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diff --git a/37880.txt b/37880.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bb3f9b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/37880.txt @@ -0,0 +1,20017 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 12, Slice 2, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 2 + "Gloss" to "Gordon, Charles George" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: October 29, 2011 [EBook #37880] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 12 SL 2 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE GLUTARIC ACID: "By distillation of the ammonium salt + glutarimide, CH2(CH2.CO)2NH ..." 'CH2(CH2.CO)2NH' amended from + 'CH2(CH2.CP)2NH'. + + ARTICLE GNOSTICISM: "In this respect the opposition to Gnosticism + led to a reactionary movement." 'respect' amended from 'repect'. + + ARTICLE GODEFROY: "Other members of the family who attained + distinction in the same branch of learning were the two sons of + Denis Godefroy--Denis (1653-1719) ..." 'Godefroy' amended from + 'Godefroi'. + + ARTICLE GODWIT: "In Turner's days (1544) it was worth three times + as much as a snipe, and at the same period Belon said of it ..." + 'period' amended from 'peroid'. + + ARTICLE GOITRE: "In exophthalmic goitre the bronchocele is but one + of three phenomena, which together constitute the disease, viz. + palpitation of the heart, enlargement of the thyroid gland, and + protrusion of the eyeballs." 'enlargement' amended from + 'elargement'. + + ARTICLE GOLD COAST: "In 1907 the export was 292,125 oz., + L1,164,676." 'worth' amended from 'wotht'. + + ARTICLE GOLDSMITH, OLIVER: "Green Arbour Court and the ascent have + long disappeared. Here, at thirty, the unlucky adventurer sat down + to toil like a galley slave." 'disappeared' amended from + 'diasppeared'. + + ARTICLE GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK: "After studying painting on glass for + some years under his father, he was taught the use of the burin by + Dirk Volkertsz Coornhert, a Dutch engraver of mediocre attainment + ..." 'Coornhert' amended from 'Coornlert'. + + ARTICLE GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA, GERTRUDIS: "... for she has neither + the monk's mastery of poetic form nor the nun's sublime simplicity + of soul." 'nor' amended from 'not'. + + ARTICLE GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY: "A third volume of poetry, Bush + Ballads and Galloping Rhymes, appeared in 1870." 'third' amended + from 'second'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XII, SLICE II + + Gloss to Gordon, Charles + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + GLOSS, GLOSSARY GOLDBEATING + GLOSSOP GOLDBERG + GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF GOLD COAST + GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE GOLDEN + GLOUCESTER, HUMPHREY GOLDEN BULL + GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE GOLDEN-EYE + GLOUCESTER, ROBERT GOLDEN FLEECE + GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK GOLDEN HORDE + GLOUCESTER (city of England) GOLDEN ROD + GLOUCESTER (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) GOLDEN ROSE + GLOUCESTER CITY GOLDEN RULE + GLOUCESTERSHIRE GOLDFIELD + GLOVE GOLDFINCH + GLOVER, SIR JOHN HAWLEY GOLDFISH + GLOVER, RICHARD GOLDFUSS, GEORG AUGUST + GLOVERSVILLE GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE DASHWOOD TAUBMAN + GLOW-WORM GOLDING, ARTHUR + GLOXINIA GOLDINGEN + GLUCINUM GOLDMARK, KARL + GLUCK, CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD GOLDONI, CARLO + GLUCKSBURG GOLDS + GLUCKSTADT GOLDSBORO + GLUCOSE GOLDSCHMIDT, HERMANN + GLUCOSIDE GOLDSMID + GLUE GOLDSMITH, LEWIS + GLUTARIC ACID GOLDSMITH, OLIVER + GLUTEN GOLDSTUCKER, THEODOR + GLUTTON GOLDWELL, THOMAS + GLYCAS, MICHAEL GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ + GLYCERIN GOLETTA + GLYCOLS GOLF + GLYCONIC GOLIAD + GLYPH GOLIARD + GLYPTODON GOLIATH + GLYPTOTHEK GOLITSUIN, BORIS ALEKSYEEVICH + GMELIN GOLITSUIN, DMITRY MIKHAILOVICH + GMUND GOLITSUIN, VASILY VASILEVICH + GMUNDEN GOLIUS, JACOBUS + GNAT GOLLNOW + GNATHOPODA GOLOSH + GNATIA GOLOVIN, FEDOR ALEKSYEEVICH + GNEISENAU, AUGUST WILHELM ANTON GOLOVKIN, GAVRIIL IVANOVICH + GNEISS GOLOVNIN, VASILY MIKHAILOVICH + GNEIST, HEINRICH FRIEDRICH VON GOLTZ, BOGUMIL + GNESEN GOLTZ, COLMAR + GNOME, and GNOMIC POETRY GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK + GNOMES GOLUCHOWSKI, AGENOR + GNOMON GOMAL + GNOSTICISM GOMARUS, FRANZ + GNU GOMBERVILLE, MARIN LE ROY + GO GOMER + GOA GOMERA + GOAL GOMEZ, DIOGO + GOALPARA GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA, GERTRUDIS + GOAT GOMM, SIR WILLIAM MAYNARD + GOATSUCKER GOMPERS, SAMUEL + GOBAT, SAMUEL GOMPERZ, THEODOR + GOBEL, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH GONAGUAS + GOBELIN GONCALVES DIAS, ANTONIO + GOBI GONCHAROV, IVAN ALEXANDROVICH + GOBLET, RENE GONCOURT, DE + GOBLET GONDA + GOBY GONDAL + GOCH GONDAR + GOD GONDOKORO + GODALMING GONDOMAR, DIEGO SARMIENTO DE ACUNA + GODARD, BENJAMIN LOUIS PAUL GONDOPHARES + GODAVARI (river of India) GONDWANA + GODAVARI (district of India) GONFALON + GODEFROY GONG + GODESBERG GONGORA Y ARGOTE, LUIS DE + GODET, FREDERIC LOUIS GONIOMETER + GODFREY, SIR EDMUND BERRY GONTAUT, MARIE JOSEPHINE LOUISE + GODFREY OF BOUILLON GONVILE, EDMUND + GODFREY OF VITERBO GONZAGA + GODHRA GONZAGA, THOMAZ ANTONIO + GODIN, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRE GONZALEZ-CARVAJAL, TOMAS JOSE + GODIVA GONZALO DE BERCEO + GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE GOOCH, SIR DANIEL + GODMANCHESTER GOOD, JOHN MASON + GODOLLO GOOD FRIDAY + GODOLPHIN, SIDNEY GODOLPHIN GOODMAN, GODFREY + GODOY, ALVAREZ DE FARIA, MANUEL DE GOODRICH, SAMUEL GRISWOLD + GODROON GOODRICH, THOMAS + GODWIN, FRANCIS GOODSIR, JOHN + GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT GOODWILL + GODWIN, WILLIAM GOODWIN, JOHN + GODWIN-AUSTEN, ROBERT CLOYNE GOODWIN, NATHANIEL CARL + GODWINE GOODWIN, THOMAS + GODWIT GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON + GOEBEN, AUGUST KARL VON GOODWIN SANDS + GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE GOODWOOD + GOES, DAMIAO DE GOODYEAR, CHARLES + GOES, HUGO VAN DER GOOGE, BARNABE + GOES GOOLE + GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON GOOSE (bird) + GOETZ, HERMANN GOOSE (game) + GOFFE, WILLIAM GOOSEBERRY + GOFFER GOOTY + GOG GOPHER + GOGO GOPPINGEN + GOGOL, NIKOLAI VASILIEVICH GORAKHPUR + GOGRA GORAL + GOHIER, LOUIS JEROME GORAMY + GOHRDE GORBERSDORF + GOITO GORBODUC + GOITRE GORCHAKOV + GOKAK GORDIAN + GOKCHA GORDIUM + GOLCONDA GORDON + GOLD GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY + GOLD AND SILVER THREAD GORDON, ALEXANDER + GOLDAST AB HAIMINSFELD, MELCHIOR GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE + + + + +GLOSS, GLOSSARY, &c. The Greek word [Greek: glossa] (whence our +"gloss"), meaning originally a tongue, then a language or dialect, +gradually came to denote any obsolete, foreign, provincial, technical or +otherwise peculiar word or use of a word (see Arist. _Rhet._ iii. 3. 2). +The making of collections and explanations[1] of such [Greek: glossai] +was at a comparatively early date a well-recognized form of literary +activity. Even in the 5th century B.C., among the many writings of +Abdera was included a treatise entitled [Greek: Peri Homerou e +orthoepeies kai glosseon]. It was not, however, until the Alexandrian +period that the [Greek: glossographoi], glossographers (writers of +glosses), or glossators, became numerous. Of many of these perhaps even +the names have perished; but Athenaeus the grammarian alone (c. A.D. +250) alludes to no fewer than thirty-five. Among the earliest was +Philetas of Cos (d. c. 290 B.C.), the elegiac poet, to whom Aristarchus +dedicated the treatise [Greek: Pros Philptan]; he was the compiler of a +lexicographical work, arranged probably according to subjects, and +entitled [Greek: Hatakta] or [Greek: Glossai] (sometimes [Greek: Ataktoi +glossai]). Next came his disciple Zenodotus of Ephesus (c. 280 B.C.), +one of the earliest of the Homeric critics and the compiler of [Greek: +Glossai Homerikai]; Zenodotus in turn was succeeded by his greater pupil +Aristophanes of Byzantium (c. 200 B.C.), whose great compilation [Greek: +Peri lexeon] (still partially preserved in that of Pollux), is known to +have included [Greek: Attikai lexeis, Lakonikai glossai], and the like. +From the school of Aristophanes issued more than one glossographer of +name,--Diodorus, Artemidorus ([Greek: Glossai], and a collection of +[Greek: lexeis opsartutikai]), Nicander of Colophon ([Greek: Glossai], +of which some twenty-six fragments still survive), and Aristarchus (c. +210 B.C.), the famous critic, whose numerous labours included an +arrangement of the Homeric vocabulary ([Greek: lexeis]) in the order of +the books. Contemporary with the last named was Crates of Mallus, who, +besides making some new contributions to Greek lexicography and +dialectology, was the first to create at Rome a taste for similar +investigations in connexion with the Latin idioms. From his school +proceeded Zenodotus of Mallus, the compiler of [Greek: Ethnikai lexeis] +or [Greek: glossai], a work said to have been designed chiefly to +support the views of the school of Pergamum as to the allegorical +interpretation of Homer.[2] Of later date were Didymus (Chalcenterus, c. +50 B.C.), who made collections of [Greek: lexeis tragodoumenai komikai], +&c.; Apollonius Sophista (c. 20 B.C.), whose Homeric Lexicon has come +down to modern times; and Neoptolemus, known distinctively as [Greek: ho +glossographos]. In the beginning of the 1st century of the Christian era +Apion, a grammarian and rhetorician at Rome during the reigns of +Tiberius and Claudius, followed up the labours of Aristarchus and other +predecessors with [Greek: Glossai Homerikai], and a treatise [Greek: +Peri tes Hromaikes dialekton]; Heliodorus or Herodorus was another +almost contemporary glossographer; Erotian also, during the reign of +Nero, prepared a special glossary for the writings of Hippocrates, still +preserved. To this period also Pamphilus, the author of the [Greek: +Leimon], from which Diogenian and Julius Vestinus afterwards drew so +largely, most probably belonged. In the following century one of the +most prominent workers in this department of literature was Aelius +Herodianus, whose treatise [Greek: Peri monerous lexeos] has been edited +in modern times, and whose [Greek: Epimerismoi] we still possess in an +abridgment; also Pollux, Diogenian ([Greek: Lexis pantodape]), Julius +Vestinus ([Greek: 'Epitome ton Pamphilou glosson]) and especially +Phrynichus, who flourished towards the close of the 2nd century, and +whose _Eclogae nominum et verborum Atticorum_ has frequently been +edited. To the 4th century belongs Ammonius of Alexandria (c. 389), who +wrote [Greek: Peri Homoion kai diaphoron lexeon], a dictionary of words +used in senses different from those in which they had been employed by +older and approved writers. Of somewhat later date is the well-known +Hesychius, whose often-edited [Greek: Lexikon] superseded all previous +works of the kind; Cyril, the celebrated patriarch of Alexandria, also +contributed somewhat to the advancement of glossography by his [Greek: +Sunagoge ton pros diaphoron semasian diaphoros tonoumenon lexeon]; while +Orus, Orion, Philoxenus and the two Philemons also belong to this +period. The works of Photius, Suidas and Zonaras, as also the +_Etymologicum magnum_, to which might be added the _Lexica Sangermania_ +and the _Lexica Segueriana_, are referred to in the article DICTIONARY. + +To a special category of technical glossaries belongs a large and +important class of works relating to the law-compilations of Justinian. +Although the emperor forbade under severe penalties all commentaries +([Greek: hupomnemata]) on his legislation (_Const. Deo Auctore_, sec. +12; _Const. Tanta_, sec. 21), yet indices ([Greek: indikes]) and +references ([Greek: paratitla]), as well as translations ([Greek: +ermeneiai kata poda]) and paraphrases ([Greek: hermeneiai eis platos]), +were expressly permitted, and lavishly produced. Among the numerous +compilers of alphabetically arranged [Greek: lexeis Rhomaikai] or +[Greek: Lateinikai], and [Greek: glossai nomikai] (glossae nomicae), +Cyril and Philoxenus are particularly noted; but the authors of [Greek: +paragraphai], or [Greek: semeioseis], whether [Greek: exothen] or +[Greek: esothen keimenai], are too numerous to mention. A collection of +these [Greek: paragraphai ton palaion], combined with [Greek: neai +paragraphai] on the revised code called [Greek: ta basilika], was made +about the middle of the 12th century by a disciple of Michael +Hagiotheodorita. This work is known as the _Glossa ordinaria_ [Greek: +ton basilikon].[3] + +In Italy also, during the period of the Byzantine ascendancy, various +glossae (glosae) and scholia on the Justinian code were produced[4]; +particularly the Turin gloss (reprinted by Savigny), to which, apart +from later additions, a date prior to 1000 is usually assigned. After +the total extinction of the Byzantine authority in the West the study of +law became one of the free arts, and numerous schools for its +cultivation were instituted. Among the earliest of these was that of +Bologna, where Pepo (1075) and Irnerius (1100-1118) began to give their +expositions. They had a numerous following, who, besides delivering +exegetical lectures ("ordinariae" on the _Digest_ and _Code_, +"extraordinariae" on the rest of the _Corpus juris civilis_), also wrote +Glossae, first interlinear, afterwards marginal.[5] The series of these +glossators was closed by Accursius (q.v.) with the compilation known as +the _Glossa ordinaria_ or _magistralis_, the authority of which soon +became very great, so that ultimately it came to be a recognized maxim, +"Quod non agnoscit glossa, non agnoscit curia."[6] For some account of +the glossators on the canon law, see CANON LAW. + +In late classical and medieval Latin, _glosa_ was the vulgar and romanic +(e.g. in the early 8th century Corpus Glossary, and the late 8th century +Leiden Glossary), _glossa_ the learned form (Varro, _De ling. Lat._ vii. +10; Auson. _Epigr_. 127. 2 (86. 2), written in Greek, Quint, i. 1. 34). +The diminutive _glossula_ occurs in Diom. 426. 26 and elsewhere. The +same meaning has _glossarium_ (Gell. xviii. 7. 3 _glosaria_ = [Greek: +glossarion]), which also occurs in the modern sense of "glossary" +(Papias, "unde _glossarium_ dictum quod omnium fere partium glossas +contineat"), as do the words _glossa_, _glossae_, _glossulae_, +_glossemata_ (Steinmeyer, _Alth. Gloss._ iv. 408, 410), expressed in +later times by _dictionarium_, _dictionarius_, _vocabularium_, +_vocabularius_ (see DICTIONARY). _Glossa_ and _glossema_ (Varro vii. 34. +107; Asinius Gallus, ap. Suet. _De gramm._ 22; Fest. 166^b. 8, 181^a. +18; Quint. i. 8. 15, &c.) are synonyms, signifying (a) the word which +requires explanation; or (b) such a word (called _lemma_) together with +the interpretation (_interpretamentum_); or (c) the interpretation alone +(so first in the _Anecd. Helv._). + +Latin, like Greek glossography, had its origin chiefly in the practical +wants of students and teachers, of whose names we only know a few. No +doubt even in classical times collections of glosses ("glossaries") were +compiled, to which allusion seems to be made by Varro (_De ling. Lat._ +vii. 10, "tesca, aiunt sancta esse qui glossas scripserunt") and +Verrius-Festus (166^b .6, "naucum ... glossematorum ... scriptures fabae +grani quod haereat in fabulo"), but it is not known to what extent +Varro, for instance, used them, or retained their original forms. The +_scriptores glossematorum_ were distinguished from the learned +glossographers like Aurelius Opilius (cf. his _Musae_, ap. Suet. _De +gramm._ 6; Gell. i. 25. 17; Varro vii. 50, 65, 67, 70, 79, 106), Servius +Clodius (Varro vii. 70. 106), Aelius Stilo, L. Ateius Philol., whose +_liber glossematorum_ Festus mentions (181^{a}.18). + + Verrius Flaccus and his epitomists, Festus and Paulus, have preserved + many treasures of early glossographers who are now lost to us. He + copied Aelius Stilo (Reitzenstein, "Verr. Forsch.," in vol. i. of + _Breslauer philol. Abhandl._, p. 88; Kriegshammer, _Comm. phil. Ien._ + vii. 1. 74 sqq.), Aurelius Opilius, Ateius Philol., the treatise _De + obscuris Catonis_ (Reitzenstein, ib. 56. 92). He often made use of + Varro (Willers, _De Verrio Flacco_, Halle, 1898), though not of his + _ling. lat._ (Kriegshammer, 74 sqq.); and was also acquainted with + later glossographers. Perhaps we owe to him the _glossae asbestos_ + (Goetz, _Corpus_, iv.; _id., Rhein. Mus._ xl. 328). Festus was used by + Ps.-Philoxenus (Dammann, "De Festo Ps.-Philoxeni auctore," _Comm. + Ien._ v. 26 sqq.), as appears from the _glossae ab absens_ (Goetz, "De + Astrabae Pl. fragmentis," _Ind. Ien._, 1893, iii. sqq.). The distinct + connexions with Nonius need not be ascribed to borrowing, as Plinius + and Caper may have been used (P. Schmidt, _De Non. Marc. auctt. + gramm._ 145; Nettleship, _Lect. and Ess._ 229; Frohde, _De Non. Marc. + et Verrio Flacco_, 2; W. M. Lindsay, "Non. Marc.," _Dict. of Repub. + Latin_, 100, &c.). + + The _bilingual_ (Gr.-Lat., Lat.-Gr.) glossaries also point to an early + period, and were used by the grammarians (1) to explain the + peculiarities (_idiomata_) of the Latin language by comparison with + the Greek, and (2) for instruction in the two languages (Charis. 254. + 9, 291. 7, 292. 16 sqq.; Marschall, _De Q. Remmii P. libris gramm. + 22_; Goetz, _Corp. gloss. lat._ ii. 6). + + For the purposes of grammatical instruction (Greek for the Romans, + Latin for the Hellenistic world), we have systematic works, a + translation of Dositheus and the so-called _Hermeneutica_, parts of + which may be dated as early as the 3rd century A.D., and lexica (cf. + Schoenemann, _De lexicis ant._ 122; Knaack, in _Phil. Rundsch._, 1884, + 372; Traube, in _Byzant. Ztschr._ iii. 605; David, _Comment. Ien._ v. + 197 sqq.). + + The most important remains of bilingual glossaries are two well-known + lexica; one (Latin-Greek), formerly attributed (but wrongly, see + Rudorff, in _Abh.. Akad. Berl._, 1865, 220 sq.; Loewe, _Prodr._ 183, + 190; Mommsen, _C.I.L._ v. 8120; A. Dammann, _De Festo Pseudo-philoxeni + auctore_, 12 sqq.; Goetz, _Corp._ ii. 1-212) to Philoxenus (consul + A.D. 525), clearly consists of two closely allied glossaries + (containing glosses to Latin authors, as Horace, Cicero, Juvenal, + Virgil, the Jurists, and excerpts from Festus), worked into one by + some Greek grammarian, or a person who worked under Greek influence + (his alphabet runs A, B, G, D, E, &c.); the other (Greek-Latin) is + ascribed to Cyril (Stephanus says it was found at the end of some of + his writings), and is considered to be a compilation of not later than + the 6th century (Macrobius is used, and the _Cod. Harl._, which is the + source of all the other MSS., belongs to the 7th century); cf. Goetz, + _Corp._ ii. 215-483, 487-506, praef. _ibid._ p. xx. sqq. Furthermore, + the bilingual medico-botanic glossaries had their origin in old lists + of plants, as Ps.-Apuleius in the treatise _De herbarum virtutibus_, + and Ps.-Dioscorides (cf. M. Wellmann, _Hermes_, xxxiii. 360 sqq., who + thinks that the latter work is based on Pamphilus, q.v.; Goetz, + _Corp._ iii.); the glossary, entitled _Hermeneuma_, printed from the + _Cod. Vatic._ reg. Christ. 1260, contains names of diseases. + + Just as grammar developed, so we see the original form of the glosses + extend. If _massucum edacem_ in Placidus indicates the original form, + the allied gloss of Festus (_masucium edacem a mandendo scilicet_) + shows an etymological addition. Another extension consists in adding + special references to the original source, as e.g. at the gloss + _Ocrem_ (Fest. 181^a. 17), which is taken from Ateius Philol. In this + way collections arose like the _priscorum verborum cum exemplis_, a + title given by Fest. (218^b. 10) to a particular work. Further the + _glossae veterum_ (Charis. 242. 10); the _glossae antiquitatum_ (id. + 229. 30); the _idonei vocum antiquarum enarratores_ (Gell. xviii. 6. + 8); the _libri rerum verborumque veterum_ (_id._ xiii. 24. 25). L. + Cincius, according to Festus (330^b. 2), wrote _De verbis priscis_; + Santra, _De antiquitate verborum_ (Festus 277^a. 2). + + Of Latin glossaries of the first four centuries of the Roman emperors + few traces are left, if we except Verrius-Festus. Charis, 229. 30, + speaks of _glossae antiquitatum_ and 242. 10 of _glossae veterum_, but + it is not known whether these glosses are identic, or in what relation + they stand to the _glossemata per litteras Latinas ordine composita_, + which were incorporated with the works of this grammarian according to + the index in Keil, p. 6. Latin glosses occur in Ps.-Philoxenus, and + Nonius must have used Latin glossaries; there exists a _glossarium + Plautinum_ (Ritschl, Op. ii. 234 sqq.), and the bilingual glossaries + have been used by the later grammarian Martyrius; but of this early + period we know by name only Fulgentius and Placidus, who is sometimes + called Luctatius Placidus, by confusion with the Statius scholiast, + with whom the _glossae Placidi_ have no connexion. All that we know of + him tends to show that he lived in North Africa (like Fulgentius and + Nonius and perhaps Charisius) in the 6th century, from whence his + glosses came to Spain, and were used by Isidore and the compiler of + the _Liber glossarum_ (see below). These glosses we know from (1) + Codices Romani (15th and 16th century); (2) the _Liber glossarum_; (3) + the Cod. Paris. nov. acquis. 1298 (saec. xi.), a collection of + glossaries, in which the Placidus-glosses are kept separate from the + others, and still retain traces of their original order (cf. the + editions published by A. Mai, _Class. auct._ iii. 427-503, and + Deuerling, 1875; Goetz, _Corp._ v.; P. Karl, "De Placidi glossis," + _Comm. Ien._ vii. 2. 99, 103 sqq.; Loewe, _Gloss. Nom._ 86; F. + Bucheler, in _Thesaur. gloss. emend._). His collection includes + glosses from Plautus and Lucilius. + + (Fabius Planciades) Fulgentius (c. A.D. 468-533) wrote _Expositio + sermonum antiquorum_ (ed. Rud. Helm, Lips. 1898; cf. Wessner, + _Comment. Ien._ vi. 2. 135 sqq.) in sixty-two paragraphs, each + containing a lemma (sometimes two or three) with an explanation giving + quotations and names of authors. Next to him come the _glossae + Nonianae_, which arose from the contents of the various paragraphs in + Nonius Marcellus' work being written in the margin without the words + of the text; these epitomized glosses were alphabetized and afterwards + copied for other collections (see Goetz, _Corp._ v. 637 sqq., id. v. + Praef. xxxv.; Onions and Lindsay, _Harvard Stud._ ix. 67 sqq.; + Lindsay, _Nonii praef._ xxi.). In a similar way arose the _glossae + Eucherii_ or _glossae spiritales secundum Eucherium episcopum_ found + in many MSS. (cf. K. Wotke, _Sitz. Ber. Akad. Wien_, cxv. 425 sqq.; = + the _Corpus Glossary_, first part), which are an alphabetical extract + from the _formulae spiritalis intelligentiae_ of St Eucherius, bishop + of Lyons, c. 434-450.[7] + + Other sources were the _Differentiae_, already known to Placidus and + much used in the medieval glossaries; and the _Synonyma Ciceronis_; + cf. Goetz, "Der Liber glossarum," in _Abhandl. der philol.-hist. Cl. + der sachs. Gesellsch. d. Wiss._, 1893, p. 215; id. in _Berl. philol. + Wochenschr._, 1890, p. 195 sqq.; Beck, in _Wochenschr._, p. 297 sqq., + and Sittls, _ibid._ p. 267; _Archiv f. lat. Lex._ vi. 594; W. L. + Mahne, (Leid. 1850, 1851); also various collections of _scholia_. By + the side of the scholiasts come the grammarians, as Charisius, or an + ars similar to that ascribed to him; further, treatises _de dubiis + generibus_, the _scriptores orthographici_ (especially Caper and + Beda), and Priscianus, the chief grammarian of the middle ages (cf. + Goetz in _Melanges Boissier_, 224). + + During the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries glossography developed in + various ways; old glossaries were worked up into new forms, or + amalgamated with more recent ones. It ceased, moreover, to be + exclusively Latin-Latin, and interpretations in Germanic (Old High + German, Anglo-Saxon) and Romanic dialects took the place of or were + used side by side with earlier Latin ones. The origin and development + of the late classic and medieval glossaries preserved to us can be + traced with certainty. While reading the manuscript texts of classical + authors, the Bible or early Christian and profane writers, students + and teachers, on meeting with any obscure or out-of-the-way words + which they considered difficult to remember or to require elucidation, + wrote above them, or in the margins, interpretations or explanations + in more easy or better-known words. The interpretations written above + the line are called "interlinear," those written in the margins of the + MSS. "marginal glosses." Again, MSS. of the Bible or portions of the + Bible were often provided with literal translations in the vernacular + written above the lines of the Latin version (interlinear versions). + + Of such glossed MSS. or translated texts, photographs may be seen in + the various palaeographical works published in recent years; cf. _The + Palaeogr. Society_, 1st ser. vol. ii. pls. 9 (Terentius MS. of 4th or + 5th century, interlinear glosses) and 24 (Augustine's epistles, 6th or + 7th century, marginal glosses); see further, plates 10, 12, 33, 40, + 50-54, 57, 58, 63, 73, 75, 80; vol. iii. plates 10, 24, 31, 39, 44, + 54, 80. + + From these glossed or annotated MSS. and interlinear versions + glossaries were compiled; that is, the obscure and difficult Latin + words, together with the interpretations, were excerpted and collected + in separate lists, in the order in which they appeared, one after the + other, in the MSS., without any alphabetical arrangement, but with the + names of the authors or the titles of the books whence they were + taken, placed at the head of each separate collection or chapter. In + this arrangement each article by itself is called a gloss; when + reference is made only to the word explained it is called the _lemma_, + while the explanation is termed the _interpretamentum_. In most cases + the form of the lemma was retained just as it stood in its source, and + explained by a single word (_tesca: sancta_, Varro vii. 10; + _clucidatus: suavis, id._ vii. 107; cf. Isid. _Etym._ i. 30. 1, "quid + enim illud sit in uno verbo positum declarat [_scil._ glossa] ut + conticescere est tacere"), so that we meet with lemmata in the + accusative, dative and genitive, likewise explained by words in the + same cases; the forms of verbs being treated in the same way. Of this + first stage in the making of glossaries, many traces are preserved, + for instance, in the late 8th century Leiden Glossary (Voss. 69, ed. + J. H. Hessels), where chapter iii. contains words or glosses excerpted + from the _Life of St Martin_ by Sulpicius Severus; chs. iv., v. and + xxxv. glosses from Rufinus; chs. vi. and xl. from Gildas; chs. vii. to + xxv. from books of the Bible (Paralipomenon; Proverbs, &c., &c.); chs. + xxvi. to xlviii, from Isidore, the _Vita S. Anthonii_, Cassiodorus, St + Jerome, Cassianus, Orosius, St Augustine, St Clement, Eucherius, St + Gregory, the grammarians Donatus, Phocas, &c. (See also Goetz, _Corp._ + v. 546. 23-547. 6. and i. 5-40 from Ovid's _Metam._; v. 657 from + Apuleius, _De deo Socratis_; cf. Landgraf, in _Arch._ ix. 174). + + By a second operation the glosses came to be arranged in + _alphabetical_ order according to the first letter of the lemma, but + still retained in separate chapters under the names of authors or the + titles of books. Of this _second_ stage the Leiden Glossary contains + traces also: ch. i. (_Verba de Canonibus_) and ii. (_Sermones de + Regulis_); see Goetz, _Corp._ v. 529 sqq. (from Terentius), iv. 427 + sqq. (Virgil). + + The third operation collected all the accessible glosses in + alphabetical order, in the first instance according to the first + letters of the lemmata. In this arrangement the names of the authors + or the titles of the books could no longer be preserved, and + consequently the sources whence the glosses were excerpted became + uncertain, especially if the grammatical forms of the lemmata had been + normalized. + + A fourth arrangement collected the glosses according to the first two + letters of the lemmata, as in the Corpus Glossary and in the still + earlier _Cod. Vat._ 3321 (Goetz, _Corp._ iv. 1 sqq.), where even many + attempts were made to arrange them according to the first three + letters of the alphabet. A peculiar arrangement is seen in the + _Glossae affatim_ (Goetz, _Corp._ iv. 471 sqq.), where all words are + alphabetized, first according to the initial letter of the word (a, b, + c, &c.), and then further according to the first _vowel_ in the word + (a, e, i, o, u). + + No date or period can be assigned to any of the above stages or + arrangements. For instance, the first and second are both found in the + Leiden Glossary, which dates from the end of the 8th century, whereas + the Corpus Glossary, written in the beginning of the same century, + represents already the fourth stage. + + For the purpose of identification titles have of late years been given + to the various nameless collections of glosses, derived partly from + their first lemma, partly from other characteristics, as glossae + _abstrusae_; glossae _abavus major_ and _minor_; g. _affatim_; g. _ab + absens_; g. _abactor_; g. _Abba Pater_; g. a, a; g. _Vergilianae_; g. + _nominum_ (Goetz, _Corp._ ii. 563, iv.); g. _Sangallenses_ (Warren, + _Transact. Amer. Philol. Assoc._ xv., 1885, p. 141 sqq.). + + A chief landmark in glossography is represented by the _Origines_ + (_Etymologiae_) of Isidore (d. 636), an encyclopedia in which he, like + Cassiodorus, mixed human and divine subjects together. In many places + we can trace his sources, but he also used glossaries. His work became + a great mine for later glossographers. In the tenth book he deals with + the etymology of many substantives and adjectives arranged + alphabetically according to the first letter of the words, perhaps by + himself from various sources. His principal source is Servius, then + the fathers of the Church (Augustine, Jerome, Lactantius) and Donatus + the grammarian. This tenth book was also copied and used separately, + and mixed up with other works (cf. Loewe, _Prodr._ 167. 21). Isidore's + _Differentiae_ have also had a great reputation. + + Next comes the _Liber glossarum_, chiefly compiled from Isidore, but + all articles arranged alphabetically; its author lived in Spain c. + A.D. 690-750; he has been called Ansileubus, but not in any of the + MSS., some of which belong to the 8th century; hence this name is + suspected to be merely that of some owner of a copy of the book (cf. + Goetz, "Der Liber Glossarum," in _Abhandl. der philol.-hist. Class, + der kon. sachs. Ges._ xiii., 1893; _id._, _Corp._ v., praef. xx. 161). + + Here come, in regard to time, some Latin glossaries already largely + mixed with Germanic, more especially Anglo-Saxon interpretations: (1) + the Corpus Glossary (ed. J. H. Hessels), written in the beginning of + the 8th century, preserved in the library of Corpus Christi College, + Cambridge; (2) the Leiden Glossary (end of 8th century, ed. Hessels; + another edition by Plac. Glogger), preserved in the Leiden MS. Voss. + Q^o. 69; (3) the Epinal Glossary, written in the beginning of the 9th + century[8] and published in facsimile by the London Philol. Society + from a MS. in the town library at Epinal; (4) the _Glossae + Amplonianae_, i.e. three glossaries preserved in the Amplonian library + at Erfurt, known as Erfurt^1, Erfurt^2 and Erfurt^3. The first, + published by Goetz (_Corp._ v. 337-401; cf. also Loewe, _Prodr._ 114 + sqq.) with the various readings of the kindred Epinal, consists, like + the latter, of different collections of glosses (also some from + Aldhelm), some arranged alphabetically according to the first letter + of the lemma, others according to the first two letters. The title of + Erfurt^2 (_incipit II. conscriptio glosarum in unam_) shows that it is + also a combination of various glossaries; it is arranged + alphabetically according to the first two letters of the lemmata, and + contains the _affatim_ and _abavus maior_ glosses, also a collection + from Aldhelm; Erfurt^3 are the _Glossae nominum_, mixed also with + Anglo-Saxon interpretations (Goetz, _Corp._ ii. 563). The form in + which the three Erfurt glossaries have come down to us points back to + the 8th century. + + The first great glossary or collection of various glosses and + glossaries is that of Salomon, bishop of Constance, formerly abbot of + St Gall, who died A.D. 919. An edition of it in two parts was printed + c. 1475 at Augsburg, with the headline _Salemonis ecclesie + Constantiensis episcopi glosse ex illustrissimis collecte auctoribus_. + The oldest MSS. of this work date from the 11th century. Its sources + are the _Liber glossarum_ (Loewe, _Prodr._ 234 sqq.), the glossary + preserved in the 9th-century MS. _Lat. Monac._ 14429 (Goetz, "Lib. + Gloss." 35 sqq.), and the great Abavus Gloss (_id., ibid._ p. 37; + _id._, _Corp._ iv. praef. xxxvii.). + + The _Lib. glossarum_ has also been the chief source for the important + (but not original) glossary of Papias, of A.D. 1053 (cf. Goetz in + _Sitz. Ber. Akad. Munch._, 1903, p. 267 sqq., who enumerates + eighty-seven MSS. of the 12th to the 15th centuries), of whom we only + know that he lived among clerics and dedicated his work to his two + sons. An edition of it was published at Milan "per Dominicum de + Vespolate" on the 12th of December 1476; other editions followed in + 1485, 1491, 1496 (at Venice). He also wrote a grammar, chiefly + compiled from Priscianus (Hagen, _Anecd. Helv._ clxxix. sqq.). + + The same _Lib. gloss._ is the source (1) for the _Abba Pater_ Glossary + (cf. Goetz, _ibid._ p. 39), published by G. M. Thomas (_Sitz. Ber. + Akad. Munch._, 1868, ii. 369 sqq.); (2) the Greek glossary _Absida + lucida_ (Goetz, ib. p. 41); and (3) the Lat.-Arab. glossary in the + _Cod. Leid. Scal. Orient._ No. 231 (published by Seybold in _Semit. + Studien_, Heft xv.-xvii., Berlin, 1900). + + The Paulus-Glossary (cf. Goetz, "Der Liber Glossarum," p. 215) is + compiled from the second Salomon-Glossary (_abacti magistratus_), the + _Abavus major_ and the _Liber glossarum_, with a mixture of Hebraica. + Many of his glosses appear again in other compilations, as in the Cod. + Vatic. 1469 (cf. Goetz, _Corp._ v. 520 sqq.), mixed up with glosses + from Beda, Placidus, &c. (cf. a glossary published by Ellis in _Amer. + Journ. of Philol._ vi. 4, vii. 3, containing besides Paulus glosses, + also excerpts from Isidore; Cambridge _Journ. of Philol._ viii. 71 + sqq., xiv. 81 sqq.). + + Osbern of Gloucester (c. 1123-1200) compiled the glossary entitled + _Panormia_ (published by Angelo Mai as _Thesaurus novus Latinitatis_, + from Cod. Vatic. reg. Christ. 1392; cf. W. Meyer, _Rhein. Mus._ xxix., + 1874; Goetz in _Sitzungsber. sachs. Ges. d. Wiss._, 1903, p. 133 sqq.; + _Berichte ub. die Verhandl. der kon. sachs. Gesellsch. der Wiss._, + Leipzig, 1902); giving derivations, etymologies, testimonia collected + from Paulus, Priscianus, Plautus, Horace, Virgil, Ovid, Mart. Capella, + Macrobius, Ambrose, Sidonius, Prudentius, Josephus, Jerome, &c., &c. + Osbern's material was also used by Hugucio, whose compendium was still + more extensively used (cf. Goetz, l.c., p. 121 sqq., who enumerates + one hundred and three MSS. of his treatise), and contains many + biblical glosses, especially Hebraica, some treatises on Latin + numerals, &c. (cf. Hamann, _Weitere Mitteil. aus dem Breviloquus + Benthemianus_, Hamburg, 1882; A. Thomas, "Glosses provencales ined." + in _Romania_, xxxiv. p. 177 sqq; P. Toynbee, _ibid._ xxv. p. 537 + sqq.). + + The great work of Johannes de Janua, entitled _Summa quae vocatur + catholicon_, dates from the year 1286, and treats of (1) accent, (2) + etymology, (3) syntax, and (4) so-called prosody, i.e. a lexicon, + which also deals with quantity. It mostly uses Hugucio and Papias; + its classical quotations are limited, except from Horace; it quotes + the Vulgate by preference, frequently independently from Hugucio; it + excerpts Priscianus, Donatus, Isidore, the fathers of the Church, + especially Jerome, Gregory, Augustine, Ambrose; it borrows many Hebrew + glosses, mostly from Jerome and the other collections then in use; it + mentions the _Graecismus_ of Eberhardus Bethuniensis, the works of + Hrabanus Maurus, the _Doctrinale_ of Alexander de Villa Dei, and the + _Aurora_ of Petrus de Riga. Many quotations from the _Catholicon_ in + Du Cange are really from Hugucio, and may be traced to Osbern. There + exist many MSS. of this work, and the Mainz edition of 1460 is well + known (cf. Goetz in _Berichte ub. die Verhandl. der kon. sachs. + Gesellsch. der Wiss._, Leipzig, 1902). + + The gloss MSS. of the 9th and 10th centuries are numerous, but a + diminution becomes visible towards the 11th. We then find grammatical + treatises arise, for which also glossaries were used. The chief + material was (1) the _Liber glossarum_; (2) the Paulus glosses; (3) + the _Abavus major_; (4) excerpts from Priscian and glosses to + Priscian; (5) Hebrew-biblical collections of proper names (chiefly + from Jerome). After these comes medieval material, as the + _derivationes_ which are found in many MSS. (cf. Goetz in + _Sitzungsber. sachs. Ges. d. Wiss._, 1903, p. 136 sqq.; Traube in + _Archiv f. lat. Lex._ vi. 264), containing quotations from Plautus, + Ovid, Juvenal, Persius, Terence, occasionally from Priscian, Eutyches, + and other grammarians, with etymological explanations. These + _derivationes_ were the basis for the grammatical works of Osbern, + Hugucio and Joannes of Janua. + + A peculiar feature of the late middle ages are the medico-botanic + glossaries based on the earlier ones (see Goetz, _Corp._ iii.). The + additions consisted in Arabic words with Latin explanations, while + Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Arabic, interchange with English, French, + Italian and German forms. Of glossaries of this kind we have (1) the + _Glossae alphita_ (published by S. de Renzi in the 3rd vol. of the + _Collect. Salernitana_, Naples, 1854, from two Paris MSS. of the 14th + and 15th centuries, but some of the glosses occur already in earlier + MSS.); (2) _Sinonoma Bartholomei_, collected by John Mirfeld, towards + the end of the 14th century, ed. J. L. G. Mowat (_Anecd. Oxon._ i. 1, + 1882, cf. Loewe, _Gloss. Nom._ 116 sqq.); it seems to have used the + same or some similar source as No. 1; (3) the compilations of Simon de + Janua (_Clavis sanationis_, end of 13th century), and of Matthaeus + Silvaticus (_Pandectae medicinae_, 14th century; cf. H. Stadler, + "Dioscor. Longob." in _Roman. Forsch._ x. 3. 371; Steinmeyer, + _Althochd. Gloss._ iii.). + + Of biblical glossaries we have a large number, mostly mixed with + glosses on other, even profane, subjects, as Hebrew and other biblical + proper names, and explanations of the text of the Vulgate in general, + and the prologues of Hieronymus. So we have the _Glossae veteris ac + novi testamenti_ (beginning "Prologus graece latine praelocutio sive + praefatio") in numerous MSS. of the 9th to 14th centuries, mostly + retaining the various books under separate headings (cf. Arevalo, + _Isid._ vii. 407 sqq.; Loewe, _Prodr._ 141; Steinmeyer iv. 459; S. + Berger, _De compendiis exegeticis quibusdam medii aevi_, Paris, 1879). + Special mention should be made of Guil. Brito, who lived about 1250, + and compiled a _Summa_ (beginning "difficiles studeo partes quas + Biblia gestat Pandere"), contained in many MSS. especially in French + libraries. This _Summa_ gave rise to the _Mammotrectus_ of Joh. + Marchesinus, about 1300, of which we have editions printed in 1470, + 1476, 1479, &c. + + Finally we may mention such compilations as the _Summa Heinrici_; the + work of Johannes de Garlandia, which he himself calls _dictionarius_ + (cf. Scheler in _Jahrb. f. rom. u. engl. Philol._ vi., 1865, p. 142 + sqq.); and that of Alexander Neckam (ib. vii. p. 60 sqq., cf. R. + Ellis, in _Amer. Journ. of Phil._ x. 2); which are, strictly speaking, + not glossographic. The _Breviloquus_ drew its chief material from + Papias, Hugucio, Brito, &c. (K. Hamann, _Mitteil. aus dem Breviloquus + Benthemianus_, Hamburg, 1879; id., _Weitere Mitteil._, &c., Hamburg, + 1882); so also the _Vocabularium Ex quo_; the various _Gemmae_; + _Vocabularia rerum_ (cf. Diefenbach, _Glossar. Latino-Germanicum_). + + After the revival of learning, J. Scaliger (1540-1609) was the first + to impart to glossaries that importance which they deserve (cf. Goetz, + in _Sitzungsber. sachs. Ger. d. Wiss._, 1888, p. 219 sqq.), and in his + edition of Festus made great use of Ps.-Philoxenus, which enabled O. + Muller, the later editor of Festus, to follow in his footsteps. + Scaliger also planned the publication of a _Corpus glossarum_, and + left behind a collection of glosses known as _glossae Isidori_ (Goetz, + _Corp._ v. p. 589 sqq.; id. in _Sitzungsber. sachs. Ges._, 1888, p. + 224 sqq.; Loewe, _Prodr._ 23 sqq.), which occurs also in old + glossaries, clearly in reference to the tenth book of the + _Etymologiae_. + + The study of glosses spread through the publication, in 1573, of the + bilingual glossaries by H. Stephanus (Estienne), containing, besides + the two great glossaries, also the _Hermeneumata Stephani_, which is a + recension of the _Ps.-Dositheana_ (republished Goetz, _Corp._ iii. + 438-474), and the _glossae Stephani_, excerpted from a collection of + the _Hermeneumata_ (ib. iii. 438-474). + + In 1600 Bonav. Vulcanius republished the same glossaries, adding (1) + the glossae _Isidori_, which now appeared for the first time; (2) the + _Onomasticon_; (3) _notae_ and _castigationes_, derived from Scaliger + (Loewe, _Prodr._ 183). + + In 1606 Carolus and Petrus Labbaeus published, with the effective help + of Scaliger, another collection of glossaries, republished, in 1679, + by Du Cange, after which the 17th and 18th centuries produced no + further glossaries (Erasm. Nyerup published extracts from the Leiden + Glossary, Voss. 69, in 1787, _Symbolae ad Literat. Teut._), though + glosses were constantly used or referred to by Salmasius, Meursius, + Heraldus, Barth, Fabricius and Burman at Leiden, where a rich + collection of glossaries had been obtained by the acquisition of the + Vossius library (cf. Loewe, _Prodr._ 168). In the 19th century came + Osann's _Glossarii Latini specimen_ (1826); the glossographic + publications of Angelo Mai (_Classici auctores_, vols. iii., vi., + vii., viii., Rome, 1831-1836, containing Osbern's _Panormia_, Placidus + and various glosses from Vatican MSS.); Fr. Oehler's treatise (1847) + on the _Cod. Amplonianus_ of Osbern, and his edition of the three + Erfurt glossaries, so important for Anglo-Saxon philology; in 1854 G. + F. Hildebrand's _Glossarium Latinum_ (an extract from _Abavus minor_), + preserved in a Cod. Paris. lat. 7690; 1857, Thomas Wright's vol. of + Anglo-Saxon glosses, which were republished with others in 1884 by R. + Paul Wulcker under the title _Anglo-Saxon and Old English + Vocabularies_ (London, 2 vols., 1857); L. Diefenbach's supplement to + Du Cange, entitled _Glossarium Latino-Germanicum mediae et infimae + aetatis_, containing mostly glosses collected from glossaries, + vocabularies, &c., enumerated in the preface; Ritschl's treatise + (1870) on Placidus, which called forth an edition (1875) of Placidus + by Deuerling; G. Loewe's _Prodromus_ (1876), and other treatises by + him, published after his death by G. Goetz (Leipzig, 1884); 1888, the + second volume of Goetz's own great _Corpus glossariorum Latinorum_, of + which seven volumes (except the first) had seen the light by 1907, the + last two being separately entitled _Thesaurus glossarum emendatarum_, + containing many emendations and corrections of earlier glossaries by + the author and other scholars; 1900, Arthur S. Napier, _Old English + Glosses_ (Oxford), collected chiefly from Aldhelm MSS., but also from + Augustine, Avianus, Beda, Boethius, Gregory, Isidore, Juvencus, + Phocas, Prudentius, &c. + + There are a very great number of glossaries still in MS. scattered in + various libraries of Europe, especially in the Vatican, at Monte + Cassino, Paris, Munich, Bern, the British Museum, Leiden, Oxford, + Cambridge, &c. Much has already been done to make the material + contained in these MSS. accessible in print, and much may yet be done + with what is still unpublished, though we may find that the + differences between the glossaries which often present themselves at + first sight are mere differences in form introduced by successive more + or less qualified copyists. + + Some Celtic (Breton, Cornish, Welsh, Irish) glossaries have been + preserved to us, the particulars of which may be learnt from the + publications of Whitley Stokes, Sir John Rhys, Kuno Meyer, L. C. + Stern, G. I. Ascoli, Heinr. Zimmer, Ernst Windisch, Nigra, and many + others; these are published separately as books or in Zeuss's + _Grammatica Celtica_, A. Kuhn's _Beitrage zur vergleich. + Sprachforschung, Zeitschr. fur celtische Philologie, Archiv fur + Celtische Lexicographie, the Revue celtique, Transactions of the + London Philological Society_, &c. + + The first Hebrew author known to have used glosses was R. Gershom of + Metz (1000) in his commentaries on the Talmud. But he and other Hebrew + writers after him mostly used the Old French language (though + sometimes also Italian, Slavonic, German) of which an example has been + published by Lambert and Brandin, in their _Glossaire hebreu-francais + du XIII^e siecle: recueil de mots hebreux bibliques avec traduction + francaise_ (Paris, 1905). See further _The Jewish Encyclopedia_ (New + York and London, 1903), article "Gloss." + + AUTHORITIES.--For a great part of what has been said above, the writer + is indebted to G. Goetz's article on "Latein. Glossographie" in + Pauly's _Realencyklopadie_. By the side of Goetz's _Corpus_ stands the + great collection of Steinmeyer and Sievers, _Die althochdeutschen + Glossen_ (in 4 vols., 1879-1898), containing a vast number of (also + Anglo-Saxon) glosses culled from Bible MSS. and MSS. of classical + Christian authors, enumerated and described in the 4th vol. Besides + the works of the editors of, or writers on, glosses, already + mentioned, we refer here to a few others, whose writings may be + consulted: Hugo Blumner; _Catholicon Anglicum_ (ed. Hertage); De-Vit + (at end of Forcellini's _Lexicon_); F. Deycks; Du Cange; Funck; J. H. + Gallee (_Altsachs. Sprachdenkm._, 1894); Grober; K. Gruber + (_Hauptquellen des Corpus, Epin. u. Erfurt Gloss._, Erlangen, 1904); + Hattemer; W. Heraeus (_Die Sprache des Petronius und die Glossen_, + Leipzig, 1899); Kettner; Kluge; Krumbacher; Lagarde; Landgraf; Marx; + W. Meyer-Lubke ("Zu den latein. Glossen" in _Wiener Stud._ xxv. 90 + sqq.); Henry Nettleship; Niedermann, _Notes d'etymol. lat._ (Macon, + 1902), _Contribut. a la critique des glosses latines_ (Neuchatel, + 1905); Pokrowskij; Quicherat; Otto B. Schlutter (many important + articles in _Anglia, Englische Studien, Archiv f. latein. + Lexicographie_, &c.); Scholl; Schuchardt; Leo Sommer; Stadler; + Stowasser; Strachan; H. Sweet; Usener (_Rhein. Mus._ xxiii. 496, xxiv. + 382); A. Way, _Promptorium parvulorum sive clericorum_ (3 vols., + London, 1843-1865); Weyman; Wilmanns (in _Rhein. Mus._ xxiv. 363); + Wolfflin in _Arch. fur lat. Lexicogr._; Zupitza. Cf. further, the + various volumes of the following periodicals: _Romania_; _Zeitschr. + fur deutsches Alterthum_; _Anglia_; _Englische Studien_; _Journal of + English and German Philology_ (ed. Cook and Karsten); _Archiv fur + latein. Lexicogr._, and others treating of philology, lexicography, + grammar, &c. (J. H. H.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The history of the literary gloss in its proper sense has given + rise to the common English use of the word to mean an interpretation, + especially in a disingenuous, sinister or false way; the form + "gloze," more particularly associated with explaining away, + palliating or talking speciously, is simply an alternative spelling. + The word has thus to some extent influenced, or been influenced by, + the meaning of the etymologically different "gloss" = lustrous + surface (from the same root as "glass"; cf. "glow"), in its extended + sense of "outward fair seeming." + + [2] See Matthaei, _Glossaria Graeca_ (Moscow, 1774/5). + + [3] See Labbe, _Veteres glossae verborum juris quae passim in + Basilicis reperiuntur_ (1606); Otto, _Thesaurus juris Romani_, iii. + (1697); Stephens, _Thesaurus linguae Graecae_, viii. (1825). + + [4] See Biener, _Geschichte der Novellen_, p. 229 sqq. + + [5] Irnerius himself is with some probability believed to have been + the author of the Brachylogus (q.v.). + + [6] Thus Fil. Villani (_De origine civitatis Florentiae_, ed. 1847, + p. 23), speaking of the Glossator Accursius, says of the Glossae that + "tantae auctoritatis gratiaeque fuere, ut omnium consensu publice + approbarentur, et reiectis aliis, quibuscumque penitus abolitis, + solae juxta textum legum adpositae sunt et ubique terrarum sine + controversia pro legibus celebrantur, ita ut nefas sit, non secus + quam textui, Glossis Accursii contraire." For similar testimonies see + Bayle's _Dictionnaire_, s.v. "Accursius," and Rudorff, _Rom. + Rechtsgeschichte_, i. 338 (1857). + + [7] The so-called _Malberg_ glosses, found in various texts of the + Lex Salica, are not glosses in the ordinary sense of the word, but + precious remains of the parent of the present literary Dutch, namely, + the Low German dialect spoken by the Salian Franks who conquered Gaul + from the Romans at the end of the 5th century. It is supposed that + the conquerors brought their Frankish law with them, either written + down, or by oral tradition; that they translated it into Latin for + the sake of the Romans settled in the country, and that the + translators, not always knowing a proper Latin equivalent for certain + things or actions, retained in their translations the Frankish + technical names or phrases which they had attempted to translate into + Latin. E.g. in chapter ii., by the side of "_porcellus lactans_" (a + sucking-pig), we find the Frankish "_chramnechaltio_," lit. a + stye-porker. The person who stole such a pig (still kept in an + enclosed place, in a stye) was fined three times as much as one who + stole a "_porcellus de campo qui sine matre vivere possit_," as the + Latin text has it, for which the Malberg technical expression appears + to have been _ingymus_, that is, a one year (winter) old animal, i.e. + a yearling. Nearly all these glosses are preceded by "_mal_" or + "_malb_," which is thought to be a contraction for "_malberg_," the + Frankish for "forum." The antiquity and importance of these glosses + for philology may be realized from the fact that the Latin + translation of the Lex Salica probably dates from the latter end of + the 5th century. For further information cf. Jac. Grimm's preface to + Joh. Merkel's ed. (1850), and H. Kern's notes to J. H. Hessels's ed. + (London, 1880) of the Lex Salica. + + [8] Anglo-Saxon scholars ascribe an earlier date to the text of the + MS. on account of certain archaisms in its Anglo-Saxon words. + + + + +GLOSSOP, a market town and municipal borough, in the High Peak +parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, on the extreme northern +border of the county; 13 m. E. by S. of Manchester by the Great Central +railway. Pop. (1901) 21,526. It is the chief seat of the cotton +manufacture in Derbyshire, and it has also woollen and paper mills, dye +and print works, and bleaching greens. The town consists of three main +divisions, the Old Town (or Glossop proper), Howard Town (or Glossop +Dale) and Mill Town. An older parish church was replaced by that of All +Saints in 1830; there is also a very fine Roman Catholic church. In the +immediate neighbourhood is Glossop Hall, the seat of Lord Howard, lord +of the manor, a picturesque old building with extensive terraced +gardens. On a hill near the town is Melandra Castle, the site of a Roman +fort guarding Longdendale and the way into the hills of the Peak +District. In the neighbourhood also a great railway viaduct spans the +Dinting valley with sixteen arches. To the north, in Longdendale, there +are five lakes belonging to the water-supply system of Manchester, +formed by damming the Etherow, a stream which descends from the high +moors north-east of Glossop. