamated with mercury are also used when the gold is very fine, and
+  in some instances amalgamated silver coins have been used for the same
+  purpose. Sometimes the stuff is disintegrated with water in a
+  "puddling machine," which was used, especially in Australia, when the
+  earthy matters are tenacious and water scarce. The machine frequently
+  resembles a brickmaker's wash-mill, and is worked by horse or steam
+  power.
+
+  In workings on a larger scale, where the supply of water is abundant,
+  as in California, sluices were generally employed. They are shallow
+  troughs about 12 ft. long, about 16 to 20 in. wide and 1 ft. in depth.
+  The troughs taper slightly so that they can be joined in series, the
+  total length often reaching several hundred feet. The incline of the
+  sluice varies with the conformation of the ground and the tenacity of
+  the stuff to be washed, from 1 in 16 to 1 in 8. A rectangular trough
+  of boards, whose dimensions depend chiefly on the size of the planks
+  available, is set up on the higher part of the ground at one side of
+  the claim to be worked, upon trestles or piers of rough stone-work, at
+  such an inclination that the stream may carry off all but the largest
+  stones, which are kept back by a grating of boards about 2 in. apart.
+  The gravel is dug by hand and thrown in at the upper end, the stones
+  kept back being removed at intervals by two men with four-pronged
+  steel forks. The floor of the sluice is laid with riffles made of
+  strips of wood 2 in. square laid parallel to the direction of the
+  current, and at other points with boards having transverse notches
+  filled with mercury. These were known originally as Hungarian riffles.
+
+  In larger plant the upper ends of the sluices are often cut in rock or
+  lined with stone blocks, the grating stopping the larger stones being
+  known as a "grizzly." In order to save very fine and especially rusty
+  particles of gold, so-called "under-current sluices" are used; these
+  are shallow wooden tanks, 50 sq. yds. and upwards in area, which are
+  placed somewhat below the main sluice, and communicate with it above
+  and below, the entry being protected by a grating so that only the
+  finer material is admitted. These are paved with stone blocks or lined
+  with mercury riffles, so that from the greatly reduced velocity of
+  flow, due to the sudden increase of surface, the finer particles of
+  gold may collect. In order to save finely divided gold, amalgamated
+  copper plates are sometimes placed in a nearly level position, at a
+  considerable distance from the head of the sluice, the gold which is
+  retained in it being removed from time to time. Sluices are often made
+  double, and they are usually cleaned up--that is, the deposit rich in
+  gold is removed from them--once a week.
+
+  The "pan" is now only used by prospectors, while the "cradle" and
+  "tom" are practically confined to the Chinese; the sluice is
+  considered to be the best contrivance for washing gold gravels.
+
+2. _The Amalgamation Process._--This method is employed to extract gold
+from both alluvial and reef deposits: in the first case it is combined
+with "hydraulic mining," i.e. disintegrating auriferous gravels by
+powerful jets of water, and the sluice system described above; in the
+second case the vein stuff is prepared by crushing and the amalgamation
+is carried out in mills.
+
+  Hydraulic mining has for the most part been confined to the country of
+  its invention, California, and the western territories of America,
+  where the conditions favourable for its use are more fully developed
+  than elsewhere--notably the presence of thick banks of gravel that
+  cannot be utilized by other methods, and abundance of water, even
+  though considerable work may be required at times to make it
+  available. The general conditions to be observed in such workings may
+  be briefly stated as follows: (1) The whole of the auriferous gravel,
+  down to the "bed rock," must be removed,--that is, no selection of
+  rich or poor parts is possible; (2) this must be accomplished by the
+  aid of water alone, or at times by water supplemented by blasting; (3)
+  the conglomerate must be mechanically disintegrated without
+  interrupting the whole system; (4) the gold must be saved without
+  interrupting the continuous flow of water; and (5) arrangements must
+  be made for disposing of the vast masses of impoverished gravel.
+
+  The water is brought from a ditch on the high ground, and through a
+  line of pipes to the distributing box, whence the branch pipes
+  supplying the jets diverge. The stream issues through a nozzle,
+  termed a "monitor" or "giant," which is fitted with a ball and socket
+  joint, so that the direction of the jet may be varied through
+  considerable angles by simply moving a handle. The material of the
+  bank being loosened by blasting and the cutting action of the water,
+  crumbles into holes, and the superincumbent mass, often with large
+  trees and stones, falls into the lower ground. The stream, laden with
+  stones and gravel, passes into the sluices, where the gold is
+  recovered in the manner already described. Under the most advantageous
+  conditions the loss of gold may be estimated at 15 or 20%, the amount
+  recovered representing a value of about two shillings per ton of
+  gravel treated. The loss of mercury is about the same, from 5 to 6
+  cwt. being in constant use per mile of sluice.
+
+  In working auriferous river-beds, dredges have been used with
+  considerable success in certain parts of New Zealand and on the
+  Pacific slope in America. The dredges used in California are almost
+  exclusively of the endless-chain bucket or steam-shovel pattern. Some
+  dredges have a capacity under favourable conditions of over 2000 cub.
+  yds. of gravel daily. The gravel is excavated as in the ordinary form
+  of endless-chain bucket dredge and dumped on to the deck of the
+  dredge. It then passes through screens and grizzlies to retain the
+  coarse gravel, the finer material passing on to sluice boxes provided
+  with riffles, supplied with mercury. There are belt conveyers for
+  discharging the gravel and tailings at the end of the vessel remote
+  from the buckets. The water necessary to the process is pumped from
+  the river; as much as 2000 gallons per minute is used on the larger
+  dredges.
+
+  The dressing or mechanical preparation of vein stuff containing gold
+  is generally similar to that of other ores (see ORE-DRESSING), except
+  that the precious metal should be removed from the waste substances as
+  quickly as possible, even although other minerals of value that are
+  subsequently recovered may be present. In all cases the quartz or
+  other vein stuff must be reduced to a very fine powder as a
+  preliminary to further operations. This may be done in several ways,
+  e.g. either (1) by the Mexican crusher or _arrastra_, in which the
+  grinding is effected upon a bed of stone, over which heavy blocks of
+  stone attached to cross arms are dragged by the rotation of the arms
+  about a central spindle, or (2) by the Chilean mill or _trapiche_,
+  also known as the edge-runner, where the grinding stones roll upon the
+  floor, at the same time turning about a central upright--contrivances
+  which are mainly used for the preparation of silver ores; but by far
+  the largest proportion of the gold quartz of California, Australia and
+  Africa is reduced by (3) the stamp mill, which is similar in principle
+  to that used in Europe for the preparation of tin and other ores.
+
+  The stamp mill was first used in California, and its use has since
+  spread over the whole world. In the mills of the Californian type the
+  stamp is a cylindrical iron pestle faced with a chilled cast iron
+  shoe, removable so that it can be renewed when necessary, attached to
+  a round iron rod or lifter, the whole weighing from 600 to 900 lb.;
+  stamps weighing 1320 lb. are in use in the Transvaal. The lift is
+  effected by cams acting on the under surface of tappets, and formed by
+  cylindrical boxes keyed on to the stems of the lifter about one-fourth
+  of their length from the top. As, however, the cams, unlike those of
+  European stamp mills, are placed to one side of the stamp, the latter
+  is not only lifted but turned partly round on its own axis, whereby
+  the shoes are worn down uniformly. The height of lift may be between 4
+  and 18 in., and the number of blows from 30 to over 100 per minute.
+  The stamps are usually arranged in batteries of five; the order of
+  working is usually 1, 4, 2, 5, 3, but other arrangements, e.g. 1, 3,
+  5, 2, 4, and 1, 5, 2, 4, 3, are common. The stuff, previously broken
+  to about 2-in. lumps in a rock-breaker, is fed in through an aperture
+  at the back of the "battery box," a constant supply of water is
+  admitted from above, and mercury in a finely divided state is added at
+  frequent intervals. The discharge of the comminuted material takes
+  place through an aperture, which is covered by a thin steel plate
+  perforated with numerous slits about 1/50th in. broad and 1/2 in.
+  long, a certain volume being discharged at every blow and carried
+  forward by the flushing water over an apron or table in front, covered
+  by copper plates filled with mercury. Similar plates are often used to
+  catch any particles of gold that may be thrown back, while the main
+  operation is so conducted that the bulk of the gold may be reduced to
+  the state of amalgam by bringing the two metals into intimate contact
+  under the stamp head, and remain in the battery. The tables in front
+  are laid at an incline of about 8 deg. and are about 13 ft. long; they
+  collect from 10 to 15% of the whole gold; a further quantity is
+  recovered by leading the sands through a gutter about 16 in. broad and
+  120 ft. long, also lined with amalgamated copper plates, after the
+  pyritic and other heavy minerals have been separated by depositing in
+  catch pits and other similar contrivances.
+
+  When the ore does not contain any considerable amount of free gold
+  mercury is not, as a rule, used during the crushing, but the
+  amalgamation is carried out in a separate plant. Contrivances of the
+  most diverse constructions have been employed. The most primitive is
+  the rubbing together of the concentrated crushings with mercury in
+  iron mortars. Barrel amalgamation, i.e. mixing the crushings with
+  mercury in rotating barrels, is rarely used, the process being
+  wasteful, since the mercury is specially apt to be "floured" (see
+  below).
+
+  At Schemnitz, Kerpenyes, Kreuzberg and other localities in Hungary,
+  quartz vein stuff containing a little gold, partly free and partly
+  associated with pyrites and galena, is, after stamping in mills,
+  similar to those described above, but without rotating stamps, passed
+  through the so-called "Hungarian gold mill" or "quick-mill." This
+  consists of a cast-iron pan having a shallow cylindrical bottom
+  holding mercury, in which a wooden muller, nearly of the same shape as
+  the inside of the pan, and armed below with several projecting blades,
+  is made to revolve by gearing wheels. The stuff from the stamps is
+  conveyed to the middle of the muller, and is distributed over the
+  mercury, when the gold subsides, while the quartz and lighter
+  materials are guided by the blades to the circumference and are
+  discharged, usually into a second similar mill, and subsequently pass
+  over blanket tables, i.e. boards covered with canvas or sacking, the
+  gold and heavier particles becoming entangled in the fibres. The
+  action of this mill is really more nearly analogous to that of a
+  centrifugal pump, as no grinding action takes place in it. The amalgam
+  is cleaned out periodically--fortnightly or monthly--and after
+  filtering through linen bags to remove the excess of mercury, it is
+  transferred to retorts for distillation (see below).
+
+  Many other forms of pan-amalgamators have been devised. The Laszlo is
+  an improved Hungarian mill, while the Piccard is of the same type. In
+  the Knox and Boss mills, which are also employed for the amalgamation
+  of silver ores, the grinding is effected between flat horizontal
+  surfaces instead of conical or curved surfaces as in the previously
+  described forms.
+
+  One of the greatest difficulties in the treatment of gold by
+  amalgamation, and more particularly in the treatment of pyrites,
+  arises from the so-called "sickening" or "flouring" of the mercury;
+  that is, the particles, losing their bright metallic surfaces, are no
+  longer capable of coalescing with or taking up other metals. Of the
+  numerous remedies proposed the most efficacious is perhaps sodium
+  amalgam. It appears that amalgamation is often impeded by the tarnish
+  found on the surface of the gold when it is associated with sulphur,
+  arsenic, bismuth, antimony or tellurium. Henry Wurtz in America (1864)
+  and Sir William Crookes in England (1865) made independently the
+  discovery that, by the addition of a small quantity of sodium to the
+  mercury, the operation is much facilitated. It is also stated that
+  sodium prevents both the "sickening" and the "flouring" of the mercury
+  which is produced by certain associated minerals. The addition of
+  potassium cyanide has been suggested to assist the amalgamation and to
+  prevent "flouring," but Skey has shown that its use is attended with
+  loss of gold.
+
+  _Separation of Gold from the Amalgam._--The amalgam is first pressed
+  in wetted canvas or buckskin in order to remove excess of mercury.
+  Lumps of the solid amalgam, about 2 in. in diameter, are introduced
+  into an iron vessel provided with an iron tube that leads into a
+  condenser containing water. The distillation is then effected by
+  heating to dull redness. The amalgam yields about 30 to 40% of gold.
+  Horizontal cylindrical retorts, holding from 200 to 1200 lb. of
+  amalgam, are used in the larger Californian mills, pot retorts being
+  used in the smaller mills. The bullion left in the retorts is then
+  melted in black-lead crucibles, with the addition of small quantities
+  of suitable fluxes, e.g. nitre, sodium carbonate, &c.
+
+  The extraction of gold from auriferous minerals by fusion, except as
+  an incident in their treatment for other metals, is very rarely
+  practised. It was at one time proposed to treat the concentrated black
+  iron obtained in the Ural gold washings, which consists chiefly of
+  magnetite, as an iron ore, by smelting it with charcoal for auriferous
+  pig-iron, the latter metal possessing the property of dissolving gold
+  in considerable quantity. By subsequent treatment with sulphuric acid
+  the gold could be recovered. Experiments on this point were made by
+  Anossow in 1835, but they have never been followed in practice.
+
+  Gold in galena or other lead ores is invariably recovered in the
+  refining or treatment of the lead and silver obtained. Pyritic ores
+  containing copper are treated by methods analogous to those of the
+  copper smelter. In Colorado the pyritic ores containing gold and
+  silver in association with copper are smelted in reverberatory
+  furnaces for regulus, which, when desilverized by Ziervogel's method,
+  leaves a residue containing 20 or 30 oz. of gold per ton. This is
+  smelted with rich gold ores, notably those containing tellurium, for
+  white metal or regulus; and by a following process of partial
+  reduction analogous to that of selecting in copper smelting, "bottoms"
+  of impure copper are obtained in which practically all the gold is
+  concentrated. By continuing the treatment of these in the ordinary way
+  of refining, poling and granulating, all the foreign matters other
+  than gold, copper and silver are removed, and, by exposing the
+  granulated metal to a high oxidizing heat for a considerable time the
+  copper may be completely oxidized while the precious metals are
+  unaltered. Subsequent treatment with sulphuric acid renders the copper
+  soluble in water as sulphate, and the final residue contains only gold
+  and silver, which is parted or refined in the ordinary way. This
+  method of separating gold from copper, by converting the latter into
+  oxide and sulphate, is also used at Oker in the Harz.
+
+_Extraction by Means of Aqueous Solutions._--Many processes have been
+suggested in which the gold of auriferous deposits is converted into
+products soluble in water, from which solutions the gold may be
+precipitated. Of these processes, two only are of special importance,
+viz. the chlorination or Plattner process, in which the metal is
+converted into the chloride, and the cyanide or MacArthur-Forrest
+process, in which it is converted into potassium aurocyanide.
+
+  (3) _Chlorination or Plattner Process._--In this process moistened
+  gold ores are treated with chlorine gas, the resulting gold chloride
+  dissolved out with water, and the gold precipitated with ferrous
+  sulphate, charcoal, sulphuretted hydrogen or otherwise. The process
+  originated in 1848 with C. F. Plattner, who suggested that the
+  residues from certain mines at Reichenstein, in Silesia, should be
+  treated with chlorine after the arsenical products had been extracted
+  by roasting. It must be noticed, however, that Percy independently
+  made the same discovery, and stated his results at the meeting of the
+  British Association (at Swansea) in 1849, but the Report was not
+  published until 1852. The process was introduced in 1858 by Deetken at
+  Grass Valley, California, where the waste minerals, principally
+  pyrites from tailings, had been worked for a considerable time by
+  amalgamation. The process is rarely applied to ores direct;
+  free-milling ores are generally amalgamated, and the tailings and
+  slimes, after concentration, operated upon. Three stages in the
+  process are to be distinguished: (i) calcination, to convert all the
+  metals, except gold and silver, into oxides, which are unacted upon by
+  chlorine; (ii.) chlorinating the gold and lixiviating the product;
+  (iii.) precipitating the gold.
+
+  The calcination, or roasting, is conducted at a low temperature in
+  some form of reverberatory furnace. Salt is added in the roasting to
+  convert any lime, magnesia or lead which may be present, into the
+  corresponding chlorides. The auric chloride is, however, decomposed at
+  the elevated temperature into finely divided metallic gold, which is
+  then readily attacked by the chlorine gas. The high volatility of gold
+  in the presence of certain metals must also be considered. According
+  to Egleston the loss may be from 40 to 90% of the total gold present
+  in cupriferous ores according to the temperature and duration of
+  calcination. The roasted mineral, slightly moistened, is introduced
+  into a vat made of stoneware or pitched planks, and furnished with a
+  double bottom. Chlorine, generally prepared by the interaction of
+  pyrolusite, salt and sulphuric acid, is led from a suitable generator
+  beneath the false bottom, and rises through the moistened ore, which
+  rests on a bed of broken quartz; the gold is thus converted into a
+  soluble chloride, which is afterwards removed by washing with water.
+  Both fixed and rotating vats are employed, the chlorination proceeding
+  more rapidly in the latter case; rotating barrels are sometimes used.
+  There have also been introduced processes in which the chlorine is
+  generated in the chloridizing vat, the reagents used being dilute
+  solutions of bleaching powder and an acid. Munktell's process is of
+  this type. In the Thies process, used in many districts in the United
+  States, the vats are rotating barrels made, in the later forms, of
+  iron lined with lead, and provided with a filter formed of a finely
+  perforated leaden grating running from one end of the barrel to the
+  other, and rigidly held in place by wooden frames. Chlorine is
+  generated within the barrel from sulphuric acid and chloride of lime.
+  After charging, the barrel is rotated, and when the chlorination is
+  complete the contents are emptied on a filter of quartz or some
+  similar material, and the filtrate led to settling tanks.
+
+  After settling the solution is run into the precipitating tanks. The
+  precipitants in use are: ferrous sulphate, charcoal and sulphuretted
+  hydrogen, either alone or mixed with sulphur dioxide; the use of
+  copper and iron sulphides has been suggested, but apparently these
+  substances have achieved no success.
+
+  In the case of ferrous sulphate, prepared by dissolving iron in dilute
+  sulphuric acid, the reaction follows the equation AuCl3 + 3FeSO4 =
+  FeCl3 + Fe2(SO4)3 + Au. At the same time any lead, calcium, barium and
+  strontium present are precipitated as sulphates; it is therefore
+  advantageous to remove these metals by the preliminary addition of
+  sulphuric acid, which also serves to keep any basic iron salts in
+  solution. The precipitation is carried out in tanks or vats made with
+  wooden sides and a cement bottom. The solutions are well mixed by
+  stirring with wooden poles, and the gold allowed to settle, the time
+  allowed varying from 12 to 72 hours. The supernatant liquid is led
+  into settling tanks, where a further amount of gold is deposited, and
+  is then filtered through sawdust or sand, the sawdust being afterwards
+  burnt and the gold separated from the ashes and the sand treated in
+  the chloridizing vat. The precipitated gold is washed, treated with
+  salt and sulphuric acid to remove iron salts, roughly dried by
+  pressing in cloths or on filter paper, and then melted with salt,
+  borax and nitre in graphite crucibles. Thus prepared it has a fineness
+  of 800-960, the chief impurities usually being iron and lead.
+
+  Charcoal is used as the precipitant at Mount Morgan, Australia. Its
+  use was proposed as early as 1818 and 1819 by Hare and Henry; Percy
+  advocated it in 1869, and Davis adopted it on the large scale at a
+  works in Carolina in 1880. The action is not properly understood; it
+  may be due to the reducing gases (hydrogen, hydrocarbons, &c.) which
+  are invariably present in wood charcoal. The process consists
+  essentially in running the solution over layers of charcoal, the
+  charcoal being afterwards burned. It has been found that the reaction
+  proceeds faster when the solution is heated.
+
+  Precipitation with sulphur dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen proceeds
+  much more rapidly, and has been adopted at many works. Sulphur
+  dioxide, generated by burning sulphur, is forced into the solution
+  under pressure, where it interacts with any free chlorine present to
+  form hydrochloric and sulphuric acids. Sulphuretted hydrogen, obtained
+  by treating iron sulphide or a coarse matte with dilute sulphuric
+  acid, is forced in similarly. The gold is precipitated as the
+  sulphide, together with any arsenic, antimony, copper, silver and lead
+  which may be present. The precipitate is collected in a filter-press,
+  and then roasted in muffle furnaces with nitre, borax and sodium
+  carbonate. The fineness of the gold so obtained is 900 to 950.
+
+  4. _Cyanide Process._--This process depends upon the solubility of
+  gold in a dilute solution of potassium cyanide in the presence of air
+  (or some other oxidizing agent), and the subsequent precipitation of
+  the gold by metallic zinc or by electrolysis. The solubility of gold
+  in cyanide solutions was known to K. W. Scheele in 1782; and M.
+  Faraday applied it to the preparation of extremely thin films of the
+  metal. L. Eisner recognized, in 1846, the part played by the
+  atmosphere, and in 1879 Dixon showed that bleaching powder, manganese
+  dioxide, and other oxidizing agents, facilitated the solution. S. B.
+  Christy (_Trans. A.I.M.E._, 1896, vol. 26) has shown that the solution
+  is hastened by many oxidizing agents, especially sodium and manganese
+  dioxides and potassium ferricyanide. According to G. Bodlander (_Zeit.
+  f. angew. Chem._, 1896, vol. 19) the rate of solution in potassium
+  cyanide depends upon the subdivision of the gold--the finer the
+  subdivision the quicker the solution,--and on the concentration of the
+  solution--the rate increasing until the solution contains 0.25% of
+  cyanide, and remaining fairly stationary with increasing
+  concentration. The action proceeds in two stages; in the first
+  hydrogen peroxide and potassium aurocyanide are formed, and in the
+  second the hydrogen peroxide oxidizes a further quantity of gold and
+  potassium cyanide to aurocyanide, thus (1) 2Au + 4KCN + O2 + 2H2O =
+  2KAu(CN)2 + 4KOH + H2O2; (2) 2Au + 4KCN + 2H2O2 = 2KAu(CN)2 + 4KOH.
+  The end reaction may be written 4Au + 8KCN + 2H2O + O2 = 4KAu(CN)2 +
+  4KOH.
+
+  The commercial process was patented in 1890 by MacArthur and Forrest,
+  and is now in use all over the world. It is best adapted for
+  free-milling ores, especially after the bulk of the gold has been
+  removed by amalgamation. It has been especially successful in the
+  Transvaal. In the Witwatersrand the ore, which contains about 9 dwts.
+  of gold to the metric ton (2000 lb.), is stamped and amalgamated, and
+  the slimes and tailings, containing about 3-1/2 dwts. per ton, are
+  cyanided, about 2 dwts. more being thus extracted. The total cost per
+  ton of ore treated is about 6s., of which the cyaniding costs from 2s.
+  to 4s.
+
+  The process embraces three operations: (1) Solution of the gold; (2)
+  precipitation of the gold; (3) treatment of the precipitate.
+
+  The ores, having been broken and ground, generally in tube mills,
+  until they pass a 150 to 200-mesh sieve, are transferred to the
+  leaching vats, which are constructed of wood, iron or masonry; steel
+  vats, coated inside and out with pitch, of circular section and
+  holding up to 1000 tons, have come into use. The diameter is generally
+  26 ft., but may be greater; the best depth is considered to be a
+  quarter of the diameter. The vats are fitted with filters made of
+  coco-nut matting and jute cloth supported on wooden frames. The
+  leaching is generally carried out with a strong, medium, and with a
+  weak liquor, in the order given; sometimes there is a preliminary
+  leaching with a weak liquor. The strengths employed depend also upon
+  the mode of precipitation adopted, stronger solutions (up to 0.25%
+  KCN) being used when zinc is the precipitant. For electrolytic
+  precipitation the solution may contain up to 0.1% KCN. The liquors are
+  run off from the vats to the electrolysing baths or precipitating
+  tanks, and the leached ores are removed by means of doors in the sides
+  of the vats into wagons. In the Transvaal the operation occupies 3-1/2
+  to 4 days for fine sands, and up to 14 days for coarse sands; the
+  quantity of cyanide per ton of tailings varies from 0.26 to 0.28 lb.,
+  for electrolytic precipitation, and 0.5 lb. for zinc precipitation.
+
+  The precipitation is effected by zinc in the form of bright turnings,
+  or coated with lead, or by electrolysis. According to Christy, the
+  precipitation with zinc follows equations 1 or 2 according as
+  potassium cyanide is present or not:
+
+  (1) 4KAu(CN)2 + 4Zn + 2H2O = 2Zn(CN)2 + K2Zn(CN)4 + Zn(OK)2 + 4H + 4Au;
+
+  (2) 2KAu(CN)2 + 3Zn + 4KCN + 2H2O = 2K2Zn(CN)4 + Zn(OK)2 + 4H + 2Au;
+
+  one part of zinc precipitating 3.1 parts of gold in the first case,
+  and 2.06 in the second. It may be noticed that the potassium zinc
+  cyanide is useless in gold extraction, for it neither dissolves gold
+  nor can potassium cyanide be regenerated from it.
+
+  The precipitating boxes, generally made of wood but sometimes of
+  steel, and set on an incline, are divided by partitions into
+  alternately wide and narrow compartments, so that the liquor travels
+  upwards in its passage through the wide divisions and downwards
+  through the narrow divisions. In the wider compartments are placed
+  sieves having sixteen holes to the square inch and bearing zinc
+  turnings. The gold and other metals are precipitated on the under
+  surfaces of the turnings and fall to the bottom of the compartment as
+  a black slime. The slime is cleaned out fortnightly or monthly, the
+  zinc turnings being cleaned by rubbing and the supernatant liquor
+  allowed to settle in the precipitating boxes or in separate vessels.
+  The slime so obtained consists of finely divided gold and silver
+  (5-50%), zinc (30-60%), lead (10%), carbon (10%), together with tin,
+  copper, antimony, arsenic and other impurities of the zinc and ores.
+  After well washing with water, the slimes are roughly dried in
+  bag-filters or filter-presses, and then treated with dilute sulphuric
+  acid, the solution being heated by steam. This dissolves out the zinc.
+  Lime is added to bring down the gold, and the sediment, after washing
+  and drying, is fused in graphite crucibles.
+
+  5. _Electrolytic Processes._--The electrolytic separation of the gold
+  from cyanide solutions was first practised in the Transvaal. The
+  process, as elaborated by Messrs. Siemens and Halske, essentially
+  consists in the electrolysis of weak solutions with iron or steel
+  plate anodes, and lead cathodes, the latter, when coated with gold,
+  being fused and cupelled. Its advantages over the zinc process are
+  that the deposited gold is purer and more readily extracted, and that
+  weaker solutions can be employed, thereby effecting an economy in
+  cyanide.
+
+  In the process employed at the Worcester Works in the Transvaal, the
+  liquors, containing about 150 grains of gold per ton and from 0.08 to
+  0.01% of cyanide, are treated in rectangular vats in which is placed a
+  series of iron and leaden plates at intervals of 1 in. The cathodes,
+  which are sheets of thin lead foil weighing 1-1/2 lb. to the sq. yd.,
+  are removed monthly, their gold content being from 0.5 to 10%, and
+  after folding are melted in reverberatory furnaces to ingots
+  containing 2 to 4% of gold. Cupellation brings up the gold to about
+  900 fine. Many variations of the electrolytic process as above
+  outlined have been suggested. S. Cowper Coles has suggested aluminium
+  cathodes; Andreoli has recommended cathodes of iron and anodes of lead
+  coated with lead peroxide, the gold being removed from the iron
+  cathodes by a brief immersion in molten lead; in the Pelatan-Cerici
+  process the gold is amalgamated at a mercury cathode (see also below).
+
+_Refining or Parting of Gold._--Gold is almost always silver-bearing,
+and it may be also noticed that silver generally contains some gold.
+Consequently the separation of these two metals Is one of the most
+important metallurgical processes. In addition to the separation of the
+silver the operation extends to the elimination of the last traces of
+lead, tin, arsenic, &c. which have resisted the preceding cupellation.
+
+  The "parting" of gold and silver is of considerable antiquity. Thus
+  Strabo states that in his time a process was employed for refining and
+  purifying gold in large quantities by cementing or burning it with an
+  aluminous earth, which, by destroying the silver, left the gold in a
+  state of purity. Pliny shows that for this purpose the gold was placed
+  on the fire in an earthen vessel with treble its weight of salt, and
+  that it was afterwards again exposed to the fire with two parts of
+  salt and one of argillaceous rock, which, in the presence of moisture,
+  effected the decomposition of the salt; by this means the silver
+  became converted into chloride.
+
+  The methods of parting can be classified into "dry," "wet" and
+  electrolytic methods. In the "dry" methods the silver is converted
+  into sulphide or chloride, the gold remaining unaltered; in the "wet"
+  methods the silver is dissolved by nitric acid or boiling sulphuric
+  acid; and in the electrolytic processes advantage is taken of the fact
+  that under certain current densities and other circumstances silver
+  passes from an anode composed of a gold-silver alloy to the cathode
+  more readily than gold. Of the dry methods only F. B. Miller's
+  chlorine process is of any importance, this method, and the wet
+  process of refining by sulphuric acid, together with the electrolytic
+  process, being the only ones now practised.
+
+  The conversion of silver into the sulphide may be effected by heating
+  with antimony sulphide, litharge and sulphur, pyrites, or with sulphur
+  alone. The antimony, or _Guss und Fluss_, method was practised up till
+  1846 at the Dresden mint; it is only applicable to alloys containing
+  more than 50% of gold. The fusion results in the formation of a
+  gold-antimony alloy, from which the antimony is removed by an
+  oxidizing fusion with nitre. The sulphur and litharge, or
+  _Pfannenschmied_, process was used to concentrate the gold in an alloy
+  in order to make it amenable to "quartation," or parting with nitric
+  acid. Fusion with sulphur was used for the same purpose as the
+  Pfannenschmied process. It was employed in 1797 at the St Petersburg
+  mint.
+
+  The conversion of the silver into the chloride may be effected by
+  means of salt--the "cementation" process--or other chlorides, or by
+  free chlorine--Miller's process. The first process consists
+  essentially in heating the alloy with salt and brickdust; the latter
+  absorbs the chloride formed, while the gold is recovered by washing.
+  It is no longer employed. The second process depends upon the fact
+  that, if chlorine be led into the molten alloy, the base metals and
+  the silver are converted into chlorides. It was proposed in 1838 by
+  Lewis Thompson, but it was only applied commercially after Miller's
+  improvements in 1867, when it was adopted at the Sydney mint. Sir W.
+  C. Roberts-Austen introduced it at the London mint; and it has also
+  been used at Pretoria. It is especially suitable to gold containing
+  little silver and base metals--a character of Australian gold--but it
+  yields to the sulphuric acid and electrolytic methods in point of
+  economy.
+
+  The separation of gold from silver in the wet way may be effected by
+  nitric acid, sulphuric acid or by a mixture of sulphuric acid and
+  _aqua regia_.
+
+  Parting by nitric acid is of considerable antiquity, being mentioned
+  by Albertus Magnus (13th cent.), Biringuccio (1540) and Agricola
+  (1556). It is now rarely practised, although in some refineries both
+  the nitric acid and the sulphuric acid processes are combined, the
+  alloy being first treated with nitric acid. It used to be called
+  "quartation" or "inquartation," from the fact that the alloy best
+  suited for the operation of refining contained 3 parts of silver to 1
+  of gold. The operation may be conducted in vessels of glass or
+  platinum, and each pound of granulated metal is treated with a pound
+  and a quarter of nitric acid of specific gravity 1.32. The method is
+  sometimes employed in the assay of gold.
+
+  Refining by sulphuric acid, the process usually adopted for separating
+  gold from silver, was first employed on the large scale by d'Arcet in
+  Paris in 1802, and was introduced into the Mint refinery, London, by
+  Mathison in 1829. It is based upon the facts that concentrated hot
+  sulphuric acid converts silver and copper into soluble sulphates
+  without attacking the gold, the silver sulphate being subsequently
+  reduced to the metallic state by copper plates with the formation of
+  copper sulphate. It is applicable to any alloy, and is the best method
+  for parting gold with the exception of the electrolytic method.
+
+  The process embraces four operations: (1) the preparation of an alloy
+  suitable for parting; (2) the treatment with sulphuric acid; (3) the
+  treatment of the residue for gold; (4) the treatment of the solution
+  for silver.
+
+  It is necessary to remove as completely as possible any lead, tin,
+  bismuth, antimony, arsenic and tellurium, impurities which impair the
+  properties of gold and silver, by an oxidizing fusion, e.g. with
+  nitre. Over 10% of copper makes the parting difficult; consequently in
+  such alloys the percentage of copper is diminished by the addition of
+  silver free from copper, or else the copper is removed by a chemical
+  process. Other undesirable impurities are the platinum metals, special
+  treatment being necessary when these substances are present. The
+  alloy, after the preliminary refining, is granulated by being poured,
+  while molten, in a thin stream into cold water which is kept well
+  agitated.
+
+  The acid treatment is generally carried out in cast iron pots;
+  platinum vessels used to be employed, while porcelain vessels are only
+  used for small operations, e.g. for charges of 190 to 225 oz. as at
+  Oker in the Harz. The pots, which are usually cylindrical with a
+  hemispherical bottom, may hold as much as 13,000 to 16,000 oz. of
+  alloy. They are provided with lids, made either of lead or of wood
+  lined with lead, which have openings to serve for the introduction of
+  the alloy and acid, and a vent tube to lead off the vapours evolved
+  during the operation. The bullion with about twice its weight of
+  sulphuric acid of 66 deg. Be is placed in the pot, and the whole
+  gradually heated. Since the action is sometimes very violent,
+  especially when the bullion is treated in the granulated form (it is
+  steadier when thin plates are operated upon), it is found expedient to
+  add the acid in several portions. The heating is continued for 4 to 12
+  hours according to the amount of silver present; the end of the
+  reaction is known by the absence of any hissing. Generally the
+  reaction mixture is allowed to cool, and the residue, which settles to
+  the bottom of the pot, consists of gold together with copper, lead and
+  iron sulphates, which are insoluble in strong sulphuric acid; silver
+  sulphate may also separate if present in sufficient quantity and the
+  solution be sufficiently cooled. The solution is removed by ladles or
+  by siphons, and the residue is leached out with boiling water; this
+  removes the sulphates. A certain amount of silver is still present
+  and, according to M. Pettenkofer, it is impossible to remove all the
+  silver by means of sulphuric acid. Several methods are in use for
+  removing the silver. Fusion with an alkaline bisulphate converts the
+  silver into the sulphate, which may be extracted by boiling with
+  sulphuric acid and then with water. Another process consists in
+  treating a mixture of the residue with one-quarter of its weight of
+  calcined sodium sulphate with sulphuric acid, the residue being
+  finally boiled with a large quantity of acid. Or the alloy is
+  dissolved in _aqua regia_, the solution filtered from the insoluble
+  silver chloride, and the gold precipitated by ferrous chloride.
+
+  The silver present in the solution obtained in the sulphuric acid
+  boiling is recovered by a variety of processes. The solution may be
+  directly precipitated with copper, the copper passing into solution as
+  copper sulphate, and the silver separating as a mud, termed "cement
+  silver." Or the silver sulphate may be separated from the solution by
+  cooling and dilution, and then mixed with iron clippings, the
+  interaction being accompanied with a considerable evolution of heat.
+  Or Gutzkow's method of precipitating the metal with ferrous sulphate
+  may be employed.
+
+  The electrolytic parting of gold and silver has been shown to be more
+  economical and free from the objections--such as the poisonous
+  fumes--of the sulphuric acid process. One process depends upon the
+  fact that, with a suitable current density, if a very dilute solution
+  of silver nitrate be electrolysed between an auriferous silver anode
+  and a silver cathode, the silver of the anode is dissolved out and
+  deposited at the cathode, the gold remaining at the anode. The silver
+  is quite free from gold, and the gold after boiling with nitric acid
+  has a fineness of over 999.
+
+  Gold is left in the anode slime when copper or silver are refined by
+  the usual processes, but if the gold preponderate in the anode these
+  processes are inapplicable. A cyanide bath, as used in electroplating,
+  would dissolve the gold, but is not suitable for refining, because
+  other metals (silver, copper, &c.) passing with gold into the solution
+  would deposit with it. Bock, however, in 1880 (_Berg- und
+  huttenmannische Zeitung_, 1880, p. 411) described a process used at
+  the North German Refinery in Hamburg for the refining of gold
+  containing platinum with a small proportion of silver, lead or
+  bismuth, and a subsequent patent specification (1896) and a paper by
+  Wohlwill (_Zeits. f. Elektrochem._, 1898, pp. 379, 402, 421) have
+  thrown more light upon the process. The electrolyte is gold chloride
+  (2.5-3 parts of pure gold per 100 of solution) mixed with from 2 to 6%
+  of the strongest hydrochloric acid to render the gold anodes readily
+  soluble, which they are not in the neutral chloride solution. The bath
+  is used at 65 deg. to 70 deg. C. (150 deg. to 158 deg. F.), and if
+  free chlorine be evolved, which is known at once by its pungent smell,
+  the temperature is raised, or more acid is added, to promote the
+  solubility of the gold. The bath is used with a current-density of 100
+  amperes per sq. ft. at 1 volt (or higher), with electrodes about 1.2
+  in. apart. In this process all the anode metals pass into solution
+  except iridium and other refractory metals of that group, which remain
+  as metals, and silver, which is converted into insoluble chloride;
+  lead and bismuth form chloride and oxychloride respectively, and these
+  dissolve until the bath is saturated with them, and then precipitate
+  with the silver in the tank. But if the gold-strength of the bath be
+  maintained, only gold is deposited at the cathode--in a loose powdery
+  condition from pure solutions, but in a smooth detachable deposit from
+  impure liquors. Under good conditions the gold should contain 99.98%
+  of the pure metal. The tank is of porcelain or glazed earthenware, the
+  electrodes for impure solutions are 1/2 in. apart (or more with pure
+  solutions), and are on the multiple system, and the potential
+  difference at the terminals of the bath is 1 volt. A high
+  current-density being employed, the turn-over of gold is rapid--an
+  essential factor of success when the costliness of the metal is taken
+  into account. Platinum and palladium dissolved from the anode
+  accumulate in the solution, and are removed at intervals of, say, a
+  few months by chemical precipitation. It is essential that the bath
+  should not contain more than 5% of palladium, or some of this metal
+  will deposit with the gold. The slimes are treated chemically for the
+  separation of the metals contained in them.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Standard works on the metallurgy of gold are the
+  treatises of T. Kirke Rose and of M. Eissler. The cyanide process is
+  especially treated by M. Eissler, _Cyanide Process for the Extraction
+  of Gold_, which pays particular attention to the Witwatersrand
+  methods; Alfred James, _Cyanide Practice_; H. Forbes Julian and Edgar
+  Smart, _Cyaniding Gold and Silver Ores_. Gold milling is treated by
+  Henry Louis, _A Handbook of Gold Milling_; C. G. Warnford Lock, _Gold
+  Milling_; T. A. Rickard, _Stamp Milling of Gold Ores_. Gold dredging
+  is treated by Captain C. C. Longridge in _Gold Dredging_, and
+  hydraulic mining is discussed by the same author in his _Hydraulic
+  Mining_. For operations in special districts see J. M. Maclaren,
+  _Gold_ (1908); J. H. Curle, _Gold Mines of the World_; Africa: F. H.
+  Hatch and J. A. Chalmers, _Gold Mines of the Rand_; S. J. Truscott,
+  _Witwatersrand Goldfields Banket and Mining Practice_; Australasia: D.
+  Clark, _Australian Mining and Metallurgy_; Karl Schmeisser,
+  _Goldfields of Australasia_; A. G. Charleton, _Gold Mining and Milling
+  in Western Australia_; India: F. H. Hatch, _The Kolar Gold-Field_.
+
+
+
+
+GOLD AND SILVER THREAD. Under this heading some general account may be
+given of gold and silver strips, threads and gimp used in connexion with
+varieties of weaving, embroidery and twisting and plaiting or lace work.
+To this day, in many oriental centres where it seems that early
+traditions of the knowledge and the use of fabrics wholly or partly
+woven, ornamented, and embroidered with gold and silver have been
+maintained, the passion for such brilliant and costly textiles is still
+strong and prevalent. One of the earliest mentions of the use of gold in
+a woven fabric occurs in the description of the ephod made for Aaron
+(Exod. xxxix. 2, 3), "And he made the ephod of gold, blue, and purple,
+and scarlet, and fine twined linen. And they did beat the gold into thin
+plates, and cut it into wires (strips), to work it in the blue, and in
+the purple, and in the scarlet, and in the fine linen, with cunning
+work." This is suggestive of early Syrian or Arabic in-darning or
+weaving with gold strips or tinsel. In both the _Iliad_ and the
+_Odyssey_ allusion is frequently made to inwoven and embroidered golden
+textiles. Assyrian sculpture gives an elaborately designed ornament upon
+the robe of King Assur-nasir-pal (884 B.C.) which was probably an
+interweaving of gold and coloured threads, and testifies to the
+consummate skill of Assyrian or Babylonian workers at that date. From
+Assyrian and Babylonian weavers the conquering Persians of the time of
+Darius derived their celebrity as weavers and users of splendid stuffs.
+Herodotus describes the corselet given by Amasis king of Egypt to the
+Minerva of Lindus and how it was inwoven or embroidered with gold.
+Darius, we are told, wore a war mantle on which were figured (probably
+inwoven) two golden hawks as if pecking at each other. Alexander the
+Great is said to have found Eastern kings and princes arrayed in robes
+of gold and purple. More than two hundred years later than Alexander the
+Great was the king of Pergamos (the third bearing the name Attalus) who
+gave much attention to working in metals and is mentioned by Pliny as
+having invented weaving with gold, hence the historic Attalic cloths.
+There are several references in Roman writings to costumes and stuffs
+woven and embroidered with gold threads and the Graeco-Roman
+_chryso-phrygium_ and the Roman _auri-phrygium_ are evidences not only
+of Roman work with gold threads but also of its indebtedness to Phrygian
+sources. The famous tunics of Agrippina and those of Heliogabalus are
+said to have been of tissues made entirely with gold threads, whereas
+the robes which Marcus Aurelius found in the treasury of Hadrian, as
+well as the costumes sold at the dispersal of the wardrobe of Commodus,
+were different in character, being of fine linen and possibly even of
+silken stuffs inwoven or embroidered with gold threads. The same
+description is perhaps correct of the reputedly splendid hangings with
+which King Dagobert decorated the early medieval oratory of St Denis.
+Reference to these and many such stuffs is made by the respectively
+contemporary or almost contemporary writers; and a very full and
+interesting work by Monsieur Francisque Michel (Paris, 1852) is still a
+standard book for consultation in respect of the history of silk, gold
+and silver stuffs.
+
+From indications such as these, as well as those of later date, one sees
+broadly that the art of weaving and embroidering with gold and silver
+threads passed from one great city to another, travelling as a rule
+westward. Babylon, Tarsus, Bagdad, Damascus, the islands of Cyprus and
+Sicily, Constantinople, Venice and southern Spain appear successively in
+the process of time as famous centres of these much-prized manufactures.
+During the middle ages European royal personages and high ecclesiastical
+dignitaries used cloth and tissues of gold and silver for their state
+and ceremonial robes, as well as for costly hangings and decoration; and
+various names--ciclatoun, tartarium, naques or nac, baudekin or
+baldachin (Bagdad) and tissue--were applied to textiles in the making of
+which gold threads were almost always introduced in combination with
+others. The thin flimsy paper known as tissue paper is so called because
+it originally was placed between the folds of gold "tissue" (or weaving)
+to prevent the contiguous surfaces from fraying each other. Under the
+articles dealing with carpets, embroidery, lace and tapestry will be
+found notices of the occasional use in such productions of gold and
+silver threads. Of early date in the history of European weaving are
+rich stuffs produced in Southern Spain by Moors, as well as by Saracenic
+and Byzantine weavers at Palermo and Constantinople in the 12th century,
+in which metallic threads were freely used. Equally esteemed at about
+the same period were corresponding stuffs made in Cyprus, whilst for
+centuries later the merchants in such fabrics eagerly sought for and
+traded in Cyprus gold and silver threads. Later the actual manufacture
+of them was not confined to Cyprus, but was also carried on by Italian
+thread and trimming makers from the 14th century onwards. For the most
+part the gold threads referred to were of silver gilt. In rare instances
+of middle-age Moorish or Arabian fabrics the gold threads are made with
+strips of parchment or paper gilt and still rarer are instances of the
+use of real gold wire.
+
+In India the preparation of varieties of gold and silver threads is an
+ancient and important art. The "gold wire" of the manufacturer has been
+and is as a rule silver wire gilt, the silver wire being, of course,
+composed of pure silver. The wire is drawn by means of simple
+draw-plates, with rude and simple appliances, from rounded bars of
+silver, or gold-plated silver, as the case may be. The wire is flattened
+into strip, tinsel or ribbon-like form, by passing fourteen or fifteen
+strands simultaneously, over a fine, smooth, round-topped anvil and
+beating each as it passes with a heavy hammer having a slightly convex
+surface. Such strips or tinsel of wire so flattened are woven into
+Indian _soniri_, tissue or cloth of gold, the web or warp being composed
+entirely of golden strips, and _ruperi_, similar tissue of silver. Other
+gold and silver threads suitable for use in embroidery, pillow and
+needlepoint lace making, &c., consist of fine strips of flattened wire
+wound round cores of orange (in the case of silver, white) silk thread
+so as to completely cover them. Wires flattened or partially flattened
+are also twisted into exceedingly fine spirals and much used for heavy
+embroideries. Spangles for embroideries, &c., are made from spirals of
+comparatively stout wire, by cutting them down ring by ring, laying each
+C-like ring on an anvil, and by a smart blow with a hammer flattening it
+out into a thin round disk with a slit extending from the centre to one
+edge. The demand for many kinds of loom-woven and embroidered gold and
+silver work in India is immense, and the variety of textiles so
+ornamented is also very great, chief amongst which are the golden or
+silvery tinsel fabrics known as kincobs.
+
+Amongst Western communities the demand for gold and silver embroideries
+and braid lace now exists chiefly in connexion with naval, military and
+other uniforms, masonic insignia, court costumes, public and private
+liveries, ecclesiastical robes and draperies, theatrical dresses, &c.
+
+The proportions of gold and silver in the gold thread for the woven
+braid lace or ribbon trade varies, but in all cases the proportion of
+gold is exceedingly small. An ordinary gold braid wire is drawn from a
+bar containing 90 parts of silver and 7 of copper, and plated with 3 of
+gold. On an average each ounce troy of a bar so plated is drawn into
+1500 yds. of wire; and therefore about 16 grains of gold cover 1 m. of
+wire.     (A. S. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GOLDAST AB HAIMINSFELD, MELCHIOR (1576-1635), Swiss writer, an
+industrious though uncritical collector of documents relating to the
+medieval history and Constitution of Germany, was born on the 6th of
+January 1576 (some say 1578), of poor Protestant parents, near
+Bischofszell, in the Swiss Canton of Thurgau. His university career,
+first at Ingolstadt (1585-1586), then at Altdorf near Nuremberg
+(1597-1598), was cut short by his poverty, from which he suffered all
+his life, and which was the main cause of his wanderings. In 1598 he
+found a rich protector in the person of Bartholomaeus Schobinger, of St
+Gall, by whose liberality he was enabled to study at St Gall (where he
+first became interested in medieval documents, which abound in the
+conventual library) and elsewhere in Switzerland. Before his patron's
+death (1604) he became (1603) secretary to Henry, duke of Bouillon, with
+whom he went to Heidelberg and Frankfort. But in 1604 he entered the
+service of the Baron von Hohensax, then the possessor of the precious
+MS. volume of old German poems, returned from Paris to Heidelberg in
+1888, and, partially published by Goldast. Soon he was back in
+Switzerland, and by 1606 in Frankfort, earning his living by preparing
+and correcting books for the press. In 1611 he was appointed councillor
+at the court of Saxe-Weimar, and in 1615 he entered the service of the
+count of Schaumburg at Buckeburg. In 1624 he was forced by the war to
+retire to Bremen; there in 1625 he deposited his library in that of the
+town (his books were bought by the town in 1646, but many of his MSS.
+passed to Queen Christina of Sweden, and hence are now in the Vatican
+library), he himself returning to Frankfort. In 1627 he became
+councillor to the emperor and to the archbishop-elector of Treves, and
+in 1633 passed to the service of the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt. He
+died at Giessen early in 1635.
+
+His immense industry is shown by the fact that his biographer,
+Senckenburg, gives a list of 65 works published or written by him, some
+extending to several substantial volumes. Among the more important are
+his _Paraeneticorum veterum pars i._ (1604), which contained the old
+German tales of _Kunig Tyrol von Schotten_, the _Winsbeke_ and the
+_Winsbekin; Suevicarum rerum scriptores_ (Frankfort, 1605, new edition,
+1727); _Rerum Alamannicarum scriptores_ (Frankfort, 1606, new edition by
+Senckenburg, 1730); _Constitutiones imperiales_ (Frankfort, 1607-1613, 4
+vols.); _Monarchia s. Romani imperii_ (Hanover and Frankfort, 1612-1614,
+3 vols.); _Commentarii de regni Bohemiae juribus_ (Frankfort, 1627, new
+edition by Schmink, 1719). He also edited De Thou's _History_
+(1609-1610) and Willibald Pirckheimer's works (1610). In 1688 a volume
+of letters addressed to him by his learned friends was published.
+
+  _Life_ by Senckenburg, prefixed to his 1730 work. See also R. von
+  Raumer's _Geschichte d. germanischen Philologie_ (Munich, 1870).
+       (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GOLDBEATING.--The art of goldbeating is of great antiquity, being
+referred to by Homer; and Pliny (_N.H._ 33. 19) states that 1 oz. of
+gold was extended to 750 leaves, each leaf being four fingers (about 3
+in.) square; such a leaf is three times as thick as the ordinary leaf
+gold of the present time. In all probability the art originated among
+the Eastern nations, where the working of gold and the use of gold
+ornaments have been distinguishing characteristics from the most remote
+periods. On Egyptian mummy cases specimens of original leaf-gilding are
+met with, where the gold is so thin that it resembles modern gilding
+(q.v.). The minimum thickness to which gold can be beaten is not known
+with certainty. According to Mersenne (1621) 1 oz. was spread out over
+105 sq. ft.; Reaumur (1711) obtained 146-1/2 sq. ft.; other values are
+189 sq. ft. and 300 sq. ft. Its malleability is greatly diminished by
+the presence of other metals, even in very minute quantity. In practice
+the average degree of tenuity to which the gold is reduced is not nearly
+so great as the last example quoted above. A "book of gold" containing
+25 leaves measuring each 3-1/4 in., equal to an area of 264 sq. in.,
+generally weighs from 4 to 5 grains.
+
+The gold used by the goldbeater is variously alloyed, according to the
+colour required. Fine gold is commonly supposed to be incapable of being
+reduced to thin leaves. This, however, is not the case, although its use
+for ordinary purposes is undesirable on account of its greater cost. It
+also adheres on one part of a leaf touching another, thus causing a
+waste of labour by the leaves being spoiled; but for work exposed to the
+weather it is much preferable, as it is more durable, and does not
+tarnish or change colour. The external gilding on many public buildings,
+e.g. the Albert Memorial in Kensington Gardens, London, is done with
+pure gold. The following is a list of the principal classes of leaf
+recognized and ordinarily prepared by British beaters, with the
+proportions of alloy per oz. they contain.
+
+    +---------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |               |Proportion |Proportion |Proportion |
+    | Name of leaf. | of gold.  | of Silver.| of Copper.|
+    +---------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |               |  Grains.  |  Grains.  |  Grains.  |
+    | Red           |  456-460  |     ..    |  20-24    |
+    | Pale red      |    464    |     ..    |    16     |
+    | Extra deep    |    456    |     12    |    12     |
+    | Deep          |    444    |     24    |    12     |
+    | Citron        |    440    |     30    |    10     |
+    | Yellow        |    408    |     72    |    ..     |
+    | Pale yellow   |    384    |     96    |    ..     |
+    | Lemon         |    360    |    120    |    ..     |
+    | Green or pale |    312    |    168    |    ..     |
+    | White         |    240    |    240    |    ..     |
+    +---------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+  The process of goldbeating is as follows: The gold, having been
+  alloyed according to the colour desired, is melted in a crucible at a
+  higher temperature than is simply necessary to fuse it, as its
+  malleability is improved by exposure to a greater heat; sudden cooling
+  does not interfere with its malleability, gold differing in this
+  respect from some other metals. It is then cast into an ingot, and
+  flattened, by rolling between a pair of powerful smooth steel rollers,
+  into a ribbon of 1-1/2 in. wide and 10 ft. in length to the oz. After
+  being flattened it is annealed and cut into pieces of about 6-1/2 grs.
+  each, or about 75 per oz., and placed between the leaves of a "cutch,"
+  which is about 1/2 in. thick and 3-1/2 in. square, containing about
+  180 leaves of a tough paper. Formerly fine vellum was used for this
+  purpose, and generally still it is interleaved in the proportion of
+  about one of vellum to six of paper. The cutch is beaten on for about
+  20 minutes with a 17-lb. hammer, which rebounds by the elasticity of
+  the skin, and saves the labour of lifting, by which the gold is spread
+  to the size of the cutch; each leaf is then taken out, and cut into
+  four pieces, and put between the skins of a "shoder," 4-1/2 in. square
+  and 3/4 in. thick, containing about 720 skins, which have been worn
+  out in the finishing or "mould" process. The shoder requires about two
+  hours' beating upon with a 9-lb. hammer. As the gold will spread
+  unequally, the shoder is beaten upon after the larger leaves have
+  reached the edges. The effect of this is that the margins of larger
+  leaves come out of the edges in a state of dust. This allows time for
+  the smaller leaves to reach the full size of the shoder, thus
+  producing a general evenness of size in the leaves. Each leaf is again
+  cut into four pieces, and placed between the leaves of a "mould,"
+  composed of about 950 of the finest gold-beaters' skins, 5 in. square
+  and 3/4 in. thick, the contents of one shoder filling three moulds.
+  The material has now reached the last and most difficult stage of the
+  process; and on the fineness of the skin and judgment of the workman
+  the perfection and thinness of the leaf of gold depend. During the
+  first hour the hammer is allowed to fall principally upon the centre
+  of the mould. This causes gaping cracks upon the edges of the leaves,
+  the sides of which readily coalesce and unite without leaving any
+  trace of the union after being beaten upon. At the second hour, when
+  the gold is about the 150,000th part of an inch in thickness, it for
+  the first time permits the transmission of the rays of light. Pure
+  gold, or gold but slightly alloyed, transmits green rays; gold highly
+  alloyed with silver transmits pale violet rays. The mould requires in
+  all about four hours' beating with a 7-lb. hammer, when the ordinary
+  thinness for the gold leaf of commerce will be reached. A single ounce
+  of gold will at this stage be extended to 75 X 4 X 4 = 1200 leaves,
+  which will trim to squares of about 3-1/4 in. each. The finished leaf
+  is then taken out of the mould, and the rough edges are trimmed off by
+  slips of the ratan fixed in parallel grooves of an instrument called a
+  waggon, the leaf being laid upon a leathern cushion. The leaves thus
+  prepared are placed into "books" capable of holding 25 leaves each,
+  which have been rubbed over with red ochre to prevent the gold
+  clinging to the paper. Dentist gold is gold leaf carried no farther
+  than the cutch stage, and should be perfectly pure gold.
+
+  By the above process also silver is beaten, but not so thin, the
+  inferior value of the metal not rendering it commercially desirable to
+  bestow so much labour upon it. Copper, tin, zinc, palladium, lead,
+  cadmium, platinum and aluminium can be beaten into thin leaves, but
+  not to the same extent as gold or silver.
+
+The fine membrane called goldbeater's skin, used for making up the
+shoder and mould, is the outer coat of the caecum or blind gut of the
+ox. It is stripped off in lengths about 25 or 30 in., and freed from fat
+by dipping in a solution of caustic alkali and scraping with a blunt
+knife. It is afterwards stretched on a frame; two membranes are glued
+together, treated with a solution of aromatic substances or camphor in
+isinglass, and subsequently coated with white of egg. Finally they are
+cut into squares of 5 or 5-1/2 in.; and to make up a mould of 950 pieces
+the gut of about 380 oxen is required, about 2-1/2 skins being got from
+each animal. A skin will endure about 200 beatings in the mould, after
+which it is fit for use in the shoder alone.
+
+  The dryness of the cutch, shoder and mould is a matter of extreme
+  delicacy. They require to be hot-pressed every time they are used,
+  although they may be used daily, to remove the moisture which they
+  acquire from the atmosphere, except in extremely frosty weather, when
+  they acquire so little moisture that a difficulty arises from their
+  over-dryness, whereby the brilliancy of the gold is diminished, and it
+  spreads very slowly under the hammer. On the contrary, if the cutch or
+  shoder be damp, the gold will become pierced with innumerable
+  microscopic holes; and in the moulds in its more attenuated state it
+  will become reduced to a pulverulent state. This condition is more
+  readily produced in alloyed golds than in fine gold. It is necessary
+  that each skin of the mould should be rubbed over with calcined gypsum
+  each time the mould may be used, in order to prevent the adhesion of
+  the gold to the surface of the skin in beating.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia,[1] 14
+m. by rail S.W. of Liegnitz, on the Katzbach, an affluent of the Oder.
+Pop. (1905) 6804. The principal buildings are an old church dating from
+the beginning of the 13th century, the Schwabe-Priesemuth institution,
+completed in 1876, for the board and education of orphans, and the
+classical school or gymnasium (founded in 1524 by Duke Frederick II. of
+Liegnitz), which in the 17th century enjoyed great prosperity, and
+numbered Wallenstein among its pupils. The chief manufactures are
+woollen cloth, flannel, gloves, stockings, leather and beer, and there
+is a considerable trade in corn and fruit. Goldberg owes its origin and
+name to a gold mine in the neighbourhood, which, however, has been
+wholly abandoned since the time of the Hussite wars. The town obtained
+civic rights in 1211. It suffered heavily from the Tatars in 1241, from
+the plague in 1334, from the Hussites in 1428, and from the Saxon,
+Imperial and Swedish forces during the Thirty Years' War. On the 27th of
+May 1813 a battle took place near it between the French and the
+Russians; and on the 23rd and the 27th of August of the same year
+fights between the allies and the French.
+
+  See Sturm, _Geschichte der Stadt Goldberg in Schlesien_ (1887).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Goldberg is also the name of a small town in the grand-duchy of
+    Mecklenburg-Schwerin.