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen +and 18 councillors. Area, 3052 acres. + +Glossop was granted by Henry I. to William Peverel, on the attainder of +whose son it reverted to the crown. In 1157 it was gifted by Henry II. +to the abbey of Basingwerk. Henry VIII. bestowed it on the earl of +Shrewsbury. It was made a municipal borough in 1866. + + + + +GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The English earldom of Gloucester was +held by several members of the royal family, including Robert, a natural +son of Henry I., and John, afterwards king, and others, until 1218, when +Gilbert de Clare was recognized as earl of Gloucester. It remained in +the family of Clare (q.v.) until 1314, when another Earl Gilbert was +killed at Bannockburn; and after this date it was claimed by various +relatives of the Clares, among them by the younger Hugh le Despenser (d. +1326) and by Hugh Audley (d. 1347), both of whom had married sisters of +Earl Gilbert. In 1397 Thomas le Despenser (1373-1400), a descendant of +the Clares, was created earl of Gloucester; but in 1399 he was degraded +from his earldom and in January 1400 was beheaded. + +The dukedom dates from 1385, when Thomas of Woodstock, a younger son of +Edward III., was created duke of Gloucester, but his honours were +forfeited when he was found guilty of treason in 1397. The next holder +of the title was Humphrey, a son of Henry IV., who was created duke of +Gloucester in 1414. He died without sons in 1447, and in 1461 the title +was revived in favour of Richard, brother of Edward IV., who became king +as Richard III. in 1483. + +In 1659 Henry (1639-1660), a brother of Charles II., was formally +created duke of Gloucester, a title which he had borne since infancy. +This prince, sharing the exile of the Stuarts, had incensed his mother, +Queen Henrietta Maria, by his firm adherence to the Protestant religion, +and had fought among the Spaniards at Dunkirk in 1658. Having returned +to England with Charles II., he died unmarried in London on the 13th of +September 1660. The next duke was William (1689-1700), son of the +princess Anne, who was, after his mother, the heir to the English +throne, and who was declared duke of Gloucester by his uncle, William +III., in 1689, but no patent for this creation was ever passed. William +died on the 30th of July 1700, and again the title became extinct. + +Frederick Louis, the eldest son of George II., was known for some time +as duke of Gloucester, but when he was raised to the peerage in 1726 it +was as duke of Edinburgh only. In 1764 Frederick's third son, William +Henry (1743-1805), was created duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh by his +brother, George III. This duke's secret marriage with Maria (d. 1807), +an illegitimate daughter of Sir Edward Walpole and widow of James, 2nd +Earl Waldegrave, in 1766, greatly incensed his royal relatives and led +to his banishment from court. Gloucester died on the 25th of August +1805, leaving an only son, William Frederick (1776-1834), who now became +duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh. The duke, who served with the British +army in Flanders, married his cousin Mary (1776-1857), a daughter of +George III. He died on the 30th of November 1834, leaving no children, +and his widow, the last survivor of the family of George III., died on +the 30th of April 1857. + + + + +GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE, EARL OF (1243-1295), was a son of Richard +de Clare, 7th earl of Gloucester and 8th earl of Clare, and was born at +Christchurch, Hampshire, on the 2nd of September 1243. Having married +Alice of Angouleme, half-sister of king Henry III., he became earl of +Gloucester and Clare on his father's death in July 1262, and almost at +once joined the baronial party led by Simon de Montfort, earl of +Leicester. With Simon Gloucester was at the battle of Lewes in May 1264, +when the king himself surrendered to him, and after this victory he was +one of the three persons selected to nominate a council. Soon, however, +he quarrelled with Leicester. Leaving London for his lands on the Welsh +border he met Prince Edward, afterwards king Edward I., at Ludlow, just +after his escape from captivity, and by his skill contributed largely to +the prince's victory at Evesham in August 1265. But this alliance was as +transitory as the one with Leicester. Gloucester took up the cudgels on +behalf of the barons who had surrendered at Kenilworth in November and +December 1266, and after putting his demands before the king, secured +possession of London. This happened in April 1267, but the earl quickly +made his peace with Henry III. and with Prince Edward, and, having +evaded an obligation to go on the Crusade, he helped to secure the +peaceful accession of Edward I. to the throne in 1272. Gloucester then +passed several years in fighting in Wales, or on the Welsh border; in +1289 when the barons were asked for a subsidy he replied on their behalf +that they would grant nothing until they saw the king in person (_nisi +prius personaliter viderent in Anglia faciem regis_), and in 1291 he was +fined and imprisoned on account of his violent quarrel with Humphrey de +Bohun, earl of Hereford. Having divorced his wife Alice, he married in +1290 Edward's daughter Joan, or Johanna (d. 1307). Earl Gilbert, who is +sometimes called the "Red," died at Monmouth on the 7th of December +1295, leaving in addition to three daughters a son, Gilbert, earl of +Gloucester and Clare, who was killed at Bannockburn. + + See C. Bemont, _Simon de Montfort, comte de Leicester_ (1884), and G. + W. Prothero, _Simon de Montfort_ (1877). + + + + +GLOUCESTER, HUMPHREY, DUKE OF (1391-1447), fourth son of Henry IV. by +Mary de Bohun, was born in 1391. He was knighted at his father's +coronation on the 11th of October 1399, and created duke of Gloucester +by Henry V. at Leicester on the 16th of May 1414. He served in the war +next year, and was wounded at Agincourt, where he owed his life to his +brother's valour. In April 1416 Humphrey received the emperor Sigismund +at Dover and, according to a 16th-century story, did not let him land +till he had disclaimed all title to imperial authority in England. In +the second invasion of France Humphrey commanded the force which during +1418 reduced the Cotentin and captured Cherbourg. Afterwards he joined +the main army before Rouen, and took part in subsequent campaigns till +January 1420. He then went home to replace Bedford as regent in England, +and held office till Henry's own return in February 1421. He was again +regent for his brother from May to September 1422. + +Henry V. measured Humphrey's capacity, and by his will named him merely +deputy for Bedford in England. Humphrey at once claimed the full +position of regent, but the parliament and council allowed him only the +title of protector during Bedford's absence, with limited powers. His +lack of discretion soon justified this caution. In the autumn of 1422 he +married Jacqueline of Bavaria, heiress of Holland, to whose lands Philip +of Burgundy had claims. Bedford, in the interest of so important an +ally, endeavoured vainly to restrain his brother. Finally in October +1424 Humphrey took up arms in his wife's behalf, but after a short +campaign in Hainault went home, and left Jacqueline to be overwhelmed by +Burgundy. Returning to England in April 1425 he soon entangled himself +in a quarrel with the council and his uncle Henry Beaufort, and stirred +up a tumult in London. Open war was averted only by Beaufort's prudence, +and Bedford's hurried return. Humphrey had charged his uncle with +disloyalty to the late and present kings. With some difficulty Bedford +effected a formal reconciliation at Leicester in March 1426, and forced +Humphrey to accept Beaufort's disavowal. When Bedford left England next +year Humphrey renewed his intrigues. But one complication was removed by +the annulling in 1428 of his marriage with Jacqueline. His open adultery +with his mistress, Eleanor Cobham, also made him unpopular. To check his +indiscretion the council, in November 1429, had the king crowned, and so +put an end to Humphrey's protectorate. However, when Henry VI. was soon +afterwards taken to be crowned in France, Humphrey was made lieutenant +and warden of the kingdom, and thus ruled England for nearly two years. +His jealousy of Bedford and Beaufort still continued, and when the +former died in 1435 there was no one to whom he would defer. The +defection of Burgundy roused English feeling, and Humphrey won +popularity as leader of the war party. In 1436 he commanded in a short +invasion of Flanders. But he had no real power, and his political +importance lay in his persistent opposition to Beaufort and the +councillors of his party. In 1439 he renewed his charges against his +uncle without effect. His position was further damaged by his connexion +with Eleanor Cobham, whom he had now married. In 1441 Eleanor was +charged with practising sorcery against the king, and Humphrey had to +submit to see her condemned, and her accomplices executed. Nevertheless, +he continued his political opposition, and endeavoured to thwart +Suffolk, who was now taking Beaufort's place in the council, by opposing +the king's marriage to Margaret of Anjou. Under Suffolk's influence +Henry VI. grew to distrust his uncle altogether. The crisis came in the +parliament of Bury St Edmunds in February 1447. Immediately on his +arrival there Humphrey was arrested, and four days later, on the 23rd of +February, he died. Rumour attributed his death to foul play. But his +health had been long undermined by excesses, and his end was probably +only hastened by the shock of his arrest. + +Humphrey was buried at St Albans Abbey, in a fine tomb, which still +exists. He was ambitious and self-seeking, but unstable and +unprincipled, and, lacking the fine qualities of his brothers, excelled +neither in war nor in peace. Still he was a cultured and courtly prince, +who could win popularity. He was long remembered as the good Duke +Humphrey, and in his lifetime was a liberal patron of letters. He had +been a great collector of books, many of which he presented to the +university of Oxford. He contributed also to the building of the +Divinity School, and of the room still called Duke Humphrey's library. +His books were dispersed at the Reformation and only three volumes of +his donation now remain in the Bodleian library. Titus Livius, an +Italian in Humphrey's service, wrote a life of Henry V. at his patron's +bidding. Other Italian scholars, as Leonardo Aretino, benefited by his +patronage. Amongst English men of letters he befriended Reginald Pecock, +Whethamstead of St Albans, Capgrave the historian, Lydgate, and Gilbert +Kymer, who was his physician and chancellor of Oxford university. A +popular error found Humphrey a fictitious tomb in St Paul's Cathedral. +The adjoining aisle, called Duke Humphrey's Walk, was frequented by +beggars and needy adventurers. Hence the 16th-century proverb "to dine +with Duke Humphrey," used of those who loitered there dinnerless. + + The most important contemporary sources are Stevenson's _Wars of the + English in France_, Whethamstead's _Register_, and Beckington's + _Letters_ (all in Rolls Ser.), with the various _London Chronicles_, + and the works of Waurin and Monstrelet. For his relations with + Jacqueline see F. von Loher's _Jacobaa von Bayern und ihre Zeit_ (2 + vols., Nordlingen, 1869). For other modern authorities consult W. + Stubbs's _Constitutional History_; J. H. Ramsay's _Lancaster and + York_; _Political History of England_, vol. iv.; R. Pauli, _Pictures + of Old England_, pp. 373-401 (1861); and K. H. Viekers, _Humphrey, + Duke of Gloucester_ (1907). For Humphrey's correspondence with Piero + Candido Decembrio see the _English Historical Review_, vols. x., xix., + xx. (C. L. K.) + + + + +GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE, EARL OF (1222-1262), was a son of Gilbert +de Clare, 6th earl of Gloucester and 7th earl of Clare, and was born on +the 4th of August 1222, succeeding to his father's earldoms on the +death of the latter in October 1230. His first wife was Margaret, +daughter of Hubert de Burgh, and after her death in 1237 he married +Maud, daughter of John de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, and passed his early +years in tournaments and pilgrimages, taking for a time a secondary and +undecided part in politics. He refused to help Henry III. on the French +expedition of 1250, but was afterwards with the king at Paris; then he +went on a diplomatic errand to Scotland, and was sent to Germany to work +among the princes for the election of his stepfather, Richard, earl of +Cornwall, as king of the Romans. About 1258 Gloucester took up his +position as a leader of the barons in their resistance to the king, and +he was prominent during the proceedings which followed the Mad +Parliament at Oxford in 1258. In 1259, however, he quarrelled with Simon +de Montfort, earl of Leicester; the dispute, begun in England, was +renewed in France and he was again in the confidence and company of the +king. This attitude, too, was only temporary, and in 1261 Gloucester and +Leicester were again working in concord. The earl died at his residence +near Canterbury on the 15th of July 1262. A large landholder like his +son and successor, Gilbert, Gloucester was the most powerful English +baron of his time; he was avaricious and extravagant, but educated and +able. He left several children in addition to Earl Gilbert. + + + + +GLOUCESTER, ROBERT, EARL OF (d. 1147), was a natural son of Henry I. of +England. He was born, before his father's accession, at Caen in +Normandy; but the exact date of his birth, and his mother's name are +unknown. He received from his father the hand of a wealthy heiress, +Mabel of Gloucester, daughter of Robert Fitz Hamon, and with her the +lordships of Gloucester and Glamorgan. About 1121 the earldom of +Gloucester was created for his benefit. His rank and territorial +influence made him the natural leader of the western baronage. Hence, at +his father's death, he was sedulously courted by the rival parties of +his half-sister the empress Matilda and of Stephen. After some +hesitation he declared for the latter, but tendered his homage upon +strict conditions, the breach of which should be held to invalidate the +contract. Robert afterwards alleged that he had merely feigned +submission to Stephen with the object of secretly furthering his +half-sister's cause among the English barons. The truth appears to be +that he was mortified at finding himself excluded from the inner +councils of the king, and so resolved to sell his services elsewhere. +Robert left England for Normandy in 1137, renewed his relations with the +Angevin party, and in 1138 sent a formal defiance to the king. Returning +to England in the following year, he raised the standard of rebellion in +his own earldom with such success that the greater part of western +England and the south Welsh marches were soon in the possession of the +empress. By the battle of Lincoln (Feb. 2, 1141), in which Stephen was +taken prisoner, the earl made good Matilda's claim to the whole kingdom. +He accompanied her triumphal progress to Winchester and London; but was +unable to moderate the arrogance of her behaviour. Consequently she was +soon expelled from London and deserted by the bishop Henry of Winchester +who, as legate, controlled the policy of the English church. With +Matilda the earl besieged the legate at Winchester, but was forced by +the royalists to beat a hasty retreat, and in covering Matilda's flight +fell into the hands of the pursuers. So great was his importance that +his party purchased his freedom by the release of Stephen. The earl +renewed the struggle for the crown and continued it until his death +(Oct. 31, 1147); but the personal unpopularity of Matilda, and the +estrangement of the Church from her cause, made his efforts unavailing. +His loyalty to a lost cause must be allowed to weigh in the scale +against his earlier double-dealing. But he hardly deserves the +extravagant praise which is lavished upon him by William of Malmesbury. +The sympathies of the chronicler are too obviously influenced by the +earl's munificence towards literary men. + + See the _Historia novella_ by William of Malmesbury (Rolls edition); + the _Historia Anglorum_ by Henry of Huntingdon (Rolls edition); J. H. + Round's _Geoffrey de Mandeville_ (1892); and O. Rossler's _Kaiserin + Mathilde_ (Berlin, 1897). (H. W. C. D.) + + + + + +GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK, DUKE OF (1355-1397), seventh and +youngest son of the English king Edward III., was born at Woodstock on +the 7th of January 1355. Having married Eleanor (d. 1399), daughter and +co-heiress of Humphrey de Bohun, earl of Hereford, Essex and Northampton +(d. 1373), Thomas obtained the office of constable of England, a +position previously held by the Bohuns, and was made earl of Buckingham +by his nephew, Richard II., at the coronation in July 1377. He took part +in defending the English coasts against the attacks of the French and +Castilians, after which he led an army through northern and central +France, and besieged Nantes, which town, however, he failed to take. + +Returning to England early in 1381, Buckingham found that his brother, +John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, had married his wife's sister, Mary +Bohun, to his own son, Henry, afterwards King Henry IV. The relations +between the brothers, hitherto somewhat strained, were not improved by +this proceeding, as Thomas, doubtless, was hoping to retain possession +of Mary's estates. Having taken some part in crushing the rising of the +peasants in 1381, Buckingham became more friendly with Lancaster; and +while marching with the king into Scotland in 1385 was created duke of +Gloucester, a mark of favour, however, which did not prevent him from +taking up an attitude of hostility to Richard. Lancaster having left the +country, Gloucester placed himself at the head of the party which +disliked the royal advisers, Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk and +Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, whose recent elevation to the dignity of +duke of Ireland had aroused profound discontent. The moment was +propitious for interference, and supported by those who were indignant +at the extravagance and incompetence, real or alleged, of the king, +Gloucester was soon in a position of authority. He forced on the +dismissal and impeachment of Suffolk; was a member of the commission +appointed in 1386 to reform the kingdom and the royal household; and +took up arms when Richard began proceedings against the commissioners. +Having defeated Vere at Radcot in December 1387 the duke and his +associates entered London to find the king powerless in their hands. +Gloucester, who had previously threatened his uncle with deposition, was +only restrained from taking this extreme step by the influence of his +colleagues; but, as the leader of the "lords appellant" in the +"Merciless Parliament," which met in February 1388 and was packed with +his supporters, he took a savage revenge upon his enemies, while not +neglecting to add to his own possessions. + +He was not seriously punished when Richard regained his power in May +1389, but he remained in the background, although employed occasionally +on public business, and accompanying the king to Ireland in 1394. In +1396, however, uncle and nephew were again at variance. Gloucester +disliked the peace with France and Richard's second marriage with +Isabella, daughter of King Charles VI.; other causes of difference were +not wanting, and it has been asserted that the duke was plotting to +seize the king. At all events Richard decided to arrest him. By refusing +an invitation to dinner the duke frustrated the first attempt, but on +the 11th of July 1397 he was arrested by the king himself at his +residence, Pleshey castle in Essex. He was taken at once to Calais, and +it is probable that he was murdered by order of the king on the 9th of +September following. The facts seem to be as follows. At the beginning +of September it was reported that he was dead. The rumour, probably a +deliberate one, was false, and about the same time a justice, Sir +William Rickhill (d. 1407), was sent to Calais with instructions dated +the 17th of August to obtain a confession from Gloucester. On the 8th of +September the duke confessed that he had been guilty of treason, and his +death immediately followed this avowal. Unwilling to meet his parliament +so soon after his uncle's death, Richard's purpose was doubtless to +antedate this occurrence, and to foster the impression that the duke had +died from natural causes in August. When parliament met in September he +was declared guilty of treason and his estates forfeited. Gloucester had +one son, Humphrey (c. 1381-1399), who died unmarried, and four +daughters, the most notable of whom was Anne (c. 1380-1438), who was +successively the wife of Thomas, 3rd earl of Stafford, Edmund, 5th earl +of Stafford, and William Bourchier, count of Eu. Gloucester is supposed +to have written _L'Ordonnance d'Angleterre pour le camp a l'outrance, ou +gaige de bataille_. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See T. Walsingham, _Historia Anglicana_, edited by H. + T. Riley (London, 1863-1864); The Monk of Evesham, _Historia vitae et + regni Ricardi II._, edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1729); _Chronique de + la traison et mort de Richard II_, edited by B. Williams (London, + 1846); J. Froissart, _Chroniques_, edited by S. Luce and G. Raynaud + (Paris, 1869-1897); W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. ii. + (Oxford, 1896); J. Tait in _Owens College Historical Essays_ and S. + Armitage-Smith, _John of Gaunt_ (London, 1904). + + + + +GLOUCESTER (abbreviated as pronounced _Glo'ster_), a city, county of a +city, municipal and parliamentary borough and port, and the county town +of Gloucestershire, England, on the left (east) bank of the river +Severn, 114 m. W.N.W. of London. Pop. (1901) 47,955. It is served by the +Great Western railway and the west-and-north branch of the Midland +railway; while the Berkeley Ship Canal runs S.W. to Sharpness Docks in +the Severn estuary (16-1/2 m.). Gloucester is situated on a gentle +eminence overlooking the Severn and sheltered by the Cotteswolds on the +east, while the Malverns and the hills of the Forest of Dean rise +prominently to the west and north-west. + +The cathedral, in the north of the city near the river, originates in +the foundation of an abbey of St Peter in 681, the foundations of the +present church having been laid by Abbot Serlo (1072-1104); and Walter +Froucester (d. 1412) its historian, became its first mitred abbot in +1381. Until 1541, Gloucester lay in the see of Worcester, but the +separate see was then constituted, with John Wakeman, last abbot of +Tewkesbury, for its first bishop. The diocese covers the greater part of +Gloucestershire, with small parts of Herefordshire and Wiltshire. The +cathedral may be succinctly described as consisting of a Norman nucleus, +with additions in every style of Gothic architecture. It is 420 ft. +long, and 144 ft. broad, with a beautiful central tower of the 15th +century rising to the height of 225 ft. and topped by four graceful +pinnacles. The nave is massive Norman with Early English roof; the crypt +also, under the choir, aisles and chapels, is Norman, as is the +chapter-house. The crypt is one of the four apsidal cathedral crypts in +England, the others being at Worcester, Winchester and Canterbury. The +south porch is Perpendicular, with fan-tracery roof, as also is the +north transept, the south being transitional Decorated. The choir has +Perpendicular tracery over Norman work, with an apsidal chapel on each +side. The choir-vaulting is particularly rich, and the modern scheme of +colouring is judicious. The splendid late Decorated east window is +partly filled with ancient glass. Between the apsidal chapels is a cross +Lady chapel, and north of the nave are the cloisters, with very early +example of fan-tracery, the carols or stalls for the monks' study and +writing lying to the south. The finest monument is the canopied shrine +of Edward II. who was brought hither from Berkeley. By the visits of +pilgrims to this the building and sanctuary were enriched. In a +side-chapel, too, is a monument in coloured bog oak of Robert Curthose, +a great benefactor to the abbey, the eldest son of the Conqueror, who +was interred there; and those of Bishop Warburton and Dr Edward Jenner +are also worthy of special mention. A musical festival (the Festival of +the Three Choirs) is held annually in this cathedral and those of +Worcester and Hereford in turn. Between 1873 and 1890 and in 1897 the +cathedral was extensively restored, principally by Sir Gilbert Scott. +Attached to the deanery is the Norman prior's chapel. In St Mary's +Square outside the Abbey gate, Bishop Hooper suffered martyrdom under +Queen Mary in 1555. + +Quaint gabled and timbered houses preserve the ancient aspect of the +city. At the point of intersection of the four principal streets stood +the Tolsey or town hall, replaced by a modern building in 1894. None of +the old public buildings, in fact, is left, but the New Inn in Northgate +Street is a beautiful timbered house, strong and massive, with external +galleries and courtyards, built in 1450 for the pilgrims to Edward II.'s +shrine, by Abbot Sebroke, a traditional subterranean passage leading +thence to the cathedral. The timber is principally chestnut. There are a +large number of churches and dissenting chapels, and it may have been +the old proverb, "as sure as God's in Gloucester," which provoked Oliver +Cromwell to declare that the city had "more churches than godliness." Of +the churches four are of special interest: St Mary de Lode, with a +Norman tower and chancel, and a monument of Bishop Hooper, on the site +of a Roman temple which became the first Christian church in Britain; St +Mary de Crypt, a cruciform structure of the 12th century, with later +additions and a beautiful and lofty tower; the church of St Michael, +said to have been connected with the ancient abbey of St Peter; and St +Nicholas church, originally of Norman erection, and possessing a tower +and other portions of later date. In the neighbourhood of St Mary de +Crypt are slight remains of Greyfriars and Blackfriars monasteries, and +also of the city wall. Early vaulted cellars remain under the Fleece and +Saracen's Head inns. + +There are three endowed schools: the College school, refounded by Henry +VIII. as part of the cathedral establishment; the school of St Mary de +Crypt, founded by Dame Joan Cooke in the same reign; and Sir Thomas +Rich's Blue Coat hospital for 34 boys (1666). At the Crypt school the +famous preacher George Whitefield (1714-1770) was educated, and he +preached his first sermon in the church. The first Sunday school was +held in Gloucester, being originated by Robert Raikes, in 1780. + +The noteworthy modern buildings include the museum and school of art and +science, the county gaol (on the site of a Saxon and Norman castle), the +Shire Hall and the Whitefield memorial church. A park in the south of +the city contains a spa, a chalybeate spring having been discovered in +1814. West of this, across the canal, are the remains (a gateway and +some walls) of Llanthony Priory, a cell of the mother abbey in the vale +of Ewyas, Monmouthshire, which in the reign of Edward IV. became the +secondary establishment. + +Gloucester possesses match works, foundries, marble and slate works, +saw-mills, chemical works, rope works, flour-mills, manufactories of +railway wagons, engines and agricultural implements, and boat and +ship-building yards. Gloucester was declared a port in 1882. The +Berkeley canal was opened in 1827. The Gloucester canal-harbour and that +at Sharpness on the Severn are managed by a board. Principal imports are +timber and grain; and exports, coal, salt, iron and bricks. The salmon +and lamprey fisheries in the Severn are valuable. The tidal bore in the +river attains its extreme height just below the city, and sometimes +surmounts the weir in the western branch of the river, affecting the +stream up to Tewkesbury lock. The parliamentary borough returns one +member. The city is governed by a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. +Area, 2315 acres. + +_History._--The traditional existence of a British settlement at +Gloucester (Caer Glow, Gleawecastre, Gleucestre) is not confirmed by any +direct evidence, but Gloucester was the Roman municipality or _colonia_ +of _Glevum_, founded by Nerva (A.D. 96-98). Parts of the walls can be +traced, and many remains and coins have been found, though inscriptions +(as is frequently the case in Britain) are somewhat scarce. Its +situation on a navigable river, and the foundation in 681 of the abbey +of St Peter by Aethelred favoured the growth of the town; and before the +Conquest Gloucester was a borough governed by a portreeve, with a castle +which was frequently a royal residence, and a mint. The first overlord, +Earl Godwine, was succeeded nearly a century later by Robert, earl of +Gloucester. Henry II. granted the first charter in 1155 which gave the +burgesses the same liberties as the citizens of London and Winchester, +and a second charter of Henry II. gave them freedom of passage on the +Severn. The first charter was confirmed in 1194 by Richard I. The +privileges of the borough were greatly extended by the charter of John +(1200) which gave freedom from toll throughout the kingdom and from +pleading outside the borough. Subsequent charters were numerous. +Gloucester was incorporated by Richard III. in 1483, the town being made +a county in itself. This charter was confirmed in 1489 and 1510, and +other charters of incorporation were received by Gloucester from +Elizabeth in 1560, James I. in 1604, Charles I. in 1626 and Charles II. +in 1672. The chartered port of Gloucester dates from 1580. Gloucester +returned two members to parliament from 1275 to 1885, since when it has +been represented by one member. A seven days' fair from the 24th of June +was granted by Edward I. in 1302, and James I. licensed fairs on the +25th of March and the 17th of November, and fairs under these grants are +still held on the first Saturday in April and July and the last Saturday +in November. The fair now held on the 28th of September was granted to +the abbey of St Peter in 1227. A market on Wednesday existed in the +reign of John, was confirmed by charter in 1227 and is still held. The +iron trade of Gloucester dates from before the Conquest, tanning was +carried on before the reign of Richard III., pin-making and +bell-founding were introduced in the 16th, and the long-existing coal +trade became important in the 18th century. The cloth trade flourished +from the 12th to the 16th century. The sea-borne trade in corn and wine +existed before the reign of Richard I. + + See W. H. Stevenson, _Records of the Corporation of Gloucester_ + (Gloucester, 1893); _Victoria County History, Gloucestershire_. + + + + +GLOUCESTER, a city and port of entry of Essex county, Massachusetts, +U.S.A., beautifully situated on Cape Ann. Pop. (1890) 24,651; (1900) +26,121, of whom 8768 were foreign-born, including 4388 English +Canadians, 800 French Canadians, 665 Irish, 653 Finns and 594 +Portuguese; (1910 census) 24,398. Area, 53.6 sq. m. It is served by the +Boston & Maine railway and by a steamboat line to Boston. The surface is +sterile, naked and rugged, with bold, rocky ledges, and a most +picturesque shore, the beauties of which have made it a favourite summer +resort, much frequented by artists. Included within the city borders are +several villages, of which the principal one, also known as Gloucester, +has a deep and commodious harbour. Among the other villages, all summer +resorts, are Annisquam, Bay View and Magnolia (so called from the +_Magnolia glauca_, which grows wild there, this being probably its most +northerly habitat); near Magnolia are Rafe's Chasm (60 ft. deep and 6-10 +ft. wide) and Norman's Woe, the scene of the wreck of the "Hesperus" +(which has only tradition as a basis), celebrated in Longfellow's poem. +There is some slight general commerce--in 1909 the imports were valued +at $130,098; the exports at $7853--but the principal business is +fishing, and has been since early colonial days. The pursuit of cod, +mackerel, herring and halibut fills up, with a winter coasting trade, +the round of the year. In this industry Gloucester is the most important +place in the United States; and is, indeed, one of the greatest fishing +ports of the world. Most of the adult males are engaged in it. The +"catch" was valued in 1895 at $3,212,985 and in 1905 at $3,377,330. The +organization of the industry has undergone many transformations, but a +notable feature is the general practice--especially since modern methods +have necessitated larger vessels and more costly gear, and +correspondingly greater capital--of profit-sharing; all the crew +entering on that basis and not independently. There are some +manufactures, chiefly connected with the fisheries. The total factory +product in 1905 was valued at $6,920,984, of which the canning and +preserving of fish represented $4,068,571, and glue represented +$752,003. An industry of considerable importance is the quarrying of the +beautiful, dark Cape Ann granite that underlies the city and all the +environs. + +Gloucester harbour was probably noted by Champlain (as La Beauport), and +a temporary settlement was made by English fishermen sent out by the +Dorchester Company of "merchant adventurers" in 1623-1625; some of these +settlers returned to England in 1625, and others, with Roger Conant, the +governor, removed to what is now Salem.[1] Permanent settlement +ante-dated 1639 at least, and in 1642 the township was incorporated. From +Gosnold's voyages onward the extraordinary abundance of cod about Cape +Ann was well known, and though the first settlers characteristically +enough tried to live by farming, they speedily became perforce a +sea-faring folk. The active pursuit of fishing as an industry may be +dated as beginning about 1700, for then began voyages beyond Cape Sable. +Voyages to the Grand Banks began about 1741. Mackerel was a relatively +unimportant catch until about 1821, and since then has been an important +but unstable return; halibut fishing has been vigorously pursued since +about 1836 and herring since about 1856. At the opening of the War of +Independence Gloucester, whose fisheries then employed about 600 men, was +second to Marblehead as a fishing-port. The war destroyed the fisheries, +which steadily declined, reaching their lowest ebb from 1820 to 1840. +Meanwhile foreign commerce had greatly expanded. The cod take had +supported in the 18th century an extensive trade with Bilbao, Lisbon and +the West Indies, and though changed in nature with the decline of the +Bank fisheries after the War of Independence, it continued large through +the first quarter of the 19th century. Throughout more than half of the +same century also Gloucester carried on a varied and valuable trade with +Surinam, hake being the chief article of export and molasses and sugar +the principal imports. "India Square" remains, a memento of a bygone day. +About 1850 the fisheries revived, especially after 1860, under the +influence of better prices, improved methods and the discovery of new +grounds, becoming again the chief economic interest; and since that time +the village of Gloucester has changed from a picturesque hamlet to a +fairly modern, though still quaint and somewhat foreign, settlement. +Gasoline boats were introduced in 1900. Ship-building is another industry +of the past. The first "schooner" was launched at Gloucester in 1713. +From 1830 to 1907, 776 vessels and 5242 lives were lost in the fisheries; +but the loss of life has been greatly reduced by the use of better +vessels and by improved methods of fishing. Gloucester became a city in +1874. + + Gloucester life has been celebrated in many books; among others in + Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward's _Singular Life_ and _Old Maid's + Paradise_, in Rudyard Kipling's _Captains Courageous_, and in James B. + Connolly's _Out of Gloucester_ (1902), _The Deep Sea's Toll_ (1905), + and _The Crested Seas_ (1907). + + See J. J. Babson, _History of the Town of Gloucester_ (Gloucester, + 1860; with _Notes and Additions_, on genealogy, 1876, 1891); and J. R. + Pringle, _History of the Town and City of Gloucester_ (Gloucester, + 1892). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] According to some authorities (e.g. Pringle) a few settlers + remained on the site of Gloucester, the permanent settlement thus + dating from 1623 to 1625; of this, however, there is no proof, and + the contrary opinion is the one generally held. + + + + +GLOUCESTER CITY, a city of Camden county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the +Delaware river, opposite Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 6564; (1900) 6840, of +whom 1094 were foreign-born; (1905) 8055; (1910) 9462. The city is +served by the West Jersey & Seashore and the Atlantic City railways, and +by ferry to Philadelphia, of which it is a residential suburb. Among its +manufactures are incandescent gas-burners, rugs, cotton yarns, boats and +drills. The municipality owns and operates the water works. It was near +the site of Gloucester City that the Dutch in 1623 planted the +short-lived colony of Fort Nassau, the first European settlement on the +Delaware river, but it was not until after the arrival of English +Quakers on the Delaware, in 1677, that a permanent settlement, at first +called Axwamus, was established on the site of the present city. This +was surveyed and laid out as a town in 1689. During the War of +Independence the place was frequently occupied by troops, and a number +of skirmishes were fought in its vicinity. The most noted of these was a +successful attack upon a detachment of Hessians on the 25th of November +1777 by American troops under the command of General Lafayette. In 1868 +Gloucester City was chartered as a city. In Camden county there is a +township named GLOUCESTER (pop. in 1905, 2300), incorporated in 1798, +and originally including the present township of Clementon and parts of +the present townships of Waterford, Union and Winslow. + + + + +GLOUCESTERSHIRE, a county of the west midlands of England, bounded N. by +Worcestershire, N.E. by Warwickshire, E. by Oxfordshire, S.E. by +Berkshire and Wiltshire, S. by Somerset, and W. by Monmouth and +Herefordshire. Its area is 1243-3 sq. m. The outline is very irregular, +but three physical divisions are well marked--the hills, the vale and +the forest. (1) The first (the eastern part of the county) lies among +the uplands of the Cotteswold Hills (q.v.), whose westward face is a +line of heights of an average elevation of 700 ft., but exceeding 1000 +ft. at some points. This line bisects the county from S.W. to N.E. The +watershed between the Thames and Severn valleys lies close to it, so +that Gloucestershire includes Thames Head itself, in the south-east near +Cirencester, and most of the upper feeders of the Thames which join the +main stream, from narrow and picturesque valleys on the north. (2) The +western Cotteswold line overlooks a rich valley, that of the lower +Severn, usually spoken of as "The Vale," or, in two divisions, as the +vale of Gloucester and the vale of Berkeley. This great river receives +three famous tributaries during its course through Gloucestershire. Near +Tewkesbury, on the northern border, the Avon joins it on the left and +forms the county boundary for 4 m. This is the river known variously as +the Upper, Worcestershire, Warwickshire, Stratford or Shakespeare's +Avon, which descends a lovely pastoral valley through the counties +named. It is to be distinguished from the Bristol Avon, which rises as +an eastward flowing stream of the Cotteswolds, in the south-east of +Gloucestershire, sweeps southward and westward through Wiltshire, +pierces the hills through a narrow valley which becomes a wooded gorge +where the Clifton suspension bridge crosses it below Bristol, and enters +the Severn estuary at Avonmouth. For 17 m. from its mouth it forms the +boundary between Gloucestershire and Somersetshire, and for 8 m. it is +one of the most important commercial waterways in the kingdom, +connecting the port of Bristol with the sea. The third great tributary +of the Severn is the Wye. From its mouth in the estuary, 8 m. N. of that +of the Bristol Avon, it forms the county boundary for 16 m. northward, +and above this, over two short reaches of its beautiful winding course, +it is again the boundary. (3) Between the Wye and the Severn lies a +beautiful and historic tract, the forest of Dean, which, unlike the +majority of English forests, maintains its ancient character. +Gloucestershire has thus a share in the courses of five of the most +famous of English rivers, and covers two of the most interesting +physical districts in the country. The minor rivers of the county are +never long. The vale is at no point within the county wider than 24 m., +and so does not permit the formation of any considerable tributary to +the Severn from the Dean Hills on the one hand or the Cotteswolds on the +other. The Leadon rises east of Hereford, forms part of the +north-western boundary, and joins the Severn near Gloucester, watering +the vale of Gloucester, the northern part of the vale. In the southern +part, the vale of Berkeley, the Stroudwater traverses a narrow, +picturesque and populous valley, and the Little Avon flows past the town +of Berkeley, joining the Severn estuary on the left. The Frome runs +southward to the Bristol Avon at Bristol. The principal northern feeders +of the Thames are the Churn (regarded by some as properly the headwater +of the main river) rising in the Seven Springs, in the hills above +Cheltenham, and forming the southern county boundary near its junction +with the Thames at Cricklade; the Coln, a noteworthy trout-stream, +joining above Lechlade, and the Lech (forming part of the eastern county +boundary) joining below the same town; while from the east of the county +there pass into Oxfordshire the Windrush and the Evenlode, much larger +streams, rising among the bare uplands of the northern Cotteswolds. + + _Geology._--No county in England has a greater variety of geological + formations. The pre-Cambrian is represented by the gneissic rocks at + the south end of the Malvern Hills and by grits at Huntley. At Damory, + Charfield and Woodford is a patch of greenstone, the cause of the + upheaval of the Upper Silurian basin of Tortworth, in which are the + oldest stratified rocks of the county. Of these the Upper Llandovery + is the dominant stratum, exposed near Damory mill, Micklewood chase + and Purton passage, wrapping round the base of May and Huntley hills, + and reappearing in the vale of Woolhope. The Wenlock limestone is + exposed at Falfield mill and Whitfield, and quarried for burning at + May hill. The Lower Ludlow shales or mudstones are seen at Berkeley + and Purton, where the upper part is probably Aymestry limestone. The + series of sandy shales and sandstones which, as Downton sandstones and + Ledbury shales, form a transition to the Old Red Sandstone are + quarried at Dymock. The "Old Red" itself occurs at Berkeley, Tortworth + Green, Thornbury, and several places in the Bristol coal-field, in + anticlinal folds forming hills. It forms also the great basin + extending from Ross to Monmouth and from Dymock to Mitcheldean, + Abenhall, Blakeney, &c., within which is the Carboniferous basin of + the forest. It is cut through by the Wye from Monmouth to Woolaston. + This formation is over 8000 ft. thick in the forest of Dean. The + Bristol and Forest Carboniferous basins lie within the synclinal folds + of the Old Red Sandstone; and though the seams of coal have not yet + been correlated, they must have been once continuous, as further + appears from the existence of an intermediate basin, recently pierced, + under the Severn. The lower limestone shales are 500 ft. thick in the + Bristol area and only 165 in the forest, richly fossiliferous and + famous for their bone bed. The great marine series known as the + Mountain Limestone, forming the walls of the grand gorges of the Wye + and Avon, is over 2000 ft. thick in the latter district, but only 480 + in the former, where it yields the brown hematite in pockets so + largely worked for iron even from Roman times. It is much used too for + lime and road metal. Above this comes the Millstone Grit, well seen at + Brandon hill, where it is 1000 ft. in thickness, though but 455 in the + forest. On this rest the Coal Measures, consisting in the Bristol + field of two great series, the lower 2000 ft. thick with 36 seams, the + upper 3000 ft. with 22 seams, 9 of which reach 2 ft. in thickness. + These two series are separated by over 1700 ft. of hard sandstone + (Pennant Grit), containing only 5 coal-seams. In the Forest coal-field + the whole series is not 3000 ft. thick, with but 15 seams. At Durdham + Down a dolomitic conglomerate, of the age known as Keuper or Upper + Trias, rests unconformably on the edges of the Palaeozoic rocks, and + is evidently a shore deposit, yielding dinosaurian remains. Above the + Keuper clays come the Penarth beds, of which classical sections occur + at Westbury, Aust, &c. The series consists of grey marls, black paper + shales containing much pyrites and a celebrated bone bed, the Cotham + landscape marble, and the White Lias limestone, yielding _Ostrea + Liassica_ and _Cardium Rhaeticum_. The district of Over Severn is + mainly of Keuper marls. The whole vale of Gloucester is occupied by + the next formation, the Lias, a warm sea deposit of clays and clayey + limestones, characterized by ammonites, belemnites and gigantic + saurians. At its base is the insect-bearing limestone bed. The + pastures producing Gloucester cheese are on the clays of the Lower + Lias. The more calcareous Middle Lias or marlstone forms hillocks + flanking the Oolite escarpment of the Cotteswolds, as at + Wotton-under-Edge and Churchdown. The Cotteswolds consist of the great + limestone series of the Lower Oolite. At the base is a transition + series of sands, 30 to 40 ft. thick, well developed at Nailsworth and + Frocester. Leckhampton hill is a typical section of the Lower Oolite, + where the sands are capped by 40 ft. of a remarkable pea grit. Above + this are 147 ft. of freestone, 7 ft. of oolite marl, 34 ft. of upper + freestone and 38 ft. of ragstone. The Painswick stone belongs to lower + freestone. Resting on the Inferior Oolite, and dipping with it to + S.E., is the "fuller's earth," a rubbly limestone about 100 ft. thick, + throwing out many of the springs which form the head waters of the + Thames. Next comes the Great or Bath Oolite, at the base of which are + the Stonesfield "slate" beds, quarried for roofing, paling, &c., at + Sevenhampton and elsewhere. From the Great Oolite Minchinhampton stone + is obtained, and at its top is about 40 ft. of flaggy Oolite with + bands of clay known as the Forest Marble. Ripple marks are abundant on + the flags; in fact all the Oolites seem to have been near shore or in + shallow water, much of the limestone being merely comminuted coral. + The highest bed of the Lower Oolite is the Cornbrash, about 40 ft. of + rubble, productive in corn, forming a narrow belt from Siddington to + Fairford. Near the latter town and Lechlade is a small tract of blue + Oxford Clay of the Middle Oolite. The county has no higher Secondary + or Tertiary rocks; but the Quaternary series is represented by much + northern drift gravel in the vale and Over Severn, by accumulations of + Oolitic detritus, including post-Glacial extinct mammalian remains on + the flanks of the Cotteswolds, and by submerged forests extending from + Sharpness to Gloucester. + + _Agriculture._--The climate is mild. Between three-quarters and + seven-eighths of the total area is under cultivation, and of this some + four-sevenths is in permanent pasture. Wheat is the chief grain crop. + In the vale the deep rich black and red loamy soil is well adapted for + pasturage, and a moist mild climate favours the growth of grasses and + root crops. The cattle, save on the frontier of Herefordshire, are + mostly shorthorns, of which many are fed for distant markets, and many + reared and kept for dairy purposes. The rich grazing tract of the vale + of Berkeley produces the famous "double Gloucester" cheeses, and the + vale in general has long been celebrated for cheese and butter. The + vale of Gloucester is the chief grain-growing district. Turnips, &c., + occupy about three-fourths of the green crop acreage, potatoes + occupying only about a twelfth. A feature of the county is its apple + and pear orchards, chiefly for the manufacture of cider and perry, + which are attached to nearly every farm. The Cotteswold district is + comparatively barren except in the valleys, but it has been famous + since the 15th century for the breed of sheep named after it. Oats and + barley are here the chief crops. + + _Other Industries._--The manufacture of woollen cloth followed upon + the early success in sheep-farming among the Cotteswolds. This + industry is not confined to the hill country or even to + Gloucestershire itself in the west of England. The description of + cloth principally manufactured is broadcloth, dressed with teazles to + produce a short close nap on the face, and made of all shades of + colour, but chiefly black, blue and scarlet. The principal centre of + the industry lies in and at the foot of the south-western Cotteswolds. + Stroud is the centre for a number of manufacturing villages, and + south-west of this are Wotton-under-Edge, North Nibley and others. + Machinery and tools, paper, furniture, pottery and glass are also + produced. Ironstone, clay, limestone and sandstone are worked, and the + coal-fields in the forest of Dean are important. Of less extent is the + field in the south of the county, N.E. of Bristol. Strontium sulphate + is dug from shallow pits in the red marl of Gloucestershire and + Somersetshire. + + _Communications._--Railway communications are provided principally by + the Great Western and Midland companies. Of the Great Western lines, + the main line serves Bristol from London. It divides at Bristol, one + section serving the south-western counties, another South Wales, + crossing beneath the Severn by the Severn Tunnel, 4-1/3 m. in length, + a remarkable engineering work. A more direct route, by this tunnel, + between London and South Wales, is provided by a line from Wootton + Bassett on the main line, running north of Bristol by Badminton and + Chipping Sodbury. Other Great Western lines are that from Swindon on + the main line, by the Stroud valley to Gloucester, crossing the Severn + there, and continuing by the right bank of the river into Wales, with + branches north-west into Herefordshire; the Oxford and Worcester trunk + line, crossing the north-east of the county, connected with Cheltenham + and Gloucester by a branch through the Cotteswolds from Chipping + Norton junction; and the line from Cheltenham by Broadway to + Honeybourne. The west-and-north line of the Midland railway follows + the vale from Bristol by Gloucester and Cheltenham with a branch into + the forest of Dean by Berkeley, crossing the Severn at Sharpness by a + great bridge 1387 yds. in length, with 22 arches. The coal-fields of + the forest of Dean are served by several branch lines. In the north, + Tewkesbury is served by a Midland branch from Ashchurch to Malvern. + The Midland and South-western Junction railway runs east and south + from Cheltenham by Cirencester, affording communication with the south + of England. The East Gloucester line of the Great Western from Oxford + terminates at Fairford. The Thames and Severn canal, rising to a + summit level in the tunnel through the Cotteswolds at Sapperton, is + continued from Wallbridge (Stroud) by the Stroudwater canal, and gives + communication between the two great rivers. The Berkeley Ship Canal + (16-1/2 m.) connects the port of Gloucester with its outport of + Sharpness on Severn. + + _Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is + 795,709 acres, with a population in 1891 of 599,947 and in 1901 of + 634,729. The area of the administrative county is 805,482 acres. The + county contains 28 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are--Bristol, a + city and county borough (pop. 328,945); Cheltenham (49,439); + Gloucester, a city and county borough (47,955); Tewkesbury (5419). The + other urban districts are--Awre (1096), Charlton Kings (3806), + Circenester (7536), Coleford (2541), Kingswood, on the eastern + outskirts of Bristol (11,961), Nailsworth (3028), Newnham (1184), + Stow-on-the-Wold (1386), Stroud (9153), Tetbury (1989), + Westbury-on-Severn (1866). The number of small ancient market towns is + large, especially in the southern part of the vale, on the outskirts + of the forest, and among the foot hills of the wolds. Those in the + forest district are mostly connected with the coal trade, such as + Lydney (3559), besides Awre and Coleford; and, to the north, besides + Newnham, Cinderford and Mitcheldean. South from Stroud there are + Minchinhampton (3737) and Nailsworth; near the south-eastern boundary + Tetbury and Marshfield; Stonehouse (2183), Dursley (2372), + Wotton-under-Edge (2992) and Chipping Sodbury along the western line + of the hills; and between them and the Severn, Berkeley and Thornbury + (2594). Among the uplands of the Cotteswolds there are no towns, and + villages are few, but in the east of the county, in the upper Thames + basin, there are, besides Cirencester, Fairford on the Coln and + Lechlade, close to the head of the navigation on the Thames itself. + Far up in the Lech valley, remote from railway communication, is + Northleach, once a great posting station on the Oxford and Cheltenham + road. In the north-east are Stow-on-the-Wold, standing high, and + Moreton-in-the-Marsh near the headwaters of the Evenlode. In a + northern prolongation of the county, almost detached, is Chipping + Campden. Winchcomb (2699) lies 6 m. N.E. of Cheltenham. In the + north-west, Newent (2485) is the only considerable town. + Gloucestershire is in the Oxford circuit, and assizes are held at + Gloucester. It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into + 24 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Bristol, Gloucester and + Tewkesbury have separate commissions of the peace and courts of + quarter sessions. There are 359 civil parishes. Gloucestershire is + principally in the diocese of Gloucester, but part is in that of + Bristol, and small parts in those of Worcester and Oxford. There are + 408 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the + county. There are five parliamentary divisions, namely, Tewkesbury or + northern, Cirencester or eastern, Stroud or mid, Thornbury or + southern, and Forest of Dean, each returning one member. The county + also includes the boroughs of Gloucester and Cheltenham, each + returning one member; and the greater part of the borough of Bristol, + which returns four members. + +_History._--The English conquest of the Severn valley began in 577 with +the victory of Ceawlin at Deorham, followed by the capture of +Cirencester, Gloucester and Bath. The Hwiccas who occupied the district +were a West Saxon tribe, but their territory had become a dependency of +Mercia in the 7th century, and was not brought under West Saxon dominion +until the 9th century. No important settlements were made by the Danes +in the district. Gloucestershire probably originated as a shire in the +10th century, and is mentioned by name in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in +1016. Towards the close of the 11th century the boundaries were +readjusted to include Winchcomb, hitherto a county by itself, and at the +same time the forest district between the Wye and the Severn was added +to Gloucestershire. The divisions of the county for a long time remained +very unsettled, and the thirty-nine hundreds mentioned in the Domesday +Survey and the thirty-one hundreds of the Hundred Rolls of 1274 differ +very widely in name and extent both from each other and from the +twenty-eight hundreds of the present day. + +Gloucestershire formed part of Harold's earldom at the time of the +Norman invasion, but it offered slight resistance to the Conqueror. In +the wars of Stephen's reign the cause of the empress Maud was supported +by Robert of Gloucester who had rebuilt the castle at Bristol, and the +castles at Gloucester and Cirencester were also garrisoned on her +behalf. In the barons' war of the reign of Henry III. Gloucester was +garrisoned for Simon de Montfort, but was captured by Prince Edward in +1265, in which year de Montfort was slain at Evesham. Bristol and +Gloucester actively supported the Yorkist cause during the Wars of the +Roses. In the religious struggles of the 16th century Gloucester showed +strong Protestant sympathy, and in the reign of Mary Bishop Hooper was +sent to Gloucester to be burnt as a warning to the county, while the +same Puritan leanings induced the county to support the Parliamentary +cause in the civil war of the 17th century. In 1643 Bristol and +Cirencester were captured by the Royalists, but the latter was recovered +in the same year and Bristol in 1645. Gloucester was garrisoned for the +parliament throughout the struggle. + +On the subdivision of the Mercian diocese in 680 the greater part of +modern Gloucestershire was included in the diocese of Worcester, and +shortly after the Conquest constituted the archdeaconry of Gloucester, +which in 1290 comprised the deaneries of Campden, Stow, Cirencester, +Fairford, Winchcombe, Stonehouse, Hawkesbury, Bitton, Bristol, Dursley +and Gloucester. The district west of the Severn, with the exception of a +few parishes in the deaneries of Ross and Staunton, constituted the +deanery of the forest within the archdeaconry and diocese of Hereford. +In 1535 the deanery of Bitton had been absorbed in that of Hawkesbury. +In 1541 the diocese of Gloucester was created, its boundaries being +identical with those of the county. On the erection of Bristol to a see +in 1542 the deanery of Bristol was transferred from Gloucester to that +diocese. In 1836 the sees of Gloucester and Bristol were united; the +archdeaconry of Bristol was created out of the deaneries of Bristol, +Cirencester, Fairford and Hawkesbury; and the deanery of the forest was +transferred to the archdeaconry of Gloucester. In 1882 the archdeaconry +of Cirencester was constituted to include the deaneries of Campden, +Stow, Northleach north and south, Fairford and Cirencester. In 1897 the +diocese of Bristol was recreated, and included the deaneries of Bristol, +Stapleton and Bitton. + +After the Conquest very extensive lands and privileges in the county +were acquired by the church, the abbey of Cirencester alone holding +seven hundreds at fee-farm, and the estates of the principal lay-tenants +were for the most part outlying parcels of baronies having their "caput" +in other counties. The large estates held by William Fitz Osbern, earl +of Hereford, escheated to the crown on the rebellion of his son Earl +Roger in 1074-1075. The Berkeleys have held lands in Gloucestershire +from the time of the Domesday Survey, and the families of Basset, Tracy, +Clifton, Dennis and Poyntz have figured prominently in the annals of the +county. Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, and Richard of Cornwall +claimed extensive lands and privileges in the shire in the 13th century, +and Simon de Montfort owned Minsterworth and Rodley. + +Bristol was made a county in 1425, and in 1483 Richard III. created +Gloucester an independent county, adding to it the hundreds of Dudston +and King's Barton. The latter were reunited to Gloucestershire in 1673, +but the cities of Bristol and Gloucester continued to rank as +independent counties, with separate jurisdiction, county rate and +assizes. The chief officer of the forest of Dean was the warden, who was +generally also constable of St Briavel Castle. The first justice-seat +for the forest was held at Gloucester Castle in 1282, the last in 1635. +The hundred of the duchy of Lancaster is within the jurisdiction of the +duchy of Lancaster for certain purposes. + +The physical characteristics of the three natural divisions of +Gloucestershire have given rise in each to a special industry, as +already indicated. The forest district, until the development of the +Sussex mines in the 16th century, was the chief iron-producing area of +the kingdom, the mines having been worked in Roman times, while the +abundance of timber gave rise to numerous tanneries and to an important +ship-building trade. The hill district, besides fostering agricultural +pursuits, gradually absorbed the woollen trade from the big towns, which +now devoted themselves almost entirely to foreign commerce. Silk-weaving +was introduced in the 17th century, and was especially prosperous in the +Stroud valley. The abundance of clay and building-stone in the county +gave rise to considerable manufactures of brick, tiles and pottery. +Numerous minor industries sprang up in the 17th and 18th centuries, such +as flax-growing and the manufacture of pins, buttons, lace, stockings, +rope and sailcloth. + +Gloucestershire was first represented in parliament in 1290, when it +returned two members. Bristol and Gloucester acquired representation in +1295, Cirencester in 1572 and Tewkesbury in 1620. Under the Reform Act +of 1832 the county returned four members in two divisions; Bristol, +Gloucester, Cirencester, Stroud and Tewkesbury returned two members +each, and Cheltenham returned one member. The act of 1868 reduced the +representation of Cirencester and Tewkesbury to one member each. + +_Antiquities._--The cathedrals of Gloucester and Bristol, the +magnificent abbey church of Tewkesbury, and the church of Cirencester +with its great Perpendicular porch, are described under their separate +headings. Of the abbey of Hayles near Winchcomb, founded by Richard, +earl of Cornwall, in 1246, little more than the foundations are left, +but these have been excavated with great care, and interesting fragments +have been brought to light. Most of the old market towns have fine +parish churches. At Deerhurst near Tewkesbury, and Cleeve near +Cheltenham, there are churches of special interest on account of the +pre-Norman work they retain. The Perpendicular church at Lechlade is +unusually perfect; and that at Fairford was built (c. 1500), according +to tradition, to contain the remarkable series of stained-glass windows +which are said to have been brought from the Netherlands. These are, +however, adjudged to be of English workmanship, and are one of the +finest series in the country. The great Decorated Calcot Barn is an +interesting relic of the monastery of Kingswood near Tetbury. The castle +at Berkeley is a splendid example of a feudal stronghold. Thornbury +Castle, in the same district, is a fine Tudor ruin, the pretensions of +which evoked the jealousy of Cardinal Wolsey against its builder, Edward +Stafford, duke of Buckingham, who was beheaded in 1521. Near Cheltenham +is the fine 15th-century mansion of Southam de la Bere, of timber and +stone. Memorials of the de la Bere family appear in the church at +Cleeve. The mansion contains a tiled floor from Hayles Abbey. Near +Winchcomb is Sudeley Castle, dating from the 15th century, but the +inhabited portion is chiefly Elizabethan. The chapel is the burial place +of Queen Catherine Parr. At Great Badminton is the mansion and vast +domain of the Beauforts (formerly of the Botelers and others), on the +south-eastern boundary of the county. + + See _Victoria County History, Gloucestershire_; Sir R. Atkyns, _The + Ancient and Present State of Gloucestershire_ (London, 1712; 2nd ed., + London, 1768); Samuel Rudder, _A New History of Gloucestershire_ + (Cirencester, 1779); Ralph Bigland, _Historical, Monumental and + Genealogical Collections relative to the County of Gloucester_ (2 + vols., London, 1791); Thomas Rudge, _The History of the County of + Gloucester_ (2 vols., Gloucester, 1803); T. D. Fosbroke _Abstract of + Records and Manuscripts respecting the County of Gloucestershire + formed into a History_ (2 vols., Gloucester, 1807); _Legends, Tales + and Songs in the Dialect of the Peasantry of Gloucestershire_ (London, + 1876); J. D. Robertson, _Glossary of Dialect and Archaic Words of + Gloucester_ (London, 1890); W. Bazeley and F. A. Hyett, + _Bibliographers' Manual of Gloucestershire_ (3 vols., London, + 1895-1897); W. H. Hutton, _By Thames and Cotswold_ (London, 1903). See + also _Transactions of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological + Society_. + + + + +GLOVE (O. Eng. _glof_, perhaps connected with Gothic _lofa_, the palm of +the hand), a covering for the hand, commonly with a separate sheath for +each finger. + +The use of gloves is of high antiquity, and apparently was known even to +the pre-historic cave dwellers. In Homer Laertes is described as wearing +gloves ([Greek: cheiridas epi chersi]) while walking in his garden +(_Od._ xxiv. 230). Herodotus (vi. 72) tells how Leotychides filled a +glove ([Greek: cheiris]) with the money he received as a bribe, and +Xenophon (_Cyrop._ viii. 8. 17) records that the Persians wore fur +gloves having separate sheaths for the fingers ([Greek: cheiridas +daseias kai daktylethras]). Among the Romans also there are occasional +references to the use of gloves. According to the younger Pliny (Ep. +iii. 5. 15) the secretary whom his uncle had with him when ascending +Vesuvius wore gloves (_manicae_) so that he might not be impeded in his +work by the cold, and Varro (_R.R._ i. 55. 1) remarks that olives +gathered with the bare fingers are better than those gathered with +gloves (_digitabula_ or _digitalia_). In the northern countries the +general use of gloves would be more natural than in the south, and it is +not without significance that the most common medieval Latin word for +glove (_guantus_ or _wantus_, Mod. Fr. _gant_) is of Teutonic origin (O. +H. Ger. _want_). Thus in the life of Columbanus by Jonas, abbot of +Bobbio (d. c. 665), gloves for protecting the hands in doing manual +labour are spoken of as _tegumenta manuum quae Galli wantos vocant_. +Among the Germans and Scandinavians, in the 8th and 9th centuries, the +use of gloves, fingerless at first, would seem to have been all but +universal; and in the case of kings, prelates and nobles they were often +elaborately embroidered and bejewelled. This was more particularly the +case with the gloves which formed part of the pontifical vestments (see +below). In war and in the chase gloves of leather, or with the backs +armoured with articulated iron plates, were early worn; yet in the +Bayeux tapestry the warriors on either side fight ungloved. The fact +that gloves are not represented by contemporary artists does not prove +their non-existence, since this might easily be an omission due to lack +of observation or of skill; but, so far as the records go, there is no +evidence to prove that gloves were in general use in England until the +13th century. It was in this century that ladies began to wear gloves as +ornaments; they were of linen and sometimes reached to the elbow. It +was, however, not till the 16th century that they reached their greatest +elaboration, when Queen Elizabeth set the fashion for wearing them +richly embroidered and jewelled. + +The symbolic sense of the middle ages early gave to the use of gloves a +special significance. Their liturgical use by the Church is dealt with +below (_Pontifical gloves_); this was imitated from the usage of civil +life. Embroidered and jewelled gloves formed part of the _insignia_ of +the emperors, and also, and that quite early, of the kings of England. +Thus Matthew of Paris, in recording the burial of Henry II. in 1189, +mentions that he was buried in his coronation robes, with a golden crown +on his head and gloves on his hands. Gloves were also found on the hands +of King John when his tomb was opened in 1797, and on those of King +Edward I. when his tomb was opened in 1774. + + See W. B. Redfern, _Royal and Historic Gloves and Shoes_, with + numerous examples. + +_Gages._--Of the symbolical uses of the glove one of the most widespread +and important during the middle ages was the practice of tendering a +folded glove as a gage for waging one's law. The origin of this custom +is probably not far to seek. The promise to fulfil a judgment of a court +of law, a promise secured by the delivery of a _wed_ or gage, is one of +the oldest, if not the very oldest, of all enforceable contracts. This +gage was originally a chattel of value, which had to be deposited at +once by the defendant as security into his adversary's hand; and that +the glove became the formal symbol of such deposit is doubtless due to +its being the most convenient loose object for the purpose. The custom +survived after the contract with the _vadium_, _wed_ or gage had been +superseded by the contract with pledges (personal sureties). In the +rules of procedure of a baronial court of the 14th century we find: "He +shall wage his law with his folded glove (_de son gaunt plyee_) and +shall deliver it into the hand of the other, and then take his glove +back and find pledges for his law." The delivery of the glove had, in +fact, become a mere ceremony, because the defendant had his sureties +close at hand.[1] + +Associated with this custom was the use of the glove in the wager of +battle (_vadium in duello_). The glove here was thrown down by the +defendant in open court as security that he would defend his cause in +arms; the accuser by picking it up accepted the challenge (see WAGER). +This form is still prescribed for the challenge of the king's champion +at the coronation of English sovereigns, and was actually followed at +that of George IV. (see CHAMPION). The phrase "to throw down the +gauntlet" is still in common use of any challenge. + +_Pledges of Service._--The use of the glove as a pledge of fulfilment is +exemplified also by the not infrequent practice of enfeoffing vassals by +investing them with the glove; similarly the emperors symbolized by the +bestowal of a glove the concession of the right to found a town or to +establish markets, mints and the like; the "hands" in the armorial +bearings of certain German towns are really gloves, reminiscent of this +investiture. Conversely, fiefs were held by the render of presenting +gloves to the sovereign. Thus the manor of Little Holland in Essex was +held in Queen Elizabeth's time by the service of one knight's fee and +the rent of a pair of gloves turned up with hare's skin (Blount's +_Tenures_, ed. Beckwith, p. 130). The most notable instance in England, +however, is the grand serjeanty of finding for the king a glove for his +right hand on coronation day, and supporting his right arm as long as he +holds the sceptre. The right to perform this "honourable service" was +originally granted by William the Conqueror to Bertram de Verdun, +together with the manor of Fernham (Farnham Royal) in Buckinghamshire. +The male descendants of Bertram performed this serjeanty at the +coronations until the death of Theobald de Verdun in 1316, when the +right passed, with the manor of Farnham, to Thomas Lord Furnival by his +marriage with the heiress Joan. His son William Lord Furnival performed +the ceremony at the coronation of Richard II. He died in 1383, and his +daughter and heiress Jean de Furnival having married Sir Thomas Nevill, +Lord Furnival in her right, the latter performed the ceremony at the +coronation of Henry IV. His heiress Maud married Sir John Talbot (1st +earl of Shrewsbury) who, as Lord Furnival, presented the glove +embroidered with the arms of Verdun at the coronation of Henry V. When +in 1541 Francis earl of Shrewsbury exchanged the manor of Farnham with +King Henry VIII. for the site and precincts of the priory of Worksop in +Nottinghamshire he stipulated that the right to perform this serjeanty +should be reserved to him, and the king accordingly transferred the +obligation from Farnham to Worksop. On the 3rd of April 1838 the manor +of Worksop was sold to the duke of Newcastle and with it the right to +perform the service, which had hitherto always been carried out by a +descendant of Bertram de Verdun. At the coronation of King Edward VII. +the earl of Shrewsbury disputed the duke of Newcastle's right, on the +ground that the serjeanty was attached not to the manor but to the +priory lands at Worksop, and that the latter had been subdivided by sale +so that no single person was entitled to perform the ceremony and the +right had therefore lapsed. His petition for a regrant to himself as +lineal heir of Bertram de Verdun, however, was disallowed by the court +of claims, and the serjeanty was declared to be attached to the manor of +Worksop (G. Woods Wollaston, _Coronation Claims_, London, 1903, p. 133). + +_Presentations._--From the ceremonial and symbolic use of gloves the +transition was easy to the custom which grew up of presenting them to +persons of distinction on special occasions. When Queen Elizabeth +visited Cambridge in 1578 the vice-chancellor offered her a "paire of +gloves, perfumed and garnished with embroiderie and goldsmithe's wourke, +price 60s.," and at the visit of James I. there in 1615 the mayor and +corporation of the town "delivered His Majesty a fair pair of perfumed +gloves with gold laces." It was formerly the custom in England for +bishops at their consecrations to make presents of gloves to those who +came to their consecration dinners and others, but this gift became such +a burden to them that by an order in council in 1678 It was commuted for +the payment of a sum of L50 towards the rebuilding of St Paul's. +Serjeants at law, on their appointment, were given a pair of gloves +containing a sum of money which was termed "regards"; this custom is +recorded as early as 1495, when according to the _Black Book_ of +Lincoln's Inn each of the new Serjeants received L6, 13s. 4d. and a pair +of gloves costing 4d., and it persisted to a late period. At one time it +was the practice for a prisoner who pleaded the king's pardon on his +discharge to present the judges with gloves by way of a fee. +Glove-silver, according to Jacob's _Law Dictionary_, was a name used of +extraordinary rewards formerly given to officers of courts, &c., or of +money given by the sheriff of a county in which no offenders were left +for execution to the clerk of assize and judge's officers; the +explanation of the term is that the glove given as a perquisite or fee +was in some cases lined with money to increase its value, and thus came +to stand for money ostensibly given in lieu of gloves. It is still the +custom in the United Kingdom to present a pair of white gloves to a +judge or magistrate who when he takes his seat for criminal business at +the appointed time finds no cases for trial. By ancient custom judges +are not allowed to wear gloves while actually sitting on the bench, and +a witness taking the oath must remove the glove from the hand that holds +the book. (See J. W. Norton-Kyshe, _The Law and Customs relating to +Gloves_, London, 1901.) + +_Pontifical gloves_ (Lat. _chirothecae_) are liturgical ornaments +peculiar to the Western Church and proper only to the pope, the +cardinals and bishops, though the right to wear them is often granted by +the Holy See to abbots, cathedral dignitaries and other prelates, as in +the case of the other episcopal insignia. According to the present use +the gloves are of silk and of the liturgical colour of the day, the edge +of the opening ornamented with a narrow band of embroidery or the like, +and the middle of the back with a cross. They may be worn only at the +celebration of mass (except masses for the dead). In vesting, the gloves +are put on the bishop immediately after the dalmatic, the right hand one +by the deacon, the other by the subdeacon. They are worn only until the +ablution before the canon of the mass, after which they may not again be +put on. + +At the consecration of a bishop the consecrating prelate puts the gloves +on the new bishop immediately after the mitre, with a prayer that his +hands may be kept pure, so that the sacrifice he offers may be as +acceptable as the gift of venison which Jacob, his hands wrapped in the +skin of kids, brought to Isaac. This symbolism (as in the case of the +other vestments) is, however, of late growth. The liturgical use of +gloves itself cannot, according to Father Braun, be traced beyond the +beginning of the 10th century, and their introduction was due, perhaps +to the simple desire to keep the hands clean for the holy mysteries, but +more probably merely as part of the increasing pomp with which the +Carolingian bishops were surrounding themselves. From the Frankish +kingdom the custom spread to Rome, where liturgical gloves are first +heard of in the earlier half of the 11th century. The earliest authentic +instance of the right to wear them being granted to a non-bishop is a +bull of Alexander IV. in 1070, conceding this to the abbot of S. Pietro +in Cielo d' Oro. + +During the middle ages the occasions on which pontifical gloves (often +_wanti_, _guanti_, and sometimes _manicae_ in the inventories) were +worn were not so carefully defined as now, the use varying in different +churches. Nor were the liturgical colours prescribed. The most +characteristic feature of the medieval pontifical glove was the ornament +(_tasellus_, _fibula_, _monile_, _paratura_) set in the middle of the +back of the glove. This was usually a small plaque of metal, enamelled +or jewelled, generally round, but sometimes square or irregular in +shape. Sometimes embroidery was substituted; still more rarely the whole +glove was covered, even to the fingers, with elaborate needlework +designs. + +Liturgical gloves have not been worn by Anglican bishops since the +Reformation, though they are occasionally represented as wearing them on +their effigies. + + See J. Braun, S.J., _Die liturgische Gewandung_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, + 1907), pp. 359-382, where many beautiful examples are illustrated. + +_Manufacture of Gloves._--Three countries, according to an old proverb, +contribute to the making of a good glove--Spain dressing the leather, +France cutting it and England sewing it. But the manufacture of gloves +was not introduced into Great Britain till the 10th or 11th century. The +incorporation of glovers of Perth was chartered in 1165, and in 1190 a +glove-makers' gild was formed in France, with the object of regulating +the trade and ensuring good workmanship. The glovers of London in 1349 +framed their ordinances and had them approved by the corporation, the +city regulations at that time fixing the price of a pair of common +sheepskin gloves at 1d. In 1464, when the gild received armorial +bearings, they do not seem to have been very strong, but apparently +their position improved subsequently and in 1638 they were incorporated +as a new company. In 1580 it is recorded that both French and Spanish +gloves were on sale in London shops, and in 1661 a company of glovers +was incorporated at Worcester, which still remains an important seat of +the English glove Industry. In America the manufacture of gloves dates +from about 1760, when Sir William Johnson brought over several families +of glove makers from Perth; these settled in Fulton county, New York, +which is now the largest seat of the glove trade in the United States. + + Gloves may be divided into two distinct categories, according as these + are made of leather or are woven or knitted from fibres such as silk, + wool or cotton. The manufacture of the latter kinds is a branch of the + hosiery industry. For leather gloves skins of various animals are + employed--deer, calves, sheep and lambs, goats and kids, &c.--but kids + have had nothing to do with the production of many of the "kid gloves" + of commerce. The skins are prepared and dressed by special processes + (see LEATHER) before going to the glove-maker to be cut. Owing to the + elastic character of the material the cutting is a delicate operation, + and long practice is required before a man becomes expert at it. + Formerly it was done by shears, the workmen following an outline + marked on the leather, but now steel dies are universally employed not + only for the bodies of the gloves but also for the thumb-pieces and + fourchettes or sides of the fingers. When hand sewing is employed the + pieces to be sewn together are placed between a pair of jaws, the + holding edges of which are serrated with fine saw-teeth, and the sewer + by passing the needle forwards and backwards between each of these + teeth secures neat uniform stitching. But sewing machines are now + widely employed on the work. The labour of making a glove is much + subdivided, different operators sewing different pieces, and others + again embroidering the back, forming the button-holes, attaching the + buttons, &c. After the gloves are completed, they undergo the process + of "laying off," in which they are drawn over metal forms, shaped like + a hand and heated internally by steam; in this way they are finally + smoothed and shaped before being wrapped in paper and packed in boxes. + + Gloves made of thin india-rubber or of white cotton are worn by some + surgeons while performing operations, on account of the ease with + which they can be thoroughly sterilized. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] F. W. Maitland and W. P. Baildon, _The Court Baron_ (Selden + Society, London, 1891), p. 17. Maitland wrongly translates _gaunt + plyee_ as "twisted" glove, adding "why it should be twisted I cannot + say." An earlier instance of the delivery of a folded glove as gage + is quoted from the 13th-century Anglo-Norman poem known as _The Song + of Dermott and the Earl_ (ed. G. H. Orpen, Oxford, 1892) in J. H. + Round's _Commune of London_, p. 153. + + + + +GLOVER, SIR JOHN HAWLEY (1829-1885), captain in the British navy, +entered the service in 1841 and passed his examination as lieutenant in +1849, but did not receive a commission till May 1851. He served on +various stations, and was wounded severely in an action with the Burmese +at Donabew (4th February 1853). But his reputation was not gained at sea +and as a naval officer, but on shore and as an administrative official +in the colonies. During his years of service as lieutenant in the navy +he had had considerable experience of the coast of Africa, and had taken +part in the expedition of Dr W. B. Baikie (1824-1864) up the Niger. On +the 21st of April 1863 he was appointed administrator of the government +of Lagos, and in that capacity, or as colonial secretary, he remained +there till 1872. During this period he had been much employed in +repelling the marauding incursions of the Ashantis. When the Ashanti war +broke out in 1873, Captain Glover undertook the hazardous and doubtful +task of organizing the native tribes, whom hatred of the Ashantis might +be expected to make favourable to the British authorities--to the extent +at least to which their fears would allow them to act. His services were +accepted, and in September of 1873 he landed at Cape Coast, and, after +forming a small trustworthy force of Hausa, marched to Accra. His +influence sufficed to gather a numerous native force, but neither he nor +anybody else could overcome their abject terror of the ferocious +Ashantis to the extent of making them fight. In January 1874 Captain +Glover was able to render some assistance in the taking of Kumasi, but +it was at the head of a Hausa force. His services were acknowledged by +the thanks of parliament and by his creation as G.C.M.G. In 1875 he was +appointed governor of Newfoundland and held the post till 1881, when he +was transferred to the Leeward Islands. He returned to Newfoundland in +1883, and died in London on the 30th September 1885. + + Lady Glover's _Life_ of her husband appeared in 1897. + + + + +GLOVER, RICHARD (1712-1785), English poet, son of Richard Glover, a +Hamburg merchant, was born in London in 1712. He was educated at Cheam +in Surrey. While there he wrote in his sixteenth year a poem to the +memory of Sir Isaac Newton, which was prefixed by Dr Pemberton to his +_View of Newton's Philosophy_, published in 1728. In 1737 he published +an epic poem in praise of liberty, _Leonidas_, which was thought to have +a special reference to the politics of the time; and being warmly +commended by the prince of Wales and his court, it soon passed through +several editions. In 1739 Glover published a poem entitled _London, or +the Progress of Commerce_; and in the same year, with a view to exciting +the nation against the Spaniards, he wrote a spirited ballad, _Hosier's +Ghost_, very popular in its day. He was also the author of two +tragedies, _Boadicea_ (1753) and _Medea_ (1761), written in close +imitation of Greek models. The success of Glover's _Leonidas_ led him to +take considerable interest in politics, and in 1761 he entered +parliament as member for Weymouth. He died on the 25th of November 1785. +The _Athenaid_, an epic in thirty books, was published in 1787, and his +diary, entitled _Memoirs of a distinguished literary and political +Character from 1742 to 1757_, appeared in 1813. Glover was one of the +reputed authors of _Junius_; but his claims--which were advocated in an +_Inquiry concerning the author of the Letters of Junius_ (1815), by R. +Duppa--rest on very slight grounds. + + + + +GLOVERSVILLE, a city of Fulton county, New York, U.S.A., at the +foot-hills of the Adirondacks, about 55 m. N.W. of Albany. Pop. (1890) +13,864; (1900) 18,349, of whom 2542 were foreign-born; (1910 census) +20,642. It is served by the Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville railway +(connecting at Fonda, about 9 m. distant, with the New York Central), +and by electric lines connecting with Johnstown, Amsterdam and +Schenectady. The city has a public library (26,000 volumes in 1908), the +Nathan Littauer memorial hospital, a state armoury and a fine government +building. Gloversville is the principal glove-manufacturing centre in +the United States. In 1900 Fulton county produced more than 57%, and +Gloversville 38.8%, of all the leather gloves and mittens made in the +United States; in 1905 Gloversville produced 29.9% of the leather gloves +and mittens made in the United States, its products being valued at +$5,302,196. Gloversville has more than a score of tanneries and +leather-finishing factories, and manufactures fur goods. In 1905 the +city's total factory product was valued at $9,340,763. The extraordinary +localization of the glove-making industry in Gloversville, Johnstown and +other parts of Fulton county, is an incident of much interest in the +economic history of the United States. The industry seems to have had +its origin among a colony of Perthshire families, including many +glove-makers, who were settled in this region by Sir William Johnson +about 1760. For many years the entire product seems to have been +disposed of in the neighbourhood, but about 1809 the goods began to find +more distant markets, and by 1825 the industry was firmly established on +a prosperous basis, the trade being handed down from father to son. An +interesting phase of the development is that, in addition to the factory +work, a large amount of the industry is in the hands of "home workers" +both in the town and country districts. Gloversville, settled originally +about 1770, was known for some time as Stump City, its present name +being adopted in 1832. It was incorporated as a village in 1851 and was +chartered as a city in 1890. + + + + +GLOW-WORM, the popular name of the wingless female of the beetle +_Lampyris noctiluca_, whose power of emitting light has been familiar +for many centuries. The luminous organs of the glow-worm consist of +cells similar to those of the fat-body, grouped into paired masses in +the ventral region of the hinder abdominal segments. The light given out +by the wingless female insect is believed to serve as an attraction to +the flying male, whose luminous organs remain in a rudimentary +condition. The common glow-worm is a widespread European and Siberian +insect, generally distributed in England and ranging in Scotland +northwards to the Tay, but unknown in Ireland. Exotic species of +_Lampyris_ are similarly luminous, and light-giving organs are present +in many genera of the family _Lampyridae_ from various parts of the +world. Frequently--as in the south European _Luciola italica_--both +sexes of the beetle are provided with wings, and both male and female +emit light. These luminous, winged Lampyrids are generally known as +"fire-flies." In correspondence with their power of emitting light, the +insects are nocturnal in habit. + +Elongate centipedes of the family _Geophilidae_, certain species of +which are luminous, are sometimes mistaken for the true glow-worm. + + + + +GLOXINIA, a charming decorative plant, botanically a species of +_Sinningia_ (_S. speciosa_), a member of the natural order Gesneraceae +and a native of Brazil. The species has given rise under cultivation to +numerous forms showing a wonderful variety of colour, and hybrid forms +have also been obtained between these and other species of _Sinningia_. +A good strain of seed will produce many superb and charmingly coloured +varieties, and if sown early in spring, in a temperature of 65 deg. at +night, they may be shifted on into 6-in. pots, and in these may be +flowered during the summer. The bulbs are kept at rest through the +winter in dry sand, in a temperature of 50 deg., and to yield a +succession should be started at intervals, say at the end of February +and the beginning of April. To prolong the blooming season, use weak +manure water when the flower-buds show themselves. + + + + +GLUCINUM, an alternative name for Beryllium (q.v.). When L. N. Vauquelin +in 1798 published in the _Annales de chimie_ an account of a new earth +obtained by him from beryl he refrained from giving the substance a +name, but in a note to his paper the editors suggested glucine, from +[Greek: glykys], sweet, in reference to the taste of its salts, whence +the name Glucinum or Glucinium (symbol Gl. or sometimes G). The name +beryllium was given to the metal by German chemists and was generally +used until recently, when the earlier name was adopted. + + + + +GLUCK,[1] CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD (1714-1787), operatic composer, German by +his nationality, French by his place in art, was born at Weidenwang, +near Neumarkt, in the upper Palatinate, on the 2nd of July 1714. He +belonged to the lower middle class, his father being gamekeeper to +Prince Lobkowitz; but the boy's education was not neglected on that +account. From his twelfth to his eighteenth year he frequented the +Jesuit school of Kommotau in the neighbourhood of Prince Lobkowitz's +estate in Bohemia, where he not only received a good general education, +but also had lessons in music. At the age of eighteen Gluck went to +Prague, where he continued his musical studies under Czernohorsky, and +maintained himself by the exercise of his art, sometimes in the very +humble capacity of fiddler at village fairs and dances. Through the +introductions of Prince Lobkowitz, however, he soon gained access to the +best families of the Austrian nobility; and when in 1736 he proceeded to +Vienna he was hospitably received at his protector's palace. Here he met +Prince Melzi, an ardent lover of music, whom he accompanied to Milan, +continuing his education under Giovanni Battista San Martini, a great +musical historian and contrapuntist, who was also famous in his own day +as a composer of church and chamber music. We soon find Gluck producing +operas at the rapid rate necessitated by the omnivorous taste of the +Italian public in those days. Nine of these works were produced at +various Italian theatres between 1741 and 1745. Although their artistic +value was small, they were so favourably received that in 1745 Gluck was +invited to London to compose for the Haymarket. The first opera produced +there was called _La Caduta dei giganti_; it was followed by a revised +version of one of his earlier operas. Gluck also appeared in London as a +performer on the musical glasses (see HARMONICA). + +The success of his two operas, as well as that of a _pasticcio_ (i.e. a +collection of favourite arias set to a new libretto) entitled _Piramo e +Tisbe_, was anything but brilliant, and he accordingly left London. But +his stay in England was not without important consequences for his +subsequent career. Gluck at this time was rather less than an ordinary +producer of Italian opera. Handel's well-known saying that Gluck "knew +no more counterpoint than his cook" must be taken in connexion with the +less well-known fact that that cook was an excellent bass singer who +performed in many of Handel's own operas. But it indicates the musical +reason of Gluck's failure, while Gluck himself learnt the dramatic +reason through his surprise at finding that arias which in their +original setting had been much applauded lost all effect when adapted to +new words in the _pasticcio_. Irrelevant as Handel's criticism appears, +it was not without bearing on Gluck's difficulties. The use of +counterpoint has very little necessary connexion with contrapuntal +display; its real and final cause is a certain depth of harmonic +expression which Gluck attained only in his most dramatic moments, and +for want of which he, even in his finest works, sometimes moved very +lamely. And in later years his own mature view of the importance of +harmony, which he upheld in long arguments with Gretry, who believed +only in melody, shows that he knew that the dramatic expression of music +must strike below the surface. At this early period he was simply +producing Handelian opera in an amateurish style, suggesting an +unsuccessful imitation of Hasse; but the failure of his _pasticcio_ is +as significant to us as it was to him, since it shows that already the +effect of his music depended upon its characteristic treatment of +dramatic situations. This characterizing power was as yet not directly +evident, and it needed all the influence of the new instrumental +resources of the rising sonata-forms before music could pass out of what +we may call its architectural and decorative period and enter into +dramatic regions at all. + +It is highly probable that the chamber music of his master, San Martini, +had already indicated to Gluck a new direction which was more or less +incompatible with the older art; and there is nothing discreditable +either to Gluck or to his contemporaries in the failure of his earlier +works. Had the young composer been successful in the ordinary _opera +seria_, there is reason to fear that the great dramatic reform, +initiated by him, might not have taken place. The critical temper of the +London public fortunately averted this calamity. It may also be assumed +that the musical atmosphere of the English capital, and especially the +great works of Handel, were not without beneficial influence upon the +young composer. But of still greater importance in this respect was a +short trip to Paris, where Gluck became for the first time acquainted +with the classic traditions and the declamatory style of the French +opera--a sphere of music in which his own greatest triumphs were to be +achieved. Of these great issues little trace, however, is to be found in +the works produced by Gluck during the fifteen years after his return +from England. In this period Gluck, in a long course of works by no +means free from the futile old traditions, gained technical experience +and important patronage, though his success was not uniform. His first +opera written for Vienna, _La Semiramide riconosciuta_, is again an +ordinary _opera seria_, and little more can be said of _Telemacco_, +although thirty years later Gluck was able to use most of its overture +and an energetic duet in one of his greatest works, _Armide_. + +Gluck settled permanently at Vienna in 1756, having two years previously +been appointed court chapel-master, with a salary of 2000 florins, by +the empress Maria Theresa. He had already received the order of +knighthood from the pope in consequence of the successful production of +two of his works in Rome. During the long interval from 1756 to 1762 +Gluck seems to have matured his plans for the reform of the opera; and, +barring a ballet named _Don Giovanni_, and some _airs nouveaux_ to +French words with pianoforte accompaniment, no compositions of any +importance have to be recorded. Several later _pieces d'occasion_, such +as _Il Trionfo di Clelia_ (1763), are still written in the old manner, +though already in 1762 _Orfeo ed Euridice_ shows that the composer had +entered upon a new career. Gluck had for the first time deserted +Metastasio for Raniero Calzabigi, who, as Vernon Lee suggests, was in +all probability the immediate cause of the formation of Gluck's new +ideas, as he was a hot-headed dramatic theorist with a violent dislike +for Metastasio, who had hitherto dominated the whole sphere of operatic +libretto. + +Quite apart from its significance in the history of dramatic music, +_Orpheus_ is a work which, by its intrinsic beauty, commands the highest +admiration. Orpheus's air, _Che faro_, is known to every one; but still +finer is the great scena in which the poet's song softens even the +_ombre sdegnose_ of Tartarus. The ascending passion of the entries of +the solo (_Deh! placatevi_; _Mille pene_; _Men tiranne_), interrupted by +the harsh but gradually softening exclamations of the Furies, is of the +highest dramatic effect. These melodies, moreover, as well as every +declamatory passage assigned to Orpheus, are made subservient to the +purposes of dramatic characterization; that is, they could not possibly +be assigned to any other person in the drama, any more than Hamlet's +monologue could be spoken by Polonius. It is in this power of musically +realizing a character--a power all but unknown in the serious opera of +his day--that Gluck's genius as a dramatic composer is chiefly shown. +After a short relapse into his earlier manner, Gluck followed up his +_Orpheus_ by a second classical music-drama (1767) named _Alceste_. In +his dedication of the score to the grand-duke of Tuscany, he fully +expressed his aims, as well as the reasons for his total breach with the +old traditions. "I shall try," he wrote, "to reduce music to its real +function, that of seconding poetry by intensifying the expression of +sentiments and the interest of situations without interrupting the +action by needless ornament. I have accordingly taken care not to +interrupt the singer in the heat of the dialogue, to wait for a tedious +_ritornel_, nor do I allow him to stop on a sonorous vowel, in the +middle of a phrase, in order to show the nimbleness of a beautiful voice +in a long _cadenza_." Such theories, and the stern consistency with +which they were carried out, were little to the taste of the +pleasure-loving Viennese; and the success of _Alceste_, as well as that +of _Paris and Helena_, which followed two years later, was not such as +Gluck had desired and expected. He therefore eagerly accepted the chance +of finding a home for his art in the centre of intellectual and more +especially dramatic life, Paris. Such a chance was opened to him through +the _bailli_ Le Blanc du Roullet, attache of the French embassy at +Vienna, and a musical amateur who entered into Gluck's ideas with +enthusiasm. A classic opera for the Paris stage was accordingly +projected, and the friends fixed upon Racine's _Iphigenie en Aulide_. +After some difficulties, overcome chiefly by the intervention of Gluck's +former pupil the dauphiness Marie Antoinette, the opera was at last +accepted and performed at the Academie de Musique, on the 19th of April +1774. + +The great importance of the new work was at once perceived by the +musical amateurs of the French capital, and a hot controversy on the +merits of _Iphigenie_ ensued, in which some of the leading literary men +of France took part. Amongst the opponents of Gluck were not only the +admirers of Italian vocalization and sweetness, but also the adherents +of the earlier French school, who refused to see in the new composer the +legitimate successor of Lulli and Rameau. Marmontel, Laharpe and +D'Alembert were his opponents, the Abbe Arnaud and others his +enthusiastic friends. Rousseau took a peculiar position in the struggle. +In his early writings he is a violent partisan of Italian music, but +when Gluck himself appeared as the French champion Rousseau acknowledged +the great composer's genius; although he did not always understand it, +as for example when he suggested that in _Alceste_, "Divinites du Styx," +perhaps the most majestic of all Gluck's arias, ought to have been set +as a rondo. Nevertheless in a letter to Dr Burney, written shortly +before his death, Rousseau gives a close and appreciative analysis of +_Alceste_, the first Italian version of which Gluck had submitted to him +for suggestions; and when, on the first performance of the piece not +being received favourably by the Parisian audience, the composer +exclaimed, "_Alceste est tombee_," Rousseau is said to have comforted +him with the flattering _bonmot_, "_Oui, mais elle est tombee du ciel_." +The contest received a still more personal character when Piccinni, a +celebrated and by no means incapable composer, came to Paris as the +champion of the Italian party at the invitation of Madame du Barry, who +held a rival court to that of the young princess (see OPERA). As a +dramatic controversy it suggests a parallel with the Wagnerian and +anti-Wagnerian warfare of a later age; but there is no such radical +difference between Gluck's and Piccinni's musical methods as the +comparison would suggest. Gluck was by far the better musician, but his +deficiencies in musical technique were of a kind which contemporaries +could perceive as easily as they could perceive Piccinni's. Both +composers were remarkable inventors of melody, and both had the gift of +making incorrect music sound agreeable. Gluck's indisputable dramatic +power might be plausibly dismissed as irrelevant by upholders of music +for music's sake, even if Piccinni himself had not chosen, as he did, to +assimilate every feature in Gluck's style that he could understand. The +rivalry between the two composers was soon developed into a quarrel by +the skilful engineering of Gluck's enemies. In 1777 Piccinni was given a +libretto by Marmontel on the subject of _Roland_, to Gluck's intense +disgust, as he had already begun an opera on that subject himself. This, +and the failure of an attempt to show his command of a lighter style by +furbishing up some earlier works at the instigation of Marie Antoinette, +inspired Gluck to produce his _Armide_, which appeared four months +before Piccinni's _Roland_ was ready, and raised a storm of controversy, +admiration and abuse. Gluck did not anticipate Wagner more clearly in +his dramatic reforms than in his caustic temper; and, as in Gluck's own +estimation the difference between _Armide_ and _Alceste_ is that "_l'un +(Alceste) doit faire pleurer et l'autre faire eprouver une voluptueuse +sensation_," it was extremely annoying for him to be told by Laharpe +that he had made Armide a sorceress instead of an enchantress, and that +her part was "_une criaillerie monotone et fatiguante_." He replied to +Laharpe in a long public letter worthy of Wagner in its venomous sarcasm +and its tremendous value as an advertisement for its recipient. + +Gluck's next work was _Iphigenie en Tauride_, the success of which +finally disposed of Piccinni, who produced a work on the same subject at +the same time and who is said to have acknowledged Gluck's superiority. +Gluck's next work was _Echo et Narcisse_, the comparative failure of +which greatly disappointed him; and during the composition of another +opera, _Les Danaides_, an attack of apoplexy compelled him to give up +work. He left Paris for Vienna, where he lived for several years in +dignified leisure, disturbed only by his declining health. He died on +the 15th of November 1787. (F. H.; D. F. T.) + +The great interest of the dramatic aspect of Gluck's reforms is apt to +overshadow his merit as a musician, and yet in some ways to idealize it. +One is tempted to regard him as condoning for technical musical +deficiencies by sheer dramatic power, whereas unprejudiced study of his +work shows that where his dramatic power asserts itself there is no lack +of musical technique. Indeed only a great musician could so reform opera +as to give it scope for dramatic power at all. Where Gluck differs from +the greatest musicians is in his absolute dependence on literature for +his inspiration. Where his librettist failed him (as in his last +complete work, _Echo et Narcisse_), he could hardly write tolerably good +music; and, even in the finest works of his French period, the less +emotional situations are sometimes set to music which has little +interest except as a document in the history of the art. This must not +be taken to mean merely that Gluck could not, like Mozart and nearly all +the great song-writers, set good music to a bad text. Such inability +would prove Gluck's superior literary taste without casting a slur on +his musicianship. But it points to a certain weakness as a musician that +Gluck could not be inspired except by the more thrilling portions of his +libretti. When he was inspired there was no question that he was the +first and greatest writer of dramatic music before Mozart. To begin +with, he could invent sublime melodies; and his power of producing great +musical effects by the simplest means was nothing short of Handelian. +Moreover, in his peculiar sphere he deserves the title generally +accorded to Haydn of "father of modern orchestration." It is misleading +to say that he was the first to use the timbre of instruments with a +sense of emotional effect, for Bach and Handel well knew how to give a +whole aria or whole chorus peculiar tone by means of a definite scheme +of instrumentation. But Gluck did not treat instruments as part of a +decorative design, any more than he so treated musical forms. Just as +his sense of musical form is that of Philipp Emmanuel Bach and of +Mozart, so is his treatment of instrumental tone-colour a thing that +changes with every shade of feeling in the dramatic situation, and not +in accordance with any purely decorative scheme. To accompany an aria +with strings, oboes and flutes, was, for example, a perfectly ordinary +procedure; nor was there anything unusual in making the wind instruments +play in unison with the strings for the first part of the aria, and +writing a passage for one or more of them in the middle section. But it +was an unheard-of thing to make this passage consist of long +_appoggiaturas_ once every two bars in rising sequence on the first +oboe, answered by deep _pizzicato_ bass notes, while Agamemnon in +despair cries: "_J'entends retentir dans mon sein le cri plaintif de la +nature_." Some of Gluck's most forcible effects are of great subtlety, +as, for instance, in _Iphigenie en Tauride_, where Orestes tries to +reassure himself by saying: "_Le calme rentre dans mon coeur_," while +the intensely agitated accompaniment of the strings belies him. Again, +the sense of orchestral climax shown in the oracle scene in _Alceste_ +was a thing inconceivable in older music, and unsurpassed in artistic +and dramatic spirit by any modern composer. Its influence in Mozart's +_Idomeneo_ is obvious at a first glance. + +The capacity for broad melody always implies a true sense of form, +whether that be developed by skill or not; and thus Gluck, in rejecting +the convenient formalities of older styles of opera, was not, like some +reformers, without something better to substitute for them. Moreover he, +in consultation with his librettist, achieved great skill in holding +together entire scenes, or even entire acts, by dramatically apposite +repetitions of short arias and choruses. And thus in large portions of +his finest works the music, in spite of frequent full closes, seems to +move _pari passu_ with the drama in a manner which for naturalness and +continuity is surpassed only by the finales of Mozart and the entire +operas of Wagner. This is perhaps most noticeable in the second act of +_Orfeo_. In its original Italian version both scenes, that in Hades and +that in Elysium, are indivisible wholes, and the division into single +movements, though technically obvious, is aesthetically only a natural +means of articulating the structure. The unity of the scene in Hades +extends, in the original version, even to the key-system. This was +damaged when Gluck had to transpose the part of Orpheus from an alto to +a tenor in the French version. And here, we have one of many instances +in which the improvements his French experience enabled him to make in +his great Italian works were not altogether unmixed. Little harm, +however, was done to _Orfeo_ which has not been easily remedied by +transposing Orpheus's part back again; and in a suitable compromise +between the two versions _Orfeo_ remains Gluck's most perfect and +inspired work. The emotional power of the music is such that the +inevitable spoiling of the story by a happy ending has not the aspect of +mere conventionality which it had in cases where the music produced no +more than the normal effect upon 18th-century audiences. Moreover +Gluck's genius was of too high an order for him to be less successful in +portraying a sufficiently intense happiness than in portraying grief. He +failed only in what may be called the business capacities of artistic +technique; and there is less "business" in _Orfeo_ than in almost any +other music-drama. It was Gluck's first great inspiration, and his +theories had not had time to take action in paper warfare. _Alceste_ +contains his grandest music and is also very free from weak pages; but +in its original Italian version the third act did not give Gluck scope +for an adequate climax. This difficulty so accentuated itself in the +French version that after continual retouchings a part for Hercules was, +in Gluck's absence, added by Gossec; and three pages of Gluck's music, +dealing with the supreme crisis where Alceste is rescued from Hades +(either by Apollo or by Hercules) were no longer required in performance +and have been lost. The Italian version is so different from the French +that it cannot help us to restore this passage, in which Gluck's music +now stops short just at the point where we realize the full height of +his power. The comparison between the Italian and French _Alceste_ is +one of the most interesting that can be made in the study of a +musician's development. It would have been far easier for Gluck to write +a new opera if he had not been so justly attached to his second Italian +masterpiece. So radical are the differences that in retranslating the +French libretto into Italian for performance with the French music not +one line of Calzabigi's original text can be retained. + +In _Iphigenie en Aulide_ and _Iphigenie en Tauride_, Gluck shows signs +that the controversies aroused by his methods began to interfere with +his musical spontaneity. He had not, in _Orfeo_, gone out of his way to +avoid rondos, or we should have had no "_Che faro senza Euridice_." We +read with a respectful smile Gluck's assurance to the bailli Le Blanc du +Roullet that "you would not believe _Armide_ to be by the same composer" +as _Alceste_. But there is no question that _Armide_ is a very great +work, full of melody, colour and dramatic point; and that Gluck has +availed himself of every suggestion that his libretto afforded for +orchestral and emotional effects of an entirely different type from any +that he had attempted before. And it is hardly relevant to blame him for +his inability to write erotic music. In the first place, the libretto is +not erotic, though the subject would no doubt become so if treated by a +modern poet. In the second place a conflict of passions (as, for +instance, where Armide summons the demons of Hate to exorcise love from +her heart, and her courage fails her as soon as they begin) has never, +even in _Alceste_, been treated with more dramatic musical force. The +work as a whole is unequal, partly because there is a little too much +action in it to suit Gluck's methods; but it shows, as does no other +opera until Mozart's _Don Giovanni_, a sense of the _development_ of +characters, as distinguished from the mere presentation of them as +already fixed. + +In _Iphigenie en Aulide_ and _Iphigenie en Tauride_, the very subtlety +of the finest features indicates a certain self-consciousness which, +when inspiration is lacking, becomes mannerism. Moreover, in both cases +the libretti, though skilfully managed, tell a rather more complicated +story than those which Gluck had hitherto so successfully treated; and, +where inspiration fails, the musical technique becomes curiously +amateurish without any corresponding naivete. Still these works are +immortal, and their finest passages are equal to anything in _Alceste_ +and _Orfeo_. _Echo et Narcisse_ we must, like Gluck's contemporaries, +regard as a failure. As in _Orfeo_, the pathetic story is ruined by a +violent happy ending, but here this artistic disaster takes place before +the pathos has had time to assert itself. Gluck had no opportunities in +this work for any higher qualities, musical or dramatic, than +prettiness; and with him beauty, without visible emotion, was indeed +skin-deep. It is a pity that the plan of the great Pelletan-Damcke +critical _edition de luxe_ of Gluck's French operas forbids the +inclusion of his Italian _Paride e Elena_, his third opera to +Calzabigi's libretto, which was never given in a French version; for +there can be no question that, whatever he owed to France, the period +of his greatness began with his collaboration with Calzabigi. + (D. F. T.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Not, as frequently spelt, Gluck. + + + + +GLUCKSBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Schleswig-Holstein, romantically situated among pine woods on the +Flensburg Fjord off the Baltic, 6 m. N.E. from Flensburg by rail. Pop. +(1905) 1551. It has a Protestant church and some small manufactures and +is a favourite sea-bathing resort. The castle, which occupies the site +of a former Cistercian monastery, was, from 1622 to 1779, the residence +of the dukes of Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg, passing then to the king +of Denmark and in 1866 to Prussia. King Frederick VII. of Denmark died +here on the 15th of November 1863. + + + + +GLUCKSTADT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Schleswig-Holstein, on the right bank of the Elbe, at the confluence of +the small river Rhin, and 28 m. N.W. of Altona, on the railway from +Itzehoe to Elmshorn. Pop. (1905) 6586. It has a Protestant and a Roman +Catholic church, a handsome town-hall (restored in 1873-1874), a +gymnasium, a provincial prison and a penitentiary. The inhabitants are +chiefly engaged in commerce and fishing; but the frequent losses from +inundations have greatly retarded the prosperity of the town. Gluckstadt +was founded by Christian IV. of Denmark in 1617, and fortified in 1620. +It soon became an important trading centre. In 1627-28 it was besieged +for fifteen weeks by the imperialists under Tilly, without success. In +1814 it was blockaded by the allies and capitulated, whereupon its +fortifications were demolished. In 1830 it was made a free port. It came +into the possession of Prussia together with the rest of +Schleswig-Holstein in 1866. + + See Lucht, _Gluckstadt. Beitrage zur Geschichte dieser Stadt_ (Kiel, + 1854). + + + + +GLUCOSE (from Gr. [Greek: glykys], sweet), a carbohydrate of the formula +C6H12O6; it may be regarded as the aldehyde of sorbite. The name is +applied in commerce to a complex mixture of carbohydrates obtained by +boiling starch with dilute mineral acids; in chemistry, it denotes, with +the prefixes d, l and d + l (or i), the dextro-rotatory, laevo-rotatory +and inactive forms of the definite chemical compound defined above. The +d modification is of the commonest occurrence, the other forms being +only known as synthetic products; for this reason it is usually termed +glucose, simply; alternative names are dextrose, grape sugar and +diabetic sugar, in allusion to its right-handed optical rotation, its +occurrence in large quantity in grapes, and in the urine of diabetic +patients respectively. In the vegetable kingdom glucose occurs, always +in admixture with fructose, in many fruits, especially grapes, cherries, +bananas, &c.; and in combination, generally with phenols and aldehydes +belonging to the aromatic series, it forms an extensive class of +compounds termed glucosides. It appears to be synthesized in the plant +tissues from carbon dioxide and water, formaldehyde being an +intermediate product; or it may be a hydrolytic product of a glucoside +or of a polysaccharose, such as cane sugar, starch, cellulose, &c. In +the plant it is freely converted into more complex sugars, +poly-saccharoses and also proteids. In the animal kingdom, also, it is +very widely distributed, being sometimes a normal and sometimes a +pathological constituent of the fluids and tissues; in particular, it is +present in large amount in the urine of those suffering from diabetes, +and may be present in nearly all the body fluids. It also occurs in +honey, the white appearance of candied honey being due to its +separation. + +Pure d-glucose, which may be obtained synthetically (see SUGAR) or by +adding crystallized cane sugar to a mixture of 80% alcohol and 1/15 +volume of fuming hydrochloric acid so long as it dissolves on shaking, +crystallizes from water or alcohol at ordinary temperatures in nodular +masses, composed of minute six-sided plates, and containing one molecule +of water of crystallization. This product melts at 86 deg. C., and +becomes anhydrous when heated to 110 deg. C. The anhydrous compound can +also be prepared, as hard crusts melting at 146 deg., by crystallizing +concentrated aqueous solutions at 30 deg. to 35 deg. It is very soluble +in water, but only slightly soluble in strong alcohol. Its taste is +somewhat sweet, its sweetening power being estimated at from 1/2 to 3/5 +that of cane sugar. When heated to above 200 deg. it turns brown and +produces caramel, a substance possessing a bitter taste, and used, in +its aqueous solution or otherwise, under various trade names, for +colouring confectionery, spirits, &c. The specific rotation of the plane +of polarized light by glucose solutions is characteristic. The specific +rotation of a freshly prepared solution is 105 deg., but this value +gradually diminishes to 52.5 deg., 24 hours sufficing for the transition +in the cold, and a few minutes when the solution is boiled. This +phenomenon has been called mutarotation by T. M. Lowry. The specific +rotation also varies with the concentration; this is due to the +dissociation of complex molecules into simpler ones, a view confirmed by +cryoscopic measurements. + +Glucose may be estimated by means of the polarimeter, i.e. by +determining the rotation of the plane of polarization of a solution, or, +chemically, by taking advantage of its property of reducing alkaline +copper solutions. If a glucose solution be added to copper sulphate and +much alkali added, a yellowish-red precipitate of cuprous hydrate +separates, slowly in the cold, but immediately when the liquid is +heated; this precipitate rapidly turns red owing to the formation of +cuprous oxide. In 1846 L. C. A. Barreswil found that a strongly alkaline +solution of copper sulphate and potassium sodium tartrate (Rochelle +salt) remained unchanged on boiling, but yielded an immediate +precipitate of red cuprous oxide when a solution of glucose was added. +He suggested that the method was applicable for quantitatively +estimating glucose, but its acceptance only followed after H. von +Fehling's investigation. "Fehling's solution" is prepared by dissolving +separately 34.639 grammes of copper sulphate, 173 grammes of Rochelle +salt, and 71 grammes of caustic soda in water, mixing and making up to +1000 ccs.; 10 ccs. of this solution is completely reduced by 0.05 +grammes of hexose. Volumetric methods are used, but the uncertainty of +the end of the reaction has led to the suggestion of special indicators, +or of determining the amount of cuprous oxide gravimetrically. + + _Chemistry._--In its chemical properties glucose is a typical + oxyaldehyde or aldose. The aldehyde group reacts with hydrocyanic acid + to produce two stereo-isomeric cyanhydrins; this isomerism is due to + the conversion of an originally non-asymmetric carbon atom into an + asymmetric one. The cyanhydrin is hydrolysable to an acid, the lactone + of which may be reduced by sodium amalgam to a glucoheptose, a + non-fermentable sugar containing seven carbon atoms. By repeating the + process a non-fermentable gluco-octose and a fermentable glucononose + may be prepared. The aldehyde group also reacts with phenyl hydrazine + to form two phenylhydrazones; under certain conditions a hydroxyl + group adjacent to the aldehyde group is oxidized and glucosazone is + produced; this glucosazone is decomposed by hydrochloric acid into + phenyl hydrazine and the keto-aldehyde glucosone. These + transformations are fully discussed in the article SUGAR. On reduction + glucose appears to yield the hexahydric alcohol _d_-sorbite, and on + oxidation _d_-gluconic and _d_-saccharic acids. Alkalis partially + convert it into _d_-mannose and _d_-fructose. Baryta and lime yield + saccharates, e.g. C6H12O6.BaO, precipitable by alcohol. + + CH2OH CH2OH + . . + CH.OH CH.OH + . . + CH CH + / / + O< O< + \ . \ . + (CH.OH)2 (CH.OH2 + . . + HC.OH HO.CH + + [alpha]-glucose [beta]-glucose + + The constitution of glucose was established by H. Kiliani in + 1885-1887, who showed it to be CH2OH.(CH.OH)4.CHO. The subject was + taken up by Emil Fischer, who succeeded in synthesizing glucose, and + also several of its stereo-isomers, there being 16 according to the Le + Bel-van't Hoff theory (see Stereo-Isomerism and Sugar). This open + chain structure is challenged in the views put forward by T. M. Lowry + and E. F. Armstrong. In 1895 C. Tanret showed that glucose existed in + more than one form, and he isolated [alpha], [beta] and [gamma] + varieties with specific rotations of 105 deg., 52.5 deg. and 22 deg. + It is now agreed that the [beta] variety is a mixture of the [alpha] + and [gamma]. This discovery explained the mutarotation of glucose. In + a fresh solution [alpha]-glucose only exists, but on standing it is + slowly transformed into [gamma]-glucose, equilibrium being reached + when the [alpha] and [gamma] forms are present in the ratio + 0.368:0.632 (Tanret, _Zeit. physikal. Chem._, 1905, 53, p. 692). It is + convenient to refer to these two forms as [alpha] and [beta]. Lowry + and Armstrong represent these compounds by the following spatial + formulae which postulate a [gamma]-oxidic structure, and 5 asymmetric + carbon atoms, i.e. one more than in the Fischer formulae. These + formulae are supported by many considerations, especially by the + selective action of enzymes, which follows similar lines with the + [alpha]- and [beta]-glucosides, i.e. the compounds formed by the + interaction of glucose with substances generally containing hydroxyl + groups (see GLUCOSIDE). + + _Fermentation of Glucose._--Glucose is readily fermentable. Of the + greatest importance is the alcoholic fermentation brought about by + yeast cells (_Saccharomyces cerevisiae seu vini_); this follows the + equation C6H12O6 = 2C2H6O + 2CO2, Pasteur considering 94 to 95% of the + sugar to be so changed. This character is the base of the plan of + adding glucose to wine and beer wort before fermenting, the alcohol + content of the liquid after fermentation being increased. Some fusel + oil, glycerin and succinic acid appear to be formed simultaneously, + but in small amount. Glucose also undergoes fermentation into lactic + acid (q.v.) in the presence of the lactic acid bacillus, and into + butyric acid if the action of the preceding ferment be continued, or + by other bacilli. It also yields, by the so-called mucous + fermentation, a mucous, gummy mass, mixed with mannitol and lactic + acid. + + We may here notice the frequent production of glucose by the action of + enzymes upon other carbohydrates. Of especial note is the + transformation of maltose by maltase into glucose, and of cane sugar + by invertase into a mixture of glucose and fructose (invert sugar); + other instances are: lactose by lactase into galactose and glucose; + trehalose by trehalase into glucose; melibiose by melibiase into + galactose and glucose; and of melizitose by melizitase into touranose + and glucose, touranose yielding glucose also when acted upon by the + enzyme touranase. + + _Commercial Glucose._--The glucose of commerce, which may be regarded + as a mixture of grape sugar, maltose and dextrins, is prepared by + hydrolysing starch by boiling with a dilute mineral acid. In Europe, + potato starch is generally employed; in America, corn starch. The acid + employed may be hydrochloric, which gives the best results, or + sulphuric, which is used in Germany; sulphuric acid is more readily + separated from the product than hydrochloric, since the addition of + powdered chalk precipitates it as calcium sulphate, which may be + removed by a filter press. The processes of manufacture have much in + common, although varying in detail. The following is an outline of the + process when hydrochloric acid is used: Starch ("green" starch in + America) is made into a "milk" with water, and the milk pumped into + boiling dilute acid contained in a closed "converter," generally made + of copper or cast iron; steam is led in at the same time, and the + pressure is kept up to about 25 lb. to the sq. in. When the converter + is full the pressure is raised somewhat, and the heating continued + until the conversion is complete. The liquid is now run into + neutralizing tanks containing sodium carbonate, and, after settling, + the supernatant liquid, termed "light liquor," is run through bag + filters and then on to bone-char filters, which have been previously + used for the "heavy liquor." The colourless or amber-coloured filtrate + is concentrated to 27 deg. to 28 deg. B., when it forms the "heavy + liquor," just mentioned. This is filtered through fresh bone-char + filters, from which it is discharged as a practically colourless + liquid. This liquid is concentrated in vacuum pans to a specific + gravity of 40 deg. to 44 deg. B., a small quantity of sodium + bisulphite solution being added to bleach it, to prevent fermentation, + and to inhibit browning. "Syrup glucose" is the commercial name of the + product; by continuing the concentration further solid glucose or + grape sugar is obtained. + + Several brands are recognized: "Mixing glucose" is used by syrup and + molasses manufacturers, "jelly glucose" by makers of jellies, + "confectioners' glucose" in confectionery, "brewers' glucose" in + brewing, &c. + + + + +GLUCOSIDE, in chemistry, the generic name of an extensive group of +substances characterized by the property of yielding a sugar, more +commonly glucose, when hydrolysed by purely chemical means, or +decomposed by a ferment or enzyme. The name was originally given to +vegetable products of this nature, in which the other part of the +molecule was, in the greater number of cases, an aromatic aldehydic or +phenolic compound (exceptions are sinigrin and jalapin or scammonin). It +has now been extended to include synthetic ethers, such as those +obtained by acting on alcoholic glucose solutions with hydrochloric +acid, and also the polysaccharoses, e.g. cane sugar, which appear to be +ethers also. Although glucose is the commonest sugar present in +glucosides, many are known which yield rhamnose or iso-dulcite; these +may be termed pentosides. Much attention has been given to the non-sugar +parts of the molecules; the constitutions of many have been determined, +and the compounds synthesized; and in some cases the preparation of the +synthetic glucoside effected. + +The simplest glucosides are the alkyl esters which E. Fischer (_Ber._, +28, pp. 1151, 3081) obtained by acting with hydrochloric acid on +alcoholic glucose solutions. A better method of preparation is due to E. +F. Armstrong and S. L. Courtauld (_Proc. Phys. Soc._, 1905, July 1), +who dissolve solid anhydrous glucose in methyl alcohol containing +hydrochloric acid. A mixture of [alpha]- and [beta]-glucose result, +which are then etherified, and if the solution be neutralized before the +[beta]-form isomerizes and the solvent removed, a mixture of the +[alpha]- and [beta]-methyl ethers is obtained. These may be separated by +the action of suitable ferments. Fischer found that these ethers did not +reduce Fehling's solution, neither did they combine with phenyl +hydrazine at 100 deg.; they appear to be stereo-isomeric [gamma]-oxidic +compounds of the formulae I., II.: The difference between the [alpha]- +and [beta]-forms is best shown by the selective action of enzymes. +Fischer found that maltase, an enzyme occurring in yeast cells, +hydrolysed [alpha]-glucosides but not the [beta]; while emulsin, an +enzyme occurring in bitter almonds, hydrolyses the [beta] but not the +[alpha]. The ethers of non-fermentable sugars are themselves +non-fermentable. By acting with these enzymes on the natural glucosides, +it is found that the majority are of the [beta]-form; e.g. emulsin +hydrolyses salicin, helicin, aesculin, coniferin, syringin, &c. + + CH2OH CH2OH + . . + CHOH CHOH + . . + / CH / CH + O < . O < . + \(CHOH)2 \(CHOH)2 + . . + H.C.OCH3 CH3O.C.H + + I. [alpha]-methyl II. [beta]-methyl + _d_-glucoside _d_-glucoside + +Classification of the glucosides is a matter of some difficulty. One +based on the chemical constitution of the non-glucose part of the +molecules has been proposed by Umney, who framed four groups: (1) +ethylene derivatives, (2) benzene derivatives, (3) styrolene +derivatives, (4) anthracene derivatives. A group may also be made to +include the cyanogenetic glucosides, i.e. those containing prussic acid. +J. J. L. van Rijn (_Die Glykoside_, 1900) follows a botanical +classification, which has several advantages; in particular, plants of +allied genera contain similar compounds. In this article the chemical +classification will be followed. Only the more important compounds will +be noticed, the reader being referred to van Rijn (_loc. cit._) and to +Beilstein's _Handbuch der organischen Chemie_ for further details. + + 1. _Ethylene Derivatives._--These are generally mustard oils, and are + characterized by a burning taste; their principal occurrence is in + mustard and _Tropaeolum seeds_. Sinigrin or the potassium salt of + myronic acid, C10H16NS2KO9.H2O, occurs in black pepper and in + horse-radish root. Hydrolysis with baryta, or decomposition by the + ferment myrosin, gives glucose, allyl mustard oil and potassium + bisulphate. Sinalbin, C30H42N2S2O15, occurs in white pepper; it + decomposes to the mustard oil HO.C6H4.CH2.NCS, glucose and sinapin, a + compound of choline and sinapinic acid. Jalapin or scammonin, + C34H56O16, occurs in scammony; it hydrolyses to glucose and + jalapinolic acid. The formulae of sinigrin, sinalbin, sinapin and + jalapinolic acid are:-- + + / N.C3H5 / N.CH2.C6H4.OH + C6H11O5.S.C < C6H11O5.S.C < + \ O.SO2.OK \ O.SO2.OC16H24O5N + Sinigrin Sinalbin + + (CH3O)2 \ / (CH3)3 + > C6H2.CH:CH.CO.C2H4.O.N < + HO / \ OH + Sinapin + + CH3 \ + > CH.CH(OH).C10H20.CO2H + C2H6 / + Jalapinolic acid (Kramer) + + 2. _Benzene Derivatives._--These are generally oxy and oxyaldehydic + compounds. Arbutin, C12H16O7, which occurs in bearberry along with + methyl arbutin, hydrolyses to hydroquinone and glucose. + Pharmacologically it acts as a urinary antiseptic and diuretic; the + benzoyl derivative, cellotropin, has been used for tuberculosis. + Salicin, also termed "saligenin" and "glucose," C13H18O7, occurs in + the willow. The enzymes ptyalin and emulsin convert it into glucose + and saligenin, ortho-oxybenzylalcohol, HO.C6H4.CH2OH. Oxidation gives + the aldehyde helicin. Populin, C20H22O8, which occurs in the leaves + and bark of _Populus tremula_, is benzoyl salicin. + + 3. _Styrolene Derivatives._--This group contains a benzene and also an + ethylene group, being derived from styrolene C6H5.CH:CH2. Coniferin, + C16H22O8, occurs in the cambium of coniferous woods. Emulsin converts + it into glucose and coniferyl alcohol, while oxidation gives + glycovanillin, which yields with emulsin glucose and vanillin (see + EUGENOL and VANILLA). Syringin, which occurs in the bark of _Syringa + vulgaris_, is methoxyconiferin. Phloridzin, C21H24O10, occurs in the + root-bark of various fruit trees; it hydrolyses to glucose and + phloretin, which is the phloroglucin ester of para-oxyhydratropic acid. + It is related to the pentosides naringin, C21H26O11, which hydrolyses + to rhamnose and naringenin, the phloroglucin ester of para-oxycinnamic + acid, and hesperidin, C50H60O22(?), which hydrolyses to rhamnose and + hesperetin, C16H14O6, the phloroglucin ester of + meta-oxy-para-methoxycinnamic acid or isoferulic acid, C10H10O4. We may + here include various coumarin and benzo-[gamma]-pyrone derivatives. + Aesculin, C15H16O9, occurring in horse-chestnut, and daphnin, occurring + in _Daphne alpina_, are isomeric; the former hydrolyses to glucose and + aesculetin (4.5-dioxycoumarin), the latter to glucose and daphnetin + (3.4-dioxycoumarin). Fraxin, C16H18O10, occurring in _Fraxinus + excelsior_, and with aesculin in horse-chestnut, hydrolyses to glucose + and fraxetin, the monomethyl ester of a trioxycoumarin. Flavone or + benzo-[gamma]-pyrone derivatives are very numerous; in many cases they + (or the non-sugar part of the molecule) are vegetable dyestuffs. + _Quercitrin_, C21H22O12, is a yellow dyestuff found in _Quercus + tinctoria_; it hydrolyses to rhamnose and quercetin, a + dioxy-[beta]-phenyl-trioxybenzo-[gamma]-pyrone. Rhamnetin, a splitting + product of the glucosides of _Rhamnus_, is monomethyl quercetin; + fisetin, from _Rhus cotinus_, is monoxyquercetin; chrysin is + phenyl-dioxybenzo-[gamma]-pyrone. Saponarin, a glucoside found in + _Saponaria officinalis_, is a related compound. Strophanthin is the + name given to three different compounds, two obtained from + _Strophanthus Kombe_ and one from _S. hispidus_. + + 4. _Anthracene Derivatives._--These are generally substituted + anthraquinones; many have medicinal applications, being used as + purgatives, while one, ruberythric acid, yields the valuable dyestuff + madder, the base of which is alizarin (q.v.). Chrysophanic acid, a + dioxymethylanthraquinone, occurs in rhubarb, which also contains + emodin, a trioxymethylanthraquinone; this substance occurs in + combination with rhamnose in frangula bark. + + The most important cyanogenetic glucoside is amygdalin, which occurs + in bitter almonds. The enzyme maltase decomposes it into glucose and + mandelic nitrile glucoside; the latter is broken down by emulsin into + glucose, benzaldehyde and prussic acid. Emulsin also decomposes + amygdalin directly into these compounds without the intermediate + formation of mandelic nitrile glucoside. Several other glucosides of + this nature have been isolated. The saponins are a group of substances + characterized by forming a lather with water; they occur in soap-bark + (q.v.). Mention may also be made of indican, the glucoside of the + indigo plant; this is hydrolysed by the indigo ferment, indimulsin, to + indoxyl and indiglucin. + + + + +GLUE (from the O. Fr. _glu_, bird-lime, from the Late Lat. _glutem_, +_glus_, glue), a valuable agglutinant, consisting of impure gelatin and +widely used as an adhesive medium for wood, leather, paper and similar +substances. Glues and gelatins merge into one another by imperceptible +degrees. The difference is conditioned by the degree of purity: the more +impure form is termed glue and is only used as an adhesive, the purer +forms, termed gelatin, have other applications, especially in culinary +operations and confectionery. Referring to the article GELATIN for a +general account of this substance, it is only necessary to state here +that gelatigenous or glue-forming tissues occur in the bones, skins and +intestines of all animals, and that by extraction with hot water these +agglutinating materials are removed, and the solution on evaporating and +cooling yields a jelly-like substance--gelatin or glue. + +Glues may be most conveniently classified according to their sources: +bone glue, skin glue and fish glue; these may be regarded severally as +impure forms of bone gelatin, skin gelatin and isinglass. + +_Bone Glue._--For the manufacture of glue the bones are supplied fresh +or after having been used for making soups; Indian and South American +bones are unsuitable, since, by reason of their previous treatment with +steam, both their fatty and glue-forming constituents have been already +removed (to a great extent). On the average, fresh bones contain about +50% of mineral matter, mainly calcium and magnesium phosphates, about +12% each of moisture and fat, the remainder being other organic matter. +The mineral matter reappears in commerce chiefly as artificial manure; +the fat is employed in the candle, soap and glycerin industries, while +the other organic matter supplies glue. + +The separation of the fat, or "de-greasing of the bones" is effected (1) +by boiling the bones with water in open vessels; (2) by treatment with +steam under pressure; or (3) by means of solvents. The last process is +superseding the first two, which give a poor return of fat--a valuable +consideration--and also involve the loss of a certain amount of glue. +Many solvents have been proposed; the greatest commercial success +appears to attend Scottish shale oil and natural petroleum (Russian or +American) boiling at about 100 deg. C. The vessels in which the +extraction is carried out consist of upright cylindrical boilers, +provided with manholes for charging, a false bottom on which the bones +rest, and with two steam coils--one for heating only, the other for +leading in "live" steam. There is a pipe from the top of the vessel +leading to a condensing plant. The vessels are arranged in batteries. In +the actual operation the boiler is charged with bones, solvent is run +in, and the mixture gradually heated by means of the dry coil; the +spirit distils over, carrying with it the water present in the bones; +and after a time the extracted fat is run off from discharge cocks in +the bottom of the extractor.[1] A fresh charge of solvent is introduced, +and the cycle repeated; this is repeated a third and fourth time, after +which the bones contain only about 0.2% of fat, and a little of the +solvent, which is removed by blowing in live steam under 70 to 80 lb. +pressure. The de-greased bones are now cleansed from all dirt and flesh +by rotation in a horizontal cylindrical drum covered with stout wire +gauze. The attrition accompanying this motion suffices to remove the +loosely adherent matter, which falls through the meshes of the gauze; +this meal contains a certain amount of glue-forming matter, and is +generally passed through a finer mesh, the residuum being worked up in +the glue-house, and the flour which passes through being sold as a +bone-meal, or used as a manure. + +The bones, which now contain 5 to 6% of glue-forming nitrogen and about +60% of calcium phosphate, are next treated for glue. The most economical +process consists in steaming the bones under pressure (15 lb. to start +with, afterwards 5 lb.) in upright cylindrical boilers fitted with false +bottoms. The glue-liquors collect beneath the false bottoms, and when of +a strength equal to about 20% dry glue they are run off to the +clarifiers. The first runnings contain about 65 to 70% of the total +glue; a second steaming extracts another 25 to 30%. For clarifying the +solutions, ordinary alum is used, one part being used for 200 parts of +dry glue. The alum is added to the hot liquors, and the temperature +raised to 100 deg.; it is then allowed to settle, and the surface scum +removed by filtering through coarse calico or fine wire filters. + +The clear liquors are now concentrated to a strength of about 32% dry +glue in winter and 35% in summer. This is invariably effected in vacuum +pans--open boiling yields a dark-coloured and inferior product. Many +types of vacuum plant are in use; the Yaryan form, invented by H. T. +Yaryan, is perhaps the best, and the double effect system is the most +efficient. After concentration the liquors are bleached by blowing in +sulphur dioxide, manufactured by burning sulphur; by this means the +colour can be lightened to any desired degree. The liquors are now run +into galvanized sheet-iron troughs, 2 ft. long, 6 in. wide and 5 in. +deep, where they congeal to a firm jelly, which is subsequently removed +by cutting round the edges, or by warming with hot water, and turning +the cake out. The cake is sliced to sheets of convenient thickness, +generally by means of a wire knife, i.e. a piece of wire placed in a +frame. Mechanical slicers acting on this principle are in use. Instead +of allowing the solution to congeal in troughs, it may be "cast" on +sheets of glass, the bottoms of which are cooled by running water. After +congealing, the tremulous jelly is dried; this is an operation of great +nicety: the desiccation must be slow and is generally effected by +circulating a rapid current of air about the cakes supported on nets set +in frames; it occupies from four to five days, and the cake contains on +the average from 10 to 13% of water. + +_Skin Glue._--In the preparation of skin glue the materials used are the +parings and cuttings of hides from tan-yards, the ears of oxen and +sheep, the skins of rabbits, hares, cats, dogs and other animals, the +parings of tawed leather, parchment and old gloves, and many other +miscellaneous scraps of animal matter. Much experience is needed in +order to prepare a good glue from such heterogeneous materials; one +blending may be a success and another a failure. The raw material has +been divided into three great divisions: (1) sheep pieces and fleshings +(ears, &c.); (2) ox fleshings and trimmings; (3) ox hides and pieces; +the best glue is obtained from a mixture of the hide, ear and face +clippings of the ox and calf. The raw material or "stock" is first +steeped for from two to ten weeks, according to its nature, in wooden +vats or pits with lime water, and afterwards carefully dried and stored. +The object of the lime steeping is to remove any blood and flesh which +may be attached to the skin, and to form a lime soap with the fatty +matter present. The "scrows" or glue pieces, which may be kept a long +time without undergoing change, are washed with a dilute hydrochloric +acid to remove all lime, and then very thoroughly with water; they are +now allowed to drain and dry. The skins are then placed in hemp nets and +introduced into an open boiler which has a false bottom, and a tap by +which liquid may be run off. As the boiling proceeds test quantities of +liquid are from time to time examined, and when a sample is found on +cooling to form a stiff jelly, which happens when it contains about 32% +dry glue, it is ready to draw off. The solution is then run to a +clarifier, in which a temperature sufficient to keep it fluid is +maintained, and in this way any impurity is permitted to subside. The +glue solution is then run into wooden troughs or coolers in which it +sets to a firm jelly. The cakes are removed as in the case of bone glue +(see above), and, having been placed on nets, are, in the Scottish +practice, dried by exposure to open air. This primitive method has many +disadvantages: on a hot day the cake may become unshapely, or melt and +slip through the net, or dry so rapidly as to crack; a frost may produce +fissures, while a fog or mist may precipitate moisture on the surface +and occasion a mouldy appearance. The surface of the cake, which is +generally dull after drying, is polished by washing with water. The +practice of boiling, clarification, cooling and drying, which has been +already described in the case of bone glue, has been also applied to the +separation of skin glue. + +_Fish Glue._--Whereas isinglass, a very pure gelatin, is yielded by the +sounds of a limited number of fish, it is found that all fish offals +yield a glue possessing considerable adhesive properties. The +manufacture consists in thoroughly washing the offal with water, and +then discharging it into extractors with live steam. After digestion, +the liquid is run off, allowed to stand, the upper oily layer removed, +and the lower gluey solution clarified with alum. The liquid is then +filtered, concentrated in open vats, and bleached with sulphur +dioxide.[2] Fish glue is a light-brown viscous liquid which has a +distinctly disagreeable odour and an acrid taste; these disadvantages to +its use are avoided if it be boiled with a little water and 1% of sodium +phosphate, and 0.025% of saccharine added. + +_Properties of Glue._--A good quality of glue should be free from all +specks and grit, have a uniform, light brownish-yellow, transparent +appearance, and should break with a glassy fracture. Steeped for some +time in cold water it softens and swells up without dissolving, and when +again dried it ought to resume its original properties. Under the +influence of heat it entirely dissolves in water, forming a thin syrupy +fluid with a not disagreeable smell. The adhesiveness of different +qualities of glue varies considerably; the best adhesive is formed by +steeping the glue, broken in small pieces, in water until they are quite +soft, and then placing them with just sufficient water to effect +solution in the glue-pot. The hotter the glue, the better the joint; +remelted glue is not so strong as the freshly prepared; and newly +manufactured glue is inferior to that which has been long in stock. It +is therefore seen that many factors enter into the determination of the +cohesive power of glue; a well-prepared joint may, under favourable +conditions, withstand a pull of about 700 lb. per sq. in. The following +table, after Kilmarsch, shows the holding power of glued joints with +various kinds of woods. + + +---------+-----------------------------+ + | | lb. per sq. in. | + | Wood. +-------------+---------------+ + | | With grain. | Across grain. | + +---------+-------------+---------------+ + | Beech | 852 | 434.5 | + | Maple | 484 | 346 | + | Oak | 704 | 302 | + | Fir | 605 | 132 | + +---------+-------------+---------------+ + + _Special Kinds of Glues, Cements, &c._--By virtue of the fact that the + word "glue" is frequently used to denote many adhesives, which may or + may not contain gelatin, there will now be given an account of some + special preparations. These may be conveniently divided into: (1) + liquid glues, mixtures containing gelatin which do not jelly at + ordinary temperatures but still possess adhesive properties; (2) + water-proof glues, including mixtures containing gelatin, and also the + "marine glues," which contain no glue; (3) glues or cements for + special purposes, e.g. for cementing glass, pottery, leather, &c., for + cementing dissimilar materials, such as paper or leather to iron. + + _Liquid Glues._--The demand for liquid glues is mainly due to the + disadvantages--the necessity of dissolving and using while hot--of + ordinary glue. They are generally prepared by adding to a warm glue + solution some reagent which destroys the property of gelatinizing. The + reagents in common use are acetic acid; magnesium chloride, used for a + glue employed by printers; hydrochloric acid and zinc sulphate; nitric + acid and lead sulphate; and phosphoric acid and ammonium carbonate. + + _Water-proof Glues._--Numerous recipes for water-proof glues have been + published; glue, having been swollen by soaking in water, dissolved in + four-fifths its weight of linseed oil, furnishes a good water-proof + adhesive; linseed oil varnish and litharge, added to a glue solution, + is also used; resin added to a hot glue solution in water, and + afterwards diluted with turpentine, is another recipe; the best glue + is said to be obtained by dissolving one part of glue in one and a + half parts of water, and then adding one-fiftieth part of potassium + bichromate. Alcoholic solutions of various gums, and also tannic acid, + confer the same property on glue solutions. The "marine glues" are + solutions of india-rubber, shellac or asphaltum, or mixtures of these + substances, in benzene or naphtha. Jeffrey's marine glue is formed by + dissolving india-rubber in four parts of benzene and adding two parts + of shellac; it is extensively used, being easily applied and drying + rapidly and hard. Another water-proof glue which contains no gelatin + is obtained by heating linseed oil with five parts of quicklime; when + cold it forms a hard mass, which melts on heating like ordinary glue. + + _Special Glues._--There are innumerable recipes for adhesives + specially applicable to certain substances and under certain + conditions. For repairing glass, ivory, &c. isinglass (q.v.), which + may be replaced by fine glue, yields valuable cements; bookbinders + employ an elastic glue obtained from an ordinary glue solution and + glycerin, the water being expelled by heating; an efficient cement for + mounting photographs is obtained by dissolving glue in ten parts of + alcohol and adding one part of glycerin; portable or mouth glue--so + named because it melts in the mouth--is prepared by dissolving one + part of sugar in a solution of four parts of glue. An india-rubber + substitute is obtained by adding sodium tungstate and hydrochloric + acid to a strong glue solution; this preparation may be rolled out + when heated to 60 deg. + + For further details see Thomas Lambert, _Glue, Gelatine and their + Allied Products_ (London, 1905); R. L. Fernbach, _Glues and Gelatine_ + (1907); H. C. Standage, _Agglutinants of all Kinds for all Purposes_ + (1907). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This fat contains a small quantity of solvent, which is removed + by heating with steam, when the solvent distils off. Hot water is + then run in to melt the fat, which rises to the surface of the water + and is floated off. Another boiling with water, and again floating + off, frees the fat from dirt and mineral matter, and the product is + ready for casking. + + [2] The residue in the extractors is usually dried in steam-heated + vessels, and mixed with potassium and magnesium salts; the product is + then put on the market as fish-potash guano. + + + + +GLUTARIC ACID, or NORMAL PYROTARIC ACID, HO2C.CH2.CH2.CH2.CO2H, an +organic acid prepared by the reduction of [alpha]-oxyglutaric acid with +hydriodic acid, by reducing glutaconic acid, HO2C.CH2.CH:CH.CO2H, with +sodium amalgam, by conversion of trimethylene bromide into the cyanide +and hydrolysis of this compound, or from acetoacetic ester, which, in +the form of its sodium derivative, condenses with [beta]-iodopropionic +ester to form acetoglutaric ester, CH3.CO.CH(CO2C2H5).CH2.CH2.CO2C2H5, +from which glutaric acid is obtained by hydrolysis. It is also obtained +when sebacic, stearic and oleic acids are oxidized with nitric acid. It +crystallizes in large monoclinic prisms which melt at 97.5 deg. C., and +distils between 302 deg. and 304 deg. C., practically without +decomposition. It is soluble in water, alcohol and ether. By long +heating the acid is converted into its anhydride, which, however, is +obtained more readily by heating the silver salt of the acid with acetyl +chloride. By distillation of the ammonium salt glutarimide, +CH2(CH2.CO)2NH, is obtained; it forms small crystals melting at 151 deg. +to 152 deg. C. and sublimes unchanged. + + On the alkyl glutaric acids, see C. Hell (_Ber._, 1889, 22, pp. 48, + 60), C. A. Bischoff (_Ber._, 1891, 24, p. 1041), K. Auwers (_Ber._, + 1891, 24, p. 1923) and W. H. Perkin, junr. (_Journ. Chem. Soc._, 1896, + 69, p. 268). + + + + +GLUTEN, a tough, tenacious, ductile, somewhat elastic, nearly tasteless +and greyish-yellow albuminous substance, obtained from the flour of +wheat by washing in water, in which it is insoluble. Gluten, when dried, +loses about two-thirds of its weight, becoming brittle and +semi-transparent; when strongly heated it crackles and swells, and burns +like feather or horn. It is soluble in strong acetic acid, and in +caustic alkalis, which latter may be used for the purification of starch +in which it is present. When treated with .1 to .2% solution of +hydrochloric acid it swells up, and at length forms a liquid resembling +a solution of albumin, and laevorotatory as regards polarized light. +Moistened with water and exposed to the air gluten putrefies, and +evolves carbon dioxide, hydrogen and sulphuretted hydrogen, and in the +end is almost entirely resolved into a liquid, which contains leucin and +ammonium phosphate and acetate. On analysis gluten shows a composition +of about 53% of carbon, 7% of hydrogen, and nitrogen 15 to 18%, besides +oxygen, and about 1% of sulphur, and a small quantity of inorganic +matter. According to H. Ritthausen it is a mixture of _glutencasein_ +(Liebig's vegetable fibrin), _glutenfibrin_, _gliadin_ (Pflanzenleim), +_glutin_ or vegetable gelatin, and _mucedin_, which are all closely +allied to one another in chemical composition. It is the gliadin which +confers upon gluten its capacity of cohering to form elastic masses, and +of separating readily from associated starch. In the so-called gluten of +the flour of barley, rye and maize, this body is absent (H. Ritthausen +and U. Kreusler). The gluten yielded by wheat which has undergone +fermentation or has begun to sprout is devoid of toughness and +elasticity. These qualities can be restored to it by kneading with salt, +lime-water or alum. Gluten is employed in the manufacture of gluten +bread and biscuits for the diabetic, and of chocolate, and also in the +adulteration of tea and coffee. For making bread it must be used fresh, +as otherwise it decomposes, and does not knead well. Granulated gluten +is a kind of vermicelli, made in some starch manufactories by mixing +fresh gluten with twice its weight of flour, and granulating by means of +a cylinder and contained stirrer, each armed with spikes, and revolving +in opposite directions. The process is completed by the drying and +sifting of the granules. + + + + +GLUTTON, or WOLVERINE (_Gulo luscus_), a carnivorous mammal belonging to +the _Mustelidae_, or weasel family, and the sole representative of its +genus. The legs are short and stout, with large feet, the toes of which +terminate in strong, sharp claws considerably curved. The mode of +progression is semi-plantigrade. In size and form the glutton is +something like the badger, measuring from 2 to 3 ft. in length, +exclusive of the thick bushy tail, which is about 8 in. long. The head +is broad, the eyes are small and the back arched. The fur consists of an +undergrowth of short woolly hair, mixed with long straight hairs, to the +abundance and length of which on the sides and tail the creature owes +its shaggy appearance. The colour of the fur is blackish-brown, with a +broad band of chestnut stretching from the shoulders along each side of +the body, the two meeting near the root of the tail. Unlike the majority +of arctic animals, the fur of the glutton in winter grows darker. Like +other _Mustelidae_, the glutton is provided with anal glands, which +secrete a yellowish fluid possessing a highly foetid odour. It is a +boreal animal, inhabiting the northern regions of both hemispheres, but +most abundant in the circumpolar area of the New World, where it occurs +throughout the British provinces and Alaska, being specially numerous in +the neighbourhood of the Mackenzie river, and extending southwards as +far as New York and the Rocky Mountains. The wolverine is a voracious +animal, and also one with an inquisitive disposition. It feeds on +grouse, the smaller rodents and foxes, which it digs from their burrows +during the breeding-season; but want of activity renders it dependent +for most of its food on dead carcases, which it frequently obtains by +methods that have made it peculiarly obnoxious to the hunter and +trapper. Should the hunter, after succeeding in killing his game, leave +the carcase insufficiently protected for more than a single night, the +glutton, whose fear of snares is sufficient to prevent him from touching +it during the first night, will, if possible, get at and devour what he +can on the second, hiding the remainder beneath the snow. It annoys the +trapper by following up his lines of marten-traps, often extending to a +length of 40 to 50 m., each of which it enters from behind, extracting +the bait, pulling up the traps, and devouring or concealing the +entrapped martens. So persistent is the glutton in this practice, when +once it discovers a line of traps, that its extermination along the +trapper's route is a necessary preliminary to the success of his +business. This is no easy task, as the glutton is too cunning to be +caught by the methods successfully employed on the other members of the +weasel family. The trap generally used for this purpose is made to +resemble a cache, or hidden store of food, such as the Indians and +hunters are in the habit of forming, the discovery and rifling of which +is one of the glutton's most congenial occupations--the bait, instead of +being paraded as in most traps, being carefully concealed, to lull the +knowing beast's suspicions. One of the most prominent characteristics of +the wolverine is its propensity to steal and hide things, not merely +food which it might afterwards need, or traps which it regards as +enemies, but articles which cannot possibly have any interest except +that of curiosity. The following instance of this is quoted by Dr E. +Coues in his work on the _Fur-bearing Animals of North America_: "A +hunter and his family having left their lodge unguarded during their +absence, on their return found it completely gutted--the walls were +there, but nothing else. Blankets, guns, kettles, axes, cans, knives and +all the other paraphernalia of a trapper's tent had vanished, and the +tracks left by the beast showed who had been the thief. The family set +to work, and, by carefully following up all his paths, recovered, with +some trifling exceptions, the whole of the lost property." The cunning +displayed by the glutton in unravelling the snares set for it forms at +once the admiration and despair of every trapper, while its great +strength and ferocity render it a dangerous antagonist to animals larger +than itself, occasionally including man. The rutting-season occurs in +March, and the female, secure in her burrow, produces her young--four or +five at a birth--in June or July. In defence of these, she is +exceedingly bold, and the Indians, according to Dr Coues, "have been +heard to say that they would sooner encounter a she-bear with her cubs +than a carcajou (the Indian name of the glutton) under the same +circumstances." On catching sight of its enemy, man, the wolverine +before finally determining on flight, is said to sit on its haunches, +and, in order to get a clearer view of the danger, shade its eyes with +one of its fore-paws. When pressed for food it becomes fearless, and has +been known to come on board an ice-bound vessel, and in presence of the +crew seize a can of meat. The glutton is valuable for its fur, which, +when several skins are sewn together, forms elegant hearth and carriage +rugs. (R. L.