+
+
+
+
+GOLD COAST, that portion of the Guinea Coast (West Africa) which extends
+from Assini upon the west to the river Volta on the east. It derives its
+name from the quantities of grains of gold mixed with the sand of the
+rivers traversing the district. The term Gold Coast is now generally
+identified with the British Gold Coast colony. This extends from 3 deg.
+7' W. to 1 deg. 14' E., the length of the coast-line being about 370 m.
+It is bounded W. by the Ivory Coast colony (French), E. by Togoland
+(German). On the north the British possessions, including Ashanti (q.v.)
+and the Northern Territories, extend to the 11th degree of north
+latitude. The frontier separating the colony from Ashanti (fixed by
+order in council, 22nd of October 1906) is in general 130 m. from the
+coast, but in the central portion of the colony the southern limits of
+Ashanti project wedge-like to the confluence of the rivers Ofin and
+Prah, which point is but 60 m. from the sea at Cape Coast. The combined
+area of the Gold Coast, Ashanti and the Northern Territories, is about
+80,000 sq. m., with a total population officially estimated in 1908 at
+2,700,000; the Gold Coast colony alone has an area of 24,200 sq. m.,
+with a population of over a million, of whom about 2000 are Europeans.
+
+[Map: Gold Coast and Hinterland.]
+
+  _Physical features._--Though the lagoons common to the West African
+  coast are found both at the western and eastern extremities of the
+  colony (Assini in the west and Kwitta in the east) the greater part of
+  the coast-line is of a different character. Cape Three Points (4 deg.
+  44' 40" N. 2 deg. 5' 45" W.) juts boldly into the sea, forming the
+  most southerly point of the colony. Thence the coast trends E. by N.,
+  and is but slightly indented. The usually low sandy beach is, however,
+  diversified by bold, rocky headlands. The flat belt of country does
+  not extend inland any considerable distance, the spurs of the great
+  plateau which forms the major part of West Africa advancing in the
+  east, in the Akwapim district, near to the coast. Here the hills reach
+  an altitude of over 2000 ft. Out of the level plain rise many isolated
+  peaks, generally of conical formation. Numerous rivers descend from
+  the hills, but bars of sand block their mouths, and the Gold Coast
+  possesses no harbours. Great Atlantic rollers break unceasingly upon
+  the shore. The chief rivers are the Volta (q.v.), the Ankobra and the
+  Prah. The Ankobra or Snake river traverses auriferous country, and
+  reaches the sea some 20 m. west of Cape Three Points. It has a course
+  of about 150 m., and is navigable in steam launches for about 80 m.
+  The Prah ("Busum Prah," sacred river) is regarded as a fetish stream
+  by the Fanti and Ashanti. One of its sub-tributaries has its rise near
+  Kumasi. The Prah rises in the N.E. of the colony and flows S.W. Some
+  60 m. from its mouth it is joined by the Ofin, which comes from the
+  north-west. The united stream flows S. and reaches the sea in 1 deg.
+  35' W. As a waterway the river, which has a course of 400 m., is
+  almost useless, owing to the many cataracts in its course. Another
+  river is the Tano, which for some distance in its lower course forms
+  the boundary between the colony and the Ivory Coast.
+
+  _Geology._--Cretaceous rocks occur at intervals along the coast belt,
+  but are mostly hidden under an extensive development of superficial
+  deposits. Basalt occurs at Axim. Inland is a broad belt of sandstone
+  and marl with an occasional band of auriferous conglomerate, best
+  known and most extensively worked for gold in the Wasaw district.
+  Though the conglomerates bear some resemblance to the "Banket" of
+  South Africa they are most probably of more recent date. The alluvial
+  silts and gravels also carry gold.
+
+  _Climate._--The climate on the coast is hot, moist and unhealthy,
+  especially for Europeans. The mean temperature in the shade in the
+  coast towns is 78 deg. to 80 deg. F. Fevers and dysentery are the
+  diseases most to be dreaded by the European. The native inhabitants,
+  although they enjoy tolerable health and live to an average age, are
+  subject in the rainy season to numerous chest complaints. There are
+  two wet seasons. From April to August are the greater rains, whilst in
+  October and November occur the "smalls" or second rains. From the end
+  of December to March the dry harmattan wind blows from the Sahara. In
+  consequence of the prevalence of the sea-breeze from the south-west
+  the western portion of the colony, up to the mouth of the Sekum river
+  (a small stream to the west of Accra), is called the windward
+  district, the eastward portion being known as the leeward. The
+  rainfall at Accra, in the leeward district, averages 27 in. in the
+  year, but at places in the windward district is much greater,
+  averaging 79 in. at Axim.
+
+  _Flora._--The greater part (probably three-fourths) of the colony is
+  covered with primeval forest. Here the vegetation is so luxuriant that
+  for great distances the sky is shut out from view. As a result of the
+  struggle to reach the sunlight the forest growths are almost entirely
+  vertical. The chief trees are silk cottons, especially the bombax, and
+  gigantic hard-wood trees, such as the African mahogany, ebony, odum
+  and camwood. The bombax rises for over 100 ft., a straight column-like
+  shaft, 25 to 30 ft. in circumference, and then throws out horizontally
+  a large number of branches. The lowest growth in the forest consists
+  of ferns and herbaceous plants. Of the ferns some are climbers
+  reaching 30 to 40 ft. up the stems of the trees they entwine.
+  Flowering plants are comparatively rare; they include orchids and a
+  beautiful white lily. The "bush" or intermediate growth is made up of
+  smaller trees, the rubber vine and other creepers, some as thick as
+  hawsers, bamboos and sensitive mimosa, and has a height of from 30 to
+  60 ft. The creepers are found not only in the bush, but on the ground
+  and hanging from the branches of the highest trees. West of the Prah
+  the forest comes down to the edge of the Atlantic. East of that river
+  the coast land is covered with bushes 5 to 12 ft. high, occasional
+  large trees and groves of oil palms. Still farther east, by Accra, are
+  numerous arborescent Euphorbias, and immediately west of the lower
+  Volta forests of oil palms and grassy plains with fan palms. Behind
+  all these eastern regions is a belt of thin forest country before the
+  denser forest is reached. In the north-east are stretches of
+  orchard-like country with wild plum, shea-butter and kola trees,
+  baobabs, dwarf date and fan palms. The cotton and tobacco plants grow
+  wild. At the mouths of the rivers and along the lagoons the mangrove
+  is the characteristic tree. There are numerous coco-nut palms along
+  the coast. The fruit trees and plants also include the orange,
+  pine-apple, mango, papaw, banana and avocado or alligator pear.
+
+  _Fauna._--The fauna includes leopards, panthers, hyenas, Potto lemurs,
+  jackals, antelopes, buffaloes, wild-hogs and many kinds of monkey,
+  including the chimpanzee and the _Colobus vellerosus_, whose skin,
+  with long black silky hair, is much prized in Europe. The elephant has
+  been almost exterminated by ivory hunters. The snakes include pythons,
+  cobras, horned and puff adders and the venomous water snake. Among the
+  lesser denizens of the forest are the squirrel and porcupine.
+  Crocodiles and in fewer numbers manatees and otters frequent the
+  rivers and lagoons and hippopotami are found in the Volta. Lizards of
+  brilliant hue, tortoises and great snails are common. Birds, which are
+  not very numerous, include parrots and hornbills, kingfishers,
+  ospreys, herons, crossbills, curlews, woodpeckers, doves, pigeons,
+  storks, pelicans, swallows, vultures and the spur plover (the
+  last-named rare). Shoals of herrings frequent the coast, and the other
+  fish include mackerel, sole, skate, mullet, bonito, flying fish,
+  fighting fish and shynose. Sharks abound at the mouths of all the
+  rivers, edible turtle are fairly common, as are the sword fish,
+  dolphin and sting ray (with poisonous caudal spine). Oysters are
+  numerous on rocks running into the sea and on the exposed roots of
+  mangrove trees. Insect life is multitudinous; beetles, spiders, ants,
+  fireflies, butterflies and jiggers abound. The earthworm is rare. The
+  mosquitos include the _Culex_ or ordinary kind, the _Anopheles_, which
+  carry malarial fever, and the _Stegomyia_, a striped white and black
+  mosquito which carries yellow-fever.
+
+  _Inhabitants._--The natives are all of the Negro race. The most
+  important tribe is the Fanti (q.v.), and the Fanti language is
+  generally understood throughout the colony. The Fanti and Ashanti are
+  believed to have a common origin. It is certain that the Fanti came
+  originally from the north and conquered many of the coast tribes, who
+  anciently had owned the rule of the king of Benin. The districts in
+  general are named after the tribes inhabiting them. Those in the
+  western part of the colony are mainly of Fanti stock; the Accra and
+  allied tribes inhabit the eastern portion and are believed to be the
+  aboriginal inhabitants. The Akim (Akem), who occupy the north-east
+  portion of the colony, have engaged in gold-digging from time
+  immemorial. The capital of their country is Kibbi. The Akwapim
+  (Aquapem), southern neighbours of the Akim, are extensively engaged in
+  agriculture and in trade. The Accra, a clever race, are to be found in
+  all the towns of the West African coast as artisans and sailors. They
+  are employed by the interior tribes as middlemen and interpreters. On
+  the right bank of the Volta occupying the low marshy land near the sea
+  are the Adangme. The Krobos live in little villages in the midst of
+  the palm tree woods which grow round about the Kroboberg, an eminence
+  about 1000 ft. high. Their country lies between that of the Akim and
+  the Adangme. In the west of the colony is the Ahanta country, formerly
+  an independent kingdom. The inhabitants were noted for their skill in
+  war. They are one of the finest and most intelligent of the tribes of
+  Accra stock. The Apollonia, a kindred race, occupy the coast region
+  nearest the Ivory Coast.
+
+
+    Native Languages.
+
+  The Tshi, Tchwi or Chi language,[1] which is that spoken on the Gold
+  Coast, belongs to the great prefix-pronominal group. It comprises many
+  dialects, which may, however, be reduced to two classes or types. Akan
+  dialects are spoken in Assini, Amanahia (Apollonia), Awini, Ahanta,
+  Wasaw, Tshuforo (Juffer or Tufel), and Denkyera in the west, and in
+  Asen, Akim, and Akwapim in the east, as well as in the different parts
+  of Ashanti. Fanti dialects are spoken, not only in Fanti proper, but
+  in Afutu or the country round Cape Coast, in Abora, Agymako, Akomfi,
+  Gomoa and Agona. The difference between the two types is not very
+  great; a Fanti, for example, can converse without much difficulty with
+  a native of Akwapim or Ashanti, his language being in fact a
+  deteriorated form of the same original. Akim is considered the finest
+  and purest of all the Akan dialects. The Akwapim, which is based on
+  the Akim but has imbibed Fanti influences, has been made the
+  book-language by the Basel missionaries. They had reduced it to
+  writing before 1850. About a million people in all, it is estimated,
+  speak dialects of the Tshi.
+
+  The south-eastern corner of the Gold Coast is occupied by another
+  language known as the Ga or Accra, which comprises the Ga proper and
+  the Adangme and Krobo dialects. Ga proper is spoken by about 40,000
+  people, including the inhabitants of Ga and Kinka (i.e. Accra, in
+  Tshi, Nkran and Kankan), Osu (i.e. Christiansborg), La, Tessi, Ningua
+  and numerous inland villages. It has been reduced to writing by the
+  missionaries. The Adangme and Krobo dialects are spoken by about
+  80,000 people. They differ very considerably from Ga proper, but books
+  printed in Ga can be used by both the Krobo and Adangme natives.
+  Another language known as Guan is used in parts of Akwapim and in Anum
+  beyond the Volta; but not much is known either about it or the Obutu
+  tongue spoken in a few towns in Agona, Gomoa and Akomfi.
+
+
+    Religion and education.
+
+  Fetishism (q.v.) is the prevailing religion of all the tribes. Belief
+  in a God is universal, as also is a belief in a future state.
+  Christianity and Mahommedanism are both making progress. The natives
+  professing Christianity number about 40,000. A Moravian mission was
+  started at Christiansborg about 1736; the Basel mission (Evangelical)
+  was begun in 1828, the missionaries combining manual training and farm
+  labour with purely religious work; the Wesleyans started a mission
+  among the Fanti in 1835, and the Anglican and Roman Catholic Churches
+  are also represented, as well as the Bremen Missionary Society.
+  Elementary education is chiefly in the hands of the Wesleyan, Basel,
+  Bremen and Roman Catholic missions, who have schools at many towns
+  along the coast and in the interior. There are also government and
+  Mahommedan schools. The natives generally are extremely intelligent.
+  They obtain easily the means of subsistence, and are disinclined to
+  unaccustomed labour, such as working in mines. They are keen traders.
+  The native custom of burying the dead under the floors of the houses
+  prevailed until 1874, when it was prohibited by the British
+  authorities.
+
+  _Towns._--Unlike the other British possessions on the west coast of
+  Africa, the colony has many towns along the shore, this being due to
+  the multiplicity of traders of rival nations who went thither in quest
+  of gold. Beginning at the west, Newtown, on the Assini or Eyi lagoon,
+  is just within the British frontier. The first place of importance
+  reached is Axim (pop., 1901, 2189), the site of an old Dutch fort
+  built near the mouth of the Axim river, and in the pre-railway days
+  the port of the gold region. Rounding Cape Three Points, whose
+  vicinity is marked by a line of breakers nearly 2-1/2 m. long, Dixcove
+  is reached. Twenty miles farther east is Sekondi (q.v.), (pop. about
+  5000), the starting-point of the railway to the goldfields and Kumasi.
+  Elmina (q.v.), formerly one of the most important posts of European
+  settlement, is reached some distance after passing the mouth of the
+  Prah. Eight miles east of Elmina is Cape Coast (q.v.), pop. (1901)
+  28,948. Anamabo is 9 m. farther east. Here, in 1807, a handful of
+  English soldiers made a heroic and successful defence of its fort
+  against the whole Ashanti host. Saltpond, towards the end of the 19th
+  century, diverted to itself the trade formerly done by Anamabo, from
+  which it is distant 9 m. Saltpond is a well-built, flourishing town,
+  and is singular in possessing no ancient fort. Between Anamabo and
+  Saltpond is Kormantine (Cormantyne), noted as the place whence the
+  English first exported slaves from this coast. Hence the general name
+  Coromantynes given in the West Indies to slaves from the Gold Coast.
+  Eighty miles from Cape Coast is Accra (q.v.) (pop. 17,892), capital of
+  the colony. (Winnebah is passed 30 m. before Accra is reached. It is
+  an old town noted for the manufacture of canoes.) There is no station
+  of much importance in the 60 m. between Accra and the Volta, on the
+  right bank of which river, near its mouth, is the town of Addah (pop.
+  13,240). Kwitta (pop. 3018) lies beyond the Volta not far from the
+  German frontier. Of the inland towns Akropong, the residence of the
+  king of Akwapim, is one of the best known. It is 39 m. N.E. of Accra,
+  stands on a ridge 1400 ft. above sea-level, and is a healthy place for
+  European residents. At Akropong are the headquarters of the Basel
+  Missionary Society. Akuse is a large town on the banks of the Volta.
+  Tarkwa is the centre of the gold mining industry in the Wasaw
+  district. Its importance dates from the beginning of the 20th century.
+  Accra, Cape Coast and Sekondi possess municipal government.
+
+  _Agriculture and Trade._--The soil is everywhere very fertile and the
+  needs of the people being few there is little incentive to work. The
+  forests alone supply an inexhaustible source of wealth, notably in the
+  oil palm. Among vegetable products cultivated are cocoa, cotton,
+  Indian corn, yams, cassava, peas, peppers, onions, tomatoes,
+  groundnuts (_Arachis hypogaea_), Guinea corn (_Sorghum vulgare_) and
+  Guinea grains (_Amomum grana-paradisi_). The most common article of
+  cultivation is, however, the kola nut (_Sterculia acuminata_), the
+  favourite substitute in West Africa for the betel nut. In 1890 efforts
+  were made by the establishment of a government botanical station at
+  Aburi in the Accra district to induce the natives to improve their
+  methods of cultivation and to enlarge the number of their crops. This
+  resulted in the formation of hundreds of cocoa plantations, chiefly in
+  the district immediately north of Accra. Subsequently the cultivation
+  of the plant extended to every district of the colony. The industry
+  had been founded in 1879 by a native of Accra, but it was not until
+  1901, as the result of the government's fostering care, that the
+  export became of importance. In that year the quantity exported
+  slightly exceeded 2,000,000 lb. and fetched L42,000. In 1907 the
+  quantity exported was nearly 21,000,000 lb. and in value exceeded
+  L515,000. In 1904 efforts were begun by the government and the British
+  Cotton Growing Association in co-operation to foster the growing of
+  cotton for export and by 1907 the cotton industry had become firmly
+  established. Tobacco and coffee are grown at some of the Basel
+  missionary stations.
+
+  The chief exports are gold, palm oil and palm kernels, cocoa, rubber,
+  timber (including mahogany) and kola nuts. Of these articles the gold
+  and rubber are shipped chiefly to England, whilst Germany, France and
+  America, take the palm products and groundnuts. The rubber comes
+  chiefly from Ashanti. The imports consist of cotton goods, rum, gin
+  and other spirits, rice, sugar, tobacco, beads, machinery, building
+  materials and European goods generally.
+
+  The value of the trade increased from L1,628,309 in 1896 to L4,055,351
+  in 1906. In the last named year the imports were valued at L2,058,839
+  and the exports at L1,996,412. While the value of imports had remained
+  nearly stationary since 1902 the value of exports had nearly trebled
+  in that period. In the five years 1903-1907 the total trade increased
+  from L3,063,486 to L5,007,869. Great Britain and British colonies take
+  66% of the exports and supply over 60% of the imports. In both import
+  and export trade Germany is second, followed by France and the United
+  States. Specie is included in these totals, over a quarter of a
+  million being imported in 1904.
+
+  Fishing is carried on extensively along the coast, and salted and
+  sun-dried fish from Addah and Kwitta districts find a ready sale
+  inland. Cloths are woven by the natives from home-grown and imported
+  yarn; the making of canoes, from the silk-cotton trees, is a
+  flourishing industry, and salt from the lagoons near Addah is roughly
+  prepared. There are also native artificers in gold and other metals,
+  the workmanship in some cases being of conspicuous merit. Odum wood is
+  largely used in building and for cabinet work.
+
+  _Gold Mining._--Gold is found in almost every part of the colony, but
+  only in a few districts in paying quantities. Although since the
+  discovery of the coast gold had been continuously exported to Europe
+  from its ports, it was not until the last twenty years of the 19th
+  century that efforts were made to extract gold according to modern
+  methods. The richness of the Tarkwa main reef was first discovered by
+  a French trader, M. J. Bennat, about 1880. During the period 1880 to
+  1900 the value of the gold exported varied from a minimum of L32,000
+  to a maximum (1889) of L103,000. The increased interest shown in the
+  industry led to the construction of a railway (see below) to the chief
+  goldfields, whereby the difficulties of transport were largely
+  overcome. Consequent upon the taking up of a number of concessions, a
+  concessions ordinance was issued in August 1900. This was followed in
+  1901 by the grant of 2825 concessions, and a "boom" in the West
+  African market on the London stock exchange. Many concessions were
+  speedily abandoned, and in 1901 the export of gold dropped to its
+  lowest point, 6162 oz., worth L22,186, but in 1902 a large company
+  began crushing ore and the output of gold rose to 26,911 oz., valued
+  at L96,880. In 1907 the export was 292,125 oz., worth L1,164,676. It
+  should be noted that one of the principal gold mines is not in the
+  colony proper, but at Obuassi in Ashanti. Underground labour is
+  performed mainly by Basas and Krumen from Liberia. Of native tribes
+  the Apollonia have proved the best for underground work, as they have
+  mining traditions dating from Portuguese times. A good deal of
+  alluvial gold is obtained by dredging apparatus. The use of dredging
+  apparatus is modern, but the natives have worked the alluvial soil and
+  the sand of the seashore for generations to get the gold they contain.
+
+  _Communications._--The colony possesses a railway, built and owned by
+  the government, which serves the gold mines, and has its sea terminus
+  at Sekondi. Work was begun in August 1898, but owing to the
+  disturbance caused by the Ashanti rising of 1900 the rails only
+  reached Tarkwa (39 m.) in May 1901. Thence the line is carried to
+  Kumasi, the distance to Obuassi (124 m.) being completed by December
+  1902, whilst the first train entered the Ashanti capital on the 1st of
+  October 1903. The total length of the line is 168 m. The cost of
+  construction was L1,820,000. The line has a gauge 3 ft. 6 in. There is
+  a branch line, 20 m. long, from Tarkwa N.W. to Prestea on the Ankobra
+  river. Another railway, built 1907-10, 35 m. in length, runs from
+  Accra to Mangoase, in the centre of the chief cocoa plantations. An
+  extension to Kumasi has been surveyed.
+
+  Tortuous bush tracks are the usual means of internal communication.
+  These are kept in fair order in the neighbourhood of government
+  stations. There is a well-constructed road 141 m. long from Cape Coast
+  to Kumasi, and roads connecting neighbouring towns are maintained by
+  the government. Systematic attempts to make use of the upper Volta as
+  a means of conveying goods to the interior were first tried in 1900.
+  The rapids about 60 m. from the mouth of the river effectually prevent
+  boats of large size passing up the stream. Where railways or canoes
+  are not available goods are generally carried on the heads of porters,
+  60 lb. being a full load. Telegraphs, introduced in 1882, connect all
+  the important towns in the colony, and a line starting at Cape Coast
+  stretches far inland, via Kumasi to Wa in the Northern Territories.
+  Accra and Sekondi are in telegraphic communication with Europe, the
+  Ivory Coast, Lagos and the Cape of Good Hope. There is regular and
+  frequent steamship communication with Europe by British, Belgian and
+  German lines.
+
+  _Administration, Revenue, &c._--The country is governed as a crown
+  colony, the governor being assisted by a legislative council composed
+  of officials and nominated unofficial members. Laws, called
+  ordinances, are enacted by the governor with the advice and consent of
+  this council. The law of the colony is the common law and statutes of
+  general application in force in England in 1874, modified by local
+  ordinances passed since that date. The governor is also governor of
+  Ashanti and the Northern Territories, but in those dependencies the
+  legislative council has no authority.
+
+  Native laws and customs--which are extremely elaborate and
+  complicated--are not interfered with "except when repugnant to natural
+  justice." Those relating to land tenure and succession may be thus
+  summarized. Individual tenure is not unknown, but most land is held by
+  the tribe or by the family in common, each member having the right to
+  select a part of the common land for his own use. Permanent alienation
+  can only take place with the unanimous consent of the family and is
+  uncommon, but long leases are granted. Succession is through the
+  female, i.e. when a man dies his property goes to his sister's
+  children. The government of the tribes is by their own kings and
+  chiefs under the supervision of district commissioners. Slavery has
+  been abolished in the colony. In the Northern Territories the dealing
+  in slaves is unlawful, neither can any person be put in pawn for debt;
+  nor will any court give effect to the relations between master and
+  slave except in so far as those relations may be in accordance with
+  the English laws relating to master and servant.
+
+  For administrative purposes the colony is divided into three provinces
+  under provincial commissioners, and each province is subdivided into
+  districts presided over by commissioners, who exercise judicial as
+  well as executive functions. The supreme court consists of a chief
+  justice and three puisne judges. The defence of the colony is
+  entrusted to the Gold Coast regiment of the West African Frontier
+  Force, a force of natives controlled by the Colonial Office but
+  officered from the British army. There is also a corps of volunteers
+  (formed 1892).
+
+  The chief source of revenue is the customs and (since 1902) railway
+  receipts, whilst the heaviest items of expenditure are transport
+  (including railways) and mine surveys, medical and sanitary services,
+  and maintenance of the military force. The revenue, which in the
+  period 1894-1898 averaged L244,559 yearly, rose in 1898-1903 to an
+  average of L556,316 a year. For the five years 1903-1907 the average
+  annual revenue was L647,557 and the average annual expenditure
+  L615,696. Save for municipal purposes there is no direct taxation in
+  the colony and no poor-houses exist. There is a public debt of
+  (December 1907) L2,206,964. It should be noted that the expenditure on
+  Ashanti and the Northern Territories is included in the Gold Coast
+  budget.
+
+_History._--It is a debated question whether the Gold Coast was
+discovered by French or by Portuguese sailors. The evidence available is
+insufficient to prove the assertion, of which there is no contemporary
+record, that a company of Norman merchants established themselves about
+1364 at a place they named La Mina (Elmina), and that they traded with
+the natives for nearly fifty years, when the enterprise was abandoned.
+It is well established that a Portuguese expedition under Diogo
+d'Azambuja, accompanied probably by Christopher Columbus, took
+possession of (or founded) Elmina in 1481-1482. By the Portuguese it was
+called variously Sao Jorge da Mina or Ora del Mina--the mouth of the
+(gold) mines. That besides alluvial washings they also worked the gold
+mines was proved by discoveries in the latter part of the 19th century.
+The Portuguese remained undisturbed in their trade until the
+Reformation, when the papal bull which had given the country, with many
+others, to Portugal ceased to have a binding power. English ships in
+1553 brought back from Guinea gold to the weight of 150 lb. The fame of
+the Gold Coast thereafter attracted to it adventurers from almost every
+European nation. The English were followed by French, Danes,
+Brandenburgers, Dutch and Swedes. The most aggressive were the Dutch,
+who from the end of the 16th century sought to oust the Portuguese from
+the Gold Coast, and in whose favour the Portuguese did finally withdraw
+in 1642, in return for the withdrawal on the part of the Dutch of their
+claims to Brazil. The Dutch henceforth made Elmina their headquarters on
+the coast. Traces of the Portuguese occupation, which lasted 160 years,
+are still to be found, notably in the language of the natives. Such
+familiar words as palaver, fetish, caboceer and dash (i.e. a gift) have
+all a Portuguese origin.
+
+
+  Appearance of the English.
+
+An English company built a fort at Kormantine previously to 1651, and
+some ten years later Cape Coast Castle was built. The settlements made
+by the English provoked the hostility of the Dutch and led to war
+between England and Holland, during which Admiral de Ruyter destroyed
+(1664-1665) all the English forts save Cape Coast castle. The treaty of
+Breda in 1667 confirmed the Dutch in the possession of their conquests,
+but the English speedily opened other trading stations. Charles II. in
+1672 granted a charter to the Royal African Company, which built forts
+at Dixcove, Sekondi, Accra, Whydah and other places, besides repairing
+Cape Coast Castle. At this time the trade both in slaves and gold was
+very great, and at the beginning of the 18th century the value of the
+gold exported annually was estimated by Willem Bosman, the chief Dutch
+factor at Elmina, to be over L200,000. The various European traders were
+constantly quarrelling among themselves and exercised scarcely any
+control over the natives. Piracy was rife along the coast, and was not
+indeed finally stamped out until the middle of the 19th century. The
+Royal African Company, which lost its monopoly of trade with England in
+1700, was succeeded by another, the African Company of Merchants, which
+was constituted in 1750 by act of parliament and received an annual
+subsidy from government. The slave trade was then at its height and some
+10,000 negroes were exported yearly. Many of the slaves were prisoners
+of war sold to the merchants by the Ashanti, who had become the chief
+native power. The abolition of the slave trade (1807) crippled the
+company, which was dissolved in 1821, when the crown took possession of
+the forts.
+
+
+  Danish and Dutch forts purchased.
+
+Since the beginning of the 19th century the British had begun to
+exercise territorial rights in the towns where they held forts, and in
+1817 the right of the British to control the natives living in the coast
+towns was recognized by Ashanti. In 1824 the first step towards the
+extension of British authority beyond the coast region was taken by
+Governor Sir Charles M'Carthy, who incited the Fanti to rise against
+their oppressors, the Ashanti. (The Fanti's country had been conquered
+by the Ashanti in 1807.) Sir Charles and the Fanti army were defeated,
+the governor losing his life, but in 1826 the English gained a victory
+over the Ashanti at Dodowah. At this period, however, the home
+government, disgusted with the Gold Coast by reason of the perpetual
+disturbances in the protectorate and the trouble it occasioned,
+determined to abandon the settlements, and sent instructions for the
+forts to be destroyed and the Europeans brought home. The merchants,
+backed by Major Rickets, 2nd West India regiments, the administrator,
+protested, and as a compromise the forts were handed over to a committee
+of merchants (Sept. 1828), who were given a subsidy of L4000 a year. The
+merchants secured (1830) as their administrator Mr George Maclean--a
+gentleman with military experience on the Gold Coast and not engaged in
+trade. To Maclean is due the consolidation of British interests in the
+interior. He concluded, 1831, a treaty with the Ashanti advantageous to
+the Fanti, whilst with very inadequate means he contrived to extend
+British influence over the whole region of the present colony. In the
+words of a Fanti trader Maclean understood the people, "he settled
+things quietly with them and the people also loved him."[2] Complaints
+that Maclean encouraged slavery reached England, but these were
+completely disproved, the governor being highly commended on his
+administration by the House of Commons Committee. It was decided,
+nevertheless, that the Colonial Office should resume direct control of
+the forts, which was done in 1843, Maclean continuing to direct native
+affairs until his death in 1847. The jurisdiction of England on the Gold
+Coast was defined by the bond of the 6th of March 1844, an agreement
+with the native chiefs by which the crown received the right of trying
+criminals, repressing human sacrifice, &c. The limits of the
+protectorate inland were not defined. The purchase of the Danish forts
+in 1850, and of the Dutch forts and territory in 1871, led to the
+consolidation of the British power along the coast; and the Ashanti war
+of 1873-74 resulted in the extension of the area of British influence.
+Since that time the colony has been chiefly engaged in the development
+of its material resources, a development accompanied by a slow but
+substantial advance in civilization among the native population. (For
+further historical information see ASHANTI.)
+
+For a time the Gold Coast formed officially a limb of the "West African
+Settlements" and was virtually a dependency of Sierra Leone. In 1874 the
+settlements on the Gold Coast and Lagos were created a separate crown
+colony, this arrangement lasting until 1886 when Lagos was cut off from
+the Gold Coast administration.
+
+
+_Northern Territories._
+
+The Northern Territories of the Gold Coast form a British protectorate
+to the north of Ashanti. They are bounded W. and N.--where 11 deg. N. is
+the frontier line except at the eastern extremity--by the French
+colonies of the Ivory Coast and Upper Senegal and Niger, E. by the
+German colony of Togoland. The southern frontier, separating the
+protectorate from Ashanti, is the Black Volta to a point a little above
+its junction with the White Volta. Thence the frontier turns south and
+afterwards east so as to include the Brumasi district in the
+protectorate, the frontier gaining the main Volta below Yeji. The
+Territories include nearly all the country from the meridian of
+Greenwich to 3 deg. W. and between 8 deg. and 11 deg. N., and cover an
+area of about 33,000 sq. m.
+
+Lying north of the great belt of primeval forest which extends parallel
+to the Guinea coast, the greater part of the protectorate consists of
+open country, well timbered, and much of it presenting a park-like
+appearance. There are also large stretches of grassy plains, and in the
+south-east an area of treeless steppe. The flora and fauna resemble
+those of Ashanti. The country is well watered, the Black Volta forming
+the west and southern frontier for some distance, while the White Volta
+traverses its central regions. Both rivers, and also the united stream,
+contain rapids which impede but do not prevent navigation (see VOLTA).
+The climate is much healthier than that of the coast districts, and the
+fever experienced is of a milder type. The rainfall is less than on the
+coast; the dry season lasts from November (when the harmattan begins to
+blow) to March. The mean temperature at Gambaga is 80 deg. F., the mean
+annual rainfall 43 in. The inhabitants were officially estimated in 1907
+to number "at least 1,000,000." The Dagomba, Dagarti, Grunshi, Kangarga,
+Moshi and Zebarima, Negro or Negroid tribes, constitute the bulk of the
+people, and Fula, Hausa and Yoruba have settled as traders or cattle
+raisers. A large number of the natives are Moslems, the rest are fetish
+worshippers. The tribal organization is maintained by the British
+authorities, who found comparatively little difficulty in putting an end
+to slave-raiding and gaining the confidence of the chiefs. Trained by
+British officers, the natives make excellent soldiers.
+
+  _Agriculture and Trade._--The chief crops are maize, guinea-corn,
+  millet, yams, rice, beans, groundnuts, tobacco and cotton. Cotton is
+  grown in most parts of the protectorate, the soil and climate in many
+  districts being very suitable for its cultivation. Rubber is found in
+  the north-western regions. When the protectorate was assumed by Great
+  Britain the Territories were singularly destitute of fruit trees. The
+  British have introduced the orange, citron, lime, guava, mango and
+  soursop, and among plants the banana, pine-apple and papaw. A large
+  number of vegetables and flowers have also been introduced by the
+  administration.
+
+  Stock-raising is carried on extensively, and besides oxen and sheep
+  there are large numbers of horses and donkeys in the Territories. The
+  chief exports are cattle, _dawa-dawa_ (a favourite flavouring matter
+  for soup among the Ashanti and other tribes) and shea-butter--the
+  latter used in cooking and as an illuminant. The principal imports are
+  kola-nuts, salt and cotton goods. A large proportion of the European
+  goods imported is German and comes through Togoland. The
+  administration levies a tax on traders' caravans, and in return
+  ensures the safety of the roads. This tax is the chief local source of
+  revenue. The revenue and expenditure of the Territories, as well as
+  statistics of trade, are included in those of the Gold Coast.
+
+  Gold exists in quartz formation, chiefly in the valley of the Black
+  Volta, and is found equally on the British and French sides of the
+  frontier.
+
+  _Towns._--The headquarters of the administration are at Tamale (or
+  Tamari), a town in the centre of the Dagomba country east of the White
+  Volta and 200 m. N.E. of Kumasi. Its inhabitants are keen traders, and
+  it forms a distributing centre for the whole protectorate. Gambaga, an
+  important commercial centre and from 1897 to 1907 the seat of
+  government, is in Mamprusi, the north-east corner of the protectorate
+  and is 85 m. N.N.E. of Tamale. A hundred and forty miles due south of
+  Gambaga is Salaga. This town is situated on the caravan route from the
+  Hausa states to Ashanti, and has a considerable trade in kola-nuts,
+  shea-butter and salt. On the White Volta, midway between Gambaga and
+  Salaga, is the thriving town of Daboya. On the western frontier are
+  Bole (Baule) and Wa. They carry on an extensive trade with Bontuku,
+  the capital of Jaman, and other places in the Ivory Coast colony. In
+  all the towns the population largely consists of aliens--Hausa,
+  Ashanti, Mandingos, &c.
+
+  _Communications._--Lack of easy communication with the sea hinders the
+  development of the country. The ancient caravan routes have been,
+  however, supplemented by roads built by the British, who have further
+  organized a service of boats on the Volta. Large cargo boats, chiefly
+  laden with salt, ascend that river from Addah to Yeji and Daboya. From
+  Yeji, the port of Salaga, a good road, 150 m. long, has been made to
+  Gambaga. There is also a river service from Yeji to Longoro on the
+  Black Volta, the port of Kintampo, in northern Ashanti. There is a
+  complete telegraphic system connecting the towns of the protectorate
+  with Kumasi and the Gold Coast ports.
+
+_History._--It was not until the last quarter of the 19th century that
+the country immediately north of Ashanti became known to Europeans. The
+first step forward was made by Monsieur M. J. Bonnat (one of the Kumasi
+captives, see ASHANTI) who, ascending the Volta, reached Salaga
+(1875-1876). In 1882 Captain R. La Trobe Lonsdale, an officer in British
+colonial service, went farther, visiting Yendi in the north and Bontuku
+in the west. Two years later Captain Brandon Kirby made his way to
+Kintampo. In 1887-1889 Captain L. G. Binger, a French officer, traversed
+the country from north to south. Thereafter the whole region was visited
+by British, French and German political missions. Prominent among the
+British agents was Mr George E. Ferguson, a native of West Africa, who
+had previously explored northern Ashanti. Between 1892 and 1897 Ferguson
+concluded several treaties guarding British interests. In 1897
+Lieutenant Henderson and Ferguson occupied Wa, where they were attacked
+by the _sofas_ of Samory (see SENEGAL, S 3). Henderson, who had gone to
+the _sofa_ camp to parley, was held prisoner for some time, while
+Ferguson was killed. Meantime negotiations were opened in Europe to
+settle the spheres of influence of the respective countries. (The
+Anglo-French agreement of 1889 had fixed the boundaries of the
+hinterlands of the French colony of the Ivory Coast and the British
+colony of the Gold Coast as far as 9 deg. N. only.) A period of
+considerable tension, arising from the proximity of British and French
+troops in the disputed territory, was ended by the signature of a
+convention in Paris (14th of June 1898), in which the western and
+northern boundaries were defined. The British abandoned their claim to
+the important town and district of Wagadugu in the north. In the
+following year (14th of November 1899) an agreement defining the eastern
+frontier was concluded with Germany. Previously a square block of
+territory to the north of 8 deg. N. had been regarded as neutral, both
+by Britain and Germany. This was in virtue of an arrangement made in
+1888. By the 1899 convention the neutral zone was parcelled out between
+the two powers. The delimitation of the frontiers agreed upon took place
+during 1900-1904.
+
+In 1897 the Northern Territories were constituted a separate district of
+the Gold Coast hinterland, and were placed in charge of a chief
+commissioner. Colonel H. P. Northcott (killed in the Boer War,
+1899-1902) was the first commissioner and commandant of the troops. He
+was succeeded by Col. A. H. Morris. In 1901 the Territories were made a
+distinct administration, under the jurisdiction of the governor of the
+Gold Coast colony. The government was at first of a semi-military
+character, but in 1907 a civilian staff was appointed to carry on the
+administration, and a force of armed constabulary replaced the troops
+which had been stationed in the protectorate and which were then
+disbanded. The prosperity of the country under British administration
+has been marked.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A good summary of the condition and history of the
+  colony to the close of the 19th century will be found in vol. 3, "West
+  Africa," of the _Historical Geography of the British Empire_ by C. P.
+  Lucas (2nd ed., Oxford, 1900). For current information see the _Gold
+  Coast Civil Service List_ (London, yearly), the annual Blue Books
+  published in the colony, and the annual _Report_ issued by the
+  Colonial Office, London. For fuller information consult the _Report
+  from the Select Committee on Africa_ (_Western Coast_) (London, 1865),
+  a mine of valuable information; _The Gold Coast, Past and Present_, by
+  G. Macdonald (London, 1898); _History of the Gold Coast and Ashanti_,
+  by C. C. Reindorf, a native pastor (Basel, 1895); _A History of the
+  Gold Coast_, by Col. A. B. Ellis (London, 1893); _Wanderings in West
+  Africa_ (London, 1863) and _To the Gold Coast for Gold_ (London,
+  1883), both by Sir Richard Burton. Of the earlier books the most
+  notable are _The Golden Coast or a Description of Guinney together
+  with a relation of such persons as got wonderful estates by their
+  trade thither_ (London, 1665), and _A New and Accurate Description of
+  the Coast of Guinea_ written (in Dutch) by Willem Bosman, chief factor
+  for the Dutch at Elmina (Eng. trans., 2nd ed., 1721). For a complete
+  survey of the Gold Coast under Dutch control see "Die Niederlandisch
+  West-Indische Compagnie an der Gold-Kuste" by J. G. Doorman in _Tijds
+  Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenk_, vol. 40 (1898). For ethnography,
+  religion, law, &c., consult _The Land of Fetish_ (London, 1883) and
+  _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the West Coast of Africa_ (London,
+  1887), both by Col. A. B. Ellis; _Fanti Customary Law_ (2nd ed.,
+  London, 1904) and _Fanti Law Report_ (London, 1904), both by J. M.
+  Sarbah. The _Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa_ by Sir Alfred
+  Moloney (London, 1887) contains a comprehensive list of economic
+  plants. See also _Report on Economic Agriculture on the Gold Coast_
+  (Colonial Office Reports, No. 110, 1890), and _Papers relating to the
+  Construction of Railways in ... the Gold Coast_ (London, 1904). The
+  best map is that of Major F. G. Guggisberg, over 70 sheets, scale 1 :
+  125,000 (London, 1907-1909). There is a War Office map on the scale 1
+  : 1,000,000 in one sheet. See also the works quoted under ASHANTI.
+
+  For the Northern Territories see L. G. Binger, _Du Niger au Golfe de
+  Guinee_ (Paris, 1892), a standard authority; H. P. Northcott, _Report
+  on the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast_ (War Office, London,
+  1899), a valuable compilation summarizing the then available
+  information. Annual _Reports_ on the protectorate are issued by the
+  British Colonial Office. A map on the scale of 1 : 1,000,000 is issued
+  by the War Office.     (F. R. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] This name appears in a great variety of forms--Kwi, Ekwi, Okwi,
+    Oji, Odschi, Otsui, Tyi, Twi, Tschi, Chwee or Chee.
+
+  [2] Blue Book on _Africa_ (_Western Coast_) (1865), p. 233.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDEN, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county, Colorado,
+U.S.A., on Clear Creek (formerly called the Vasquez fork of the South
+Platte), about 14 m. W. by N. of Denver. Pop. (1900) 2152; (1910) 2477.
+Golden is a residential suburb of Denver, served by the Colorado &
+Southern, the Denver & Intermountain (electric), and the Denver &
+North-Western Electric railways. It is about 5700 ft. above sea-level.
+About 600 ft. above the city is Castle Rock, with an amusement park, and
+W. of Golden is Lookout Mountain, a natural park of 3400 acres. About 1
+m. S. of the city is a state industrial school for boys, and in Golden
+is the Colorado State School of Mines (opened 1874), which offers
+courses in mining engineering and metallurgical engineering. The
+Independent Pyritic Smelter is at Golden, and among the city's
+manufactures are pottery, firebrick and tile, made from clays found near
+by, and flour. There are deposits of coal, copper and gold in the
+vicinity. Truck-farming and the growing of fruit are important
+industries in the neighbourhood. The first settlement here was a gold
+mining camp, established in 1859, and named in honour of Tom Golden, one
+of the pioneer prospectors. The village was laid out in 1860, and Golden
+was incorporated as a town in 1865 and was chartered as a city in 1870.
+Golden was made the capital of Colorado Territory in 1862, and several
+sessions (or parts of sessions) of the Assembly were held here between
+1864 and 1868, when the seat of government was formally established at
+Denver; the territorial offices of Colorado, however, were at Golden
+only in 1866-1867.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDEN BULL (Lat. _Bulla Aurea_), the general designation of any charter
+decorated with a golden seal or _bulla_, either owing to the intrinsic
+importance of its contents, or to the rank and dignity of the bestower
+or the recipient. The custom of thus giving distinction to certain
+documents is said to be of Byzantine origin, though if this be the case
+it is somewhat strange that the word employed as an equivalent for
+golden bull in Byzantine Greek should be the hybrid [Greek:
+chrysoboullon] (cf. Codinus Curopalates, [Greek: ho megas logothetes
+diatattei ta para tou basileos apostellomena prostagmata kai
+chrysoboulla pros te Hregas, Soultanas, kai toparchous]; and Anna
+Comnena, Alexiad, lib. iii. [Greek: dia Xpusobouliou logou]; lib. viii.,
+[Greek: chrysoboulon logon]). In Germany a Golden Bull is mentioned
+under the reign of Henry I. the Fowler in Chronica Cassin. ii. 31, and
+the oldest German example, if it be genuine, dates from 983. At first
+the golden seal was formed after the type of a solid coin, but at a
+later date, while the golden surface presented to the eye was greatly
+increased, the seal was really composed of two thin metal plates filled
+in with wax. The number of golden bulls issued by the imperial chancery
+must have been very large; the city of Frankfort, for example, preserves
+no fewer than eight.
+
+The name, however, has become practically restricted to a few documents
+of unusual political importance, the golden bull of the Empire, the
+golden bull of Brabant, the golden bull of Hungary and the golden bull
+of Milan--and of these the first is undoubtedly _the_ Golden Bull _par
+excellence_. The main object of the Golden Bull was to provide a set of
+rules for the election of the German kings, or kings of the Romans, as
+they are called in this document. Since the informal establishment of
+the electoral college about a century before (see ELECTORS), various
+disputes had taken place about the right of certain princes to vote at
+the elections, these and other difficulties having arisen owing to the
+absence of any authoritative ruling. The spiritual electors, it is true,
+had exercised their votes without challenge, but far different was the
+case of the temporal electors. The families ruling in Saxony and in
+Bavaria had been divided into two main branches and, as the German
+states had not yet accepted the principles of primogeniture, it was
+uncertain which member of the divided family should vote. Thus, both the
+prince ruling in Saxe-Lauenburg and the prince ruling in Saxe-Wittenberg
+claimed the vote, and the two branches of the family of Wittelsbach, one
+settled in Bavaria and the other in the Rhenish palatinate, were
+similarly at variance, while the duke of Bavaria also claimed the vote
+at the expense of the king of Bohemia. Moreover, there had been several
+disputed and double elections to the German crown during the past
+century. In more than one instance a prince, chosen by a minority of the
+electors, had claimed to exercise the functions of king, and as often
+civil war had been the result. Under these circumstances the emperor
+Charles IV. determined by an authoritative pronouncement to make such
+proceedings impossible in the future, and at the same time to add to his
+own power and prestige, especially in his capacity as king of Bohemia.
+
+Having arranged various disputes in Germany, and having in April 1355
+secured his coronation in Rome, Charles gave instructions for the bull
+to be drawn up. It is uncertain who is responsible for its actual
+composition. The honour has been assigned to Bartolo of Sassoferrato,
+professor of law at Pisa and Perugia, to the imperial secretary, Rudolph
+of Friedberg, and even to the emperor himself, but there is no valid
+authority for giving it to any one of the three in preference to the
+others. In its first form the bull was promulgated at the diet of
+Nuremberg on the 10th of January 1356, but it was not accepted by the
+princes until some modifications had been introduced, and in its final
+form it was issued at the diet of Metz on the 25th of December
+following.
+
+The text of the Golden Bull consists of a prologue and of thirty-one
+chapters. Some lines of verse invoking the aid of Almighty God are
+followed by a rhetorical statement of the evils which arise from discord
+and division, illustrations being taken from Adam, who was divided from
+obedience and thus fell, and from Helen of Troy who was divided from her
+husband. The early chapters are mainly concerned with details of the
+elaborate ceremonies which are to be observed on the occasion of an
+election. The number of electors is fixed at seven, the duke of
+Saxe-Wittenberg, not the duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, receiving the Saxon
+vote, and the count palatine, not the duke of Bavaria, obtaining the
+vote of the Wittelsbachs. The electors were arranged in order of
+precedence thus: the archbishops of Mainz, of Trier and of Cologne, the
+king of Bohemia, _qui inter electores laicos ex regiae dignitatis
+fastigio jure et merito obtinet primatiam_, the count palatine of the
+Rhine, the duke of Saxony and the margrave of Brandenburg. The three
+archbishops were respectively arch-chancellors of the three principal
+divisions of the Empire, Germany, Arles and Italy, and the four secular
+electors each held an office in the imperial household, the functions of
+which they were expected to discharge on great occasions. The king of
+Bohemia was the arch-cupbearer, the count palatine was the arch-steward
+(_dapifer_), the duke of Saxony was arch-marshal, and the margrave of
+Brandenburg was arch-chamberlain. The work of summoning the electors and
+of presiding over their deliberations fell to the archbishop of Mainz,
+but if he failed to discharge this duty the electors were to assemble
+without summons within three months of the death of a king. Elections
+were to be held at Frankfort; they were to be decided by a majority of
+votes, and the subsequent coronation at Aix-la-Chapelle was to be
+performed by the archbishop of Cologne. During a vacancy in the Empire
+the work of administering the greater part of Germany was entrusted to
+the count palatine of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony being responsible,
+however, for the government of Saxony, or rather for the districts _ubi
+Saxonica jura servantur_.
+
+The chief result of the bull was to add greatly to the power of the
+electors; for, to quote Bryce (_Holy Roman Empire_), it "confessed and
+legalized the independence of the electors and the powerlessness of the
+crown." To these princes were given sovereign rights in their dominions,
+which were declared indivisible and were to pass according to the rule
+of primogeniture. Except in extreme cases, there was to be no appeal
+from the sentences of their tribunals, and they were confirmed in the
+right of coining money, of taking tolls, and in other privileges, while
+conspirators against their lives were to suffer the penalties of
+treason. One clause gave special rights and immunities to the king of
+Bohemia, who, it must be remembered, at this time was Charles himself,
+and others enjoined the observance of the public peace. Provision was
+made for an annual meeting of the electors, to be held at Metz four
+weeks after Easter, when matters _pro bono et salute communi_ were to be
+discussed. This arrangement, however, was not carried out, although the
+electors met occasionally. Another clause forbade the cities to receive
+_Pfahlburger_, i.e. forbade them to take men dwelling outside their
+walls under their protection. It may be noted that there is no admission
+whatever that the election of a king needs confirmation from the pope.
+
+The Golden Bull was thus a great victory for the electors, but it
+weakened the position of the German king and was a distinct humiliation
+for the other princes and for the cities. The status of those rulers who
+did not obtain the electoral privilege was lowered by this very fact,
+and the regulations about the _Pfahlburger_, together with the
+prohibition of new leagues and associations, struck a severe blow at the
+cities. The German kings were elected according to the conditions laid
+down in the bull until the dissolution of the Empire in 1806. At first
+the document was known simply as the Lex Carolina; but gradually the
+name of the Book with the Golden Bull came into use, and the present
+elliptical title was sufficiently established by 1417 to be officially
+employed in a charter by King Sigismund. The original autograph was
+committed to the care of the elector of Mainz, and it was preserved in
+the archives at Mainz till 1789. Official transcripts were probably
+furnished to each of the seven electors at the time of the promulgation,
+and before long many of the other members of the Empire secured copies
+for themselves. The transcript which belonged to the elector of Trier is
+preserved in the state archives at Stuttgart, that of the elector of
+Cologne in the court library at Darmstadt, and that of the king of
+Bohemia in the imperial archives at Vienna. Berlin, Munich and Dresden
+also boast the possession of an electoral transcript; and the town of
+Kitzingen has a contemporary copy in its municipal archives. There
+appears, however, to be good reason to doubt the genuineness of most of
+these so-called original transcripts. But perhaps the best known example
+is that of Frankfort-on-Main, which was procured from the imperial
+chancery in 1366, and is adorned with a golden seal like the original.
+Not only was it regularly quoted as the indubitable authority in regard
+to the election of the emperors in Frankfort itself, but it was from
+time to time officially consulted by members of the Empire.
+
+  The manuscript consists of 43 leaves of parchment of medium quality,
+  each measuring about 10-1/8 in. in height by 7-1/8 in breadth. The
+  seal is of the plate and wax type. On the obverse appears a figure of
+  the emperor seated on his throne, with the sceptre in his right hand
+  and the globe in his left; a shield, with the crowned imperial eagle,
+  occupies the space on the one side of the throne, and a corresponding
+  shield, with the crowned Bohemian lion with two tails, occupies the
+  space on the other side; and round the margin runs the legend,
+  _Karolus quartus divina favente clementia, Romanorum imperator semper
+  Augustus et Boemiae rex_. On the reverse is a castle, with the words
+  _Aurea Roma_ on the gate, and the circumscription reads, _Roma caput
+  mundi regit orbis frena rotundi_. The original Latin text of the bull
+  was printed at Nuremberg by Friedrich Creussner in 1474, and a second
+  edition by Anthonius Koburger (d. 1532) appeared at the same place in
+  1477. Since that time it has been frequently reprinted from various
+  manuscripts and collections. M. Goldast gave the Palatine text,
+  compared with those of Bohemia and Frankfort, in his _Collectio
+  constitutionum et legum imperialium_ (Frankfort, 1613). Another is to
+  be found in _De comitiis imperii_ of O. Panvinius, and a third, of
+  unknown history, is prefixed to the _Codex recessuum Imperii_ (Mainz,
+  1599, and again 1615). The Frankfort text appeared in 1742 as _Aurea
+  Bulla secundum exemplar originale Frankfurtense_, edited by W. C.
+  Multz, and the text is also found in J. J. Schmauss, Corpus juris
+  publici, edited by R. von Hommel (Leipzig, 1794), and in the
+  _Ausgewahlte Urkunden zur Erlauterung der Verfassungsgeschichte
+  Deutschlands im Mittelalter_, edited by W. Altmann and E. Bernheim
+  (Berlin, 1891, and again 1895). German translations, none of which,
+  however, had any official authority, were published at Nuremberg about
+  1474, at Venice in 1476, and at Strassburg in 1485. Among the earlier
+  commentators on the document are H. Canisius and J. Limnaeus who wrote
+  _In Auream Bullam_ (Strassburg, 1662). The student will find a good
+  account of the older literature on the subject in C. G. Biener's
+  _Commentarii de origine et progressu legum juriumque Germaniae_
+  (1787-1795). See also J. D. von Olenschlager, _Neue Erlauterungen der
+  Guldenen Bulle_ (Frankfort and Leipzig, 1766); H. G. von Thulemeyer,
+  _De Bulla Aurea, Argentea_, &c. (Heidelberg, 1682); J. St Putter,
+  _Historische Entwickelung der heutigen Staatsverfassung des teutschen
+  Reichs_ (Gottingen, 1786-1787), and O. Stobbe, _Geschichte der
+  deutschen Rechtsquellen_ (Brunswick, 1860-1864). Among the more modern
+  works may be mentioned: E. Nerger, _Die Goldne Bulle nach ihrem
+  Ursprung_ (Gottingen, 1877), O. Hahn, _Ursprung und Bedeutung der
+  Goldnen Bulle_ (Breslau, 1903); and M. G. Schmidt, _Die
+  staatsrechtliche Anwendung der Goldnen Bulle_ (Halle, 1894). There is
+  a valuable contribution to the subject in the _Quellensammlung zur
+  Geschichte der deutschen Reichsverfassung_, edited by K. Zeumer
+  (Leipzig, 1904), and another by O. Harnack in his _Das Kurfursten
+  Kollegium bis zur Mitte des 14ten Jahrhunderts_ (Giessen, 1883). There
+  is an English translation of the bull in E. F. Henderson's _Select
+  Historical Documents of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1903).
+       (A. W. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+GOLDEN-EYE, a name indiscriminately given in many parts of Britain to
+two very distinct species of ducks, from the rich yellow colour of their
+irides. The commonest of them--the _Anas fuligula_ of Linnaeus and
+_Fuligula cristata_ of most modern ornithologists--is, however, usually
+called by English writers the tufted duck, while "golden-eye" is
+reserved in books for the _A. clangula_ and _A. glaucion_ of Linnaeus,
+who did not know that the birds he so named were but examples of the
+same species, differing only in age or sex; and to this day many fowlers
+perpetuate a like mistake, deeming the "Morillon," which is the female
+or young male, distinct from the "Golden-eye" or "Rattle-wings" (as from
+its noisy flight they oftener call it), which is the adult male. This
+species belongs to the group known as diving ducks, and is the type of
+the very well-marked genus _Clangula_ of later systematists, which,
+among other differences, has the posterior end of the sternum prolonged
+so as to extend considerably over, and, we may not unreasonably suppose,
+protect the belly--a character possessed in a still greater degree by
+the mergansers (_Merginae_), while the males also exhibit in the
+extraordinarily developed bony labyrinth of their trachea and its midway
+enlargement another resemblance to the members of the same subfamily.
+The golden-eye, _C. glaucion_ of modern writers, has its home in the
+northern parts of both hemispheres, whence in winter it migrates
+southward; but as it is one of the ducks that constantly resorts to
+hollow trees for the purpose of breeding it hardly transcends the limit
+of the Arctic forests on either continent. So well known is this habit
+to the people of the northern districts of Scandinavia, that they very
+commonly devise artificial nest-boxes for its accommodation and their
+own profit. Hollow logs of wood are prepared, the top and bottom closed,
+and a hole cut in the side. These are affixed to the trunks of living
+trees in suitable places, at a convenient distance from the ground, and,
+being readily occupied by the birds in the breeding season, are
+regularly robbed, first of the numerous eggs, and finally of the down
+they contain, by those who have set them up.
+
+The adult male golden-eye is a very beautiful bird, mostly black above,
+but with the head, which is slightly crested, reflecting rich green
+lights, a large oval white patch under each eye and elongated white
+scapulars; the lower parts are wholly white and the feet bright orange,
+except the webs, which are dusky. In the female and young male, dark
+brown replaces the black, the cheek-spots are indistinct and the
+elongated white scapulars wanting. The golden-eye of North America has
+been by some authors deemed to differ, and has been named _C.
+americana_, but apparently on insufficient grounds. North America,
+however, has, in common with Iceland, a very distinct species, _C.
+islandica_, often called Barrow's duck, which is but a rare straggler to
+the continent of Europe, and never, so far as known, to Britain. In
+Iceland and Greenland it is the only habitual representative of the
+genus, and it occurs from thence to the Rocky Mountains. In
+breeding-habits it differs from the commoner species, not placing its
+eggs in tree-holes; but how far this difference is voluntary may be
+doubted, for in the countries it frequents trees are wanting. It is a
+larger and stouter bird, and in the male the white cheek-patches take a
+more crescentic form, while the head is glossed with purple rather than
+green, and the white scapulars are not elongated. The New World also
+possesses a third and still more beautiful species of the genus in _C.
+albeola_, known in books as the buffel-headed duck, and to American
+fowlers as the "spirit-duck" and "butter-ball"--the former name being
+applied from its rapidity in diving, and the latter from its exceeding
+fatness in autumn. This is of small size, but the lustre of the feathers
+in the male is most brilliant, exhibiting a deep plum-coloured gloss on
+the head. It breeds in trees, and is supposed to have occurred more than
+once in Britain.     (A. N.)
+
+
+
+
+GOLDEN FLEECE, in Greek mythology, the fleece of the ram on which
+Phrixus and Helle escaped, for which see ARGONAUTS. For the modern
+order of the Golden Fleece, see KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY, section _Orders
+of Knighthood_.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDEN HORDE, the name of a body of Tatars who in the middle of the 13th
+century overran a great portion of eastern Europe and founded in Russia
+the Tatar empire of khanate known as the Empire of the Golden Horde or
+Western Kipchaks. They invaded Europe about 1237 under the leadership of
+Batu Khan, a younger son of Juji, eldest son of Jenghiz Khan, passed
+over Russia with slaughter and destruction, and penetrated into Silesia,
+Poland and Hungary, finally defeating Henry II., duke of Silesia, at
+Liegnitz in the battle known as the Wahlstatt on the 9th of April 1241.