*) + +[Illustration: The Glutton, or Wolverine (_Gulo luscus_).] + + + + +GLYCAS, MICHAEL, Byzantine historian (according to some a Sicilian, +according to others a Corfiote), flourished during the 12th century A.D. +His chief work is his _Chronicle_ of events from the creation of the +world to the death of Alexius I. Comnenus(1118). It is extremely brief +and written in a popular style, but too much space is devoted to +theological and scientific matters. Glycas was also the author of a +theological treatise and a number of letters on theological questions. A +poem of some 600 "political" verses, written during his imprisonment on +a charge of slandering a neighbour and containing an appeal to the +emperor Manuel, is still extant. The exact nature of his offence is not +known, but the answer to his appeal was that he was deprived of his +eyesight by the emperor's orders. + + Editions: "Chronicle and Letters," in J. P. Migne, _Patrologia + Graeca_, clviii.; poem in E. Legrand, _Bibliotheque grecque vulgaire_, + i.; see also F. Hirsch, _Byzantinische Studien_ (1876); C. Krumbacher + in _Sitzungsberichte bayer. Acad._, 1894; C. F. Bahr in Ersch and + Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopadie_. + + + + +GLYCERIN, GLYCERINE or GLYCEROL (in pharmacy _Glycerinum_) (from Gr. +[Greek: glykys], sweet), a trihydric alcohol, trihydroxypropane, +C3H5(OH)3. It is obtainable from most natural fatty bodies by the action +of alkalis and similar reagents, whereby the fats are decomposed, water +being taken up, and glycerin being formed together with the alkaline +salt of some particular acid (varying with the nature of the fat). Owing +to their possession of this common property, these natural fatty bodies +and various artificial derivatives of glycerin, which behave in the same +way when treated with alkalis, are known as glycerides. In the ordinary +process of soap-making the glycerin remains dissolved in the aqueous +liquors from which the soap is separated. + +Glycerin was discovered in 1779 by K. W. Scheele and named _Olsuss_ +(_principe doux des huiles_--sweet principle of oils), and more fully +investigated subsequently by M. E. Chevreul, who named it glycerin, M. +P. E. Berthelot, and many other chemists, from whose researches it +results that glycerin is a trihydric alcohol indicated by the formula +C3H5(OH)3, the natural fats and oils, and the glycerides generally, +being substances of the nature of compound esters formed from glycerin +by the replacement of the hydrogen of the OH groups by the radicals of +certain acids, called for that reason "fatty acids." The relationship of +these glycerides to glycerin is shown by the series of bodies formed +from glycerin by replacement of hydrogen by "stearyl" (C18H35O), the +radical of stearic acid (C18H35O.OH):-- + + Glycerin. Monostearin. Distearin. Tristearin. + + CH2.OH CH2.O(C18H35O) CH2.O(C18H35O) CH2.O(C18H35O) + | | | | + CH.OH CH.OH CH.O(C18H35O) CH.O(C18H35O) + | | | | + CH2.OH CH2.OH CH2.OH CH2.O(C18H35O) + +The process of saponification may be viewed as the gradual progressive +transformation of tristearin, or some analogously constituted substance, +into distearin, monostearin and glycerin, or as the similar +transformation of a substance analogous to distearin or to monostearin +into glycerin. If the reaction is brought about in presence of an +alkali, the acid set free becomes transformed into the corresponding +alkaline salt; but if the decomposition is effected without the presence +of an alkali (i.e. by means of water alone or by an acid), the acid set +free and the glycerin are obtained together in a form which usually +admits of their ready separation. It is noticeable that with few +exceptions the fatty and oily matters occurring in nature are substances +analogous to tristearin, i.e. they are trebly replaced glycerins. +Amongst these glycerides may be mentioned the following: + + _Tristearin_--C3H5(O.C18H35O)3. The chief constituent of hard animal + fats, such as beef and mutton tallow, &c.; also contained in many + vegetable fats in smaller quantity. + + _Triolein_--C3H5(O.C18H33O)3. Largely present in olive oil and other + saponifiable vegetable oils and soft fats; also present in animal + fats, especially hog's lard. + + _Tripalmitin_--C3H5(O.C16H31O)3. The chief constituent of palm oil; + also contained in greater or less quantities in human fat, olive oil, + and other animal and vegetable fats. + + _Triricinolein_--C3H5(O.C18H33O2)3. The main constituent of castor + oil. + +Other analogous glycerides are apparently contained in greater or +smaller quantity in certain other oils. Thus in cows' butter, +_tributyrin_, C3H5(O.C4H7O)3, and the analogous glycerides of other +readily volatile acids closely resembling butyric acid, are present in +small quantity; the production of these acids on saponification and +distillation with dilute sulphuric acid is utilized as a test of a +purity of butter as sold. _Triacetin_, C3H5(O.C2H3O)3, is apparently +contained in cod-liver oil. Some other glycerides isolated from natural +sources are analogous in composition to tristearin, but with this +difference, that the three radicals which replace hydrogen in glycerin +are not all identical; thus kephalin, myelin and lecithin are glycerides +in which two hydrogens are replaced by fatty acid radicals, and the +third by a complex phosphoric acid derivative. + +Glycerin is also a product of certain kinds of fermentation, especially +of the alcoholic fermentation of sugar; consequently it is a constituent +of many wines and other fermented liquors. According to Louis Pasteur, +about 1/30th of the sugar transformed under ordinary conditions in the +fermentation of grape juice and similar saccharine liquids into alcohol +and other products become converted into glycerin. In certain natural +fatty substances, e.g. palm oil, it exists in the free state, so that it +can be separated by washing with boiling water, which dissolves the +glycerin but not the fatty glycerides. + +_Properties._--Glycerin is a viscid, colourless liquid of sp. gr. 1.265 +at 15 deg. C., possessing a somewhat sweet taste; below 0 deg. C. it +solidifies to a white crystalline mass, which melts at 17 deg. C. When +heated alone it partially volatilizes, but the greater part decomposes; +under a pressure of 12 mm. of mercury it boils at 170 deg. C. In an +atmosphere of steam it distils without decomposition under ordinary +barometric pressure. It dissolves readily in water and alcohol in all +proportions, but is insoluble in ether. It possesses considerable +solvent powers, whence it is employed for numerous purposes in pharmacy +and the arts. Its viscid character, and its non-liability to dry and +harden by exposure to air, also fit it for various other uses, such as +lubrication, &c., whilst its peculiar physical characters, enabling it +to blend with either aqueous or oily matters under certain +circumstances, render it a useful ingredient in a large number of +products of varied kinds. + + _Manufacture._--The simplest modes of preparing pure glycerin are + based on the saponification of fats, either by alkalis or by + superheated steam, and on the circumstance that, although glycerin + cannot be distilled by itself under the ordinary pressure without + decomposition, it can be readily volatilized in a current of + superheated steam. Commercial glycerin is mostly obtained from the + "spent lyes" of the soap-maker. In the van Ruymbeke process the spent + lyes are allowed to settle, and then treated with "persulphate of + iron," the exact composition of which is a trade secret, but it is + possibly a mixture of ferric and ferrous sulphates. Ferric hydrate, + iron soaps and all insoluble impurities are precipitated. The liquid + is filter-pressed, and any excess of iron in the filtrate is + precipitated by the careful addition of caustic soda and then removed. + The liquid is then evaporated under a vacuum of 27 to 28 in. of + mercury, and, when of specific gravity 1.295 (corresponding to about + 80% of glycerin), it is distilled under a vacuum of 28 to 29 in. In + the Glatz process the lye is treated with a little milk of lime, the + liquid then neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and the liquid + filtered. Evaporation and subsequent distillation under a high vacuum + gives crude glycerin. The impure glycerin obtained as above is + purified by redistillation in steam and evaporation in vacuum pans. + + _Technical Uses._--Besides its use as a starting-point in the + production of "nitroglycerin" (q.v.) and other chemical products, + glycerin is largely employed for a number of purposes in the arts, its + application thereto being due to its peculiar physical properties. + Thus its non-liability to freeze (when not absolutely anhydrous, which + it practically never is when freely exposed to the air) and its + non-volatility at ordinary temperatures, combined with its power of + always keeping fluid and not drying up and hardening, render it + valuable as a lubricating agent for clockwork, watches, &c., as a + substitute for water in wet gas-meters, and as an ingredient in + cataplasms, plasters, modelling clay, pasty colouring matters, dyeing + materials, moist colours for artists, and numerous other analogous + substances which are required to be kept in a permanently soft + condition. Glycerin acts as a preservative against decomposition, + owing to its antiseptic qualities, which also led to its being + employed to preserve untanned leather (especially during transit when + exported, the hides being, moreover, kept soft and supple); to make + solutions of gelatin, albumen, gum, paste, cements, &c. which will + keep without decomposition; to preserve meat and other edibles; to + mount anatomical preparations; to preserve vaccine lymph unchanged; + and for many similar purposes. Its solvent power is also utilized in + the production of various colouring fluids, where the colouring matter + would not dissolve in water alone; thus aniline violet, the tinctorial + constituents of madder, and various allied colouring matters dissolve + in glycerin, forming liquids which remain coloured even when diluted + with water, the colouring matters being either retained in suspension + or dissolved by the glycerin present in the diluted fluid. Glycerin is + also employed in the manufacture of formic acid (q.v.). Certain kinds + of copying inks are greatly improved by the substitution of glycerin, + in part or entirely, for the sugar or honey usually added. + + In its medicinal use glycerin is an excellent solvent for such + substances as iodine, alkaloids, alkalis, &c., and is therefore used + for applying them to diseased surfaces, especially as it aids in their + absorption. It does not evaporate or turn rancid, whilst its marked + hygroscopic action ensures the moistness and softness of any surface + that it covers. Given by the mouth glycerin produces purging if large + doses are administered, and has the same action if only a small + quantity be introduced into the rectum. For this purpose it is very + largely used either as a suppository or in the fluid form (one or two + drachms). The result is prompt, safe and painless. Glycerin is useless + as a food and is not in any sense a substitute for cod-liver oil. Very + large doses in animals cause lethargy, collapse and death. + + + + +GLYCOLS, in organic chemistry, the generic name given to the aliphatic +dihydric alcohols. These compounds may be obtained by heating the +alkylen iodides or bromides (e.g. ethylene dibromide) with silver +acetate or with potassium acetate and alcohol, the esters so produced +being then hydrolysed with caustic alkalis, thus: + + C2H4Br2 + 2 C2H3O2.Ag --> C2H4(O.C2H3O)2 --> C2H4(OH)2 + 2 K.C2H3O2; + +by the direct union of water with the alkylen oxides; by oxidation of +the olefines with cold potassium permanganate solution (G. Wagner, +_Ber._, 1888, 21, p. 1231), or by the action of nitrous acid on the +diamines. + +Glycols may be classified as _primary_, containing two -CH2OH groups; +_primary-secondary_, containing the grouping -CH(OH).CH2OH; _secondary_, +with the grouping -CH(OH).CH(OH)-; and _tertiary_, with the grouping +>C(OH).(OH)C<. The secondary glycols are prepared by the action of +alcoholic potash on aldehydes, thus: + + 3(CH3)2CH.CHO + KHO = (CH3)2CHCO2K + (CH3)2CH.CH(OH).CH(OH).CH(CH3)2. + +The tertiary glycols are known as _pinacones_ and are formed on the +reduction of ketones with sodium amalgam. + +The glycols are somewhat thick liquids, of high boiling point, the +pinacones only being crystalline solids; they are readily soluble in +water and alcohol, but are insoluble in ether. By the action of +dehydrating agents they are converted into aldehydes or ketones. In +their general behaviour towards oxidizing agents the primary glycols +behave very similarly to the ordinary primary alcohols (q.v.), but the +secondary and tertiary glycols break down, yielding compounds with a +smaller carbon content. + + Ethylene glycol, C2H4(OH)2, was first prepared by A. Wurtz (_Ann. + chim._, 1859 [3], 55, p. 400) from ethylene dibromide and silver + acetate. It is a somewhat pleasant smelling liquid, boiling at 197 + deg. to 197.5 deg. C. and having a specific gravity of 1.125 (0 deg.). + On fusion with solid potash at 250 deg. C. it completely decomposes, + giving potassium oxalate and hydrogen, + + C2H6O2 + 2 KHO = K2C2O4 + 4H2. + + Two propylene glycols, C3H8O2, are known, viz. [alpha]-propylene + glycol, CH3.CH(OH).CH2OH, a liquid boiling at 188 deg. to 189 deg., + and obtained by heating glycerin with sodium hydroxide and distilling + the mixture; and trimethylene glycol, CH2OH.CH2.CH2OH, a liquid + boiling at 214 deg. C. and prepared by boiling trimethylene bromide + with potash solution (A. Zander, _Ann._, 1882, 214, p. 178). + + + + +GLYCONIC (from Glycon, a Greek lyric poet), a form of verse, best known +in Catullus and Horace (usually in the catalectic variety _ [u_] _ u u _ +u [u_]), with three feet--a spondee and two dactyls; or four--three +trochees and a dactyl, or a dactyl and three chorees. Sir R. Jebb +pointed out that the last form might be varied by placing the dactyl +second or third, and according to its place this verse was called a +First, Second or Third Glyconic. + + Cf. J. W. White, in _Classical Quarterly_ (Oct. 1909). + + + + +GLYPH (from Gr. [Greek: glyphein], to carve), in architecture, a +vertical channel in a frieze (see TRIGLYPH). + + + + +GLYPTODON (Greek for "fluted-tooth"), a name applied by Sir R. Owen to +the typical representative of a group of gigantic, armadillo-like, South +American, extinct Edentata, characterized by having the carapace +composed of a solid piece (formed by the union of a multitude of bony +dermal plates) without any movable rings. The facial portion of the +skull is very short; a long process of the maxillary bone descends from +the anterior part of the zygomatic arch; and the ascending ramus of the +mandible is remarkably high. The teeth, 8/8 in the later species, are +much alike, having two deep grooves or flutings on each side, so as to +divide them into three distinct lobes (fig.). They are very tall and +grew throughout life. The vertebral column is almost entirely welded +into a solid tube, but there is a complex joint at the base of the neck, +to allow the head being retracted within the carapace. The limbs are +very strong, and the feet short and broad, resembling externally those +of an elephant or tortoise. + +[Illustration: Two views of the tooth of a _Glyptodon_; the upper figure +showing one side, and the lower the crown.] + + Glyptodonts constitute a family, the _Glyptodontidae_, whose position + is next to the armadillos (_Dasypodidae_); the group being represented + by a number of generic types. The Pleistocene forms, whose remains + occur abundantly in the silt of the Buenos Aires pampas, are by far + the largest, the skull and tail-sheath in some instances having a + length of from 12 to 16 ft. In _Glyptodon_ (with which + _Schistopleurum_ is identical) the tail-sheath consists of a series of + coronet-like rings, gradually diminishing in diameter from base to + tip. _Daedicurus_, in which the tail-sheath is in the form of a huge + solid club, is the largest member of the family, in _Panochthus_ and + _Sclerocalyptus_ (_Hoplophorus_) the tail-sheath consists basally of a + small number of smooth rings, and terminally of a tube. In some + specimens of these genera the horny shields covering the bony scutes + of the carapace have been preserved, and since the foramina, which + often pierce the latter, stop short of the former, it is evident that + these were for the passage of blood-vessels and not receptacles for + bristles. In the early Pleistocene epoch, when South America became + connected with North America, some of the glyptodonts found their way + into the latter continent. Among these northern forms some from Texas + and Florida have been referred to _Glyptodon_. One large species from + Texas has, however, been made the type of a separate genus, under the + name of _Glyptotherium texanum_. In some respects it shows affinity + with _Panochthus_, although in the simple structure of the tail-sheath + it recalls the undermentioned _Propalaeohoplophorus_. All the above + are of Pleistocene and perhaps Pliocene age, but in the Santa Cruz + beds of Patagonia there occur the two curious genera + _Propalaeohoplophorus_ and _Peltephilus_, the former of which is a + primitive and generalized type of glyptodont, while the latter seems + to come nearer to the armadillos. Both are represented by species of + comparatively small size. In _Propalaeohoplophorus_ the scutes of the + carapace, which are less deeply sculptured than in the larger + glyptodonts, are arranged in distinct transverse rows, in three of + which they partially overlap near the border of the carapace after the + fashion of the armadillos. The skull and limb-bones exhibit several + features met with in the latter, and the vertebrae of the back are not + welded into a continuous tube. There are eight pairs of teeth, the + first four of which are simpler than the rest, and may perhaps + therefore be regarded as premolars. More remarkable is _Peltephilus_, + on account of the fact that the teeth, which are simple, with a + chevron-shaped section, form a continuous series from the front of the + jaw backwards, the number of pairs being seven. Accordingly, a + modification of the character, even of the true Edentata, as given in + the earlier article, is rendered necessary. The head bears a pair of + horn-like scutes, and the scutes of the carapace and tail, which are + loosely opposed or slightly overlapping, form a number of transverse + rows. + + LITERATURE.--R. Lydekker, "The Extinct Edentates of Argentina," _An. + Mus. La Plata_--_Pal. Argent._ vol. iii. p. 2 (1904); H. F. Osborn, + "'Glyptotherium texanum,' a Glyptodont from the Lower Pleistocene of + Texas," _Bull. Amer. Mus._, vol. xvii. p. 491 (1903); W. B. Scott, + "Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds--Edentata," _Rep. Princeton Exped. to + Patagonia_, vol. v. (1903-1904). (R. L.*) + + + + +GLYPTOTHEK (from Gr. [Greek: glyptos], carved, and [Greek: theke], a +place of storage), an architectural term given to a gallery for the +exhibition of sculpture, and first employed at Munich, where it was +built to exhibit the sculptures from the temple of Aegina. + + + + +GMELIN, the name of several distinguished German scientists, of a +Tubingen family. Johann Georg Gmelin (1674-1728), an apothecary in +Tubingen, and an accomplished chemist for the times in which he lived, +had three sons. The first, Johann Conrad (1702-1759), was an apothecary +and surgeon in Tubingen. The second, Johann Georg (1709-1755), was +appointed professor of chemistry and natural history in St Petersburg in +1731, and from 1733 to 1743 was engaged in travelling through Siberia. +The fruits of his journey were _Flora Sibirica_ (4 vols., 1749-1750) and +_Reisen durch Sibirien_ (4 vols., 1753). He ended his days as professor +of medicine at Tubingen, a post to which he was appointed in 1749. The +third son, Philipp Friedrich (1721-1768), was extraordinary professor of +medicine at Tubingen in 1750, and in 1755 became ordinary professor of +botany and chemistry. In the second generation Samuel Gottlieb +(1743-1774), the son of Johann Conrad, was appointed professor of +natural history at St Petersburg in 1766, and in the following year +started on a journey through south Russia and the regions round the +Caspian Sea. On his way back he was captured by Usmey Khan, of the +Kaitak tribe, and died from the ill-treatment he suffered, on the 27th +of July 1774. One of his nephews, Ferdinand Gottlob von Gmelin +(1782-1848), became professor of medicine and natural history at +Tubingen in 1805, and another, Christian Gottlob (1792-1860), who in +1828 was one of the first to devise a process for the artificial +manufacture of ultramarine, was professor of chemistry and pharmacy in +the same university. In the youngest branch of the family, Philipp +Friedrich had a son, Johann Friedrich (1748-1804), who was appointed +professor of medicine in Tubingen in 1772, and in 1775 accepted the +chair of medicine and chemistry at Gottingen. In 1788 he published the +13th edition of Linnaeus' _Systema Naturae_ with many additions and +alterations. His son Leopold (1788-1853), was the best-known member of +the family. He studied medicine and chemistry at Gottingen, Tubingen and +Vienna, and in 1813 began to lecture on chemistry at Heidelberg, where +in 1814 he was appointed extraordinary, and in 1817 ordinary, professor +of chemistry and medicine. He was the discoverer of potassium +ferricyanide (1822), and wrote the _Handbuch der Chemie_ (1st ed. +1817-1819, 4th ed. 1843-1855), an important work in its day, which was +translated into English for the Cavendish Society by H. Watts +(1815-1884) in 1848-1859. He resigned his chair in 1852, and died on the +13th of April in the following year at Heidelberg. + + + + +GMUND, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg,[1] in a +charming and fruitful valley on the Rems, here spanned by a beautiful +bridge, 31 m. E.N.E. of Stuttgart on the railway to Nordlingen. Pop. +(1905) 18,699. It is surrounded by old walls, flanked with towers, and +has a considerable number of ancient buildings, among which are the fine +church of the Holy Cross; St John's church, which dates from the time of +the Hohenstaufen; and, situated on a height near the town, partly hewn +out of the rock, the pilgrimage church of the Saviour. Among the modern +buildings are the gymnasium, the drawing and trade schools, the Roman +Catholic seminary, the town hall and the industrial art museum. Clocks +and watches are manufactured here and also other articles of silver, +while the town has a considerable trade in corn, hops and fruit. The +scenery in the neighbourhood is very beautiful, near the town being the +district called Little Switzerland. + +Gmund was surrounded by walls in the beginning of the 12th century by +Duke Frederick of Swabia. It received town rights from Frederick +Barbarossa, and after the extinction of the Hohenstaufen became a free +imperial town. It retained its independence till 1803, when it came into +the possession of Wurttemberg. Gmund is the birth-place of the painter +Hans Baldung (1475-1545) and of the architect Heinrich Arler or Parler +(fl. 1350). In the middle ages the population was about 10,000. + + See Kaiser, _Gmund und seine Umgebung_ (1888). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] There are two places of this name in Austria. (1) Gmund, a town + in Lower Austria, containing a palace belonging to the imperial + family, (2) a town in Carinthia, with a beautiful Gothic church and + some interesting ruins. + + + + +GMUNDEN, a town and summer resort of Austria, in Upper Austria, 40 m. +S.S.W. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 7126. It is situated at the efflux +of the Traun river from the lake of the same name and is surrounded by +high mountains, as the Traunstein (5446 ft.), the Erlakogel (5150 ft.), +the Wilde Kogel (6860 ft.) and the Hollen Gebirge. It is much frequented +as a health and summer resort, and has a variety of lake, brine, +vegetable and pine-cone baths, a hydropathic establishment, inhalation +chambers, whey cure, &c. There are a great number of excursions and +points of interest round Gmunden, specially worth mentioning being the +Traun Fall, 10 m. N. of Gmunden. It is also an important centre of the +salt industry in Salzkammergut. Gmunden was a town encircled with walls +already in 1186. On the 14th of November 1626, Pappenheim completely +defeated here the army of the rebellious peasants. + + See F. Krackowizer, _Geschichte der Stadt Gmunden in Oberosterreich_ + (Gmunden, 1898-1901, 3 vols.). + + + + +GNAT (O. Eng. _gnaet_), the common English name for the smaller dipterous +flies (see DIPTERA) of the family _Culicidae_, which are now included +among "mosquitoes" (see MOSQUITO). The distinctive term has no +zoological significance, but in England the "mosquito" has commonly been +distinguished from the "gnat" as a variety of larger size and more +poisonous bite. + + + + +GNATHOPODA, a term in zoological classification, suggested as an +alternative name for the group Arthropoda (q.v.). The word, which means +"jaw-footed," refers to the fact that in the members of the group, some +of the lateral appendages or "feet" in the region of the mouth act as +jaws. + + + + +GNATIA (also EGNATIA or IGNATIA, mod. _Anazzo_, near Fasano), an ancient +city of the Peucetii, and their frontier town towards the Sallentini +(i.e. of Apulia towards Calabria), in Roman times of importance for its +trade, lying as it did on the sea, at the point where the Via Traiana +joined the coast road,[1] 38 m. S.E. of Barium. The ancient city walls +have been almost entirely destroyed in recent times to provide building +material,[2] and the place is famous for the discoveries made in its +tombs. A considerable collection of antiquities from Gnatia is preserved +at Fasano, though the best are in the museum at Bari. Gnatia was the +scene of the prodigy at which Horace mocks (_Sat._ i. 5. 97). Near +Fasano are two small subterranean chapels with paintings of the 11th +century A.D. (E. Bertaux, _L'Art dans l'Italie meridionale_, Paris, +1904, 135). (T. As.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] There is no authority for calling the latter Via Egnatia. + + [2] H. Swinburne, _Travels in the Two Sicilies_ (London, 1790), ii. + 15, mentions the walls as being 8 yds. thick and 16 courses high. + + + + +GNEISENAU, AUGUST WILHELM ANTON, COUNT NEITHARDT VON (1760-1831), +Prussian field marshal, was the son of a Saxon officer named Neithardt. +Born in 1760 at Schildau, near Torgau, he was brought up in great +poverty there, and subsequently at Wurzburg and Erfurt. In 1777 he +entered Erfurt university; but two years later joined an Austrian +regiment there quartered. In 1782 taking the additional name of +Gneisenau from some lost estates of his family in Austria, he entered as +an officer the service of the margrave of Baireuth-Anspach. With one of +that prince's mercenary regiments in English pay he saw active service +and gained valuable experience in the War of American Independence, and +returning in 1786, applied for Prussian service. Frederick the Great +gave him a commission as first lieutenant in the infantry. Made +_Stabskapitan_ in 1790, Gneisenau served in Poland, 1793-1794, and, +subsequently to this, ten years of quiet garrison life in Jauer enabled +him to undertake a wide range of military studies. In 1796 he married +Caroline von Kottwitz. In 1806 he was one of Hohenlohe's staff-officers, +fought at Jena, and a little later commanded a provisional infantry +brigade which fought under Lestocq in the Lithuanian campaign. Early in +1807 Major von Gneisenau was sent as commandant to Colberg, which, small +and ill-protected as it was, succeeded in holding out until the peace of +Tilsit. The commandant received the much-prized order "pour le merite," +and was promoted lieutenant-colonel. + +A wider sphere of work was now opened to him. As chief of engineers, and +a member of the reorganizing committee, he played a great part, along +with Scharnhorst, in the work of reconstructing the Prussian army. A +colonel in 1809, he soon drew upon himself, by his energy, the suspicion +of the dominant French, and Stein's fall was soon followed by Gneisenau's +retirement. But, after visiting Russia, Sweden and England, he returned +to Berlin and resumed his place as a leader of the patriotic party. In +open military work and secret machinations his energy and patriotism were +equally tested, and with the outbreak of the War of Liberation, +Major-General Gneisenau became Blucher's quartermaster-general. Thus +began the connexion between these two soldiers which has furnished +military history with its best example of the harmonious co-operation +between the general and his chief-of-staff. With Blucher, Gneisenau +served to the capture of Paris; his military character was the exact +complement of Blucher's, and under this happy guidance the young troops +of Prussia, often defeated but never discouraged, fought their way into +the heart of France. The plan of the march on Paris, which led directly +to the fall of Napoleon, was specifically the work of the chief-of-staff. +In reward for his distinguished service he was in 1814, along with York, +Kleist and Bulow, made count at the same time as Blucher became prince of +Wahlstatt; an annuity was also assigned to him. + +In 1815, once more chief of Blucher's staff, Gneisenau played a very +conspicuous part in the Waterloo campaign (q.v.). Senior generals, such +as York and Kleist, had been set aside in order that the chief-of-staff +should have the command in case of need, and when on the field of Ligny +the old field marshal was disabled, Gneisenau at once assumed the +control of the Prussian army. Even in the light of the evidence that +many years' research has collected, the precise part taken by Gneisenau +in the events which followed is much debated. It is known that Gneisenau +had the deepest distrust of the British commander, who, he considered, +had left the Prussians in the lurch at Ligny, and that to the hour of +victory he had grave doubts as to whether he ought not to fall back on +the Rhine. Blucher, however, soon recovered from his injuries, and, with +Grolmann, the quartermaster-general, he managed to convince Gneisenau. +The relations of the two may be illustrated by Brigadier-General +Hardinge's report. Blucher burst into Hardinge's room at Wavre, saying +"_Gneisenau has given way_, and we are to march at once to your chief." + +On the field of Waterloo, however, Gneisenau was quick to realize the +magnitude of the victory, and he carried out the pursuit with a +relentless vigour which has few parallels in history. His reward was +further promotion and the insignia of the "Black Eagle" which had been +taken in Napoleon's coach. In 1816 he was appointed to command the +VIIIth Prussian Corps, but soon retired from the service, both because +of ill-health and for political reasons. For two years he lived in +retirement on his estate, Erdmannsdorf in Silesia, but in 1818 he was +made governor of Berlin in succession to Kalkreuth, and member of the +_Staatsrath_. In 1825 he became general field marshal. In 1831 he was +appointed to the command of the Army of Observation on the Polish +frontier, with Clausewitz as his chief-of-staff. At Posen he was struck +down by cholera and died on the 24th of August 1831, soon followed by +his chief-of staff, who fell a victim to the same disease in November. + +As a soldier, Gneisenau was the greatest Prussian general since +Frederick; as a man, his noble character and virtuous life secured him +the affection and reverence, not only of his superiors and subordinates +in the service, but of the whole Prussian nation. A statue by Rauch was +erected in Berlin in 1855, and in memory of the siege of 1807 the +Colberg grenadiers received his name in 1889. One of his sons led a +brigade of the VIIIth Army Corps in the war of 1870. + + See G. H. Pertz, _Das Leben des Feldmarschalls Grafen Neithardt von + Gneisenau_, vols. 1-3 (Berlin, 1864-1869); vols. 4 and 5, G. Delbruck + (ib. 1879, 1880), with numerous documents and letters; H. Delbruck, + _Das Leben des G. F. M. Grafen von Gneisenau_ (2 vols., 2nd ed., + Berlin, 1894), based on Pertz's work, but containing much new + material; Frau von Beguelin, _Denkwurdigkeiten_ (Berlin, 1892); + Hormayr, _Lebensbilder aus den Befreiungskriegen_ (Jena, 1841); Pick, + _Aus dem brieflichen Nachlass Gneisenaus_; also the histories of the + campaigns of 1807 and 1813-15. + + + + +GNEISS, a term long used by the miners of the Harz Mountains to +designate the country rock in which the mineral veins occur; it is +believed to be a word of Slavonic origin meaning "rotted" or +"decomposed." It has gradually passed into acceptance as a generic term +signifying a large and varied series of metamorphic rocks, which mostly +consist of quartz and felspar (orthoclase and plagioclase) with +muscovite and biotite, hornblende or augite, iron oxides, zircon and +apatite. There is also a long list of accessory minerals which are +present in gneisses with more or less frequency, but not invariably, as +garnet, sillimanite, cordierite, graphite and graphitoid, epidote, +calcite, orthite, tourmaline and andalusite. The gneisses all possess a +more or less marked parallel structure or foliation, which is the main +feature by which many of them are separated from the granites, a group +of rocks having nearly the same mineralogical composition and closely +allied to many gneisses. + +The felspars of the gneisses are predominantly orthoclase (often +perthitic), but microcline is common in the more acid types and +oligoclase occurs also very frequently, especially in certain +sedimentary gneisses, while more basic varieties of plagioclase are +rare. Quartz is very seldom absent and may be blue or milky and +opalescent. Muscovite and biotite may both occur in the same rock; in +other cases only one of them is present. The commonest and most +important types of gneiss are the mica-gneisses. Hornblende is green, +rarely brownish; augite pale green or nearly colourless; enstatite +appears in some granulite-gneisses. Epidote, often with enclosures of +orthite, is by no means rare in gneisses from many different parts of +the world. Sillimanite and andalusite are not infrequent ingredients of +gneiss, and their presence has been accounted for in more than one way. +Cordierite-gneisses are a special group of great interest and possessing +many peculiarities; they are partly, if not entirely, foliated +contact-altered sedimentary rocks. Kyanite and staurolite may also be +mentioned as occasionally occurring. + +Many varieties of gneiss have received specific names according to the +minerals they consist of and the structural peculiarities they exhibit. +Muscovite-gneiss, biotite-gneiss and muscovite-biotite-gneiss, more +common perhaps than all the others taken together, are grey or pinkish +rocks according to the colour of their prevalent felspar, not unlike +granites, but on the whole more often fine-grained (though +coarse-grained types occur) and possessing a gneissose or foliated +structure. The latter consists in the arrangement of the flakes of mica +in such a way that their faces are parallel, and hence the rock has the +property of splitting more readily in the direction in which the mica +plates are disposed. This fissility, though usually marked, is not so +great as in the schists or slates, and the split faces are not so smooth +as in these latter rocks. The films of mica may be continuous and are +usually not flat, but irregularly curved. In some gneisses the parallel +flakes of mica are scattered through the quartz and felspar; in others +these minerals form discrete bands, the quartz and felspar being grouped +into lenticles separated by thin films of mica. When large felspars, of +rounded or elliptical form, are visible in the gneiss, it is said to +have augen structure (Ger. _Augen_ = eyes). It should also be remarked +that the essential component minerals of the rocks of this family are +practically always determinable by naked eye inspection or with the aid +of a simple lens. If the rock is too fine grained for this it is +generally relegated to the schists. When the bands of folia are very +fine and tortuous the structure is called helizitic. + +In mica-gneisses sillimanite, kyanite, andalusite and garnet may occur. +The significance of these minerals is variously interpreted; they may +indicate that the gneiss consists wholly or in part of sedimentary +material which has been contact-altered, but they have also been +regarded as having been developed by metamorphic action out of biotite +or other primary ingredients of the rock. + +Hornblende-gneisses are usually darker in colour and less fissile than +mica-gneisses; they contain more plagioclase, less orthoclase and +microcline, and more sphene and epidote. Many of them are rich in +hornblende and thus form transitions to amphibolites. Pyroxene-gneisses +are less frequent but occur in many parts of both hemispheres. The +"charnockite" series are very closely allied to the pyroxene-gneisses. +Hypersthene and scapolite both may occur in these rocks and they are +sometimes garnetiferous. + + In every country where the lowest and oldest rocks have come to the + surface and been exposed by the long continued action of denudation in + stripping away the overlying formations, gneisses are found in great + abundance and of many different kinds. They are in fact the typical + rocks of the Archean (Lewisian, Laurentian, &c.) series. In the Alps, + Harz, Scotland, Norway and Sweden, Canada, South America, Peninsular + India, Himalayas (to mention only a few localities) they occupy wide + areas and exhibit a rich diversity of types. From this it has been + inferred that they are of great geological age, and in fact this can + be definitely proved in many cases, for the oldest known fossiliferous + formations may be seen to rest unconformably on these gneisses and are + made up of their debris. It was for a long time believed that they + represented the primitive crust of the earth, and while this is no + longer generally taught there are still geologists who hold that these + gneisses are necessarily of pre-Cambrian age. Others, while admitting + the general truth of this hypothesis, consider that there are + localities in which typical gneisses can be shown to penetrate into + rocks which may be as recent as the Tertiary period, or to pass into + these rocks so gradually and in such a way as to make it certain that + the gneisses are merely altered states of comparatively recent + sedimentary or igneous rocks. Much controversy has arisen on these + points; but this is certain, that gneisses are far the most common + among Archean rocks, and where their age is not known the presumption + is strong that they are at least pre-Cambrian. + + Many gneisses are undoubtedly sedimentary rocks that have been brought + to their present state by such agents of metamorphism as heat, + movement, crushing and recrystallization. This may be demonstrated + partly by their mode of occurrence: they accompany limestones, + graphitic schists, quartzites and other rocks of sedimentary type; + some of them where least altered may even show remains of bedding or + of original pebbly character (conglomerate gneisses). More conclusive, + however, is the chemical composition of these rocks, which often is + such as no igneous masses possess, but resembles that of many impure + argillaceous sediments. These sedimentary gneisses (or paragneisses, + as they are often called) are often rich in biotite and garnet and may + contain kyanite and sillimanite, or less frequently calcite. Some of + them, however, are rich in felspar and quartz, with muscovite and + biotite; others may even contain hornblende and augite, and all these + may bear so close a resemblance to gneisses of igneous origin that by + no single character, chemical or mineralogical, can their original + nature be definitely established. In these cases, however, a careful + study of the relations of the rock in the field and of the different + types which occur together will generally lead to some positive + conclusion. + + Other gneisses are igneous (orthogneisses). These have very much the + same composition as acid igneous rocks such as granite, aplite, + hornblende granite, or intermediate rocks such as syenite and quartz + diorite. Many of these orthogneisses are not equally well foliated + throughout, but are massive or granitoid in places. They are sometimes + subdivided into granite gneiss, diorite gneiss, syenite gneiss and so + on. The sedimentary schists into which these rocks have been intruded + may show contact alteration by the development of such minerals as + cordierite, andalusite and sillimanite. In many of these orthogneisses + the foliation is primitive, being an original character of the rock + which was produced either by fluxion movements in a highly viscous, + semi-solid mass injected at great pressure into the surrounding + strata, or by folding stresses acting immediately after consolidation. + That the foliation in other orthogneisses is subsequent or + superinduced, having been occasioned by pressure and deformation of + the solid mass long after it had consolidated and cooled, admits of no + doubt, but it is very difficult to establish criteria by which these + types may be differentiated. Those gneisses in which the minerals have + been crushed and broken by fluxion or injection movements have been + called protoclastic, while those which have attained their gneissose + state by crushing long after consolidation are distinguished as + cataclastic. There are also many examples of gneisses of mixed or + synthetic origin. They may be metamorphosed sediments (granulites and + schists) into which tongues and thin veins of granitic character have + been intruded, following the more or less parallel foliation planes + already present in the country rock. These veinlets produce that + alternation in mineral composition and banded structure which are + essential in gneisses. This intermixture of igneous and sedimentary + material may take place on the finest scale and in the most intricate + manner. Often there has been resorption of the older rocks, whether + sedimentary or igneous, by those which have invaded them, and movement + has gone on both during injection and at a later period, so that the + whole complex becomes amalgamated and its elements are so completely + confused that the geologist can no longer disentangle them. + + When we remember that in the earlier stages of the earth's history, to + which most gneisses belong, and in the relatively deep parts of the + earth's crust, where they usually occur, there has been most igneous + injection and greatest frequency of earth movements, it is not + difficult to understand the geological distribution of gneissose + rocks. All the factors which are required for their production, heat, + movement, plutonic intrusions, contact alteration, interstitial + moisture at high temperatures, are found at great depths and have + acted most frequently and with greatest power on the older rock + masses. But locally, where the conditions were favourable, the same + processes may have gone on in comparatively recent times. Hence, + though most gneisses are Archean, all gneisses are not necessarily so. + (J. S. F.) + + + + +GNEIST, HEINRICH RUDOLF HERMANN FRIEDRICH VON (1816-1895), German jurist +and politician, was born at Berlin on the 13th of August 1816, the son +of a judge attached to the "Kammergericht" (court of appeal) in that +city. After receiving his school education at the gymnasium at Eisleben +in Prussian Saxony, he entered the university of Berlin in 1833 as a +student of jurisprudence, and became a pupil of the famous Roman law +teacher von Savigny. Proceeding to the degree of _doctor juris_ in 1838, +young Gneist immediately established himself as a _Privatdozent_ in the +faculty of law. He had, however, already chosen the judicial branch of +the legal profession as a career, and having while yet a student acted +as _Auscultator_, was admitted _Assessor_ in 1841. He soon found leisure +and opportunity to fulfil a much-cherished wish, and spent the next few +years on a lengthened tour in Italy, France and England. He utilized his +_Wanderjahre_ for the purposes of comparative study, and on his return +in 1844 was appointed extraordinary professor of Roman law in Berlin +university, and thus began a professorial connexion which ended only +with his death. The first-fruits of his activity as a teacher were seen +in his brilliant work, _Die formellen Vertrage des heutigen romischen +Obligationen-Rechtes_ (Berlin, 1845). _Pari passu_ with his academic +labours he continued his judicial career, and became in due course +successively assistant judge of the superior court and of the supreme +tribunal. But to a mind constituted such as his, the want of elasticity +in the procedure of the courts was galling. "Brought up," he tells, in +the preface to his _Englische Verfassungsgeschichte_, "in the laborious +and rigid school of Prussian judges, at a time when the duty of +formulating the matter in litigation was entailed upon the judge who +personally conducted the pleadings, I became acquainted both with the +advantages possessed by the Prussian bureau system as also with its weak +points." Feeling the necessity for fundamental reforms in legal +procedure, he published, in 1849, his _Trial by Jury_, in which, after +pointing out that the origin of that institution was common to both +Germany and England, and showing in a masterly way the benefits which +had accrued to the latter country through its more extended application, +he pleaded for its freer admission in the tribunals of his own country. + +The period of "storm and stress" in 1848 afforded Gneist an opportunity +for which he had yearned, and he threw himself with ardour into the +constitutional struggles of Prussia. Although his candidature for +election to the National Assembly of that year was unsuccessful, he felt +that "the die was cast," and deciding for a political career, retired in +1850 from his judicial position. Entering the ranks of the National +Liberal party, he began both in writing and speeches actively to +champion their cause, now busying himself pre-eminently with the study +of constitutional law and history. In 1853 appeared his _Adel und +Ritterschaft in England_, and in 1857 the _Geschichte und heutige +Gestalt der Amter in England_, a pamphlet primarily written to combat +the Prussian abuses of administration, but for which the author also +claimed that it had not been without its effect in modifying certain +views that had until then ruled in England itself. In 1858 Gneist was +appointed ordinary professor of Roman law, and in the same year +commenced his parliamentary career by his election for Stettin to the +Abgeordnetenhaus (House of Deputies) of the Prussian Landtag, in which +assembly he sat thenceforward uninterruptedly until 1893. Joining the +Left, he at once became one of its leading spokesmen. His chief +oratorical triumphs are associated with the early period of his +membership of the House; two noteworthy occasions being his violent +attack (September 1862) upon the government budget in connexion with the +reorganization of the Prussian army, and his defence (1864) of the +Polish chiefs of the (then) grand-duchy of Posen, who were accused of +high treason. In 1857-1863 was published _Das heutige englische +Verfassungsund Verwaltungsrecht_, a work which, contrasting English and +German constitutional law and administration, aimed at exercising +political pressure upon the government of the day. In 1868 Gneist became +a member of the North German parliament, and acted as a member of the +commission for organizing the federal army, and also of that for the +settlement of ecclesiastical controversial questions. On the +establishment of German unity his mandate was renewed for the Reichstag, +and in this he sat, an active and prominent member of the National +Liberal party, until 1884. In the Kulturkampf he sided with the +government against the attacks of the Clericals, whom he bitterly +denounced, and whose implacable enemy he ever showed himself. In 1879, +together with his colleague, von Hanel, he violently attacked the motion +for the prosecution of certain Socialist members, which as a result of +the vigour of his opposition was almost unanimously rejected. He was +parliamentary reporter for the committees on all great financial and +administrative questions, and his profound acquaintance with +constitutional law caused his advice to be frequently sought, not only +in his own but also in other countries. In Prussia he largely influenced +legislation, the reform of the judicial and penal systems and the new +constitution of the Evangelical Church being largely his work. He was +also consulted by the Japanese government when a constitution was being +introduced into that country. In 1875 he was appointed a member of the +supreme administrative court (_Oberverwaltungsgericht_) of Prussia, but +only held office for two years. In 1882 was published his _Englische +Verfassungsgeschichte_ (trans. _History of the English Constitution_, +London, 1886), which may perhaps be described as his _magnum opus_. It +placed the author at once on the level of such writers on English +constitutional history as Hallam and Stubbs, and supplied English +literature with a text-book almost unrivalled in point of historical +research. In 1888 one of the first acts of the ill-fated emperor +Frederick III., who had always, as crown prince, shown great admiration +for him, was to ennoble Gneist, and attach him as instructor in +constitutional law to his son, the emperor William II., a charge of +which he worthily acquitted himself. The last years of his life were +full of energy, and, in the possession of all his faculties, he +continued his wonted academic labours until a short time before his +death, which occurred at Berlin on the 22nd of July 1895. + +As a politician, Gneist's career cannot perhaps be said to have been +entirely successful. In a country where parliamentary institutions are +the living exponents of the popular will he might have risen to a +foremost position in the state; as it was, the party to which he allied +himself could never hope to become more than what it remained, a +parliamentary faction, and the influence it for a time wielded in the +counsels of the state waned as soon as the Social-Democratic party grew +to be a force to be reckoned with. It is as a writer and a teacher that +Gneist is best known to fame. He was a jurist of a special type. To him +law was not mere theory, but living force; and this conception of its +power animates all his schemes of practical reform. As a teacher he +exercised a magnetic influence, not only by reason of the clearness and +cogency of his exposition, but also because of the success with which he +developed the talents and guided the aspirations of his pupils. He was a +man of noble bearing, religious, and imbued with a stern sense of duty. +He was proud of being a "Preussischer Junker" (a member of the Prussian +squirearchy), and throughout his writings, despite their liberal +tendencies, may be perceived the loyalty and affection with which he +clung to monarchical institutions. A great admirer and a true friend of +England, to which country he was attached by many personal ties, he +surpassed all other Germans in his efforts to make her free +institutions, in which he found his ideal, the common heritage of the +two great nations of the Teutonic race. + + Gneist was a prolific writer, especially on the subject he had made + peculiarly his own, that of constitutional law and history, and among + his works, other than those above named, may be mentioned the + following: _Budget und Gesetz nach dem constitutionellen Staatsrecht + Englands_ (Berlin, 1867); _Freie Advocatur_ (ib., 1867); _Der + Rechtsstaat_ (ib., 1872, and 2nd edition, 1879); _Zur + Verwaltungsreform in Preussen_ (Leipzig, 1880); _Das englische + Parlament_ (Berlin, 1886); in English translation, _The English + Parliament_ (London, 1886; 3rd edition, 1889); _Die Militar-Vorlage + von 1892 und der preussische Verfassungsconflikt von 1862 bis 1866_ + (Berlin, 1893); _Die nationale Rechtsidee von den Standen und das + preussische Dreiklassenwahlsystem_ (ib., 1895); _Die + verfassungsmassige Stellung des preussischen Gesamtministeriums_ (ib., + 1895). See O. Gierke, _Rudolph von Gneist, Gedachtnisrede_ (Berlin, + 1895), an In Memoriam address delivered in Berlin. (P. A. A.) + + + + +GNESEN (Polish, _Gniezno_), a town of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Posen, in an undulating and fertile country, on the Wrzesnia, 30 m. +E.N.E. of Posen by the railway to Thorn. Pop. (1905) 23,727. Besides the +cathedral, a handsome Gothic edifice with twin towers, which contains +the remains of St Adalbert, there are eight Roman Catholic churches, a +Protestant church, a synagogue, a clerical seminary and a convent of the +Franciscan nuns. Among the industries are cloth and linen weaving, +brewing and distilling. A great horse and cattle market is held here +annually. Gnesen is one of the oldest towns in the former kingdom of +Poland. Its name, _Gniezno_, signifies "nest," and points to early +Polish traditions. The cathedral is believed to have been founded +towards the close of the 9th century, and, having received the bones of +St Adalbert, it was visited in 1000 by the emperor Otto III., who made +it the seat of an archbishop. Here, until 1320, the kings of Poland were +crowned; and the archbishop, since 1416 primate of Poland, acted as +protector pending the appointment of a new king. In 1821 the see of +Posen was founded and the archbishop removed his residence thither, +though its cathedral chapter still remains at Gnesen. After a long +period of decay the town revived after 1815, when it came under the rule +of Prussia. + + See S. Karwowski, _Gniezno_ (Posen, 1892). + + + + +GNOME, AND GNOMIC POETRY. Sententious maxims, put into verse for the +better aid of the memory, were known by the Greeks as gnomes, [Greek: +gnomai], from [Greek: gnome], an opinion. A gnome is defined by the +Elizabethan critic Henry Peacham (1576?