+So costly was this victory, however, that Batu, finding he could not
+reduce Neustadt, retraced his steps and established himself in his
+magnificent tent (whence the name "golden") on the Volga. The new
+settlement was known as _Sir Orda_ ("Golden Camp," whence "Golden
+_Horde_"). Very rapidly the powers of Batu extended over the Russian
+princes, and so long as the khanate remained in the direct descent from
+Batu nothing occurred to check the growth of the empire. The names of
+Batu's successors are Sartak (1256), Bereke (Baraka) (1256-1266),
+Mangu-Timur (1266-1280), Tuda Mangu (1280-1287). (?) Tula Bugha
+(1287-1290), Toktu (1290-1312), Uzbeg (1312-1340), Tin-Beg (1340),
+Jani-Beg (1340-1357). The death of Jani-Beg, however, threw the empire
+into confusion. Birdi-Beg (Berdi-Beg) only reigned for two years, after
+which two rulers, calling themselves sons of Jani-Beg occupied the
+throne during one year. From that time (1359) till 1378 no single ruler
+held the whole empire under control, various members of the other
+branches of the old house of Juji assuming the title. At last in 1378
+Toktamish, of the Eastern Kipchaks, succeeded in ousting all rivals, and
+establishing himself as ruler of eastern and western Kipchak. For a
+short time the glory of the Golden Horde was renewed, until it was
+finally crushed by Timur in 1395.
+
+  See further MONGOLS and RUSSIA; Sir Henry Howorth's _History of the
+  Mongols_; S. Lane-Poole's _Mohammadan Dynasties_ (1894), pp. 222-231;
+  for the relations of the various descendants of Jenghiz, see Stockvis,
+  _Manuel d'histoire_, vol. i. chap. ix. table 7.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDEN ROD, in botany, the popular name for _Solidago virgaurea_
+(natural order Compositae), a native of Britain and widely distributed
+in the north temperate region. It is an old-fashioned border-plant
+flowering from July to September, with an erect, sparingly-branched stem
+and small bright-yellow clustered heads of flowers. It grows well in
+common soil and is readily propagated by division in the spring or
+autumn.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDEN ROSE (_rosa aurea_), an ornament made of wrought gold and set
+with gems, generally sapphires, which is blessed by the pope on the
+fourth (_Laetare_) Sunday of Lent, and usually afterwards sent as a mark
+of special favour to some distinguished individual, to a church, or a
+civil community. Formerly it was a single rose of wrought gold, coloured
+red, but the form finally adopted is a thorny branch with leaves and
+flowers, the petals of which are decked with gems, surmounted by one
+principal rose. The origin of the custom is obscure. From very early
+times popes have given away a rose on the fourth Sunday of Lent, whence
+the name Dominica Rosa, sometimes given to this feast. The practice of
+blessing and sending some such symbol (e.g. _eulogiae_) goes back to the
+earliest Christian antiquity, but the use of the rose itself does not
+seem to go farther back than the 11th century. According to some
+authorities it was used by Leo IX. (1049-1054), but in any case Pope
+Urban II. sent one to Fulk of Anjou during the preparations for the
+first crusade. Pope Urban V., who sent a golden rose to Joanna of Naples
+in 1366, is alleged to have been the first to determine that one should
+be consecrated annually. Beginning with the 16th century there went
+regularly with the rose a letter relating the reasons why it was sent,
+and reciting the merits and virtues of the receiver. When the change was
+made from the form of the simple rose to the branch is uncertain. The
+rose sent by Innocent IV. in 1244 to Count Raymond Berengar IV. of
+Provence was a simple flower without any accessory ornamentation, while
+the one given by Benedict XI. in 1303 or 1304 to the church of St
+Stephen at Perugia consisted of a branch garnished with five open and
+two closed roses enriched with a sapphire, the whole having a value of
+seventy ducats. The value of the gift varied according to the character
+or rank of the recipient. John XXII. gave away some weighing 12 oz., and
+worth from L250 to L325. Among the recipients of this honour have been
+Henry VI. of England, 1446; James III. of Scotland, on whom the rose
+(made by Jacopo Magnolio) was conferred by Innocent VIII., James IV. of
+Scotland; Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony, who received a rose
+from Leo X. in 1518; Henry VIII. of England, who received three, the
+last from Clement VII. in 1524 (each had nine branches, and rested on
+different forms of feet, one on oxen, the second on acorns, and the
+third on lions); Queen Mary, who received one in 1555 from Julius III.;
+the republic of Lucca, so favoured by Pius IV., in 1564; the Lateran
+Basilica by Pius V. three years later; the sanctuary of Loreto by
+Gregory XIII. in 1584; Maria Theresa, queen of France, who received it
+from Clement IX. in 1668; Mary Casimir, queen of Poland, from Innocent
+XI. in 1684 in recognition of the deliverance of Vienna by her husband,
+John Sobieski; Benedict XIII. (1726) presented one to the cathedral of
+Capua, and in 1833 it was sent by Gregory XVI. to the church of St
+Mark's, Venice. In more recent times it was sent to Napoleon III. of
+France, the empress Eugenie, and the queens Isabella II., Christina
+(1886) and Victoria (1906) of Spain. The gift of the golden rose used
+almost invariably to accompany the coronation of the king of the Romans.
+If in any particular year no one is considered worthy of the rose, it is
+laid up in the Vatican.
+
+Some of the most famous Italian goldsmiths have been employed in making
+the earlier roses; and such intrinsically valuable objects have, in
+common with other priceless historical examples of the goldsmiths' art,
+found their way to the melting-pot. It is, therefore, not surprising
+that the number of existing historic specimens is very small. These
+include one of the 14th century in the Cluny Museum, Paris, believed to
+have been sent by Clement V. to the prince-bishop of Basel; another
+conferred in 1458 on his native city of Siena by Pope Pius II.; and the
+rose bestowed upon Siena by Alexander VII., a son of that city, which is
+depicted in a procession in a fresco in the Palazzo Pubblico at Siena.
+The surviving roses of more recent date include that presented by
+Benedict XIII. to Capua cathedral; the rose conferred on the empress
+Caroline by Pius VII., 1819, at Vienna; one of 1833 (Gregory XVI.) at St
+Mark's, Venice; and Pope Leo XIII.'s rose sent to Queen Christina of
+Spain, which is at Madrid.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Angelo Rocca, _Aurea Rosa_, &c. (1719); Busenelli, _De
+  Rosa Aurea. Epistola_ (1759); Girbal, _La Rosa de oro_ (Madrid, 1820);
+  C. Joret, _La Rose d'or dans l'antiquite et au moyen age_ (Paris,
+  1892), pp. 432-435; Eugene Muntz in _Revue d'art chretien_ (1901),
+  series v. vol. 12 pp. 1-11; De F. Mely, _Le Tresor de Chartres_
+  (1886); Marquis de Mac Swiney Mashanaglass, _Le Portugal et le Saint
+  Siege: Les Roses d'or envoyees par les Papes aux rois de Portugal au
+  XVI^e siecle_ (1904); Sir C. Young, _Ornaments and Gift consecrated by
+  the Roman Pontiffs: the Golden Rose, the Cap and Swords presented to
+  Sovereigns of England and Scotland_ (1864).     (J. T. S.*; E. A. J.)
+
+
+
+
+GOLDEN RULE, the term applied in all European languages to the rule of
+conduct laid down in the New Testament (Matthew vii. 12 and Luke vi.
+31). "whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to
+them, for this is the law and the prophets." This principle has often
+been stated as the fundamental precept of social morality. It is
+sometimes put negatively or passively, "do not that to another which
+thou wouldst not have done to thyself" (cf. Hobbes, _Leviathan_, xv. 79,
+xvii. 85), but it should be observed that in this form it implies merely
+abstention from evil doing. In either form the precept in ordinary
+application is part of a hedonistic system of ethics, the criterion of
+action being strictly utilitarian in character.
+
+  See H. Sidgwick, _History of Ethics_ (5th ed., 1902), p. 167; James
+  Seth, _Ethical Principles_, p. 97 foll.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDFIELD, a town and the county-seat of Esmeralda county, Nevada,
+U.S.A., about 170 m. S.E. of Carson City. Pop. (1910, U.S. census) 4838.
+It is served by the Tonopah & Groldfield, Las Vegas & Tonopah, and
+Tonopah & Tidewater railways. The town lies in the midst of a desert
+abounding in high-grade gold ores, and is essentially a mining camp. The
+discovery of gold at Tonopah, about 28 m. N. of Goldfield, in 1900 was
+followed by its discovery at Goldfield in 1902 and 1903; in 1904 the
+Goldfield district produced about 800 tons of ore, which yielded
+$2,300,000 worth of gold, or 30% of that of the State. This remarkable
+production caused Goldfield to grow rapidly, and it soon became the
+largest town in the state. In addition to the mines, there are large
+reduction works. In 1907 Goldfield became the county-seat. The gold
+output in 1907 was $8,408,396; in 1908, $4,880,251. Soon after mining on
+an extensive scale began, the miners organized themselves as a local
+branch of the Western Federation of Miners, and in this branch were
+included many labourers in Goldfield other than miners. Between this
+branch and the mine-owners there arose a series of more or less serious
+differences, and there were several set strikes--in December 1906 and
+January 1907, for higher wages; in March and April 1907, because the
+mine-owners refused to discharge carpenters who were members of the
+American Federation of Labour, but did not belong to the Western
+Federation of Miners or to the Industrial Workers of the World
+affiliated with it, this last organization being, as a result of the
+strike, forced out of Goldfield; in August and September 1907, because a
+rule was introduced at some of the mines requiring miners to change
+their clothing before entering and after leaving the mines,--a rule made
+necessary, according to the operators, by the wholesale stealing (in
+miners' parlance, "high-grading") of the very valuable ore (some of it
+valued at as high as $20 a pound); and in November and December 1907,
+because some of the mine-owners, avowedly on account of the hard times,
+adopted a system of paying in cashier's checks. Excepting occasional
+attacks upon non-union workmen, or upon persons supposed not to be in
+sympathy with the miners' union, there had been no serious disturbance
+in Goldfield; but in December 1907, Governor Sparks, at the instance of
+the mine-owners, appealed to President Roosevelt to send Federal troops
+to Goldfield, on the ground that the situation there was ominous, that
+destruction of life and property seemed probable, and that the state had
+no militia and would be powerless to maintain order. President Roosevelt
+thereupon (December 4th) ordered General Frederick Funston, commanding
+the Division of California, at San Francisco, to proceed with 300
+Federal troops to Goldfield. The troops arrived in Goldfield on the 6th
+of December, and immediately afterwards the mine-owners reduced wages
+and announced that no members of the Western Federation of Miners would
+thereafter be employed in the mines. President Roosevelt, becoming
+convinced that conditions had not warranted Governor Sparks's appeal for
+Federal assistance, but that the immediate withdrawal of the troops
+might nevertheless lead to serious disorders, consented that they should
+remain for a short time on condition that the state should immediately
+organize an adequate militia or police force. Accordingly, a special
+meeting of the legislature was immediately called, a state police force
+was organized, and on the 7th of March 1908 the troops were withdrawn.
+Thereafter work was gradually resumed in the mines, the contest having
+been won by the mine-owners.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDFINCH (Ger. _Goldfink_[1]), the _Fringilla carduelis_ of Linnaeus
+and the _Carduelis elegans_ of later authors, an extremely well-known
+bird found over the greater parts of Europe and North Africa, and
+eastwards to Persia and Turkestan. Its gay plumage is matched by its
+sprightly nature; and together they make it one of the most favourite
+cage-birds among all classes. As a songster it is indeed surpassed by
+many other species, but its docility and ready attachment to its master
+or mistress make up for any defect in its vocal powers. In some parts of
+England the trade in goldfinches is very considerable. In 1860 Mr Hussey
+reported (_Zool._, p. 7144) the average annual captures near Worthing to
+exceed 11,000 dozens--nearly all being cock-birds; and a witness before
+a committee of the House of Commons in 1873 stated that, when a boy, he
+could take forty dozens in a morning near Brighton. In these districts
+and others the number has become much reduced, owing doubtless in part
+to the fatal practice of catching the birds just before or during the
+breeding-season; but perhaps the strongest cause of their growing
+scarcity is the constant breaking-up of waste lands, and the extirpation
+of weeds (particularly of the order _Compositae_) essential to the
+improved system of agriculture; for in many parts of Scotland, East
+Lothian for instance, where goldfinches were once as plentiful as
+sparrows, they are now only rare stragglers, and yet there they have not
+been thinned by netting. Though goldfinches may occasionally be observed
+in the coldest weather, incomparably the largest number leave Britain in
+autumn, returning in spring, and resorting to gardens and orchards to
+breed, when the lively song of the cock, and the bright yellow wings of
+both sexes, quickly attract notice. The nest is a beautifully neat
+structure, often placed at no great height from the ground, but
+generally so well hidden by the leafy bough on which it is built as not
+to be easily found, until, the young being hatched, the constant visits
+of the parents reveal its site. When the broods leave the nest they move
+into the more open country, and frequenting pastures, commons, heaths
+and downs, assemble in large flocks towards the end of summer. Eastward
+of the range of the present species its place is taken by its congener
+_C. caniceps_, which is easily recognized by wanting the black hood and
+white ear-coverts of the British bird. Its home seems to be in Central
+Asia, but it moves southward in winter, being common at that season in
+Cashmere, and is not unfrequently brought for sale to Calcutta. The
+position of the genus _Carduelis_ in the family _Fringillidae_ is not
+very clear. Structurally it would seem to have some relation to the
+siskins (_Chrysomitris_), though the members of the two groups have very
+different habits, and perhaps its nearest kinship lies with the
+hawfinches (_Coccothraustes_). See FINCH.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The more common German name, however, is _Distelfink_
+    (Thistle-Finch) or _Stieglitz_.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDFISH (_Cyprinus_ or _Carassius auratus_), a small fish belonging to
+the Cyprinid family, a native of China but naturalized in other
+countries. In the wild state its colours do not differ from those of a
+Crucian carp, and like that fish it is tenacious of life and easily
+domesticated. Albinos seem to be rather common; and as in other fishes
+(for instance, the tench, carp, eel, flounder), the colour of most of
+these albinos is a bright orange or golden yellow; occasionally even
+this shade of colour is lost, the fish being more or less pure white or
+silvery. The Chinese have domesticated these albinos for a long time,
+and by careful selection have succeeded in propagating all those strange
+varieties, and even monstrosities, which appear in every domestic
+animal. In some individuals the dorsal fin is only half its normal
+length, in others entirely absent; in others the anal fin has a double
+spine; in others all the fins are of nearly double the usual length. The
+snout is frequently malformed, giving the head of the fish an appearance
+similar to that of a bull-dog. The variety most highly prized has an
+extremely short snout, eyes which almost wholly project beyond the
+orbit, no dorsal fin, and a very long three- or four-lobed caudal fin
+(Telescope-fish).
+
+[Illustration: Telescope-fish.]
+
+The domestication of the goldfish by the Chinese dates back from the
+highest antiquity, and they were introduced into Japan at the beginning
+of the 16th century; but the date of their importation into Europe is
+still uncertain. The great German ichthyologist, M. E. Bloch, thought he
+could trace it back in England to the reign of James I., whilst other
+authors fix the date at 1691. It appears certain that they were brought
+to France, only much later, as a present to Mme de Pompadour, although
+the de Goncourts, the historians of the mistresses of Louis XV., have
+failed to trace any records of this event. The fish has since spread
+over a considerable part of Europe, and in many places it has reverted
+to its wild condition. In many parts of south-eastern Asia, in
+Mauritius, in North and South Africa, in Madagascar, in the Azores, it
+has become thoroughly acclimatized, and successfully competes with the
+indigenous fresh-water fishes. It will not thrive in rivers; in large
+ponds it readily reverts to the coloration of the original wild stock.
+It flourishes best in small tanks and ponds, in which the water is
+constantly changing and does not freeze; in such localities, and with a
+full supply of food, which consists of weeds, crumbs of bread, bran,
+worms, small crustaceans and insects, it attains to a length of from 6
+to 12 in., breeding readily, sometimes at different times of the same
+year.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDFUSS, GEORG AUGUST (1782-1848), German palaeontologist, born at
+Thurnau near Bayreuth on the 18th of April 1782, was educated at
+Erlangen, where he graduated Ph.D. in 1804 and became professor of
+zoology in 1818. He was subsequently appointed professor of zoology and
+mineralogy in the university of Bonn. Aided by Count G. Munster he
+issued the important _Petrefacta Germaniae_ (1826-1844), a work which
+was intended to illustrate the invertebrate fossils of Germany, but it
+was left incomplete after the sponges, corals, crinoids, echinids and
+part of the mollusca had been figured. Goldfuss died at Bonn on the 2nd
+of October 1848.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE DASHWOOD TAUBMAN (1846-   ), English administrator,
+the founder of Nigeria, was born on the 20th of May 1846 at the Nunnery
+in the Isle of Man, being the youngest son of Lieut.-Colonel John
+Taubman Goldie-Taubman, speaker of the House of Keys, by his second wife
+Caroline, daughter of John E. Hoveden of Hemingford, Cambridgeshire. Sir
+George resumed his paternal name, Goldie, by royal licence in 1887. He
+was educated at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and for about two
+years held a commission in the Royal Engineers. He travelled in all
+parts of Africa, gaining an extensive knowledge of the continent, and
+first visited the country of the Niger in 1877. He conceived the idea of
+adding to the British empire the then little known regions of the lower
+and middle Niger, and for over twenty years his efforts were devoted to
+the realization of this conception. The method by which he determined to
+work was the revival of government by chartered companies within the
+empire--a method supposed to be buried with the East India Company. The
+first step was to combine all British commercial interests in the Niger,
+and this he accomplished in 1879 when the United African Company was
+formed. In 1881 Goldie sought a charter from the imperial government
+(the 2nd Gladstone ministry). Objections of various kinds were raised.
+To meet them the capital of the company (renamed the National African
+Company) was increased from L125,000 to L1,000,000, and great energy was
+displayed in founding stations on the Niger. At this time French
+traders, encouraged by Gambetta, established themselves on the lower
+river, thus rendering it difficult for the company to obtain territorial
+rights; but the Frenchmen were bought out in 1884, so that at the Berlin
+conference on West Africa in 1885 Mr Goldie, present as an expert on
+matters relating to the river, was able to announce that on the lower
+Niger the British flag alone flew. Meantime the Niger coast line had
+been placed under British protection. Through Joseph Thomson, David
+Mclntosh, D. W. Sargent, J. Flint, William Wallace, E. Dangerfield and
+numerous other agents, over 400 political treaties--drawn up by
+Goldie--were made with the chiefs of the lower Niger and the Hausa
+states. The scruples of the British government being overcome, a charter
+was at length granted (July 1886), the National African Company
+becoming the Royal Niger Company, with Lord Aberdare as governor and
+Goldie as vice-governor. In 1895, on Lord Aberdare's death, Goldie
+became governor of the company, whose destinies he had guided
+throughout.
+
+The building up of Nigeria as a British state had to be carried on in
+face of further difficulties raised by French travellers with political
+missions, and also in face of German opposition. From 1884 to 1890,
+Prince Bismarck was a persistent antagonist, and the strenuous efforts
+he made to secure for Germany the basin of the lower Niger and Lake Chad
+were even more dangerous to Goldie's schemes of empire than the
+ambitions of France. Herr E. R. Flegel, who had travelled in Nigeria
+during 1882-1884 under the auspices of the British company, was sent out
+in 1885 by the newly-formed German Colonial Society to secure treaties
+for Germany, which had established itself at Cameroon. After Flegel's
+death in 1886 his work was continued by his companion Dr Staudinger,
+while Herr Hoenigsberg was despatched to stir up trouble in the occupied
+portions of the Company's territory,--or, as he expressed it, "to burst
+up the charter." He was finally arrested at Onitsha, and, after trial by
+the company's supreme court at Asaba, was expelled the country. Prince
+Bismarck then sent out his nephew, Herr von Puttkamer, as German
+consul-general to Nigeria, with orders to report on this affair, and
+when this report was published in a White Book, Bismarck demanded heavy
+damages from the company. Meanwhile Bismarck maintained constant
+pressure on the British government to compel the Royal Niger Company to
+a division of spheres of influence, whereby Great Britain would have
+lost a third, and the most valuable part, of the company's territory.
+But he fell from power in March 1890, and in July following Lord
+Salisbury concluded the famous "Heligoland" agreement with Germany.
+After this event the aggressive action of Germany in Nigeria entirely
+ceased, and the door was opened for a final settlement of the
+Nigeria-Cameroon frontiers. These negotiations, which resulted in an
+agreement in 1893, were initiated by Goldie as a means of arresting the
+advance of France into Nigeria from the direction of the Congo. By
+conceding to Germany a long but narrow strip of territory between
+Adamawa and Lake Chad, to which she had no treaty claims, a barrier was
+raised against French expeditions, semi-military and semi-exploratory,
+which sought to enter Nigeria from the east. Later French efforts at
+aggression were made from the western or Dahomeyan side, despite an
+agreement concluded with France in 1890 respecting the northern
+frontier.
+
+The hostility of certain Fula princes led the company to despatch, in
+1897, an expedition against the Mahommedan states of Nupe and Illorin.
+This expedition was organized and personally directed by Goldie and was
+completely successful. Internal peace was thus secured, but in the
+following year the differences with France in regard to the frontier
+line became acute, and compelled the intervention of the British
+government. In the negotiations which ensued Goldie was instrumental in
+preserving for Great Britain the whole of the navigable stretch of the
+lower Niger. It was, however, evidently impossible for a chartered
+company to hold its own against the state-supported protectorates of
+France and Germany, and in consequence, on the 1st of January 1900, the
+Royal Niger Company transferred its territories to the British
+government for the sum of L865,000. The ceded territory together with
+the small Niger Coast Protectorate, already under imperial control, was
+formed into the two protectorates of northern and southern Nigeria (see
+further NIGERIA).
+
+In 1903-1904, at the request of the Chartered Company of South Africa,
+Goldie visited Rhodesia and examined the situation in connexion with the
+agitation for self-government by the Rhodesians. In 1902-1903 he was one
+of the royal commissioners who inquired into the military preparations
+for the war in South Africa (1899-1902) and into the operations up to
+the occupation of Pretoria, and in 1905-1906 was a member of the royal
+commission which investigated the methods of disposal of war stores
+after peace had been made. In 1905 he was elected president of the Royal
+Geographical Society and held that office for three years. In 1908 he
+was chosen an alderman of the London County Council. Goldie was created
+K.C.M.G. in 1887, and a privy councillor in 1898. He became an F.R.S.,
+honorary D.C.L. of Oxford University (1897) and honorary LL.D. of
+Cambridge (1897). He married in 1870 Matilda Catherine (d. 1898),
+daughter of John William Elliott of Wakefield.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDING, ARTHUR (c. 1536-c. 1605), English translator, son of John
+Golding of Belchamp St Paul and Halsted, Essex, one of the auditors of
+the exchequer, was born probably in London about 1536. His half-sister,
+Margaret, married John de Vere, 16th earl of Oxford. In 1549 he was
+already in the service of Protector Somerset, and the statement that he
+was educated at Queen's College, Cambridge, lacks corroboration. He
+seems to have resided for some time in the house of Sir William Cecil,
+in the Strand, with his nephew, the poet, the 17th earl of Oxford, whose
+receiver he was, for two of his dedications are dated from Cecil House.
+His chief work is his translation of Ovid. _The Fyrst Fower Bookes of P.
+Ovidius Nasos worke, entitled Metamorphosis, translated oute of Latin
+into Englishe meter_ (1565), was supplemented in 1567 by a translation
+of the fifteen books. Strangely enough the translator of Ovid was a man
+of strong Puritan sympathies, and he translated many of the works of
+Calvin. To his version of the _Metamorphoses_ he prefixed a long
+metrical explanation of his reasons for considering it a work of
+edification. He sets forth the moral which he supposes to underlie
+certain of the stories, and shows how the pagan machinery may be brought
+into line with Christian thought. It was from Golding's pages that many
+of the Elizabethans drew their knowledge of classical mythology, and
+there is little doubt that Shakespeare was well acquainted with the
+book. Golding translated also the _Commentaries_ of Caesar (1565),
+Calvin's commentaries on the Psalms (1571), his sermons on the Galatians
+and Ephesians, on Deuteronomy and the book of Job, Theodore Beza's
+_Tragedie of Abrahams Sacrifice_ (1577) and the _De Beneficiis_ of
+Seneca (1578). He completed a translation begun by Sidney from Philippe
+de Mornay, _A Worke concerning the Trewnesse of the Christian Religion_
+(1604). His only original work is a prose _Discourse_ on the earthquake
+of 1580, in which he saw a judgment of God on the wickedness of his
+time. He inherited three considerable estates in Essex, the greater part
+of which he sold in 1595. The last trace we have of Golding is contained
+in an order dated the 25th of July 1605, giving him licence to print
+certain of his works.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDINGEN (Lettish, _Kuldiga_), a town of Russia, in the government of
+Courland, 55 m. by rail N.E. of Libau, and on Windau river, in 56 deg.
+58' N. and 22 deg. E. Pop. (1897) 9733. It has woollen mills, needle and
+match factories, breweries and distilleries, a college for teachers, and
+ruins of a castle of the Teutonic Knights, built in 1248 and used in the
+17th century as the residence of the dukes of Courland.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDMARK, KARL (1832-   ), Hungarian composer, was born at
+Keszthely-am-Plattensee, in Hungary, on the 18th of May 1832. His
+father, a poor cantor in the local Jewish synagogue, was unable to
+assist to any extent financially in the development of his son's
+talents. Yet in the household much music was made, and on a cheap violin
+and home-made flute, constructed by Goldmark himself from reeds cut from
+the riverbank, the future composer gave rein to his musical ideas. His
+talent was fostered by the village schoolmaster, by whose aid he was
+able to enter the music-school of the Oedenburger Verein. Here he
+remained but a short time, his success at a school concert finally
+determining his parents to allow him to devote himself entirely to
+music. In 1844, then, he went to Vienna, where Jansa took up his cause
+and eventually obtained for him admission to the conservatorium. For two
+years Goldmark worked under Jansa at the violin, and on the outbreak of
+the revolution, after studying all the orchestral instruments he
+obtained an engagement in the orchestra at Raab. There, on the
+capitulation of Raab, he was to have been shot for a spy, and was only
+saved at the eleventh hour by the happy arrival of a former colleague.
+In 1850 Goldmark left Raab for Vienna, where from his friend Mittrich he
+obtained his first real knowledge of the classics. There, too, he
+devoted himself to composition. In 1857 Goldmark, who was then engaged
+in the Karl-theater band, gave a concert of his own works with such
+success that his first quartet attracted very general attention. Then
+followed the "Sakuntala" and "Penthesilea" overtures, which show how
+Wagner's influence had supervened upon his previous domination by
+Mendelssohn, and the delightful "Landliche Hochzeit" symphony, which
+carried his fame abroad. Goldmark's reputation was now made, and very
+largely increased by the production at Vienna in 1875 of his first and
+best opera, _Die Konigin von Saba_. Over this opera he spent seven
+years. Its popularity is still almost as great as ever. It was followed
+in November 1886, also at Vienna, by _Merlin_, much of which has been
+rewritten since then. A third opera, a version of Dickens's _Cricket on
+the Hearth_, was given by the Royal Carl Rosa Company in London in 1900.
+Goldmark's chamber music has not made much lasting impression, but the
+overtures "Im Fruhling," "Prometheus Bound," and "Sapho" are fairly well
+known. A "programme" seems essential to him. In opera he is most
+certainly at his best, and as an orchestral colourist he ranks among the
+very highest.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDONI, CARLO (1707-1793), Italian dramatist, the real founder of
+modern Italian comedy, was born at Venice, on the 25th of February 1707,
+in a fine house near St Thomas's church. His father Giulio was a native
+of Modena. The first playthings of the future writer were puppets which
+he made dance; the first books he read were plays,--among others, the
+comedies of the Florentine Cicognini. Later he received a still stronger
+impression from the _Mandragora_ of Machiavelli. At eight years old he
+had tried to sketch a play. His father, meanwhile, had taken his degree
+in medicine at Rome and fixed himself at Perugia, where he made his son
+join him; but, having soon quarrelled with his colleagues in medicine,
+he departed for Chioggia, leaving his son to the care of a philosopher,
+Professor Caldini of Rimini. The young Goldoni soon grew tired of his
+life at Rimini, and ran away with a Venetian company of players. He
+began to study law at Venice, then went to continue the same pursuit at
+Pavia, but at that time he was studying the Greek and Latin comic poets
+much more and much better than books about law. "I have read over
+again," he writes in his own _Memoirs_, "the Greek and Latin poets, and
+I have told to myself that I should like to imitate them in their style,
+their plots, their precision; but I would not be satisfied unless I
+succeeded in giving more interest to my works, happier issues to my
+plots, better drawn characters and more genuine comedy." For a satire
+entitled _Il Colosso_, which attacked the honour of several families of
+Pavia, he was driven from that town, and went first to study with the
+jurisconsult Morelli at Udine, then to take his degree in law at Modena.
+After having worked some time as clerk in the chanceries of Chioggia and
+Feltre, his father being dead, he went to Venice, to exercise there his
+profession as a lawyer. But the wish to write for the stage was always
+strong in him, and he tried to do so; he made, however, a mistake in his
+choice, and began with a tragedy, _Amalasunta_, which was represented at
+Milan and proved a failure. In 1734 he wrote another tragedy,
+_Belisario_, which, though not much better, chanced nevertheless to
+please the public. This first success encouraged him to write other
+tragedies, some of which were well received; but the author himself saw
+clearly that he had not yet found his proper sphere, and that a radical
+dramatic reform was absolutely necessary for the stage. He wished to
+create a characteristic comedy in Italy, to follow the example of
+Moliere, and to delineate the realities of social life in as natural a
+manner as possible. His first essay of this kind was _Momolo Cortesan_
+(Momolo the Courtier), written in the Venetian dialect, and based on his
+own experience. Other plays followed--some interesting from their
+subject, others from the characters; the best of that period are--_Le
+Trentadue Disgrazie d' Arlecchino_, _La Notte critica_, _La Bancarotta_,
+_La Donna di Garbo_. Having, while consul of Genoa at Venice, been
+cheated by a captain of Ragusa, he founded on this his play
+_L'Impostore_. At Leghorn he made the acquaintance of the comedian
+Medebac, and followed him to Venice, with his company, for which he
+began to write his best plays. Once he promised to write sixteen
+comedies in a year, and kept his word; among the sixteen are some of his
+very best, such as _Il Caffe_, _Il Bugiardo_, _La Pamela_. When he left
+the company of Medebac, he passed over to that maintained by the
+patrician Vendramin, continuing to write with the greatest facility. In
+1761 he was called to Paris, and before leaving Venice he wrote _Una
+delle ultime sere di Carnevale_ (One of the Last Nights of Carnival), an
+allegorical comedy in which he said good-bye to his country. At the end
+of the representation of this play, the theatre resounded with applause,
+and with shouts expressive of good wishes. Goldoni, at this proof of
+public sympathy, wept as a child. At Paris, during two years, he wrote
+comedies for the Italian actors; then he taught Italian to the royal
+princesses; and for the wedding of Louis XVI. and of Marie Antoinette he
+wrote in French one of his best comedies, _Le Bourru bienfaisant_, which
+was a great success. When he retired from Paris to Versailles, the king
+made him a gift of 6000 francs, and fixed on him an annual pension of
+1200 francs. It was at Versailles he wrote his _Memoirs_, which occupied
+him till he reached his eightieth year. The Revolution deprived him all
+at once of his modest pension, and reduced him to extreme misery; he
+dragged on his unfortunate existence till 1793, and died on the 6th of
+February. The day after, on the proposal of Andre Chenier, the
+Convention agreed to give the pension back to the poet; and as he had
+already died, a reduced allowance was granted to his widow.
+
+  The best comedies of Goldoni are: _La Donna di Garbo_, _La Bottega di
+  Caffe_, _Pamela nubile_, _Le Baruffe chiozzotte_, _I Rusteghi_,
+  _Todero Brontolon_, _Gli Innamorati_, _Il Ventaglio_, _Il Bugiardo_,
+  _La Casa nova_, _Il Burbero benefico_, _La Locandiera_. A collected
+  edition (Venice, 1788) was republished at Florence in 1827. See P. G.
+  Molmenti, _Carlo Goldoni_ (Venice, 1875); Rabany, _Carlo Goldoni_
+  (Paris, 1896). The _Memoirs_ were translated into English by John
+  Black (Boston, 1877). with preface by W. D. Howells.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDS, a Mongolo-Tatar people, living on the Lower Amur in south-eastern
+Siberia. Their chief settlements are on the right bank of the Amur and
+along the Sungari and Usuri rivers. In physique they are typically
+Mongolic. Like the Chinese they wear a pigtail, and from them, too, have
+learnt the art of silk embroidery. The Golds live almost entirely on
+fish, and are excellent boatmen. They keep large herds of swine and
+dogs, which live, like themselves, on fish. Geese, wild duck, eagles,
+bears, wolves and foxes are also kept in menageries. There is much
+reverence paid to the eagles, and hence the Manchus call the Golds
+"Eaglets." Their religion is Shamanism.
+
+  See L. Schrenck, _Die Volker des Amurlandes_ (St Petersburg, 1891);
+  Laufer, "The Amoor Tribes," in _American Anthropologist_ (New York,
+  1900); E. G. Ravenstein, _The Russians on the Amur_ (1861).
+
+
+
+
+GOLDSBORO, a city and the county-seat of Wayne county, North Carolina,
+U.S.A., on the Neuse river, about 50 m. S.E. of Raleigh. Pop. (1890)
+4017; (1900) 5877 (2520 negroes); (1910) 6107. It is served by the
+Southern, the Atlantic Coast Line and the Norfolk & Southern railways.
+The surrounding country produces large quantities of tobacco, cotton and
+grain, and trucking is an important industry, the city being a
+distributing point for strawberries and various kinds of vegetables. The
+city's manufactures include cotton goods, knit goods, cotton-seed oil,
+agricultural implements, lumber and furniture. Goldsboro is the seat of
+the Eastern insane asylum (for negroes) and of an Odd Fellows' orphan
+home. The municipality owns and operates its water-works and
+electric-lighting plant. Goldsboro was settled in 1838, and was first
+incorporated in 1841. In the campaign of 1865 Goldsboro was the point of
+junction of the Union armies under generals Sherman and Schofield,
+previous to the final advance to Greensboro.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDSCHMIDT, HERMANN (1802-1866), German painter and astronomer, was the
+son of a Jewish merchant, and was born at Frankfort on the 17th of June
+1802. He for ten years assisted his father in his business; but, his
+love of art having been awakened while journeying in Holland, he in 1832
+began the study of painting at Munich under Cornelius and Schnorr, and
+in 1836 established himself at Paris, where he painted a number of
+pictures of more than average merit, among which may be mentioned the
+"Cumaean Sibyl" (1844); an "Offering to Venus" (1845); a "View of Rome"
+(1849); the "Death of Romeo and Juliet" (1857); and several Alpine
+landscapes. In 1847 he began to devote his attention to astronomy; and
+from 1852 to 1861 he discovered fourteen asteroids between Mars and
+Jupiter, on which account he received the grand astronomical prize from
+the Academy of Sciences. His observations of the protuberances on the
+sun, made during the total eclipse on the 10th of July 1860, are
+included in the work of Madler on the eclipse, published in 1861.
+Goldschmidt died at Fontainebleau on the 26th of August 1866.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDSMID, the name of a family of Anglo-Jewish bankers sprung from Aaron
+Goldsmid (d. 1782), a Dutch merchant who settled in England about 1763.
+Two of his sons, Benjamin Goldsmid (c. 1753-1808) and Abraham Goldsmid
+(c. 1756-1810), began business together about 1777 as bill-brokers in
+London, and soon became great powers in the money market, during the
+Napoleonic war, through their dealings with the government. Abraham
+Goldsmid was in 1810 joint contractor with the Barings for a government
+loan, but owing to a depreciation of the scrip he was forced into
+bankruptcy and committed suicide. His brother, in a fit of depression,
+had similarly taken his own life two years before. Both were noted for
+their public and private generosity, and Benjamin had a part in founding
+the Royal Naval Asylum. Benjamin left four sons, the youngest being
+Lionel Prager Goldsmid; Abraham a daughter, Isabel.
+
+Their nephew, Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, Bart. (1778-1859), was born in
+London, and began in business with a firm of bullion brokers to the Bank
+of England and the East India Company. He amassed a large fortune, and
+was made Baron da Palmeira by the Portuguese government in 1846 for
+services rendered In settling a monetary dispute between Portugal and
+Brazil, but he is chiefly known for his efforts to obtain the
+emancipation of the Jews in England and for his part in founding
+University College, London. The Jewish Disabilities Bill, first
+introduced in Parliament by Sir Robert Grant in 1830, owed its final
+passage to Goldsmid's energetic work. He helped to establish the
+University College hospital in 1834, serving as its treasurer for
+eighteen years, and also aided in the efforts to obtain reform in the
+English penal code. Moreover he assisted by his capital and his
+enterprise to build part of the English southern railways and also the
+London docks. In 1841 he became the first Jewish baronet, the honour
+being conferred upon him by Lord Melbourne. He had married his cousin
+Isabel (see above), and their second son was Sir Francis Henry Goldsmid,
+Bart. (1808-1878), born in London, and called to the bar at Lincoln's
+Inn in 1833 (the first Jew to become an English barrister; Q.C. 1858).
+After the passing of the Jewish Disabilities Bill, in which he had aided
+his father with a number of pamphlets that attracted great attention, he
+entered Parliament in 1860 (having succeeded to the baronetcy) as member
+for Reading, and represented that constituency until his death. He was
+strenuous on behalf of the Jewish religion, and the founder of the great
+Jews' Free School. He was a munificent contributor to charities and
+especially to the endowment of University College. He, like his father,
+married a cousin, and, dying without issue, was succeeded in the
+baronetcy by his nephew Sir Julian Goldsmid, Bart. (1838-1896), son of
+Frederick David Goldsmid (1812-1866), long M.P. for Honiton. Sir Julian
+was for many years in Parliament, and his wealth, ability and influence
+made him a personage of considerable importance. He was eventually made
+a privy councillor. He had eight daughters, but no son, and his entailed
+property passed to his relation, Mr d'Avigdor, his house in Piccadilly
+being converted into the Isthmian Club.
+
+Another distinguished member of the same family, Sir Frederic John
+Goldsmid (1818-1908), son of Lionel Prager Goldsmid (see above), was
+educated at King's College, London, and entering the Madras army in 1839
+served in the China War of 1840-41, with the Turkish troops in eastern
+Crimea in 1855-56, and was given political employment by the Indian
+government. He received the thanks of the commander-in-chief and of the
+war office for services during the Egyptian campaign, and was retired a
+major-general in 1875. Sir Frederic Goldsmid's name is, however,
+associated less with military service than with much valuable work in
+exploration and in surveying, for which he repeatedly received the
+thanks of government. From 1865 to 1870 he was director-general of the
+Indo-European telegraph, and carried through the telegraph convention
+with Persia; and between 1870 and 1872, as commissioner, he settled with
+Persia the difficult questions of the Perso-Baluch and Perso-Afghan
+boundaries. In the course of his work he had to travel extensively, and
+he followed this up by various responsible missions connected with
+emigration questions. In 1881-1882 he was in Egypt, as controller of the
+Daira Sanieh, and doing other miscellaneous military work; and in 1883
+he went to the Congo, on behalf of the king of the Belgians, as one of
+the organizers of the new state, but had to return on account of
+illness. From his early years he had made studies of several Eastern
+languages, and he ranked among the foremost Orientalists of his day. In
+1886 he was president of the geographical section of the British
+Association meeting held at Birmingham. He had married in 1849, and had
+two sons and four daughters. In 1871 he was made a K.C.S.I. Besides
+important contributions to the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia
+Britannica_ and many periodicals, he wrote an excellent and
+authoritative biography of Sir James Outram (2 vols., 1880).
+
+A sister of the last-named married Henry Edward Goldsmid (1812-1855), an
+eminent Indian civil servant, son of Edward Goldsmid; his reform of the
+revenue system in Bombay, and introduction of a new system, established
+after his death, through his reports in 1840-1847, and his devoted
+labour in land-surveys, were of the highest importance to western India,
+and established his memory there as a public benefactor.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDSMITH, LEWIS (c. 1763-1846), Anglo-French publicist, of
+Portuguese-Jewish extraction, was born near London about 1763. Having
+published in 1801 _The Crimes of Cabinets, or a Review of the Plans and
+Aggressions for Annihilating the Liberties of France, and the
+Dismemberment of her Territories_, an attack on the military policy of
+Pitt, he moved, in 1802, from England to Paris. Talleyrand introduced
+him to Napoleon, who arranged for him to establish in Paris an English
+tri-weekly, the _Argus_, which was to review English affairs from the
+French point of view. According to his own account, he was in 1803
+entrusted with a mission to obtain from the head of the French royal
+family, afterwards Louis XVIII., a renunciation of his claims to the
+throne of France, in return for the throne of Poland. The offer was
+declined, and Goldsmith says that he then received instructions to
+kidnap Louis and kill him if he resisted, but, instead of executing
+these orders, he revealed the plot. He was, nevertheless, employed by
+Napoleon on various other secret service missions till 1807, when his
+Republican sympathies began to wane. In 1809 he returned to England,
+where he was at first imprisoned but soon released; and he became a
+notary in London. In 1811, being now violently anti-republican, he
+founded a Sunday newspaper, the _Anti-Gallican Monitor_ and
+_Anti-Corsican Chronicle_, subsequently known as the _British Monitor_,
+in which he denounced the French Revolution. In 1811 he proposed that a
+public subscription should be raised to put a price on Napoleon's head,
+but this suggestion was strongly reprobated by the British government.
+In the same year he published _Secret History of the Cabinet of
+Bonaparte and Recueil des manifestes, or a Collection of the Decrees of
+Napoleon Bonaparte_, and in 1812 _Secret History of Bonaparte's
+Diplomacy_. Goldsmith alleged that in the latter year he was offered
+L200,000 by Napoleon to discontinue his attacks. In 1815 he published
+_An Appeal to the Governments of Europe on the Necessity of bringing
+Napoleon Bonaparte to a Public Trial_. In 1825 he again settled down in
+Paris, and in 1832 published his _Statistics of France_. His only child,
+Georgiana, became, in 1837, the second wife of Lord Lyndhurst. He died
+in Paris on the 6th of January 1846.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDSMITH, OLIVER (1728-1774), English poet, playwright, novelist and
+man of letters, came of a Protestant and Saxon family which had long
+been settled in Ireland. He is usually said to have been born at Pallas
+or Pallasmore, Co. Longford; but recent investigators have contended,
+with much show of probability, that his true birthplace was Smith-Hill
+House, Elphin, Roscommon, the residence of his mother's father, the Rev.
+Oliver Jones. His father, Charles Goldsmith, lived at Pallas, supporting
+with difficulty his wife and children on what he could earn, partly as a
+curate and partly as a farmer.
+
+While Oliver was still a child his father was presented to the living of
+Kilkenny West, in the county of West Meath. This was worth about L200 a
+year. The family accordingly quitted their cottage at Pallas for a
+spacious house on a frequented road, near the village of Lissoy. Here
+the boy was taught his letters by a relative and dependent, Elizabeth
+Delap, and was sent in his seventh year to a village school kept by an
+old quartermaster on half-pay, who professed to teach nothing but
+reading, writing and arithmetic, but who had an inexhaustible fund of
+stories about ghosts, banshees and fairies, about the great Rapparee
+chiefs, Baldearg O'Donnell and galloping Hogan, and about the exploits
+of Peterborough and Stanhope, the surprise of Monjuich and the glorious
+disaster of Brihuega. This man must have been of the Protestant
+religion; but he was of the aboriginal race, and not only spoke the
+Irish language, but could pour forth unpremeditated Irish verses. Oliver
+early became, and through life continued to be, a passionate admirer of
+the Irish music, and especially of the compositions of Carolan, some of
+the last notes of whose harp he heard. It ought to be added that Oliver,
+though by birth one of the Englishry, and though connected by numerous
+ties with the Established Church, never showed the least sign of that
+contemptuous antipathy with which, in his days, the ruling minority in
+Ireland too generally regarded the subject majority. So far indeed was
+he from sharing in the opinions and feelings of the caste to which he
+belonged that he conceived an aversion to the Glorious and Immortal
+Memory, and, even when George III. was on the throne, maintained that
+nothing but the restoration of the banished dynasty could save the
+country.
+
+From the humble academy kept by the old soldier Goldsmith was removed in
+his ninth year. He went to several grammar-schools, and acquired some
+knowledge of the ancient languages. His life at this time seems to have
+been far from happy. He had, as appears from the admirable portrait of
+him by Reynolds at Knole, features harsh even to ugliness. The small-pox
+had set its mark on him with more than usual severity. His stature was
+small, and his limbs ill put together. Among boys little tenderness is
+shown to personal defects; and the ridicule excited by poor Oliver's
+appearance was heightened by a peculiar simplicity and a disposition to
+blunder which he retained to the last. He became the common butt of boys
+and masters, was pointed at as a fright in the play-ground, and flogged
+as a dunce in the schoolroom. When he had risen to eminence, those who
+had once derided him ransacked their memory for the events of his early
+years, and recited repartees and couplets which had dropped from him,
+and which, though little noticed at the time, were supposed, a quarter
+of a century later, to indicate the powers which produced the _Vicar of
+Wakefield_ and the _Deserted Village_.
+
+On the 11th of June 1744, being then in his sixteenth year, Oliver went
+up to Trinity College, Dublin, as a sizar. The sizars paid nothing for
+food and tuition, and very little for lodging; but they had to perform
+some menial services from which they have long been relieved. Goldsmith
+was quartered, not alone, in a garret of what was then No. 35 in a range
+of buildings which has long since disappeared. His name, scrawled by
+himself on one of its window-panes is still preserved in the college
+library. From such garrets many men of less parts than his have made
+their way to the woolsack or to the episcopal bench. But Goldsmith,
+while he suffered all the humiliations, threw away all the advantages of
+his situation. He neglected the studies of the place, stood low at the
+examinations, was turned down to the bottom of his class for playing the
+buffoon in the lecture-room, was severely reprimanded for pumping on a
+constable, and was caned by a brutal tutor for giving a ball in the
+attic storey of the college to some gay youths and damsels from the
+city.
+
+While Oliver was leading at Dublin a life divided between squalid
+distress and squalid dissipation, his father died, leaving a mere
+pittance. In February 1749 the youth obtained his bachelor's degree,
+and left the university. During some time the humble dwelling to which
+his widowed mother had retired was his home. He was now in his
+twenty-first year; it was necessary that he should do something; and his
+education seemed to have fitted him to do nothing but to dress himself
+in gaudy colours, of which he was as fond as a magpie, to take a hand at
+cards, to sing Irish airs, to play the flute, to angle in summer and to
+tell ghost stories by the fire in winter. He tried five or six
+professions in turn without success. He applied for ordination; but, as
+he applied in scarlet clothes, he was speedily turned out of the
+episcopal palace. He then became tutor in an opulent family, but soon
+quitted his situation in consequence of a dispute about pay. Then he
+determined to emigrate to America. His relations, with much
+satisfaction, saw him set out for Cork on a good horse, with L30 in his
+pocket. But in six weeks he came back on a miserable hack, without a
+penny, and informed his mother that the ship in which he had taken his
+passage, having got a fair wind while he was at a party of pleasure, had
+sailed without him. Then he resolved to study the law. A generous uncle,
+Mr Contarine, advanced L50. With this sum Goldsmith went to Dublin, was
+enticed into a gaming-house and lost every shilling. He then thought of
+medicine. A small purse was made up; and in his twenty-fourth year he
+was sent to Edinburgh. At Edinburgh he passed eighteen months in nominal
+attendance on lectures, and picked up some superficial information about
+chemistry and natural history. Thence he went to Leiden, still
+pretending to study physic. He left that celebrated university, the
+third university at which he had resided, in his twenty-seventh year,
+without a degree, with the merest smattering of medical knowledge, and
+with no property but his clothes and his flute. His flute, however,
+proved a useful friend. He rambled on foot through Flanders, France and
+Switzerland, playing tunes which everywhere set the peasantry dancing,
+and which often procured for him a supper and a bed. He wandered as far
+as Italy. His musical performances, indeed, were not to the taste of the
+Italians; but he contrived to live on the alms which he obtained at the
+gates of convents. It should, however, be observed that the stories
+which he told about this part of his life ought to be received with
+great caution; for strict veracity was never one of his virtues; and a
+man who is ordinarily inaccurate in narration is likely to be more than
+ordinarily inaccurate when he talks about his own travels. Goldsmith,
+indeed, was so regardless of truth as to assert in print that he was
+present at a most interesting conversation between Voltaire and
+Fontenelle, and that this conversation took place at Paris. Now it is
+certain that Voltaire never was within a hundred leagues of Paris during
+the whole time which Goldsmith passed on the continent.
+
+In February 1756 the wanderer landed at Dover, without a shilling,
+without a friend and without a calling. He had indeed, if his own
+unsupported evidence may be trusted, obtained a doctor's degree on the
+continent; but this dignity proved utterly useless to him. In England
+his flute was not in request; there were no convents; and he was forced
+to have recourse to a series of desperate expedients. There is a
+tradition that he turned strolling player. He pounded drugs and ran
+about London with phials for charitable chemists. He asserted, upon one
+occasion, that he had lived "among the beggars in Axe Lane." He was for
+a time usher of a school, and felt the miseries and humiliations of this
+situation so keenly that he thought it a promotion to be permitted to
+earn his bread as a bookseller's hack; but he soon found the new yoke
+more galling than the old one, and was glad to become an usher again. He
+obtained a medical appointment in the service of the East India Company;
+but the appointment was speedily revoked. Why it was revoked we are not
+told. The subject was one on which he never liked to talk. It is
+probable that he was incompetent to perform the duties of the place.
+Then he presented himself at Surgeons' Hall for examination, as "mate to
+an hospital." Even to so humble a post he was found unequal. Nothing
+remained but to return to the lowest drudgery of literature. Goldsmith
+took a room in a tiny square off Ludgate Hill, to which he had to climb
+from Sea-coal Lane by a dizzy ladder of flagstones called Breakneck
+Steps. Green Arbour Court and the ascent have long disappeared. Here, at
+thirty, the unlucky adventurer sat down to toil like a galley slave.
+Already, in 1758, during his first bondage to letters, he had translated
+Marteilhe's remarkable _Memoirs of a Protestant, Condemned to the
+Galleys of France for his Religion_. In the years that now succeeded he
+sent to the press some things which have survived, and many which have
+perished. He produced articles for reviews, magazines and newspapers;
+children's books, which, bound in gilt paper and adorned with hideous
+woodcuts, appeared in the window of Newbery's once far-famed shop at the
+corner of Saint Paul's churchyard; _An Inquiry into the State of Polite
+Learning in Europe_, which, though of little or no value, is still
+reprinted among his works; a volume of essays entitled _The Bec; a Life
+of Beau Nash_; a superficial and incorrect, but very readable, _History
+of England_, in a series of letters purporting to be addressed by a
+nobleman to his son; and some very lively and amusing sketches of London
+Society in another series of letters purporting to be addressed by a
+Chinese traveller to his friends. All these works were anonymous; but
+some of them were well known to be Goldsmith's; and he gradually rose in
+the estimation of the booksellers for whom he drudged. He was, indeed,
+emphatically a popular writer. For accurate research or grave
+disquisition he was not well qualified by nature or by education. He
+knew nothing accurately; his reading had been desultory; nor had he
+meditated deeply on what he had read. He had seen much of the world; but
+he had noticed and retained little more of what he had seen than some
+grotesque incidents and characters which had happened to strike his
+fancy. But, though his mind was very scantily stored with materials, he
+used what materials he had in such a way as to produce a wonderful
+effect. There have been many greater writers; but perhaps no writer was
+ever more uniformly agreeable. His style was always pure and easy, and,
+on proper occasions, pointed and energetic. His narratives were always
+amusing, his descriptions always picturesque, his humour rich and
+joyous, yet not without an occasional tinge of amiable sadness. About
+everything that he wrote, serious or sportive, there was a certain
+natural grace and decorum, hardly to be expected from a man a great part
+of whose life had been passed among thieves and beggars, street-walkers
+and merryandrews, in those squalid dens which are the reproach of great
+capitals.
+
+As his name gradually became known, the circle of his acquaintance
+widened. He was introduced to Johnson, who was then considered as the
+first of living English writers; to Reynolds, the first of English
+painters; and to Burke, who had not yet entered parliament, but had
+distinguished himself greatly by his writings and by the eloquence of
+his conversation. With these eminent men Goldsmith became intimate. In
+1763 he was one of the nine original members of that celebrated
+fraternity which has sometimes been called the Literary Club, but which
+has always disclaimed that epithet, and still glories in the simple name
+of the Club.
+
+By this date Goldsmith had quitted his miserable dwelling at the top of
+Breakneck Steps, and, after living for some time at No. 6 Wine Office
+Court, Fleet Street, had moved into the Temple. But he was still often
+reduced to pitiable shifts, the most popular of which is connected with
+the sale of his solitary novel, the _Vicar of Wakefield_. Towards the
+close of 1764(?) his rent is alleged to have been so long in arrear that
+his landlady one morning called in the help of a sheriff's officer. The
+debtor, in great perplexity, despatched a messenger to Johnson; and
+Johnson, always friendly, though often surly, sent back the messenger
+with a guinea, and promised to follow speedily. He came, and found that
+Goldsmith had changed the guinea, and was railing at the landlady over a
+bottle of Madeira. Johnson put the cork into the bottle, and entreated
+his friend to consider calmly how money was to be procured. Goldsmith
+said that he had a novel ready for the press. Johnson glanced at the
+manuscript, saw that there were good things in it, took it to a
+bookseller, sold it for L60 and soon returned with the money. The rent
+was paid; and the sheriff's officer withdrew. (Unfortunately, however,
+for this time-honoured version of the circumstances, it has of late
+years been discovered that as early as October 1762 Goldsmith had
+already sold a third of the _Vicar_ to one Benjamin Collins of
+Salisbury, a printer, by whom it was eventually printed for F. Newbery,
+and it is difficult to reconcile this fact with Johnson's narrative.)
+
+But before the _Vicar of Wakefield_ appeared in 1766, came the great
+crisis of Goldsmith's literary life. In Christmas week 1764 he published
+a poem, entitled the _Traveller_. It was the first work to which he had
+put his name, and it at once raised him to the rank of a legitimate
+English classic. The opinion of the most skilful critics was that
+nothing finer had appeared in verse since the fourth book of the
+_Dunciad_. In one respect the _Traveller_ differs from all Goldsmith's
+other writings. In general his designs were bad, and his execution good.
+In the _Traveller_ the execution, though deserving of much praise, is
+far inferior to the design. No philosophical poem, ancient or modern,
+has a plan so noble, and at the same time so simple. An English
+wanderer, seated on a crag among the Alps, near the point where three
+great countries meet, looks down on the boundless prospect, reviews his
+long pilgrimage, recalls the varieties of scenery, of climate, of
+government, of religion, of national character, which he has observed,
+and comes to the conclusion, just or unjust, that our happiness depends
+little on political institutions, and much on the temper and regulation
+of our own minds.
+
+While the fourth edition of the _Traveller_ was on the counters of the
+booksellers, the _Vicar of Wakefield_ appeared, and rapidly obtained a
+popularity which has lasted down to our own time, and which is likely to
+last as long as our language. The fable is indeed one of the worst that
+ever was constructed. It wants, not merely that probability which ought
+to be found in a tale of common English life, but that consistency which
+ought to be found even in the wildest fiction about witches, giants and
+fairies. But the earlier chapters have all the sweetness of pastoral
+poetry, together with all the vivacity of comedy. Moses and his
+spectacles, the vicar and his monogamy, the sharper and his cosmogony,
+the squire proving from Aristotle that relatives are related, Olivia
+preparing herself for the arduous task of converting a rakish lover by
+studying the controversy between Robinson Crusoe and Friday, the great
+ladies with their scandal about Sir Tomkyn's amours and Dr Burdock's
+verses, and Mr Burchell with his "Fudge," have caused as much harmless
+mirth as has ever been caused by matter packed into so small a number of
+pages. The latter part of the tale is unworthy of the beginning. As we
+approach the catastrophe, the absurdities lie thicker and thicker, and
+the gleams of pleasantry become rarer and rarer.
+
+The success which had attended Goldsmith as a novelist emboldened him to
+try his fortune as a dramatist. He wrote the _Good Natur'd Man_, a piece
+which had a worse fate than it deserved. Garrick refused to produce it
+at Drury Lane. It was acted at Covent Garden in January 1768, but was
+coldly received. The author, however, cleared by his benefit nights, and
+by the sale of the copyright, no less than L500, five times as much as
+he had made by the _Traveller_ and the _Vicar of Wakefield_ together.
+The plot of the _Good Natur'd Man_ is, like almost all Goldsmith's
+plots, very ill constructed. But some passages are exquisitely
+ludicrous,--much more ludicrous indeed than suited the taste of the town
+at that time. A canting, mawkish play, entitled _False Delicacy_, had
+just been produced, and sentimentality was all the mode. During some
+years more tears were shed at comedies than at tragedies; and a
+pleasantry which moved the audience to anything more than a grave smile
+was reprobated as low. It is not strange, therefore, that the very best
+scene in the _Good Natur'd Man_, that in which Miss Richland finds her
+lover attended by the bailiff and the bailiff's follower in full court
+dresses, should have been mercilessly hissed, and should have been
+omitted after the first night, not to be restored for several years.
+
+In May 1770 appeared the _Deserted Village_. In mere diction and
+versification this celebrated poem is fully equal, perhaps superior, to
+the _Traveller_; and it is generally preferred to the _Traveller_ by
+that large class of readers who think, with Bayes in the _Rehearsal_,
+that the only use of a plot is to bring in fine things. More discerning
+judges, however, while they admire the beauty of the details, are
+shocked by one unpardonable fault which pervades the whole. The fault
+which we mean is not that theory about wealth and luxury which has so
+often been censured by political economists. The theory is indeed false;
+but the poem, considered merely as a poem, is not necessarily the worse
+on that account. The finest poem in the Latin language--indeed, the
+finest didactic poem in any language--was written in defence of the
+silliest and meanest of all systems of natural and moral philosophy. A
+poet may easily be pardoned for reasoning ill; but he cannot be pardoned
+for describing ill, for observing the world in which he lives so
+carelessly that his portraits bear no resemblance to the originals, for
+exhibiting as copies from real life monstrous combinations of things
+which never were and never could be found together. What would be
+thought of a painter who should mix August and January in one landscape,
+who should introduce a frozen river into a harvest scene? Would it be a
+sufficient defence of such a picture to say that every part was
+exquisitely coloured, that the green hedges, the apple-trees loaded with
+fruit, the waggons reeling under the yellow sheaves, and the sun-burned
+reapers wiping their foreheads were very fine, and that the ice and the
+boys sliding were also very fine? To such a picture the _Deserted
+Village_ bears a great resemblance. It is made up of incongruous parts.
+The village in its happy days is a true English village. The village in
+its decay is an Irish village. The felicity and the misery which
+Goldsmith has brought close together belong to two different countries
+and to two different stages in the progress of society. He had assuredly
+never seen in his native island such a rural paradise, such a seat of
+plenty, content and tranquillity, as his Auburn. He had assuredly never
+seen in England all the inhabitants of such a paradise turned out of
+their homes in one day and forced to emigrate in a body to America. The
+hamlet he had probably seen in Kent; the ejectment he had probably seen
+in Munster; but by joining the two, he has produced something which
+never was and never will be seen in any part of the world.
+
+In 1773 Goldsmith tried his chance at Covent Garden with a second play,
+_She Stoops to Conquer_. The manager was, not without great difficulty,
+induced to bring this piece out. The sentimental comedy still reigned,
+and Goldsmith's comedies were not sentimental. The _Good Natur'd Man_
+had been too funny to succeed; yet the mirth of the _Good Natur'd Man_
+was sober when compared with the rich drollery of _She Stoops to
+Conquer_, which is, in truth, an incomparable farce in five acts. On
+this occasion, however, genius triumphed. Pit, boxes and galleries were
+in a constant roar of laughter. If any bigoted admirer of Kelly and
+Cumberland ventured to hiss or groan, he was speedily silenced by a
+general cry of "turn him out," or "throw him over." Later generations
+have confirmed the verdict which was pronounced on that night.
+
+While Goldsmith was writing the _Deserted Village_ and _She Stoops to
+Conquer_, he was employed on works of a very different kind--works from
+which he derived little reputation but much profit. He compiled for the
+use of schools a _History of Rome_, by which he made L250; a _History of
+England_, by which he made L500; a _History of Greece_, for which he
+received L250; a _Natural History_, for which the booksellers covenanted
+to pay him 800 guineas. These works he produced without any elaborate
+research, by merely selecting, abridging and translating into his own
+clear, pure and flowing language, what he found in books well known to
+the world, but too bulky or too dry for boys and girls. He committed
+some strange blunders, for he knew nothing with accuracy. Thus, in his
+_History of England_, he tells us that Naseby is in Yorkshire; nor did
+he correct this mistake when the book was reprinted. He was very nearly
+hoaxed into putting into the _History of Greece_ an account of a battle
+between Alexander the Great and Montezuma. In his _Animated Nature_ he
+relates, with faith and with perfect gravity, all the most absurd lies
+which he could find in books of travels about gigantic Patagonians,
+monkeys that preach sermons, nightingales that repeat long
+conversations. "If he can tell a horse from a cow," said Johnson, "that
+is the extent of his knowledge of zoology." How little Goldsmith was
+qualified to write about the physical sciences is sufficiently proved by
+two anecdotes. He on one occasion denied that the sun is longer in the
+northern than in the southern signs. It was vain to cite the authority
+of Maupertuis. "Maupertuis!" he cried, "I understand those matters
+better than Maupertuis." On another occasion he, in defiance of the
+evidence of his own senses, maintained obstinately, and even angrily,
+that he chewed his dinner by moving his upper jaw.
+
+Yet, ignorant as Goldsmith was, few writers have done more to make the
+first steps in the laborious road to knowledge easy and pleasant. His
+compilations are widely distinguished from the compilations of ordinary
+bookmakers. He was a great, perhaps an unequalled, master of the arts of
+selection and condensation. In these respects his histories of Rome and
+of England, and still more his own abridgments of these histories, well
+deserved to be studied. In general nothing is less attractive than an
+epitome; but the epitomes of Goldsmith, even when most concise, are
+always amusing; and to read them is considered by intelligent children
+not as a task but as a pleasure.
+
+Goldsmith might now be considered as a prosperous man. He had the means
+of living in comfort, and even in what to one who had so often slept in
+barns and on bulks must have been luxury. His fame was great and was
+constantly rising. He lived in what was intellectually far the best
+society of the kingdom, in a society in which no talent or
+accomplishment was wanting, and in which the art of conversation was
+cultivated with splendid success. There probably were never four talkers
+more admirable in four different ways than Johnson, Burke, Beauclerk and
+Garrick; and Goldsmith was on terms of intimacy with all the four. He
+aspired to share in their colloquial renown, but never was ambition more
+unfortunate. It may seem strange that a man who wrote with so much
+perspicuity, vivacity and grace should have been, whenever he took a
+part in conversation, an empty, noisy, blundering rattle. But on this
+point the evidence is overwhelming. So extraordinary was the contrast
+between Goldsmith's published works and the silly things which he said,
+that Horace Walpole described him as an inspired idiot. "Noll," said
+Garrick, "wrote like an angel, and talked like poor Poll." Charnier
+declared that it was a hard exercise of faith to believe that so foolish
+a chatterer could have really written the _Traveller_. Even Boswell
+could say, with contemptuous compassion, that he liked very well to hear
+honest Goldsmith run on. "Yes, sir," said Johnson, "but he should not
+like to hear himself." Minds differ as rivers differ. There are
+transparent and sparkling rivers from which it is delightful to drink as
+they flow; to such rivers the minds of such men as Burke and Johnson may
+be compared. But there are rivers of which the water when first drawn is
+turbid and noisome, but becomes pellucid as crystal and delicious to the
+taste, if it be suffered to stand till it has deposited a sediment; and
+such a river is a type of the mind of Goldsmith. His first thoughts on
+every subject were confused even to absurdity, but they required only a
+little time to work themselves clear. When he wrote they had that time,
+and therefore his readers pronounced him a man of genius; but when he
+talked he talked nonsense and made himself the laughing-stock of his
+hearers. He was painfully sensible of his inferiority in conversation;
+he felt every failure keenly; yet he had not sufficient judgment and
+self-command to hold his tongue. His animal spirits and vanity were
+always impelling him to try to do the one thing which he could not do.
+After every attempt he felt that he had exposed himself, and writhed
+with shame and vexation; yet the next moment he began again.
+
+His associates seem to have regarded him with kindness, which, in spite
+of their admiration of his writings, was not unmixed with contempt. In
+truth, there was in his character much to love, but very little to
+respect. His heart was soft even to weakness; he was so generous that
+he quite forgot to be just; he forgave injuries so readily that he might
+be said to invite them, and was so liberal to beggars that he had
+nothing left for his tailor and his butcher. He was vain, sensual,
+frivolous, profuse, improvident. One vice of a darker shade was imputed
+to him, envy. But there is not the least reason to believe that this bad
+passion, though it sometimes made him wince and utter fretful
+exclamations, ever impelled him to injure by wicked arts the reputation
+of any of his rivals. The truth probably is that he was not more
+envious, but merely less prudent, than his neighbours. His heart was on
+his lips. All those small jealousies, which are but too common among men
+of letters, but which a man of letters who is also a man of the world
+does his best to conceal, Goldsmith avowed with the simplicity of a
+child. When he was envious, instead of affecting indifference, instead
+of damning with faint praise, instead of doing injuries slyly and in the
+dark, he told everybody that he was envious. "Do not, pray, do not, talk
+of Johnson in such terms," he said to Boswell; "you harrow up my very
+soul." George Steevens and Cumberland were men far too cunning to say
+such a thing. They would have echoed the praises of the man whom they
+envied, and then have sent to the newspapers anonymous libels upon him.
+Both what was good and what was bad in Goldsmith's character was to his
+associates a perfect security that he would never commit such villainy.
+He was neither ill-natured enough, nor long-headed enough, to be guilty
+of any malicious act which required contrivance and disguise.
+
+Goldsmith has sometimes been represented as a man of genius, cruelly
+treated by the world, and doomed to struggle with difficulties, which at
+last broke his heart. But no representation can be more remote from the
+truth. He did, indeed, go through much sharp misery before he had done
+anything considerable in literature. But after his name had appeared on
+the title-page of the _Traveller_, he had none but himself to blame for
+his distresses. His average income, during the last seven years of his
+life, certainly exceeded L400 a year, and L400 a year ranked, among the
+incomes of that day, at least as high as L800 a year would rank at
+present. A single man living in the Temple, with L400 a year, might then
+be called opulent. Not one in ten of the young gentlemen of good
+families who were studying the law there had so much. But all the wealth
+which Lord Clive had brought from Bengal and Sir Lawrence Dundas from
+Germany, joined together, would not have sufficed for Goldsmith. He
+spent twice as much as he had. He wore fine clothes, gave dinners of
+several courses, paid court to venal beauties. He had also, it should be
+remembered, to the honour of his heart, though not of his head, a
+guinea, or five, or ten, according to the state of his purse, ready for
+any tale of distress, true or false. But it was not in dress or
+feasting, in promiscuous amours or promiscuous charities, that his chief
+expense lay. He had been from boyhood a gambler, and at once the most
+sanguine and the most unskilful of gamblers. For a time he put off the
+day of inevitable ruin by temporary expedients. He obtained advances
+from booksellers by promising to execute works which he never began. But
+at length this source of supply failed. He owed more than L2000; and he
+saw no hope of extrication from his embarrassments. His spirits and
+health gave way. He was attacked by a nervous fever, which he thought
+himself competent to treat. It would have been happy for him if his
+medical skill had been appreciated as justly by himself as by others.
+Notwithstanding the degree which he pretended to have received on the
+continent, he could procure no patients. "I do not practise," he once
+said; "I make it a rule to prescribe only for my friends." "Pray, dear
+Doctor," said Beauclerk, "alter your rule; and prescribe only for your
+enemies." Goldsmith, now, in spite of this excellent advice, prescribed
+for himself. The remedy aggravated the malady. The sick man was induced
+to call in real physicians; and they at one time imagined that they had
+cured the disease. Still his weakness and restlessness continued. He
+could get no sleep. He could take no food. "You are worse," said one of
+his medical attendants, "than you should be from the degree of fever
+which you have. Is your mind at ease?" "No; it is not," were the last
+recorded words of Oliver Goldsmith. He died on the 4th of April 1774, in
+his forty-sixth year. He was laid in the churchyard of the Temple; but
+the spot was not marked by any inscription and is now forgotten. The
+coffin was followed by Burke and Reynolds. Both these great men were
+sincere mourners. Burke, when he heard of Goldsmith's death, had burst
+into a flood of tears. Reynolds had been so much moved by the news that
+he had flung aside his brush and palette for the day.
+
+A short time after Goldsmith's death, a little poem appeared, which
+will, as long as our language lasts, associate the names of his two
+illustrious friends with his own. It has already been mentioned that he
+sometimes felt keenly the sarcasm which his wild blundering talk brought
+upon him. He was, not long before his last illness, provoked into
+retaliating. He wisely betook himself to his pen; and at that weapon he
+proved himself a match for all his assailants together. Within a small
+compass he drew with a singularly easy and vigorous pencil the
+characters of nine or ten of his intimate associates. Though this little
+work did not receive his last touches, it must always be regarded as a
+masterpiece. It is impossible, however, not to wish that four or five
+likenesses which have no interest for posterity were wanting to that
+noble gallery, and that their places were supplied by sketches of
+Johnson and Gibbon, as happy and vivid as the sketches of Burke and
+Garrick.
+
+Some of Goldsmith's friends and admirers honoured him with a cenotaph in
+Westminster Abbey. Nollekens was the sculptor, and Johnson wrote the
+inscription. It is much to be lamented that Johnson did not leave to
+posterity a more durable and a more valuable memorial of his friend. A
+life of Goldsmith would have been an inestimable addition to the Lives
+of the Poets. No man appreciated Goldsmith's writings more justly than
+Johnson; no man was better acquainted with Goldsmith's character and
+habits; and no man was more competent to delineate with truth and spirit
+the peculiarities of a mind in which great powers were found in company
+with great weaknesses. But the list of poets to whose works Johnson was
+requested by the booksellers to furnish prefaces ended with Lyttelton,
+who died in 1773. The line seems to have been drawn expressly for the
+purpose of excluding the person whose portrait would have most fitly
+closed the series. Goldsmith, however, has been fortunate in his
+biographers.     (M.)
+
+  Goldsmith's life has been written by Prior (1837), by Washington
+  Irving (1844-1849), and by John Forster (1848, 2nd ed. 1854). The
+  diligence of Prior deserves great praise; the style of Washington
+  Irving is always pleasing; but the highest place must, in justice, be
+  assigned to the eminently interesting work of Forster. Subsequent
+  biographies are by William Black (1878), and Austin Dobson (1888,
+  American ed. 1899). The above article by Lord Macaulay has been
+  slightly revised for this edition by Mr Austin Dobson, as regards
+  questions of fact for which there has been new evidence.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDSTUCKER, THEODOR (1821-1872), German Sanskrit scholar, was born of
+Jewish parents at Konigsberg on the 18th of January 1821, and, after
+attending the gymnasium of that town, entered the university in 1836 as
+a student of Sanskrit. In 1838 he removed to Bonn, and, after graduating
+at Konigsberg in 1840, proceeded to Paris; in 1842 he edited a German
+translation of the _Prabodha Chandrodaya_. From 1847 to 1850 he resided
+at Berlin, where his talents and scholarship were recognized by
+Alexander von Humboldt, but where his advanced political views caused
+the authorities to regard him with suspicion. In the latter year he
+removed to London, where in 1852 he was appointed professor of Sanskrit
+in University College. He now worked on a new Sanskrit dictionary, of
+which the first instalment appeared in 1856. In 1861 he published his
+chief work: _Panini: his place in Sanskrit Literature_; and he was one
+of the founders and chief promoters of the Sanskrit Text Society; he was
+also an active member of the Philological Society, and of other learned
+bodies. He died in London on the 6th of March 1872.
+
+  As _Literary Remains_ some of his writings were published in two
+  volumes (London, 1879), but his papers were left to the India Office
+  with the request that they were not to be published until 1920.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDWELL, THOMAS (d. 1585), English ecclesiastic, began his career as
+vicar of Cheriton in 1531, after graduating M.A. at All Souls College,
+Oxford. He became chaplain to Cardinal Pole and lived with him at Rome,
+was attainted in 1539, but returned to England on Mary's accession, and
+in 1555 became bishop of St Asaph, a diocese which he did much to win
+back to the old faith. On the death of Mary, Goldwell escaped from
+England and in 1561 became superior of the Theatines at Naples. He was
+the only English bishop at the council of Trent, and in 1562 was again
+attainted. In the following year he was appointed vicar-general to Carlo
+Borromeo, archbishop of Milan. He died in Rome in 1585, the last of the
+English bishops who had refused to accept the Reformation.
+
+
+
+
+GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ (1850-   ), Jewish Hungarian orientalist, was born in
+Stuhlweissenburg on the 22nd of June 1850. He was educated at the
+universities of Budapest, Berlin, Leipzig and Leiden, and became privat
+docent at Budapest in 1872. In the next year, under the auspices of the
+Hungarian government, he began a journey through Syria, Palestine and
+Egypt, and took the opportunity of attending lectures of Mahommedan
+sheiks in the mosque of el-Azhar in Cairo. He was the first Jewish
+scholar to become professor in the Budapest University (1894), and
+represented the Hungarian government and the Academy of Sciences at
+numerous international congresses. He received the large gold medal at
+the Stockholm Oriental Congress in 1889. He became a member of several
+Hungarian and other learned societies, was appointed secretary of the
+Jewish community in Budapest. He was made Litt. D. of Cambridge (1904)
+and LL.D. of Aberdeen (1906). His eminence in the sphere of scholarship
+is due primarily to his careful investigation of pre-Mahommedan and
+Mahommedan law, tradition, religion and poetry, in connexion with which
+he published a large number of treatises, review articles and essays
+contributed to the collections of the Hungarian Academy.
+
+  Among his chief works are: _Beitrage zur Literaturgeschichte der
+  Schi'a_ (1874); _Beitrage zur Geschichte der Sprachgelehrsamkeit bei
+  den Arabern_ (Vienna, 1871-1873); _Der Mythos bei den Hebraern und
+  seine geschichtliche Entwickelung_ (Leipzig, 1876; Eng. trans., R.
+  Martineau, London, 1877); _Muhammedanische Studien_ (Halle, 1889-1890,
+  2 vols.); _Abhandlungen zur arabischen Philologie_ (Leiden, 1896-1899,
+  2 vols.); _Buch v. Wesen d. Seele_ (ed. 1907).
+
+
+
+
+GOLETTA [LA GOULETTE], a town on the Gulf of Tunis in 36 deg. 50' N. 10
+deg. 19' E., a little south of the ruins of Carthage, and on the north
+side of the ship canal which traverses the shallow Lake of Tunis and
+leads to the city of that name. Built on the narrow strip of sand which
+separates the lake from the gulf, Goletta is defended by a fort and
+battery. The town contains a summer palace of the bey, the old seraglio,
+arsenal and customhouse, and many villas, gardens and pleasure resorts,
+Goletta being a favourite place for sea-bathing. A short canal, from
+which the name of the town is derived (Arab. _Halk-el-Wad_, "throat of
+the canal"), 40 ft. broad and 8-1/2 ft. deep, divides the town and
+affords communication between the ship canal and a dock or basin, 1082
+ft. long and 541 ft. broad. An electric tramway which runs along the
+north bank of the ship canal connects Goletta with the city of Tunis
+(q.v.). Pop. (1907) about 5000, mostly Jews and Italian fishermen.
+
+Beyond Cape Carthage, 5 m. N. of Goletta, is La Marsa, a summer resort
+overlooking the sea. The bey has a palace here, and the French
+resident-general, the British consul, other officials, and many
+Tunisians have country-houses, surrounded by groves of olive trees.
+
+Before the opening of the ship canal in 1893 Goletta, as the port of
+Tunis, was a place of considerable importance. The basin at the Goletta
+end of the canal now serves as a subsidiary harbour to that of Tunis.
+The most stirring events in the history of the town are connected with
+the Turkish conquest of the Barbary states. Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa
+having made himself master of Tunis and its port, Goletta was attacked
+in 1535 by the emperor Charles V., who seized the pirate's fleet, which
+was sheltered in the small canal, his arsenal, and 300 brass cannon. The
+Turks regained possession in 1574. (See TUNISIA: _History_.)
+
+
+
+
+GOLF (in its older forms GOFF, GOUFF or GOWFF, the last of which gives
+the genuine old pronunciation), a game which probably derives its name
+from the Ger. _kolbe_, a club--in Dutch, _kolf_--which last is nearly in
+sound identical and might suggest a Dutch origin,[1] which many pictures
+and other witnesses further support.
+
+_History._--One of the most ancient and most interesting of the pictures
+in which the game is portrayed is the tailpiece to an illuminated _Book
+of Hours_ made at Bruges at the beginning of the 16th century. The
+original is in the British Museum. The players, three in number, have
+but one club apiece. The heads of the clubs are steel or steel covered.
+They play with a ball each. That which gives this picture a peculiar
+interest over the many pictures of Dutch schools that portray the game
+in progress is that most of them show it on the ice, the putting being
+at a stake. In this _Book of Hours_ they are putting at a hole in the
+turf, as in our modern golf. It is scarcely to be doubted that the game
+is of Dutch origin, and that it has been in favour since very early
+days. Further than that our knowledge does not go. The early Dutchmen
+played golf, they painted golf, but they did not write it.
+
+It is uncertain at what date golf was introduced into Scotland, but in
+1457 the popularity of the game had already become so great as seriously
+to interfere with the more important pursuit of archery. In March of
+that year the Scottish parliament "decreted and ordained that
+_wapinshawingis_ be halden be the lordis and baronis spirituale and
+temporale, four times in the zeir; and that the fute-ball and _golf be
+utterly cryit down, and nocht usit_; and that the bowe-merkis be maid at
+ilk paroche kirk a pair of buttis, and _schuttin be usit ilk Sunday_."
+Fourteen years afterwards, in May 1471, it was judged necessary to pass
+another act "anent wapenshawings," and in 1491 a final and evidently
+angry fulmination was issued on the general subject, with pains and
+penalties annexed. It runs thus--"Futeball and Golfe forbidden. Item, it
+is statut and ordainit that in na place of the realme there be usit
+fute-ball, _golfe, or uther sik unprofitabill sportis_," &c. This, be it
+noted, is an edict of James IV.; and it is not a little curious
+presently to find the monarch himself setting an ill example to his
+commons, by practice of this "unprofitabill sport," as is shown by
+various entries in the accounts of the lord high treasurer of Scotland
+(1503-1506).
+
+About a century later, the game again appears on the surface of history,
+and it is quite as popular as before. In the year 1592 the town council
+of Edinburgh "ordanis proclamation to be made threw this burgh, that na
+inhabitants of the samyn be seen at ony pastymes within or without the
+toun, upoun the Sabboth day, sic as golfe, &c."[2] The following year
+the edict was re-announced, but with the modification that the
+prohibition was "in tyme of sermons."
+
+Golf has from old times been known in Scotland as "The _Royal and
+Ancient_ Game of Goff." Though no doubt Scottish monarchs handled the
+club before him, James IV. is the first who figures formally in the
+golfing record. James V. was also very partial to the game distinctively
+known as "royal"; and there is some scrap of evidence to show that his
+daughter, the unhappy Mary Stuart, was a golfer. It was alleged by her
+enemies that, as showing her shameless indifference to the fate of her
+husband, a very few days after his murder, she "was seen playing _golf_
+and pallmall in the fields beside Seton."[3] That her son, James VI.
+(afterwards James I. of England), was a golfer, tradition confidently
+asserts, though the evidence which connects him with the personal
+practice of the game is slight. Of the interest he took in it we have
+evidence in his act--already alluded to--"anent _golfe ballis_,"
+prohibiting their importation, except under certain restrictions.
+Charles I. (as his brother Prince Henry had been[4]) was devotedly
+attached to the game. Whilst engaged in it on the links of Leith, in
+1642, the news reached him of the Irish rebellion of that year. He had
+not the equanimity to finish his match, but returned precipitately and
+in much agitation to Holyrood.[5] Afterwards, while prisoner to the
+Scots army at Newcastle, he found his favourite diversion in "the royal
+game." "The King was nowhere treated with more honour than at Newcastle,
+as he himself confessed, both he and his train having liberty to go
+abroad and play at goff in the Shield Field, without the walls."[6] Of
+his son, Charles II., as a golfer, nothing whatever is ascertained, but
+James II. was a known devotee.[7] After the Restoration, James, then
+duke of York, was sent to Edinburgh in 1681/2 as commissioner of the
+king to parliament, and an historical monument of his prowess as a
+golfer remains there to this day in the "Golfer's Land," as it is still
+called, 77 Canongate. The duke having been challenged by two English
+noblemen of his suite, to play a match against them, for a very large
+stake, along with any Scotch ally he might select, chose as his partner
+one "Johne Patersone," a shoemaker. The duke and the said Johne won
+easily, and half of the large stake the duke made over to his humble
+coadjutor, who therewith built himself the house mentioned above. In
+1834 William IV. became patron of the St Andrews Golf Club (St Andrews
+being then, as now, the most famous seat of the game), and approved of
+its being styled "The _Royal and Ancient_ Golf Club of St Andrews." In
+1837, as further proof of royal favour, he presented to it a magnificent
+gold medal, which "should be challenged and played for annually"; and in
+1838 the queen dowager, duchess of St Andrews, became patroness of the
+club, and presented to it a handsome gold medal--"The Royal
+Adelaide"--with a request that it should be worn by the captain, as
+president, on all public occasions. In June 1863 the prince of Wales
+(afterwards Edward VII.) signified his desire to become patron of the
+club, and in the following September was elected captain by acclamation.
+His engagements did not admit of his coming in person to undertake the
+duties of the office, but his brother Prince Leopold (the duke of
+Albany), having in 1876 done the club the honour to become its captain,
+twice visited the ancient city in that capacity.
+
+In more recent days, golf has become increasingly popular in a much
+wider degree. In 1880 the man who travelled about England with a set of
+golf clubs was an object of some astonishment, almost of alarm, to his
+fellow-travellers. In those days the commonest of questions in regard to
+the game was, "You have to be a fine rider, do you not, to play golf?"
+so confounded was it in the popular mind with the game of polo. At
+Blackheath a few Scotsmen resident in London had long played golf. In
+1864 the Royal North Devon Club was formed at Westward Ho, and this was
+the first of the seaside links discovered and laid out for golf in
+England. In 1869 the Royal Liverpool Club established itself in
+possession of the second English course of this quality at Hoylake, in
+Cheshire. A golf club was formed in connexion with the London Scottish
+Volunteers corps, which had its house on the Putney end of Wimbledon
+Common on Putney Heath; and, after making so much of a start, the
+progress of the game was slow, though steady, for many years. A few more
+clubs were formed; the numbers of golfers grew; but it could not be said
+that the game was yet in any sense popular in England. All at once, for
+no very obvious reason, the qualities of the ancient Scottish game
+seemed to strike home, and from that moment its popularity has been
+wonderfully and increasingly great. The English links that rose into
+most immediate favour was the fine course of the St George's Golf Club,
+near Sandwich, on the coast of Kent. To the London golfer it was the
+first course of the first class that was reasonably accessible, and the
+fact made something like an epoch in English golf. A very considerable
+increase, it is true, in the number of English golfers and English golf
+clubs had taken place before the discovery for golfing purposes of the
+links at Sandwich. Already there was a chain of links all round the
+coast, besides numerous inland courses; but since 1890 their increase
+has been extraordinary, and the number which has been formed in the
+colonies and abroad is very large also, so that in the _Golfer's Year
+Book_ for 1906 a space of over 300 pages was allotted to the Club
+Directory alone, each page containing, on a rough average, six clubs. To
+compute the average membership of these clubs is very difficult. There
+is not a little overlapping, in the sense that a member of one club will
+often be a member of several others; but probably the average may be
+placed at something like 200 members for each club.
+
+The immense amount of golf-playing that this denotes, the large industry
+in the making of clubs and balls, in the upkeep of links, in the actual
+work of club-carrying by the caddies, and in the instruction given by
+the professional class, is obvious. Golf has taken a strong hold on the
+affections of the people in many parts of Ireland, and the fashion for
+golf in England has reacted strongly on Scotland itself, the ancient
+home of the game, where since 1880 golfers have probably increased in
+the ratio of forty to one. Besides the industry that such a growth of
+the game denotes in the branches immediately connected with it, as
+mentioned above, there is to be taken into further account the visiting
+population that it brings to all lodging-houses and hotels within reach
+of a tolerable golf links, so that many a fishing village has risen into
+a moderate watering-place by virtue of no other attractions than those
+which are offered by its golf course. Therefore to the Briton, golf has
+developed from something of which he had a vague idea--as of
+"curling"--to something in the nature of an important business, a
+business that can make towns and has a considerable effect on the
+receipts of railway companies.
+
+Moreover, ladies have learned to play golf. Although this is a crude and
+brief sentence, it does not state the fact too widely nor too forcibly,
+for though it is true that before 1885 many played on the short links of
+St Andrews, North Berwick, Westward Ho and elsewhere, still it was
+virtually unknown that they should play on the longer courses, which
+till then had been in the undisputed possession of the men. At many
+places women now have their separate links, at others they play on the
+same course as the men. But even where links are set apart for women,
+they are far different from the little courses that used to be assigned
+to them. They are links only a little less formidable in their bunkers,
+a little less varied in their features than those of men. The ladies
+have their annual championship, which they play on the long links of the
+men, sometimes on one, sometimes on another, but always on courses of
+the first quality, demanding the finest display of golfing skill.
+
+The claim that England made to a golfing fellowship with Scotland was
+conceded very strikingly by the admission of three English greens, first
+those of Hoylake and of Sandwich, and in 1909 Deal, into the exclusive
+list of the links on which the open championship of the game is decided.
+Before England had so fully assimilated Scotland's game this great
+annual contest was waged at St Andrews, Musselburgh and Prestwick in
+successive years. Now the ancient green of Musselburgh, somewhat worn
+out with length of hard and gallant service, and moreover, as a
+nine-holes course inadequately accommodating the numbers who compete in
+the championships to-day, has been superseded by the course at Muirfield
+as a championship arena.
+
+While golf had been making itself a force in the southern kingdom, the
+professional element--men who had learned the game from childhood, had
+become past-masters, were capable of giving instruction, and also of
+making clubs and balls and looking after the greens on which golf was
+played--had at first been taken from the northern side of the Border.
+But when golf had been started long enough in England for the little
+boys who were at first employed as "caddies"--in carrying the players'
+clubs--to grow to sufficient strength to drive the ball as far as their
+masters, it was inevitable that out of the number who thus began to play
+in their boyhood some few should develop an exceptional talent for the
+game. This, in fact, actually happened, and English golfers, both of the
+amateur and the professional classes, have proved themselves so adept
+at Scotland's game, that the championships in either the Open or the
+Amateur competitions have been won more often by English than by
+Scottish players of late years. Probably in the United Kingdom to-day
+there are as many English as Scottish professional golf players, and
+their relative number is increasing.
+
+Golf also "caught on," to use the American expression, in the United
+States. To the American of 1890 golf was largely an unknown thing. Since
+then, however, golf has become perhaps a greater factor in the life of
+the upper and upper-middle classes in the United States than it ever has
+been in England or Scotland. Golf to the English and the Scots meant
+only one among several of the sports and pastimes that take the man and
+the woman of the upper and upper-middle classes into the country and the
+fresh air. To the American of like status golf came as the one thing to
+take him out of his towns and give him a reason for exercise in the
+country. To-day golf has become an interest all over North America, but
+it is in the Eastern States that it has made most difference in the life
+of the classes with whom it has become fashionable. Westerners and
+Southerners found more excuses before the coming of golf for being in
+the open country air. It is in the Eastern States more especially that
+it has had so much influence in making the people live and take exercise
+out of doors. In a truly democratic spirit the American woman golfer
+plays on a perfect equality with the American man. She does not compete
+in the men's championships; she has championships of her own; but she
+plays, without question, on the same links. There is no suggestion of
+relegating her, as a certain cynical writer in the Badminton volume on
+golf described it, to a waste corner, a kind of "Jews' Quarter," of the
+links. And the Americans have taken up golf in the spirit of a sumptuous
+and opulent people, spending money on magnificent clubhouses beyond the
+finest dreams of the Englishman or the Scot. The greatest success
+achieved by any American golfer fell to the lot of Mr Walter Travis of
+the Garden City club, who in 1904 won the British amateur championship.
+
+So much enthusiasm and so much golf in America have not failed to make
+their influence felt in the United Kingdom. Naturally and inevitably
+they have created a strong demand for professional instruction, both by
+example and by precept, and for professional advice and assistance in
+the laying-out and upkeep of the many new links that have been created
+in all parts of the States, sometimes out of the least promising
+material. By the offer of great prizes for exhibition matches, and of
+wages that are to the British rate on the scale of the dollar to the
+shilling, they have attracted many of the best Scottish and English
+professionals to pay them longer or shorter visits as the case may be,
+and thus a new opening has been created for the energies of the
+professional golfing class.
+
+_The Game._--The game of golf may be briefly defined as consisting in
+hitting the ball over a great extent of country, preferably of that
+sand-hill nature which is found by the seaside, and finally hitting or
+"putting" it into a little hole of some 4 in. diameter cut in the turf.
+The place of the hole is commonly marked by a flag. Eighteen is the
+recognized number of these holes on a full course, and they are at
+varying distances apart, from 100 yds. up to anything between a 1/4 and
+1/2 m. For the various strokes required to achieve the hitting of the
+ball over the great hills, and finally putting it into the small hole, a
+number of different "clubs" has been devised to suit the different
+positions in which the ball may be found and the different directions in
+which it is wished to propel it. At the start for each hole the ball may
+be placed on a favourable position (e.g. "tee'd" on a small mound of
+sand) for striking it, but after that it may not be touched, except with
+the club, until it is hit into the next hole. A "full drive," as the
+farthest distance that the ball can be hit is called, is about 200 yds.
+in length, of which some three-fourths will be traversed in the air, and
+the rest by bounding or running over the ground. It is easily to be
+understood that when the ball is lying on the turf behind a tall
+sand-hill, or in a bunker, a differently-shaped club is required for
+raising it over such an obstacle from that which is needed when it is
+placed on the tee to start with; and again, that another club is needed
+to strike the ball out of a cup or out of heavy grass. It is this
+variety that gives the game its charm. Each player plays with his own
+ball, with no interference from his opponent, and the object of each is
+to hit the ball from the starting-point into each successive hole in the
+fewest strokes. The player who at the end of the round (i.e. of the
+course of eighteen holes) has won the majority of the holes is the
+winner of the round; or the decision may be reached before the end of
+the round by one side gaining more holes than there remain to play. For
+instance, if one player be four holes to the good, and only three holes
+remain to be played, it is evident that the former must be the winner,
+for even if the latter win every remaining hole, he still must be one to
+the bad at the finish.
+
+The British Amateur Championship is decided by a tournament in matches
+thus played, each defeated player retiring, and his opponent passing on
+into the next round. In the case of the Open Championship, and in most
+medal competitions, the scores are differently reckoned--each man's
+total score (irrespective of his relative merit at each hole) being
+reckoned at the finish against the total score of the other players in
+the competition. There is also a species of competition called "bogey"
+play, in which each man plays against a "bogey" score--a score fixed for
+each hole in the round before starting--and his position in the
+competition relatively to the other players is determined by the number
+of holes that he is to the good or to the bad of the "bogey" score at
+the end of the round. The player who is most holes to the good, or
+fewest holes to the bad, wins the competition. It may be mentioned
+incidentally that golf occupies the almost unique position of being the
+only sport in which even a single player can enjoy his game, his
+opponent in this event being "Colonel Bogey"--more often than not a
+redoubtable adversary.
+
+  The links which have been thought worthy, by reason of their
+  geographical positions and their merits, of being the scenes on which
+  the golf championships are fought out, are, as we have already said,
+  three in Scotland--St Andrews, Prestwick and Muirfield--and three in
+  England--Hoylake, Sandwich and Deal. This brief list is very far from
+  being complete as regards links of first-class quality in Great
+  Britain. Besides those named, there are in Scotland--Carnoustie, North
+  Berwick, Cruden Bay, Nairn, Aberdeen, Dornoch, Troon, Machrihanish,
+  South Uist, Islay, Gullane, Luffness and many more. In England there
+  are--Westward Ho, Bembridge, Littlestone, Great Yarmouth, Brancaster,
+  Seaton Carew, Formby, Lytham, Harlech, Burnham, among the seaside
+  ones; while of the inland, some of them of very fine quality, we
+  cannot even attempt a selection, so large is their number and so
+  variously estimated their comparative merits. Ireland has Portrush,
+  Newcastle, Portsalon, Dollymount and many more of the first class; and
+  there are excellent courses in the Isle of Man. In America many fine
+  courses have been constructed. There is not a British colony of any
+  standing that is without its golf course--Australia, India, South
+  Africa, all have their golf championships, which are keenly contested.
+  Canada has had courses at Quebec and Montreal for many years, and the
+  Calcutta Golf Club, curiously enough, is the oldest established (next
+  to the Blackheath Club), the next oldest being the club at Pau in the
+  Basses-Pyrenees.
+
+  The Open Championship of golf was started in 1860 by the Prestwick
+  Club giving a belt to be played for annually under the condition that
+  it should become the property of any who could win it thrice in
+  succession. The following is the list of the champions:--
+
+    1860. W. Park, Musselburgh           174--at Prestwick.
+    1861. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick    163--at Prestwick.
+    1862. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick    163--at Prestwick.
+    1863. W. Park, Musselburgh           168--at Prestwick.
+    1864. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick    160--at Prestwick.
+    1865. A. Strath, St Andrews          162--at Prestwick.
+    1866. W. Park, Musselburgh           169--at Prestwick.
+    1867. Tom Morris, sen., St Andrews   170--at Prestwick.
+    1868. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews   154--at Prestwick.
+    1869. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews   157--at Prestwick.
+    1870. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews   149--at Prestwick.
+
+  Tom Morris, junior, thus won the belt finally, according to the
+  conditions. In 1871 there was no competition; but by 1872 the three
+  clubs of St Andrews, Prestwick and Musselburgh had subscribed for a
+  cup which should be played for over the course of each subscribing
+  club successively, but should never become the property of the winner.
+  In later years the course at Muirfield was substituted for that at
+  Musselburgh, and Hoylake and Sandwich were admitted into the list of
+  championship courses. Up to 1891, inclusive, the play of two rounds,
+  or thirty-six holes, determined the championship, but from 1892 the
+  result has been determined by the play of 72 holes.
+
+  After the interregnum of 1871, the following were the champions:--
+
+    1872. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews    166--at Prestwick.
+    1873. Tom Kidd, St Andrews            179--at St Andrews.
+    1874. Mungo Park, Musselburgh         159--at Musselburgh.
+    1875. Willie Park, Musselburgh        166--at Prestwick.
+    1876. Bob Martin, St Andrews          176--at St Andrews.
+    1877. Jamie Anderson, St Andrews      160--at Musselburgh.
+    1878. Jamie Anderson, St Andrews      157--at Prestwick.
+    1879. Jamie Anderson, St Andrews      170--at St Andrews.
+    1880. Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh      162--at Musselburgh.
+    1881. Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh      170--at Prestwick.
+    1882. Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh      171--at St Andrews.
+    1883. W. Fernie, Dumfries             159--at Musselburgh.
+    1884. Jack Simpson, Carnoustie        160--at Prestwick.
+    1885. Bob Martin, St Andrews          171--at St Andrews.
+    1886. D. Brown, Musselburgh           157--at Musselburgh.
+    1887. Willie Park, jun., Musselburgh  161--at Prestwick.
+    1888. Jack Burns, Warwick             171--at St Andrews.
+    1889. Willie Park, jun., Musselburgh  155--at Musselburgh.
+    1890. Mr John Ball, jun., Hoylake     164--at Prestwick.
+    1891. Hugh Kirkaldy, St Andrews       166--at St Andrews.
+    1892. Mr H. H. Hilton, Hoylake        305--at Muirfield.
+    1893. W. Auchterlonie, St Andrews     322--at Prestwick.
+    1894. J. H. Taylor, Winchester        326--at Sandwich.
+    1895. J. H. Taylor, Winchester        322--at St Andrews.
+    1896. H. Vardon, Scarborough          316--at Muirfield.
+    1897. Mr H. H. Hilton, Hoylake        314--at Hoylake.
+    1898. H. Vardon, Scarborough          307--at Prestwick.
+    1899. H. Vardon, Scarborough          310--at Sandwich.
+    1900. J. H. Taylor, Richmond          309--at St Andrews.
+    1901. J. Braid, Romford               309--at Muirfield.
+    1902. A. Herd, Huddersfield           307--at Hoylake.
+    1903. H. Vardon, Ganton               300--at Prestwick.
+    1904. J. White, Sunningdale           296--at Sandwich.
+    1905. J. Braid, Walton Heath          318--at St Andrews.
+    1906. J. Braid, Walton Heath          300--at Muirfield.
+    1907. Arnaud Massey, La Boulie        312--at Hoylake.
+    1908. J. Braid, Walton Heath          291--at Prestwick.
+    1909. J. H. Taylor, Richmond          295--at Deal.
+    1910. J. Braid, Walton Heath          298--at St Andrews.
+
+  The Amateur Championship is of far more recent institution.
+
+    1886. Mr Horace Hutchinson     at St Andrews.
+    1887. Mr Horace Hutchinson     at Hoylake.
+    1888. Mr John Ball             at Prestwick.
+    1889. Mr J. E. Laidlay         at St Andrews.
+    1890. Mr John Ball             at Hoylake.
+    1891. Mr J. E. Laidlay         at St Andrews.
+    1892. Mr John Ball             at Sandwich.
+    1893. Mr P. Anderson           at Prestwick.
+    1894. Mr John Ball             at Hoylake.
+    1895. Mr L. Balfour-Melville   at St Andrews.
+    1896. Mr F. G. Tait            at Sandwich.
+    1897. Mr J. T. Allan           at Muirfield.
+    1898. Mr John Ball             at Prestwick.
+    1899. Mr F. G. Tait            at Hoylake.
+    1900. Mr H. H. Hilton          at Sandwich.
+    1901. Mr H. H. Hilton          at St Andrews.
+    1902. Mr C. Hutchings          at Hoylake.
+    1903. Mr R. Maxwell            at Muirfield.
+    1904. Mr W. J. Travis          at Sandwich.
+    1905. Mr A. G. Barry           at St Andrews.
+    1906. Mr J. Robb               at Hoylake.
+    1907. Mr John Ball             at St Andrews.
+    1908. Mr E. A. Lassen          at Sandwich.
+    1909. Mr Robert Maxwell        at Muirfield.
+    1910. Mr John Ball             at Hoylake.
+
+  The Ladies' Championship was started in 1893.
+
+    1893. Lady M. Scott            at St Annes.
+    1894. Lady M. Scott            at Littlestone.
+    1895. Lady M. Scott            at Portrush.
+    1896. Miss A. B. Pascoe        at Hoylake.
+    1897. Miss E. C. Orr           at Gullane.
+    1898. Miss L. Thompson         at Yarmouth.
+    1899. Miss M. Hezlet           at Newcastle.
+    1900. Miss R. K. Adair         at Westward Ho.
+    1901. Miss M. A. Graham        at Aberdovy.
+    1902. Miss M. Hezlet           at Deal.
+    1903. Miss R. K. Adair         at Portrush.
+    1904. Miss L. Dod              at Troon.
+    1905. Miss B. Thompson         at Cromer.
+    1906. Mrs Kennion              at Burnham.
+    1907. Miss M. Hezlet           at Newcastle (Co. Down).
+    1908. Miss M. Titterton        at St Andrews.
+    1909. Miss D. Campbell         at Birkdale.
+    1910. Miss Grant Suttie        at Westward Ho.
+
+There have been some slight changes of detail and arrangement as time
+has gone on, in the rules of the game (the latest edition of the Rules
+should be consulted). A new class of golfer has arisen, requiring a code
+of rules framed rather more exactly than the older code. The Scottish
+golfer, who was "teethed" on a golf club, as Mr Andrew Lang has
+described it, imbibed all the traditions of the game with his natural
+sustenance. Very few rules sufficed for him. But when the Englishman,
+and still more the American (less in touch with the traditions), began
+to play golf as a new game, then they began to ask for a code of rules
+that should be lucid and illuminating on every point--an ideal perhaps
+impossible to realize. It was found, at least, that the code put forward
+by the Royal and Ancient Club of St Andrews did not realize it
+adequately. Nevertheless the new golfers were very loyal indeed to the
+club that had ever of old held, by tacit consent, the position of fount
+of golfing legislation. The Royal and Ancient Club was appealed to by
+English golfers to step into the place, analogous to that of the
+Marylebone Cricket Club in cricket, that they were both willing and
+anxious to give it. It was a place that the Club at St Andrews did not
+in the least wish to occupy, but the honour was thrust so insistently
+upon it, that there was no declining. The latest effort to meet the
+demands for some more satisfactory legislation on the thousand and one
+points that continually must arise for decision in course of playing a
+game of such variety as golf, consists of the appointment of a standing
+committee, called the "Rules of Golf Committee." Its members all belong
+to the Royal and Ancient Club; but since this club draws its membership
+from all parts of the United Kingdom, this restriction is quite
+consistent with a very general representation of the views of north,
+south, east and west--from Westward Ho and Sandwich to Dornoch, and all
+the many first-rate links of Ireland--on the committee. Ireland has,
+indeed, some of the best links in the kingdom, and yields to neither
+Scotland nor England in enthusiasm for the game. This committee, after a
+general revision of the rules into the form in which they now stand,
+consider every month, either by meeting or by correspondence, the
+questions that are sent up to it by clubs or by individuals; and the
+committee's answers to these questions have the force of law until they
+have come before the next general meeting of the Royal and Ancient Club
+at St Andrews, which may confirm or may reject them at will. The ladies
+of Great Britain manage otherwise. They have a Golfing Union which
+settles questions for them; but since this union itself accepts as
+binding the answers given by the Rules of Golf Committee, they really
+arrive at the same conclusions by a slightly different path. Nor does
+the American Union, governing the play of men and women alike in the
+States, really act differently. The Americans naturally reserve to
+themselves freedom to make their own rules, but in practice they conform
+to the legislation of Scotland, with the exception of a more drastic
+definition of the status of the amateur player, and certain differences
+as to the clubs used.
+
+A considerable modification has been effected in the implements of the
+game. The tendency of the modern wooden clubs is to be short in the head
+as compared with the clubs of, say, 1880 or 1885. The advantage claimed
+(probably with justice) for this shape is that it masses the weight
+behind the point on which the ball is struck. Better material in the
+wood of the club is a consequence of the increased demand for these
+articles and the increased competition among their makers. Whereas under
+the old conditions a few workers at the few greens then in existence
+were enough to supply the golfing wants, now there is a very large
+industry in golf club and ball making, which not only employs workers in
+the local club-makers' shops all the kingdom over, but is an important
+branch of the commerce of the stores and of the big athletic outfitters,
+both in Great Britain and in the United States. By far the largest
+modification in the game since the change to gutta-percha balls from
+balls of leather-covering stuffed with feathers, is due to the American
+invention of the india-rubber cased balls. Practically it is as an
+American invention that it is still regarded, although the British law
+courts decided, after a lengthy trial (1905), that there had been "prior
+users" of the principle of the balls' manufacture, and therefore that
+the patent of Mr Haskell, by whose name the first balls of the kind
+were called, was not good. It is singular to remark that in the first
+introduction of the gutta-percha balls, superseding the leather and
+feather compositions, they also were called by the name of their first
+maker, "Gourlay." The general mode of manufacture of the rubber-cored
+ball, which is now everywhere in use, is interiorly, a hard core of
+gutta-percha or some other such substance; round this is wound, by
+machinery, india-rubber thread or strips at a high tension, and over all
+is an outer coat of gutta-percha. Some makers have tried to dispense
+with the kernel of hard substance, or to substitute for it kernels of
+some fluid or gelatinous substance, but in general the above is a
+sufficient, though rough, description of the mode of making all these
+balls. Their superiority over the solid gutta-percha lies in their
+superior resiliency. The effect is that they go much more lightly off
+the club. It is not so much in the tee-shots that this superiority is
+observed, as in the second shots, when the ball is lying badly; balls of
+the rubber-cored kind, with their greater liveliness, are more easy to
+raise in the air from a lie of this kind. They also go remarkably well
+off the iron clubs, and thus make the game easier by placing the player
+within an iron shot of the hole at a distance at which he would have to
+use a wooden club if he were playing with a solid gutta-percha ball.
+They also tend to make the game more easy by the fact that if they are
+at all mis-hit they go much better than a gutta-percha ball similarly
+inaccurately struck. As a slight set-off against these qualities, the
+ball, because of the greater liveliness, is not quite so good for the
+short game as the solid ball; but on the whole its advantages distinctly
+overbalance its disadvantages.
+
+When these balls were first put on the market they were sold at two
+shillings each and even, when the supply was quite unequal to the
+demand, at a greater deal higher price, rising to as much as a guinea a
+ball. But the normal price, until about a year after the decision in the
+British courts of law affirming that there was no patent in the balls,
+was always two shillings for the best quality of ball. Subsequently
+there was a reduction down to one shilling for the balls made by many of
+the manufacturing companies, though in 1910 the rise in the price of
+rubber sent up the cost. The rubber-cored ball does not go out of shape
+so quickly as the gutta-percha solid ball and does not show other marks
+of ill-usage with the club so obviously. It has had the effect of making
+the game a good deal easier for the second- and third-class players,
+favouring especially those who were short drivers with the old
+gutta-percha ball. To the best players it has made the least difference,
+nevertheless those who were best with the old ball are also best with
+the new; its effect has merely been to bring the second, third and
+fourth best closer to each other and to the best.
+
+Incidentally, the question of the expense of the game has been touched
+on in this notice of the new balls. There is no doubt that the balls
+themselves tend to a greater economy, not only because of their own
+superior durability but also because, as a consequence of their greater
+resiliency, they are not nearly so hard on the clubs, and the clubs
+themselves being perhaps made of better material than used to be given
+to their manufacture, the total effect is that a man's necessary annual
+expenditure on them is very small indeed even though he plays pretty
+constantly. Four or five rounds are not more than the average of golfers
+will make an india-rubber cored ball last them, so that the outlay on
+the weapons is very moderate. On the other hand the expenditure of the
+clubs on their courses has increased and tends to increase. Demands are
+more insistent than they used to be for a well kept course, for
+perfectly mown greens, renewed teeing grounds and so on, and probably
+the modern golfer is a good deal more luxurious in his clubhouse wants
+than his father used to be. This means a big staff of servants and
+workers on the green, and to meet this a rather heavy subscription is
+required. Such a subscription as five guineas added to a ten or fifteen
+guinea entrance fee is not uncommon, and even this is very moderate
+compared with the subscriptions to some of the clubs in the United
+States, where a hundred dollars a year, or twenty pounds of our money,
+is not unusual. But on the whole golf is a very economical pastime, as
+compared with almost any other sport or pastime which engages the
+attention of Britons, and it is a pastime for all the year round, and
+for all the life of a man or woman.
+
+  _Glossary of Technical Terms used in the Game._
+
+  _Addressing the Ball._--Putting oneself in position to strike the
+  ball.
+
+  _All Square._--Term used to express that the score stands level,
+  neither side being a hole up.
+
+  _Baff._--To strike the ground with the club when playing, and so loft
+  the ball unduly.
+
+  _Baffy._--A short wooden club, with laid-back face, for lofting shots.
+
+  _Bogey._--The number of strokes which a good average player should
+  take to each hole. This imaginary player is usually known as "Colonel
+  Bogey," and plays a fine game.
+
+  _Brassy._--A wooden club with a brass sole.
+
+  _Bulger._--A driver in which the face "bulges" into a convex shape.
+  The head is shorter than in the older-fashioned driver.
+
+  _Bunker._--A sand-pit.
+
+  _Bye._--The holes remaining after one side has become more holes up
+  than remain for play.
+
+  _Caddie._--The person who carries the clubs. Diminutive of "cad"; cf.
+  laddie (from Fr. _cadet_).
+
+  _Cleek._--The iron-headed club that is capable of the farthest drive
+  of any of the clubs with iron heads.
+
+  _Cup._--A depression in the ground causing the ball to lie badly.
+
+  _Dead._--A ball is said to be "dead" when so near the hole that the
+  putting it in in the next stroke is a "dead" certainty. A ball is said
+  to "fall dead" when it pitches with hardly any run.
+
+  _Divot._--A piece of turf cut out in the act of playing, which, be it
+  noted, should always be replaced before the player moves on.
+
+  _Dormy._--One side is said to be "dormy" when it is as many holes to
+  the good as remain to be played--so that it cannot be beaten.
+
+  _Driver._--The longest driving club, used when the ball lies very well
+  and a long shot is needed.
+
+  _Foozle._--Any very badly missed or bungled stroke.
+
+  "_Fore!_"--A cry of warning to people in front.
+
+  _Foursome._--A match in which four persons engage, two on each side
+  playing alternately with the same ball.
+
+  _Green._--(a) The links as a whole; (b) the "putting-greens" around
+  the holes.
+
+  _Grip._--(a) The part of the club-shaft which is held in the hands
+  while playing; (b) the grasp itself--e.g. "a firm grip," "a loose
+  grip," are common expressions.
+
+  _Half-Shot._--A shot played with something less than a full swing.
+
+  _Halved._--A hole is "halved" when both sides have played it in the
+  same number of strokes. A round is "halved" when each side has won and
+  lost the same number of holes.
+
+  _Handicap._--The strokes which a player receives either in match play
+  or competition.
+
+  _Hanging._--Said of a ball that lies on a slope inclining downwards in
+  regard to the direction in which it is wished to drive.
+
+  _Hazard._--A general term for bunker, whin, long grass, roads and all
+  kinds of bad ground.
+
+  _Heel._--To hit the ball on the "heel" of the club, i.e. the part of
+  the face nearest the shaft, and so send the ball to the right, with
+  the same result as from a slice.
+
+  _Honour._--The privilege (which its holder is not at liberty to
+  decline) of striking off first from the tee.
+
+  _Iron._--An iron-headed club intermediate between the cleek and
+  lofting mashie. There are driving irons and lofting irons according to
+  the purposes for which they are intended.
+
+  _Lie._--(a) The angle of the club-head with the shaft (e.g. a "flat
+  lie," "an upright lie"); (b) the position of the ball on the ground
+  (e.g. "a good lie," "a bad lie").
+
+  _Like, The._--The stroke which makes the player's score equal to his
+  opponent's in course of playing a hole.
+
+  _Like-as-we-Lie._--Said when both sides have played the same number of
+  strokes.
+
+  _Line._--The direction in which the hole towards which the player is
+  progressing lies with reference to the present position of his ball.
+
+  _Mashie._--Ah iron club with a short head. The _lofting mashie_ has
+  the blade much laid back, for playing a short lofting shot. The
+  _driving mashie_ has the blade less laid back, and is used for longer,
+  less lofted shots.
+
+  _Match-Play._--Play in which the score is reckoned by holes won and
+  lost.
+
+  _Medal-Play._--Play in which the score is reckoned by the total of
+  strokes taken on the round.
+
+  _Niblick._--A short stiff club with a short, laid back, iron head,
+  used for getting the ball out of a very bad lie.
+
+  _Odd, The._--A stroke more than the opponent has played.
+
+  _Press._--To strive to hit harder than you can hit with accuracy.
+
+  _Pull._--To hit the ball with a pulling movement of the club, so as to
+  make it curve to the left.
+
+  _Putt._--To play the short strokes near the hole (pronounced as in
+  "but").
+
+  _Putter._--The club used for playing the short strokes near the hole.
+  Some have a wooden head, some an iron head.
+
+  _Rub-of-the-Green._--Any chance deflection that the ball receives as
+  it goes along.
+
+  _Run Up._--To send the ball low and close to the ground in approaching
+  the hole--opposite to lofting it up.
+
+  _Scratch Player._--Player who receives no odds in handicap
+  competitions.
+
+  _Slice._--To hit the ball with a cut across it, so that it flies
+  curving to the right.
+
+  _Stance._--(a) The place on which the player has to stand when
+  playing--e.g. "a bad stance," "a good stance," are common expressions;
+  (b) the position relative to each other of the player's feet.
+
+  _Stymie._--When one ball lies in a straight line between another and
+  the hole the first is said to "stymie," or "to be a stymie to" the
+  other--from an old Scottish word given by Jamieson to mean "the
+  faintest form of anything." The idea probably was, the "stymie" only
+  left you the "faintest form" of the hole to aim at.
+
+  _Tee._--The little mound of sand on which the ball is generally placed
+  for the first drive to each hole.
+
+  _Teeing-Ground._--The place marked as the limit, outside of which it
+  is not permitted to drive the ball off. This marked-out ground is also
+  sometimes called "the tee."
+
+  _Top._--To hit the ball above the centre, so that it does not rise
+  much from the ground.
+
+  _Up._--A player is said to be "one up," "two up," &c., when he is so
+  many holes to the good of his opponent.
+
+  _Wrist-Shot._--A shot less in length than a half-shot, but longer than
+  a putt.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature of the game has grown to some
+  considerable bulk. For many years it was practically comprised in the
+  fine work by Mr Robert Clark, _Golf: A Royal and Ancient Game_,
+  together with two handbooks on the game by Mr Chambers and by Mr
+  Forgan respectively, and the _Golfiana Miscellanea_ of Mr Stewart. A
+  small book by Mr Horace Hutchinson, named _Hints on Golf_, was very
+  shortly followed by a much more important work by Sir Walter Simpson,
+  Bart., called _The Art of Golf_, a title which sufficiently explains
+  itself. The Badminton Library book on _Golf_ attempted to collect into
+  one volume the most interesting historical facts known about the game,
+  with _obiter dicta_ and advice to learners, and, on similar didactic
+  lines, books have been written by Mr H. C. S. Everard, Mr Garden Smith
+  and W. Park, the professional player. Mr H. J. Whigham, sometime
+  amateur champion golfer of the United States, has given us a book
+  about the game in that country. _The Book of Golf and Golfers_,
+  compiled, with assistance, by Mr Horace Hutchinson, is in the first
+  place a picture-gallery of famous golfers in their respective
+  attitudes of play. Taylor, Vardon and Braid have each contributed a
+  volume of instruction, and Mr G. W. Beldam has published a book with
+  admirable photographs of players in action, called _Great Golfers:
+  their Methods at a Glance_. A work intended for the use of green
+  committees is among the volumes of the _Country Life_ Library of
+  Sport. Much interesting lore is contained in the _Golfing Annual_, in
+  the _Golfer's Year Book_ and in the pages of _Golf_, which has now
+  become _Golf Illustrated_, a weekly paper devoted to the game. Among
+  works that have primarily a local interest, but yet contain much of
+  historical value about the game, may be cited the _Golf Book of East
+  Lothian_, by the Rev. John Kerr, and the _Chronicle of Blackheath
+  Golfers_, by Mr W. E. Hughes.     (H. G. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] From an enactment of James VI. (then James I. of England),
+    bearing date 1618, we find that a considerable importation of golf
+    balls at that time took place from Holland, and as thereby "na small
+    quantitie of gold and silver is transported zierly out of his Hienes'
+    kingdome of Scoteland" (see letter of His Majesty from Salisbury, the
+    5th of August 1618), he issues a royal prohibition, at once as a wise
+    economy of the national moneys, and a protection to native industry
+    in the article. From this it might almost seem that the game was at
+    that date still known and practised in Holland.
+
+  [2] _Records of the City of Edinburgh_.
+
+  [3] _Inventories of Mary Queen of Scots_, preface, p. lxx. (1863).
+
+  [4] Anonymous author of MS. in the Harleian Library.
+
+  [5] See _History of Leith_, by A. Campbell (1827).
+
+  [6] _Local Records of Northumberland_, by John Sykes (Newcastle,
+    1833).
+
+  [7] Robertson's _Historical Notices of Leith_.