-1643?) as "a saying pertaining +to the manners and common practices of men, which declareth, with an apt +brevity, what in this our life ought to be done, or not done." The +Gnomic Poets of Greece, who flourished in the 6th century B.C., were +those who arranged series of sententious maxims in verse. These were +collected in the 4th century, by Lobon of Argos, an orator, but his +collection has disappeared. The chief gnomic poets were Theognis, Solon, +Phocylides, Simonides of Amorgos, Demodocus, Xenophanes and Euenus. With +the exception of Theognis, whose gnomes were fortunately preserved by +some schoolmaster about 300 B.C., only fragments of the Gnomic Poets +have come down to us. The moral poem attributed to Phocylides, long +supposed to be a masterpiece of the school, is now known to have been +written by a Jew in Alexandria. Of the gnomic movement typified by the +moral works of the poets named above, Prof. Gilbert Murray has remarked +that it receives its special expression in the conception of the Seven +Wise Men, to whom such proverbs as "Know thyself" and "Nothing too much" +were popularly attributed, and whose names differed in different lists. +These gnomes or maxims were extended and put into literary shape by the +poets. Fragments of Solon, Euenus and Mimnermus have been preserved, in +a very confused state, from having been written, for purposes of +comparison, on the margins of the MSS. of Theognis, whence they have +often slipped into the text of that poet. Theognis enshrines his moral +precepts in his elegies, and this was probably the custom of the rest; +it is improbable that there ever existed a species of poetry made up +entirely of successive gnomes. But the title "gnomic" came to be given +to all poetry which dealt in a sententious way with questions of +ethics. It was, unquestionably, the source from which moral philosophy +was directly developed, and theorists upon life and infinity, such as +Pythagoras and Xenophanes, seem to have begun their career as gnomic +poets. By the very nature of things, gnomes, in their literary sense, +belong exclusively to the dawn of literature; their naivete and their +simplicity in moralizing betray it. But it has been observed that many +of the ethical reflections of the great dramatists, and in particular of +Sophocles and Euripides, are gnomic distiches expanded. It would be an +error to suppose that the ancient Greek gnomes are all of a solemn +character; some are voluptuous and some chivalrous; those of Demodocus +of Leros had the reputation of being droll. In modern times, the gnomic +spirit has occasionally been displayed by poets of a homely philosophy, +such as Francis Quarles (1592-1644) in England and Gui de Pibrac +(1529-1584) in France. The once-celebrated _Quatrains_ of the latter, +published in 1574, enjoyed an immense success throughout Europe; they +were composed in deliberate imitation of the Greek gnomic writers of the +6th century B.C. These modern effusions are rarely literature and +perhaps never poetry. With the gnomic writings of Pibrac it was long +customary to bind up those of Antoine Favre (or Faber) (1557-1624) and +of Pierre Mathieu (1563-1621). Gnomes are frequently to be found in the +ancient literatures of Arabia, Persia and India, and in the Icelandic +staves. The _priamel_, a brief, sententious kind of poem, which was in +favour in Germany from the 12th to the 16th century, belonged to the +true gnomic class, and was cultivated with particular success by Hans +Rosenblut, the lyrical goldsmith of Nuremberg, in the 15th century. + (E. G.) + + + + +GNOMES (Fr. _gnomes_, Ger. _Gnomen_), in folk-lore, the name now +commonly given to the earth and mountain spirits who are supposed to +watch over veins of precious metals and other hidden treasures. They are +usually pictured as bearded dwarfs clad in brown close-fitting garments +with hoods. The word "gnome" as applied to these is of comparatively +modern and somewhat uncertain origin. By some it is said to have been +coined by Paracelsus (so Hatzfeld and Darmesteter, _Dictionnaire_), who +uses _Gnomi_ as a synonym of _Pygmaei_, from the Greek [Greek: gnome], +intelligence. The _New English Dictionary_, however, suggests a +derivation from _genomus_, i.e. a Greek type [Greek: genomos], +"earth-dweller," on the analogy of [Greek: thalassonomos], "dwelling in +the sea," adding, however, that though there is no evidence that the +term was not used before Paracelsus, it is possibly "a mere arbitrary +invention, like so many others found in Paracelsus" (_N.E.D._ s.v.). + + + + +GNOMON, the Greek word for the style of a sundial, or any object, +commonly a vertical column, the shadow of which was observed in former +times in order to learn the altitude of the sun, especially when on the +meridian. The art of constructing a sundial is sometimes termed +_gnomonics_. In geometry, a gnomon is a plane figure formed by removing +a parallelogram from a corner of a larger parallelogram; in the figure +ABCDEFA is a gnomon. Gnomonic projection is a projection of a sphere in +which the centre of sight is the centre of the sphere. + + A B + ------------------- + / / + / / + F /------- E / + / / / + / / / + ------------------- + D C + + + + +GNOSTICISM (Gr. [Greek: gnosis], knowledge), the name generally applied +to that spiritual movement existing side by side with genuine +Christianity, as it gradually crystallized into the old Catholic Church, +which may roughly be defined as a distinct religious syncretism bearing +the strong impress of Christian influences. + +I. The term "Gnosis" first appears in a technical sense in 1 Tim. vi. 20 +([Greek: he pseudonymos gnosis]). It seems to have at first been applied +exclusively, or at any rate principally, to a particular tendency within +the movement as a whole, i.e. to those sections of (the Syrian) Gnostics +otherwise generally known as Ophites or Naasseni (see Hippolytus, +_Philosophumena_, v. 2: [Greek: Naassenoi ... hoi heautous Gnostikous +apokalountes]; Irenaeus i. 11. 1; Epiphanius, _Haeres._ xxvi. Cf. also +the self-assumed name of the Carpocratiani, Iren. i. 25. 6). But in +Irenaeus the term has already come to designate the whole movement. This +first came into prominence in the opening decades of the 2nd century +A.D., but is certainly older; it reached its height in the second third +of the same century, and began to wane about the 3rd century, and from +the second half of the 3rd century onwards was replaced by the +closely-related and more powerful Manichaean movement. Offshoots of it, +however, continued on into the 4th and 5th centuries. Epiphanius still +had the opportunity of making personal acquaintance with Gnostic sects. + +II. Of the actual writings of the Gnostics, which were extraordinarily +numerous,[1] very little has survived; they were sacrificed to the +destructive zeal of their ecclesiastical opponents. Numerous fragments +and extracts from Gnostic writings are to be found in the works of the +Fathers who attacked Gnosticism. Most valuable of all are the long +extracts in the 5th and 6th books of the _Philosophumena_ of Hippolytus. +The most accessible and best critical edition of the fragments which +have been preserved word for word is to be found in Hilgenfeld's +_Ketzergeschichte des Urchristentums_. One of the most important of +these fragments is the letter of Ptolemaeus to Flora, preserved in +Epiphanius, _Haeres_. xxxiii. 3-7 (see on this point Harnack in the +_Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie_, 1902, pp. 507-545). Gnostic +fragments are certainly also preserved for us in the _Acts of Thomas_. +Here we should especially mention the beautiful and much-discussed _Song +of the Pearl_, or _Song of the Soul_, which is generally, though without +absolute clear proof, attributed to the Gnostic Bardesanes (till lately +it was known only in the Syrian text; edited and translated by Bevan, +_Texts and Studies_,[2] v. 3, 1897; Hofmann, _Zeitschrift fur +neutestamentliche Wissenschaft_, iv.; for the newly-found Greek text see +_Acta apostolorum_, ed. Bonnet, ii. 2, c. 108, p. 219). Generally also +much Gnostic matter is contained in the apocryphal histories of the +Apostles. To the school of Bardesanes belongs the "Book of the Laws of +the Lands," which does not, however, contribute much to our knowledge of +Gnosticism. Finally, we should mention in this connexion the text on +which are based the pseudo-Clementine _Homilies_ and _Recognitiones_ +(beginning of the 3rd century). It is, of course, already permeated with +the Catholic spirit, but has drawn so largely upon sources of a +Judaeo-Christian Gnostic character that it comes to a great extent +within the category of sources for Gnosticism. Complete original Gnostic +works have unfortunately survived to us only from the period of the +decadence of Gnosticism. Of these we should mention the comprehensive +work called the _Pistis-Sophia_, probably belonging to the second half +of the 3rd century.[3] Further, the Coptic-Gnostic texts of the _Codex +Brucianus_; both the books of Ieu, and an anonymous third work (edited +and translated by C. Schmidt, _Texte und Untersuchungen_, vol. viii., +1892; and a new translation by the same in _Koptische-gnostische +Schriften_, i.) which, contrary to the opinion of their editor and +translator, the present writer believes to represent, in their existing +form, a still later period and a still more advanced stage in the +decadence of Gnosticism. For other and older Coptic-Gnostic texts, in +one of which is contained the source of Irenaeus's treatises on the +Barbelognostics, but which have unfortunately not yet been made +completely accessible, see C. Schmidt in _Sitzungsberichte der Berl. +Akad._ (1896), p. 839 seq., and "Philotesia," dedicated to Paul Kleinert +(1907); p. 315 seq. + +On the whole, then, for an exposition of Gnosticism we are thrown back +upon the polemical writings of the Fathers in their controversy with +heresy. The most ancient of these is Justin, who according to his +_Apol._ i. 26 wrote a _Syntagma_ against all heresies (c. A.D. 150), and +also, probably, a special polemic against Marcion (fragment in Irenaeus +iv. 6. 2). Both these writings are lost. He was followed by Irenaeus, +who, especially in the first book of his treatise _Adversus haereses_ +([Greek: elegchou kai anatropes tes pseudonymou gnoseos biblia pente], +c. A.D. 180), gives a detailed account of the Gnostic heresies. He +founds his work upon that of his master Justin, but adds from his own +knowledge among many other things, notably the detailed account of +Valentinianism at the beginning of the book. On Irenaeus, and probably +also on Justin, Hippolytus drew for his _Syntagma_ (beginning of the 3rd +century), a work which is also lost, but can, with great certainty, be +reconstructed from three recensions of it: in the _Panarion_ of +Epiphanius (after 374), in Philaster of Brescia, _Adversus haereses_, +and the Pseudo-Tertullian, _Liber adversus omnes haereses_. A second +work of Hippolytus [Greek: Kata pason haipeseov elegchos] is preserved +in the so-called _Philosophumena_ which survives under the name of +Origen. Here Hippolytus gave a second exposition supplemented by fresh +Gnostic original sources with which he had become acquainted in the +meanwhile. These sources quoted in Hippolytus have lately met with very +unfavourable criticisms. The opinion has been advanced that Hippolytus +has here fallen a victim to the mystification of a forger. The truth of +the matter must be that Hippolytus probably made use of a collection of +Gnostic texts, put together by a Gnostic, in which were already +represented various secondary developments of the genuine Gnostic +schools. It is also possible that the compiler has himself attempted +here and there to harmonize to a certain extent the various Gnostic +doctrines, yet in no case is this collection of sources given by +Hippolytus to be passed over; it should rather be considered as +important evidence for the beginnings of the decay of Gnosticism. Very +noteworthy references to Gnosticism are also to be found scattered up +and down the _Stromateis_ of Clement of Alexandria. Especially important +are the _Excerpta ex Theodoto_, the author of which is certainly +Clement, which are verbally extracted from Gnostic writings, and have +almost the value of original sources. The writings of Origen also +contain a wealth of material. In the first place should be mentioned the +treatise _Contra Celsum_, in which the expositions of Gnosticism by both +Origen and Celsus are of interest (see especially v. 61 seq. and vi. 25 +seq.). Of Tertullian's works should be mentioned: _De praescriptione +haereticorum_, especially _Adversus Marcionem_, _Adversus Hermogenem_, +and finally _Adversus Valentinianos_ (entirely founded on Irenaeus). +Here must also be mentioned the dialogue of Adamantius with the +Gnostics, _De recta in deum fide_ (beginning of 4th century). Among the +followers of Hippolytus, Epiphanius in his _Panarion_ gives much +independent and valuable information from his own knowledge of +contemporary Gnosticism. But Theodoret of Cyrus (d. 455) is already +entirely dependent on previous works and has nothing new to add. With +the 4th century both Gnosticism and the polemical literature directed +against it die out.[4] + +III. If we wish to grasp the peculiar character of the great Gnostic +movement, we must take care not to be led astray by the catchword +"Gnosis." It is a mistake to regard the Gnostics as pre-eminently the +representatives of intellect among Christians, and Gnosticism as an +intellectual tendency chiefly concerned with philosophical speculation, +the reconciliation of religion with philosophy and theology. It is true +that when Gnosticism was at its height it numbered amongst its followers +both theologians and men of science, but that is not its main +characteristic. Among the majority of the followers of the movement +"Gnosis" was understood not as meaning "knowledge" or "understanding," +in our sense of the word, but "revelation." These little Gnostic sects +and groups all lived in the conviction that they possessed a secret and +mysterious knowledge, in no way accessible to those outside, which was +not to be proved or propagated, but believed in by the initiated, and +anxiously guarded as a secret. This knowledge of theirs was not based on +reflection, on scientific inquiry and proof, but on revelation. It was +derived directly from the times of primitive Christianity; from the +Saviour himself and his disciples and friends, with whom they claimed to +be connected by a secret tradition, or else from later prophets, of whom +many sects boasted. It was laid down in wonderful mystic writings, which +were in the possession of the various circles (Liechtenhahn, _Die +Offenbarung im Gnosticismus_, 1901). + +In short, Gnosticism, in all its various sections, its form and its +character, falls under the great category of mystic religions, which +were so characteristic of the religious life of decadent antiquity. In +Gnosticism as in the other mystic religions we find the same contrast of +the initiated and the uninitiated, the same loose organization, the same +kind of petty sectarianism and mystery-mongering. All alike boast a +mystic revelation and a deeply-veiled wisdom. As in many mystical +religions, so in Gnosticism, the ultimate object is individual +salvation, the assurance of a fortunate destiny for the soul after +death. As in the others, so in this the central object of worship is a +redeemer-deity who has already trodden the difficult way which the +faithful have to follow. And finally, as in all mystical religions, so +here too, holy rites and formulas, acts of initiation and consecration, +all those things which we call sacraments, play a very prominent part. +The Gnostic religion is full of such sacraments. In the accounts of the +Fathers we find less about them; yet here Irenaeus' account of the +Marcosians is of the highest significance (i. 21 seq.). Much more +material is to be found in the original Gnostic writings, especially in +the _Pistis-Sophia_ and the two books of Ieu, and again in the _Excerpta +ex Theodoto_, the _Acts of Thomas_, and here and there also in the +pseudo-Clementine writings. Above all we can see from the original +sources of the Mandaean religion, which also represents a branch of +Gnosticism, how great a part the sacraments played in the Gnostic sects +(Brandt, _Mandaische Religion_, p. 96 seq.). Everywhere we are met with +the most varied forms of holy rites--the various baptisms, by water, by +fire, by the spirit, the baptism for protection against demons, +anointing with oil, sealing and stigmatizing, piercing the ears, leading +into the bridal chamber, partaking of holy food and drink. Finally, +sacred formulas, names and symbols are of the highest importance among +the Gnostic sects. We constantly meet with the idea that the soul, on +leaving the body, finds its path to the highest heaven opposed by the +deities and demons of the lower realms of heaven, and only when it is in +possession of the names of these demons, and can repeat the proper holy +formula, or is prepared with the right symbol, or has been anointed with +the holy oil, finds its way unhindered to the heavenly home. Hence the +Gnostic must above all things learn the names of the demons, and equip +himself with the sacred formulas and symbols, in order to be certain of +a good destiny after death. The exposition of the system of the Ophites +given by Celsus (in Origen vi. 25 seq.), and, in connexion with Celsus, +by Origen, is particularly instructive on this point. The two "Coptic +Ieu" books unfold an immense system of names and symbols. This system +again was simplified, and as the supreme secret was taught in a single +name or a single formula, by means of which the happy possessor was able +to penetrate through all the spaces of heaven (cf. the name "Caulacau" +among the Basilidians; Irenaeus, _Adv. haer._ i. 24. 5, and among other +sects). It was taught that even the redeemer-god, when he once descended +on to this earth, to rise from it again, availed himself of these names +and formulas on his descent and ascent through the world of demons. +Traces of ideas of this kind are to be met with almost everywhere. They +have been most carefully collected by Anz (_Ursprung des Gnosticismus, +Texte und Untersuchungen_ xv. 4 _passim_) who would see in them the +central doctrine of Gnosticism. + +IV. All these investigations point clearly to the fact that Gnosticism +belongs to the group of mystical religions. We must now proceed to +define more exactly the peculiar and distinctive character of the +Gnostic system. The basis of the Gnostic religion and world-philosophy +lies in a decided Oriental dualism. In sharp contrast are opposed the +two worlds of the good and of the evil, the divine world and the +material world [Greek: hule], the worlds of light and of darkness. In +many systems there seems to be no attempt to derive the one world from +the other. The true Basilides (q.v.), perhaps also Satornil, Marcion and +a part of his disciples, Bardesanes and others, were frankly dualists. +In the case of other systems, owing to the inexactness of our +information, we are unable to decide; the later systems of Mandaeism and +Manichaeanism, so closely related to Gnosticism, are also based upon a +decided dualism. And even when there is an attempt at reconciliation, it +is still quite clear how strong was the original dualism which has to be +overcome. Thus the Gnostic systems make great use of the idea of a fall +of the Deity himself; by the fall of the Godhead into the world of +matter, this matter, previously insensible, is animated into life and +activity, and then arise the powers, both partly and wholly hostile, who +hold sway over this world. Such figures of fallen divinities, sinking +down into the world of matter are those of Sophia (i.e. Ahamoth) among +the Gnostics (Ophites) in the narrower sense of the word, the Simoniani +(the figure of Helena), the Barbelognostics, and in the system of the +_Pistis-Sophia_ or the Primal Man, among the Naasseni and the sect, +related to them, as described by Hippolytus.[5] A further weakening of +the dualism is indicated when, in the systems of the Valentinian school, +the fall of Sophia takes place within the godhead, and Sophia, inflamed +with love, plunges into the Bythos, the highest divinity, and when the +attempt is thus made genetically to derive the lower world from the +sufferings and passions of fallen divinity. Another attempt at +reconciliation is set forth in the so-called "system of emanations" in +which it is assumed that from the supreme divinity emanated a somewhat +lesser world, from this world a second, and so on, until the divine +element (of life) became so far weakened and attenuated, that the +genesis of a partly, or even wholly, evil world appears both possible +and comprehensible. A system of emanations of this kind, in its purest +form, is set forth in the expositions coming from the school of +Basilides, which are handed down by Irenaeus, while the propositions +which are set forth in the _Philosophumena_ of Hippolytus as being +doctrines of Basilides represent a still closer approach to a monistic +philosophy. Occasionally, too, there is an attempt to establish at any +rate a threefold division of the world, and to assume between the worlds +of light and darkness a middle world connecting the two; this is +clearest among the Sethiani mentioned by Hippolytus (and cf. the +Gnostics in Irenaeus i. 30. 1). Quite peculiar in this connexion are the +accounts in Books xix. and xx. of the Clementine _Homilies_. After a +preliminary examination of all possible different attempts at a solution +of the problem of evil, the attempt is here made to represent the devil +as an instrument of God. Christ and the devil are the two hands of God, +Christ the right hand, and the devil the left, the devil having power +over this world-epoch and Christ over the next. The devil here assumes +very much the characteristics of the punishing and just God of the Old +Testament, and the prospect is even held out of his ultimate pardon. All +these efforts at reconciliation show how clearly the problem of evil was +realized in these Gnostic and half-Gnostic sects, and how deeply they +meditated on the subject; it was not altogether without reason that in +the ranks of its opponents Gnosticism was judged to have arisen out of +the question, [Greek: pothen to kakon]. + +This dualism had not its origin in Hellenic soil, neither is it related +to that dualism which to a certain extent existed also in late Greek +religion. For the lower and imperfect world, which in that system too is +conceived and assumed, is the nebulous world of the non-existent and the +formless, which is the necessary accompaniment of that which exists, as +shadow is of light. + +In Gnosticism, on the contrary, the world of evil is full of active +energy and hostile powers. It is an Oriental (Iranian) dualism which +here finds expression, though in one point, it is true, the mark of +Greek influence is quite clear. When Gnosticism recognizes in this +corporeal and material world the true seat of evil, consistently +treating the bodily existence of mankind as essentially evil and the +separation of the spiritual from the corporeal being as the object of +salvation, this is an outcome of the contrast in Greek dualism between +spirit and matter, soul and body. For in Oriental (Persian) dualism it +is within this material world that the good and evil powers are at war, +and this world beneath the stars is by no means conceived as entirely +subject to the influence of evil. Gnosticism has combined the two, the +Greek opposition between spirit and matter, and the sharp Zoroastrian +dualism, which, where the Greek mind conceived of a higher and a lower +world, saw instead two hostile worlds, standing in contrast to each +other like light and darkness. And out of the combination of these two +dualisms arose the teaching of Gnosticism, with its thoroughgoing +pessimism and fundamental asceticism. + +Another characteristic feature of the Gnostic conception of the universe +is the role played in almost all Gnostic systems by the seven +world-creating powers. There are indeed certain exceptions; for +instance, in the systems of the Valentinian schools there is the figure +of the one Demiurge who takes the place of the Seven. But how widespread +was the idea of seven powers, who created this lower material world and +rule over it, has been clearly proved, especially by the systematic +examination of the subject by Anz (_Ursprung des Gnosticismus_). These +Seven, then, are in most systems half-evil, half-hostile powers; they +are frequently characterized as "angels," and are reckoned as the last +and lowest emanations of the Godhead; below them--and frequently +considered as derived from them--comes the world of the actually +devilish powers. On the other hand, among the speculations of the +Mandaeans, we find a different and perhaps more primitive conception of +the Seven, according to which they, together with their mother Namrus +(Ruha) and their father (Ur), belong entirely to the world of darkness. +They and their family are looked upon as captives of the god of light +(Manda-d'hayye, Hibil-Ziva), who pardons them, sets them on chariots of +light, and appoints them as rulers of the world (cf. chiefly Genza, in +_Tractat_. 6 and 8; W. Brandt, _Mandaische Schriften_, 125 seq. and 137 +seq.; _Mandaische Religion_, 34 seq., &c.). In the Manichaean system it +is related how the helper of the Primal Man, the spirit of life, +captured the evil _archontes_, and fastened them to the firmament, or +according to another account, flayed them, and formed the firmament from +their skin (F. C. Baur, _Das manichaische Religionssystem_, v. 65), and +this conception is closely related to the other, though in this +tradition the number (seven) of the _archontes_ is lost. Similarly, the +last book of the _Pistis-Sophia_ contains the myth of the capture of the +rebellious _archontes_, whose leaders here appear as five in number +(Schmidt, _Koptisch-gnostische Schriften_, p. 234 seq.).[6] There can +scarcely be any doubt as to the origin of these seven (five) powers; +they are the seven planetary divinities, the sun, moon and five planets. + +In the Mandaean speculations the Seven are introduced with the +Babylonian names of the planets. The connexion of the Seven with the +planets is also clearly established by the expositions of Celsus and +Origen (_Contra Celsum_, vi. 22 seq.) and similarly by the above-quoted +passage in the _Pistis-Sophia_, where the _archontes_, who are here +mentioned as five, are identified with the five planets (excluding the +sun and moon). This collective grouping of the seven (five) planetary +divinities is derived from the late Babylonian religion, which can +definitely be indicated as the home of these ideas (Zimmern, +_Keilinschriften in dem alten Testament_, ii. p. 620 seq.; cf. +particularly Diodorus ii. 30). And if in the old sources it is only the +first beginnings of this development that can be traced, we must assume +that at a later period the Babylonian religion centred in the adoration +of the seven planetary deities. Very instructive in this connexion is +the later (Arabian) account of the religion of the Mesopotamian +Sabaeans. The religion of the Sabaeans, evidently a later offshoot from +the stock of the old Babylonian religion, actually consists in the cult +of the seven planets (cf. the great work of Daniel Chwolsohn, _Die +Ssabier u. der Ssabismus_). But this reference to Babylonian religion +does not solve the problem which is here in question. For in the +Babylonian religion the planetary constellations are reckoned as the +supreme deities. And here the question arises, how it came about that in +the Gnostic systems the Seven appear as subordinate, half-daemonic +powers, or even completely as powers of darkness. This can only be +explained on the assumption that some religion hostile to, and stronger +than the Babylonian, has superimposed itself upon this, and has degraded +its principal deities into daemons. Which religion can this have been? +We are at first inclined to think of Christianity itself, but it is +certainly most improbable that at the time of the rise of Christianity +the Babylonian teaching about the seven planet-deities governing the +world should have played so great a part throughout all Syria, Asia +Minor and Egypt, that the most varying sections of syncretic +Christianity should over and over again adopt this doctrine and work it +up into their system. It is far more probable that the combination which +we meet with in Gnosticism is older than Christianity, and was found +already in existence by Christianity and its sects. We must also reject +the theory that this degradation of the planetary deities into daemons +is due to the influence of Hebrew monotheism, for almost all the Gnostic +sects take up a definitely hostile attitude towards the Jewish religion, +and almost always the highest divinity among the Seven is actually the +creator-God of the Old Testament. There remains, then, only one religion +which can be used as an explanation, namely the Persian, which in fact +fulfils all the necessary conditions. The Persian religion was at an +early period brought into contact with the Babylonian, through the +triumphant progress of Persian culture towards the West; at the time of +Alexander the Great it was already the prevailing religion in the +Babylonian plain (cf. F. Cumont, _Textes et monuments rel. aux mysteres +de Mithra_, i. 5, 8-10, 14, 223 seq., 233). It was characterized by a +main belief, tending towards monotheism, in the Light-deity Ahuramazda +and his satellites, who appeared in contrast with him as powers of the +nature of angels. + +A combination of the Babylonian with the Persian religion could only be +effected by the degradation of the Babylonian deities into half-divine, +half-daemonic beings, infinitely remote from the supreme God of light +and of heaven, or even into powers of darkness. Even the characteristic +dualism of Gnosticism has already proved to be in part of Iranian +origin; and now it becomes clear how from that mingling of late Greek +and Persian dualism the idea could arise that these seven half-daemonic +powers are the creators or rulers of this material world, which is +separated infinitely from the light-world of the good God. Definite +confirmation of this conjecture is afforded us by later sources of the +Iranian religion, in which we likewise meet with the characteristic +fundamental doctrine of Gnosticism. Thus the _Bundahish_ (iii. 25, v. 1) +is able to inform us that in the primeval strife of Satan against the +light-world, seven hostile powers were captured and set as +constellations in the heavens, where they are guarded by good +star-powers and prevented from doing harm. Five of the evil powers are +the planets, while here the sun and moon are of course not reckoned +among the evil powers--for the obvious reason that in the Persian +official religion they invariably appear as good divinities (cf. similar +ideas in the Arabic treatise on Persian religion _Ulema-i-Islam_, +Vullers, _Fragmente uber die Religion Zoroasters_, p. 49, and in other +later sources for Persian religion, put together in Spiegel, _Eranische +Altertumskunde_, Bd. ii. p. 180). These Persian fancies can hardly be +borrowed from the Christian Gnostic systems, their definiteness and much +more strongly dualistic character recalling the exposition of the +Mandaean (and Manichaean) system, are proofs to the contrary. They are +derived from the same period in which the underlying idea of the +Gnostic systems also originated, namely, the time at which the ideas of +the Persian and Babylonian religions came into contact, the remarkable +results of which have thus partly found their way into the official +documents of Parsiism. + +With this fundamental doctrine of Gnosticism is connected, as Anz has +shown in his book which we have so often quoted, a side of their +religious practices to which we have already alluded. Gnosticism is to a +great extent dominated by the idea that it is above all and in the +highest degree important for the Gnostic's soul to be enabled to find +its way back through the lower worlds and spheres of heaven ruled by the +Seven to the kingdom of light of the supreme deity of heaven. Hence, a +principal item in their religious practice consisted in communications +about the being, nature and names of the Seven (or of any other hostile +daemons barring the way to heaven), the formulas with which they must be +addressed, and the symbols which must be shown to them. But names, +symbols and formulas are not efficacious by themselves: the Gnostic must +lead a life having no part in the lower world ruled by these spirits, +and by his knowledge he must raise himself above them to the God of the +world of light. Throughout this mystic religious world it was above all +the influence of the late Greek religion, derived from Plato, that also +continued to operate; it is filled with the echo of the song, the first +note of which was sounded by the Platonists, about the heavenly home of +the soul and the homeward journey of the wise to the higher world of +light. + +But the form in which the whole is set forth is Oriental, and it must be +carefully noted that the Mithras mysteries, so closely connected with +the Persian religion, are acquainted with this doctrine of the ascent of +the soul through the planetary spheres (Origen, _Contra Celsum_, vi. +22). + +V. We cannot here undertake to set forth and explain in detail all the +complex varieties of the Gnostic systems; but it will be useful to take +a nearer view of certain principal figures which have had an influence +upon at least one series of Gnostic systems, and to examine their +origins in the history of religion. In almost all systems an important +part is played by the Great Mother ([Greek: meter]) who appears under +the most varied forms (cf. GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS). At an early +period, and notably in the older systems of the Ophites (a fairly exact +account of which has been preserved for us by Epiphanius and +Hippolytus), among the Gnostics in the narrower sense of the word, the +Archontici, the Sethites (there are also traces among the Naasseni, cf. +the _Philosophumena_ of Hippolytus), the [Greek: meter] is the most +prominent figure in the light-world, elevated above the [Greek: +hebdomas], and the great mother of the faithful. The sect of the +Barbelognostics takes its name from the female figure of the Barbelo +(perhaps a corruption of [Greek: Parthenos]; cf. the form [Greek: +Barthenos] for "virgin" in Epiphanius, _Haer._ xxvi. 1). But Gnostic +speculation gives various accounts of the descent or fall of this +goddess of heaven. Thus the "Helena" of the Simoniani descends to this +world in order by means of her beauty to provoke to sensual passion and +mutual strife the angels who rule the world, and thus again to deprive +them of the powers of light, stolen from heaven, by means of which they +rule over the world. She is then held captive by them in extreme +degradation. Similar ideas are to be found among the "Gnostics" of +Epiphanius. The kindred idea of the light-maiden, who, by exciting the +sensual passions of the rulers ([Greek: archontes]), takes from them +those powers of light which still remain to them, has also a central +place in the Manichaean scheme of salvation (F. C. Baur, _Das +manichaische Religionssystem_, pp. 219, 315, 321). The light-maiden also +plays a prominent part in the _Pistis-Sophia_ (cf. the index to the +translation by C. Schmidt). With this figure of the mother-goddess who +descends into the lower world seems to be closely connected the idea of +the fallen Sophia, which is so widespread among the Gnostic systems. +This Sophia then is certainly no longer the dominating figure of the +light-world, she is a lower aeon at the extreme limit of the world of +light, who sinks down into matter (Barbelognostics, the anonymous +Gnostic of Irenaeus, Bardesanes, _Pistis-Sophia_), or turns in +presumptuous love towards the supreme God ([Greek: Buthos]), and thus +brings the Fall into the world of the _aeons_ (Valentinians). This +Sophia then appears as the mother of the "seven" gods (see above). + +The origin of this figure is not far to seek. It is certainly not +derived from the Persian religious system, to the spirit of which it is +entirely opposed. Neither would it be correct to identify her entirely +with the great goddess Ishtar of the old Babylonian religion. But there +can hardly be any doubt that the figure of the great mother-goddess or +goddess of heaven, who was worshipped throughout Asia under various +forms and names (Astarte, Beltis, Atargatis, Cybele, the Syrian +Aphrodite), was the prototype of the [Greek: meter] of the Gnostics (cf. +GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS). The character of the great goddess of heaven +is still in many places fairly exactly preserved in the Gnostic +speculations. Hence we are able to understand how the Gnostic [Greek: +meter], the Sophia, appears as the mother of the Hebdomas ([Greek: +hebdomas]). The great goddess of heaven is the mother of the stars. +Particularly instructive in this connexion is the fact that in those +very sects, in the systems of which the figure of the [Greek: meter] +plays a special part, unbridled prostitution appears as a distinct and +essential part of the cult (cf. the accounts of particular branches of +the Gnostics, Nicolaitans, Philionites, Borborites, &c. in Epiphanius, +_Haer._ xxv., xxvi.). The meaning of this cult is, of course, +reinterpreted in the Gnostic sense: by this unbridled prostitution the +Gnostic sects desired to prevent the sexual propagation of mankind, the +origin of all evil. But the connexion is clear, and hence it also +explained the curious Gnostic myth mentioned above, namely that the +[Greek: meter] (the light-maiden) by appearing to the archontes ([Greek: +archontes]), the lower powers of this world, inflames them to sexual +lusts, in order to take from them that share of light which they have +stolen from the upper world. This is a Gnostic interpretation of the +various myths of the great mother-goddess's many loves and +love-adventures with other gods and heroes. And when the pagan legend of +the Syrian Astarte tells how she lived for ten years in Tyre as a +prostitute, this directly recalls the Gnostic myth of how Simon found +Helena in a brothel in Tyre (Epiphanius, _Ancoratus_, c. 104). From the +same group of myths must be derived the idea of the goddess who descends +to the under-world, and is there taken prisoner against her will by the +lower powers; the direct prototype of this myth is to be found, e.g. in +Ishtar's journey to hell. And finally, just as the mother-goddess of +south-western Asia stands in particularly intimate connexion with the +youthful god of spring (Tammuz, Adonis, Attis), so we ought perhaps to +compare here as a parallel the relation of Sophia with the Soter in +certain Gnostic systems (see below). + +Another characteristic figure of Gnosticism is that of the Primal Man +([Greek: protos anthropos]). In many systems, certainly, it has already +been forced quite into the background. But on closer examination we can +clearly see that it has a wide influence on Gnosticism. Thus in the +system of the Naasseni (see Hippolytus, _Philosophumena_), and in +certain related sects there enumerated, the Primal Man has a central and +predominant position. Again, in the text on which are based the +pseudo-Clementine writings (_Recognitions_, i. 16, 32, 45-47, 52, ii. +47; and _Homilies_, iii. 17 seq. xviii. 14), as in the closely related +system of the Ebionites in Epiphanius (_Haer._ xxx. 3-16; cf. liii. 1), +we meet with the man who existed before the world, the prophet who goes +through the world in various forms, and finally reveals himself in +Christ. Among the Barbelognostics (Irenaeus i. 29. 3), the Primal Man +(Adamas, _homo perfectus et verus_) and Gnosis appear as a pair of +aeons, occupying a prominent place in the whole series. In the +Valentinian systems the pair of aeons, Anthropos and Ekklesia, occupy +the third or fourth place within the _Oydoas_, but incidentally we learn +that with some representatives of this school the Anthropos took a still +more prominent place (first or second; Hilgenfeld, _Ketzergeschichte_, +p. 294 seq.). And even in the _Pistis-Sophia_ the Primal Man "Ieu" is +frequently alluded to as the King of the Luminaries (cf. index to C. +Schmidt's translation). We also meet with speculations of this kind +about man in the circles of non-Christian Gnosis. Thus in the +_Poimandres_ of Hermes man is the most prominent figure in the +speculation; numerous pagan and half-pagan parallels (the "Gnostics" of +Plotinus, Zosimus, Bitys) have been collected by Reitzenstein in his +work _Poimandres_ (pp. 81-116). Reitzenstein has shown (p. 81 seq.) that +very probably the system of the Naasseni described by Hippolytus was +originally derived from purely pagan circles, which are probably +connected in some way with the mysteries of the Attis cult. The figure +in the Mandaean system most closely corresponding to the Primal Man, +though this figure also actually occurs in another part of the system +(cf. the figure of Adakas Mana; Brandt, _Mandaische Religion_, p. 36 +seq.) is that of Manda d'hayye ([Greek: gnosis tes zoes]; cf. the pair +of aeons, Adamas and Gnosis, among the Barbelognostics, in Irenaeus i. +29. 3). Finally, in the Manichaean system, as is well known, the Primal +Man again assumes the predominant place (Baur, _Manich. +Religionssystem_, 49 seq.). + +This figure of the Primal Man can particularly be compared with that of +the Gnostic Sophia. Wherever this figure has not become quite obscure, +it represents that divine power which, whether simply owing to a fall, +or as the hero who makes war on, and is partly vanquished by darkness, +descends into the darkness of the material world, and with whose descent +begins the great drama of the world's development. From this power are +derived those portions of light existing and held prisoner in this lower +world. And as he has raised himself again out of the material world, or +has been set free by higher powers, so shall also the members of the +Primal Man, the portions of light still imprisoned in matter, be set +free. + +The question of the derivation of the myth of the Primal Man is still +one of the unsolved problems of religious history. It is worthy of +notice that according to the old Persian myth also, the development of +the world begins with the slaying of the primal man Gayomart by +Angra-Mainyu (Ahriman); further, that the Primal Man ("son of man" = +man) also plays a part in Jewish apocalyptic literature (Daniel, Enoch, +iv. Ezra), whence this figure passes into the Gospels; and again, that +the dogma of Christ's descent into hell is directly connected with this +myth. But these parallels do not carry us much further. Even the Persian +myth is entirely obscure, and has hitherto defied interpretation. It is +certainly true that in some way an essential part in the formation of +the myth has been played by the sun-god, who daily descends into +darkness, to rise from it again victoriously. But how to explain the +combination of the figure of the sun-god with that of the Primal Man is +an unsolved riddle. The meaning of this figure in the Gnostic +speculations is, however, clear. It answers the question: how did the +portions of light to be found in this lower world, among which certainly +belong the souls of the Gnostics, enter into it? + +A parallel myth to that of the Primal Man are the accounts to be found +in most of the Gnostic systems of the creation of the first man. In all +these accounts the idea is expressed that so far as his body is +concerned man is the work of the angels who created the world. So e.g. +Satornil relates (Irenaeus i. 24. 1) that a brilliant vision appeared +from above to the world-creating angels; they were unable to hold it +fast, but formed man after its image. And as the man thus formed was +unable to move, but could only crawl like a worm, the supreme Power put +into him a spark of life, and man came into existence. Imaginations of +the same sort are also to be found, e.g. in the genuine fragments of +Valentinus (Hilgenfeld, _Ketzergeschichte_, p. 293), the Gnostics of +Irenaeus i. 30. 6, the Mandaeans (Brandt, _Religion der Mandaer_, p. +36), and the Manichaeans (Baur, _Religionssystem_, p. 118 seq.). The +Naasseni (Hippolytus, _Philosophumena_, v. 7) expressly characterize the +myth as Chaldean (cf. the passage from Zosimus, in Reitzenstein's +_Poimandres_, p. 104). Clearly then the question which the myth of the +Primal Man is intended to answer in relation to the whole universe is +answered in relation to the nature of man by this account of the coming +into being of the first man, which may, moreover, have been influenced +by the account in the Old Testament. That question is: how does it +happen that in this inferior body of man, fallen a prey to corruption, +there dwells a higher spark of the divine Being, or in other words, how +are we to explain the double nature of man? + +VI. Of all the fundamental ideas of Gnosticism of which we have so far +treated, it can with some certainty be assumed that they were in +existence before the rise of Christianity and the influence of Christian +ideas on the development of Gnosticism. The main question with which we +have now to deal is that of whether the dominant figure of the Saviour +([Greek: Soter]) in Gnosticism is of specifically Christian derivation, +or whether this can also be explained apart from the assumption of +Christian influence. And here it must be premised that, intimately as +the conception of salvation is bound up with the Gnostic religion, the +idea of salvation accomplished in a definite historical moment to a +certain extent remained foreign to it. Indeed, nearly all the Christian +Gnostic systems clearly exhibit the great difficulty with which they had +to contend in order to reconcile the idea of an historical redeemer, +actually occurring in the form of a definite person, with their +conceptions of salvation. In Gnosticism salvation always lies at the +root of all existence and all history. The fundamental conception varies +greatly. At one time the Primal Man, who sank down into matter, has +freed himself and risen out of it again, and like him his members will +rise out of darkness into the light (_Poimandres_); at another time the +Primal Man who was conquered by the powers of darkness has been saved by +the powers of light, and thus too all his race will be saved +(Manichaeism); at another time the fallen Sophia is purified by her +passions and sorrows and has found her _Syzygos_, the Soter, and wedded +him, and thus all the souls of the Gnostics who still languish in matter +will become the brides of the angels of the _Soter_ (Valentinus). In +fact salvation, as conceived in Gnosticism, is always a myth, a history +of bygone events, an allegory or figure, but not an historical event. +And this decision is not affected by the fact that in certain Gnostic +sects figured historical personages such as Simon Magus and Menander. +The Gnostic ideas of salvation were in the later schools and sects +transferred to these persons whom we must consider as rather obscure +charlatans and miracle-mongers, just as in other cases they were +transferred to the person of Christ. The "Helena" of the Simonian system +was certainly not an historical but a mythical figure. This explains the +laborious and artificial way in which the person of Jesus is connected +in many Gnostic systems with the original Gnostic conception of +redemption. In this patchwork the joins are everywhere still clearly to +be recognized. Thus, e.g. in the Valentinian system, the myth of the +fallen Sophia and the Soter, of their ultimate union, their marriage and +their 70 sons (Irenaeus i. 4. 5; Hippolytus, _Philos._ vi. 34), has +absolutely nothing to do with the Christian conceptions of salvation. +The subject is here that of a high goddess of heaven (she has 70 sons) +whose friend and lover finds her in the misery of deepest degradation, +frees her, and bears her home as his bride. To this myth the idea of +salvation through the earthly Christ can only be attached with +difficulty. And it was openly maintained that the Soter only existed for +the Gnostic, the Saviour Jesus who appeared on earth only for the +"Psychicus" (Irenaeus i. 6. 1). + +VII. Thus the essential part of most of the conceptions of what we call +Gnosticism was already in existence and fully developed before the rise +of Christianity. But the fundamental ideas of Gnosticism and of early +Christianity had a kind of magnetic attraction for each other. What drew +these two forces together was the energy exerted by the universal idea +of salvation in both systems. Christian Gnosticism actually introduced +only one new figure into the already existing Gnostic theories, namely +that of the historical Saviour Jesus Christ. This figure afforded, as it +were, a new point of crystallization for the existing Gnostic ideas, +which now grouped themselves round this point in all their manifold +diversity. Thus there came into the fluctuating mass a strong movement +and formative impulse, and the individual systems and sects sprang up +like mushrooms from this soil. + +It must now be our task to make plain the position of Gnosticism within +the Christian religion, and its significance for the development of the +latter. Above all the Gnostics represented and developed the distinctly +anti-Jewish tendency in Christianity. Paul was the apostle whom they +reverenced, and his spiritual influence on them is quite unmistakable. +The Gnostic Marcion has been rightly characterized as a direct disciple +of Paul. Paul's battle against the law and the narrow national +conception of Christianity found a willing following in a movement, the +syncretic origin of which directed it towards a universal religion. St +Paul's ideas were here developed to their extremest consequences, and in +an entirely one-sided fashion such as was far from being in his +intention. In nearly all the Gnostic systems the doctrine of the seven +world-creating spirits is given an anti-Jewish tendency, the god of the +Jews and of the Old Testament appearing as the highest of the seven. The +demiurge of the Valentinians always clearly bears the features of the +Old Testament creator-God. + +The Old Testament was absolutely rejected by most of the Gnostics. Even +the so-called Judaeo-Christian Gnostics (Cerinthus), the Ebionite +(Essenian) sect of the Pseudo-Clementine writings (the Elkesaites), take +up an inconsistent attitude towards Jewish antiquity and the Old +Testament. In this respect the opposition to Gnosticism led to a +reactionary movement. If the growing Christian Church, in quite a +different fashion from Paul, laid stress on the literal authority of the +Old Testament, interpreted, it is true, allegorically; if it took up a +much more friendly and definite attitude towards the Old Testament, and +gave wider scope to the legal conception of religion, this must be in +part ascribed to the involuntary reaction upon it of Gnosticism. + +The attitude of Gnosticism to the Old Testament and to the creator-God +proclaimed in it had its deeper roots, as we have already seen, in the +dualism by which it was dominated. With this dualism and the recognition +of the worthlessness and absolutely vicious nature of the material world +is combined a decided spiritualism. The conception of a resurrection of +the body, of a further existence for the body after death, was +unattainable by almost all of the Gnostics, with the possible exception +of a few Gnostic sects dominated by Judaeo-Christian tendencies. With +the dualistic philosophy is further connected an attitude of absolute +indifference towards this lower and material world, and the practice of +asceticism. Marriage and sexual propagation are considered either as +absolute Evil or as altogether worthless, and carnal pleasure is +frequently looked upon as forbidden. Then again asceticism sometimes +changes into wild libertinism. Here again Gnosticism has exercised an +influence on the development of the Church by way of contrast and +opposition. If here a return was made to the old material view of the +resurrection (the apostolic [Greek: anastasis tes sarkos]), entirely +abandoning the more spiritual conception which had been arrived at as a +compromise by Paul, this is probably the result of a reaction from the +views of Gnosticism. It was just at this point, too, that Gnosticism +started a development which was followed later by the Catholic Church. +In spite of the rejection of the ascetic attitude of the Gnostics, as a +blasphemy against the Creator, a part of this ascetic principle became +at a later date dominant throughout all Christendom. And it is +interesting to observe how, e.g., St Augustine, though desperately +combating the dualism of the Manichaeans, yet afterwards introduced a +number of dualistic ideas into Christianity, which are distinguishable +from those of Manichaeism only by a very keen eye, and even then with +difficulty. + +The Gnostic religion also anticipated other tendencies. As we have seen, +it is above all things a religion of sacraments and mysteries. Through +its syncretic origin Gnosticism introduced for the first time into +Christianity a whole mass of sacramental, mystical ideas, which had +hitherto existed in it only in its earliest phases. But in the long run +even genuine Christianity has been unable to free itself from the magic +of the sacraments; and the Eastern Church especially has taken the same +direction as Gnosticism. Gnosticism was also the pioneer of the +Christian Church in the strong emphasis laid on the idea of salvation in +religion. And since the Gnostics were compelled to draw the figure of +the Saviour into a world of quite alien myths, their Christology became +so complicated in character that it frequently recalls the Christology +of the later dogmatic of the Greek Fathers. + +Finally, it was Gnosticism which gave the most decided impulse to the +consolidation of the Christian Church as a church. Gnosticism itself is +a free, naturally-growing religion, the religion of isolated minds, of +separate little circles and minute sects. The homogeneity of wide +circles, the sense of responsibility engendered by it, and continuity +with the past are almost entirely lacking in it. It is based upon +revelation, which even at the present time is imparted to the +individual, upon the more or less convincing force of the religious +imagination and speculations of a few leaders, upon the voluntary and +unstable grouping of the schools round the master. Its adherents feel +themselves to be the isolated, the few, the free and the enlightened, as +opposed to the sluggish and inert masses of mankind degraded into +matter, or the initiated as opposed to the uninitiated, the Gnostics as +opposed to the "Hylici" ([Greek: hulikoi]); at most in the later and +more moderate schools a middle place was given to the adherents of the +Church as Psychici ([Greek: psychikoi]). + +This freely-growing Gnostic religiosity aroused in the Church an +increasingly strong movement towards unity and a firm and inelastic +organization, towards authority and tradition. An organized hierarchy, a +definitive canon of the Holy Scriptures, a confession of faith and rule +of faith, and unbending doctrinal discipline, these were the means +employed. A part was also played in this movement by a free theology +which arose within the Church, itself a kind of Gnosticism which aimed +at holding fast whatever was good in the Gnostic movement, and obtaining +its recognition within the limits of the Church (Clement of Alexandria, +Origen). But the mightiest forces, to which in the end this theology too +had absolutely to give way, were outward organization and tradition. + +It must be considered as an unqualified advantage for the further +development of Christianity, as a universal religion, that at its very +outset it prevailed against the great movement of Gnosticism. In spite +of the fact that in a few of its later representatives Gnosticism +assumed a more refined and spiritual aspect, and even produced blossoms +of a true and beautiful piety, it is fundamentally and essentially an +unstable religious syncretism, a religion in which the determining +forces were a fantastic oriental imagination and a sacramentalism which +degenerated into the wildest superstitions, a weak dualism fluctuating +unsteadily between asceticism and libertinism. Indirectly, however, +Gnosticism was certainly one of the most powerful factors in the +development of Christianity in the 1st century. + +VIII. This sketch may be completed by a short review of the various +separate sects and their probable connexion with each other. As a point +of departure for the history of the development of Gnosticism may be +taken the numerous little sects which were apparently first included +under the name of "Gnostics" in the narrower sense. Among these probably +belong the Ophites of Celsus (in Origen), the many little sects included +by Epiphanius under the name of Nicolaitans and Gnostics (_Haer._ 25, +26); the Archontici (Epiphanius, _Haer._ xl.), Sethites (Cainites) +should also here be mentioned, and finally the Carpocratians. Common to +all these is the dominant position assumed by the "Seven" (headed by +Ialdabaoth); the heavenly world lying above the spheres of the Seven is +occupied by comparatively few figures, among which the most important +part is played by the [Greek: meter], who is sometimes enthroned as the +supreme goddess in heaven, but in a few systems has already descended +from there into matter, been taken prisoner, &c. Numerous little groups +are distinguished from the mass, sometimes by one peculiarity, sometimes +by another. On the one hand we have sects with a strongly ascetic +tendency, on the other we find some characterized by unbridled +libertinism; in some the most abandoned prostitution has come to be the +most sacred mystery; in others again appears the worship of serpents, +which here appears to be connected in various and often very loose ways +with the other ideas of these Gnostics--hence the names of the +"Ophites," "Naasseni." To this class also fundamentally belong the +Simoniani, who have included the probably historical figure of Simon +Magus in a system which seems to be closely connected with those we have +mentioned, especially if we look upon the "Helena" of this system as a +mythical figure. A particular branch of the "Gnostic" sects is +represented by those systems in which the figure of Sophia sinking down +into matter already appears. To these belong the Barbelognostics (in the +description given by Irenaeus the figure of the Spirit takes the place +of that of Sophia), and the Gnostics whom Irenaeus (i. 30) describes +(cf. Epiphanius, _Haer._ xxvi.). And here may best be included +Bardesanes, a famous leader of a Gnostic school of the end of the 2nd +century. Most scholars, it is true, following an old tradition, reckon +Bardesanes among the Valentinians. But from the little we know of +Bardesanes, his system bears no trace of relationship with the +complicated Valentinian system, but is rather completely derived from +the ordinary Gnosticism, and is distinguished from it apparently only by +its more strongly dualistic character. The systems of Valentinus and his +disciples must be considered as a further development of what we have +just characterized as the popular Gnosticism, and especially of that +branch of it to which the figure of Sophia is already known. In them +above all the world of the higher aeons is further extended and filled +with a throng of varied figures. They also exhibit a variation from the +characteristic dualism of Gnosticism into monism, in their conception of +the fall of Sophia and their derivation of matter from the passions of +the fallen Sophia. The figures of the Seven have here entirely +disappeared, the remembrance of them being merely preserved in the name +of the [Greek: Demiourgos (hebdomas)]. In general, Valentinianism +displays a particular resemblance to the dominant ideas of the Church, +both in its complicated Christology, its triple division of mankind into +[Greek: pneumatikoi, psychikoi] and [Greek: hulikoi], and its +far-fetched interpretation of texts.