+
+
+
+
+GOLIAD, an unincorporated village and the county-seat of Goliad county,
+Texas, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the San Antonio river, 85 m. S.E. of
+San Antonio. Pop. (1900) about 1700. It is served by the Galveston,
+Harrisburg & San Antonio railway (Southern Pacific System). Situated in
+the midst of a rich farming and stock-raising country, Goliad has flour
+mills, cotton gins and cotton-seed oil mills. Here are the interesting
+ruins of the old Spanish mission of La Bahia, which was removed to this
+point from the Guadaloupe river in 1747. During the struggle between
+Mexico and Spain the Mexican leader Bernardo Gutierrez (1778-1814) was
+besieged here. The name Goliad, probably an anagram of the name of the
+Mexican patriot Hidalgo (1753-1811), was first used about 1829. On the
+outbreak of the Texan War of Liberation Goliad was garrisoned by a small
+force of Mexicans, who surrendered to the Texans in October 1835, and on
+the 20th of December a preliminary "declaration of independence" was
+published here, antedating by several months the official Declaration
+issued at Old Washington, Texas, on the 2nd of March 1836. In 1836, when
+Santa Anna began his advance against the Texan posts, Goliad was
+occupied by a force of about 350 Americans under Colonel James W. Fannin
+(c. 1800-1836), who was overtaken on the Coletta Creek while attempting
+to carry out orders to withdraw from Goliad and to unite with General
+Houston; he surrendered after a sharp fight (March 19-20) in which he
+inflicted a heavy loss on the Mexicans, and was marched back with his
+force to Goliad, where on the morning of the 27th of March they were
+shot down by Santa Anna's orders. Goliad was nearly destroyed by a
+tornado on the 19th of May 1903.
+
+
+
+
+GOLIARD, a name applied to those wandering students (_vagantes_) and
+clerks in England, France and Germany, during the 12th and 13th
+centuries, who were better known for their rioting, gambling and
+intemperance than for their scholarship. The derivation of the word is
+uncertain. It may come from the Lat. _gula_, gluttony (Wright), but was
+connected by them with a mythical "Bishop Golias," also called
+"_archipoeta_" and "_primas_"--especially in Germany--in whose name
+their satirical poems were mostly written. Many scholars have accepted
+Budinger's suggestion (_Uber einige Reste der Vagantenpoesie in
+Osterreich_, Vienna, 1854) that the title of Golias goes back to the
+letter of St Bernard to Innocent II., in which he referred to Abelard as
+Goliath, thus connecting the goliards with the keen-witted student
+adherents of that great medieval critic. Giesebrecht and others,
+however, support the derivation of goliard from _gailliard_, a gay
+fellow, leaving "Golias" as the imaginary "patron" of their fraternity.
+
+Spiegel has ingeniously disentangled something of a biography of an
+_archipoeta_ who flourished mainly in Burgundy and at Salzburg from 1160
+to beyond the middle of the 13th century; but the proof of the reality
+of this individual is not convincing. It is doubtful, too, if the
+jocular references to the rules of the "gild" of goliards should be
+taken too seriously, though their aping of the "orders" of the church,
+especially their contrasting them with the mendicants, was too bold for
+church synods. Their satires were almost uniformly directed against the
+church, attacking even the pope. In 1227 the council of Treves forbade
+priests to permit the goliards to take part in chanting the service. In
+1229 they played a conspicuous part in the disturbances at the
+university of Paris, in connexion with the intrigues of the papal
+legate. During the century which followed they formed a subject for the
+deliberations of several church councils, notably in 1289 when it was
+ordered that "no clerks shall be jongleurs, goliards or buffoons," and
+in 1300 (at Cologne) when they were forbidden to preach or engage in the
+indulgence traffic. This legislation was only effective when the
+"privileges of clergy" were withdrawn from the goliards. Those
+historians who regard the middle ages as completely dominated by ascetic
+ideals, regard the goliard movement as a protest against the spirit of
+the time. But it is rather indicative of the wide diversity in
+temperament among those who crowded to the universities in the 13th
+century, and who found in the privileges of the clerk some advantage and
+attraction in the student life. The goliard poems are as truly
+"medieval" as the monastic life which they despised; they merely voice
+another section of humanity. Yet their criticism was most keenly
+pointed, and marks a distinct step in the criticism of abuses in the
+church.
+
+Along with these satires went many poems in praise of wine and riotous
+living. A remarkable collection of them, now at Munich, from the
+monastery at Benedictbeuren in Bavaria, was published by Schmeller (3rd
+ed., 1895) under the title _Carmina Burana_. Many of these, which form
+the main part of song-books of German students to-day, have been
+delicately translated by John Addington Symonds in a small volume,
+_Wine, Women and Song_ (1884). As Symonds has said, they form a prelude
+to the Renaissance. The poems of "Bishop Golias" were later attributed
+to Walter Mapes, and have been published by Thomas Wright in _The Latin
+Poems commonly attributed to Walter Mapes_ (London, 1841).
+
+The word "goliard" itself outlived these turbulent bands which had given
+it birth, and passed over into French and English literature of the 14th
+century in the general meaning of jongleur or minstrel, quite apart from
+any clerical association. It is thus used in _Piers Plowman_, where,
+however, the _goliard_ still rhymes in Latin, and in Chaucer.
+
+  See, besides the works quoted above, M. Haezner, _Goliardendichtung
+  und die Satire im 13ten Jahrhundert in England_ (Leipzig, 1905);
+  Spiegel, _Die Vaganten und ihr "Orden"_ (Spires, 1892); Hubatsch, _Die
+  lateinischen Vagantenlieder des Mittelalters_ (Gorlitz, 1870); and the
+  article in _La grande Encyclopedie_. All of these have bibliographical
+  apparatus.     (J. T. S.*)
+
+
+
+
+GOLIATH, the name of the giant by slaying whom David achieved renown (1
+Sam. xvii.). The Philistines had come up to make war against Saul and,
+as the rival camps lay opposite each other, this warrior came forth day
+by day to challenge to single combat. Only David ventured to respond,
+and armed with a sling and pebbles he overcame Goliath. The Philistines,
+seeing their champion killed, lost heart and were easily put to flight.
+The giant's arms were placed in the sanctuary, and it was his famous
+sword which David took with him in his flight from Saul (1 Sam. xxi.
+1-9). From another passage we learn that Goliath of Gath, "the shaft of
+whose spear was like a weaver's beam," was slain by a certain Elhanan of
+Bethlehem in one of David's conflicts with the Philistines (2 Sam. xxi.
+18-22)--the parallel 1 Chron. xx. 5, avoids the contradiction by reading
+the "brother of Goliath." But this old popular story has probably
+preserved the more original tradition, and if Elhanan is the son of Dodo
+in the list of David's mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 9, 24), the resemblance
+between the two names may have led to the transference. The narratives
+of David's early life point to some exploit by means of which he gained
+the favour of Saul, Jonathan and Israel, but the absence of all
+reference to his achievement in the subsequent chapters (1 Sam. xxi. 11,
+xxix. 5) is evidence of the relatively late origin of a tradition which
+in course of time became one of the best-known incidents in David's life
+(Ps. cxliv., LXX. title, the apocryphal Ps. cli., Ecclus. xlvii. 4).
+
+  See DAVID; SAMUEL (BOOKS) and especially Cheyne, _Aids and Devout
+  Study of Criticism_, pp. 80 sqq., 125 sqq. In the old Egyptian romance
+  of _Sinuhit_ (ascribed to about 2000 B.C.), the story of the slaying
+  of the Bedouin hero has several points of resemblance with that of
+  David and Goliath. See L. B. Paton, _Hist. of Syr. and Pal._, p. 60;
+  A. Jeremias, _Das A. T. im Lichte d. alten Orients_, 2nd ed. pp. 299,
+  491; A. R. S. Kennedy, _Century Bible: Samuel_, p. 122, argues that
+  David's Philistine adversary was originally nameless, in 1 Sam. xvii.
+  he is named only in v. 4.
+
+
+
+
+GOLITSUIN, BORIS ALEKSYEEVICH (1654-1714), Russian statesman, came of a
+princely family, claiming descent from Prince Gedimin of Lithuania.
+Earlier members of the family were Mikhail (d. c. 1552), a famous
+soldier, and his great-grandson Vasily Vasilevich (d. 1619), who was
+sent as ambassador to Poland to offer the Russian crown to Prince
+Ladislaus. Boris became court chamberlain in 1676. He was the young tsar
+Peter's chief supporter when, in 1689, Peter resisted the usurpations of
+his elder sister Sophia, and the head of the loyal council which
+assembled at the Troitsa monastery during the crisis of the struggle.
+Golitsuin it was who suggested taking refuge in that strong fortress and
+won over the boyars of the opposite party. In 1690 he was created a
+boyar and shared with Lev Naruishkin, Peter's uncle, the conduct of home
+affairs. After the death of the tsaritsa Natalia, Peter's mother, in
+1694, his influence increased still further. He accompanied Peter to the
+White Sea (1694-1695); took part in the Azov campaign (1695); and was
+one of the triumvirate who ruled Russia during Peter's first foreign
+tour (1697-1698). The Astrakhan rebellion (1706), which affected all the
+districts under his government, shook Peter's confidence in him, and
+seriously impaired his position. In 1707 he was superseded in the Volgan
+provinces by Andrei Matvyeev. A year before his death he entered a
+monastery. Golitsuin was a typical representative of Russian society of
+the end of the 17th century in its transition from barbarism to
+civilization. In many respects he was far in advance of his age. He was
+highly educated, spoke Latin with graceful fluency, frequented the
+society of scholars and had his children carefully educated according to
+the best European models. Yet this eminent, this superior personage was
+an habitual drunkard, an uncouth savage who intruded upon the
+hospitality of wealthy foreigners, and was not ashamed to seize upon any
+dish he took a fancy to, and send it home to his wife. It was his
+reckless drunkenness which ultimately ruined him in the estimation of
+Peter the Great, despite his previous inestimable services.
+
+  See S. Solovev, _History of Russia_ (Rus.), vol. xiv. (Moscow, 1858);
+  R. N. Bain, _The First Romanovs_ (London, 1905).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GOLITSUIN, DMITRY MIKHAILOVICH (1665-1737), Russian statesman, was sent
+in 1697 to Italy to learn "military affairs"; in 1704 he was appointed
+to the command of an auxiliary corps in Poland against Charles XII.;
+from 1711 to 1718 he was governor of Byelogorod. In 1718 he was
+appointed president of the newly erected _Kammer Kollegium_ and a
+senator. In May 1723 he was implicated in the disgrace of the
+vice-chancellor Shafirov and was deprived of all his offices and
+dignities, which he only recovered through the mediation of the empress
+Catherine I. After the death of Peter the Great, Golitsuin became the
+recognized head of the old Conservative party which had never forgiven
+Peter for putting away Eudoxia and marrying the plebeian Martha
+Skavronskaya. But the reformers, as represented by Alexander Menshikov
+and Peter Tolstoi, prevailed; and Golitsuin remained in the background
+till the fall of Menshikov, 1727. During the last years of Peter II.
+(1728-1730), Golitsuin was the most prominent statesman in Russia and
+his high aristocratic theories had full play. On the death of Peter II.
+he conceived the idea of limiting the autocracy by subordinating it to
+the authority of the supreme privy council, of which he was president.
+He drew up a form of constitution which Anne of Courland, the newly
+elected Russian empress, was forced to sign at Mittau before being
+permitted to proceed to St Petersburg. Anne lost no time in repudiating
+this constitution, and never forgave its authors. Golitsuin was left in
+peace, however, and lived for the most part in retirement, till 1736,
+when he was arrested on suspicion of being concerned in the conspiracy
+of his son-in-law Prince Constantine Cantimir. This, however, was a mere
+pretext, it was for his anti-monarchical sentiments that he was really
+prosecuted. A court, largely composed of his antagonists, condemned him
+to death, but the empress reduced the sentence to lifelong imprisonment
+in Schlusselburg and confiscation of all his estates. He died in his
+prison on the 14th of April 1737, after three months of confinement.
+
+  See R. N. Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London, 1897).
+       (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GOLITSUIN, VASILY VASILEVICH (1643-1714), Russian statesman, spent his
+early days at the court of Tsar Alexius where he gradually rose to the
+rank of boyar. In 1676 he was sent to the Ukraine to keep in order the
+Crimean Tatars and took part in the Chigirin campaign. Personal
+experience of the inconveniences and dangers of the prevailing system of
+preferment, the so-called _myestnichestvo_, or rank priority, which had
+paralysed the Russian armies for centuries, induced him to propose its
+abolition, which was accomplished by Tsar Theodore III. (1678). The May
+revolution of 1682 placed Golitsuin at the head of the _Posolsky
+Prikaz_, or ministry of foreign affairs, and during the regency of
+Sophia, sister of Peter the Great, whose lover he became, he was the
+principal minister of state (1682-1689) and "keeper of the great seal,"
+a title bestowed upon only two Russians before him, Athonasy
+Orduin-Nashchokin and Artamon Matvyeev. In home affairs his influence
+was insignificant, but his foreign policy was distinguished by the peace
+with Poland in 1683, whereby Russia at last recovered Kiev. By the terms
+of the same treaty, he acceded to the grand league against the Porte,
+but his two expeditions against the Crimea (1687 and 1689), "the First
+Crimean War," were unsuccessful and made him extremely unpopular. Only
+with the utmost difficulty could Sophia get the young tsar Peter to
+decorate the defeated commander-in-chief as if he had returned a victor.
+In the civil war between Sophia and Peter (August-September 1689),
+Golitsuin half-heartedly supported his mistress and shared her ruin. His
+life was spared owing to the supplications of his cousin Boris, but he
+was deprived of his boyardom, his estates were confiscated and he was
+banished successively to Kargopol, Mezen and Kologora, where he died on
+the 21st of April 1714. Golitsuin was unusually well educated. He
+understood German and Greek as well as his mother-tongue, and could
+express himself fluently in Latin. He was a great friend of foreigners,
+who generally alluded to him as "the great Golitsuin."
+
+His brother MIKHAIL (1674-1730) was a celebrated soldier, who is best
+known for his governorship of Finland (1714-1721), where his admirable
+qualities earned the remembrance of the people whom he had conquered.
+And Mikhail's son Alexander (1718-1783) was a diplomat and soldier, who
+rose to be field-marshal and governor of St Petersburg.
+
+  See R. N. Bain, _The First Romanovs_ (London, 1905); A. Bruckner,
+  _Furst Golizin_ (Leipzig, 1887); S. Solovev, _History of Russia_
+  (Rus.), vols. xiii.-xiv. (Moscow, 1858, &c.).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GOLIUS or (GOHL), JACOBUS (1596-1667), Dutch Orientalist, was born at
+the Hague in 1596, and studied at the university of Leiden, where in
+Arabic and other Eastern languages he was the most distinguished pupil
+of Erpenius. In 1622 he accompanied the Dutch embassy to Morocco, and on
+his return he was chosen to succeed Erpenius (1624). In the following
+year he set out on a Syrian and Arabian tour from which he did not
+return until 1629. The remainder of his life was spent at Leiden where
+he held the chair of mathematics as well as that of Arabic. He died on
+the 28th of September 1667.
+
+  His most important work is the _Lexicon Arabico-Latinum_, fol.,
+  Leiden, 1653, which, based on the _Sihah_ of Al-Jauhari, was only
+  superseded by the corresponding work of Freytag. Among his earlier
+  publications may be mentioned editions of various Arabic texts
+  (_Proverbia quaedam Alis, imperatoris Muslemici, et Carmen
+  Tograipoetae doctissimi, necnon dissertatio quaedam Aben Synae_, 1629;
+  and _Ahmedis Arabsiadae vitae et rerum gestarum Timuri, qui vulgo
+  Tamer, lanes dicitur, historia_, 1636). In 1656 he published a new
+  edition, with considerable additions, of the _Grammatica Arabica_ of
+  Erpenius. After his death, there was found among his papers a
+  _Dictionarium Persico-Latinum_ which was published, with additions, by
+  Edmund Castell in his _Lexicon heptaglotton_ (1669). Golius also
+  edited, translated and annotated the astronomical treatise of Alfragan
+  (_Muhammedis, filii Ketiri Ferganensis, qui vulgo Alfraganus dicitur,
+  elementa astronomica Arabice et Latine_, 1669).
+
+
+
+
+GOLLNOW, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania, on
+the right bank of the Ihna, 14 m. N.N.E. of Stettin, with which it has
+communication by rail and steamer. Pop. (1905) 8539. It possesses two
+Evangelical churches, a synagogue and some small manufactures. Gollnow
+was founded in 1190, and was raised to the rank of a town in 1268. It
+was for a time a Hanse town, and came into the possession of Prussia in
+1720, having belonged to Sweden since 1648.
+
+
+
+
+GOLOSH, or GALOSH (from the Fr. _galoche_, Low Lat. _calopedes_, a
+wooden shoe or clog; an adaptation of the Gr. [Greek: kalopodion], a
+diminutive formed of [Greek: kalon], wood, and [Greek: pous], foot),
+originally a wooden shoe or patten, or merely a wooden sole fastened to
+the foot by a strap or cord. In the middle ages "galosh" was a general
+term for a boot or shoe, particularly one with a wooden sole. In modern
+usage, it is an outer shoe worn in bad weather to protect the inner one,
+and keep the feet dry. Goloshes are now almost universally made of
+rubber, and in the United States they are known as "rubbers" simply, the
+word golosh being rarely if ever used. In the bootmakers' trade, a
+"golosh" is the piece of leather, of a make stronger than, or different
+from that of the "uppers," which runs around the bottom part of a boot
+or shoe, just above the sole.
+
+
+
+
+GOLOVIN, FEDOR ALEKSYEEVICH, COUNT (d. 1706), Russian statesman, learnt,
+like so many of his countrymen in later times, the business of a ruler
+in the Far East. During the regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the
+Great, he was sent to the Amur to defend the new Muscovite fortress of
+Albazin against the Chinese. In 1689 he concluded with the Celestial
+empire the treaty of Nerchinsk, by which the line of the Amur, as far as
+its tributary the Gorbitsa, was retroceded to China because of the
+impossibility of seriously defending it. In Peter's grand embassy to the
+West in 1697 Golovin occupied the second place immediately after Lefort.
+It was his chief duty to hire foreign sailors and obtain everything
+necessary for the construction and complete equipment of a fleet. On
+Lefort's death, in March 1699, he succeeded him as admiral-general. The
+same year he was created the first Russian count, and was also the first
+to be decorated with the newly-instituted Russian order of St Andrew.
+The conduct of foreign affairs was at the same time entrusted to him,
+and from 1699 to his death he was "the premier minister of the tsar."
+Golovin's first achievement as foreign minister was to supplement the
+treaty of Carlowitz, by which peace with Turkey had only been secured
+for three years, by concluding with the Porte a new treaty at
+Constantinople (June 13, 1700), by which the term of the peace was
+extended to thirty years and, besides other concessions, the Azov
+district and a strip of territory extending thence to Kuban were ceded
+to Russia. He also controlled, with consummate ability, the operations
+of the brand-new Russian diplomatists at the various foreign courts. His
+superiority over all his Muscovite contemporaries was due to the fact
+that he was already a statesman, in the modern sense, while they were
+still learning the elements of statesmanship. His death was an
+irreparable loss to the tsar, who wrote upon the despatch announcing it,
+the words "Peter filled with grief."
+
+  See R. N. Bain, _The First Romanovs_ (London, 1905).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GOLOVKIN, GAVRIIL IVANOVICH, COUNT (1660-1734), Russian statesman, was
+attached (1677), while still a lad, to the court of the tsarevitch
+Peter, afterwards Peter the Great, with whose mother Natalia he was
+connected, and vigilantly guarded him during the disquieting period of
+the regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the Great (1682-1689). He
+accompanied the young tsar abroad on his first foreign tour, and worked
+by his side in the dockyards of Saardam. In 1706 he succeeded Golovin in
+the direction of foreign affairs, and was created the first Russian
+grand-chancellor on the field of Poltava (1709). Golovkin held this
+office for twenty-five years. In the reign of Catherine I. he became a
+member of the supreme privy council which had the chief conduct of
+affairs during this and the succeeding reigns. The empress also
+entrusted him with her last will whereby she appointed the young Peter
+II. her successor and Golovkin one of his guardians. On the death of
+Peter II. in 1730 he declared openly in favour of Anne, duchess of
+Courland, in opposition to the aristocratic Dolgorukis and Golitsuins,
+and his determined attitude on behalf of autocracy was the chief cause
+of the failure of the proposed constitution, which would have converted
+Russia into a limited monarchy. Under Anne he was a member of the first
+cabinet formed in Russia, but had less influence in affairs than
+Ostermann and Munnich. In 1707 he was created a count of the Holy Roman
+empire, and in 1710 a count of the Russian empire. He was one of the
+wealthiest, and at the same time one of the stingiest, magnates of his
+day. His ignorance of any language but his own made his intercourse with
+foreign ministers very inconvenient.
+
+  See R. N. Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London, 1897).
+       (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GOLOVNIN, VASILY MIKHAILOVICH (1776-1831), Russian vice-admiral, was
+born on the 20th of April 1776 in the village of Gulynki in the province
+of Ryazan, and received his education at the Cronstadt naval school.
+From 1801 to 1806 he served as a volunteer in the English navy. In 1807
+he was commissioned by the Russian government to survey the coasts of
+Kamchatka and of Russian America, including also the Kurile Islands.
+Golovnin sailed round the Cape of Good Hope, and on the 5th of October
+1809, arrived in Kamchatka. In 1810, whilst attempting to survey the
+coast of the island of Kunashiri, he was seized by the Japanese, and was
+retained by them as a prisoner, until the 13th of October 1813, when he
+was liberated, and in the following year he returned to St Petersburg.
+Soon after this the government planned another expedition, which had for
+its object the circumnavigation of the globe by a Russian ship, and
+Golovnin was appointed to the command. He started from St Petersburg on
+the 7th of September 1817, sailed round Cape Horn, and arrived in
+Kamchatka in the following May. He returned to Europe by way of the Cape
+of Good Hope, and landed at St Petersburg on the 17th of September 1819.
+He died on the 12th of July 1831.
+
+  Golovnin published several works, of which the following are the most
+  important:--_Journey to Kamchatka_ (2 vols., 1819); _Journey Round the
+  World_ (2 vols., 1822); and _Narrative of my Captivity in Japan,
+  1811-1813_ (2 vols., 1816). The last has been translated into French,
+  German and English, the English edition being in three volumes (1824).
+  A complete edition of his works was published at St Petersburg in five
+  volumes in 1864, with maps and charts, and a biography of the author
+  by N. Grech.
+
+
+
+
+GOLTZ, BOGUMIL (1801-1870), German humorist and satirist, was born at
+Warsaw on the 20th of March 1801. After attending the classical schools
+of Marienwerder and Konigsberg, he learnt farming on an estate near
+Thorn, and in 1821 entered the university of Breslau as a student of
+philosophy. But he soon abandoned an academical career, and, after
+returning for a while to country life, retired to the small town of
+Gollub, where he devoted himself to literary studies. In 1847 he settled
+at Thorn, "the home of Copernicus," where he died on the 12th of
+November 1870. Goltz is best known to literary fame by his _Buch der
+Kindheit_ (Frankfort, 1847; 4th ed., Berlin, 1877), in which, after the
+style of Jean Paul, and Adalbert Stifter, but with a more modern
+realism, he gives a charming and idyllic description of the impressions
+of his own childhood. Among his other works must be noted _Ein
+Jugendleben_ (1852); _Der Mensch und die Leute_ (1858); _Zur
+Charakteristik und Naturgeschichte der Frauen_ (1859); _Zur Geschichte
+und Charakteristik des deutschen Genius_ (1864), and _Die Weltklugheit
+und die Lebensweisheit_ (1869).
+
+  Goltz's works have not been collected, but a selection will be found
+  in Reclam's _Universalbibliothek_ (ed. by P. Stein, 1901 and 1906).
+  See O. Roquette, _Siebzig Jahre_, i. (1894).
+
+
+
+
+GOLTZ, COLMAR, FREIHERR VON DER (1843-   ), Prussian soldier and
+military writer, was born at Bielkenfeld, East Prussia, on the 12th of
+August 1843, and entered the Prussian infantry in 1861. In 1864 he
+entered the Berlin Military Academy, but was temporarily withdrawn in
+1866 to serve in the Austrian war, in which he was wounded at Trautenau.
+In 1867 he joined the topographical section of the general staff, and at
+the beginning of the Franco-German War of 1870-71 was attached to the
+staff of Prince Frederick Charles. He took part in the battles of
+Vionville and Gravelotte and in the siege of Metz. After its fall he
+served under the Red Prince in the campaign of the Loire, including the
+battles of Orleans and Le Mans. He was appointed in 1871 professor at
+the military school at Potsdam, and the same year was promoted captain
+and placed in the historical section of the general staff. It was then
+he wrote _Die Operationen der II. Armee bis zur Capitulation von Metz_
+and _Die Sieben Tage von Le Mans_, both published in 1873. In 1874 he
+was appointed to the staff of the 6th division, and while so employed
+wrote _Die Operationen der II. Armee an der Loire and Leon Gambetta und
+seine Armeen_, published in 1875 and 1877 respectively. The latter was
+translated into French the same year, and both are impartially written.
+The views expressed in the latter work led to his being sent back to
+regimental duty for a time, but it was not long before he returned to
+the military history section. In 1878 von der Goltz was appointed
+lecturer in military history at the military academy at Berlin, where he
+remained for five years and attained the rank of major. He published, in
+1883, _Rossbach und Jena_ (new and revised edition, _Von Rossbach bis
+Jena und Auerstadt_, 1906), _Das Volk in Waffen_ (English translation
+_The Nation in Arms_), both of which quickly became military classics,
+and during his residence in Berlin contributed many articles to the
+military journals. In June 1883 his services were lent to Turkey to
+reorganize the military establishments of the country. He spent twelve
+years in this work, the result of which appeared in the Greco-Turkish
+War of 1897, and he was made a pasha and in 1895 a _mushir_ or
+field-marshal. On his return to Germany in 1896 he became a
+lieutenant-general and commander of the 5th division, and in 1898, head
+of the Engineer and Pioneer Corps and inspector-general of
+fortifications. In 1900 he was made general of infantry and in 1902
+commander of the I. army corps. In 1907 he was made inspector-general of
+the newly created sixth army inspection established at Berlin, and in
+1908 was given the rank of colonel-general (_Generaloberst_).
+
+  In addition to the works already named and frequent contributions to
+  military periodical literature, he wrote _Kriegfuhrung_ (1895, later
+  edition _Krieg- und Heerfuhrung_, 1901; Eng. trans. _The Conduct of
+  War_); _Der thessalische Krieg_ (Berlin, 1898); _Ein Ausflug nach
+  Macedonien_ (1894); _Anatolische Ausfluge_ (1896); a map and
+  description of the environs of Constantinople; _Von Jena bis Pr.
+  Eylau_ (1907), a most important historical work, carrying on the story
+  of _Rossbach und Jena_ to the peace of Tilsit, &c.
+
+
+
+
+GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK (1558-1617), Dutch painter and engraver, was born in
+1558 at Mulebrecht, in the duchy of Julich. After studying painting on
+glass for some years under his father, he was taught the use of the
+burin by Dirk Volkertsz Coornhert, a Dutch engraver of mediocre
+attainment, whom he soon surpassed, but who retained his services for
+his own advantage. He was also employed by Philip Galle to engrave a set
+of prints of the history of Lucretia. At the age of twenty-one he
+married a widow somewhat advanced in years, whose money enabled him to
+establish at Haarlem an independent business; but his unpleasant
+relations with her so affected his health that he found it advisable in
+1590 to make a tour through Germany to Italy, where he acquired an
+intense admiration for the works of Michelangelo, which led him to
+surpass that master in the grotesqueness and extravagance of his
+designs. He returned to Haarlem considerably improved in health, and
+laboured there at his art till his death, on the 1st of January 1617.
+Goltzius ought not to be judged chiefly by the works he valued most, his
+eccentric imitations of Michelangelo. His portraits, though mostly
+miniatures, are master-pieces of their kind, both on account of their
+exquisite finish, and as fine studies of individual character. Of his
+larger heads, the life-size portrait of himself is probably the most
+striking example. His "master-pieces," so called from their being
+attempts to imitate the style of the old masters, have perhaps been
+overpraised. In his command of the burin Goltzius is not surpassed even
+by Durer; but his technical skill is often unequally aided by higher
+artistic qualities. Even, however, his eccentricities and extravagances
+are greatly counterbalanced by the beauty and freedom of his execution.
+He began painting at the age of forty-two, but none of his works in this
+branch of art--some of which are in the imperial collection at
+Vienna--display any special excellences. He also executed a few pieces
+in chiaroscuro.
+
+  His prints amount to more than 300 plates, and are fully described in
+  Bartsch's _Peintre-graveur_, and Weigel's supplement to the same work.
+
+
+
+
+GOLUCHOWSKI, AGENOR, COUNT (1849-   ), Austrian statesman, was born on
+the 25th of March 1849. His father, descended from an old and noble
+Polish family, was governor of Galicia. Entering the diplomatic service,
+the son was in 1872 appointed attache to the Austrian embassy at Berlin,
+where he became secretary of legation, and thence he was transferred to
+Paris. After rising to the rank of counsellor of legation, he was in
+1887 made minister at Bucharest, where he remained till 1893. In these
+positions he acquired a great reputation as a firm and skilful
+diplomatist, and on the retirement of Count Kalnoky in May 1895 was
+chosen to succeed him as Austro-Hungarian minister for foreign affairs.
+The appointment of a Pole caused some surprise in view of the importance
+of Austrian relations with Russia (then rather strained) and Germany,
+but the choice was justified by events. In his speech of that year to
+the delegations he declared the maintenance of the Triple Alliance, and
+in particular the closest intimacy with Germany, to be the keystone of
+Austrian policy; at the same time he dwelt on the traditional friendship
+between Austria and Great Britain, and expressed his desire for a good
+understanding with all the powers. In pursuance of this policy he
+effected an understanding with Russia, by which neither power was to
+exert any separate influence in the Balkan peninsula, and thus removed a
+long-standing cause of friction. This understanding was formally
+ratified during a visit to St Petersburg on which he accompanied the
+emperor in April 1897. He took the lead in establishing the European
+concert during the Armenian troubles of 1896, and again resisted
+isolated action on the part of any of the great powers during the Cretan
+troubles and the Greco-Turkish War. In November 1897, when the
+Austro-Hungarian flag was insulted at Mersina, he threatened to bombard
+the town if instant reparation were not made, and by his firm attitude
+greatly enhanced Austrian prestige in the East. In his speech to the
+delegations in 1898 he dwelt on the necessity of expanding Austria's
+mercantile marine, and of raising the fleet to a strength which, while
+not vying with the fleets of the great naval powers, would ensure
+respect for the Austrian flag wherever her interests needed protection.
+He also hinted at the necessity for European combination to resist
+American competition. The understanding with Russia in the matter of the
+Balkan States temporarily endangered friendly relations with Italy, who
+thought her interests threatened, until Goluchowski guaranteed in 1898
+the existing order. He further encouraged a good understanding with
+Italy by personal conferences with the Italian foreign minister,
+Tittoni, in 1904 and 1905. Count Lamsdorff visited Vienna in December
+1902, when arrangements were made for concerted action in imposing on
+the sultan reforms in the government of Macedonia. Further steps were
+taken after Goluchowski's interview with the tsar at Murzsteg in 1903,
+and two civil agents representing the countries were appointed for two
+years to ensure the execution of the promised reforms. This period was
+extended in 1905, when Goluchowski was the chief mover in forcing the
+Porte, by an international naval demonstration at Mitylene, to accept
+financial control by the powers in Macedonia. At the conference
+assembled at Algeciras to settle the Morocco Question, Austria supported
+the German position, and after the close of the conferences the emperor
+William II. telegraphed to Goluchowski: "You have proved yourself a
+brilliant second on the duelling ground and you may feel certain of like
+services from me in similar circumstances." This pledge was redeemed in
+1908, when Germany's support of Austria in the Balkan crisis proved
+conclusive. By the Hungarians, however, Goluchowski was hated; he was
+suspected of having inspired the emperor's opposition to the use of
+Magyar in the Hungarian army, and was made responsible for the slight
+offered to the Magyar deputation by Francis Joseph in September 1905. So
+long as he remained in office there was no hope of arriving at a
+settlement of a matter which threatened the disruption of the Dual
+monarchy, and on the 11th of October 1906 he was forced to resign.
+
+
+
+
+GOMAL, or GUMAL, the name of a river of Afghanistan, and of a mountain
+pass on the Dera Ismail Khan border of the North-West Frontier Province
+of British India. The Gomal river, one of the most important rivers in
+Afghanistan, rises in the unexplored regions to the south-east of
+Ghazni. Its chief tributary is the Zhob. Within the limits of British
+territory the Gomal forms the boundary between the North-West Frontier
+Province and Baluchistan, and more or less between the Pathan and Baluch
+races. The Gomal pass is the most important pass on the Indian frontier
+between the Khyber and the Bolan. It connects Dera Ismail Khan with the
+Gomal valley in Afghanistan, and has formed for centuries the outlet for
+the povindah trade. Until the year 1889 this pass was almost unknown to
+the Anglo-Indian official; but in that year the government of India
+decided that, in order to maintain the safety of the railway as well as
+to perfect communication between Quetta and the Punjab, the Zhob valley
+should, like the Bori valley, be brought under British protection and
+control, and the Gomal pass should be opened. After the Waziristan
+expedition of 1894 Wana was occupied by British troops in order to
+dominate the Gomal and Waziristan; but on the formation of the
+North-West Frontier Province in 1901 it was decided to replace these
+troops by the South Waziristan militia, who now secure the safety of the
+pass.
+
+
+
+
+GOMARUS, FRANZ (1563-1641), Dutch theologian, was born at Bruges on the
+30th of January 1563. His parents, having embraced the principles of the
+Reformation, emigrated to the Palatinate in 1578, in order to enjoy
+freedom to profess their new faith, and they sent their son to be
+educated at Strassburg under Johann Sturm (1507-1589). He remained there
+three years, and then went in 1580 to Neustadt, whither the professors
+of Heidelberg had been driven by the elector-palatine because they were
+not Lutherans. Here his teachers in theology were Zacharius Ursinus
+(1534-1583), Hieronymus Zanchius (1560-1590), and Daniel Tossanus
+(1541-1602). Crossing to England towards the end of 1582, he attended
+the lectures of John Rainolds (1549-1607) at Oxford, and those of
+William Whitaker (1548-1595) at Cambridge. He graduated at Cambridge in
+1584, and then went to Heidelberg, where the faculty had been by this
+time re-established. He was pastor of a Reformed Dutch church in
+Frankfort from 1587 till 1593, when the congregation was dispersed by
+persecution. In 1594 he was appointed professor of theology at Leiden,
+and before going thither received from the university of Heidelberg the
+degree of doctor. He taught quietly at Leiden till 1603, when Jakobus
+Arminius came to be one of his colleagues in the theological faculty,
+and began to teach Pelagian doctrines and to create a new party in the
+university. Gomarus immediately set himself earnestly to oppose these
+views in his classes at college, and was supported by Johann B.
+Bogermann (1570-1637), who afterwards became professor of theology at
+Franeker. Arminius "sought to make election dependent upon faith, whilst
+they sought to enforce absolute predestination as the rule of faith,
+according to which the whole Scriptures are to be interpreted" (J. A.
+Dorner, _History of Protestant Theology_, i. p. 417). Gomarus then
+became the leader of the opponents of Arminius, who from that
+circumstance came to be known as Gomarists. He engaged twice in personal
+disputation with Arminius in the assembly of the estates of Holland in
+1608, and was one of five Gomarists who met five Arminians or
+Remonstrants in the same assembly of 1609. On the death of Arminius
+shortly after this time, Konrad Vorstius (1569-1622), who sympathized
+with his views, was appointed to succeed him, in spite of the keen
+opposition of Gomarus and his friends; and Gomarus took his defeat so
+ill that he resigned his post, and went to Middleburg in 1611, where he
+became preacher at the Reformed church, and taught theology and Hebrew
+in the newly founded _Illustre Schule_. From this place he was called in
+1614 to a chair of theology at Saumur, where he remained four years, and
+then accepted a call as professor of theology and Hebrew to Groningen,
+where he stayed till his death on the 11th of January 1641. He took a
+leading part in the synod of Dort, assembled in 1618 to judge of the
+doctrines of Arminius. He was a man of ability, enthusiasm and learning,
+a considerable Oriental scholar, and also a keen controversialist. He
+took part in revising the Dutch translation of the Old Testament in
+1633, and after his death a book by him, called the _Lyra Davidis_, was
+published, which sought to explain the principles of Hebrew metre, and
+which created some controversy at the time, having been opposed by Louis
+Cappel. His works were collected and published in one volume folio, in
+Amsterdam in 1645. He was succeeded at Groningen in 1643 by his pupil
+Samuel Maresius (1599-1673).
+
+
+
+
+GOMBERVILLE, MARIN LE ROY, SIEUR DU PARC ET DE (1600-1674), French
+novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born at Paris in 1600. At
+fourteen years of age he wrote a volume of verse, at twenty a _Discours
+sur l'histoire_ and at twenty-two a pastoral, _La Carithee_, which is
+really a novel. The persons in it, though still disguised as shepherds
+and shepherdesses, represent real persons for whose identification the
+author himself provides a key. This was followed by a more ambitious
+attempt, _Polexandre_ (5 vols. 1632-1637). The hero wanders through the
+world in search of the island home of the princess Alcidiane. It
+contains much history and geography; the travels of Polexandre extending
+to such unexpected places as Benin, the Canary Islands, Mexico and the
+Antilles, and incidentally we learn all that was then known of Mexican
+history. _Cytheree_ (4 vols.) appeared in 1630-1642, and in 1651 the
+_Jeune Alcidiane_, intended to undo any harm the earlier novels may have
+done, for Gomberville became a Jansenist and spent the last twenty-five
+years of his life in pious retirement. He was one of the earliest and
+most energetic members of the Academy. He died in Paris on the 14th of
+June 1674.
+
+
+
+
+GOMER, the biblical name of a race appearing in the table of nations
+(Gen. x. 2), as the "eldest son" of Japheth and the "father" of
+Ashkenaz, Riphath and Togarmah; and in Ezek. xxxviii. 6 as a companion
+of "the house of Togarmah in the uttermost parts of the north," and an
+ally of Gog; both Gomer and Togarmah being credited with "hordes,"[1]
+E.V., i.e. "bands" or "armies." The "sons" of Gomer are probably tribes
+of north-east Asia Minor and Armenia, and Gomer is identified with the
+Cimmerians. These are referred to in cuneiform inscriptions under the
+Assyrian name _gimmira_ (_gimirrai_) as raiding Asia Minor from the
+north and north-east of the Black Sea, and overrunning Lydia in the 7th
+century B.C. (see CIMMERII, SCYTHIA, LYDIA). They do not seem to have
+made any permanent settlements, unless some such are indicated by the
+fact that the Armenians called Cappadocia _Gamir_. It is, however,
+suggested that this name is borrowed from the Old Testament.[2]
+
+  The name Gomer (Gomer bath Diblaim) was also borne by the unfaithful
+  wife of Hosea, whom he pardoned and took back (Hosea i. 3). Hosea uses
+  these incidents as symbolic of the sin, punishment and redemption of
+  Israel, but there is no need to regard Gomer as a purely imaginary
+  person.     (W. H. Be.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] [Hebrew: agaf] _Agaph_, a word peculiar to Ezekiel, Clarendon
+    Press _Heb. Lex._
+
+  [2] A. Jeremias, _Das A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients_, pp. 145 f.
+
+
+
+
+GOMERA, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part of the Spanish
+archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 15,358; area 144
+sq. m. Gomera lies 20 m. W.S.W. of Teneriffe. Its greatest length is
+about 23 m. The coast is precipitous and the interior mountainous, but
+Gomera has the most wood and is the best watered of the group. The
+inhabitants are very poor. Dromedaries are bred on Gomera in large
+numbers. San Sebastian (3187) is the chief town and a port. It was
+visited by Columbus on his first voyage of discovery in 1492.
+
+
+
+
+GOMEZ, DIOGO (DIEGO) (fl. 1440-1482), Portuguese seaman, explorer and
+writer. We first trace him as a _cavalleiro_ of the royal household; in
+1440 he was appointed receiver of the royal customs--in 1466 judge--at
+Cintra (_juiz das causas e feitorias contadas de Cintra_); on the 5th of
+March 1482 he was confirmed in the last-named office. He wrote,
+especially for the benefit of Martin Behaim, a Latin chronicle of great
+value, dealing with the life and discoveries of Prince Henry the
+Navigator, and divided into three parts: (1) _De prima inventione
+Guineae_; (2) _De insulis primo inventis in mare (sic) Occidentis_; (3)
+_De inventione insularum de Acores_. This chronicle contains the only
+contemporary account of the rediscovery of the Azores by the Portuguese
+in Prince Henry's service, and is also noteworthy for its clear
+ascription to the prince of deliberate scientific and commercial purpose
+in exploration. For, on the one hand, the infante sent out his caravels
+to search for new lands (_ad quaerendas terras_) from his wish to know
+the more distant parts of the western ocean, and in the hope of finding
+islands or _terra firma_ beyond the limits laid down by Ptolemy (_ultra
+descriptionem Tolomei_); on the other hand, his information as to the
+native trade from Tunis to Timbuktu and the Gambia helped to inspire his
+persistent exploration of the West African coast--"to seek those lands
+by way of the sea." Chart and quadrant were used on the prince's
+vessels, as by Gomez himself on reaching the Cape Verde Islands; Henry,
+at the time of Diogo's first voyage, was in correspondence with an Oran
+merchant who kept him informed upon events even in the Gambia
+_hinterland_; and, before the discovery of the Senegal and Cape Verde in
+1445, Gomez' royal patron had already gained reliable information of
+_some_ route to Timbuktu. In the first part of his chronicle Gomez tells
+how, no long time after the disastrous expedition of the Danish nobleman
+"Vallarte" (Adalbert) in 1448, he was sent out in command of three
+vessels along the West African coast, accompanied by one Jacob, an
+Indian interpreter, to be employed in the event of reaching India. After
+passing the Rio Grande, beyond Cape Verde, strong currents checked his
+course; his officers and men feared that they were approaching the
+extremity of the ocean, and he put back to the Gambia. He ascended this
+river a considerable distance, to the negro town of "Cantor," whither
+natives came from "Kukia" and Timbuktu for trade; he gives elaborate
+descriptions of the negro world he had now penetrated, refers to the
+Sierra Leone ("Serra Lyoa") Mountains, sketches the course of this
+range, and says much of Kukia (in the upper Niger basin?), the centre of
+the West African gold trade, and the resort of merchants and caravans
+from Tunis, Fez, Cairo and "all the land of the Saracens." Mahommedanism
+was already dominant at the Cambria estuary, but Gomez seems to have won
+over at least one important chief, with his court, to Christianity and
+Portuguese allegiance. Another African voyage, apparently made in 1462,
+two years after Henry the Navigator's death (though assigned by some to
+1460), resulted in a fresh discovery of the Cape Verde Islands, already
+found by Cadamosto (q.v.). To the island of Santiago Gomez, like his
+Venetian forerunner, claims to have given its present name. His
+narrative is a leading authority on the last illness and death of Prince
+Henry, as well as on the life, achievements and purposes of the latter;
+here alone is recorded what appears to have been the earliest of the
+navigator's exploring ventures, that which under Joao de Trasto reached
+Grand Canary in 1415.
+
+  Of Gomez' chronicle there is only one MS., viz. _Cod. Hisp._ 27, in
+  the Hof- und Staats-Bibliothek, Munich; the original Latin text was
+  printed by Schmeller "Uber Valentim Fernandez Alemao" in the
+  _Abhandlungen der philosoph.-philolog. Kl. der bayerisch. Akademie der
+  Wissenschaften_, vol. iv., part iii. (Munich, 1847); see also Sophus
+  Ruge, "Die Entdeckung der Azoren," pp. 149-180 (esp. 178-179) in the
+  27th _Jahresbericht des Vereins fur Erdkunde_ (Dresden, 1901); Jules
+  Mees, _Histoire de la decouverte des iles Acores_, pp. 44-45, 125-127
+  (Ghent, 1901); R. H. Major, _Life of Prince Henry the Navigator_, pp.
+  xviii., xix., 64-65, 287-299, 303-305 (London, 1868); C. R. Beazley,
+  _Prince Henry the Navigator_, 289-298, 304-305; and Introduction to
+  Azurara's _Discovery and Conquest of Guinea_, ii., iv., xiv.,
+  xxv.-xxvii., xcii.-xcvi. (London, 1899).     (C. R. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA, GERTRUDIS (1814-1873), Spanish dramatist and poet,
+was born at Puerto Principe (Cuba) on the 23rd of March 1814, and
+removed to Spain in 1836. Her _Poesias liricas_ (1841), issued with a
+laudatory preface by Gallego, made a most favourable impression and were
+republished with additional poems in 1850. In 1846 she married a
+diplomatist named Pedro Sabater, became a widow within a year, and in
+1853 married Colonel Domingo Verdugo. Meanwhile she had published _Sab_
+(1839), _Guatimozin_ (1846), and other novels of no great importance.
+She obtained, however, a series of successes on the stage with _Alfonso
+Munio_ (1844), a tragedy in the new romantic manner; with _Saul_ (1849),
+a biblical drama indirectly suggested by Alfieri; and with _Baltasar_
+(1858), a piece which bears some resemblance to Byron's _Sardanapalus_.
+Her commerce with the world had not diminished her natural piety, and,
+on the death of her second husband, she found so much consolation in
+religion that she had thoughts of entering a convent. She died at Madrid
+on the 2nd of February 1873, full of mournful forebodings as to the
+future of her adopted country. It is impossible to agree with Villemain
+that "le genie de don Luis de Leon et de sainte Therese a reparu sous le
+voile funebre de Gomez de Avellaneda," for she has neither the monk's
+mastery of poetic form nor the nun's sublime simplicity of soul. She has
+a grandiose tragical vision of life, a vigorous eloquence rooted in
+pietistic pessimism, a dramatic gift effective in isolated acts or
+scenes; but she is deficient in constructive power and in intellectual
+force, and her lyrics, though instinct with melancholy beauty, or the
+tenderness of resigned devotion, too often lack human passion and
+sympathy. The edition of her _Obras literarias_ (5 vols., 1869-1871),
+still incomplete, shows a scrupulous care for minute revision uncommon
+in Spanish writers; but her emendations are seldom happy. But she is
+interesting as a link between the classic and romantic schools of
+poetry, and, whatever her artistic shortcomings, she has no rivals of
+her own sex in Spain during the 19th century.
+
+
+
+
+GOMM, SIR WILLIAM MAYNARD (1784-1875), British soldier, was gazetted to
+the 9th Foot at the age of ten, in recognition of the services of his
+father, Lieut.-Colonel William Gomm, who was killed in the attack on
+Guadaloupe (1794). He joined his regiment as a lieutenant in 1799, and
+fought in Holland under the duke of York, and subsequently was with
+Pulteney's Ferrol expedition. In 1803 he became Captain, and shortly
+afterwards qualified as a staff officer at the High Wycombe military
+college. On the general staff he was with Cathcart at Copenhagen, with
+Wellington in the Peninsula, and on Moore's staff at Corunna. He was
+also on Chatham's staff in the disastrous Walcheren expedition of 1809.
+In 1810 he rejoined the Peninsular army as Leith's staff officer, and
+took part in all the battles of 1810, 1811 and 1812, winning his
+majority after Fuentes d'Onor and his lieutenant-colonelcy at Salamanca.
+His careful reconnaissances and skilful leading were invaluable to
+Wellington in the Vittoria campaign, and to the end of the war he was
+one of the most trusted men of his staff. His reward was a transfer to
+the Coldstream Guards and the K.C.B. In the Waterloo campaign he served
+on the staff of the 5th British Division. From the peace until 1839 he
+was employed on home service, becoming colonel in 1829 and major-general
+in 1837. From 1839 to 1842 he commanded the troops in Jamaica. He became
+lieutenant-general in 1846, and was sent out to be commander-in-chief in
+India, arriving only to find that his appointment had been cancelled in
+favour of Sir Charles Napier, whom, however, he eventually succeeded
+(1850-1855). In 1854 he became general and in 1868 field marshal. In
+1872 he was appointed constable of the Tower, and he died in 1875. He
+was twice married, but had no children. His _Letters and Journals_ were
+published by F. C. Carr-Gomm in 1881. Five "Field Marshal Gomm"
+scholarships were afterwards founded in his memory at Keble College,
+Oxford.
+
+
+
+
+GOMPERS, SAMUEL (1850-   ), American labour leader, was born in London
+on the 27th of January 1850. He was put to work in a shoe-factory when
+ten years old, but soon became apprenticed to a cigar-maker, removed to
+New York in 1863, became a prominent member of the International
+Cigar-makers' Union, was its delegate at the convention of the
+Federation of Organized Trade and Labor Unions of the United States and
+Canada, later known as the American Federation of Labor, of which he
+became first president in 1882. He was successively re-elected up to
+1895, when the opposition of the Socialist Labor Party, then attempting
+to incorporate the Federation into itself, secured his defeat; he was
+re-elected in the following year. In 1894 he became editor of the
+Federation's organ, _The American Federationist_.
+
+
+
+
+GOMPERZ, THEODOR (1832-   ), German philosopher and classical scholar,
+was born at Brunn on the 29th of March 1832. He studied at Brunn and at
+Vienna under Herman Bonitz. Graduating at Vienna in 1867 he became
+_Privatdozent_, and subsequently professor of classical philology
+(1873). In 1882 he was elected a member of the Academy of Science. He
+received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy _honoris causa_ from the
+university of Konigsberg, and Doctor of Literature from the universities
+of Dublin and Cambridge, and became correspondent for several learned
+societies. His principal works are: _Demosthenes der Staatsmann_ (1864),
+_Philodemi de ira liber_ (1864). _Traumdeutung und Zauberei_ (1866),
+_Herkulanische Studien_ (1865-1866), _Beitrage zur Kritik und Erklarung
+griech. Schriftsteller_ (7 vols., 1875-1900), _Neue Bruchstucke Epikurs_
+(1876), _Die Bruchstucke der griech. Tragiker und Cobets neueste
+kritische Manier_ (1878), _Herodoteische Studien_ (1883), _Ein bisher
+unbekanntes griech. Schriftsystem_ (1884), _Zu Philodems Buchern von der
+Musik_ (1885), _Uber den Abschluss des herodoteischen Geschichtswerkes_
+(1886), _Platonische Aufsatze_ (3 vols., 1887-1905), _Zu Heraklits Lehre
+und den Uberresten seines Werkes_ (1887), _Zu Aristoteles' Poetik_ (2
+parts, 1888-1896), _Uber die Charaktere Theophrasts_ (1888), _Nachlese
+zu den Bruchstucken der griech. Tragiker_ (1888), _Die Apologie der
+Heilkunst_ (1890), _Philodem und die asthetischen Schriften der
+herculanischen Bibliothek_ (1891), _Die Schrift vom Staatswesen der
+Athener_ (1891), _Die jungst entdeckten Uberreste einer den Platonischen
+Phadon enthaltenden Papyrusrolle_ (1892), _Aus der Hekale des
+Kallimachos_ (1893), _Essays und Erinnerungen_ (1905). He supervised a
+translation of J. S. Mill's complete works (12 vols., Leipzig,
+1869-1880), and wrote a life (Vienna, 1889) of Mill. His _Griechische
+Denker_: _Geschichte der antiken Philosophie_ (vols. i. and ii.,
+Leipzig, 1893 and 1902) was translated into English by L. Magnus (vol.
+i., 1901).
+
+
+
+
+GONAGUAS ("borderers"), descendants of a very old cross between the
+Hottentots and the Kaffirs, on the "ethnical divide" between the two
+races, apparently before the arrival of the whites in South Africa. They
+have been always a despised race and regarded as outcasts by the Bantu
+peoples. They were threatened with extermination during the Kaffir wars,
+but were protected by the British. At present they live in settled
+communities under civil magistrates without any tribal organization, and
+in some districts could be scarcely distinguished from the other natives
+but for their broken Hottentot-Dutch-English speech.
+
+
+
+
+GONCALVES DIAS, ANTONIO (1823-1864), Brazilian lyric poet, was born near
+the town of Caxias, in Maranhao. From the university of Coimbra, in
+Portugal, he returned in 1845 to his native province, well-equipped with
+legal lore, but the literary tendency which was strong within him led
+him to try his fortune as an author at Rio de Janeiro. Here he wrote for
+the newspaper press, ventured to appear as a dramatist, and in 1846
+established his reputation by a volume of poems--_Primeiros
+Cantos_--which appealed to the national feelings of his Brazilian
+readers, were remarkable for their autobiographic impress, and by their
+beauty of expression and rhythm placed their author at the head of the
+lyric poets of his country. In 1848 he followed up his success by
+_Segundos Cantos e sextilhas de Frei Antao_, in which, as the title
+indicates, he puts a number of the pieces in the mouth of a simple old
+Dominican friar; and in the following year, in fulfilment of the duties
+of his new post as professor of Brazilian history in the Imperial
+College of Pedro II. at Rio de Janeiro, he published an edition of
+Berredo's _Annaes historicos do Maranhao_ and added a sketch of the
+migrations of the Indian tribes. A third volume of poems, which appeared
+with the title of _Ultimos Cantos_ in 1851, was practically the poet's
+farewell to the service of the muse, for he spent the next eight years
+engaged under government patronage in studying the state of public
+instruction in the north and the educational institutions of Europe. On
+his return to Brazil in 1860 he was appointed a member of an expedition
+for the exploration of the province of Ceara, was forced in 1862 by the
+state of his health to try the effects of another visit to Europe, and
+died in September 1864, the vessel that was carrying him being wrecked
+off his native shores. While in Germany he published at Leipzig a
+complete collection of his lyrical poems, which went through several
+editions, the four first cantos of an epic poem called _Os Tymbiras_
+(1857) and a _Diccionario da lingua Tupy_ (1858).
+
+  A complete edition of the works of Dias has made its appearance at Rio
+  de Janeiro. See Wolf, _Bresil litteraire_ (Berlin, 1863); Innocencio
+  de Silva, _Diccionario bibliographico portuguez_, viii. 157; Sotero
+  dos Reis, _Curso de litteratura portugueza e brazileira_, iv.
+  (Maranhao, 1868); Jose Verissimo, _Estudos de literatura brazileira,
+  segunda serie_ (Rio, 1901).
+
+
+
+
+GONCHAROV, IVAN ALEXANDROVICH (1812-1891), Russian novelist, was born
+6/18 July 1812, being the son of a rich merchant in the town of
+Simbirsk. At the age of ten he was placed in one of the gymnasiums at
+Moscow, from which he passed, though not without some difficulty on
+account of his ignorance of Greek, into the Moscow University. He read
+many French works of fiction, and published a translation of one of the
+novels of Eugene Sue. During his university career he devoted himself to
+study, taking no interest in the political and Socialistic agitation
+among his fellow-students. He was first employed as secretary to the
+governor of Simbirsk, and afterwards in the ministry of finance at St
+Petersburg. Being absorbed in bureaucratic work, Goncharov paid no
+attention to the social questions then ardently discussed by such men as
+Herzen, Aksakov and Bielinski. He began his literary career by
+publishing translations from Schiller, Goethe and English novelists. His
+first original work was _Obuiknovennaya Istoria_, "A Common Story"
+(1847). In 1856 he sailed to Japan as secretary to Admiral Putiatin for
+the purpose of negotiating a commercial treaty, and on his return to
+Russia he published a description of the voyage under the title of "The
+Frigate _Pallada_." His best work is _Oblomov_ (1857), which exposed the
+laziness and apathy of the smaller landed gentry in Russia anterior to
+the reforms of Alexander II. Russian critics have pronounced this work
+to be a faithful characterization of Russia and the Russians. Dobrolubov
+said of it, "Oblomofka [the country-seat of the Oblomovs] is our
+fatherland: something of Oblomov is to be found in every one of us."
+Peesarev, another celebrated critic, declared that "Oblomovism," as
+Goncharov called the sum total of qualities with which he invested the
+hero of his story, "is an illness fostered by the nature of the Slavonic
+character and the life of Russian society." In 1858 Goncharov was
+appointed a censor, and in 1868 he published another novel called
+_Obreev_. He was not a voluminous writer, and during the latter part of
+his life produced nothing of any importance. His death occurred on 15/27
+September 1891.
+
+
+
+
+GONCOURT, DE, a name famous in French literary history. EDMOND LOUIS
+ANTOINE HUOT DE GONCOURT was born at Nancy on the 26th of May 1822, and
+died at Champrosay on the 16th of July 1896. JULES ALFRED HUOT DE
+GONCOURT, his brother, was born in Paris on the 17th of December 1830,
+and died in Paris on the 20th of June 1870.
+
+Writing always in collaboration, until the death of the younger, it was
+their ambition to be not merely novelists, inventing a new kind of
+novel, but historians; not merely historians, but the historians of a
+particular century, and of what was intimate and what is unknown in it;
+to be also discriminating, indeed innovating, critics of art, but of a
+certain section of art, the 18th century, in France and Japan; and also
+to collect pictures and bibelots, always of the French and Japanese 18th
+century. Their histories (_Portraits intimes du XVIII^e siecle_ (1857),
+_La Femme au XVIII^{e} siecle_ (1862), _La du Barry_ (1878), &c.) are
+made entirely out of documents, autograph letters, scraps of costume,
+engravings, songs, the unconscious self-revelations of the time; their
+three volumes on _L'Art du XVIII^e siecle_ (1859-1875) deal with Watteau
+and his followers in the same scrupulous, minutely enlightening way,
+with all the detail of unpublished documents; and when they came to
+write novels, it was with a similar attempt to give the inner,
+undiscovered, minute truths of contemporary existence, the _inedit_ of
+life. The same morbidly sensitive noting of the _inedit_, of whatever
+came to them from their own sensations of things and people around them,
+gives its curious quality to the nine volumes of the _Journal_,
+1887-1896, which will remain, perhaps, the truest and most poignant
+chapter of human history that they have written. Their novels, _Soeur
+Philomene_ (1861), _Renee Mauperin_ (1864), _Germinie Lacerteux_ (1865),
+_Manette Salomon_ (1865), _Madame Gervaisais_ (1869), and, by Edmond
+alone, _La Fille Elisa_ (1878), _Les Freres Zemganno_ (1879), _La
+Faustin_ (1882), _Cherie_ (1884), are, however, the work by which they
+will live as artists. Learning something from Flaubert, and teaching
+almost everything to Zola, they invented a new kind of novel, and their
+novels are the result of a new vision of the world, in which the very
+element of sight is decomposed, as in a picture of Monet. Seen through
+the nerves, in this conscious abandonment to the tricks of the eyesight,
+the world becomes a thing of broken patterns and conflicting colours,
+and uneasy movement. A novel of the Goncourts is made up of an infinite
+number of details, set side by side, every detail equally prominent.
+While a novel of Flaubert, for all its detail, gives above all things an
+impression of unity, a novel of the Goncourts deliberately dispenses
+with unity in order to give the sense of the passing of life, the heat
+and form of its moments as they pass. It is written in little chapters,
+sometimes no longer than a page, and each chapter is a separate notation
+of some significant event, some emotion or sensation which seems to
+throw sudden light on the picture of a soul. To the Goncourts humanity
+is as pictorial a thing as the world it moves in; they do not search
+further than "the physical basis of life," and they find everything that
+can be known of that unknown force written visibly upon the sudden faces
+of little incidents, little expressive moments. The soul, to them, is a
+series of moods, which succeed one another, certainly without any of the
+too arbitrary logic of the novelist who has conceived of character as a
+solid or consistent thing. Their novels are hardly stories at all, but
+picture-galleries, hung with pictures of the momentary aspects of the
+world. French critics have complained that the language of the Goncourts
+is no longer French, no longer the French of the past; and this is true.
+It is their distinction--the finest of their inventions--that, in order
+to render new sensations, a new vision of things, they invented a new
+language. (A. Sy.)
+
+  In his will Edmond de Goncourt left his estate for the endowment of an
+  academy, the formation of which was entrusted to MM. Alphonse Daudet
+  and Leon Hennique. The society was to consist of ten members, each of
+  whom was to receive an annuity of 6000 francs, and a yearly prize of
+  5000 francs was to be awarded to the author of some work of fiction.
+  Eight of the members of the new academy were nominated in the will.
+  They were: Alphonse Daudet, J. K. Huysmans, Leon Hennique, Octave
+  Mirbeau, the two brothers J. H. Rosny, Gustave Geffroy and Paul
+  Margueritte. On the 19th of January 1903, after much litigation, the
+  academy was constituted, with Elemir Bourges, Lucien Descaves and
+  Leon Daudet as members in addition to those mentioned in de Goncourt's
+  will, the place of Alphonse Daudet having been left vacant by his
+  death in 1897.
+
+  On the brothers de Goncourt see the _Journal des Goncourt_ already
+  cited; also M. A. Belloc (afterwards Lowndes) and M. L. Shedlock,
+  _Edmond and Jules de Goncourt, with Letters and Leaves from their
+  Journals_ (1895); Alidor Delzant, _Les Goncourt_ (1889) which contains
+  a valuable bibliography; _Lettres de Jules de Goncourt_ (1888), with
+  preface by H. Ceard; R. Doumic, _Portraits d'ecrivains_ (1892); Paul
+  Bourget, _Nouveaux Essais de psychologie contemporaine_ (1886); Emile
+  Zola, _Les Romanciers naturalistes_ (1881). &c.
+
+
+
+
+GONDA, a town and district of British India, in the Fyzabad division of
+the United Provinces. The town is 28 m. N.W. of Fyzabad, and is an
+important junction on the Bengal & North-Western railway. The site on
+which it stands was originally a jungle, in the centre of which was a
+cattle-fold (_Gontha_ or _Gothah_), where the cattle were enclosed at
+night as a protection against wild beasts, and from this the town
+derives its name. Pop. (1901) 15,811. The cantonments were abandoned in
+1863.
+
+The district of Gonda has an area of 2813 sq. m. It consists of a vast
+plain with very slight undulations, studded with groves of mango trees.
+The surface consists of a rich alluvial deposit which is naturally
+divided into three great belts known as the _tarai_ or swampy tract, the
+_uparhar_ or uplands, and the _tarhar_ or wet lowlands, all three being
+marvellously fertile. Several rivers flow through the district, but only
+two, the Gogra and Rapti, are of any commercial importance, the first
+being navigable throughout the year, and the latter during the rainy
+season. The country is dotted with small lakes, the water of which is
+largely used for irrigation. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857, the
+raja of Gonda, after honourably escorting the government treasure to
+Fyzabad, joined the rebels. His estates, along with those of the rani of
+Tulsipur, were confiscated, and conferred as rewards upon the maharajas
+of Balrampur and Ajodhya, who had remained loyal. In 1901 the population
+was 1,403,195, showing a decrease of 4% in one decade. The district is
+traversed by the main line and three branches of the Bengal &
+Northwestern railway.
+
+
+
+
+GONDAL, a native state of India, in the Kathiawar political agency of
+Bombay, situated in the centre of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Its area
+is 1024 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 162,859. The estimated gross revenue is
+about L100,000, and the tribute L7000. Grain and cotton are the chief
+products. The chief, whose title is Thakur Sahib, is a Jadeja Rajput, of
+the same clan as the Rao of Cutch. The Thakur Sahib, Sir Bhagvat Sinhji
+(b. 1865), was educated at the Rajkot college, and afterwards graduated
+in arts and medicine at the university of Edinburgh. He published (in
+English) a _Journal of a Visit to England_ and _A Short History of Aryan
+Medical Science_. In 1892 he received the honorary degree of D.C.L. of
+Oxford University. He was created K.C.I.E. in 1887 and G.C.I.E. in 1897.
+The state has long been conspicuous for its progressive administration.
+It is traversed by a railway connecting it with Bhaunagar, Rajkot and
+the sea-board. The town of Gondal is 23 m. by rail S. of Rajkot; pop.
+(1901) 19,592.
+
+
+
+
+GONDAR, properly GUENDAR, a town of Abyssinia, formerly the capital of
+the Amharic kingdom, situated on a basaltic ridge some 7500 ft. above
+the sea, about 21 m. N.E. of Lake Tsana, a splendid view of which is
+obtained from the castle. Two streams, the Angreb on the east side and
+the Gaha or Kaha on the west, flow from the ridge, and meeting below the
+town, pass onwards to the lake. In the early years of the 20th century
+the town was much decayed, numerous ruins of castles, palaces and
+churches indicating its former importance. It was never a compact city,
+being divided into districts separated from each other by open spaces.
+The chief quarters were those of the Abun-Bed or bishop, the Etchege-Bed
+or chief of the monks, the Debra Berhan or Church of the Light, and the
+Gemp or castle. There was also a quarter for the Mahommedans. Gondar was
+a small village when at the beginning of the 16th century it was chosen
+by the Negus Sysenius (Seged I.) as the capital of his kingdom. His son
+Fasilidas, or A'lem-Seged (1633-1667), was the builder of the castle
+which bears his name. Later emperors built other castles and palaces,
+the latest in date being that of the Negus Yesu II. This was erected
+about 1736, at which time Gondar appears to have been at the height of
+its prosperity. Thereafter it suffered greatly from the civil wars which
+raged in Abyssinia, and was more than once sacked. In 1868 it was much
+injured by the emperor Theodore, who did not spare either the castle or
+the churches. After the defeat of the Abyssinians at Debra Sin in August
+1887 Gondar was looted and fired by the dervishes under Abu Anga.
+Although they held the town but a short time they inflicted very great
+damage, destroying many churches, further damaging the castles and
+carrying off much treasure. The population, estimated by James Bruce in
+1770 at 10,000 families, had dwindled in 1905 to about 7000. Since the
+pacification of the Sudan by the British (1886-1889) there has been some
+revival of trade between Gondar and the regions of the Blue Nile. Among
+the inhabitants are numbers of Mahommedans, and there is a settlement of
+Falashas. Cotton, cloth, gold and silver ornaments, copper wares, fancy
+articles in bone and ivory, excellent saddles and shoes are among the
+products of the local industry.
+
+Unlike any other buildings in Abyssinia, the castles and palaces of
+Gondar resemble, with some modifications, the medieval fortresses of
+Europe, the style of architecture being the result of the presence in
+the country of numbers of Portuguese. The Portuguese were expelled by
+Fasilidas, but his castle was built, by Indian workmen, under the
+superintendence of Abyssinians who had learned something of architecture
+from the Portuguese adventurers, helped possibly by Portuguese still in
+the country. The castle has two storeys, is 90 ft. by 84 ft., has a
+square tower and circular domed towers at the corners. The most
+extensive ruins are a group of royal buildings enclosed in a wall. These
+ruins include the palace of Yesu II., which has several fine chambers.
+Christian Levantines were employed in its construction and it was
+decorated in part with Venetian mirrors, &c. In the same enclosure is a
+small castle attributed to Yesu I. The exterior walls of the castles and
+palaces named are little damaged and give to Gondar a unique character
+among African towns. Of the forty-four churches, all in the circular
+Abyssinian style, which are said to have formerly existed in Gondar or
+its immediate neighbourhood, Major Powell-Cotton found only one intact
+in 1900. This church contained some well-executed native paintings of St
+George and the Dragon, The Last Supper, &c. Among the religious
+observances of the Christians of Gondar is that of bathing in large
+crowds in the Gaha on the Feast of the Baptist, and again, though in
+more orderly fashion, on Christmas day.
+
+  See E. Ruppell, _Reise in Abyssinien_ (Frankfort-on-the-Main,
+  1838-1840); T. von Heuglin, _Reise nach Abessinien_ (Jena, 1868); G.
+  Lejean, _Voyage en Abyssinie_ (Paris, 1872); Achille Raffray, _Afrique
+  orientale; Abyssinie_ (Paris, 1876); P. H. G. Powell-Cotton, _A
+  Sporting Trip through Abyssinia_, chaps. 27-30 (London, 1902); and
+  _Boll. Soc. Geog. Italiana_ for 1909. Views of the castle are given by
+  Heuglin, Raffray and Powell-Cotton.
+
+
+
+
+GONDOKORO, a government station and trading-place on the east bank of
+the upper Nile, in 4 deg. 54' N., 31 deg. 43' E. It is the headquarters
+of the Northern Province of the (British) Uganda protectorate, is 1070
+m. by river S. of Khartum and 350 m. N.N.W. in a direct line of Entebbe
+on Victoria Nyanza. The station, which is very unhealthy, is at the top
+of a cliff 25 ft. above the river-level. Besides houses for the civil
+and military authorities and the lines for the troops, there are a few
+huts inhabited by Bari, the natives of this part of the Nile. The
+importance of Gondokoro lies in the fact that it is within a few miles
+of the limit of navigability of the Nile from Khartum up stream. From
+this point the journey to Uganda is continued overland.
+
+Gondokoro was first visited by Europeans in 1841-1842, when expeditions
+sent out by Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, ascended the Nile as far as the
+foot of the rapids above Gondokoro. It soon became an ivory and
+slave-trading centre. In 1851 an Austrian Roman Catholic mission was
+established here, but it was abandoned in 1859. It was at Gondokoro that
+J. H. Speke and J. A. Grant, descending the Nile after their discovery
+of its source, met, on the 15th of February 1863, Mr (afterwards Sir)
+Samuel Baker and his wife who were journeying up the river. In 1871
+Baker, then governor-general of the equatorial provinces of Egypt,
+established a military post at Gondokoro which he named Ismailia, after
+the then khedive. Baker made this post his headquarters, but Colonel
+(afterwards General) C. G. Gordon, who succeeded him in 1874, abandoned
+the station on account of its unhealthy site, removing to Lado.
+Gondokoro, however, remained a trading-station. It fell into the hands
+of the Mahdists in 1885. After the destruction of the Mahdist power in
+1898 Gondokoro was occupied by British troops and has since formed the
+northernmost post on the Nile of the Uganda protectorate (see SUDAN;
+NILE; and UGANDA).
+
+
+
+
+GONDOMAR, DIEGO SARMIENTO DE ACUNA, COUNT OF (1567-1626), Spanish
+diplomatist, was the son of Garcia Sarmiento de Sotomayor, corregidor of
+Granada, and governor of the Canary Islands, by his marriage with Juana
+de Acuna, an heiress. Diego Sarmiento, their eldest son, was born in the
+parish of Gondomar, in the bishopric of Tuy, Galicia, Spain, on the 1st
+of November 1567. He inherited wide estates both in Galicia and in Old
+Castile. In 1583 he was appointed by Philip II. to the military command
+of the Portuguese frontier and sea coast of Galicia. He is said to have
+taken an active part in the repulse of an English coast-raid in 1585,
+and in the defence of the country during the unsuccessful English attack
+on Corunna in 1589. In 1593 he was named corregidor of Toro. In 1603 he
+was sent from court to Vigo to superintend the distribution of the
+treasure brought from America by two galleons which were driven to take
+refuge at Vigo, and on his return was named a member of the board of
+finance. In 1609 he was again employed on the coast of Galicia, this
+time to repel a naval attack made by the Dutch. Although he held
+military commands, and administrative posts, his habitual residence was
+at Valladolid, where he owned the Casa del Sol and was already
+collecting his fine library. He was known as a courtier, and apparently
+as a friend of the favourite, the duke of Lerma. In 1612 he was chosen
+as ambassador in England, but did not leave to take up his appointment
+till May 1613.
+
+His reputation as a diplomatist is based on his two periods of service
+in England from 1613 to 1618 and from 1619 to 1622. The excellence of
+his latinity pleased the literary tastes of James I., whose character he
+judged with remarkable insight. He flattered the king's love of books
+and of peace, and he made skilful use of his desire for a matrimonial
+alliance between the prince of Wales and a Spanish infanta. The
+ambassador's task was to keep James from aiding the Protestant states
+against Spain and the house of Austria, and to avert English attacks on
+Spanish possessions in America. His success made him odious to the
+anti-Spanish and puritan parties. The active part he took in promoting
+the execution of Sir Walter Raleigh aroused particular animosity. He was
+attacked in pamphlets, and the dramatist Thomas Middleton made him a
+principal person in the strange political play _A Game of Chess_, which
+was suppressed by order of the council. In 1617 Sarmiento was created
+count of Gondomar. In 1618 he obtained leave to come home for his
+health, but was ordered to return by way of Flanders and France with a
+diplomatic mission. In 1619 he returned to London, and remained till
+1622, when he was allowed to retire. On his return he was named a member
+of the royal council and governor of one of the king's palaces, and was
+appointed to a complimentary mission to Vienna. Gondomar was in Madrid
+when the prince of Wales--afterwards Charles I.--made his journey there
+in search of a wife. He died at the house of the constable of Castile,
+near Haro in the Rioja, on the 2nd of October 1626.
+
+Gondomar was twice married, first to his niece Beatrix Sarmiento, by
+whom he had no children, and then to his cousin Constanza de Acuna, by
+whom he had four sons and three daughters. The hatred he aroused in
+England, which was shown by constant jeers at the intestinal complaint
+from which he suffered for years, was the best tribute to the zeal with
+which he served his own master. Gondomar collected, both before he came
+to London and during his residence there, a very fine library of
+printed books and manuscripts. Orders for the arrangement, binding and
+storing of his books in his house at Valladolid take a prominent place
+in his voluminous correspondence. In 1785 the library was ceded by his
+descendant and representative the marquis of Malpica to King Charles
+III., and it is now in the Royal Library at Madrid. A portrait of
+Gondomar, attributed to Valazquez, was formerly at Stowe. It was
+mezzotinted by Robert Cooper.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Gondomar's missions to England are largely dealt with in
+  S. R. Gardiner's _History of England_ (London, 1883-1884). In Spanish,
+  Don Pascual de Gayangos wrote a useful biographical introduction to a
+  publication of a few of his letters--_Cinco Cartas politico-literarias
+  de Don Diego Sarmiento de Acuna, Conde de Gondomar_, issued at Madrid
+  1869 by the _Sociedad de Bibliofilos_ of the Spanish Academy; and
+  there is a life in English by F. H. Lyon (1910).     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+GONDOPHARES, or GONDOPHERNES, an Indo-Parthian king who ruled over the
+Kabul valley and the Punjab. By means of his coins his accession may be
+dated with practical certainty at A.D. 21, and his reign lasted for some
+thirty years. He is notable for his association with St Thomas in early
+Christian tradition. The legend is that India fell to St Thomas, who
+showed unwillingness to start until Christ appeared in a vision and
+ordered him to serve King Gondophares and build him a palace. St Thomas
+accordingly went to India and suffered martyrdom there. This legend is
+not incompatible with what is known of the chronology of Gondophares'
+reign.
+
+
+
+
+GONDWANA, the historical name for a large tract of hilly country in
+India which roughly corresponds with the greater part of the present
+Central Provinces. It is derived from the aboriginal tribe of Gonds, who
+still form the largest element in the population and who were at one
+time the ruling power. From the 12th to as late as the 18th century
+three or four Gond dynasties reigned over this region with a degree of
+civilization that seems surprising when compared with the existing
+condition of the people. They built large walled cities, and accumulated
+immense treasures of gold and silver and jewels. On the whole, they
+maintained their independence fairly well against the Mahommedans, being
+subject only to a nominal submission and occasional payment of tribute.
+But when the Mahratta invaders appeared, soon after the beginning of the
+18th century, the Gond kingdoms offered but a feeble resistance and the
+aboriginal population fled for safety to the hills. Gondwana was thus
+included in the dominions of the Bhonsla raja of Nagpur, from whom it
+finally passed to the British in 1853.
+
+The Gonds, who call themselves Koitur or "highlanders," are the most
+numerous tribe of Dravidian race in India. Their total number in 1901
+was 2,286,913, of whom nearly two millions were enumerated in the
+Central Provinces, where they form 20% of the population. They have a
+language of their own, with many dialects, which is intermediate between
+the two great Dravidian languages, Tamil and Telugu. It is unwritten and
+has no literature, except a little provided by the missionaries. More
+than half the Gonds in the Central Provinces have now abandoned their
+own dialects, and have adopted Aryan forms of speech. This indicates the
+extent to which they have become Hinduized. The higher class among them,
+called Raj Gonds, have been definitely admitted into Hinduism as a pure
+cultivating caste; but the great majority still retain the animistic
+beliefs, ceremonial observances and impure customs of food which are
+common to most of the aboriginal tribes of India.
+
+
+
+
+GONFALON (the late French and Italian form, also found in other Romanic
+languages, of _gonfanon_, which is derived from the O.H. Ger.
+_gundfano_, _gund_, war, and _fano_, flag, cf. Mod. Ger. _Fahne_, and
+English "vane"), a banner or standard of the middle ages. It took the
+form of a small pennon attached below the head of a knight's lance, or
+when used in religious processions and ceremonies, or as the banner of a
+city or state or military order, it became a many-streamered rectangular
+ensign, frequently swinging from a cross-bar attached to a pole. This is
+the most frequent use of the word. The title of "gonfalonier," the
+bearer of the gonfalon, was in the middle ages both military and civil.
+It was borne by the counts of Vexin, as leaders of the men of Saint
+Denis, and when the Vexin was incorporated in the kingdom of France the
+title of _Gonfalonier de Sant Denis_ passed to the kings of France, who
+thus became the bearers of the "oriflamme," as the banner of St Denis
+was called. "Gonfalonier" was the title of civic magistrates of various
+degrees of authority in many of the city republics of Italy, notably of
+Florence, Sienna and Lucca. At Florence the functions of the office
+varied. At first the gonfaloniers were the leaders of the various
+military divisions of the inhabitants. In 1293 was created the office of
+gonfalonier of justice, who carried out the orders of the signiory. By
+the end of the 14th century the gonfalonier was the chief of the
+signiory. At Lucca he was the chief magistrate of the republic. At Rome
+two gonfaloniers must be distinguished, that of the church and that of
+the Roman people; both offices were conferred by the pope. The first was
+usually granted to sovereigns, who were bound to defend the church and
+lead her armies. The second bore a standard with the letters S.P.Q.R. on
+any enterprise undertaken in the name of the church and the people of
+Rome, and also at ceremonies, processions, &c. This was granted by the
+pope to distinguished families. Thus the Cesarini held the office till
+the end of the 17th century. The Pamphili held it from 1686 till 1764.
+
+
+
+
+GONG (Chinese, _gong-gong_ or _tam-tam_), a sonorous or musical
+instrument of Chinese origin and manufacture, made in the form of a
+broad thin disk with a deep rim. Gongs vary in diameter from about 20 to
+40 in., and they are made of bronze containing a maximum of 22 parts of
+tin to 78 of copper; but in many cases the proportion of tin is
+considerably less. Such an alloy, when cast and allowed to cool slowly,
+is excessively brittle, but it can be tempered and annealed in a
+peculiar manner. If suddenly cooled from a cherry-red heat, the alloy
+becomes so soft that it can be hammered and worked on the lathe, and
+afterwards it may be hardened by re-heating and cooling it slowly. In
+these properties it will be observed, the alloy behaves in a manner
+exactly opposite to steel, and the Chinese avail themselves of the known
+peculiarities for preparing the thin sheets of which gongs are made.
+They cool their castings of bronze in water, and after hammering out the
+alloy in the soft state, harden the finished gongs by heating them to a
+cherry-red and allowing them to cool slowly. These properties of the
+alloy long remained a secret, said to have been first discovered in
+Europe by Jean Pierre Joseph d'Arcet at the beginning of the 19th
+century. Riche and Champion are said to have succeeded in producing
+tam-tams having all the qualities and timbre of the Chinese instruments.
+The composition of the alloy of bronze used for making gongs is stated
+to be as follows:[1] Copper, 76.52; Tin, 22.43; Lead, 0.62; Zinc, 0.23;
+Iron, 0.18. The gong is beaten with a round, hard, leather-covered pad,
+fitted on a short stick or handle. It emits a peculiarly sonorous sound,
+its complex vibrations bursting into a wave-like succession of tones,
+sometimes shrill, sometimes deep. In China and Japan it is used in
+religious ceremonies, state processions, marriages and other festivals;
+and it is said that the Chinese can modify its tone variously by
+particular ways of striking the disk.
+
+  The gong has been effectively used in the orchestra to intensify the
+  impression of fear and horror in melodramatic scenes. The tam-tam was
+  first introduced into a western orchestra by Francois Joseph Gossec in
+  the funeral march composed at the death of Mirabeau in 1791. Gaspard
+  Spontini used it in _La Vestale_ (1807), in the finale of act II., an
+  impressive scene in which the high pontiff pronounces the anathema on
+  the faithless vestal. It was also used in the funeral music played
+  when the remains of Napoleon the Great were brought back to France in
+  1840. Meyerbeer made use of the instrument in the scene of the
+  resurrection of the three nuns in _Robert le diable_. Four tam-tams
+  are now used at Bayreuth in _Parsifal_ to reinforce the bell
+  instruments, although there is no indication given in the score (see
+  PARSIFAL). The tam-tam has been treated from its ethnographical side
+  by Franz Heger.[1]     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See _La grande Encyclopedie_, vol. viii. (Paris), "Bronze," p.
+    146a.
+
+  [2] _Alte Metalltrommeln aus Sudost-Asien_ (Leipzig, 1902). Bd. i.,
+    Text; Bd. ii., Tafeln.
+
+
+
+
+GONGORA Y ARGOTE, LUIS DE (1561-1627), Spanish lyric poet, was born at
+Cordova on the 11th of July 1561. His father, Francisco de Argote, was
+_corregidor_ of that city; the poet early adopted the surname of his
+mother, Leonora de Gongora, who was descended from an ancient family.
+At the age of fifteen he entered as a student of civil and canon law at
+the university of Salamanca; but he obtained no academic distinctions
+and was content with an ordinary pass degree. He was already known as a
+poet in 1585 when Cervantes praised him in the _Galatea_; in this same
+year he took minor orders, and shortly afterwards was nominated to a
+canonry at Cordova. About 1605-1606 he was ordained priest, and
+thenceforth resided principally at Valladolid and Madrid, where, as a
+contemporary remarks, he "noted and stabbed at everything with his
+satirical pen." His circle of admirers was now greatly enlarged; but the
+acknowledgment accorded to his singular genius was both slight and
+tardy. Ultimately indeed, through the influence of the duke of Sandoval,
+he obtained an appointment as honorary chaplain to Philip III., but even
+this slight honour he was not permitted long to enjoy. In 1626 a severe
+illness, which seriously impaired his memory, compelled his retirement
+to Cordova, where he died on the 24th of May 1627. An edition of his
+poems was published almost immediately after his death by Juan Lopez de
+Vicuna; the frequently reprinted edition by Hozes did not appear till
+1633. The collection consists of numerous sonnets, odes, ballads, songs
+for the guitar, and of certain larger poems, such as the _Soledades_ and
+the _Polifemo_. Too many of them exhibit that tortuous elaboration of
+style (_estilo culto_) with which the name of Gongora is inseparably
+associated; but though Gongora has been justly censured for affected
+Latinisms, unnatural transpositions, strained metaphors and frequent
+obscurity, it must be admitted that he was a man of rare genius,--a fact
+cordially acknowledged by those of his contemporaries who were most
+capable of judging. It was only in the hands of those who imitated
+Gongora's style without inheriting his genius that _culteranismo_ became
+absurd. Besides his lyrical poems Gongora is the author of a play
+entitled _Las Firmezas de Isabel_ and of two incomplete dramas, the
+_Comedia venatoria_ and _El Doctor Carlino_. The only satisfactory
+edition of his works is that published by R. Foulche-Delbose in the
+_Bibliotheca Hispanica_.
+
+  See Edward Churton, _Gongora_ (London, 1862, 2 vols.); M. Gonzalez y
+  Frances, _Gongora racionero_ (Cordoba, 1895); M. Gonzalez y Frances,
+  _Don Luis de Gongora vindicando su fama ante el propio obispo_
+  (Cordoba, 1899); "Vingt-six Lettres de Gongora" in the _Revue
+  hispanique_, vol. x. pp. 184-225 (Paris, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+GONIOMETER (from Gr. [Greek: gonia], angle, and [Greek: metron],
+measure), an instrument for measuring the angles of crystals; there are
+two kinds--the contact goniometer and the reflecting goniometer.
+Nicolaus Stena in 1669 determined the interfacial angles of quartz
+crystals by cutting sections perpendicular to the edges, the plane
+angles of the sections being then the angles between the faces which are
+perpendicular to the sections. The earliest instrument was the contact
+goniometer devised by Carangeot in 1783.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Contact Goniometer.]
+
+  _The Contact Goniometer_ (or _Hand-Goniometer_).--This consists of two
+  metal rules pivoted together at the centre of a graduated semicircle
+  (fig. 1). The instrument is placed with its plane perpendicular to an
+  edge between two faces of the crystal to be measured, and the rules
+  are brought into contact with the faces; this is best done by holding
+  the crystal up against the light with the edge in the line of sight.
+  The angle between the rules, as read on the graduated semicircle, then
+  gives the angle between the two faces. The rules are slotted, so that
+  they may be shortened and their tips applied to a crystal partly
+  embedded in its matrix. The instrument represented in fig. 1 is
+  practically the same in all its details as that made for Carangeot,
+  and it is employed at the present day for the approximate measurement
+  of large crystals with dull and rough faces. S. L. Penfield (1900) has
+  devised some cheap and simple forms of contact goniometer, consisting
+  of jointed arms and protractors made of cardboard or celluloid.
+
+  _The Reflecting Goniometer._--This is an instrument of far greater
+  precision, and is always used for the accurate measurement of the
+  angles when small crystals with bright faces are available. As a rule,
+  the smaller the crystal the more even are its faces, and when these
+  are smooth and bright they reflect sharply defined images of a bright
+  object. By turning the crystal about an axis parallel to the edge
+  between two faces, the image reflected from a second face may be
+  brought into the same position as that formerly occupied by the image
+  reflected from the first face; the angle through which the crystal has
+  been rotated, as determined by a graduated circle to which the crystal
+  is fixed, is the angle between the normals to the two faces.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Vertical-Circle Goniometer.]
+
+  Several forms of instruments depending on this principle have been
+  devised, the earliest being the vertical-circle goniometer of W. H.
+  Wollaston, made in 1809. This consists of a circle m (fig. 2),
+  graduated to degrees of arc and reading with the vernier h to minutes,
+  which turns with the milled head t about a horizontal axis. The
+  crystal is attached with wax (a mixture of beeswax and pitch) to the
+  holder q, and by means of the pivoted arcs it may be adjusted so that
+  the edge between two faces (a zone-axis) is parallel to, and
+  coincident with, the axis of the instrument. The crystal-holder and
+  adjustment-arcs, together with the milled head s, are carried on an
+  axis which passes through the hollow axis of the graduated circle, and
+  may thus be rotated independently of the circle. In use, the
+  goniometer is placed directly opposite to a window, with its axis
+  parallel to the horizontal window-bars, and as far distant as
+  possible. The eye is placed quite close to the crystal, and the image
+  of an upper window-bar (or better still a slit in a dark screen) as
+  seen in the crystal-face is made to coincide with a lower window-bar
+  (or chalk mark on the floor) as seen directly: this is done by turning
+  the milled head s, the reading of the graduated circle having
+  previously been observed. Without moving the eye, the milled head t,
+  together with the crystal, is then rotated until the image from a
+  second face is brought into the same position; the difference between
+  the first and second readings of the graduated circle will then give
+  the angle between the normals of the two faces.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Horizontal-Circle Goniometer.]
+
+  Several improvements have been made on Wollaston's goniometer. The
+  adjustment-arcs have been modified; a mirror of black glass fixed to
+  the stand beneath the crystal gives a reflected image of the signal,
+  with which the reflection from the crystal can be more conveniently
+  made to coincide; a telescope provided with cross-wires gives greater
+  precision to the direction of the reflected rays of light; and with
+  the telescope a collimator has sometimes been used.
+
+  A still greater improvement was effected by placing the graduated
+  circle in a horizontal position, as in the instruments of E. L. Malus
+  (1810), F. C. von Riese (1829) and J. Babinet (1839). Many forms of
+  the _horizontal-circle goniometer_ have been constructed; they are
+  provided with a telescope and collimator, and in construction are
+  essentially the same as a spectrometer, with the addition of
+  arrangements for adjusting and centring the crystal. The instrument
+  shown in fig. 3 is made by R. Fuess of Berlin. It has four concentric
+  axes, which enable the crystal-holder A, together with the
+  adjustment-arcs B and centring-slides D, to be raised or lowered, or
+  to be rotated independently of the circle H; further, either the
+  crystal-holder or the telescope T may be rotated with the circle,
+  while the other remains fixed. The crystal is placed on the holder
+  and adjusted so that the edge (zone-axis) between two faces is
+  coincident with the axis of the instrument. Light from an incandescent
+  gas-burner passes through the slit of the collimator C, and the image
+  of the slit (signal) reflected from the crystal face is viewed in the
+  telescope. The clamp a and slow-motion screw F enable the image to be
+  brought exactly on the cross-wires of the telescope, and the position
+  of the circle with respect to the vernier is read through the lens.
+  The crystal and the circle are then rotated together until the image
+  from a second face is brought on the cross-wires of the telescope, and
+  the angle through which they have been turned is the angle between the
+  normals to the two faces. While measuring the angles between the faces
+  of crystals the telescope remains fixed by the clamp [beta], but when
+  this is released the instrument may be used as a spectrometer or
+  refractometer for determining, by the method of minimum deviation, the
+  indices of refraction of an artificially cut prism or of a transparent
+  crystal when the faces are suitably inclined to one another.
+
+  With a one-circle goniometer, such as is described above, it is
+  necessary to mount and re-adjust the crystal afresh for the
+  measurement of each zone of faces (i.e. each set of faces intersecting
+  in parallel edges); with very small crystals this operation takes a
+  considerable time, and the minute faces are not readily identified
+  again. Further, in certain cases, it is not possible to measure the
+  angles between zones, nor to determine the position of small faces
+  which do not lie in prominent zones on the crystal. These difficulties
+  have been overcome by the use of a two-circle goniometer or
+  theodolite-goniometer, which as a combination of a vertical-circle
+  goniometer and one with a horizontal-circle was first employed by W.
+  H. Miller in 1874. Special forms have been designed by E. S. Fedorov
+  (1889), V. Goldschmidt (1893). S. Czapski (1893) and F. Stoeber
+  (1898), which differ mainly in the arrangement of the optical parts.
+  In these instruments the crystal is set up and adjusted once for all,
+  with the axis of a prominent zone parallel to the axis of either the
+  horizontal or the vertical circle. As a rule, only in this zone can
+  the angles between the faces be measured directly; the positions of
+  all the other faces, which need be observed only once, are fixed by
+  the simultaneous readings of the two circles. These readings,
+  corresponding to the polar distance and azimuth, or latitude and
+  longitude readings of astronomical telescopes, must be plotted on a
+  projection before the symmetry of the crystal is apparent; and
+  laborious calculations are necessary in order to determine the indices
+  of the faces and the angles between them, and the other constants of
+  the crystal, or to test whether any three faces are accurately in a
+  zone.
+
+  These disadvantages are overcome by adding still another graduated
+  circle to the instrument, with its axis perpendicular to the axis of
+  the vertical circle, thus forming a three-circle goniometer. With such
+  an instrument measurements may be made in any zone or between any two
+  faces without re-adjusting the crystal; further the troublesome
+  calculations are avoided, and, indeed, the instrument may be used for
+  solving spherical triangles. Different forms of three-circle
+  goniometers have been designed by G. F. H. Smith (1899 and 1904), E.
+  S. Fedorov (1900) and J. F. C. Klein (1900). Besides being used as a
+  one-, two-, or three-circle goniometer for the measurement of the
+  interfacial angles of crystals, and as a refractometer for determining
+  refractive indices by the prismatic method or by total reflection,
+  Klein's instrument, which is called a polymeter, is fitted with
+  accessory optical apparatus which enables it to be used for examining
+  a crystal in parallel or convergent polarized light and for measuring
+  the optic axial angle.
+
+  Goniometers of special construction have been devised for certain
+  purposes; for instance, the inverted horizontal-circle goniometer of
+  H. A. Miers (1903) for measuring crystals during their growth in the
+  mother-liquid. A. E. Tutton (1894) has combined a goniometer with
+  lapidaries' appliances for cutting section-plates and prisms from
+  crystals accurately in any desired direction. The instrument commonly
+  employed for measuring the optic axial angle of biaxial crystals is
+  really a combination of a goniometer with a polariscope. For the
+  optical investigation of minute crystals under the microscope, various
+  forms of stage-goniometer with one, two or three graduated circles
+  have been constructed. An ordinary microscope fitted with cross-wires
+  and a rotating graduated stage serves the purpose of a goniometer for
+  measuring the plane angles of a crystal face or section, being the
+  same in principle as the contact goniometer.
+
+  For fuller descriptions of goniometers reference may be made to the
+  text-books of Crystallography and Mineralogy, especially to P. H.
+  Groth, _Physikalische Krystallographie_ (4th ed., Leipzig, 1905). See
+  also C. Leiss, _Die optischen Instrumente der Firma R. Fuess, deren
+  Beschreibung, Justierung und Anwendung_ (Leipzig, 1899).
+       (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GONTAUT, MARIE JOSEPHINE LOUISE, DUCHESSE DE (1773-1857). was born in
+Paris on the 3rd of August 1773, daughter of Augustin Francois, comte de
+Montaut-Navailles, who had been governor of Louis XVI. and his two
+brothers when children. The count of Provence (afterwards Louis XVIII.)
+and his wife stood sponsors to Josephine de Montaut, and she shared the
+lessons given by Madame de Genlis to the Orleans family, with whom her
+mother broke off relations after the outbreak of the Revolution. Mother
+and daughter emigrated to Coblenz in 1792; thence they went to
+Rotterdam, and finally to England, where Josephine married the marquis
+Charles Michel de Gontaut-Saint-Blacard. They returned to France at the
+Restoration, and resumed their place at court. Madame de Gontaut became
+lady-in-waiting to Caroline, duchess of Berry, and, on the birth of the
+princess Louise (Mlle d'Artois, afterwards duchess of Parma), governess
+to the children of France. Next year the birth of Henry, duke of
+Bordeaux (afterwards known as the comte de Chambord), added to her
+charge the heir of the Bourbons. She remained faithful to his cause all
+her life. Her husband died in 1822, and in 1827 she was created duchesse
+de Gontaut. She followed the exiled royal family in 1830 to Holyrood
+Palace, and then to Prague, but in 1834, owing to differences with
+Pierre Louis, duc de Blacas, who thought her comparatively liberal views
+dangerous for the prince and princess, she received a brusque conge from
+Charles X. Her twin daughters, Josephine (1796-1844) and Charlotte
+(1796-1818), married respectively Ferdinand de Chabot, prince de Leon
+and afterwards duc de Rohan, and Francois, comte de Bourbon-Busset. She
+herself wrote in her old age some naive memoirs, which throw an odd
+light on the pretensions of the "governess of the children of France."
+She died in Paris in 1857.
+
+  See her _Memoirs_ (Eng. ed., 2 vols., 1894), and _Lettres inedites_
+  (1895).
+
+
+
+
+GONVILE, EDMUND (d. 1351), founder of Gonville Hall, now Gonville and
+Caius College, at Cambridge, England, is thought to have been the son of
+William de Gonvile, and the brother of Sir Nicholas Gonvile. In 1320 he
+was rector of Thelnetham, Suffolk, and steward there for William, earl
+Warren and the earl of Lancaster. Six years later he was rector of
+Rushworth, and in 1342 rector of Terrington St John and commissioner for
+the marshlands of Norfolk. In this year he founded and endowed a
+collegiate church at Rushworth, suppressed in 1541. The foundation of
+Gonville Hall at Cambridge was effected by a charter granted by Edward
+III. in 1348. It was called, officially, the Hall of the Annunciation of
+the Blessed Virgin, but was usually known as Gunnell or Gonville Hall.
+Its original site was in Free-school Lane, where Corpus Christi College
+now stands. Gonvile apparently wished it to be devoted to training for
+theological study, but after his death the foundation was completed by
+William Bateman, bishop of Norwich and founder of Trinity Hall, on a
+different site and with considerably altered statutes. (See also CAIUS,
+JOHN.)
+
+
+
+
+GONZAGA, an Italian princely family named after the town where it
+probably had its origin. Its known history begins with the 13th century,
+when Luigi I. (1267-1360), after fierce struggles supplanted his
+brother-in-law Rinaldo (nicknamed Passerino) Bonacolsi as lord of Mantua
+in August 1328, with the title of captain-genera, and afterwards of
+vicar-general of the empire, adding the designation of count of
+Mirandola and Concordia, which fief the Gonzagas held from 1328 to 1354.
+In July 1335 his son Guido, with the help of Filippino and Feltrino
+Gonzaga, wrested Reggio from the Scaligeri and held it until 1371. Luigi
+was succeeded by Guido (d. 1369); the latter's son Luigi II. came next
+in succession (d. 1382), and then Giovan Francesco I. (d. 1407), who,
+although at one time allied with the treacherous Gian Galeazzo Visconti,
+incurred the latter's enmity and all but lost his estates and his life
+in consequence; eventually he joined the Florentines and Bolognese,
+enemies of Visconti. He promoted commerce and wisely developed the
+prosperity of his dominions. His son Giovan Francesco II. (d. 1444)
+succeeded him under the regency of his uncle Carlo Malatesta and the
+protection of the Venetians. He became a famous general, and was
+rewarded for his services to the emperor Sigismund with the title of
+marquess of Mantua for himself and his descendants (1432), an
+investiture which legitimatized the usurpations of the house of Gonzaga.
+His son Luigi III. "il Turco" (d. 1478) likewise became a celebrated
+soldier, and was also a learned and liberal prince, a patron of
+literature and the arts. His son Federigo I. (d. 1484) followed in his
+father's footsteps, and served under various foreign sovereigns,
+including Bona of Savoy and Lorenzo de' Medici; subsequently he upheld
+the rights of the house of Este against Pope Sixtus IV. and the
+Venetians, whose ambitious claims were a menace to his own dominions of
+Ferrara and Mantova. His son Giovan Francesco III. (d. 1519) continued
+the military traditions of the family, and commanded the allied Italian
+forces against Charles VIII. at the battle of Fornovo; he afterwards
+fought in the kingdom of Naples and in Tuscany, until captured by the
+Venetians in 1509. On his liberation he adopted a more peaceful and
+conciliatory policy, and with the help of his wife, the famous Isabella
+d'Este, he promoted the fine arts and letters, collecting pictures,
+statues and other works of art with intelligent discrimination. He was
+succeeded by his son Federigo II. (d. 1540), captain-general of the
+papal forces. After the peace of Cambrai (1529) his ally and protector,
+the emperor Charles V., raised his title to that of duke of Mantua in
+1530; in 1536 the emperor decided the controversy for the succession of
+Monferrato between Federigo and the house of Savoy in favour of the
+former. His son Francesco I. succeeded him, and, being a minor, was
+placed under the regency of his uncle Cardinal Ercole; he was
+accidentally drowned in 1550, leaving his possessions to his brother
+Guglielmo. The latter was an extravagant spendthrift, but having subdued
+a revolt in Monferrato was presented with that territory by the emperor
+Maximilian II. At his death in 1587 he was succeeded by his son Vincenzo
+I. (d. 1612), who was more addicted to amusements than to warfare. Then
+followed in succession his sons Francesco II. (d. 1612), Ferdinando (d.
+1626), and Vincenzo II. (d. 1627), all three incapable and dissolute
+princes. The last named appointed as his successor Charles, the son of
+Henriette, the heiress of the French family of Nevers-Rethel, who was
+only able to take possession of the ducal throne after a bloody
+struggle; his dominions were laid waste by foreign invasions and he
+himself was reduced to the sorest straits. He died in 1637, leaving his
+possessions to his grandson Charles (Carlo) II. under the regency of the
+latter's mother Maria Gonzaga, which lasted until 1647. Charles died in
+consequence of his own profligacy and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand
+Charles (Ferdinando Carlo), who was likewise for some years under the
+regency of his mother Isabella of Austria. Ferdinand Charles, another
+extravagant and dissolute prince, acquired the county of Guastalla by
+marriage in 1678, but lost it soon afterwards; he involved his country
+in useless warfare, with the result that in 1708 Austria annexed the
+duchy. On the 5th of July of the same year he died in Venice, and with
+him the Gonzagas of Mantua came to an end.
+
+Of the cadet branches of the house one received the lordship of Bozzolo,
+another the counties of Novellara and Bagnolo, a third, of which the
+founder was Ferrante I. (d. 1557), retained the county of Guastalla,
+raised to a duchy in 1621, and came to an end with the death of Giuseppe
+Maria on the 16th of August 1746.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--S. Maffei, _Annali di Mantova_ (Tortona, 1675); G.
+  Veronesi, _Quadro storico della Mirandola_ (Modena, 1847); T. Affo,
+  _Storia di Guastalla_ (Guastalla, 1875, 4 vols.); Alessandro Luzio, _I
+  Precattori d'Isabella d'Este_ (Ancona, 1887); A. Luzio and R. Renier,
+  "Francesco Gonzaga alla battaglia di Fornovo (1495). secondo i
+  documenti Mantovani" (in _Archivio storico italiano_, ser. v. vol.
+  vi., 205-246); _id._, _Mantova e Urbino, Isabella d'Este e Elisabeth
+  Gonzaga nette relazioni famigliari e nelle vicende politiche_ (Turin,
+  1893); L. G., Pelissier, "Les Relations de Francois de Gonzague,
+  marquis de Mantoue, avec Ludovico Sforza et Louis XII" (in _Annales de
+  la faculte de Lettres de Bordeaux_, 1893); Antonino Bertolotti,
+  "Lettere del duca di Savoia Emanuele Filiberto a Guglielmo Gonzaga,
+  duca di Mantova" (_Arch. stor. it._, ser. v., vol. ix. pp. 250-283);
+  Edmondo Solari, _Lettere inedite del card. Gasparo Contarini nel
+  carteggio del card. Ercole Gonzaga_ (Venice, 1904); Arturo Segre, _Il
+  Richiamo di Don Ferrante Gonzaga dal governo di Milano, e sue
+  conseguenze_ (Turin, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+GONZAGA, THOMAZ ANTONIO (1744-1809), Portuguese poet, was a native of
+Oporto and the son of a Brazilian-born judge. He spent a part of his
+boyhood at Bahia, where his father was _disembargador_ of the appeal
+court, and returning to Portugal he went to the university of Coimbra
+and took his law degree at the age of twenty-four. He remained on there
+for some years and compiled a treatise of natural law on regalist lines,
+dedicating it to Pombal, but the fall of the marquis led him to leave
+Coimbra and become a candidate for a magistracy, and in 1782 he obtained
+the posts of _ouvidor_ and _provedor_ of the goods of deceased and
+absent persons at Villa Rica in the province of Minas Geraes in Brazil.
+In 1786 he was named _disembargador_ of the appeal court at Bahia, and
+three years later, as he was about to marry a young lady of position, D.
+Maria de Seixas Brandao, the _Marilia_ of his verses, he suddenly found
+himself arrested on the charge of being the principal author of a
+Republican conspiracy in Minas. Conducted to Rio, he was imprisoned in a
+fortress and interrogated, but constantly asserted his innocence.
+However, his friendship with the conspirators compromised him in the
+eyes of his absolutist judges, who, on the ground that he had known of
+the plot and not denounced it, sentenced him in April 1792 to perpetual
+exile in Angola, with the confiscation of his property. Later, this
+penalty was commuted into one of ten years of exile to Mozambique, with
+a death sentence if he should return to America. After having spent
+three years in prison, Gonzaga sailed in May 1792 for Mozambique and
+shortly after his arrival a violent fever almost ended his life. A
+wealthy Portuguese gentleman, married to a lady of colour, charitably
+received him into his house, and when the poet recovered, he married
+their young daughter who had nursed him through the attack. He lived in
+exile until his death, practising advocacy at intervals, but his last
+years were embittered by fits of melancholia, deepening into madness,
+which were brought on by the remembrance of his misfortunes. His
+reputation as a poet rests on a little volume of bucolics entitled
+_Marilia_, which includes all his published verses and is divided into
+two parts, corresponding with those of his life. The first extends to
+his imprisonment and breathes only love and pleasure, while the main
+theme of the second part, written in prison, is his _saudade_ for
+_Marilia_ and past happiness. Gonzaga borrowed his forms from the best
+models, Anacreon and Theocritus, but the matter, except for an
+occasional imitation of Petrarch, the natural, elegant style and the
+harmonious metrification, are all his own. The booklet comprises the
+most celebrated collection of erotic poetry dedicated to a single person
+in the Portuguese tongue; indeed its popularity is so great as to exceed
+its intrinsic merit.
+
+  Twenty-nine editions had appeared up to 1854, but the Paris edition of
+  1862 in 2 vols, is in every way the best, although the authenticity of
+  the verses in its 3rd part, which do not relate to _Marilia_, is
+  doubtful. A popular edition of the first two parts was published in
+  1888 (Lisbon, Corazzi). A French version of _Marilia_ by Monglave and
+  Chalas appeared in Paris in 1825, an Italian by Vegezzi Ruscalla at
+  Turin in 1844, a Latin by Dr Castro Lopes at Rio in 1868, and there is
+  a Spanish one by Vedia.
+
+  See Innocencio da Silva, _Diccionario bibliographico portuguez_, vol.
+  vii. p. 320, also Dr T. Braga, _Filinto Elysio e os Dissidentas da
+  Arcadia_ (Oporto, 1901).     (E. Pr.)
+
+
+
+
+GONZALEZ-CARVAJAL, TOMAS JOSE (1753-1834), Spanish, poet and statesman,
+was born at Seville in 1753. He studied at the university of Seville,
+and took the degree of LL.D. at Madrid. He obtained an office in the
+financial department of the government; and in 1795 was made intendant
+of the colonies which had just been founded in Sierra Morena and
+Andalusia. During 1809-1811 he held an intendancy in the patriot army.
+He became, in 1812, director of the university of San Isidro; but having
+offended the government by establishing a chair of international law, he
+was imprisoned for five years (1815-1820). The revolution of 1820
+reinstated him, but the counter-revolution of three years later forced
+him into exile. After four years he was allowed to return, and he died,
+in 1834, a member of the supreme council of war. Gonzalez-Carvajal
+enjoyed European fame as author of metrical translations of the poetical
+books of the Bible. To fit himself for this work he commenced the study
+of Hebrew at the age of fifty-four. He also wrote other works in verse
+and prose, avowedly taking Luis de Leon as his model.
+
+  See biographical notice in _Biblioteca de Rivadeneyra_, vol. lxvii.,
+  _Poetas del siglo 18_.
+
+
+
+
+GONZALO DE BERCEO (c. 1180-c. 1246), the earliest Castilian poet whose
+name is known to us, was born at Berceo, a village in the neighbourhood
+of Calahorra in the province of Logrono. In 1221 he became a deacon and
+was attached, as a secular priest, to the Benedictine monastery of San
+Millan de la Cogolla, in the diocese of Calahorra. His name is to be
+met with in a number of documents between the years 1237 and 1246. He
+wrote upwards of 13,000 verses, all on devotional subjects. His best
+work is a life of St Oria; others treat of the life of St Millan, of St
+Dominic of Silos, of the Sacrifice of the Mass, the Martyrdom of St
+Laurence, the visible signs preceding the Last Judgment, the Praises of
+Our Lady, the Miracles of Our Lady and the Lamentations of the Virgin on
+the Passion of her Son. He writes in the common tongue, the _roman
+paladino_, and his claim to the name of poet rests on his use of the
+_cuaderna via_ (single-rhymed quatrains, each verse being of fourteen
+syllables). Sometimes, however, he takes the more modest title of
+_juglar_ (_jongleur_), when claiming payment for his poems. His literary
+attainments are not great, and he lacks imagination and animation of
+style, but he has a certain eloquence, and in speaking of the Virgin and
+the saints a certain charm, while his verse bears at times the imprint
+of a passionate devotion, recalling the lyrical style of the great
+Spanish mystics. There is, however, a very strong popular element in his
+writings, which explains his long vogue. The great majority of his
+legends of the Virgin are obviously borrowed from the collection of a
+Frenchman, Gautier de Coinci; but he has succeeded in making this
+material entirely his own by reason of a certain conciseness and a
+realism in detail which make his work far superior to the tedious and
+colourless narrative of his model.
+
+  His _Poesias_ are in the _Biblioteca de autores espanoles_ of
+  Rivadeneyra, vol. lvii. (1864); _La Vida de San Domingo de Silos_ has
+  been edited by J. D. FitzGerald (Paris, 1904; see the _Bibliotheque de
+  l'Ecole des Hautes Etudes_, part 149); see also F. Fernandez y
+  Gonzalez in the _Razon_ (vol. i., Madrid, 1860); N. Hergueta,
+  "Documentos referentes a Gonzalo de Berceo," in the _Revista de
+  archivos_, (3rd series, Feb.-March, 1904, pp. 178-179).     (P. A.)
+
+
+
+
+GOOCH, SIR DANIEL, Bart. (1816-1889), English mechanical engineer, was
+born at Bedlington, in Northumberland, on the 16th of August 1816. At
+the age of fifteen, having shown a taste for mechanics, he was put to
+work at the Tredegar Ironworks, Monmouthshire. In 1834 he went to
+Warrington, where, at the Vulcan foundry, under Robert Stephenson, he
+acquired the principles of locomotive design. Subsequently, after
+passing a year at Dundee, he was engaged by the Stephensons at their
+Gateshead works, where he seems to have conceived that predilection for
+the broad gauge for which he was afterwards distinguished, through
+having to design some engines for a 6-foot gauge in Russia and noticing
+the advantages it offered in allowing greater space for the machinery,
+&c., as compared with the standard gauge favoured by Stephenson. In
+1837, on I. K. Brunel's recommendation, he was appointed locomotive
+superintendent to the Great Western railway at a time when the engines
+possessed by the railway were very poor and inefficient. He soon
+improved this state of affairs, and gradually provided his employers
+with locomotives which were unsurpassed for general excellence and
+economy of working. One of the most famous, the "Lord of the Isles," was
+awarded a gold medal at the Great Exhibition of 1851, and when, thirty
+years afterwards, it was withdrawn from active service it had run more
+than three-quarters of a million miles, all with its original boiler. In
+1864 he left the Great Western and interested himself in the problem of
+laying a telegraph cable across the Atlantic. At this time the "Great
+Eastern" was in the hands of the bondholders, of whom he himself was one
+of the most important, and it occurred to him that she might
+advantageously be utilized in the enterprise. Accordingly, at his
+instance she was chartered by the Telegraph Construction Company, of
+which also he was a director, and in 1865 was employed in the attempt to
+lay a cable, Gooch himself superintending operations. The cable,
+however, broke in mid-ocean, and the attempt was a failure. Next year it
+was renewed with more success, for not only was a new cable safely put
+in place, but the older one was picked up and spliced, so that there
+were two complete lines between England and America. For this
+achievement Gooch was created a baronet. Meanwhile the Great Western
+railway had fallen on evil days, being indeed on the verge of
+bankruptcy, when in 1866 the directors appealed to him to accept the
+chairmanship of the board and undertake the rehabilitation of the
+company. He agreed to the proposal, and was so successful in restoring
+its prosperity that in 1889, at the last meeting over which he presided,
+a dividend was declared at the rate of 7-1/2%. Under his administration
+the system was greatly enlarged and consolidated by the absorption of
+various smaller lines, such as the Bristol and Exeter and the Cornwall
+railways; and his appreciation of its strategic value caused him to be a
+strenuous supporter of the construction of the Severn Tunnel. His death
+occurred on the 15th of October 1889 at his residence, Clewer Park, near
+Windsor.
+
+
+
+
+GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827), English writer on medical, religious and
+classical subjects, was born on the 25th of May 1764 at Epping, Essex.
+After attending a school at Romsey kept by his father, the Rev. Peter
+Good, who was a Nonconformist minister, he was, at about the age of
+fifteen, apprenticed to a surgeon-apothecary at Gosport. In 1783 he went
+to London to prosecute his medical studies, and in the autumn of 1784 he
+began to practise as a surgeon at Sudbury in Suffolk. In 1793 he removed
+to London, where he entered into partnership with a surgeon and
+apothecary. But the partnership was soon dissolved, and to increase his
+income he began to devote attention to literary pursuits. Besides
+contributing both in prose and verse to the _Analytical_ and _Critical
+Reviews_ and the _British_ and _Monthly Magazines_, and other
+periodicals, he wrote a large number of works relating chiefly to
+medical and religious subjects. In 1794 he became a member of the
+British Pharmaceutical Society, and in that connexion, and especially by
+the publication of his work, _A History of Medicine_ (1795), he did much
+to effect a greatly needed reform in the profession of the apothecary.
+In 1820 he took the diploma of M.D. at Marischal College, Aberdeen. He
+died at Shepperton, Middlesex, on the 2nd of January 1827. Good was not
+only well versed in classical literature, but was acquainted with the
+principal European languages, and also with Persian, Arabic and Hebrew.
+His prose works display wide erudition; but their style is dull and
+tedious. His poetry never rises above pleasant and well-versified
+commonplace. His translation of Lucretius, _The Nature of Things_
+(1805-1807), contains elaborate philological and explanatory notes,
+together with parallel passages and quotations from European and Asiatic
+authors.
+
+
+
+
+GOOD FRIDAY (probably "God's Friday"), the English name for the Friday
+before Easter, kept as the anniversary of the Crucifixion. In the Greek
+Church it has been or is known as [Greek: pascha [staurosimon],
+paraskeue, paraskeue megale] or [Greek: hagia, soteria] or [Greek: ta
+soteria, hemepa tou staurou], while among the Latins the names of most
+frequent occurrence are Pascha Crucis, Dies Dominicae Passionis,
+Parasceve, Feria Sexta Paschae, Feria Sexta Major in Hierusalem, Dies
+Absolutionis. It was called Long Friday by the Anglo-Saxons[1] and
+Danes, possibly in allusion to the length of the services which marked
+the day. In Germany it is sometimes designated Stiller Freitag (compare
+Greek, [Greek: hebdomas apraktos]; Latin, _hebdomas inofficiosa, non
+laboriosa_), but more commonly Charfreitag. The etymology of this last
+name has been much disputed, but there seems now to be little doubt that
+it is derived from the Old High German _chara_, meaning suffering or
+mourning.
+
+The origin of the custom of a yearly commemoration of the Crucifixion is
+somewhat obscure. It may be regarded as certain that among Jewish
+Christians it almost imperceptibly grew out of the old habit of annually
+celebrating the Passover on the 14th of Nisan, and of observing the
+"days of unleavened bread" from the 15th to the 21st of that month. In
+the Gentile churches, on the other hand, it seems to be well established
+that originally no yearly cycle of festivals was known at all. (See
+EASTER.)
+
+From its earliest observance, the day was marked by a specially rigorous
+fast, and also, on the whole, by a tendency to greater simplicity in the
+services of the church. Prior to the 4th century there is no evidence of
+non-celebration of the eucharist on Good Friday; but after that date the
+prohibition of communion became common. In Spain, indeed, it became
+customary to close the churches altogether as a sign of mourning; but
+this practice was condemned by the council of Toledo (633). In the Roman
+Catholic Church the Good Friday ritual at present observed is marked by
+many special features, most of which can be traced back to a date at
+least prior to the close of the 8th century (see the Ordo Romanus in
+Muratori's _Liturg. Rom. Vet._). The altar and officiating clergy are
+draped in black, this being the only day on which that colour is
+permitted. Instead of the epistle, sundry passages from Hosea, Habakkuk,
+Exodus and the Psalms are read. The gospel for the day consists of the
+history of the Passion as recorded by St John. This is often sung in
+plain-chaunt by three priests, one representing the "narrator," the
+other two the various characters of the story. The singing of this is
+followed by bidding prayers for the peace and unity of the church, for
+the pope, the clergy, all ranks and conditions of men, the sovereign,
+for catechumens, the sick and afflicted, heretics and schismatics, Jews
+and heathen. Then follows the "adoration of the cross" (a ceremony
+derived from the church of Jerusalem and said to date back to near the
+time of Helena's "invention of the cross"); the hymns _Pange lingua_ and
+_Vexilla regis_ are sung, and then follows the "Mass of the
+Presanctified." The name is derived from the fact that it is celebrated
+with elements consecrated the day before, the liturgy being omitted on
+this day. The priest merely places the Sacrament on the altar, censes
+it, elevates and breaks the host, and communicates, the prayers and
+responses interspersed being peculiar to the day. This again is followed
+by vespers, with a special anthem; after which the altar is stripped in
+silence. In many Roman Catholic countries--in Spain, for example--it is
+usual for the faithful to spend much time in the churches in meditation
+on the "seven last words" of the Saviour; no carriages are driven
+through the streets; the bells and organs are silent; and in every
+possible way it is sought to deepen the impression of a profound and
+universal grief. In the Greek Church also the Good Friday fast is
+excessively strict; as in the Roman Church, the Passion history is read
+and the cross adored; towards evening a dramatic representation of the
+entombment takes place, amid open demonstrations of contempt for Judas
+and the Jews. In Lutheran churches the organ is silent on this day, and
+altar, font and pulpit are draped in black, as indeed throughout Holy
+Week. In the Church of England the history of the Passion from the
+gospel according to John is also read; the collects for the day are
+based upon the bidding prayers which are found in the Ordo Romanus. The
+"three hours" service, borrowed from Roman Catholic usage and consisting
+of prayers, addresses on the "seven last words from the cross" and
+intervals for meditation and silent prayer, has become very popular in
+the Anglican Church, and the observance of the day is more marked than
+formerly among Nonconformist bodies, even in Scotland.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See Johnson's _Collection of Ecclesiastical Laws_ (vol. i., anno
+    957): "Housel ought not to be hallowed on Long Friday, because Christ
+    suffered for us on that day."
+
+
+
+
+GOODMAN, GODFREY (1583-1656), bishop of Gloucester, was born at Ruthin,
+Denbighshire, and educated at Westminster and Cambridge. He took orders
+in 1603, and in 1606 obtained the living of Stapleford Abbots, Essex,
+which he held together with several other livings. He was canon of
+Windsor from 1617 and dean of Rochester 1620-1621, and became bishop of
+Gloucester in 1625. From this time his tendencies towards Roman
+Catholicism constantly got him into trouble. He preached an
+unsatisfactory sermon at court in 1626, and in 1628 incurred charges of
+introducing popery at Windsor. In 1633 he secured the see of Hereford by
+bribery, but Archbishop Laud persuaded the king to refuse his consent.
+In 1638 he was said to be converted to Rome, and two years later he was
+imprisoned for refusing to sign the new canons denouncing popery and
+affirming the divine right of kings. He afterwards signed and was
+released on bail, but next year the bishops who had signed were all
+imprisoned in the Tower, by order of parliament, on the charge of
+treason. After eighteen weeks' imprisonment Goodman was allowed to
+return to his diocese. About 1650 he settled in London, where he died a
+confessed Roman Catholic. His best known book is _The Fall of Man_
+(London, 1616).
+
+
+
+
+GOODRICH, SAMUEL GRISWOLD (1793-1860), American author, better known
+under the pseudonym of "Peter Parley," was born, the son of a
+Congregational minister, at Ridgefield, Connecticut, on the 19th of
+August 1793. He was largely self-educated, became an assistant in a
+country store at Danbury, Conn., in 1808, and at Hartford, Conn., in
+1811, and from 1816 to 1822 was a bookseller and publisher at Hartford.
+He visited Europe in 1823-1824, and in 1826 removed to Boston, where he
+continued in the publishing business, and from 1828 to 1842 he published
+an illustrated annual, the _Token_, to which he was a frequent
+contributor both in prose and verse. A selection from these
+contributions was published in 1841 under the title _Sketches from a
+Student's Window_. The _Token_ also contained some of the earliest work
+of Nathaniel Hawthorne, N. P. Willis, Henry W. Longfellow and Lydia
+Maria Child. In 1841 he established _Merry's Museum_, which he continued
+to edit till 1854. In 1827 he began, under the name of "Peter Parley,"
+his series of books for the young, which embraced geography, biography,
+history, science and miscellaneous tales. Of these he was the sole
+author of only a few, but in 1857 he wrote that he was "the author and
+editor of about 170 volumes," and that about seven millions had been
+sold. In 1857 he published _Recollections of a Lifetime_, which contains
+a list both of the works of which he was the author or editor and of the
+spurious works published under his name. By his writings and
+publications he amassed a large fortune. He was chosen a member of the
+Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1836, and of the state Senate
+in 1837, his competitor in the last election being Alexander H. Everett,
+and in 1851-1853 he was consul at Paris, where he remained till 1855,
+taking advantage of his stay to have several of his works translated
+into French. After his return to America he published, in 1859,
+_Illustrated History of the Animal Kingdom_. He died, in New York, on
+the 9th of May 1860.
+
+His brother, CHARLES AUGUSTUS GOODRICH (1790-1862), a Congregational
+clergyman, published various ephemeral books, and helped to compile some
+of the "Peter Parley" series.
+
+
+
+
+GOODRICH, or GOODRICKE, THOMAS (d. 1554), English ecclesiastic, was a
+son of Edward Goodrich of East Kirkby, Lincolnshire, and was educated at
+Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, afterwards becoming a fellow of Jesus
+College in the same university. He was among the divines consulted about
+the legality of Henry VIII.'s marriage with Catherine of Aragon, became
+one of the royal chaplains about 1530, and was consecrated bishop of Ely
+in 1534. He was favourable to the Reformation, helped in 1537 to draw up
+the _Institution of a Christian Man_ (known as the _Bishops' Book_), and
+translated the Gospel of St John for the revised New Testament. On the
+accession of Edward VI. in 1547 the bishop was made a privy councillor,
+and took a conspicuous part in public affairs during the reign. "A busy
+secular spirited man," as Burnet calls him, he was equally opposed to
+the zealots of the "old" and the "new religion." He assisted to compile
+the First Prayer Book of Edward VI., was one of the commissioners for
+the trial of Bishop Gardiner, and in January 1551-1552 succeeded Rich as
+lord high chancellor. This office he continued to hold during the nine
+days' reign of "Queen Jane" (Lady Jane Grey); but he continued to make
+his peace with Queen Mary, conformed to the restored religion, and,
+though deprived of the chancellorship, was allowed to keep his bishopric
+until his death on the 10th of May 1554.
+
+  See the _Dict. Nat. Biog._, where further authorities are cited.
+
+
+
+
+GOODSIR, JOHN (1814-1867), Scottish anatomist, born at Anstruther, Fife,
+on the 20th of March 1814, was the son of Dr John Goodsir, and grandson
+of Dr John Goodsir of Largo. He was educated at the burgh and
+grammar-schools of his native place and at the university of St Andrews.
+In 1830 he was apprenticed to a surgeon-dentist in Edinburgh, where he
+studied anatomy under Robert Knox, and in 1835 he joined his father in
+practice at Anstruther. Three years later he communicated to the British
+Association a paper on the pulps and sacs of the human teeth, his
+researches on the whole process of dentition being at this time
+distinguished by their completeness; and about the same date, on the
+nomination of Edward Forbes, he was elected to the famous coterie called
+the "Universal Brotherhood of the Friends of Truth," which comprised
+artists, scholars, naturalists and others, whose relationship became a
+potent influence in science. With Forbes he worked at marine zoology,
+but human anatomy, pathology and morphology formed his chief study. In
+1840 he moved to Edinburgh, where in the following year he was appointed
+conservator of the museum of the College of Surgeons, in succession to
+William Macgillivray. Much of his reputation rested on his knowledge of
+the anatomy of tissues. In his lectures in the theatre of the college in
+1842-1843 he evidenced the largeness of his observation of cell-life,
+both physiologically and pathologically, insisting on the importance of
+the cell as a centre of nutrition, and pointing out that the organism is
+subdivided into a number of departments. R. Virchow recognized his
+indebtedness to these discoveries by dedicating his _Cellular
+Pathologie_ to Goodsir, as "one of the earliest and most acute observers
+of cell-life." In 1843 Goodsir obtained the post of curator in the
+university of Edinburgh; the following year he was appointed
+demonstrator of anatomy, and in 1845 curator of the entire museum. A
+year later he was elected to the chair of anatomy in the university, and
+devoted all his energies to anatomical research and teaching.
+
+Human myology was his strong point; no one had laboured harder at the
+dissecting-table; and he strongly emphasized the necessity of practice
+as a means of research. He believed that anatomy, physiology and
+pathology could never be properly advanced without daily consideration
+and treatment of disease. In 1848 he became a fellow of the Royal
+College of Surgeons, and in the same year he joined the Highland and
+Agricultural Society, acting as chairman of the veterinary department,
+and advising on strictly agricultural matters. In 1847 he delivered a
+series of systematic lectures on the comparative anatomy of the
+invertebrata; and, about this period, as member of an aesthetic club, he
+wrote papers on the natural principles of beauty, the aesthetics of the
+ugly, of smell, the approbation or disapprobation of sounds, &c. Owing
+to the failing health of Professor Robert Jameson, Goodsir was induced
+to deliver the course of lectures on natural history during the summer
+of 1853.
+
+The lectures were long remembered for their brilliancy, but the infinite
+amount of thought and exertion which they cost broke down the health of
+the lecturer. Goodsir, nevertheless, persevered in his labours, writing
+in 1855 on organic electricity, in 1856 on morphological subjects, and
+afterwards on the structure of organized forms. His speculations in the
+latter domain gave birth to his theory of a triangle as the mathematical
+figure upon which nature had built up both the organic and inorganic
+worlds, and he hoped to complete this triangle theory of formation and
+law as the greatest of his works. In his lectures on the skull and brain
+he held the doctrine that symmetry of brain had more to do with the
+higher faculties than bulk or form. He died at Wardie, near Edinburgh,
+on the 6th of March 1867, in the same cottage in which his friend Edward
+Forbes died. His anatomical lectures were remarkable for their solid
+basis of fact; and no one in Britain took so wide a field for survey or
+marshalled so many facts for anatomical tabulation and synthesis.
+
+  See _Anatomical Memoirs of John Goodsir, F.R.S., edited by W. Turner,
+  with Memoir by H. Lonsdale_ (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1868), in which
+  Goodsir's lectures, addresses and writings are epitomized; _Proc. Roy.
+  Soc._ vol. iv. (1868); _Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin._ vol. ix. (1868).
+
+
+
+
+GOODWILL, in the law of property, a term of somewhat vague significance.
+It has been defined as every advantage which has been acquired in
+carrying on a business, whether connected with the premises in which the
+business has been carried on, or with the name of the firm by whom it
+has been conducted (_Churton_ v. _Douglas_, 1859, Johns, 174). Goodwill
+may be either professional or trade. Professional goodwill usually takes
+the form of the recommendation by a retiring professional man, doctor,
+solicitor, &c., to his clients of the successor or purchaser coupled
+generally with an undertaking not to compete with him. Trade goodwill
+varies with the nature of the business with which it is connected, but
+there are two rights which, whatever the nature of the business may be,
+are invariably associated with it, viz. the right of the purchaser to
+represent himself as the owner of the business, and the right to
+restrain competition. For the purposes of the Stamp Act, the goodwill of
+a business is property, and the proper duty must be paid on the
+conveyance of such. (See also PARTNERSHIP; PATENTS.)
+
+
+
+
+GOODWIN, JOHN (c. 1594-1665), English Nonconformist divine, was born in
+Norfolk and educated at Queens' College, Cambridge, where he was elected
+fellow in 1617. He was vicar of St Stephen's, Coleman Street, London,
+from 1633 to 1645, when he was ejected by parliament for his attacks on
+Presbyterianism, especially in his [Greek: Theomachia](1644). He
+thereupon established an independent congregation, and put his literary
+gifts at Oliver Cromwell's service. In 1648 he justified the proceedings
+of the army against the parliament ("Pride's Purge") in a pamphlet
+_Might and Right Well Met_, and in 1649 defended the proceedings against
+Charles I. (to whom he had offered spiritual advice) in [Greek:
+Hubristodikai]. At the Restoration this tract, with some that Milton had
+written to Monk in favour of a republic, was publicly burnt, and Goodwin
+was ordered into custody, though finally indemnified. He died in 1665.
+Among his other writings are _Anti-Cavalierisme_ (1642), a translation
+of the _Stratagemata Satanae_ of Giacomo Aconcio, the Elizabethan
+advocate of toleration, tracts against Fifth-Monarchy Men, Cromwell's
+"Triers" and Baptists, and _Redemption Redeemed, containing a thorough
+discussion of ... election, reprobation and the perseverance of the
+saints_ (1651, reprinted 1840). Goodwin's strongly Arminian tendencies
+brought him into conflict with Robert Baillie, professor of divinity of
+Glasgow, George Kendall, the Calvinist prebendary of Exeter, and John
+Owen (q.v.), who replied to _Redemption Redeemed_ in _The Doctrine of
+the Saints' Perseverance_, paying a high tribute to his opponent's
+learning and controversial skill. Goodwin answered all three in the
+_Triumviri_ (1658). John Wesley in later days held him in much esteem
+and published an abridged edition of his _Imputatio fidei_, a work on
+justification that had originally appeared in 1642.
+
+  _Life_ by T. Jackson (London, 1839).
+
+
+
+
+GOODWIN, NATHANIEL CARL (1857-   ), American actor, was born in Boston
+on the 25th of July 1857. While clerk in a large shop he studied for the
+stage, and made his first appearance in 1873 in Boston in Stuart
+Robson's company as the newsboy in Joseph Bradford's _Law_. He made an
+immediate success by his imitations of popular actors. A hit in the
+burlesque _Black-eyed Susan_ led to his taking part in Rice and
+Goodwin's _Evangeline_ company. It was at this time that he married
+Eliza Weathersby (d. 1887), an English actress with whom he played in B.
+E. Woollf's _Hobbies_. It was not until 1889, however, that Nat
+Goodwin's talent as a comedian of the "legitimate" type began to be
+recognized. From that time he appeared in a number of plays designed to
+display his drily humorous method, such as Brander Matthews' and George
+H. Jessop's _A Gold Mine_, Henry Guy Carleton's _A Gilded Fool_ and
+_Ambition_, Clyde Fitch's _Nathan Hale_, H. V. Esmond's _When we were
+Twenty-one_, &c. Till 1903 he was associated in his performances with
+his third wife, the actress Maxine Elliott (b. 1873), whom he married in
+1898; this marriage was dissolved in 1908.
+
+
+
+
+GOODWIN, THOMAS (1600-1680), English Nonconformist divine, was born at
+Rollesby, Norfolk, on the 5th of October 1600, and was educated at
+Christ's College, Cambridge, where in 1616 he graduated B.A. In 1619 he
+removed to Catharine Hall, where in 1620 he was elected fellow. In 1625
+he was licensed a preacher of the university; and three years afterwards
+he became lecturer of Trinity Church, to the vicarage of which he was
+presented by the king in 1632. Worried by his bishop, who was a zealous
+adherent of Laud, he resigned all his preferments and left the university
+in 1634. He lived for some time in London, where in 1638 he married the
+daughter of an alderman; but in the following year he withdrew to
+Holland, and for some time was pastor of a small congregation of English
+merchants and refugees at Arnheim. Returning to London soon after Laud's
+impeachment by the Long Parliament, he ministered for some years to the
+Independent congregation meeting at Paved Alley Church, Lime Street, in
+the parish of St Dunstan's-in-the-East, and rapidly rose to considerable
+eminence as a preacher; in 1643 he was chosen a member of the Westminster
+Assembly, and at once identified himself with the Congregational party,
+generally referred to in contemporary documents as "the dissenting
+brethren." He frequently preached by appointment before the Commons, and
+in January 1650 his talents and learning were rewarded by the House with
+the presidentship of Magdalen College, Oxford, a post which he held until
+the Restoration. He rose into high favour with the protector, and was one
+of his intimate advisers, attending him on his death-bed. He was also a
+commissioner for the inventory of the Westminster Assembly, 1650, and for
+the approbation of preachers, 1653, and together with John Owen (q.v.)
+drew up an amended Westminster Confession in 1658. From 1660 until his
+death on the 23rd of February 1680 he lived in London, and devoted
+himself exclusively to theological study and to the pastoral charge of
+the Fetter Lane Independent Church.
+
+  The works published by Goodwin during his lifetime consist chiefly of
+  sermons printed by order of the House of Commons; but he was also
+  associated with Philip Nye and others in the preparation of the
+  _Apologeticall Narration_ (1643). His collected writings, which
+  include expositions of the Epistle to the Ephesians and of the
+  Apocalypse, were published in five folio volumes between 1681 and
+  1704, and were reprinted in twelve 8vo volumes (Edin., 1861-1866).
+  Characterized by abundant yet one-sided reading, remarkable at once
+  for the depth and for the narrowness of their observation and
+  spiritual experience, often admirably thorough in their workmanship,
+  yet in style intolerably prolix--they fairly exemplify both the merits
+  and the defects of the special school of religious thought to which
+  they belong. Calamy's estimate of Goodwin's qualities may be quoted as
+  both friendly and just. "He was a considerable scholar and an eminent
+  divine, and had a very happy faculty in descanting upon Scripture so
+  as to bring forth surprising remarks, which yet generally tended to
+  illustration." A memoir, derived from his own papers, by his son
+  (Thomas Goodwin, "the younger," 1650?-1716?, Independent minister at
+  London and Pinner, and author of the _History of the Reign of Henry
+  V._) is prefixed to the fifth volume of his collected works; as a
+  "patriarch and Atlas of Independency" he is also noticed by Anthony
+  Wood in the _Athenae Oxonienses_. An amusing sketch, from Addison's
+  point of view, of the austere and somewhat fanatical president of
+  Magdalen is preserved in No. 494 of the _Spectator_.
+
+
+
+
+GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON (1831-   ), American classical scholar, was born
+in Concord, Massachusetts, on the 9th of May 1831. He graduated at
+Harvard in 1851, studied in Germany, was tutor in Greek at Harvard in
+1856-1860, and Eliot professor of Greek there from 1860 until his
+resignation in 1901. He became an overseer of Harvard in 1903. In
+1882-1883 he was the first director of the American School for Classical
+Studies at Athens. Goodwin edited the _Panegyricus_ of Isocrates (1864)
+and Demosthenes _On The Crown_ (1901); and assisted in preparing the
+seventh edition of Liddell and Scott's _Greek-English Lexicon_. He
+revised an English version by several writers of _Plutarch's Morals_ (5
+vols., 1871; 6th ed., 1889), and published the Greek text with literal
+English version of Aeschylus' _Agamemnon_ (1906) for the Harvard
+production of that play in June 1906. As a teacher he did much to raise
+the tone of classical reading from that of a mechanical exercise to
+literary study. But his most important work was his _Syntax of the Moods
+and Tenses of the Greek Verb_ (1860), of which the seventh revised
+edition appeared in 1877 and another (enlarged) in 1890. This was "based
+in part on Madvig and Kruger," but, besides making accessible to
+American students the works of these continental grammarians, it
+presented original matter, including a "radical innovation in the
+classification of conditional sentences," notably the "distinction
+between particular and general suppositions." Goodwin's _Greek Grammar_
+(elementary edition, 1870; enlarged 1879; revised and enlarged 1892)
+gradually superseded in most American schools the _Grammar_ of Hadley
+and Allen. Both the _Moods and Tenses_ and the _Grammar_ in later
+editions are largely dependent on the theories of Gildersleeve for
+additions and changes. Goodwin also wrote a few elaborate syntactical
+studies, to be found in _Harvard Studies in Classical Philology_, the
+twelfth volume of which was dedicated to him upon the completion of
+fifty years as an alumnus of Harvard and forty-one years as Eliot
+professor.
+
+
+
+
+GOODWIN SANDS, a dangerous line of shoals at the entrance to the Strait
+of Dover from the North Sea, about 6 m. from the Kent coast of England,
+from which they are separated by the anchorage of the Downs. For this
+they form a shelter. They are partly exposed at low water, but the sands
+are shifting, and in spite of lights and bell-buoys the Goodwins are
+frequently the scene of wrecks, while attempts to erect a lighthouse or
+beacon have failed. Tradition finds in the Goodwins the remnant of an
+island called Lomea, which belonged to Earl Godwine in the first half of
+the 11th century, and was afterwards submerged, when the funds devoted
+to its protection were diverted to build the church steeple at Tenterden
+(q.v.). Four lightships mark the limits of the sands, and also signal by
+rockets to the lifeboat stations on the coast when any vessel is in
+distress on the sands. Perhaps the most terrible catastrophe recorded
+here was the wreck of thirteen ships of war during a great storm in
+November 1703.
+
+
+
+
+GOODWOOD, a mansion in the parish of Boxgrove, in the Chichester
+parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 4 m. N.E. of Chichester. It
+was built from designs of Sir William Chambers with additions by Wyatt,
+after the purchase of the property by the first duke of Richmond in
+1720. The park is in a hilly district, and is enriched with magnificent
+trees of many varieties, including some huge cedars. In it is a building
+containing a Roman slab recording the construction of a temple to
+Minerva and Neptune at Chichester. There is mention of a British
+tributary prince named Cogidubnus, who perhaps served also as a Roman
+official. A reference to early Christianity in Britain has been
+erroneously read into this inscription. On the racecourse a famous
+annual meeting, dating from 1802, is held in July. The parish church of
+SS. Mary and Blaize, Boxgrove, is almost entirely a rich specimen of
+Early English work.
+
+
+
+
+GOODYEAR, CHARLES (1800-1860), American inventor, was born at New Haven,
+Connecticut, on the 29th of December 1800, the son of Amasa Goodyear, an
+inventor (especially of farming implements) and a pioneer in the
+manufacture of hardware in America. The family removed to Naugatuck,
+Conn., when Charles was a boy; he worked in his father's button factory
+and studied at home until 1816, when he apprenticed himself to a firm of
+hardware merchants in Philadelphia. In 1821 he returned to Connecticut
+and entered into a partnership with his father at Naugatuck, which
+continued till 1830, when it was terminated by business reverses.
+Already he was interested in an attempt to discover a method of
+treatment by which india-rubber could be made into merchandizable
+articles that would stand extremes of heat and cold. To the solution of
+this problem the next ten years of his life were devoted. With ceaseless
+energy and unwavering faith in the successful outcome of his labours, in
+the face of repeated failures and hampered by poverty, which several
+times led him to a debtor's prison, he persevered in his endeavours. For
+a time he seemed to have succeeded with a treatment (or "cure") of the
+rubber with _aqua fortis_. In 1836 he secured a contract for the
+manufacture by this process of mail bags for the U.S. government, but
+the rubber fabric was useless at high temperatures. In 1837 he met and
+worked with Nathaniel Hayward (1808-1865), who had been an employee of a
+rubber factory in Roxbury and had made experiments with sulphur mixed
+with rubber. Goodyear bought from Hayward the right to use this
+imperfect process. In 1839, by dropping on a hot stove some india-rubber
+mixed with sulphur, he discovered accidentally the process for the
+vulcanization of rubber. Two years more passed before he could find any
+one who had faith enough in his discovery to invest money in it. At
+last, in 1844, by which time he had perfected his process, his first
+patent was granted, and in the subsequent years more than sixty patents
+were granted to him for the application of his original process to
+various uses. Numerous infringements had to be fought in the courts, the
+decisive victory coming in 1852 in the case of _Goodyear_ v. _Day_, in
+which his rights were defended by Daniel Webster and opposed by Rufus
+Choate. In 1852 he went to England, where articles made under his
+patents had been displayed at the International Exhibition of 1851, but
+he was unable to establish factories there. In France a company for the
+manufacture of vulcanized rubber by his process failed, and in December
+1855 he was arrested and imprisoned for debt in Paris. Owing to the
+expense of the litigation in which he was engaged and to bad business
+management, he profited little from his inventions. He died in New York
+City on the 1st of July 1860. He wrote an account of his discovery
+entitled _Gum-Elastic and its Varieties_ (2 vols., New Haven,
+1853-1855).
+
+  See also B. K. Peirce, _Trials of an Inventor, Life and Discoveries of
+  Charles Goodyear_ (New York, 1866); James Parton, _Famous Americans of
+  Recent Times_ (Boston, 1867); and Herbert L. Terry, _India Rubber and
+  its Manufacture_ (New York, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+GOOGE, BARNABE (1540-1594), English poet, son of Robert Googe, recorder
+of Lincoln, was born on the 11th of June 1540 at Alvingham,
+Lincolnshire. He studied at Christ's College, Cambridge, and at New
+College, Oxford, but does not seem to have taken a degree at either
+university. He afterwards removed to Staple's Inn, and was attached to
+the household of his kinsman, Sir William Cecil. In 1563 he became a
+gentleman pensioner to Queen Elizabeth. He was absent in Spain when his
+poems were sent to the printer by a friend, L. Blundeston. Googe then
+gave his consent, and they appeared in 1563 as _Eglogs, Epytaphes, and
+Sonettes_. There is extant a curious correspondence on the subject of
+his marriage with Mary Darrell, whose father refused Googe's suit on the
+ground that she was bound by a previous contract. The matter was decided
+by the intervention of Sir William Cecil with Archbishop Parker, and the
+marriage took place in 1564 or 1565. Googe was provost-marshal of the
+court of Connaught, and some twenty letters of his in this capacity are
+preserved in the record office. He died in February 1594. He was an
+ardent Protestant, and his poetry is coloured by his religious and
+political views. In the third "Eglog," for instance, he laments the
+decay of the old nobility and the rise of a new aristocracy of wealth,
+and he gives an indignant account of the sufferings of his
+co-religionists under Mary. The other eclogues deal with the sorrows of
+earthly love, leading up to a dialogue between Corydon and Cornix, in
+which the heavenly love is extolled. The volume includes epitaphs on
+Nicholas Grimald, John Bale and on Thomas Phaer, whose translation of
+Virgil Googe is uncritical enough to prefer to the versions of Surrey
+and of Gavin Douglas. A much more charming pastoral than any of those
+contained in this volume, "Phyllida was a fayer maid" (_Tottel's
+Miscellany_) has been ascribed to Barnabe Googe. He was one of the
+earliest English pastoral poets, and the first who was inspired by
+Spanish romance, being considerably indebted to the _Diana Enamorada_ of
+Montemayor.
+
+  His other works include a translation from Marcellus Palingenius (said
+  to be an anagram for Pietro Angelo Manzolli) of a satirical Latin
+  poem, _Zodiacus vitae_ (Venice, 1531?), in twelve books, under the
+  title of _The Zodyake of Life_ (1560); _The Popish Kingdome, or reign
+  of Antichrist_ (1570), translated from Thomas Kirchmayer or
+  Naogeorgus; _The Spiritual Husbandrie_ from the same author, printed
+  with the last; _Foure Bookes of Husbandrie_ (1577), collected by
+  Conradus Heresbachius; and _The Proverbes of ... Lopes de Mendoza_
+  (1579).
+
+
+
+
+GOOLE, a market town and port in the Osgoldcross parliamentary division
+of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, at the confluence of the Don
+and the Ouse, 24 m. W. by S. from Hull, served by the North Eastern,
+Lancashire & Yorkshire, Great Central and Asholme joint railways. Pop.
+of urban district (1901) 16,576. The town owes its existence to the
+construction of the Knottingley canal in 1826 by the Aire and Calder
+Navigation Company, after which, in 1829, Goole was made a bonding port.
+Previously it had been an obscure hamlet. The port was administratively
+combined with that of Hull in 1885. It is 47 m. from the North Sea
+(mouth of the Humber), and a wide system of inland navigation opens from
+it. There are eight docks supplied with timber ponds, quays, warehouses
+and other accommodation. The depth of water is 21 or 22 ft. at high
+water, spring tides. Chief exports are coal, stone, woollen goods and
+machinery; imports, butter, fruit, indigo, logwood, timber and wool.
+Industries include the manufacture of alum, sugar, rope and agricultural
+instruments, and iron-founding. Ship-building is also carried on, and
+there is a large dry dock and a patent slip for repairing vessels.
+Passenger steamship services are worked in connexion with the Lancashire
+& Yorkshire railway to Amsterdam, Antwerp, Bruges, Copenhagen, Rotterdam
+and other north European ports. The handsome church of St John the
+Evangelist, with a lofty tower and spire, dates from 1844.
+
+
+
+
+GOOSE (a common Teut. word, O. Eng. _gos_, pl. _ges_, Ger. _Gans_, O.
+Norse _gas_, from Aryan root, _ghans_, whence Sans. _hansa_, Lat.
+_anser_ (for _hanser_), Gr. [Greek: chen], &c.), the general English
+name for a considerable number of birds, belonging to the family
+_Anatidae_ of modern ornithologists, which are mostly larger than ducks
+and less than swans. Technically the word goose is reserved for the
+female, the male being called gander (A.-S. _gandra_).
+
+The most important species of goose, and the type of the genus _Anser_,
+is undoubtedly that which is the origin of the well-known domestic race
+(see POULTRY), the _Anser ferus_ or _A. cinereus_ of most naturalists,
+commonly called in English the grey or grey lag[1] goose, a bird of
+exceedingly wide range in the Old World, apparently breeding where
+suitable localities are to be found in most European countries from
+Lapland to Spain and Bulgaria. Eastwards it extends to China, but does
+not seem to be known in Japan. It is the only species indigenous to the
+British Islands, and in former days bred abundantly in the English
+Fen-country, where the young were caught in large numbers and kept in a
+more or less reclaimed condition with the vast flocks of tame-bred geese
+that at one time formed so valuable a property to the dwellers in and
+around the Fens. It is impossible to determine when the wild grey lag
+goose ceased from breeding in England, but it certainly did so towards
+the end of the 18th century, for Daniell mentions (_Rural Sports_, iii.
+242) his having obtained two broods in one season. In Scotland this
+goose continues to breed sparingly in several parts of the Highlands and
+in certain of the Hebrides, the nests being generally placed in long
+heather, and the eggs seldom exceeding five or six in number. It is most
+likely the birds reared here that are from time to time obtained in
+England, for at the present day the grey lag goose, though once so
+numerous, is, and for many years has been, the rarest species of those
+that habitually resort to the British Islands. The domestication of this
+species, as Darwin remarks (_Animals and Plants under Domestication_, i.
+287), is of very ancient date, and yet scarcely any other animal that
+has been tamed for so long a period, and bred so largely in captivity,
+has varied so little. It has increased greatly in size and fecundity,
+but almost the only change in plumage is that tame geese commonly lose
+the browner and darker tints of the wild bird, and are more or less
+marked with white--being often indeed wholly of that colour.[2] The most
+generally recognized breeds of domestic geese are those to which the
+distinctive names of Emden and Toulouse are applied; but a singular
+breed, said to have come from Sevastopol, was introduced into western
+Europe about the year 1856. In this the upper plumage is elongated,
+curled and spirally twisted, having their shaft transparent, and so thin
+that it often splits into fine filaments, which, remaining free for an
+inch or more, often coalesce again;[3] while the quills are aborted, so
+that the birds cannot fly.
+
+The other British species of typical geese are the bean-goose (_A.
+segetum_), the pink-footed (_A. brachyrhynchus_) and the white-fronted
+(_A. albifrons_). On the continent of Europe, but not yet recognized as
+occurring in Britain, is a small form of the last (_A. erythropus_)
+which is known to breed in Lapland. All these, for the sake of
+discrimination, may be divided into _two_ groups--(1) those having the
+"nail" at the tip of the bill white, or of a very pale flesh colour, and
+(2) those in which this "nail" is black. To the former belong the grey
+lag goose, as well as _A. albifrons_ and _A. erythropus_, and to the
+latter the other two. _A. albifrons_ and _A. erythropus_, which differ
+little but in size,--the last being not much bigger than a mallard
+(_Anas boschas_),--may be readily distinguished from the grey lag goose
+by their bright orange legs and their mouse-coloured upper wing-coverts,
+to say nothing of their very conspicuous white face and the broad black
+bars which cross the belly, though the last two characters are
+occasionally observable to some extent in the grey lag goose, which has
+the bill and legs flesh-coloured, and the upper wing-coverts of a
+bluish-grey. Of the second group, with the black "nail," _A. segetum_
+has the bill long, black at the base and orange in the middle; the feet
+are also orange, and the upper wing-coverts mouse-coloured, as in _A.
+albifrons_ and _A. erythropus_, while _A. brachyrhynchus_ has the bill
+short, bright pink in the middle, and the feet also pink, the upper
+wing-coverts being nearly of the same bluish-grey as in the grey lag
+goose. Eastern Asia possesses in _A. grandis_ a third species of this
+group, which chiefly differs from _A. segetum_ in its larger size. In
+North America there is only one species of typical goose, and that
+belongs to the white-"nailed" group. It very nearly resembles _A.
+albifrons_, but is larger, and has been described as distinct under the
+name of _A. gambeli_. Central Asia and India possess in the bar-headed
+goose (_A. indicus_) a bird easily distinguished from any of the
+foregoing by the character implied by its English name; but it is
+certainly somewhat abnormal, and, indeed, under the name of _Eulabia_,
+has been separated from the genus _Anser_, which has no other member
+indigenous to the Indian Region, nor any at all to the Ethiopian,
+Australian or Neotropical Regions.
+
+America possesses by far the greatest wealth of Anserine forms. Beside
+others, presently to be mentioned, its northern portions are the home of
+all the species of snow-geese belonging to the genus _Chen_. The first
+of these is _C. hyperboreus_, the snow-goose proper, a bird of large
+size, and when adult of a pure white, except the primaries, which are
+black. This has long been deemed a visitor to the Old World, and
+sometimes in considerable numbers, but the later discovery of a smaller
+form, _C. albatus_, scarcely differing except in size, throws some doubt
+on the older records, especially since examples which have been obtained
+in the British Islands undoubtedly belong to this lesser bird, and it
+would be satisfactory to have the occurrence in the Old World of the
+true _C. hyperboreus_ placed on a surer footing. So nearly allied to the
+species last named as to have been often confounded with it, is the
+blue-winged goose, _C. coerulescens_, which is said never to attain a
+snowy plumage. Then we have a very small species, long ago described as
+distinct by Samuel Hearne, the Arctic traveller, but until 1861
+discredited by ornithologists. Its distinctness has now been fully
+recognized, and it has received, somewhat unjustly, the name of _C.
+rossi_. Its face is adorned with numerous papillae, whence it has been
+removed by Elliot to a separate genus, _Exanthemops_, and for the same
+reason it has long been known to the European residents in the fur
+countries as the "horned wavey"--the last word being a rendering of a
+native name, _Wawa_, which signifies goose. Finally, there appears to
+belong to this section, though it has been frequently referred to
+another (_Chloephaga_), and has also been made the type of a distinct
+genus (_Philacte_), the beautiful emperor goose, _P. canagica_, which is
+almost peculiar to the Aleutian Islands, though straying to the
+continent in winter, and may be recognized by the white edging of its
+remiges.
+
+The southern portions of the New World are inhabited by about half a
+dozen species of geese not nearly akin to the foregoing, and separated
+as the genus _Chloephaga_. The most noticeable of them are the rock or
+kelp goose, _C. antarctica_, and the upland goose, _C. magellanica_. In
+both of these the sexes are totally unlike in colour, but in others a
+greater similarity obtains.[4] Formerly erroneously associated with the
+birds of this group comes one which belongs to the northern hemisphere,
+and is common to the Old World as well as the New. It contains the geese
+which have received the common names of bernacles or brents,[5] and the
+scientific appellations of _Bernicla_ and _Branta_--for the use of
+either of which much may be said by nomenclaturists. All the species of
+this section are distinguished by their general dark sooty colour,
+relieved in some by white of greater or less purity, and by way of
+distinction from the members of the genus _Anser_, which are known as
+grey geese, are frequently called by fowlers black geese. Of these, the
+best known both in Europe and North America is the brent-goose--the
+_Anas bernicla_ of Linnaeus, and the _B. torquata_ of many modern
+writers--a truly marine bird, seldom (in Europe at least) quitting
+salt-water, and coming southwards in vast flocks towards autumn,
+frequenting bays and estuaries on the British coasts, where it lives
+chiefly on sea-grass (_Zostera maritima_). It is known to breed in
+Spitsbergen and in Greenland. A form which is by some ornithologists
+deemed a good species, and called by them _B. nigricans_, occurs chiefly
+on the Pacific coast of North America. In it the black of the neck,
+which in the common brent terminates just above the breast, extends over
+most of the lower parts. The true bernacle-goose,[6] the _B. leucopsis_
+of most authors, is but a casual visitor to North America, but is said
+to breed in Iceland, and occasionally in Norway. Its usual _incunabula_,
+however, still form one of the puzzles of the ornithologist, and the
+difficulty is not lessened by the fact that it will breed freely in
+semi-captivity, while the brent-goose will not. From the latter the
+bernacle-goose is easily distinguished by its larger size and white
+cheeks. Hutchins's goose (_B. Hutchinsi_) seems to be its true
+representative in the New World. In this the face is dark, but a white
+crescentic or triangular patch extends from the throat on either side
+upwards behind the eye. Almost exactly similar in coloration to the
+last, but greatly superior in size, and possessing 18 rectrices, while
+all the foregoing have but 16, is the common wild goose of America, _B.
+canadensis_, which, for more than two centuries has been introduced into
+Europe, where it propagates so freely that it has been included by
+nearly all the ornithologists of this quarter of the globe as a member
+of its fauna. An allied form, by some deemed a species, is _B.
+leucopareia_, which ranges over the western part of North America, and,
+though having 18 rectrices, is distinguished by a white collar round the
+lower part of the neck. The most diverse species of this group of geese
+are the beautiful _B. ruficollis_, a native of north-eastern Asia, which
+occasionally strays to western Europe, and has been obtained more than
+once in Britain, and that which is peculiar to the Hawaian archipelago,
+_B. sandvicensis_.
+
+The largest living goose is that called the Chinese, Guinea or
+swan-goose, _Cygnopsis cygnoides_, and this is the stock whence the
+domestic geese of several eastern countries have sprung. It may often be
+seen in English parks, and it is found to cross readily with the common
+tame goose, the offspring being fertile, and Blyth has said that these
+crosses are very abundant in India. The true home of the species is in
+eastern Siberia or Mongolia. It is distinguished by its long smooth
+neck, marked dorsally by a chocolate streak. The reclaimed form is
+usually distinguished by the knob at the base of the bill, but the
+evidence of many observers shows that this is not found in the wild
+race. Of this bird there is a perfectly white breed.
+
+We have next to mention a very curious form, _Cereopsis
+novae-hollandiae_, which is peculiar to Australia, and is a more
+terrestrial type of goose than any other now existing. Its short,
+decurved bill and green cere give it a very peculiar expression, and its
+almost uniform grey plumage, bearing rounded black spots, is also
+remarkable. It bears captivity well, breeding in confinement, but is now
+seldom seen. It appears to have been formerly very abundant in many
+parts of Australia, from which it has of late been exterminated. Some of
+its peculiarities seem to have been still more exaggerated in a bird
+that is wholly extinct, the _Cnemiornis calcitrans_ of New Zealand, the
+remains of which were described in full by Sir R. Owen in 1873 (_Trans.
+Zool. Society_, ix. 253). Among the first portions of this singular bird
+that were found were the _tibiae_, presenting an extraordinary
+development of the _patella_, which, united with the shank-bone, gave
+rise to the generic name applied. For some time the affinity of the
+owner of this wonderful structure was in doubt, but all hesitation was
+dispelled by the discovery of a nearly perfect skeleton, now in the
+British Museum, which proved the bird to be a goose, of great size, and
+unable, from the shortness of its wings, to fly. In correlation with
+this loss of power may also be noted the dwindling of the keel of the
+sternum. Generally, however, its osteological characters point to an
+affinity to _Cereopsis_, as was noticed by Dr Hector (_Trans. New Zeal.
+Institute_, vi. 76-84), who first determined its Anserine character.
+
+Birds of the genera _Chenalopex_ (the Egyptian and Orinoco geese),
+_Plectropterus_, _Sarcidiornis_, _Chlamydochen_ and some others, are
+commonly called geese. It seems uncertain whether they should be grouped
+with the _Anserinae_. The males of all, like those of the
+above-mentioned genus _Chloephaga_, appear to have that curious
+enlargement at the junction of the bronchial tubes and the trachea which
+is so characteristic of the ducks or _Anatinae_.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The meaning and derivation of this word _lag_ had long been a
+    puzzle until Skeat suggested (_Ibis_, 1870, p. 301) that it signified
+    late, last, or slow, as in _laggard_, a loiterer, _lagman_, the last
+    man, _lagteeth_, the posterior molar or "wisdom" teeth (as the last
+    to appear), and _lagclock_, a clock that is behind time. Thus the
+    grey lag goose is the grey goose which in England when the name was
+    given was not migratory but _lagged_ behind the other wild species at
+    the season when they betook themselves to their northern
+    breeding-quarters. In connexion with this word, however, must be
+    noticed the curious fact mentioned by Rowley (_Orn. Miscell._, iii.
+    213), that the flocks of tame geese in Lincolnshire are urged on by
+    their drivers with the cry of "lag'em, lag'em."
+
+  [2] From the times of the Romans white geese have been held in great
+    estimation, and hence, doubtless, they have been preferred as
+    breeding stock, but the practice of plucking geese alive, continued
+    for so many centuries, has not improbably also helped to perpetuate
+    this variation, for it is well known to many bird-keepers that a
+    white feather is often produced in place of one of the natural colour
+    that has been pulled out.
+
+  [3] In some English counties, especially Norfolk and Lincoln, it was
+    no uncommon thing formerly for a man to keep a stock of a thousand
+    geese, each of which might be reckoned to rear on an average seven
+    goslings. The flocks were regularly taken to pasture and water, just
+    as sheep are, and the man who tended them was called the gooseherd,
+    corrupted into gozzerd. The birds were plucked five times in the
+    year, and in autumn the flocks were driven to London or other large
+    markets. They travelled at the rate of about a mile an hour, and
+    would get over nearly 10 m. in the day. For further particulars the
+    reader may be referred to Pennant's _British Zoology_; Montagu's
+    _Ornithological Dictionary_; Latham's _General History of Birds_; and
+    Rowley's _Ornithological Miscellany_ (iii. 206-215), where some
+    account also may be found of the goose-fatting at Strassburg.
+
+  [4] See Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Society (1876), pp. 361-369.
+
+  [5] The etymology of these two words is exceedingly obscure. The
+    ordinary spelling bernicle seems to be wrong, if we may judge from
+    the analogy of the French _Bernache_. In both words the _e_ should be
+    sounded as _a_.
+
+  [6] The old fable, perhaps still believed by the uneducated in some
+    parts of the world, was that bernacle-geese were produced from the
+    barnacles (_Lepadidae_) that grow on timber exposed to salt-water.
+
+
+
+
+GOOSE (GAME OF), an ancient French game, said to have been derived from
+the Greeks, very popular at the close of the middle ages. It was played
+on a piece of card-board upon which was drawn a fantastic scroll, called
+the _jardin de l'Oie_ (goose-garden), divided into 63 spaces marked with
+certain emblems, such as dice, an inn, a bridge, a labyrinth, &c. The
+emblem inscribed on 1 and 63, as well as every ninth space between, was
+a goose. The object was to land one's counter in number 63, the number
+of spaces moved through being determined by throwing two dice. The
+counter was advanced or retired according to the space on which it was
+placed. For instance if it rested on the inn it must remain there until
+each adversary, of which there might be several, had played twice; if it
+rested on the _death's head_ the player must begin over again; if it
+went beyond 63 it must be retired a certain number of spaces. The game
+was usually played for a stake, and special fines were exacted for
+resting on certain spaces. At the end of the 18th century a variation of
+the game was called the _jeu de la Revolution Francaise_.
+
+
+
+
+GOOSEBERRY, _Ribes Grossularia_, a well-known fruit-bush of northern and
+central Europe, placed in the same genus of the natural order to which
+it gives name (Ribesiaceae) as the closely allied currants. It forms a
+distinct section _Grossularia_, the members of which differ from the
+true currents chiefly in their spinous stems, and in their flowers
+growing on short footstalks, solitary, or two or three together, instead
+of in racemes.
+
+The wild gooseberry is a small, straggling bush, nearly resembling the
+cultivated plant,--the branches being thickly set with sharp spines,
+standing out singly or in diverging tufts of two or three from the bases
+of the short spurs or lateral leaf shoots, on which the bell-shaped
+flowers are produced, singly or in pairs, from the groups of rounded,
+deeply-crenated 3- or 5-lobed leaves. The fruit is smaller than in the
+garden kinds, but is often of good flavour; it is generally hairy, but
+in one variety smooth, constituting the _R. Uva-crispa_ of writers; the
+colour is usually green, but plants are occasionally met with having
+deep purple berries. The gooseberry is indigenous in Europe and western
+Asia, growing naturally in alpine thickets and rocky woods in the lower
+country, from France eastward, perhaps as far as the Himalaya. In
+Britain it is often found in copses and hedgerows and about old ruins,
+but has been so long a plant of cultivation that it is difficult to
+decide upon its claim to a place in the native flora of the island.
+Common as it is now on some of the lower slopes of the Alps of Piedmont
+and Savoy, it is uncertain whether the Romans were acquainted with the
+gooseberry, though it may possibly be alluded to in a vague passage of
+Pliny: the hot summers of Italy, in ancient times as at present, would
+be unfavourable to its cultivation. Abundant in Germany and France, it
+does not appear to have been much grown there in the middle ages, though
+the wild fruit was held in some esteem medicinally for the cooling
+properties of its acid juice in fevers; while the old English name,
+_Fea-berry_, still surviving in some provincial dialects, indicates that
+it was similarly valued in Britain, where it was planted in gardens at a
+comparatively early period. William Turner describes the gooseberry in
+his _Herball_, written about the middle of the 16th century, and a few
+years later it is mentioned in one of Thomas Tusser's quaint rhymes as
+an ordinary object of garden culture. Improved varieties were probably
+first raised by the skilful gardeners of Holland, whose name for the
+fruit, _Kruisbezie_, may have been easily corrupted into the present
+English vernacular word.[1] Towards the end of the 18th century the
+gooseberry became a favourite object of cottage-horticulture, especially
+in Lancashire, where the working cotton-spinners have raised numerous
+varieties from seed, their efforts having been chiefly directed to
+increasing the size of the fruit. Of the many hundred sorts enumerated
+in recent horticultural works, few perhaps equal in flavour some of the
+older denizens of the fruit-garden, such as the "old rough red" and
+"hairy amber." The climate of the British Islands seems peculiarly
+adapted to bring the gooseberry to perfection, and it may be grown
+successfully even in the most northern parts of Scotland; indeed, the
+flavour of the fruit is said to improve with increasing latitude. In
+Norway even, the bush flourishes in gardens on the west coast nearly up
+to the Arctic circle, and it is found wild as far north as 63 deg. The
+dry summers of the French and German plains are less suited to it,
+though it is grown in some hilly districts with tolerable success. The
+gooseberry in the south of England will grow well in cool situations,
+and may be sometimes seen in gardens near London flourishing under the
+partial shade of apple trees; but in the north it needs full exposure to
+the sun to bring the fruit to perfection. It will succeed in almost any
+soil, but prefers a rich loam or black alluvium, and, though naturally a
+plant of rather dry places, will do well in moist land, if drained.
+
+The varieties are most easily propagated by cuttings planted in the
+autumn, which root rapidly, and in a few years form good fruit-bearing
+bushes. Much difference of opinion prevails regarding the mode of
+pruning this valuable shrub; it is probable that in different situations
+it may require varying treatment. The fruit being borne on the lateral
+spurs, and on the shoots of the last year, it is the usual practice to
+shorten the side branches in the winter, before the buds begin to
+expand; some reduce the longer leading shoots at the same time, while
+others prefer to nip off the ends of these in the summer while they are
+still succulent. When large fruit is desired, plenty of manure should
+be supplied to the roots, and the greater portion of the berries picked
+off while still small. If standards are desired, the gooseberry may be
+with advantage grafted or budded on stocks of some other species of
+_Ribes_, _R. aureum_, the ornamental golden currant of the flower
+garden, answering well for the purpose. The giant gooseberries of the
+Lancashire "fanciers" are obtained by the careful culture of varieties
+specially raised with this object, the growth being encouraged by
+abundant manuring, and the removal of all but a very few berries from
+each plant. Single gooseberries of nearly 2 oz. in weight have been
+occasionally exhibited; but the produce of such fanciful horticulture is
+generally insipid. The bushes at times suffer much from the ravages of
+the caterpillars of the gooseberry or magpie moth, _Abraxas
+grossulariata_, which often strip the branches of leaves in the early
+summer, if not destroyed before the mischief is accomplished. The most
+effectual way of getting rid of this pretty but destructive insect is to
+look over each bush carefully, and pick off the larvae by hand; when
+larger they may be shaken off by striking the branches, but by that time
+the harm is generally done--the eggs are laid on the leaves of the
+previous season. Equally annoying in some years is the smaller larva of
+the V-moth, _Halias vanaria_, which often appears in great numbers, and
+is not so readily removed. The gooseberry is sometimes attacked by the
+grub of the gooseberry sawfly, _Nematus ribesii_, of which several
+broods appear in the course of the spring and summer, and are very
+destructive. The grubs bury themselves in the ground to pass into the
+pupal state; the first brood of flies, hatched just as the bushes are
+coming into leaf in the spring, lay their eggs on the lower side of the
+leaves, where the small greenish larvae soon after emerge. For the
+destruction of the first broods it has been recommended to syringe the
+bushes with tar-water; perhaps a very weak solution of carbolic acid
+might prove more effective. The powdered root of white hellebore is said
+to destroy both this grub and the caterpillars of the gooseberry moth
+and V-moth; infusion of foxglove, and tobacco-water, are likewise tried
+by some growers. If the fallen leaves are carefully removed from the
+ground in the autumn and burnt, and the surface of the soil turned over
+with the fork or spade, most eggs and chrysalids will be destroyed.
+
+The gooseberry was introduced into the United States by the early
+settlers, and in some parts of New England large quantities of the green
+fruit are produced and sold for culinary use in the towns; but the
+excessive heat of the American summer is not adapted for the healthy
+maturation of the berries, especially of the English varieties. Perhaps
+if some of these, or those raised in the country, could be crossed with
+one of the indigenous species, kinds might be obtained better fitted for
+American conditions of culture, although the gooseberry does not readily
+hybridize. The attacks of the American gooseberry mildew have largely
+contributed to the failure of the crop in America.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--A Fungal Disease of the Gooseberry (_Aecidium
+Grossulariae_.)
+
+1, Leaf showing patches of cluster-cups on surface; 2, Fruit, showing
+same; 3, Cluster-cups much enlarged.]
+
+Occasionally the gooseberry is attacked by the fungus till recently
+called _Aecidium Grossulariae_, which forms little cups with white torn
+edges clustered together on reddish spots on the leaves or fruits (fig.
+1). It has recently been discovered that the spores contained in these
+cups will not reproduce the disease on the gooseberry, but infect
+species of _Carex_ (sedges) on which they produce a fungus of a totally
+different appearance. This stage in the life-history of the parasite
+gives its name to the whole fungus, so that it is now known as _Puccinia
+Pringsheimiana_. Both _uredospores_ and _teleutospores_ are formed on
+the sedge, and the latter live through the winter and produce the
+disease on the gooseberry in the succeeding year. In cases where the
+disease proves troublesome the sedges in the neighbourhood should be
+destroyed.
+
+[Illustration: From George Massee's _Text-Book of Plant Diseases_, by
+permission of Duckworth & Co.
+
+FIG. 2.--Gooseberry Mildew (Microsphaeria Grossulariae.)
+
+1, Leaf attacked by the fungus; 2, Fructification or _perithecium_; the
+end of one of its numerous appendages is shown more highly magnified in
+3, 4, 5, spore sacs (_asci_) from the _perithecium_, containing spores.]
+
+A much more prevalent disease is that caused by _Microsphaeria
+Grossulariae_. This is a mildew growing on the surface of the leaf and
+sending suckers into the epidermis. The white mycelium gives the leaves
+of the plant the appearance of having been whitewashed (fig. 2).
+Numerous white spores are produced in the summer which are able to
+germinate immediately, and later small blackish fruits (_perithecia_)
+are produced that pass uninjured through the winter liberating the
+spores they contain in the spring, which infect the young developing
+leaves of the bush. In bad cases the plants are greatly injured but
+frequently little harm is done. Attacked plants should be sprayed with
+potassium sulphide.
+
+[Illustration: From the _Journal of the Board of Agriculture_ (May
+1907), by permission of the Dept. of Agriculture and Technical
+Instruction for Ireland.
+
+FIG. 3A.--American Gooseberry Mildew (_Sphaerotheca mors-uvae_). Plant
+with leaves and fruit attacked by the fungus.]
+
+An allied fungus, _Sphaerotheca mors-uvae_, of much greater virulence,
+has recently appeared in England, causing the disease known as "American
+gooseberry mildew" (fig. 3A). In the main the mode of attack is similar
+to that of the last-mentioned, but not only are the leaves attacked, but
+the tips of the young shoots and the fruits become covered by the
+cobweb-like mycelium, the attack frequently resulting in the death of
+the shoots and the destruction of the fruits. After a time the mycelium
+becomes rusty brown and produces the winter form of the fungus. Through
+the winter the shoots are covered thickly with the brown mycelium and in
+the spring the spores contained in the perithecia germinate and start
+the infection anew, as in the case of the European mildew. This fungus
+has recently been the subject of legislation, and when it appears in a
+district strong repressive measures are called for. In bad cases the
+attacked bushes should be destroyed, while in milder attacks frequent
+spraying with potassium sulphide and the pruning off and immediate
+destruction by fire of all the young shoots showing the mildew should be
+resorted to.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3B.--1, Fructification (_perithecium_) bursting,
+ascus containing spores protruding; 2, Ascus with spores more highly
+magnified.]
+
+The gooseberry, when ripe, yields a fine wine by the fermentation of the
+juice with water and sugar, the resulting sparkling liquor retaining
+much of the flavour of the fruit. By similarly treating the juice of the
+green fruit, picked just before it ripens, an effervescing wine is
+produced, nearly resembling some kinds of champagne, and, when skilfully
+prepared, far superior to much of the liquor sold under that name.
+Brandy has been made from ripe gooseberries by distillation; by exposing
+the juice with sugar to the acetous fermentation a good vinegar may be
+obtained. The gooseberry, when perfectly ripe, contains a large quantity
+of sugar, most abundant in the red and amber varieties; in the former it
+amounts to from 6 to upwards of 8%. The acidity of the fruit is chiefly
+due to malic acid.
+
+Several other species of the sub-genus produce edible fruit, though none
+have as yet been brought under economic culture. Among them may be
+noticed _R. oxyacanthoides_ and _R. Cynosbati_, abundant in Canada and
+the northern parts of the United States, and _R. gracile_, common along
+the Alleghany range. The group is a widely distributed one in the north
+temperate zone,--one species is found in Europe extending to the
+Caucasus and North Africa (Atlas Mountains), five occur in Asia and
+nineteen in North America, the range extending southwards to Mexico and
+Guatemala.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The first part of the word has been usually treated as an
+    etymological corruption either of this Dutch word or the allied Ger.
+    _Krausbeere_, or of the earlier forms of the Fr. _groseille_. The
+    _New English Dictionary_ takes the obvious derivation from "goose"
+    and "berry" as probable; "the grounds on which plants and fruits have
+    received names associating them with animals are so commonly
+    inexplicable, that the want of appropriateness in the meaning affords
+    no sufficient ground for assuming that the word is an etymologizing
+    corruption." Skeat (_Etym. Dict._, 1898) connects the French, Dutch
+    and German words, and finds the origin in the M.H.G. _krus_, curling,
+    crisped, applied here to the hairs on the fruit. The French word was
+    latinized as _grossularia_ and confused with _groseus_, thick, fat.
+
+
+
+
+GOOTY, a town and hill fortress in southern India, in the Anantapur
+district of Madras, 48 m. E. of Bellary. Pop. (1901) 9682. The town is
+surrounded by a circle of rocky hills, connected by a wall. On the
+highest of these stands the citadel, 2100 ft. above sea-level and 1000
+ft. above the surrounding country. Here was the stronghold of Morari Rao
+Ghorpade, a famous Mahratta warrior and ally of the English, who was
+ultimately starved into surrender by Hayder Ali in 1775.
+
+
+
+
+GOPHER (_Testudo polyphemus_), the only living representative on the
+North American continent of the genus _Testudo_ of the family
+_Testudinidae_ or land tortoises; it occurs in the south-eastern parts
+of the United States, from Florida in the south to the river Savannah in
+the north. Its carapace, which is oblong and remarkably compressed,
+measures from 12-18 in. in extreme length, the shields which cover it
+being grooved, and of a yellow-brown colour. It is characterized by the
+shape of the front lobe of the plastron, which is bent upwards and
+extends beyond the carapace. The gopher abounds chiefly in the forests,
+but occasionally visits the open plains, where it does great damage,
+especially to the potato crops, on which it feeds. It is a nocturnal
+animal, remaining concealed by day in its deep burrow, and coming forth
+at night to feed. The eggs, five in number, almost round and 1-1/2 in.
+in diameter, are laid in a separate cavity near the entrance. The flesh
+of the gopher or mungofa, as it is also called, is considered excellent
+eating.
+
+The name "gopher" is more commonly applied to certain small rodent
+mammals, particularly the pocket-gopher.
+
+
+
+
+GOPPINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, on the
+right bank of the Fils, 22 m. E.S.E. of Stuttgart on the railway to
+Friedrichshafen. Pop. (1905) 20,870. It possesses a castle built, partly
+with stones from the ruined castle of Hohenstaufen, by Duke Christopher
+of Wurttemberg in the 16th century and now used as public offices, two
+Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a synagogue, a classical
+school, and a modern school. The manufactures are considerable and
+include linen and woollen cloth, leather, glue, paper and toys. There
+are machine shops and tanneries in the town. Three m. N. of the town are
+the ruins of the castle of Hohenstaufen. Goppingen originally belonged
+to the house of Hohenstaufen, and in 1270 came into possession of the
+counts of Wurttemberg. It was surrounded by walls in 1129, and was
+almost entirely rebuilt after a fire in 1782.
+
+  See Pfeiffer, _Beschreibung und Geschichte der Stadt Goppingen_
+  (1885).
+
+
+
+
+GORAKHPUR, a city, district and division of the United Provinces of
+British India. The city is situated on the left bank of the river Rapti.
+Pop. (1901) 64,148. It is believed to have been founded about 1400 A.D.
+It is the civil headquarters of the district and was formerly a military
+cantonment. It consists of a number of adjacent village sites, sometimes
+separated by cultivated land, and most of the inhabitants are
+agriculturists.
+
+The DISTRICT OF GORAKHPUR has an area of 4535 sq. m. It lies immediately
+south of the lower Himalayan slopes, but itself forms a portion of the
+great alluvial plain. Only a few sandhills break the monotony of its
+level surface, which is, however, intersected by numerous rivers studded
+with lakes and marshes. In the north and centre dense forests abound,
+and the whole country has a verdant appearance. The principal rivers are
+the Rapti, the Gogra, the Gandak and Little Gandak, the Kuana, the
+Rohin, the Ami and the Gunghi. Tigers are found in the north, and many
+other wild animals abound throughout the district. The lakes are well
+stocked with fish. The district is not subject to very intense heat,
+from which it is secured by its vicinity to the hills and the moisture
+of its soil. Dust-storms are rare, and cool breezes from the north,
+rushing down the gorges of the Himalayas, succeed each short interval of
+warm weather. The climate is, however, relaxing. The southern and
+eastern portions are as healthy as most parts of the province, but the
+_tarai_ and forest-tracts are still subject to malaria.
+
+Gautama Buddha, the founder of the religion bearing his name, was born,
+and died near the boundaries of the district. From the beginning of the
+6th century the country was the scene of a continuous struggle between
+the Bhars and their Aryan antagonists, the Rathors. About 900 the
+Domhatars or military Brahmans appeared, and expelled the Rathors from
+the town of Gorakhpur, but they also were soon driven back by other
+invaders. During the 15th and 16th centuries, after the district had
+been desolated by incessant war, the descendants of the various
+conquerors held parts of the territory, and each seems to have lived
+quite isolated, as no bridges or roads attest any intercourse with each
+other. Towards the end of the 16th century Mussulmans occupied Gorakhpur
+town, but they interfered very little with the district, and allowed it
+to be controlled by the native rajas. In the middle of the 18th century
+a formidable foe, the Banjaras from the west, so weakened the power of
+the rajas that they could not resist the fiscal exactions of the Oudh
+officials, who plundered the country to a great extent. The district
+formed part of the territory ceded by Oudh to the British under the
+treaty of 1801. During the Mutiny it was lost for a short time, but
+under the friendly Gurkhas the rebels were driven out. The population in
+1901 was 2,957,074, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. The district
+is traversed by the main line and several branches of the Bengal &
+North-Western railway, and the Gandak, the Gogra and the Rapti are
+navigable.
+
+The DIVISION has an area of 9534 sq. m. The population in 1901 was
+6,333,012, giving an average density of 664 persons per sq. m., being
+more than one to every acre, and the highest for any large tract in
+India.
+
+
+
+
+GORAL, the native name of a small Himalayan rough-haired and
+cylindrical-horned ruminant classed in the same group as the chamois.
+Scientifically this animal is known as _Urotragus_ (or _Cemas_) _goral_;
+and the native name is now employed as the designation of all the other
+members of the same genus. In addition to certain peculiarities in the
+form of the skull, gorals are chiefly distinguished from serows (q.v.)
+by not possessing a gland below the eye, nor a corresponding depression
+in the skull. Several species are known, ranging from the Himalaya to
+Burma, Tibet and North China. Of these, the two Himalayan gorals (_U.
+goral_ and _U. bedfordi_) are usually found in small parties, but less
+commonly in pairs. They generally frequent grassy hills, or rocky ground
+clothed with forest; in fine weather feeding only in the mornings and
+evenings, but when the sky is cloudy grazing throughout the day.
+
+
+
+
+GORAMY, or GOURAMY (_Osphromenus olfax_), reputed to be one of the
+best-flavoured freshwater fishes in the East Indian archipelago. Its
+original home is Java, Sumatra, Borneo and several other East Indian
+islands, but thence it has been transported to and acclimatized in
+Penang, Malacca, Mauritius and even Cayenne. Being an almost omnivorous
+fish and tenacious of life, it seems to recommend itself particularly
+for acclimatization in other tropical countries; and specimens kept in
+captivity become as tame as carps. It attains the size of a large
+turbot. Its shape is flat and short, the body covered with large scales;
+the dorsal and anal fins are provided with numerous spines, and the
+ventral fins produced into long filaments. Like _Anabas_, the climbing
+perch, it possesses a suprabranchial accessory respiratory organ.
+
+[Illustration: Goramy.]
+
+
+
+
+GORBERSDORF, a village and climatic health resort of Germany, in the
+Prussian province of Silesia, romantically situated in a deep and
+well-wooded valley of the Waldenburg range, 1900 ft. above the sea, 60
+m. S.W. of Breslau by the railway to Friedland and 3 m. from the
+Austrian frontier. Pop. 700. It has four large sanatoria for
+consumptives, the earliest of which was founded in 1854 by Hermann
+Brehmer (1826-1889).
+
+
+
+
+GORBODUC, a mythical king of Britain. He gave his kingdom away during
+his lifetime to his two sons, Ferrex and Porrex. The two quarrelled and
+the younger stabbed the elder. Their mother, loving the latter most,
+avenged his death by murdering her son, and the people, horrified at her
+act, revolted and murdered both her and King Gorboduc. This legend was
+the subject of the earliest regular English tragedy which in 1561 was
+played before Queen Elizabeth in the Inner Temple hall. It was written
+by Thomas Sackville, Lord Buckhurst and Thomas Norton in collaboration.
+Under the title of _Gorboduc_ it was published first very corruptly in
+1565, and in better form as _The Tragedy of Ferrex and Porrex_ in 1570.
+
+
+
+
+GORCHAKOV, or GORTCHAKOFF, a noble Russian family, descended from
+Michael Vsevolodovich, prince of Chernigov, who, in 1246, was
+assassinated by the Mongols. PRINCE ANDREY IVANOVICH (1768-1855),
+general in the Russian army, took a conspicuous part in the final
+campaigns against Napoleon. ALEXANDER IVANOVICH (1769-1825) served with
+distinction under his relative Suvarov in the Turkish Wars, and took
+part as a general officer in the Italian and Swiss operations of 1799,
+and in the war against Napoleon in Poland in 1806-1807 (battle of
+Heilsberg). PETR DMITRIEVICH (1790-1868) served under Kamenski and
+Kutusov in the campaign against Turkey, and afterwards against France in
+1813-1814. In 1820 he suppressed an insurrection in the Caucasus, for
+which service he was raised to the rank of major-general. In 1828-1829
+he fought under Wittgenstein against the Turks, won an action at Aidos,
+and signed the treaty of peace at Adrianople. In 1839 he was made
+governor of Eastern Siberia, and in 1851 retired into private life. When
+the Crimean War broke out he offered his services to the emperor
+Nicholas, by whom he was appointed general of the VI. army corps in the
+Crimea. He commanded the corps in the battles of Alma and Inkerman. He
+retired in 1855 and died at Moscow, on the 18th of March 1868.
+
+PRINCE MIKHAIL DMITRIEVICH (1795-1861), brother of the last named,
+entered the Russian army in 1807 and took part in the campaigns against
+Persia in 1810, and in 1812-1815 against France. During the
+Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829 he was present at the sieges of Silistria
+and Shumla. After being appointed, in 1830, a general officer, he was
+present in the campaign in Poland, and was wounded at the battle of
+Grochow, on the 25th of February 1831. He also distinguished himself at
+the battle of Ostrolenka and at the taking of Warsaw. For these services
+he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general. In 1846 he was
+nominated military governor of Warsaw. In 1849 he commanded the Russian
+artillery in the war against the Hungarians, and in 1852 he visited
+London as a representative of the Russian army at the funeral of the
+duke of Wellington. At this time he was chief of the staff of the
+Russian army and adjutant-general to the tsar. Upon Russia declaring war
+against Turkey in 1853, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the
+troops which occupied Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1854 he crossed the
+Danube and besieged Silistria, but was superseded in April by Prince
+Paskevich, who, however, resigned on the 8th of June, when Gorchakov
+resumed the command. In July the siege of Silistria was raised, and the
+Russian armies recrossed the Danube; in August they withdrew to Russia.
+In 1855 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian forces in the
+Crimea in place of Prince Menshikov. Gorchakov's defence of Sevastopol,
+and final retreat to the northern part of the town, which he continued
+to defend till peace was signed in Paris, were conducted with skill and
+energy. In 1856 he was appointed governor-general of Poland in
+succession to Prince Paskevich. He died at Warsaw on the 30th of May
+1861, and was buried, in accordance with his own wish, at Sevastopol.
+
+PRINCE GORCHAKOV, ALEXANDER MIKHAILOVICH (1798-1883). Russian statesman,
+cousin of Princes Petr and Mikhail Gorchakov, was born on the 16th of
+July 1798, and was educated at the lyceum of Tsarskoye Selo, where he
+had the poet Pushkin as a school-fellow. He became a good classical
+scholar, and learnt to speak and write in French with facility and
+elegance. Pushkin in one of his poems described young Gorchakov as
+"Fortune's favoured son," and predicted his success. On leaving the
+lyceum Gorchakov entered the foreign office under Count Nesselrode. His
+first diplomatic work of importance was the negotiation of a marriage
+between the grand duchess Olga and the crown prince Charles of
+Wurttemberg. He remained at Stuttgart for some years as Russian minister
+and confidential adviser of the crown princess. He foretold the outbreak
+of the revolutionary spirit in Germany and Austria, and was credited
+with counselling the abdication of Ferdinand in favour of Francis
+Joseph. When the German confederation was re-established in 1850 in
+place of the parliament of Frankfort, Gorchakov was appointed Russian
+minister to the diet. It was here that he first met Prince Bismarck,
+with whom he formed a friendship which was afterwards renewed at St
+Petersburg. The emperor Nicholas found that his ambassador at Vienna,
+Baron Meyendorff, was not a sympathetic instrument for carrying out his
+schemes in the East. He therefore transferred Gorchakov to Vienna, where
+the latter remained through the critical period of the Crimean War.
+Gorchakov perceived that Russian designs against Turkey, supported by
+Great Britain and France, were impracticable, and he counselled Russia
+to make no more useless sacrifices, but to accept the bases of a
+pacification. At the same time, although he attended the Paris
+conference of 1856, he purposely abstained from affixing his signature
+to the treaty of peace after that of Count Orlov, Russia's chief
+representative. For the time, however, he made a virtue of necessity,
+and Alexander II., recognizing the wisdom and courage which Gorchakov
+had exhibited, appointed him minister of foreign affairs in place of
+Count Nesselrode. Not long after his accession to office Gorchakov
+issued a circular to the foreign powers, in which he announced that
+Russia proposed, for internal reasons, to keep herself as free as
+possible from complications abroad, and he added the now historic
+phrase, "_La Russie ne boude pas; elle se recueille_." During the Polish
+insurrection Gorchakov rebuffed the suggestions of Great Britain,
+Austria and France for assuaging the severities employed in quelling it,
+and he was especially acrid in his replies to Earl Russell's despatches.
+In July 1863 Gorchakov was appointed chancellor of the Russian empire
+expressly in reward for his bold diplomatic attitude towards an
+indignant Europe. The appointment was hailed with enthusiasm in Russia,
+and at that juncture Prince Chancellor Gorchakov was unquestionably the
+most powerful minister in Europe.
+
+An _approchement_ now began between the courts of Russia and Prussia;
+and in 1863 Gorchakov smoothed the way for the occupation of Holstein by
+the Federal troops. This seemed equally favourable to Austria and
+Prussia, but it was the latter power which gained all the substantial
+advantages; and when the conflict arose between Austria and Prussia in
+1866, Russia remained neutral and permitted Prussia to reap the fruits
+and establish her supremacy in Germany. When the Franco-German War of
+1870-71 broke out Russia answered for the neutrality of Austria. An
+attempt was made to form an anti-Prussian coalition, but it failed in
+consequence of the cordial understanding between the German and Russian
+chancellors. In return for Russia's service in preventing the aid of
+Austria from being given to France, Gorchakov looked to Bismarck for
+diplomatic support in the Eastern Question, and he received an
+instalment of the expected support when he successfully denounced the
+Black Sea clauses of the treaty of Paris. This was justly regarded by
+him as an important service to his country and one of the triumphs of
+his career, and he hoped to obtain further successes with the assistance
+of Germany, but the cordial relations between the cabinets of St
+Petersburg and Berlin did not subsist much longer. In 1875 Bismarck was
+suspected of a design of again attacking France, and Gorchakov gave him
+to understand, in a way which was not meant to be offensive, but which
+roused the German chancellor's indignation, that Russia would oppose any
+such scheme. The tension thus produced between the two statesmen was
+increased by the political complications of 1875-1878 in south-eastern
+Europe, which began with the Herzegovinian insurrection and culminated
+at the Berlin congress. Gorchakov hoped to utilize the complications in
+such a way as to recover, without war, the portion of Bessarabia ceded
+by the treaty of Paris, but he soon lost control of events, and the
+Slavophil agitation produced the Russo-Turkish campaign of 1877-78. By
+the preliminary peace of San Stefano the Slavophil aspirations seemed to
+be realized, but the stipulations of that peace were considerably
+modified by the congress of Berlin (13th June to 13th July 1878), at
+which the aged chancellor held nominally the post of first
+plenipotentiary, but left to the second plenipotentiary, Count Shuvalov,
+not only the task of defending Russian interests, but also the
+responsibility and odium for the concessions which Russia had to make to
+Great Britain and Austria. He had the satisfaction of seeing the lost
+portion of Bessarabia restored to his country by the Berlin treaty, but
+at the cost of greater sacrifices than he anticipated. After the
+congress he continued to hold the post of minister for foreign affairs,
+but lived chiefly abroad, and resigned formally in 1882, when he was
+succeeded by M. de Giers. He died at Baden-Baden on the 11th of March
+1883. Prince Gorchakov devoted himself entirely to foreign affairs, and
+took no part in the great internal reforms of Alexander II.'s reign. As
+a diplomatist he displayed many brilliant qualities--adroitness in
+negotiation, incisiveness in argument and elegance in style. His
+statesmanship, though marred occasionally by personal vanity and love of
+popular applause, was far-seeing and prudent. In the latter part of his
+career his main object was to raise the prestige of Russia by undoing
+the results of the Crimean War, and it may fairly be said that he in
+great measure succeeded.     (D. M. W.)
+
+
+
+
+GORDIAN, or GORDIANUS, the name of three Roman emperors. The first,
+Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus (A.D. 159-238),
+an extremely wealthy man, was descended from the Gracchi and Trajan,
+while his wife was the great-granddaughter of Antoninus Pius. While he
+gained unbounded popularity by his magnificent games and shows, his
+prudent and retired life did not excite the suspicion of Caracalla, in
+whose honour he wrote a long epic called _Antoninias_. Alexander Severus
+called him to the dangerous honours of government in Africa, and during
+his proconsulship occurred the usurpation of Maximin. The universal
+discontent roused by the oppressive rule of Maximin culminated in a
+revolt in Africa in 238, and Gordian reluctantly yielded to the popular
+clamour and assumed the purple. His son, Marcus Antonius Gordianus
+(192-238), was associated with him in the dignity. The senate confirmed
+the choice of the Africans, and most of the provinces gladly sided with
+the new emperors; but, even while their cause was so successful abroad,
+they had fallen before the sudden inroad of Cappellianus, legatus of
+Numidia and a supporter of Maximin. They had reigned only thirty-six
+days. Both the Gordians had deserved by their amiable character their
+high reputation; they were men of great accomplishments, fond of
+literature, and voluminous authors; but they were rather intellectual
+voluptuaries than able statesmen or powerful rulers. Having embraced the
+cause of Gordian, the senate was obliged to continue the revolt against
+Maximin, and appointed Pupienus Maximus and Caelius Balbinus, two of its
+noblest and most esteemed members, as joint emperors. At their
+inauguration a sedition arose, and the popular outcry for a Gordian was
+appeased by the association with them of M. Antonius Gordianus Pius
+(224-244), grandson of the elder Gordian, then a boy of thirteen.
+Maximin forthwith invaded Italy, but was murdered by his own troops
+while besieging Aquileia, and a revolt of the praetorian guards, to
+which Pupienus and Balbinus fell victims, left Gordian sole emperor. For
+some time he was under the control of his mother's eunuchs, till
+Timesitheus,[1] his father-in-law and praefect of the praetorian guard,
+persuaded him to assert his independence. When the Persians under Shapur
+(Sapor) I. invaded Mesopotamia, the young emperor opened the temple of
+Janus for the last time recorded in history, and marched in person to
+the East. The Persians were driven back over the Euphrates and defeated
+in the battle of Resaena (243), and only the death of Timesitheus (under
+suspicious circumstances) prevented an advance into the enemy's
+territory. Philip the Arabian, who succeeded Timesitheus, stirred up
+discontent in the army, and Gordian was murdered by the mutinous
+soldiers in Mesopotamia.
+
+  See lives of the Gordians by Capitolinus in the _Scriptores historiae
+  Augustae_; Herodian vii. viii.; Zosimus i. 16, 18; Ammianus
+  Marcellinus, xxiii. 5; Eutropius ix. 2; Aurelius Victor, _Caesares_,
+  27; article SHAPUR (I.); Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, i. 2619 f.
+  (von Rohden).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For this name see footnote to SHAPUR.
+
+
+
+
+GORDIUM, an ancient city of Phrygia situated on the Persian "Royal road"
+from Pessinus to Ancyra, and not far from the Sangarius. It lies
+opposite the village Pebi, a little north of the point where the
+Constantinople-Angora railway crosses the Sangarius. It is not to be
+confused with Gordiou-kome, refounded as Juliopolis, a Bithynian town on
+a small tributary of the Sangarius, about 47 m. in an air-line N.W. of
+Gordium. According to the legend, Gordium was founded by Gordius, a
+Phrygian peasant who had been called to the throne by his countrymen in
+obedience to an oracle of Zeus commanding them to select the first
+person that rode up to the temple of the god in a wagon. The king
+afterwards dedicated his car to the god, and another oracle declared
+that whoever succeeded in untying the strangely entwined knot of cornel
+bark which bound the yoke to the pole should reign over all Asia.
+Alexander the Great, according to the story, cut the knot by a stroke of
+his sword. Gordium was captured and destroyed by the Gauls soon after
+189 B.C. and disappeared from history. In imperial times only a small
+village existed on the site. Excavations made in 1900 by two German
+scholars, G. and A. Koerte, revealed practically no remains later than
+the middle of the 6th century B.C. (when Phrygia fell under Persian
+power).
+
+  See _Jahrbuch des Instituts_, Erganzungsheft v. (1904).
+       (J. G. C. A.)
+
+
+
+
+GORDON, the name of a Scottish family, no fewer than 157 main branches
+of which are traced by the family historians. A laird of Gorden, in
+Berwickshire, near the English border, is said to have fallen in the
+battle of the Standard (1138). The families of the two sons ascribed to
+him by tradition, Richard Gordon of Gordon and Adam Gordon of Huntly,
+were united by the marriage of their great-grandchildren Alicia and Sir
+Adam, whose grandson Sir Adam (killed at Halidon Hill, 1333) at first
+took the English side in the Scottish struggle for independence, and is
+the first member of the family definitely to emerge into history. He was
+justiciar of Scotland in 1310, but after Bannockburn he attached himself
+to Robert Bruce, who granted him in 1318 the lordship of Strathbogie in
+Aberdeenshire, to which Gordon gave the name of Huntly from a village on
+the Gordon estate in Berwickshire. He had two sons, Adam and William.
+The younger son, laird of Stitchel in Roxburghshire, was the ancestor of
+William de Gordon of Stitchel and Lochinvar, founder of the Galloway
+branch of the family represented in the Scottish peerage by the dormant
+viscounty of Kenmure (q.v.), created in 1633; most of the Irish and
+Virginian Gordons are offshoots of this stock. The elder son, Adam,
+inherited the Gordon-Huntly estates. He had two grandsons, Sir John (d.
+1394) and Sir Adam (slain at Homildon Hill, 1403). Sir John had two
+illegitimate sons, Jock of Scurdargue, the ancestor of the earls of
+Aberdeen, and Tam of Ruthven. From these two stocks most of the northern
+Gordon families are derived. Sir Adam's daughter and heiress, Elizabeth,
+married Sir Alexander Seton, and with her husband was confirmed in 1408
+in the possession of the barony of Gordon and Huntly in Berwickshire and
+of the Gordon lands in Aberdeen. The Seton-Gordons are their
+descendants. Their son Alexander was created earl of Huntly (see HUNTLY,
+EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF), probably in 1445; and his heirs became dukes
+of Gordon, George Gordon (c. 1650-1716), 4th marquess of Huntly, being
+created duke of Gordon in 1684. He had been educated in a French
+Catholic seminary, and served in the French army in the campaigns of
+1673 to 1675. Under James II. he was made keeper of Edinburgh Castle on
+account of his religion, but he refused to support James's efforts to
+impose Roman Catholicism on his subjects. He offered little active
+resistance when the castle was besieged by William III.'s forces. After
+his submission he was more than once imprisoned on suspicion of Jacobite
+leanings, and was ordered by George I. to reside on parole in Edinburgh.
+For some time before his death he was separated from his wife Elizabeth
+Howard, daughter of the 6th duke of Norfolk. His son Alexander, 2nd duke
+of Gordon (c. 1678-1728). joined the Old Pretender, but gained the royal
+pardon after the surrender of Gordon Castle in 1716. Of his children by
+his wife Henrietta Mordaunt, second daughter of Charles Mordaunt, earl
+of Peterborough, Cosmo George (c. 1720-1752) succeeded as 3rd duke; Lord
+Lewis Gordon (d. 1754) took an active part in the Jacobite rising of
+1745; and General Lord Adam Gordon (c. 1726-1801) became commander of
+the forces in Scotland in 1782, and governor of Edinburgh Castle in
+1786. Lord George Gordon (q.v.) was a younger son of the 3rd duke.
+
+The title, with the earldom of Norwich and the barony of Gordon Huntly,
+became extinct on the death of George, 5th duke (1770-1836), a
+distinguished soldier who raised the corps now known as the 2nd
+battalion of the Gordon Highlanders. The marquessate of Huntly passed to
+his cousin and heir-male, George, 5th earl of Aboyne. Lady Charlotte
+Gordon, sister of and co-heiress with the 5th duke, married Charles
+Lennox, 4th duke of Richmond, whose son took the name of Gordon-Lennox.
+The dukedom of Gordon was revived in 1876 in favour of the 6th duke of
+Richmond, who thenceforward was styled duke of Richmond and Gordon. Adam
+Gordon of Aboyne (d. 1537) took the courtesy title of earl of Sutherland
+in right of his wife Elizabeth, countess of Sutherland in her own right,
+sister of the 9th earl. The lawless and turbulent Gordons of Gight were
+the maternal ancestors of Lord Byron.
+
+Among the many soldiers of fortune bearing the name of Gordon was
+Colonel John Gordon, one of the murderers of Wallenstein. Patrick Gordon
+(1635-1699) was born at Auchleuchries in Aberdeenshire, entered the
+service of Charles X. of Sweden in 1651 and served against the Poles. He
+changed sides more than once before he found his way to Moscow in 1661
+and took service under the tsar Alexis. He became general in 1687; in
+1688 he helped to secure Peter the Great's ascendancy; and later he
+crushed the revolt of the Streltzi. His diary was published in German (3
+vols., 1849-1853, Moscow and St Petersburg), and selections from the
+English original by the Spalding Club (Aberdeen, 1859).
+
+The Gordons fill a considerable place in Scottish legend and ballad.
+"Captain Car," or "Edom (Adam) of Gordon" describes an incident in the
+struggle between the Forbeses and Gordons in Aberdeenshire in 1571; "The
+Duke of Gordon's Daughter" has apparently no foundation in fact, though
+"Geordie" of the ballad is sometimes said to have been George, 4th earl
+of Huntly; "The Fire of Frendraught" goes back to a feud (1630) between
+James Crichton of Frendraught and William Gordon of Rothiemay; the
+"Gallant Gordons Gay" figure in "Chevy Chase"; William Gordon of
+Earlston, the Covenanter, appears in "Bothwell Bridge" &c.
+
+  See William Gordon (of old Aberdeen), _The History of the Ancient,
+  Noble, and Illustrious House of Gordon_ (2 vols., Edinburgh,
+  1726-1727), of which _A Concise History of the ... House of Gordon_,
+  by C. A. Gordon (Aberdeen, 1754) is little more than an abridgment;
+  _The Records of Aboyne, 1230-1681_, edited by Charles, 11th marquess
+  of Huntly, &c. (New Spalding Club, Aberdeen, 1894); _The Gordon Book_,
+  ed. J. M. Bulloch (1902); _The House of Gordon_, ed. J. M. Bulloch
+  (Aberdeen, vol. i., 1903); and Mr Bulloch's _The First Duke of Gordon_
+  (1909).
+
+
+
+
+GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY (1833-1870), Australian poet, was born at Fayal, in
+the Azores, in 1833, the son of a retired Indian officer who taught
+Hindustani at Cheltenham College. Young Gordon was educated there and at
+Merton College, Oxford, but a youthful indiscretion led to his being
+sent in 1853 to South Australia, where he joined the mounted police. He
+then became a horsebreaker, but on his father's death he inherited a
+fortune and obtained a seat in the House of Assembly. At this time he
+had the reputation of being the best non-professional steeplechase rider
+in the colony. In 1867 he moved to Victoria and set up a livery stable
+at Ballarat. Two volumes of poems, _Sea Spray and Smoke Drift_ and
+_Ashtaroth_, were published in this year, and two years later he gave up
+his business and settled at New Brighton, near Melbourne. A third volume
+of poetry, _Bush Ballads and Galloping Rhymes_, appeared in 1870. It
+brought him more praise than emolument, and, thoroughly discouraged by
+his failure to make good his claim to some property in Scotland to which
+he believed himself entitled, he committed suicide on the 24th of June
+1870. His reputation rose after his death, and he became the best known
+and most widely popular of Australian poets. Much of Gordon's poetry
+might have been written in England; when, however, it is really local,
+it is vividly so; his genuine feeling frequently kindles into passion;
+his versification is always elastic and sonorous, but sometimes too
+reminiscent of Swinburne. His compositions are almost entirely lyrical,
+and their merit is usually in proportion to the degree in which they
+partake of the character of the ballad.
+
+  Gordon's poems were collected and published in 1880 with a
+  biographical introduction by Marcus Clarke.
+
+
+
+
+GORDON, ALEXANDER (c. 1692-c. 1754), Scottish antiquary, is believed to
+have been born in Aberdeen in 1692. He is the "Sandy Gordon" of Scott's
+_Antiquary_. Of his parentage and early history nothing is known. He
+appears to have distinguished himself in classics at Aberdeen
+University, and to have made a living at first by teaching languages and
+music. When still young he travelled abroad, probably in the capacity of
+tutor. He returned to Scotland previous to 1726, and devoted himself to
+antiquarian work. In 1726 appeared the _Itinerarium Septentrionale_, his
+greatest and best-known work. He was already the friend of Sir John
+Clerk, of Penicuik, better known as Baron Clerk (a baron of the
+exchequer); and the baron and Roger Gale (vice-president of the Society
+of Antiquaries) are the "two gentlemen, the honour of their age and
+country," whose letters were published, without their consent it
+appears, as an appendix to the _Itinerarium_. Subsequently Gordon was
+appointed secretary to the Society for the Encouragement of Learning,
+with an annual salary of L50. Resigning this post, or, as there seems
+reason for believing, being dismissed for carelessness in his accounts,
+he succeeded Dr Stukeley as secretary to the Society of Antiquaries, and
+also acted for a short time as secretary to the Egyptian Club, an
+association composed of gentlemen who had visited Egypt. In 1741 he
+accompanied James Glen (afterwards governor), to South Carolina. Through
+his influence Gordon, besides receiving a grant of land in South
+Carolina, became registrar of the province and justice of the peace, and
+filled several other offices. From his will, dated the 22nd of August
+1754, it appears he had a son Alexander and a daughter Frances, to whom
+he bequeathed most of his property, among which were portraits of
+himself and of friends painted by his own hand.
+
+  See Sir Daniel Wilson, _Alexander Gordon, the Antiquary_; and his
+  Papers in the _Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland_,
+  with Additional Notes and an Appendix of Original Letters by Dr David
+  Laing (_Proc. Soc. of Antiq. of Scot._ x. 363-382).
+
+
+
+
+GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE (1833-1885), British soldier and administrator,
+fourth son of General H. W. Gordon, Royal Artillery, was born at
+Woolwich on the 28th of January 1833. He received his early education at
+Taunton school, and was given a cadetship in the Royal Military Academy,
+Woolwich, in 1848. He was commissioned as second lieutenant in the corps
+of Royal Engineers on the 23rd of June 1852. After passing through a
+course of instruction at the Royal Engineers' establishment, Chatham, he
+was promoted lieutenant in 1854, and was sent to Pembroke dock to assist
+in the construction of the fortifications then being erected for the
+defence of Milford Haven. The Crimean War broke out shortly afterwards,
+and Gordon was ordered on active service, and landed at Balaklava on the
+1st of January 1855. The siege of Sevastopol was in progress, and he had
+his full share of the arduous work in the trenches. He was attached to
+one of the British columns which assaulted the Redan on the 18th of
+June, and was also present at the capture of that work on the 8th of
+September. He took part in the expedition to Kinburn, and then returned
+to Sevastopol to superintend a portion of the demolition of the Russian
+dockyard. After peace with Russia had been concluded, Gordon was
+attached to an international commission appointed to delimit the new
+boundary, as fixed by treaty, between Russia and Turkey in Bessarabia;
+and on the conclusion of this work he was ordered to Asia Minor on
+similar duty, with reference to the eastern boundary between the two
+countries. While so employed Gordon took the opportunity to make himself
+well acquainted with the geography and people of Armenia, and the
+knowledge of dealing with eastern nations then gained was of great use
+to him in after life.
+
+
+  In China.
+
+He returned to England towards the end of 1858, and was then selected
+for the appointment of adjutant and field-works instructor at the Royal
+Engineers' establishment, and took up his new duties at Chatham after
+promotion to the rank of captain in April 1859. But his stay in England
+was brief, for in 1860 war was declared against China, and Gordon was
+ordered out there, arriving at Tientsin in September. He was too late
+for the attack on the Taku forts, but was present at the occupation of
+Peking and destruction of the Summer Palace. He remained with the
+British force of occupation in northern China until April 1862, when the
+British troops, under the command of General Staveley, proceeded to
+Shanghai, in order to protect the European settlement at that place
+from the Taiping rebels. The Taiping revolt, which had some remarkable
+points of similarity with the Mahdist rebellion in the Sudan, had
+commenced in 1850 in the province of Kwangsi. The leader, Hung Sin
+Tsuan, a semi-political, semi-religious enthusiast, assumed the title of
+Tien Wang, or Heavenly King, and by playing on the feelings of the lower
+class of people gradually collected a considerable force. The Chinese
+authorities endeavoured to arrest him, but the imperialist troops were
+defeated. The area of revolt extended northwards through the provinces
+of Hunan and Hupeh, and down the valley of the Yangtsze-kiang as far as
+the great city of Nanking, which was captured by the rebels in 1853.
+Here the Tien Wang established his court, and while spending his own
+time in heavenly contemplation and earthly pleasures, sent the assistant
+Wangs on warlike expeditions through the adjacent provinces. For some
+years a constant struggle was maintained between the Chinese imperialist
+troops and the Taipings, with varying success on both sides. The latter
+gradually advanced eastwards, and approaching the important city of
+Shanghai, alarmed the European inhabitants, who subscribed to raise a
+mixed force of Europeans and Manila men for the defence of the town.
+This force, which was placed under the command of an American, Frederick
+Townsend Ward (1831-1862), took up a position in the country west of
+Shanghai to check the advance of the rebels. Fighting continued round
+Shanghai for about two years, but Ward's force was not altogether
+successful, and when General Staveley arrived from Tientsin affairs were
+in a somewhat critical condition. He decided to clear the district of
+rebels within a radius of 30 m. from Shanghai, and Gordon was attached
+to his staff as engineer officer. A French force, under the command of
+Admiral Protet, co-operated with Staveley and Ward, with his little
+army, also assisted. Kahding, Singpo and other towns were occupied, and
+the country was fairly cleared of rebels by the end of 1862. Ward was,
+unfortunately, killed in the assault of Tseki, and his successor,
+Burgevine, having had a quarrel with the Chinese authorities, Li Hung
+Chang, the governor of the Kiang-su province, requested General Staveley
+to appoint a British officer to command the contingent. Staveley
+selected Gordon, who had been made a brevet-major in December 1862 for
+his previous services, and the nomination was approved by the British
+government. The choice was judicious as further events proved. In March
+1863 Gordon proceeded to Sungkiang to take command of the force, which
+had received the name of "The Ever-Victorious Army," an encouraging
+though somewhat exaggerated title, considering its previous history.
+Without waiting to reorganize his troops he marched at once to the
+relief of Chansu, a town 40 m. north-west of Shanghai, which was
+invested by the rebels. The relief was successfully accomplished, and
+the operation established Gordon in the confidence of his troops. He
+then reorganized his force, a matter of no small difficulty, and
+advanced against Quinsan, which was captured, though with considerable
+loss. Gordon then marched through the country, seizing town after town
+from the rebels until at length the great city of Suchow was invested by
+his army and a body of Chinese imperialist troops. The city was taken on
+the 29th of November, and after its capture Gordon had a serious dispute
+with Li Hung Chang, as the latter had beheaded certain of the rebel
+leaders whose lives the former had promised to spare if they
+surrendered. This action, though not opposed to Chinese ethics, was so
+opposed to Gordon's ideas of honour that he withdrew his force from
+Suchow and remained inactive at Quinsan until February 1864. He then
+came to the conclusion that the subjugation of the rebels was more
+important than his dispute with Li, and visited the latter in order to
+arrange for further operations. By mutual consent no allusion was made
+to the death of the Wangs. This was a good example of one of Gordon's
+marked characteristics, that, though a man of strong personal feelings,
+he was always prepared to subdue them for the public benefit. He
+declined, however, to take any decoration or reward from the emperor for
+his services at the capture of Suchow. After the meeting with Li Hung
+Chang the "Ever-Victorious Army" again advanced and took a number of
+towns from the rebels, ending with Chanchufu, the principal military
+position of the Taipings. This fell in May, when Gordon returned to
+Quinsan and disbanded his force. In June the Tien Wang, seeing his cause
+was hopeless, committed suicide, and the capture of Nanking by the
+imperialist troops shortly afterwards brought the Taiping revolt to a
+conclusion. The suppression of this serious movement was undoubtedly due
+in great part to the skill and energy of Gordon, who had shown
+remarkable qualities as a leader of men. The emperor promoted him to the
+rank of Titu, the highest grade in the Chinese army, and also gave him
+the Yellow Jacket, the most important decoration in China. He wished to
+give him a large sum of money, but this Gordon refused. He was promoted
+lieutenant-colonel for his Chinese services, and made a Companion of the
+Bath. Henceforth he was often familiarly spoken of as "Chinese" Gordon.
+
+Gordon was appointed on his return to England Commanding Royal Engineer
+at Gravesend, where he was employed in superintending the erection of
+forts for the defence of the Thames. He devoted himself with energy to
+his official duties, and his leisure hours to practical philanthropy.
+All the acts of kindness which he did for the poor during the six years
+he was stationed at Gravesend will never be fully known. In October 1871
+he was appointed British representative on the international commission
+which had been constituted after the Crimean War to maintain the
+navigation of the mouth of the river Danube, with headquarters at
+Galatz. During 1872 Gordon was sent to inspect the British military
+cemeteries in the Crimea, and when passing through Constantinople on his
+return to Galatz he made the acquaintance of Nubar Pasha, prime minister
+of Egypt, who sounded him as to whether he would take service under the
+khedive. Nothing further was settled at the time, but the following year
+he received a definite offer from the khedive, which he accepted with
+the consent of the British government, and proceeded to Egypt early in
+1874. He was then a colonel in the army, though still only a captain in
+the corps of Royal Engineers.
+
+To understand the object of the appointment which Gordon accepted in
+Egypt, it is necessary to give a few facts with reference to the Sudan.
+In 1820-22 Nubia, Sennar and Kordofan had been conquered by Egypt, and
+the authority of the Egyptians was subsequently extended southward,
+eastward to the Red Sea and westward over Darfur (conquered by Zobeir
+Pasha in 1874). One result of the Egyptian occupation of the country was
+that the slave trade was largely developed, especially in the White Nile
+and Bahr-el-Ghazal districts. Captains Speke and Grant, who had
+travelled through Uganda and came down the White Nile in 1863, and Sir
+Samuel Baker, who went up the same river as far as Albert Nyanza,
+brought back harrowing tales of the misery caused by the slave-hunters.
+Public opinion was considerably moved, and in 1869 the khedive Ismail
+decided to send an expedition up the White Nile, with the double object
+of limiting the evils of the slave trade and opening up the district to
+commerce. The command of the expedition was given to Sir Samuel Baker,
+who reached Khartum in February 1870, but, owing to the obstruction of
+the river by the sudd or grass barrier, did not reach Gondokoro, the
+centre of his province, for fourteen months. He met with great
+difficulties, and when his four years' service came to an end little had
+been effected beyond establishing a few posts along the Nile and placing
+some steamers on the river. It was to succeed Baker as governor of the
+equatorial regions that the khedive asked for Gordon's services, having
+come to the conclusion that the latter was the most likely person to
+bring the affair to a satisfactory conclusion. After a short stay in
+Cairo, Gordon proceeded to Khartum by way of Suakin and Berber, a route
+which he ever afterwards regarded as the best mode of access to the
+Sudan. From Khartum he proceeded up the White Nile to Gondokoro, where
+he arrived in twenty-four days, the sudd, which had proved such an
+obstacle to Baker, having been removed since the departure of the latter
+by the Egyptian governor-general. Gordon remained in the equatorial
+provinces until October 1876, and then returned to Cairo. The two years
+and a half thus spent in Central Africa was a time of incessant toil. A
+line of stations was established from the Sobat confluence on the White
+Nile to the frontier of Uganda--to which country he proposed to open a
+route from Mombasa--and considerable progress was made in the
+suppression of the slave trade. The river and Lake Albert were mapped by
+Gordon and his staff, and he devoted himself with wonted energy to
+improving the condition of the people. Greater results might have been
+obtained but for the fact that Khartum and the whole of the Sudan north
+of the Sobat were in the hands of an Egyptian governor, independent of
+Gordon, and not too well disposed towards his proposals for diminishing
+the slave trade. On arriving in Cairo Gordon informed the khedive of his
+reasons for not wishing to return to the Sudan, but did not definitely
+resign the appointment of governor of the equatorial provinces. But on
+reaching London he telegraphed to the British consul-general in Cairo,
+asking him to let the khedive know that he would not go back to Egypt.
+Ismail Pasha, feeling, no doubt, that Gordon's resignation would injure
+his prestige, wrote to him saying that he had promised to return, and
+that he expected him to keep his word. Upon this Gordon, to whom the
+keeping of a promise was a sacred duty, decided to return to Cairo, but
+gave an assurance to some friends that he would not go back to the Sudan
+unless he was appointed governor-general of the entire country. After
+some discussion the khedive agreed, and made him governor-general of the
+Sudan, inclusive of Darfur and the equatorial provinces.
+
+
+  Governor-General
+
+One of the most important questions which Gordon had to take up on his
+appointment was the state of the political relations between Egypt and
+Abyssinia, which had been in an unsatisfactory condition for some years.
+The dispute centred round the district of Bogos, lying not far inland
+from Massawa, which both the khedive and King John of Abyssinia claimed
+as belonging to their respective dominions. War broke out in 1875, when
+an Egyptian expedition was despatched to Abyssinia, and was completely
+defeated by King John near Gundet. A second and larger expedition, under
+Prince Hassan, the son of the khedive, was sent the following year from
+Massawa. The force was routed by the Abyssinians at Gura, but Prince
+Hassan and his staff got back to Massawa. Matters then remained quiet
+until March 1877, when Gordon proceeded to Massawa to endeavour to make
+peace with King John. He went up to Bogos, and had an interview with
+Walad Michael, an Abyssinian chief and the hereditary ruler of Bogos,
+who had joined the Egyptians with a view to raiding on his own account.
+Gordon, with his usual powers of diplomacy, persuaded Michael to remain
+quiet, and wrote to the king proposing terms of peace. But he received
+no reply at that time, as John, feeling pretty secure on the Egyptian
+frontier after his two successful actions against the khedive's troops,
+had gone southwards to fight with Menelek, king of Shoa. Gordon, seeing
+that the Abyssinian difficulty could wait for a few months, proceeded to
+Khartum. Here he took up the slavery question, and proposed to issue
+regulations making the registration of slaves compulsory, but his
+proposals were not approved by the Cairo government. In the meantime an
+insurrection had broken out in Darfur, and Gordon proceeded to that
+province to relieve the Egyptian garrisons, which were considerably
+stronger than the force he had available, the insurgents also being far
+more numerous than his little army. On coming up with the main body of
+rebels he saw that diplomacy gave a better chance of success than
+fighting, and, accompanied only by an interpreter, rode into the enemy's
+camp to discuss the situation. This bold move, which probably no one but
+Gordon would have attempted, proved quite successful, as part of the
+insurgents joined him, and the remainder retreated to the south. The
+relief of the Egyptian garrisons was successfully accomplished, and
+Gordon visited the provinces of Berber and Dongola, whence he had again
+to return to the Abyssinian frontier to treat with King John. But no
+satisfactory settlement was arrived at, and Gordon came back to Khartum
+in January 1878. There he had scarcely a week's rest when the khedive
+summoned him to Cairo to assist in settling the financial affairs of
+Egypt. He reached Cairo in March, and was at once appointed by Ismail as
+president of a commission of inquiry into the finances, on the
+understanding that the European commissioners of the debt, who were the
+representatives of the bondholders, and whom Ismail regarded as
+interested parties, should not be members of the commission. Gordon
+accepted the post on these terms, but the consuls-general of the
+different powers refused to agree to the constitution of the commission,
+and it fell to the ground, as the khedive was not strong enough to carry
+his point. The attempt of the latter to utilize Gordon as a counterpoise
+to the European financiers having failed, Ismail fell into the hands of
+his creditors, and was deposed by the sultan in the following year in
+favour of his son Tewfik. After the conclusion of the financial episode,
+Gordon proceeded to the province of Harrar, south of Abyssinia, and,
+finding the administration in a bad condition, dismissed Raouf Pasha,
+the governor. He then returned to Khartum, and in 1879 went again into
+Darfur to pursue the slave traders, while his subordinate, Gessi Pasha,
+fought them with great success in the Bahr-el-Ghazal district and killed
+Suleiman, their leader and a son of Zobeir. This put an end to the
+revolt, and Gordon went back to Khartum. Shortly afterwards he went down
+to Cairo, and when there was requested by the new khedive to pay a visit
+to King John and make a definite treaty of peace with Abyssinia. Gordon
+had an interesting interview with the king, but was not able to do much,
+as the king wanted great concessions from Egypt, and the khedive's
+instructions were that nothing material was to be conceded. The matter
+ended by Gordon being made a prisoner and sent back to Massawa. Thence
+he returned to Cairo and resigned his Sudan appointment. He was
+considerably exhausted by the three years' incessant work, during which
+he had ridden no fewer than 8500 m. on camels and mules, and was
+constantly engaged in the task of trying to reform a vicious system of
+administration.
+
+
+  1880-1884.
+
+In March 1880 Gordon visited the king of the Belgians at Brussels, and
+King Leopold suggested that he should at some future date take charge of
+the Congo Free State. In April the government of the Cape Colony
+telegraphed to him offering the position of commandant of the Cape local
+forces, but he declined the appointment. In May the marquess of Ripon,
+who had been given the post of governor-general of India, asked Gordon
+to go with him as private secretary. This he agreed to do, but a few
+days later, feeling that he was not suitable for the position, asked
+Lord Ripon to release him. The latter refused to do so, and Gordon
+accompanied him to India, but definitely resigned his post on Lord
+Ripon's staff shortly afterwards. Hardly had he resigned when he
+received a telegram from Sir Robert Hart, inspector-general of customs
+in China, inviting him to go to Peking. He started at once and arrived
+at Tientsin in July, where he met Li Hung Chang, and learnt that affairs
+were in a critical condition, and that there was risk of war with
+Russia. Gordon proceeded to Peking and used all his influence in favour
+of peace. His arguments, which were given with much plainness of speech,
+appear to have convinced the Chinese government, and war was avoided.
+Gordon returned to England, and in April 1881 exchanged with a brother
+officer, who had been ordered to Mauritius as Commanding Royal Engineer,
+but who for family reasons was unable to accept the appointment. He
+remained in Mauritius until the March following, when, on promotion to
+the rank of major-general, he had to vacate the position of Commanding
+Royal Engineer. Just at the same time the Cape ministry telegraphed to
+him to ask if he would go to the Cape to consult with the government as
+regards settling affairs in Basutoland. The telegram stated that the
+position of matters was grave, and that it was of the utmost importance
+that the colony should secure the services of someone of proved ability,
+firmness and energy. Gordon sailed at once for the Cape, and saw the
+governor, Sir Hercules Robinson, Mr Thos. Scanlen, the premier, and Mr.
+J. X. Merriman, a member of the ministry, who, for political reasons,
+asked him not to go to Basutoland, but to take the appointment of
+commandant of the colonial forces at King William's Town. After a few
+months, which were spent in reorganizing the colonial forces, Gordon was
+requested to go up to Basutoland to try to arrange a settlement with the
+chief Masupha, one of the most powerful of the Basuto leaders. Greatly
+to his surprise, at the very time he was with Masupha, Mr. J. W. Sauer,
+a member of the Cape government, was taking steps to induce Lerethodi,
+another chief, to advance against Masupha. This not only placed Gordon
+in a position of danger, but was regarded by him as an act of treachery.
+He advised Masupha not to deal with the Cape government until the
+hostile force was withdrawn, and resigned his appointment. He considered
+that the Basuto difficulty was due to the bad system of administration
+by the Cape government. That Gordon's views were correct is proved by
+the fact that a few years later Basutoland was separated from Cape
+Colony and placed directly under the imperial government. After his
+return to England from the Cape, being unemployed, Gordon decided to go
+to Palestine, a country he had long desired to visit. Here he remained
+for a year, and devoted his time to the study of Biblical history and of
+the antiquities of Jerusalem. The king of the Belgians then asked him to
+take charge of the Congo Free State, and he accepted the mission and
+returned to London to make the necessary preparations. But a few days
+after his arrival he was requested by the British government to proceed
+immediately to the Sudan. To understand the reasons for this, it is
+necessary briefly to recapitulate the course of events in that country
+since Gordon had left it in 1879.
+
+After his resignation of the post of governor-general, Raouf Pasha, an
+official of the ordinary type, who, as already mentioned, had been
+dismissed by Gordon for misgovernment in 1878, was appointed to succeed
+him. As Raouf was instructed to increase the receipts and diminish the
+expenditure, the system of government naturally reverted to the old
+methods, which Gordon had endeavoured to improve. The fact that justice
+and firmness were succeeded by injustice and weakness tended naturally
+to the outbreak of revolt, and unfortunately there was a leader ready to
+head a rebellion--one Mahommed Ahmed, already known for some years as a
+holy man, who was insulted by an Egyptian official, and retiring with
+some followers to the island of Abba on the White Nile, proclaimed
+himself as the mahdi, a successor of the prophet. Raouf endeavoured to
+take him prisoner but without success, and the revolt spread rapidly.
+Raouf was recalled, and succeeded by Abdel Kader Pasha, a much stronger
+governor, who had some success, but whose forces were quite insufficient
+to cope with the rebels. The Egyptian government was too busily engaged
+in suppressing Arabi's revolt to be able to send any help to Abdel
+Kader, and in September 1882, when the British troops entered Cairo, the
+position in the Sudan was very perilous. Had the British government
+listened to the representations then made to them, that, having
+conquered Egypt, it was imperative at once to suppress the revolt in the
+Sudan, the rebellion could have been crushed, but unfortunately Great
+Britain would do nothing herself, while the steps she allowed Egypt to
+take ended in the disaster to Hicks Pasha's expedition. Then, in
+December 1883, the British government saw that something must be done,
+and ordered Egypt to abandon the Sudan. But abandonment was a policy
+most difficult to carry out, as it involved the withdrawal of thousands
+of Egyptian soldiers, civilian employes and their families. Abdel Kader
+Pasha was asked to undertake the work, and he agreed on the
+understanding that he would be supported, and that the policy of
+abandonment was not to be announced. But the latter condition was
+refused, and he declined the task. The British government then asked
+General Gordon to proceed to Khartum to report on the best method of
+carrying out the evacuation. The mission was highly popular in England.
+Sir Evelyn Baring (Lord Cromer) was, however, at first opposed to
+Gordon's appointment. His objections were overcome, and Gordon received
+his instructions in London on the 18th of January 1884, and started at
+once for Cairo, accompanied by Lieut.-Colonel J. D. H. Stewart.
+
+
+  At Khartum.
+
+  Death.
+
+At Cairo he received further instructions from Sir Evelyn Baring, and
+was appointed by the khedive as governor-general, with executive powers.
+Travelling by Korosko and Berber, he arrived at Khartum on the 18th of
+February, and was well received by the inhabitants, who believed that he
+had come to save the country from the rebels. Gordon at once commenced
+the task of sending the women and children and the sick and wounded to
+Egypt, and about two thousand five hundred had been removed before the
+mahdi's forces closed upon Khartum. At the same time he was impressed
+with the necessity of making some arrangement for the future government
+of the country, and asked for the help of Zobeir (q.v.), who had great
+influence in the Sudan, and had been detained in Cairo for some years.
+This request was made on the very day Gordon reached Khartum, and was in
+accordance with a similar proposal he had made when at Cairo. But, after
+delays which involved the loss of much precious time, the British
+government refused (13th of March) to sanction the appointment, because
+Zobeir had been a notorious slave-hunter. With this refusal vanished all
+hope of a peaceful retreat of the Egyptian garrisons. Wavering tribes
+went over to the mahdi. The advance of the rebels against Khartum was
+combined with a revolt in the eastern Sudan, and the Egyptian troops in
+the vicinity of Suakin met with constant defeat. At length a British
+force was sent to Suakin under the command of General Sir Gerald Graham,
+and routed the rebels in several hard-fought actions. Gordon telegraphed
+to Sir Evelyn Baring urging that the road from Suakin to Berber should
+be opened by a small force. But this request, though strongly supported
+by Baring and the British military authorities in Cairo, was refused by
+the government in London. In April General Graham and his forces were
+withdrawn from Suakin, and Gordon and the Sudan were seemingly abandoned
+to their fate. The garrison of Berber, seeing that there was no chance
+of relief, surrendered a month later and Khartum was completely
+isolated. Had it not been for the presence of Gordon the city would also
+soon have fallen, but with an energy and skill that were almost
+miraculous, he so organized the defence that Khartum held out until
+January 1885. When it is remembered that Gordon was of a different
+nationality and religion to the garrison and population, that he had
+only one British officer to assist him, and that the town was badly
+fortified and insufficiently provided with food, it is just to say that
+the defence of Khartum is one of the most remarkable episodes in
+military history. The siege commenced on the 18th of March, but it was
+not until August that the British government under the pressure of
+public opinion decided to take steps to relieve Gordon. General
+Stephenson, who was in command of the British troops in Egypt, wished to
+send a brigade at once to Dongola, but he was overruled, and it was not
+until the beginning of November that the British relief force was ready
+to start from Wadi Haifa under the command of Lord Wolseley. The force
+reached Korti towards the end of December, and from that place a column
+was despatched across the Bayuda desert to Metemma on the Nile. After
+some severe fighting in which the leader of the column, Sir Herbert
+Stewart, was mortally wounded, the force reached the river on the 20th
+of January, and the following day four steamers, which had been sent
+down by Gordon to meet the British advance, and which had been waiting
+for them for four months, reported to Sir Charles Wilson, who had taken
+command after Sir Herbert Stewart was wounded. On the 24th Wilson
+started with two of the steamers for Khartum, but on arriving there on
+the 28th he found that the place had been captured by the rebels and
+Gordon killed two days before. A belief has been entertained that Wilson
+might have started earlier and saved the town, but this is quite
+groundless. In the first place, Wilson could not have started sooner
+than he did; and in the second, even if he had been able to do so, it
+would have made no difference, as the rebels could have taken Khartum
+any time they pleased after the 5th of January, when the provisions were
+exhausted. Another popular notion, that the capture of the place was due
+to treachery on the part of the garrison, is equally without foundation.
+The attack was made at a point in the fortifications where the rampart
+and ditch had been destroyed by the rising of the Nile, and when the
+mahdi's troops entered the soldiers were too weak to make any effectual
+resistance. Gordon himself expected the town to fall before the end of
+December, and it is really difficult to understand how he succeeded in
+holding out until the 26th of January. Writing on the 14th of December
+he said, "Now, mark this, if the expeditionary force--and I ask for no
+more than two hundred men--does not come in ten days, the town may fall,
+and I have done my best for the honour of my country." He had indeed
+done his best, and far more than could have been regarded as possible.
+To understand what he went through during the latter months of the
+siege, it is only necessary to read his own journal, a portion of which,
+dating from 10th September to 14th December 1884, was fortunately
+preserved and published.
+
+Gordon was not an author, but he wrote many short memoranda on subjects
+that interested him, and a considerable number of these have been
+utilized, especially in the work by his brother, Sir Henry Gordon,
+entitled _Events in the Life of Charles George Gordon, from its
+Beginning to its End_. He was a voluminous letter-writer, and much of
+his correspondence has been published. His character was remarkable, and
+the influence he had over those with whom he came in contact was very
+striking. His power to command men of non-European races was probably
+unique. He had no fear of death, and cared but little for the opinion of
+others, adhering tenaciously to the course he believed to be right in
+the face of all opposition. Though not holding to outward forms of
+religion, he was a truly religious man in the highest sense of the word,
+and was a constant student of the Bible. To serve God and to do his duty
+were the great objects of his life, and he died as he had lived,
+carrying out the work that lay before him to the best of his ability.
+The last words of his last letter to his sister, written when he knew
+that death was very near, sum up his character: "I am quite happy, thank
+God, and, like Lawrence, I have _tried_ to do my duty."[1]
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_The Journals of Major-General Gordon at Khartoum_
+  (1885); Lord Cromer, _Modern Egypt_ (2 vols., 1908); F. R. Wingate,
+  _Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan_ (1891); the _British Parliamentary
+  Paper on Egypt_ (1884-1885); C. G. Gordon, _Reflections in Palestine_
+  (1884); edited by D. C. Boulger, _General Gordon's Letters from the
+  Crimea, the Danube, and Armenia_ (1884); edited by G. B. Hill,
+  _Colonel Gordon in Central Africa_ (1881); _Letters of General C. G.
+  Gordon to his Sister_ (1888); H. W. Gordon, _Events in the Life of C.
+  G. Gordon_ (1886); Commander L. Brine, _The Taeping Rebellion in
+  China_ (1862); A. Wilson, _Gordon's Campaigns and the Taeping
+  Rebellion_ (1868); D. C. Boulger, _Life of Gordon_ (1896); A. Egmont
+  Hake, _The Story of Chinese Gordon_ (1st vol. 1884, 2nd vol. 1885);
+  Colonel Sir W. F. Butler, _Charles George Gordon_ (1889); Archibald
+  Forbes, _Chinese Gordon_ (1884); edited by A. Egmont Hake, _Events in
+  the Taeping Rebellion_ (1891); S. Mossman, _General Gordon's Diary in
+  China_ (1885); Lieutenant T. Lister, R.E., _With Gordon in the Crimea_
+  (1891); Lieutenant-General Sir G. Graham, _Last Words with Gordon_
+  (1887); "War Correspondent," _Why Gordon Perished_ (1896).
+       (C. M. W.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] With this estimate of Gordon's character may be contrasted those
+    of Lord Cromer (the most severe of Gordon's critics), and of Lord
+    Morley of Blackburn; in their strictures as in their praise they help
+    to explain both the causes of the extraordinary influence wielded by
+    Gordon over all sorts and conditions of men and also his
+    difficulties. Lord Cromer's criticism, it should be remembered, does
+    not deal with Gordon's career as a whole but solely with his last
+    mission to the Sudan; Lord Morley's is a more general judgment.
+
+    Lord Cromer (_Modern Egypt_, vol. i., ch. xxvii., p. 565-571) says:
+    "We may admire, and for my own part I do very much admire General
+    Gordon's personal courage, his disinterestedness and his chivalrous
+    feeling in favour of the beleaguered garrisons, but admiration of
+    these qualities is no sufficient plea against a condemnation of his
+    conduct on the ground that it was quixotic. In his last letter to his
+    sister, dated December 14, 1884, he wrote: 'I am quite happy, thank
+    God, and, like Lawrence, I have tried to do my duty' ... I am not now
+    dealing with General Gordon's character, which was in many respects
+    noble, or with his military defence of Khartoum, which was heroic,
+    but with the political conduct of his mission, and from this point of
+    view I have no hesitation in saying that General Gordon cannot be
+    considered to have tried to do his duty unless a very strained and
+    mistaken view be taken of what his duty was.... As a matter of public
+    morality I cannot think that General Gordon's process of reasoning is
+    defensible.... I do not think that it can be held that General Gordon
+    made any serious effort to carry out the main ends of British and
+    Egyptian policy in the Sudan. He thought more of his personal
+    opinions than of the interests of the state.... In fact, except
+    personal courage, great fertility in military resource, a lively
+    though sometimes ill-directed repugnance to injustice, oppression and
+    meanness of every description, and a considerable power of acquiring
+    influence over those, necessarily limited in numbers, with whom he
+    was brought into personal contact, General Gordon does not appear to
+    have possessed any of the qualities which would have fitted him to
+    undertake the difficult task he had in hand."
+
+    Lord Morley (_Life of Gladstone_, vol. iii., 1st ed., 1903, ch. 9, p.
+    151) says: "Gordon, as Mr Gladstone said, was a hero of heroes. He
+    was a soldier of infinite personal courage and daring, of striking
+    military energy, initiative and resource; a high, pure and single
+    character, dwelling much in the region of the unseen. But as all who
+    knew him admit, and as his own records testify, notwithstanding an
+    undercurrent of shrewd common sense, he was the creature, almost the
+    sport, of impulse; his impressions and purposes changed with the
+    speed of lightning; anger often mastered him; he went very often by
+    intuitions and inspirations rather than by cool inference from
+    carefully surveyed fact; with many variations of mood he mixed, as we
+    often see in people less famous, an invincible faith in his own rapid
+    prepossessions while they lasted. Everybody now discerns that to
+    despatch a soldier of this temperament on a piece of business [the
+    mission to the Sudan in 1884] that was not only difficult and
+    dangerous, as Sir E. Baring said, but profoundly obscure, and needing
+    vigilant sanity and self-control, was little better than to call in a
+    wizard with his magic. Mr Gladstone always professed perplexity in
+    understanding why the violent end of the gallant Cavagnari in
+    Afghanistan stirred the world so little in comparison with the fate
+    of Gordon. The answer is that Gordon seized the imagination of
+    England, and seized it on its higher side. His religion was
+    eccentric, but it was religion; the Bible was the rock on which he
+    founded himself, both old dispensation and new; he was known to hate
+    forms, ceremonies and all the 'solemn plausibilities'; his speech was
+    sharp, pithy, rapid and ironic; above all, he knew the ways of war
+    and would not bear the sword for nought."
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 12, Slice 2, by Various
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