[7] A quite different position from +those mentioned above is taken by Basilides (q.v.). From what little we +know of him he was an uncompromising dualist. Both the systems which are +handed down under his name by Irenaeus and Hippolytus, that of +emanations and the monistic-evolutionary system, represent further +developments of his ideas with a tendency away from dualism towards +monism. Characteristically, in these Basilidian systems the figure of +the "Mother" or of Sophia does not appear. This peculiarity the +Basilidian system shares with that of Satornil of Antioch, which has +only come down to us in a very fragmentary state, and in other respects +recalls in many ways the popular Gnosticism. By itself, on the other +hand, stands the system preserved for us by Hippolytus in the +_Philosophumena_ under the name of the Naasseni, with its central figure +of "the Man," which, as we have seen, is very closely related with +certain specifically pagan Gnostic speculations which have come down to +us (in the _Poimandres_, in Zosimus and Plotinus, _Ennead_ ii. 9). With +the Naasseni, moreover, are related also the other sects of which +Hippolytus alone gives us a notice in his _Philosophumena_ (Docetae, +Perates, Sethiani, the adherents of Justin, the Gnostic of Monoimos). +Finally, apart from all other Gnostics stands Marcion. With him, as far +as we are able to conclude from the scanty notices of him, the manifold +Gnostic speculations are reduced essentially to the one problem of the +good and the just God, the God of the Christians and the God of the Old +Testament. Between these two powers Marcion affirms a sharp and, as it +appears, originally irreconcilable dualism which with him rests moreover +on a speculative basis. Thanks to the noble simplicity and specifically +religious character of his ideas, Marcion was able to found not only +schools, but a community, a church of his own, which gave trouble to the +Church longer than any other Gnostic sect. Among his disciples the +speculative and fantastic element of Gnosticism again became more +apparent. As we have already intimated, Gnosticism had such a power of +attraction that it now drew within its limits even Judaeo-Christian +sects. Among these we must mention the Judaeo-Christian Gnostic +Cerinthus, also the Gnostic Ebionites, of whom Epiphanius (_Haer._) +gives us an account, and whose writings are to be found in a recension +in the collected works of the Pseudo-Clementine _Recognitions and +Homilies_; to the same class belong the Elkesaites with their mystical +scripture, the _Elxai_, extracts of which are given by Hippolytus in the +_Philos._ (ix. 13). Later evidence of the decadence of Gnosticism occurs +in the _Pistis-Sophia_ and the Coptic Gnostic writings discovered and +edited by Schmidt. In these confused records of human imagination gone +mad, we possess a veritable herbarium of all possible Gnostic ideas, +which were once active and now rest peacefully side by side. None the +less, the stream of the Gnostic religion is not yet dried up, but +continues on its way; and it is beyond a doubt that the later +Mandaeanism and the great religious movement of Mani are most closely +connected with Gnosticism. These manifestations are all the more +characteristic since in them we meet with a Gnosticism which remained +essentially more untouched by Christian influences than the Gnostic +systems of the 2nd century A.D. Thus these systems throw an important +light on the past, and a true perception of the nature and purpose of +Gnosticism is not to be obtained without taking them into consideration. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A. Neander, _Genetische Entwicklung d. vornehmsten + gnostischen Systeme_ (Berlin, 1818); F. Chr. Baur, _Die christl. + Gnosis in ihrer geschichtl. Entwicklung_ (Tubingen, 1835); E. W. + Moller, _Gesch. der Kosmologie in der griechischen Kirche bis + Origenes_ (Halle, 1860); R. A. Lipsius, _Der Gnosticismus_ (Leipzig, + 1860; originally in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyclopadie_); H. L. Mansel, + _The Gnostic Heresies of the 1st and 2nd Centuries_ (London, 1875); K. + Kepler, _Uber Gnosis und altbabylonische Religion_, a lecture + delivered at the Congress of Orientalists (Berlin, 1881); A. + Hilgenfeld, _Ketzergeschichte des Urchristentums_ (Leipzig, 1884); and + in _Ztschr. fur wissenschaftl. Theol._ 1890, i. "Der Gnosticismus"; A. + Harnack, _Dogmengeschichte_, i. 271 seq. (cf. the corresponding + sections of the _Dogmengeschichten_ of Loofs and Seeberg); W. Anz, + "Zur Frage nach dem Ursprung des Gnosticismus," _Texte u. + Untersuchungen_, xv. 4 (Leipzig, 1897); R. Liechtenhahn, _Die + Offenbarung im Gnosticismus_ (Gottingen, 1901); C. Schmidt, "Plotins + Stellung zum Gnosticismus u. kirchl. Christentum" _Texte u. + Untersuch._ xx. 4 (1902); E. de Faye, _Introduction a l'etude du + Gnosticisme_ (Paris, 1903); R. Reitzenstein, _Poimandres_ (Leipzig, + 1904); G. Kruger, article "Gnosticismus" in Herzog-Hauck's + _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed.) vi. 728 ff.; Bousset, "Hauptprobleme der + Gnosis," _Forschungen z. Relig. u. Lit. d. alten u. neuen Testaments_, + 10 (1907); T. Wendland, _Hellenistisch-romische Kultur in ihren + Beziehungen zu Judentum und Christentum_ (1907), p. 161 seq. See + further among important monographs on the individual Gnostic systems, + R. A. Lipsius, "Die ophitischen Systeme," _Ztschr. f. wissensch. + Theologie_ (1863); G. Heinrici, _Die valentinianische Gnosis u. d. + Heilige Schrift_ (Berlin, 1871); A. Merx, _Bardesanes von Edessa_ + (Halle, 1863); A. Hilgenfeld, _Bardesanes, der letzte Gnostiker_ + (Leipzig, 1864); A. Harnack, "Uber das gnostische Buch Pistis-Sophia," + _Texte u. Untersuch._ vii. 2; C. Schmidt, "Gnostische Schriften," + _Texte u. Untersuch._ viii. 1, 2; and also the works mentioned under S + II. of this article. (W. Bo.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See the list of their titles in A. Harnack, _Geschichte der + altchristlichen Literatur_, Teil I. v. 171; ib. Teil II. _Chronologie + der altchristl. Literatur_, i. 533 seq.; also Liechtenhahn, _Die + Offenbarung im Gnosticismus_ (1901). + + [2] For the text see A. Merx, _Bardesanes von Edessa_ (1863), and A. + Hilgenfeld, _Bardesanes der letzte Gnostiker_ (1864). + + [3] Ed. Petermann-Schwartze; newly translated by C. Schmidt, + _Koptisch-gnostische Schriften_, i. (1905), in the series _Die + griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei + Jahrhunderte_; see also A. Harnack, _Texte und Untersuchungen_, Bd. + vii. Heft 2 (1891), and _Chronologie der altchristlichen Literatur_, + ii. 193-195. + + [4] See R. A. Lipsius, _Die Quellen der altesten Ketzergeschichte_ + (1875); A. Harnack, _Zur Quellenkritik der Geschichte des + Gnosticismus_ (1873); A. Hilgenfeld, _Ketzergeschichte_, pp. 1-83; + Harnack, _Geschichte der altchristlich. Literatur_, i. 171 seq., ii. + 533 seq., 712 seq.; J. Kunze, _De historiae Gnostic. fontibus_ + (1894). On the _Philosophumena_ of Hippolytus see G. Salmon, the + cross-references in the Philosophumena, _Hermathena_, vol. xi. (1885) + p. 5389 seq.; H. Staehelin, _Die gnostischen Quellen Hippolyts_, + _Texte und Unters._ Bd. vi. Hft. 3 (1890). + + [5] Cf. the same idea of the fall of mankind in the pagan Gnosticism + of "Poimandres"; see Reitzenstein, _Poimandres_ (1904); and the + position of the Primal Man (_Urmensch_) among the Manichaeans is + similar. + + [6] These ideas may possibly be traced still further back, and + perhaps even underlie St Paul's exposition in Col. ii. 15. + + [7] For the disciples of Valentinus, especially Marcus, after whom + was named a separate sect, the Marcosians, with their Pythagorean + theories of numbers and their strong tincture of the mystical, magic, + and sacramental, see VALENTINUS AND VALENTINIANS. + + + + +GNU, the Hottentot name for the large white-tailed South African +antelope (q.v.), now nearly extinct, know to the Boers as the black +wildebeest, and to naturalists as Connochaetes (or Catoblepas) gnu. A +second and larger species is the brindled gnu or blue wildebeest (_C. +taurinus_ or _Catoblepas gorgon_), also known by the Bechuana name +_kokon_ or _kokoon_; and there are several East African forms more or +less closely related to the latter which have received distinct names. + +[Illustration: White-tailed Gnu, or Black Wildebeest (_Connochaetes +gnu_).] + + + + +GO, or GO-BANG (Jap. _Go-ban_, board for playing _Go_), a popular table +game. It is of great antiquity, having been invented in Japan, according +to tradition, by the emperor Yao, 2350 B.C., but it is probably of +Chinese origin. According to Falkener the first historical mention of it +was made about the year 300 B.C., but there is abundant evidence that it +was a popular game long before that period. The original Japanese Go is +played on a board divided into squares by 19 horizontal and 19 vertical +lines, making 361 intersections, upon which the flat round men, 181 +white and 181 black, are placed one by one as the game proceeds. The men +are placed by the two players on any intersections (_me_) that may seem +advantageous, the object being to surround with one's men as many +unoccupied intersections as possible, the player enclosing the greater +number of vacant points being the winner. Completely surrounded men are +captured and removed from the board. This game is played in England upon +a board divided into 361 squares, the men being placed upon these +instead of upon the intersections. + +A much simpler variety of Go, mostly played by foreigners, has for its +object to get five men into line. This may have been the earliest form +of the game, as the word _go_ means five. Except in Japan it is often +played on an ordinary draughts-board, and the winner is he who first +gets five men into line, either vertically, horizontally or diagonally. + + See _Go-Bang_, by A. Howard Cady, in Spalding's Home Library (New + York, 1896); _Games Ancient and Oriental_, by Edward Falkener (London, + 1892); _Das japan.-chinesische Spiel Go_, by O. Korschelt (Yokohama, + 1881); _Das Nationalspiel der Japanesen_, by G. Schurig (Leipzig, + 1888). + + + + +GOA, the name of the past and present capitals of Portuguese India, and +of the surrounding territory more exactly described as Goa settlement, +which is situated on the western coast of India, between 15 deg. 44' and +14 deg. 53' N., and between 73 deg. 45' and 74 deg. 26' E. Pop. (1900) +475,513, area 1301 sq. m. + +_Goa Settlement._--With Damaun (q.v.) and Diu (q.v.) Goa settlement +forms a single administrative province ruled by a governor-general, and +a single ecclesiastical province subject to the archbishop of Goa; for +judicial purposes the province includes Macao in China, and Timor in the +Malay Archipelago. It is bounded on the N. by the river Terakhul or +Araundem, which divides it from the Sawantwari state, E. by the Western +Ghats, S. by Kanara district, and W. by the Arabian Sea. It comprises +the three districts of Ilhas, Bardez and Salsette, conquered early in +the 16th century and therefore known as the Velhas Conquistas (Old +Conquests), seven districts acquired later and known as the Novas +Conquistas, and the island of Anjidiv or Anjadiva. The settlement, which +has a coast-line of 62 m., is a hilly region, especially the Novas +Conquistas; its distinguishing features are the Western Ghats, though +the highest summits nowhere reach an altitude of 4000 ft., and the +island of Goa. Numerous short but navigable rivers water the lowlands +skirting the coast. The two largest rivers are the Mandavi and the +Juari, which together encircle the island of Goa (Ilhas), being +connected on the landward side by a creek. The island (native name +Tisvadi, Tissuvaddy, Tissuary) is a triangular territory, the apex of +which, called the _cabo_ or cape, is a rocky headland separating the +harbour of Goa into two anchorages--Agoada or Aguada at the mouth of the +Mandavi, on the north, and Mormugao or Marmagao at the mouth of the +Juari, on the south. The northern haven is exposed to the full force of +the south-west monsoon, and is liable to silt up during the rains. The +southern, sheltered by the promontory of Salsette, is always open, but +is less used, owing to its greater distance from the city of Goa, which +is built on the island. A railway connects Mormagao, south of the Juari +estuary, with Castle Rock on the Western Ghats. Goa imports textiles +and foodstuffs, and exports coco-nuts, areca-nuts, spices, fish, poultry +and timber. Its trade is carried on almost entirely with Bombay, Madras, +Kathiawar and Portugal. Manganese is mined in large quantities, some +iron is obtained, and other products are salt, palm-spirit, betel and +bananas. + +_Cities of Goa._--1. The ancient Hindu city of Goa, of which hardly a +fragment survives, was built at the southernmost point of the island, +and was famous in early Hindu legend and history for its learning, +wealth and beauty. In the Puranas and certain inscriptions its name +appears as Gove, Govapuri, Gomant, &c.; the medieval Arabian geographers +knew it as Sindabur or Sandabur, and the Portuguese as Goa Velha. It was +ruled by the Kadamba dynasty from the 2nd century A.D. to 1312, and by +Mahommedan invaders of the Deccan from 1312 until about 1370, during +which period it was visited and described by Ibn Batuta. It was then +annexed to the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, of which, according to +Ferishta, it still formed part in 1469, when it was conquered by the +Bahmani sultan of the Deccan; but two of the best Portuguese chroniclers +state that it became independent in 1440, when the second city (Old Goa) +was founded. + +2. Old Goa is, for the most part, a city of ruins without inhabitants +other than ecclesiastics and their dependents. The chief surviving +buildings are the cathedral, founded by Albuquerque in 1511 to +commemorate his entry into Goa on St Catherine's day 1510, and rebuilt +in 1623, and still used for public worship; the convent of St Francis +(1517), a converted mosque rebuilt in 1661, with a portal of carved +black stone, which is the only relic of Portuguese architecture in India +dating from the first quarter of the 16th century; the chapel of St +Catherine (1551); the church of Bom Jesus (1594-1603), a superb example +of Renaissance architecture as developed by the Jesuits, containing the +magnificent shrine and tomb of St Francis Xavier (see XAVIER, FRANCISCO +DE); and the 17th-century convents of St Monica and St Cajetan. The +college of St Paul (see below) is in ruins. + +3. Panjim, Pangim or New Goa, originally a suburb of Old Goa, is, like +the parent city, built on the left bank of the Mandavi estuary, in 15 +deg. 30' N. and 73 deg. 33' E. Pop. (1901) 9500. It is a modern port +with few pretensions to architectural beauty. Ships of the largest size +can anchor in the river, but only small vessels can load or discharge at +the quay. Panjim became the residence of the viceroy in 1759 and the +capital of Portuguese India in 1843. It possesses a lyceum, a school for +teachers, a seminary, a technical school and an experimental +agricultural station. + +_Political History._--With the subdivision of the Bahmani kingdom, after +1482, Goa passed into the power of Yusuf Adil Shah, king of Bijapur, who +was its ruler when the Portuguese first reached India. At this time Goa +was important as the starting-point of pilgrims from India to Mecca, as +a mart with no rival except Calicut on the west coast, and especially as +the centre of the import trade in horses (Gulf Arabs) from Hormuz, the +control of which was a vital matter to the kingdoms warring in the +Deccan. It was easily defensible by any power with command of the sea, +as the encircling rivers could only be forded at one spot, and had been +deliberately stocked with crocodiles. It was attacked on the 10th of +February 1510 by the Portuguese under Albuquerque. As a Hindu ascetic +had foretold its downfall and the garrison of Ottoman mercenaries was +outnumbered, the city surrendered without a struggle, and Albuquerque +entered it in triumph, while the Hindu townsfolk strewed filagree +flowers of gold and silver before his feet. Three months later Yusuf +Adil Shah returned with 60,000 troops, forced the passage of the ford, +and blockaded the Portuguese in their ships from May to August, when the +cessation of the monsoon enabled them to put to sea. In November +Albuquerque returned with a larger force, and after overcoming a +desperate resistance, recaptured the city, permitted his soldiers to +plunder it for three days, and massacred the entire Mahommedan +population. + +Goa was the first territorial possession of the Portuguese in Asia. +Albuquerque intended it to be a colony and a naval base, as distinct +from the fortified factories which had been established in certain +Indian seaports. He encouraged his men to marry native women, and to +settle in Goa as farmers, retail traders or artisans. These married men +soon became a privileged caste, and Goa acquired a large Eurasian +population. Albuquerque and his successors left almost untouched the +customs and constitutions of the 30 village communities on the island, +only abolishing the rite of suttee. A register of these customs (_Foral +de usos e costumes_) was published in 1526, and is an historical +document of much value; an abstract of it is given in R. S. Whiteway's +_Rise of the Portuguese Empire in India_ (London, 1898). + +Goa became the capital of the whole Portuguese empire in the East. It +was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon. Its senate or municipal +chamber maintained direct communications with the king and paid a +special representative to attend to its interests at court. In 1563 the +governor even proposed to make Goa the seat of a parliament, in which +all parts of the Portuguese east were to be represented; this was vetoed +by the king. + +In 1542 St Francis Xavier mentions the architectural splendour of the +city; but it reached the climax of its prosperity between 1575 and 1625. +_Goa Dourada_, or Golden Goa, was then the wonder of all travellers, and +there was a Portuguese proverb, "He who has seen Goa need not see +Lisbon." Merchandise from all parts of the East was displayed in its +bazaar, and separate streets were set aside for the sale of different +classes of goods--Bahrein pearls and coral, Chinese porcelain and silk, +Portuguese velvet and piece-goods, drugs and spices from the Malay +Archipelago. In the main street slaves were sold by auction. The houses +of the rich were surrounded by gardens and palm groves; they were built +of stone and painted red or white. Instead of glass, their balconied +windows had thin polished oyster-shells set in lattice-work. + +The social life of Goa was brilliant, as befitted the headquarters of +the viceregal court, the army and navy, and the church; but the luxury +and ostentation of all classes had become a byword before the end of the +16th century. Almost all manual labour was done by slaves; common +soldiers assumed high-sounding titles, and it was even customary for the +poor noblemen who congregated together in boarding-houses to subscribe +for a few silken cloaks, a silken umbrella and a common man-servant, so +that each could take his turn to promenade the streets, fashionably +attired and with a proper escort. There were huge gambling saloons, +licensed by the municipality, where determined players lodged for weeks +together; and every form of vice, except drunkenness, was practised by +both sexes, although European women were forced to lead a kind of zenana +life, and never ventured unveiled into the streets; they even attended +at church in their palanquins, so as to avoid observation. + +The appearance of the Dutch in Indian waters was followed by the gradual +ruin of Goa. In 1603 and 1639 the city was blockaded by Dutch fleets, +though never captured, and in 1635 it was ravaged by an epidemic. Its +trade was gradually monopolized by the Jesuits. Thevenot in 1666, +Baldaeus in 1672, Fryer in 1675 describe its ever-increasing poverty and +decay. In 1683 only the timely appearance of a Mogul army saved it from +capture by a horde of Mahratta raiders, and in 1739 the whole territory +was attacked by the same enemies, and only saved by the unexpected +arrival of a new viceroy with a fleet. This peril was always imminent +until 1759, when a peace with the Mahrattas was concluded. In the same +year the proposal to remove the seat of government to Panjim was carried +out; it had been discussed as early as 1684. Between 1695 and 1775 the +population dwindled from 20,000 to 1600, and in 1835 Goa was only +inhabited by a few priests, monks and nuns. + +_Ecclesiastical History._--Some Dominican friars came out to Goa in +1510, but no large missionary enterprise was undertaken before the +arrival of the Franciscans in 1517. From their headquarters in Goa the +Franciscan preachers visited many parts of western India, and even +journeyed to Ceylon, Pegu and the Malay Archipelago. For nearly +twenty-five years they carried on the work of evangelization almost +alone, with such success that in 1534 Pope Paul III. made Goa a +bishopric, with spiritual jurisdiction over all Portuguese possessions +between China and the Cape of Good Hope, though itself suffragan to the +archbishopric of Funchal in Madeira. A Franciscan friar, Joao de +Albuquerque, came to Goa as its first bishop in 1538. In 1542 St Francis +Xavier came to Goa, and took over the Franciscan college of Santa Fe, +for the training of native missionaries; this was renamed the College of +St Paul, and became the headquarters of all Jesuit missions in the East, +where the Jesuits were commonly styled _Paulistas_. By a Bull dated the +4th of February 1557 Goa was made an archbishopric, with jurisdiction +over the sees of Malacca and Cochin, to which were added Macao (1575), +Japan (1588), Angamale or Cranganore (1600), Meliapur (Mylapur) (1606), +Peking and Nanking (1610), together with the bishopric of Mozambique, +which included the entire coast of East Africa. In 1606 the archbishop +received the title of Primate of the East, and the king of Portugal was +named Patron of the Catholic Missions in the East; his right of +patronage was limited by the Concordat of 1857 to Goa, Malacca, Macao +and certain parts of British India. The Inquisition was introduced into +Goa in 1560: a vivid account of its proceedings is given by C. Dellon, +_Relation de l'inquisition de Goa_ (1688). Five ecclesiastical councils, +which dealt with matters of discipline, were held at Goa--in 1567, 1575, +1585, 1592 and 1606; the archbishop of Goa also presided over the more +important synod of Diamper (Udayamperur, about 12 m. S.E. of Cochin), +which in 1599 condemned as heretical the tenets and liturgy of the +Indian Nestorians, or Christians of St Thomas (q.v.). In 1675 Fryer +described Goa as "a Rome in India, both for absoluteness and fabrics," +and Hamilton states that early in the 18th century the number of +ecclesiastics in the settlement had reached the extraordinary total of +30,000. But the Jesuits were expelled in 1759, and by 1800 Goa had lost +much even of its ecclesiastical importance. The Inquisition was +abolished in 1814 and the religious orders were secularized in 1835. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. N. da Fonseca, _An Historical and Archaeological + Sketch of Goa_ (Bombay, 1878) is a minute study of the city from the + earliest times, illustrated. For the early history of Portuguese rule + the chief authorities are _The Commentaries ... of Dalboquerque_ + (Hakluyt Society's translation, London, 1877), the _Cartas_ of + Albuquerque (Lisbon, 1884), the _Historia ... da India_ of F. L. de + Castanheda (Lisbon, 1833, written before 1552), the _Lendas da India + of G. Correa_ (Lisbon, 1860, written 1514-1566), and the _Decadas da + India_ of Joao de Barros and D. do Couto (Lisbon, 1778-1788, written + about 1530-1616). Couto's _Soldado pratico_ (Lisbon, 1790) and S. + Botelho's _Cartas and Tombo_, written 1547-1554, published in + "Subsidios" of the Lisbon Academy (1868), are valuable studies of + military life and administration. The _Archivo Portuguez oriental_ (6 + parts, New Goa, 1857-1877) is a most useful collection of documents + dating from 1515; part 2 contains the privileges, &c. of the city of + Goa, and part 4 contains the minutes of the ecclesiastical councils + and of the synod of Diamper. The social life of Goa has been + graphically described by many writers; see especially the travels of + Varthema (c. 1505), Linschoten (c. 1580), Pyrard (1608) in the Hakluyt + Society's translations; J. Mocquet, _Voyages_ (Paris, 1830, written + 1608-1610); P. Baldaeus, in _Churchill's Voyages_, vol. 3 (London, + 1732); J. Fryer, _A New Account of East India and Persia_ (London, + 1698); A. de Mandelslo, _Voyages_ (London, 1669); _Les Voyages de M. + de Thevenot aux Indes Orientales_ (Amsterdam, 1779), and A. Hamilton, + _A New Account of the East Indies_ (London, 1774). For Goa in the 20th + century see _The Imperial Gazetteer of India_. (K. G. J.) + + + + +GOAL, originally an object set up as the place where a race ends, the +winning-post, and so used figuratively of the end to which any effort is +directed. It is thus used to translate the Lat. _meta_, the boundary +pillar, set one at each end of the circus to mark the turning-point. The +word was quite early used in various games for the two posts, with or +without a cross-bar, through or over which the ball has to be driven to +score a point towards winning the game. The _New English Dictionary_ +quotes the use in Richard Stanyhurst's _Description of Ireland_ (1577); +but the word _gol_ in the sense of a boundary appears as early as the +beginning of the 14th century in the religious poems of William de +Shoreham (c. 1315). The origin of the word is obscure. It is usually +taken to be derived from a French word _gaule_, meaning a pole or stick, +but this meaning does not appear in the English usage, nor does the +usual English meaning appear in the French. There is an O. Eng. +_gaelan_, to hinder, which may point to a lost _gal_, barrier, but there +is no evidence in other Teutonic languages for such a word. + + + + +GOALPARA, a town and district of British India, in the Brahmaputra +valley division of eastern Bengal and Assam. The town (pop. 6287) +overlooks the Brahmaputra. It was the frontier outpost of the Mahommedan +power, and has long been a flourishing seat of river trade. The civil +station is built on the summit of a small hill commanding a magnificent +view of the valley of the Brahmaputra, bounded on the north by the snowy +ranges of the Himalayas and on the south by the Garo hills. The native +town is built on the western slope of the hill, and the lower portion is +subject to inundation from the marshy land which extends in every +direction. It has declined in importance since the district headquarters +were removed to Dhubri in 1879, and it suffered severely from the +earthquake of the 12th of June 1897. + +The DISTRICT comprises an area of 3961 sq. m. It is situated along the +Brahmaputra, at the corner where the river takes its southerly course +from Assam into Bengal. The scenery is striking. Along the banks of the +river grow clumps of cane and reed; farther back stretch fields of rice +cultivation, broken only by the fruit trees surrounding the villages, +and in the background rise the forest-clad hills overtopped by the white +peaks of the Himalayas. The soil of the hills is of a red ochreous +earth, with blocks of granite and sandstone interspersed; that of the +plains is of alluvial formation. Earthquakes are common and occasionally +severe shocks have been experienced. The Brahmaputra annually inundates +vast tracts of country. Numerous extensive forests yield valuable +timber. Wild animals of all kinds are found. In 1901 the population was +462,083, showing an increase of 2% in the decade. Rice forms the staple +crop. Mustard and jute are also largely grown. The manufactures consist +of the making of brass and iron utensils and of gold and silver +ornaments, weaving of silk cloth, basket-work and pottery. The +cultivation of tea has been introduced but does not flourish anywhere in +the district. Local trade is in the hands of Marwari merchants, and is +carried on at the _bazars_, weekly _hats_ or markets and periodical +fairs. The chief exports are mustard-seed, jute, cotton, timber, lac, +silk cloth, india-rubber and tea; the imports, Bengal rice, European +piece goods, salt, hardware, oil and tobacco. + +Dhubri (pop. 3737), the administrative headquarters of the district, +stands on the Brahmaputra where that river takes its great bend south. +It is the termination of the emigration road from North Bengal and of +the river steamers that connect with the North Bengal railway. It is +also served by the eastern Bengal State railway. + + + + +GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. _gat_, Goth. _gaits_, Mod. Ger. +_Geiss_, cognate with Lat. _haedus_, a kid), properly the name of the +well-known domesticated European ruminant (_Capra hircus_), which has +for all time been regarded as the emblem of everything that is evil, in +contradistinction to the sheep, which is the symbol of excellence and +purity. Although the more typical goats are markedly distinct from +sheep, there is, both as regards wild and domesticated forms, an almost +complete gradation from goats to sheep, so that it is exceedingly +difficult to define either group. The position of the genus _Capra_ (to +all the members of which, as well as some allied species, the name +"goat" in its wider sense is applicable) in the family _Bovidae_ is +indicated in the article BOVIDAE, and some of the distinctions between +goats and sheep are mentioned in the article SHEEP. Here then it will +suffice to mention that goats are characterized by the strong and +offensive odour of the males, which are furnished with a beard on the +chin; while as a general rule glands are present between the middle toes +of the fore feet only. + +Goats, in the wild state, are an exclusively old-world group, of which +the more typical forms are confined to Europe and south-western and +central Asia, although there are two outlying species in northern +Africa. The wild goat, or pasang, is represented in Europe in the +Cyclades and Crete by rather small races. more or less mingled with +domesticated breeds, the Cretan animal being distinguished as _Capra +hircus creticus_; but the large typical race _C. h. aegagrus_ is met +with in the mountains of Asia Minor and Persia, whence it extends to +Sind, where it is represented by a somewhat different race known as _C. +h. blythi_. The horns of the old bucks are of great length and beauty, +and characterized by their bold scimitar-like backward sweep and sharp +front edge, interrupted at irregular intervals by knots or bosses. +Domesticated goats have run wild in many islands, such as the Hebrides, +Shetland, Canaries, Azores, Ascension and Juan Fernandez. Some of these +reverted breeds have developed horns of considerable size, although not +showing that regularity of curve distinctive of the wild race. In the +Azores the horns are remarkably upright and straight, whence the name of +"antelope-goat" which has been given to these animals. The concretions +known as _bezoar-stones_, formerly much used in medicine and as +antidotes of poison, are obtained from the stomach of the wild goat. + +Although there have in all probability been more or less important local +crosses with other wild species, there can be no doubt that domesticated +goats generally are descended from the wild goat. It is true that many +tame goats show spirally twisted horns recalling those of the +under-mentioned Asiatic markhor; but in nearly all such instances it +will be found that the spiral twists in the opposite direction. Among +the domesticated breeds the following are some of the more important. + +Firstly, we have the common or European goats, of which there are +several more or less well-marked breeds, differing from each other in +length of hair, in colour and slightly in the configuration of the +horns. The ears are more or less upright, sometimes horizontal, but +never actually pendent, as in some Asiatic breeds. The horns are rather +flat at the base and not unfrequently corrugated; they rise vertically +from the head, curving to the rear, and are more or less laterally +inclined. The colour varies from dirty white to dark-brown, but when +pure-bred is never black, which indicates eastern blood. Most European +countries possess more than one description of the common goat. In the +British Isles there are two distinct types, one short and the other long +haired. In the former the hair is thick and close, with frequently an +under-coat resembling wool. The horns are large in the male, and of +moderate size in the female, flat at the base and inclining outwards. +The head is short and tapering, the forehead flat and wide, and the nose +small; while the legs are strong, thick and well covered with hair. The +colour varies from white or grey to black, but is frequently fawn, with +a dark line down the spine and another across the shoulders. The other +variety has a shaggy coat, generally reddish-black, though sometimes +grey or pied and occasionally white. The head is long, heavy and ugly, +the nose coarse and prominent, with the horns situated close together, +often continuing parallel almost to the extremities, being also large, +corrugated and pointed. The legs are long and the sides flat, the animal +itself being generally gaunt and thin. This breed is peculiar to +Ireland, the Welsh being of a similar type, but more often white. The +short-haired goat is the English goat proper. Both British breeds, as +well as those from abroad, are frequently ornamented with two +tassel-like appendages, hanging near together under the throat. It has +been supposed by many that these are traceable to foreign blood; but +although there are foreign breeds that possess them, they appear to +pertain quite as much to the English native breeds as to those of +distant countries, the peculiarity being mentioned in very old works on +the goats of the British Islands. The milk-produce in the common goat as +well as other kinds varies greatly with individuals. Irish goats often +yield a quantity of milk, but the quality is poor. The goats of France +are similar to those of Britain, varying in length of hair, colour and +character of horns. The Norway breed is frequently white with long hair; +it is rather small in size, with small bones, a short rounded body, head +small with a prominent forehead, and short, straight, corrugated horns. +The facial line is concave. The horns of the males are very large, and +curve round after the manner of the wild goat, with a tuft of hair +between and in front. + +The Maltese goat has the ears long, wide and hanging down below the jaw. +The hair is long and cream-coloured. The breed is usually hornless. + +The Syrian goat is met with in various parts of the East, in Lower +Egypt, on the shores of the Indian Ocean and in Madagascar. The hair and +ears are excessively long, the latter so much so that they are sometimes +clipped to prevent their being torn by stones or thorny shrubs. The +horns are somewhat erect and spiral, with an outward bend. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Male Angora Goat.] + +The Angora goat is often confounded with the Kashmir, but is in reality +quite distinct. The principal feature of this breed, of which there are +two or three varieties, is the length and quantity of the hair, which +has a particularly soft and silky texture, covering the whole body and a +great part of the legs with close matted ringlets. The horns of the male +differ from those of the female, being directed vertically and in shape +spiral, whilst in the female they have a horizontal tendency, somewhat +like those of a ram. The coat is composed of two kinds of hair, the one +short and coarse and of the character of hair, which lies close to the +skin, the other long and curly and of the nature of wool, forming the +outer covering. Both are used by the manufacturer, but the exterior +portion, which makes up by far the greater bulk, is much the more +valuable. The process of shearing takes place in early spring, the +average amount of wool yielded by each animal being about 2-1/2 lb. The +best quality comes from castrated males, females producing the next +best. + +The breed was introduced at the Cape about 1864. The Angora is a bad +milker and an indifferent mother, but its flesh is better than that of +any other breed, and in its native country is preferred to mutton. The +kids are born small, but grow fast, and arrive early at maturity. The +Kashmir, or rather Tibet, goat has a delicate head, with semi-pendulous +ears, which are both long and wide. The hair varies in length, and is +coarse and of different colours according to the individual. The horns +are very erect, and sometimes slightly spiral, inclining inwards and to +such an extent in some cases as to cross. The coat is composed, as in +the Angora, of two materials; but in this breed it is the under-coat +that partakes of the nature of wool and is valued as an article of +commerce. This under-coat, or _pushm_, which is of a uniform +greyish-white tint, whatever the colour of the hair may be, is +beautifully soft and silky, and of a fluffy description resembling down. +It makes its appearance in the autumn, and continues to grow until the +following spring, when, if not removed, it falls off naturally; its +collection then commences, occupying from eight to ten days. The animal +undergoes during that time a process of combing by which all the wool +and a portion of the hair, which of necessity comes with it, is removed. +The latter is afterwards carefully separated, when the fleece in a good +specimen weighs about half a pound. This is the material of which the +far-famed and costly shawls are made, which at one time had such a +demand that, it is stated, 16,000 looms were kept in constant work at +Kashmir in their manufacture. Those goats having a short, neat head, +long, thin, ears, a delicate skin, small bones, and a long heavy coat, +are for this purpose deemed the best. There are several varieties +possessing this valuable quality, but those of Kashmir, Tibet and +Mongolia are the most esteemed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Nubian Goat.] + +The Nubian goat, which is met with in Nubia, Upper Egypt and Abyssinia, +differs greatly in appearance from those previously described. The coat +of the female is extremely short, almost like that of a race-horse, and +the legs are long. This breed therefore stands considerably higher than +the common goat. One of its peculiarities is the convex profile of the +face, the forehead being prominent and the nostrils sunk in, the nose +itself extremely small, and the lower lip projecting from the upper. The +ears are long, broad and thin, and hang down by the side of the head +like a lop-eared rabbit. The horns are black, slightly twisted and very +short, flat at the base, pointed at the tips, and recumbent on the head. +Among goats met with in England a good many show signs of a more or less +remote cross with this breed, derived probably from specimens brought +from the East on board ships for supplying milk during the voyage. + +The Theban goat, of the Sudan, which is hornless, displays the +characteristic features of the last in an exaggerated degree, and in the +form of the head and skull is very sheep-like. + +The Nepal goat appears to be a variety of the Nubian breed, having the +same arched facial line, pendulous ears and long legs. The horns, +however, are more spiral. The colour of the hair, which is longer than +in the Nubian, is black, grey or white, with black blotches. + +Lastly the Guinea goat is a dwarf breed originally from the coast whence +its name is derived. There are three varieties. Besides the commonest +_Capra recurva_, there is a rarer breed, _Capra depressa_, inhabiting +the Mauritius and the islands of Bourbon and Madagascar. The other +variety is met with along the White Nile, in Lower Egypt, and at various +points on the African coast of the Mediterranean. + +As regards wild goats other than the representatives of _Capra hircus_, +the members of the ibex-group are noticed under IBEX, while another +distinctive type receives mention under MARKHOR. The ibex are connected +with the wild goat by means of _Capra nubiana_, in which the front edge +of the horns is thinner than in either the European _C. ibex_ or the +Asiatic _C. sibirica_; while the Spanish _C. pyrenaica_ shows how the +ibex-type of horn may pass into the spirally twisted one distinctive of +the markhor, _C. falconeri_. In the article IBEX mention is made of the +Caucasus ibex, or tur, _C. caucasica_, as an aberrant member of that +group, but beside this animal the Caucasus is the home of another very +remarkable goat, or tur, known as _C. pallasi_. In this ruminant, which +is of a dark-brown colour, the relatively smooth black horns diverge +outwards in a manner resembling those of the bharal among the sheep +rather than in goat-fashion; and, in fact, this tur, which has only a +very short beard, is so bharal-like that it is commonly called by +sportsmen the Caucasian bharal. It is one of the species which render +it so difficult to give a precise definition of either sheep or goats. + +The short-horned Asiatic goats of the genus _Hemitragus_ receive mention +in the article TAHR; but it may be added that fossil species of the same +genus are known from the Lower Pliocene formations of India, which have +also yielded remains of a goat allied to the markhor of the Himalayas. +The Rocky Mountain goat (q.v.) of America has no claim to be regarded as +a member of the goat-group. + + For full descriptions of the various wild species, see R. Lydekker, + _Wild Oxen, Sheep, and Goats_ (London, 1898). (R. L.*) + + + + +GOATSUCKER, a bird from very ancient times absurdly believed to have the +habit implied by the common name it bears in many European tongues +besides English--as testified by the Gr.[Greek: aigothelas], the Lat. +_caprimulgus_, Ital. _succiacapre_, Span. _chotacabras_, Fr. +_tettechevre_, and Ger. _Ziegenmelker_. The common goatsucker +(_Caprimulgus europaeus_, Linn.), is admittedly the type of a very +peculiar and distinct family, _Caprimulgidae_, a group remarkable for the +flat head, enormously wide mouth, large eyes, and soft, pencilled plumage +of its members, which vary in size from a lark to a crow. Its position +has been variously assigned by systematists. Though now judiciously +removed from the _Passeres_, in which Linnaeus placed all the species +known to him, Huxley considered it to form, with two other families--the +swifts (_Cypselidae_) and humming-birds (_Trochilidae_)--the division +_Cypselomorphae_ of his larger group Aegithognathae, which is equivalent +in the main to the Linnaean _Passeres_. There are two ways of regarding +the _Caprimulgidae_--one including the genus _Podargus_ and its allies, +the other recognizing them as a distinct family, _Podargidae_. As a +matter of convenience we shall here comprehend these last in the +_Caprimulgidae_, which will then contain two subfamilies, _Caprimulginae_ +and _Podarginae_; for what, according to older authors, constitutes a +third, though represented only by _Steatornis_, the singular oil-bird, or +guacharo, certainly seems to require separation as an independent family +(see GUACHERO). + +[Illustration: Common Goatsucker.] + +Some of the differences between the _Caprimulginae_ and _Podarginae_ +have been pointed out by Sclater (_Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1866, p. 123), and +are very obvious. In the former, the outer toes have _four_ phalanges +only, thus presenting a very uncommon character among birds, and the +middle claws are pectinated; while in the latter the normal number of +five phalanges is found, and the claws are smooth, and other +distinctions more recondite have also been indicated by him (_tom. cit._ +p. 582). The Caprimulginae may be further divided into those having the +gape thickly beset by strong bristles, and those in which there are few +such bristles or none--the former containing the genera _Caprimulgus_, +_Antrostomus_, _Nyctidromus_ and others, and the latter _Podargus_, +_Chordiles_, _Lyncornis_ and a few more. + +The common goatsucker of Europe (_C. europaeus_) arrives late in spring +from its winter-retreat in Africa, and its presence is soon made known +by its habit of chasing its prey, consisting chiefly of moths and +cockchafers, in the evening-twilight. As the season advances the song +of the cock, from its singularity, attracts attention amid all rural +sounds. This song seems to be always uttered when the bird is at rest, +though the contrary has been asserted, and is the continuous repetition +of a single burring note, as of a thin lath fixed at one end and in a +state of vibration at the other, and loud enough to reach in still +weather a distance of half-a-mile or more. On the wing, while toying +with its mate, or performing its rapid evolutions round the trees where +it finds its food, it has the habit of occasionally producing another +and equally extraordinary sound, sudden and short, but somewhat +resembling that made by swinging a thong in the air, though whether this +noise proceeds from its mouth is not ascertained. In general its flight +is silent, but at times when disturbed from its repose, its wings may be +heard to smite together. The goatsucker, or, to use perhaps its commoner +English name, nightjar,[1] passes the day in slumber, crouching on the +ground or perching on a tree--in the latter case sitting not across the +branch but lengthways, with its head lower than its body. In hot +weather, however, its song may sometimes be heard by day and even at +noontide, but it is then uttered, as it were, drowsily, and without the +vigour that characterizes its crepuscular or nocturnal performance. +Towards evening the bird becomes active, and it seems to pursue its prey +throughout the night uninterruptedly, or only occasionally pausing for a +few seconds to alight on a bare spot--a pathway or road--and then +resuming its career. It is one of the few birds that absolutely make no +nest, but lays its pair of beautifully-marbled eggs on the ground, +generally where the herbage is short, and often actually on the soil. So +light is it that the act of brooding, even where there is some vegetable +growth, produces no visible depression of the grass, moss or lichens on +which the eggs rest, and the finest sand equally fails to exhibit a +trace of the parental act. Yet scarcely any bird shows greater local +attachment, and the precise site chosen one year is almost certain to be +occupied the next. The young, covered when hatched with dark-spotted +down, are not easily found, nor are they more easily discovered on +becoming fledged, for their plumage almost entirely resembles that of +the adults, being a mixture of reddish-brown, grey and black, blended +and mottled in a manner that passes description. They soon attain their +full size and power of flight, and then take to the same manner of life +as their parents. In autumn all leave their summer haunts for the south, +but the exact time of their departure has hardly been ascertained. The +habits of the nightjar, as thus described, seem to be more or less +essentially those of the whole subfamily--the differences observable +being apparently less than are found in other groups of birds of similar +extent. + +A second species of goatsucker (_C. ruficollis_), which is somewhat +larger, and has the neck distinctly marked with rufous, is a summer +visitant to the south-western parts of Europe, and especially to Spain +and Portugal. The occurrence of a single example of this bird at +Killingworth, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, in October 1856, has been recorded +by Mr Hancock (_Ibis_, 1862, p. 39); but the season of its appearance +argues the probability of its being but a casual straggler from its +proper home. Many other species of _Caprimulgus_ inhabit Africa, Asia +and their islands, while one (_C. macrurus_) is found in Australia. Very +nearly allied to this genus is _Antrostomus_, an American group +containing many species, of which the chuck-will's-widow (_A. +carolinensis_) and the whip-poor-will (_A. vociferus_) of the eastern +United States (the latter also reaching Canada) are familiar examples. +Both these birds take their common name from the cry they utter, and +their habits seem to be almost identical, with those of the old world +goatsuckers. Passing over some other forms which need not here be +mentioned, the genus _Nyctidromus_, though consisting of only one +species (_N. albicollis_) which inhabits Central and part of South +America, requires remark, since it has tarsi of sufficient length to +enable it to run swiftly on the ground, while the legs of most birds of +the family are so short that they can make but a shuffling progress. +_Heleothreptes_, with the unique form of wing possessed by the male, +needs mention. Notice must also be taken of two African species, +referred by some ornithologists to as many genera (_Macrodipteryx_ and +_Cosmetornis_), though probably one genus would suffice for both. The +males of each of them are characterized by the wonderful development of +the ninth primary in either wing, which reaches in fully adult specimens +the extraordinary length of 17 in. or more. The former of these birds, +the _Caprimulgus macrodipterus_ of Adam Afzelius, is considered to +belong to the west coast of Africa, and the shaft of the elongated +remiges is bare for the greater part of its length, retaining the web, +in a spatulate form, only near the tip. The latter, to which the +specific name of _vexillarius_ was given by John Gould, has been found +on the east coast of that continent, and is reported to have occurred in +Madagascar and Socotra. In this the remigial streamers do not lose their +barbs, and as a few of the next quills are also to some extent +elongated, the bird, when flying, is said to look as though it had four +wings. Specimens of both are rare in collections, and no traveller seems +to have had the opportunity of studying the habits of either so as to +suggest a reason for this marvellous sexual development. + +The second group of _Caprimulginae_, those which are but poorly or not +at all furnished with rictal bristles, contains about five genera, of +which we may particularize _Lyncornis_ of the old world and _Chordiles_ +of the new. The species of the former are remarkable for the tuft of +feathers which springs from each side of the head, above and behind the +ears, so as to give the bird an appearance like some of the "horned" +owls--those of the genus _Scops_, for example; and remarkable as it is +to find certain forms of two families, so distinct as are the +_Strigidae_ and the _Caprimulgidae_, resembling each other in this +singular external feature, it is yet more remarkable to note that in +some groups of the latter, as in some of the former, a very curious kind +of dimorphism takes place. In either case this has been frequently +asserted to be sexual, but on that point doubt may fairly be +entertained. Certain it is that in some groups of goatsuckers, as in +some groups of owls, individuals of the same species are found in +plumage of two entirely different hues--rufous and grey. The only +explanation as yet offered of this fact is that the difference is +sexual, but evidence to that effect is conflicting. It must not, +however, be supposed that this common feature, any more than that of the +existence of tufted forms in each group, indicates any close +relationship between them. The resemblances may be due to the same +causes, concerning which future observers may possibly enlighten us, but +at present we must regard them as analogies, not homologies. The species +of _Lyncornis_ inhabit the Malay Archipelago, one, however, occurring +also in China. Of _Chordiles_ the best-known species is the night-hawk +of North America (_C. virginianus_ or _C. popetue_), which has a wide +range from Canada to Brazil. Others are found in the Antilles and in +South America. The general habits of all these birds agree with those of +the typical goatsuckers. + +We have next to consider the birds forming the genus _Podargus_ and +those allied to it, whether they be regarded as a distinct family, or as +a subfamily of _Caprimulgidae_. As above stated, they have feet +constructed as those of birds normally are, and their sternum seems to +present the constant though comparatively trivial difference of having +its posterior margin elongated into two pairs of processes, while only +one pair is found in the true goatsuckers. _Podargus_ includes the bird +(_P. cuvieri_) known from its cry as morepork to the Tasmanians,[2] and +several other species, the number of which is doubtful, from Australia +and New Guinea. They have comparatively powerful bills, and it would +seem feed to some extent on fruits and berries, though they mainly +subsist on insects, chiefly _Cicadae_ and _Phasmidae_. They also differ +from the true goatsuckers in having the outer toes partially reversible, +and they build a flat nest on the horizontal branch of a tree for the +reception of their eggs, which are of a spotless white. Apparently +allied to _Podargus_, but differing among other respects in its mode of +nidification, is _Aegotheles_, which belongs also to the Australian +sub-region; and farther to the northward, extending throughout the Malay +Archipelago and into India, comes _Batrachostomus_, wherein we again +meet with species having aural tufts somewhat like _Lyncornis_. The +_Podarginae_ are thought by some to be represented in the new world by +the genus _Nyctibius_, of which several species occur from the Antilles +and Central America to Brazil. Finally, it may be stated that none of +the _Caprimulgidae_ seem to occur in Polynesia or in New Zealand, though +there is scarcely any other part of the world suited to their habits in +which members of the family are not found. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Other English names of the bird are evejar, fern-owl, churn-owl + and wheel-bird--the last from the bird's song resembling the noise + made by a spinning-wheel in motion. + + [2] In New Zealand, however, this name is given to an owl + (_Sceloglaux novae-zelandiae_). + + + + +GOBAT, SAMUEL (1799-1879), bishop of Jerusalem, was born at Cremine, +Bern, Switzerland, on the 26th of January 1799. After serving in the +mission house at Basel from 1823 to 1826, he went to Paris and London, +whence, having acquired some knowledge of Arabic and Ethiopic, he went +out to Abyssinia under the auspices of the Church Missionary Society. +The unsettled state of the country and his own ill health prevented his +making much headway; he returned to Europe in 1835 and from 1839 to 1842 +lived in Malta, where he supervised an Arabic translation of the Bible. +In 1846 he was consecrated Protestant bishop of Jerusalem, under the +agreement between the British and Prussian governments (1841) for the +establishment of a joint bishopric for Lutherans and Anglicans in the +Holy Land. He carried on a vigorous mission as bishop for over thirty +years, his diocesan school and orphanage on Mount Zion being specially +noteworthy. He died on the 11th of May 1879. + + A record of his life, largely autobiographical, was published at Basel + in 1884, and an English translation at London in the same year. + + + + +GOBEL, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH (1727-1794), French ecclesiastic and +politician, was born at Thann, in Alsace, on the 1st of September 1727. +He studied theology in the German College at Rome, and then became +successively a member of the chapter of Porrentruy, bishop _in partibus_ +of Lydda, and finally suffragan of Basel for that part of the diocese +situated in French territory. His political life began when he was +elected deputy to the states-general of 1789 by the clergy of the +_bailliage_ of Huningue. The turning-point of his life was his action in +taking the oath of the civil constitution of the clergy (Jan. 3rd, +1791); in favour of which he had declared himself since the 5th of May +1790. The civil constitution of the clergy gave the appointment of +priests to the electoral assemblies, and since taking the oath Gobel had +become so popular that he was elected bishop in several dioceses. He +chose Paris, and in spite of the difficulties which he had to encounter +before he could enter into possession, was consecrated on the 27th of +March 1791 by eight bishops, including Talleyrand. On the 8th of +November 1792, Gobel was appointed administrator of Paris. He was +careful to flatter the politicians by professing anti-clerical opinions, +declaring himself, among other things, opposed to the celibacy of the +clergy; and on the 17th Brumaire in the year II. (7th November 1793), he +came before the bar of the Convention, and, in a famous scene, resigned +his episcopal functions, proclaiming that he did so for love of the +people, and through respect for their wishes. The followers of Hebert, +who were then pursuing their anti-Christian policy, claimed Gobel as one +of themselves; while, on the other hand, Robespierre looked upon him as +an atheist, though apostasy cannot strictly speaking be laid to the +charge of the ex-bishop, nor did he ever make any actual profession of +atheism. Robespierre, however, found him an obstacle to his religious +schemes, and involved him in the fate of the Hebertists. Gobel was +condemned to death, with Chaumette, Hebert and Anacharsis Cloots, and +was guillotined on the 12th of April 1794. + + See E. Charavay, _Assemblee electorale de Paris_ (Paris, 1890); H. + Monin, _La Chanson et l'Eglise sous la Revolution_ (Paris, 1892); A. + Aulard, "La Culte de la raison" in the review, _La Revolution + Francaise_ (1891). For a bibliography of documents relating to his + episcopate see "Episcopat de Gobel" in vol. iii. (1900) of M. + Tourneux's _Bibliographie de l'histoire de Paris pendant la Rev. Fr._ + + + + +GOBELIN, the name of a family of dyers, who in all probability came +originally from Reims, and who in the middle of the 15th century +established themselves in the Faubourg Saint Marcel, Paris, on the banks +of the Bievre. The first head of the firm was named Jehan (d. 1476). He +discovered a peculiar kind of scarlet dyestuff, and he expended so much +money on his establishment that it was named by the common people _la +folie Gobelin_. To the dye-works there was added in the 16th century a +manufactory of tapestry (q.v.). So rapidly did the wealth of the family +increase, that in the third or fourth generation some of them forsook +their trade and purchased titles of nobility. More than one of their +number held offices of state, among others Balthasar, who became +successively treasurer general of artillery, treasurer extraordinary of +war, councillor secretary of the king, chancellor of the exchequer, +councillor of state and president of the chamber of accounts, and who in +1601 received from Henry IV. the lands and lordship of Briecomte-Robert. +He died in 1603. The name of the Gobelins as dyers cannot be found later +than the end of the 17th century. In 1662 the works in the Faubourg +Saint Marcel, with the adjoining grounds, were purchased by Colbert on +behalf of Louis XIV., and transformed into a general upholstery +manufactory, in which designs both in tapestry and in all kinds of +furniture were executed under the superintendence of the royal painter, +Le Brun. On account of the pecuniary embarrassments of Louis XIV., the +establishment was closed in 1694, but it was reopened in 1697 for the +manufacture of tapestry, chiefly for royal use and for presentation. +During the Revolution and the reign of Napoleon the manufacture was +suspended, but it was revived by the Bourbons, and in 1826 the +manufacture of carpets was added to that of tapestry. In 1871 the +building was partly burned by the Communists. The manufacture is still +carried on under the state. + + See Lacordaire, _Notice historique sur les manufactures imperiales de + tapisserie des Gobelin et de tapis de la Savonnerie, precedee du + catalogue des tapisseries qui y sont exposes_ (Paris, 1853); Genspach, + _Repertoire detaille des tapisseries executees aux Gobelins, + 1662-1892_ (Paris, 1893); Guiffrey, _Histoire de la tapisserie en + France_ (Paris, 1878-1885). The two last-named authors were directors + of the manufactory. + + + + +GOBI (for which alternative Chinese names are SHA-MO, "sand desert," and +HAN-HAI, "dry sea"), a term which in its widest significance means the +long stretch of desert country that extends from the foot of the Pamirs, +in about 77 deg. E., eastward to the Great Khingan Mountains, in 116 +deg.-118 deg. E., on the border of Manchuria, and from the foothills of +the Altai, the Sayan and the Yablonoi Mountains on the N. to the +Astin-tagh or Altyn-tagh and the Nan-shan, the northernmost constituent +ranges of the Kuen-lun Mountains, on the south. By conventional usage a +relatively small area on the east side of the Great Khingan, between the +upper waters of the Sungari and the upper waters of the Liao-ho, is also +reckoned to belong to the Gobi. On the other hand, geographers and +Asiatic explorers prefer to regard the W. extremity of the Gobi region +(as defined above), namely, the basin of the Tarim in E. Turkestan, as +forming a separate and independent desert, to which they have given the +name of Takla-makan. The latter restriction governs the present article, +which accordingly excludes the Takla-makan, leaving it for separate +treatment. The desert of Gobi as a whole is only very imperfectly known, +information being confined to the observations which individual +travellers have made from their respective itineraries across the +desert. Amongst the explorers to whom we owe such knowledge as we +possess about the Gobi, the most important have been Marco Polo +(1273-1275), Gerbillon (1688-1698), Ijsbrand Ides (1692-1694), Lange +(1727-1728 and 1736), Fuss and Bunge (1830-1831), Fritsche (1868-1873), +Pavlinov and Matusovski (1870), Ney Elias (1872-1873), N. M. Przhevalsky +(1870-1872 and 1876-1877), Zosnovsky (1875), M. V. Pjevtsov (1878), G. +N. Potanin (1877 and 1884-1886), Count Szechenyi and L. von Loczy +(1879-1880), the brothers Grum-Grzhimailo (1889-1890), P. K. Kozlov +(1893-1894 and 1899-1900), V. I. Roborovsky (1894), V. A. Obruchev +(1894-1896), Futterer and Holderer (1896); C. E. Bonin (1896 and 1899), +Sven Hedin (1897 and 1900-1901), K. Bogdanovich (1898), Ladyghin +(1899-1900) and Katsnakov (1899-1900). + +Geographically the Gobi (a Mongol word meaning "desert") is the deeper +part of the gigantic depression which fills the interior of the lower +terrace of the vast Mongolian plateau, and measures over 1000 m. from +S.W. to N.E. and 450 to 600 m. from N. to S., being widest in the west, +along the line joining the Baghrash-kol and the Lop-nor (87 deg.-89 deg. +E.). Owing to the immense area covered, and the piecemeal character of +the information, no general description can be made applicable to the +whole of the Gobi. It will be more convenient, therefore, to describe +its principal distinctive sections _seriatim_, beginning in the west. + + _Ghashiun-Gobi and Kuruk-tagh._--The Yulduz valley or valley of the + Khaidyk-gol (83 deg.-86 deg. E., 43 deg. N.) is enclosed by two + prominent members of the Tian-shan system, namely the Chol-tagh and + the Kuruk-tagh, running parallel and close to one another. As they + proceed eastward they diverge, sweeping back on N. and S. respectively + so as to leave room for the Baghrash-kol. These two ranges mark the + northern and the southern edges respectively of a great swelling, + which extends eastward for nearly twenty degrees of longitude. On its + northern side the Chol-tagh descends steeply, and its foot is fringed + by a string of deep depressions, ranging from Lukchun (425 ft. _below_ + the level of the sea) to Hami (2800 ft. above sea-level). To the south + of the Kuruk-tagh lie the desert of Lop, the desert of Kum-tagh, and + the valley of the Bulunzir-gol. To this great swelling, which arches + up between the two border-ranges of the Chol-tagh and Kuruk-tagh, the + Mongols give the name of Ghashiun-Gobi or Salt Desert. It is some 80 + to 100 m. across from N. to S., and is traversed by a number of minor + parallel ranges, ridges and chains of hills, and down its middle runs + a broad stony valley, 25 to 50 m. wide, at an elevation of 3000 to + 4500 ft. The Chol-tagh, which reaches an average altitude of 6000 ft., + is absolutely sterile, and its northern foot rests upon a narrow belt + of barren sand, which leads down to the depressions mentioned above. + + The Kuruk-tagh is the greatly disintegrated, denuded and wasted relic + of a mountain range which formerly was of incomparably greater + magnitude. In the west, between Baghrash-kol and the Tarim, it + consists of two, possibly of three, principal ranges, which, although + broken in continuity, run generally parallel to one another, and + embrace between them numerous minor chains of heights. These minor + ranges, together with the principal ranges, divide the region into a + series of long, narrow valleys, mostly parallel to one another and to + the enclosing mountain chains, which descend like terraced steps, on + the one side towards the depression of Lukchun and on the other + towards the desert of Lop. In many cases these latitudinal valleys are + barred transversely by ridges or spurs, generally elevations _en + masse_ of the bottom of the valley. Where such elevations exist, there + is generally found, on the E. side of the transverse ridge, a + cauldron-shaped depression, which some time or other has been the + bottom of a former lake, but is now nearly a dry salt-basin. The + surface configuration is in fact markedly similar to that which occurs + in the inter-mont latitudinal valleys of the Kuen-lun. The hydrography + of the Ghashiun-Gobi and the Kuruk-tagh is determined by these + chequered arrangements of the latitudinal valleys. Most of the + principal streams, instead of flowing straight down these valleys, + cross them diagonally and only turn west after they have cut their way + through one or more of the transverse barrier ranges.[1] To the + highest range on the great swelling Grum-Grzhimailo gives the name of + Tuge-tau, its altitude being 9000 ft. above the level of the sea and + some 4000 ft. above the crown of the swelling itself. This range he + considers to belong to the Chol-tagh system, whereas Sven Hedin would + assign it to the Kuruk-tagh. This last, which is pretty certainly + identical with the range of Khara-teken-ula (also known as the + Kyzyl-sanghir, Sinir, and Singher Mountains), that overlooks the + southern shore of the Baghrash-kol, though parted from it by the + drift-sand desert of Ak-bel-kum (White Pass Sands), has at first a + W.N.W. to E.S.E. strike, but it gradually curves round like a scimitar + towards the E.N.E. and at the same time gradually decreases in + elevation. In 91 deg. E., while the principal range of the Kuruk-tagh + system wheels to the E.N.E., four of its subsidiary ranges terminate, + or rather die away somewhat suddenly, on the brink of a long narrow + depression (in which Sven Hedin sees a N.E. bay of the former great + Central Asian lake of Lop-nor), having over against them the echeloned + terminals of similar subordinate ranges of the Pe-shan (Bey-san) + system (see below). The Kuruk-tagh is throughout a relatively low, but + almost completely barren range, being entirely destitute of animal + life, save for hares, antelopes and wild camels, which frequent its + few small, widely scattered oases. The vegetation, which is confined + to these same relatively favoured spots, is of the scantiest and is + mainly confined to bushes of saxaul (_Anabasis Ammodendron_), reeds + (_kamish_), tamarisks, poplars, _Kalidium_ and _Ephedra_. + + _Desert of Lop._--This section of the Gobi extends south-eastward from + the foot of the Kuruk-tagh as far as the present terminal basin of the + Tarim, namely Kara-koshun (Przhevalsky's Lop-nor), and is an almost + perfectly horizontal expanse, for, while the Baghrash-kol in the N. + lies at an altitude of 2940 ft., the Kara-koshun, over 200 m. to the + S., is only 300 ft. lower. The characteristic features of this almost + dead level or but slightly undulating region are: (i.) broad, unbroken + expanses of clay intermingled with sand, the clay (_shor_) being + indurated and saliferous and often arranged in terraces; (ii.) hard, + level, clay expanses, more or less thickly sprinkled with fine gravel + (_say_), the clay being mostly of a yellow or yellow-grey colour; + (iii.) benches, flattened ridges and tabular masses of consolidated + clay (_jardangs_), arranged in distinctly defined _laminae_, three + stories being sometimes superimposed one upon the other, and their + vertical faces being abraded, and often undercut, by the wind, while + the formations themselves are separated by parallel gullies or + wind-furrows, 6 to 20 ft. deep, all sculptured in the direction of the + prevailing wind, that is, from N.E. to S.W.; and (iv.) the absence of + drift-sand and sand-dunes, except in the south, towards the outlying + foothills of the Astin-tagh. Perhaps the most striking characteristic, + after the jardangs or clay terraces, is the fact that the whole of + this region is not only swept bare of sand by the terrific sandstorms + (_burans_) of the spring months, the particles of sand with which the + wind is laden acting like a sand-blast, but the actual substantive + materials of the desert itself are abraded, filed, eroded and carried + bodily away into the network of lakes in which the Tarim loses itself, + or are even blown across the lower, constantly shifting watercourses + of that river and deposited on or among the gigantic dunes which choke + the eastern end of the desert of Takla-makan. Numerous indications, + such as salt-stained depressions of a lacustrine appearance, traces of + former lacustrine shore-lines, more or less parallel and concentric, + the presence in places of vast quantities of fresh-water mollusc + shells (species of _Limnaea_ and _Planorbis_), the existence of belts + of dead poplars, patches of dead tamarisks and extensive beds of + withered reeds, all these always on top of the jardangs, never in the + wind-etched furrows, together with a few scrubby poplars and + _Elaeagnus_, still struggling hard not to die, the presence of ripple + marks of aqueous origin on the leeward sides of the clay terraces and + in other wind-sheltered situations, all testify to the former + existence in this region of more or less extensive freshwater lakes, + now of course completely desiccated. During the prevalence of the + spring storms the atmosphere that overhangs the immediate surface of + the desert is so heavily charged with dust as to be a veritable pall + of desolation. Except for the wild camel which frequents the reed + oases on the N. edge of the desert, animal life is even less abundant + than in the Ghashiun-Gobi, and the same is true as regards the + vegetation. + + _Desert of Kum-tagh._--This section lies E.S.E. of the desert of Lop, + on the other side of the Kara-koshun and its more or less temporary + continuations, and reaches north-eastwards as far as the vicinity of + the town of Sa-chow and the lake of Kara-nor or Kala-chi. Its southern + rim is marked by a labyrinth of hills, dotted in groups and irregular + clusters, but evidently survivals of two parallel ranges which are now + worn down as it were to mere fragments of their former skeletal + structure. Between these and the Astin-tagh intervenes a broad + latitudinal valley, seamed with watercourses which come down from the + foothills of the Astin-tagh and beside which scrubby desert plants of + the usual character maintain a precarious existence, water reaching + them in some instances at intervals of years only. This part of the + desert has a general slope N.W. towards the relative depression of the + Kara-koshun. A noticeable feature of the Kum-tagh is the presence of + large accumulations of drift-sand, especially along the foot of the + crumbling desert ranges, where it rises into dunes sometimes as much + as 250 ft. in height and climbs half-way up the flanks of ranges + themselves. The prevailing winds in this region would appear to blow + from the W. and N.W. during the summer, winter and autumn, though in + spring, when they certainly are more violent, they no doubt come from + the N.E., as in the desert of Lop. Anyway, the arrangement of the sand + here "agrees perfectly with the law laid down by Potanin, that in the + basins of Central Asia the sand is heaped up in greater mass on the + south, all along the bordering mountain ranges where the floor of the + depressions lies at the highest level."[2] The country to the north of + the desert ranges is thus summarily described by Sven Hedin:[3] "The + first zone of drift-sand is succeeded by a region which exhibits + proofs of wind-modelling on an extraordinarily energetic and well + developed scale, the results corresponding to the jardangs and the + wind-eroded gullies of the desert of Lop. Both sets of phenomena lie + parallel to one another; from this we may infer that the winds which + prevail in the two deserts are the same. Next comes, sharply + demarcated from the zone just described, a more or less thin kamish + steppe growing on level ground; and this in turn is followed by + another very narrow belt of sand, immediately south of Achik-kuduk.... + Finally in the extreme north we have the characteristic and sharply + defined belt of kamish steppe, stretching from E.N.E. to W.S.W. and + bounded on N. and S. by high, sharp-cut clay terraces.... At the + points where we measured them the northern terrace was 113 ft. high + and the southern 85-1/4 ft.... Both terraces belong to the same level, + and would appear to correspond to the shore lines of a big bay of the + last surviving remnant of the Central Asian Mediterranean. At the + point where I crossed it the depression was 6 to 7 m. wide, and thus + resembled a flat valley or immense river-bed." + + _Desert of Hami and the Pe-shan Mountains._--This section occupies the + space between the Tian-shan system on the N. and the Nan-shan + Mountains on the S., and is connected on the W. with the desert of + Lop. The classic account is that of Przhevalsky, who crossed the + desert from Hami (or Khami) to Su-chow (not Sa-chow) in the summer of + 1879. In the middle this desert rises into a vast swelling, 80 m. + across, which reaches an average elevation of 5000 ft. and a maximum + elevation of 5500 ft. On its northern and southern borders it is + overtopped by two divisions of the Bey-san (= Pe-shan) Mountains, + neither of which attains any great relative altitude. Between the + northern division and the Karlyk-tagh range or E. Tian-shan intervenes + a somewhat undulating barren plain, 3900 ft. in altitude and 40 m. + from N. to S., sloping downwards from both N. and S. towards the + middle, where lies the oasis of Hami (2800 ft.). Similarly from the + southern division of the Bey-san a second plain slopes down for 1000 + ft. to the valley of the river Bulunzir or Su-lai-ho, which comes out + of China, from the south side of the Great Wall, and finally empties + itself into the lake of Kala-chi or Kara-nor. From the Bulunzir the + same plain continues southwards at a level of 3700 ft. to the foot of + the Nan-shan Mountains. The total breadth of the desert from N. to S. + is here 200 m. Its general character is that of an undulating plain, + dotted over with occasional elevations of clay, which present the + appearance of walls, table-topped mounds and broken towers + (_jardangs_), the surface of the plain being strewn with gravel and + absolutely destitute of vegetation. Generally speaking, the Bey-san + ranges consist of isolated hills or groups of hills, of low relative + elevation (100 to 300 ft.), scattered without any regard to order over + the arch of the swelling. They nowhere rise into well-defined peaks. + Their axis runs from W.S.W. to E.N.E. But whereas Przhevalsky and Sven + Hedin consider them to be a continuation of the Kuruk-tagh, though the + latter regards them as separated from the Kuruk-tagh by a well-marked + bay of the former Central Asian Mediterranean (Lop-nor), Futterer + declares they are a continuation of the Chol-tagh. The swelling or + undulating plain between these two ranges of the Bey-san measures + about 70 m. across and is traversed by several stretches of high + ground having generally an east-west direction.[4] Futterer, who + crossed the same desert twenty years after Przhevalsky, agrees + generally in his description of it, but supplements the account of the + latter explorer with several particulars. He observes that the ranges + in this part of the Gobi are much worn down and wasted, like the + Kuruk-tagh farther west and the tablelands of S.E. Mongolia farther + east, through the effects of century-long insolation, wind erosion, + great and sudden changes of temperature, chemical action and + occasional water erosion. Vast areas towards the N. consist of + expanses of gently sloping (at a mean slope of 3 deg.) clay, + intermingled with gravel. He points out also that the greatest + accumulations of sand and other products of aerial denudation do not + occur in the deepest parts of the depressions but at the outlets of + the valleys and glens, and along the foot of the ranges which flank + the depressions on the S. Wherever water has been, desert scrub is + found, such as tamarisks, _Dodartia orientalis_, _Agriophyllum + gobicum_, _Calligonium sinnex_, and _Lycium ruthenicum_, but all with + their roots elevated on little mounds in the same way as the tamarisks + grow in the Takla-makan and desert of Lop. + + Farther east, towards central Mongolia, the relations, says Futterer, + are the same as along the Hami-Su-chow route, except that the ranges + have lower and broader crests, and the detached hills are more denuded + and more disintegrated. Between the ranges occur broad, flat, + cauldron-shaped valleys and basins, almost destitute of life except + for a few hares and a few birds, such as the crow and the pheasant, + and with scanty vegetation, but no great accumulations of drift-sand. + The rocks are severely weathered on the surface, a thick layer of the + coarser products of denudation covers the flat parts and climbs a good + way up the flanks of the mountain ranges, but all the finer material, + sand and clay has been blown away partly S.E. into Ordos, partly into + the Chinese provinces of Shen-si and Shan-si, where it is deposited as + loess, and partly W., where it chokes all the southern parts of the + basin of the Tarim. In these central parts of the Gobi, as indeed in + all other parts except the desert of Lop and Ordos, the prevailing + winds blow from the W. and N.W. These winds are warm in summer, and it + is they which in the desert of Hami bring the fierce sandstorms or + burans. The wind does blow also from the N.E., but it is then cold and + often brings snow, though it speedily clears the air of the + everlasting dust haze. In summer great heat is encountered here on the + relatively low (3000-4600 ft.), gravelly expanses (_say_) on the N. + and on those of the S. (4000-5000 ft.); but on the higher swelling + between, which in the Pe-shan ranges ascends to 7550 ft., there is + great cold even in summer, and a wide daily range of temperature. + Above the broad and deep accumulations of the products of denudation + which have been brought down by the rivers from the Tian-shan ranges + (e.g. the Karlyk-tagh) on the N. and from the Nan-shan on the S., and + have filled up the cauldron-shaped valleys, there rises a broad + swelling, built up of granitic rocks, crystalline schists and + metamorphosed sedimentary rocks of both Archaic and Palaeozoic age, + all greatly folded and tilted up, and shot through with numerous + irruptions of volcanic rocks, predominantly porphyritic and dioritic. + On this swelling rise four more or less parallel mountain ranges of + the Pe-shan system, together with a fifth chain of hills farther S., + all having a strike from W.N.W. to E.N.E. The range farthest N. rises + to 1000 ft. above the desert and 7550 ft. above sea-level, the next + two ranges reach 1300 ft. above the general level of the desert, and + the range farthest south 1475 ft. or an absolute altitude of 7200 ft., + while the fifth chain of hills does not exceed 650 ft. in relative + elevation. All these ranges decrease in altitude from W. to E. In the + depressions which border the Pe-shan swelling on N. and S. are found + the sedimentary deposits of the Tertiary sea of the Han-hai; but no + traces of those deposits have been found on the swelling itself at + altitudes of 5600 to 5700 ft. Hence, Futterer infers, in recent + geological times no large sea has occupied the central part of the + Gobi. Beyond an occasional visit from a band of nomad Mongols, this + region of the Pe-shan swelling is entirely uninhabited.[5] And yet it + was from this very region, avers G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, that the + Yue-chi, a nomad race akin to the Tibetans, proceeded when, towards + the middle of the 2nd century B.C., they moved westwards and settled + near Lake Issyk-kul; and from here proceeded also the Shanshani, or + people who some two thousand years ago founded the state of Shanshan + or Lou-lan, ruins of the chief town of which Sven Hedin discovered in + the desert of Lop in 1901. Here, says the Russian explorer, the Huns + gathered strength, as also did the Tukiu (Turks) in the 6th century, + and the Uighur tribes and the rulers of the Tangut kingdom. But after + Jenghiz Khan in the 12th century drew away the peoples of this region, + and no others came to take their place, the country went out of + cultivation and eventually became the barren desert it now is.[6] + + _Ala-shan._--This division of the great desert, known also as the + Hsi-tau and the Little Gobi, fills the space between the great N. loop + of the Hwang-ho or Yellow river on the E., the Edzin-gol on the W., + and the Nan-shan Mountains on the S.W., where it is separated from the + Chinese province of Kan-suh by the narrow rocky chain of Lung-shan + (Ala-shan), 10,500 to 11,600 ft. in altitude. It belongs to the middle + basin of the three great depressions into which Potanin divides the + Gobi as a whole. "Topographically," says Przhevalsky, "it is a + perfectly level plain, which in all probability once formed the bed of + a huge lake or inland sea." The data upon which he bases this + conclusion are the level area of the region as a whole, the hard + saline clay and the sand-strewn surface, and lastly the salt lakes + which occupy its lowest parts. For hundreds of miles there is nothing + to be seen but bare sands; in some places they continue so far without + a break that the Mongols call them Tyngheri (i.e. sky). These vast + expanses are absolutely waterless, nor do any oases relieve the + unbroken stretches of yellow sand which alternate with equally vast + areas of saline clay or, nearer the foot of the mountains, with barren + shingle. Although on the whole a level country with a general altitude + of 3300 to 5000 ft., this section, like most other parts of the Gobi, + is crowned by a chequered network of hills and broken ranges going up + 1000 ft. higher. The vegetation is confined to a few varieties of + bushes and a dozen kinds of grasses, the most conspicuous being saxaul + and _Agriophyllum gobicum_[7] (a grass). The others include prickly + convolvulus, field wormwood, acacia, _Inula ammophila_, _Sophora + flavescens_, _Convolvulus Ammani_, _Peganum_ and _Astragalus_, but all + dwarfed, deformed and starved. The fauna consists of little else + except antelopes, the wolf, fox, hare, hedgehog, marten, numerous + lizards and a few birds, e.g. the sand-grouse, lark, stonechat, + sparrow, crane, _Podoces Hendersoni_, _Otocorys albigula_ and + _Galerita cristata_.[8] The only human inhabitants of Ala-shan are the + Torgod Mongols. + + _Ordos._--East of the desert of Ala-shan, and only separated from it + by the Hwang-ho, is the desert of Ordos or Ho-tau, "a level steppe, + partly bordered by low hills. The soil is altogether sandy or a + mixture of clay and sand, ill adapted for agriculture. The absolute + height of this country is between 3000 and 3500 ft., so that Ordos + forms an intermediate step in the descent to China from the Gobi, + separated from the latter by the mountain ranges lying on the N. and + E. of the Hwang-ho or Yellow river."[9] Towards the south Ordos rises + to an altitude of over 5000 ft., and in the W., along the right bank + of the Hwang-ho, the Arbus or Arbiso Mountains, which overtop the + steppe by some 3000 ft., serve to link the Ala-shan Mountains with the + In-shan. The northern part of the great loop of the river is filled + with the sands of Kuzupchi, a succession of dunes, 40 to 50 ft. high. + Amongst them in scattered patches grow the shrub _Hedysarum_ and the + trees _Calligonium Tragopyrum_ and _Pugionium cornutum_. In some + places these sand-dunes approach close to the great river, in others + they are parted from it by a belt of sand, intermingled with clay, + which terminates in a steep escarpment, 50 ft. and in some localities + 100 ft. above the river. This belt is studded with little mounds (7 to + 10 ft. high), mostly overgrown with wormwood (_Artemisia campestris_) + and the Siberian pea-tree (_Caragana_); and here too grows one of the + most characteristic plants of Ordos, the liquorice root (_Glycyrrhiza + uralensis_). Eventually the sand-dunes cross over to the left bank of + the Hwang-ho, and are threaded by the beds of dry watercourses, while + the level spaces amongst them are studded with little mounds (3 to 6 + ft. high), on which grow stunted _Nitraria Scoberi_ and _Zygophyllum_. + Ordos, which was anciently known as Ho-nan ("the country south of the + river") and still farther back in time as Ho-tau, was occupied by the + Hiong-nu in the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D., but was almost depopulated + during and after the Dungan revolt of 1869. North of the big loop of + the Hwang-ho Ordos is separated from the central Gobi by a succession + of mountain chains, the Kara-naryn-ula, the Sheiten-ula, and the + In-shan Mountains, which link on to the south end of the Great Khingan + Mountains. The In-shan Mountains, which stretch from 108 deg. to 112 + deg. E., have a wild Alpine character and are distinguished from other + mountains in the S.E. of Mongolia by an abundance of both water and + vegetation. In one of their constituent ranges, the bold Munni-ula, 70 + m. long and nearly 20 m. wide, they attain elevations of 7500 to 8500 + ft., and have steep flanks, slashed with rugged gorges and narrow + glens. Forests begin on them at 5300 ft. and wild flowers grow in + great profusion and variety in summer, though with a striking lack of + brilliancy in colouring. In this same border range there is also a + much greater abundance and variety of animal life, especially amongst + the avifauna. + + _Eastern Gobi._--Here the surface is extremely diversified, although + there are no great differences in vertical elevation. Between Urga (48 + deg. N. and 107 deg. E.) and the little lake of Iren-dubasu-nor (111 + deg. 50' E. and 43 deg. 45' N.) the surface is greatly eroded, and + consists of broad flat depressions and basins separated by groups of + flat-topped mountains of relatively low elevation (500 to 600 ft.), + through which archaic rocks crop out as crags and isolated rugged + masses. The floors of the depressions lie mostly between 2900 and 3200 + ft. above sea-level. Farther south, between Iren-dubasu-nor and the + Hwang-ho comes a region of broad tablelands alternating with flat + plains, the latter ranging at altitudes of 3300 to 3600 ft. and the + former at 3500 to 4000 ft. The slopes of the plateaus are more or less + steep, and are sometimes penetrated by "bays" of the lowlands. As the + border-range of the Khingan is approached the country steadily rises + up to 4500 ft. and then to 5350 ft. Here small lakes frequently fill + the depressions, though the water in them is generally salt or + brackish. And both here, and for 200 m. south of Urga, streams are + frequent, and grass grows more or less abundantly. There is, however, + through all the central parts, until the bordering mountains are + reached, an utter absence of trees and shrubs. Clay and sand are the + predominant formations, the watercourses, especially in the north, + being frequently excavated 6 to 8 ft. deep, and in many places in the + flat, dry valleys or depressions farther south beds of loess, 15 to 20 + ft. thick, are exposed. West of the route from Urga to Kalgan the + country presents approximately the same general features, except that + the mountains are not so irregularly scattered in groups but have more + strongly defined strikes, mostly E. to W., W.N.W. to E.S.E., and + W.S.W. to E.N.E. The altitudes too are higher, those of the lowlands + ranging from 3300 to 5600 ft., and those of the ranges from 650 to + 1650 ft. higher, though in a few cases they reach altitudes of 8000 + ft. above sea-level. The elevations do not, however, as a rule form + continuous chains, but make up a congeries of short ridges and groups + rising from a common base and intersected by a labyrinth of ravines, + gullies, glens and basins. But the tablelands, built up of the + horizontal red deposits of the Han-hai (Obruchev's Gobi formation) + which are characteristic of the southern parts of eastern Mongolia, + are absent here or occur only in one locality, near the Shara-muren + river, and are then greatly intersected by gullies or dry + watercourses.[10] Here there is, however, a great dearth of water, no + streams, no lakes, no wells, and precipitation falls but seldom. The + prevailing winds blow from the W. and N.W. and the pall of dust + overhangs the country as in the Takla-makan and the desert of Lop. + Characteristic of the flora are wild garlic, _Kalidium gracile_, + wormwood, saxaul, _Nitraria Scoberi_, _Caragana_, _Ephedra_, saltwort + and _dirisun_ (_Lasiagrostis splendens_). + + This great desert country of Gobi is crossed by several trade routes, + some of which have been in use for thousands of years. Among the most + important are those from Kalgan on the frontier of China to Urga (600 + m.), from Su-chow (in Kan-suh) to Hami (420 m.) from Hami to Peking + (1300 m.), from Kwei-hwa-cheng (or Kuku-khoto) to Hami and Barkul, and + from Lanchow (in Kan-suh) to Hami. + + _Climate._--The climate of the Gobi is one of great extremes, combined + with rapid changes of temperature, not only at all seasons of the year + but even within 24 hours (as much as 58 deg. F.). For instance, at + Urga (3770 ft.) the annual mean is 27.5 deg. F., the January mean + -15.7 deg., and the July mean 63.5 deg., the extremes being 100.5 deg. + and -44.5 deg.; while at Sivantse (3905 ft.) the annual mean is 37 + deg., the January mean 2.3 deg., and the July mean 66.3 deg., the + range being from a recorded maximum of 93 deg. to a recorded minimum + of -53 deg. Even in southern Mongolia the thermometer goes down as low + as -27 deg., and in Ala-shan it rises day after day in July as high as + 99 deg. Although the south-east monsoons reach the S.E. parts of the + Gobi, the air generally throughout this region is characterized by + extreme dryness, especially during the winter. Hence the icy + sandstorms and snowstorms of spring and early summer. The rainfall at + Urga for the year amounts to only 9.7 in. + + _Sands of the Gobi Deserts._--With regard to the origin of the masses + of sand out of which the dunes and chains of dunes (_barkhans_) are + built up in the several deserts of the Gobi, opinions differ. While + some explorers consider them to be the product of marine, or at any + rate lacustrine, denudation (the Central Asian Mediterranean), + others--and this is not only the more reasonable view, but it is the + view which is gaining most ground--consider that they are the products + of the aerial denudation of the border ranges (e.g. Nan-shan, + Karlyk-tagh, &c.), and more especially of the terribly wasted ranges + and chains of hills, which, like the gaunt fragments of montane + skeletal remains, lie littered all over the swelling uplands and + tablelands of the Gobi, and that they have been transported by the + prevailing winds to the localities in which they are now accumulated, + the winds obeying similar transportation laws to the rivers and + streams which carry down sediment in moister parts of the world. + Potanin points out[11] that "there is a certain amount of regularity + observable in the distribution of the sandy deserts over the vast + uplands of central Asia. Two agencies are represented in the + distribution of the sands, though what they really are is not quite + clear; and of these two agencies one prevails in the north-west, the + other in the south-east, so that the whole of Central Asia may be + divided into two regions, the dividing line between them being drawn + from north-east to south-west, from Urga via the eastern end of the + Tian-shan to the city of Kashgar. North-west of this line the sandy + masses are broken up into detached and disconnected areas, and are + almost without exception heaped up around the lakes, and consequently + in the lowest parts of the several districts in which they exist. + Moreover, we find also that these sandy tracts always occur on the + western or south-western shores of the lakes; this is the case with + the lakes of Balkash, Ala-kul, Ebi-nor, Ayar-nor (or Telli-nor), + Orku-nor, Zaisan-nor, Ulungur-nor, Ubsa-nor, Durga-nor and Kara-nor + lying E. of Kirghiz-nor. South-east of the line the arrangement of the + sand is quite different. In that part of Asia we have three gigantic + but disconnected basins. The first, lying farthest east, is embraced + on the one side by the ramifications of the Kentei and Khangai + Mountains and on the other by the In-shan Mountains. The second or + middle division is contained between the Altai of the Gobi and the + Ala-shan. The third basin, in the west, lies between the Tian-shan and + the border ranges of western Tibet.... The deepest parts of each of + these three depressions occur near their northern borders; towards + their southern boundaries they are all alike very much higher.... + However, the sandy deserts are not found in the low-lying tracts but + occur on the higher uplands which foot the southern mountain ranges, + the In-shan and the Nan-shan. Our maps show an immense expanse of sand + south of the Tarim in the western basin; beginning in the + neighbourhood of the city of Yarkent (Yarkand), it extends eastwards + past the towns of Khotan, Keriya and Cherchen to Sa-chow. Along this + stretch there is only one locality which forms an exception to the + rule we have indicated, namely, the region round the lake of Lop-nor. + In the middle basin the widest expanse of sand occurs between the + Edzin-gol and the range of Ala-shan. On the south it extends nearly as + far as a line drawn through the towns of Lian-chow, Kan-chow and + Kao-tai at the foot of the Nan-shan; but on the south it does not + approach anything like so far as the latitude (42 deg. N.) of the lake + of Ghashiun-nor. Still farther east come the sandy deserts of Ordos, + extending south-eastward as far as the mountain range which separates + Ordos from the (Chinese) provinces of Shan-si and Shen-si. In the + eastern basin drift-sand is encountered between the district of Ude in + the north (44 deg. 30' N.) and the foot of the In-shan in the south." + In two regions, if not in three, the sands have overwhelmed large + tracts of once cultivated country, and even buried the cities in which + men formerly dwelt. These regions are the southern parts of the desert + of Takla-makan (where Sven Hedin and M. A. Stein[12] have discovered + the ruins under the desert sands), along the N. foot of the Nan-shan, + and probably in part (other agencies having helped) in the north of + the desert of Lop, where Sven Hedin discovered the ruins of Lou-lan + and of other towns or villages. For these vast accumulations of sand + are constantly in movement; though the movement is slow, it has + nevertheless been calculated that in the south of the Takla-makan the + sand-dunes travel bodily at the rate of roughly something like 160 ft. + in the course of a year. The shape and arrangement of the individual + sand-dunes, and of the barkhans, generally indicate from which + direction the predominant winds blow. On the windward side of the dune + the slope is long and gentle, while the leeward side is steep and in + outline concave like a horse-shoe. The dunes vary in height from 30 up + to 300 ft., and in some places mount as it were upon one another's + shoulders, and in some localities it is even said that a third tier is + sometimes superimposed. + + AUTHORITIES.--See N. M. Przhevalsky, _Mongolia, the Tangut Country, + &c._ (Eng. trans., ed. by Sir H. Yule, London, 1876), and _From Kulja + across the Tian Shan to Lob Nor_ (Eng. trans, by Delmar Morgan, + London, 1879); G. N. Potanin, _Tangutsko-Tibetskaya Okraina Kitaya i + Centralnaya Mongoliya, 1884-1886_ (1893, &c.); M. V. Pjevtsov, _Sketch + of a Journey to Mongolia_ (in Russian, Omsk, 1883); G. E. + Grum-Grzhimailo, _Opisanie Puteshestviya v Sapadniy Kitai_ + (1898-1899); V. A. Obruchev, _Centralnaya Asiya, Severniy Kitai i + Nan-schan, 1892-1894_ (1900-1901); V. I. Roborovsky and P. K. Kozlov, + _Trudy Ekspeditsiy Imp. Russ. Geog. Obshchestva Po Centralnoy Asiy, + 1893-1895_ (1900, &c.); Roborovsky, _Trudy Tibetskoi Ekspeditsiy, + 1889-1890_; Sven Hedin, _Scientific Results of a Journey in Central + Asia, 1899-1902_ (6 vols., 1905-1907); Futterer, _Durch Asien_ (1901, + &c.); K. Bogdanovich, _Geologicheskiya Isledovaniya v Vostochnom + Turkestane_ and _Trudiy Tibetskoy Ekspeditsiy, 1889-1890_; L. von + Loczy, _Die wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse der Reise des Grafen + Szechenyi in Ostasien, 1877-1880_ (1883); Ney Elias, in _Journ. Roy. + Geog. Soc._ (1873); C. W. Campbell's "Journeys in Mongolia," in + _Geographical Journal_ (Nov. 1903); Pozdnievym, _Mongolia and the + Mongols_ (in Russian, St Petersburg, 1897 &c.); Deniker's summary of + Kozlov's latest journeys in _La Geographie_ (1901, &c.); F. von + Richthofen, _China_ (1877). (J. T. Be.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Cf. G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, _Opisaniye Puteshestviya_, i. 381-417. + + [2] Quoted in Sven Hedin, _Scientific Results_, ii. 499. + + [3] _Op. cit._ ii. 499-500. + + [4] Przhevalsky, _Iz Zayana cherez Hami v Tibet na Vershovya Shaltoy + Reki_, pp. 84-91. + + [5] Futterer, _Durch Asien_, i. pp. 206-211. + + [6] G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, _Opisanie Puteshestviya v Sapadniy Kitai_, + ii. p. 127. + + [7] Its seeds are pounded by the Mongols to flour and mixed with + their tea. + + [8] Przhevalsky, _Mongolia_ (Eng. trans. ed. by Sir H. Yule). + + [9] Przhevalsky, _op. cit._ p. 183. + + [10] Obruchev. in _Izvestia_ of Russ. Geogr. Soc. (1895). + + [11] In _Tangutsko-Tibetskaya Okraina Kitaya i Centralnaya + Mongoliya_, i. pp. 96, &c. + + [12] See _Sand-buried Cities of Khotan_ (London, 1902). + + + + +GOBLET, RENE (1828-1905), French politician, was born at +Aire-sur-la-Lys, in the Pas de Calais, on the 26th of November 1828, and +was educated for the law. Under the Second Empire, he helped to found a +Liberal journal, _Le Progres de la Somme_, and in July 1871 was sent by +the department of the Somme to the National Assembly, where he took his +place on the extreme left. He failed to secure election in 1876, but +next year was returned for Amiens. He held a minor government office in +1879, and in 1882 became minister of the interior in the Freycinet +cabinet. He was minister of education, fine arts and religion in Henri +Brisson's first cabinet in 1885, and again under Freycinet in 1886, when +he greatly increased his reputation by an able defence of the +government's education proposals. Meanwhile his extreme independence and +excessive candour had alienated him from many of his party, and all +through his life he was frequently in conflict with his political +associates, from Gambetta downwards. On the fall of the Freycinet +cabinet in December he formed a cabinet in which he reserved for himself +the portfolios of the interior and of religion. The Goblet cabinet was +unpopular from the outset, and it was with difficulty that anybody could +be found to accept the ministry of foreign affairs, which was finally +given to M. Flourens. Then came what is known as the Schnaebele +incident, the arrest on the German frontier of a French official named +Schnaebele, which caused immense excitement in France. For some days +Goblet took no definite decision, but left Flourens, who stood for +peace, to fight it out with General Boulanger, then minister of war, who +was for the despatch of an ultimatum. Although he finally intervened on +the side of Flourens, and peace was preserved, his weakness in face of +the Boulangist propaganda became a national danger. Defeated on the +budget in May 1887, his government resigned; but he returned to office +next year as foreign minister in the radical administration of Charles +Floquet. He was defeated at the polls by a Boulangist candidate in 1889, +and sat in the senate from 1891 to 1893, when he returned to the popular +chamber. In association with MM. E. Lockroy, Ferdinand Sarrien and P. L. +Peytral he drew up a republican programme which they put forward in the +_Petite Republique francaise_. At the elections of 1898 he was defeated, +and thenceforward took little part in public affairs. He died in Paris +on the 13th of September 1905. + + + + +GOBLET, a large type of drinking-vessel, particularly one shaped like a +cup, without handles, and mounted on a shank with a foot. The word is +derived from the O. Fr. _gobelet_, diminutive of _gobel_, _gobeau_, +which Skeat takes to be formed from Low Lat. _cupellus_, cup, diminutive +of _cupa_, tub, cask (see DRINKING-VESSELS). + + + + +GOBY. The gobies (_Gobius_) are small fishes readily recognized by their +ventrals (the fins on the lower surface of the chest) being united into +one fin, forming a suctorial disk, by which these fishes are enabled to +attach themselves in every possible position to a rock or other firm +substances. They are essentially coast-fishes, inhabiting nearly all +seas, but disappearing towards the Arctic and Antarctic Oceans. Many +enter, or live exclusively in, such fresh waters as are at no great +distance from the sea. Nearly 500 different kinds are known. The largest +British species, _Gobius capito_, occurring in the rock-pools of +Cornwall, measures 10 in. _Gobius alcocki_, from brackish and fresh +waters of Lower Bengal, is one of the very smallest of fishes, not +measuring over 16 millimetres (= 7 lines). The males are usually more +brilliantly coloured than the females, and guard the eggs, which are +often placed in a sort of nest made of the shell of some bivalve or of +the carapace of a crab, with the convexity turned upwards and covered +with sand, the eggs being stuck to the inner surface of this roof. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Gobius lentiginosus_.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--United Ventrals of Goby.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Periophthalmus koelreuteri_.] + +Close allies of the gobies are the walking fish or jumping fish +(_Periophthalmus_), of which various species are found in great numbers +on the mud flats at the mouths of rivers in the tropics, skipping about +by means of the muscular, scaly base of their pectoral fins, with the +head raised and bearing a pair of strongly projecting versatile eyes +close together. + + + + +GOCH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the Niers, 8 +m. S. of Cleves at the junction of the railways Cologne-Zevenaar and +Boxtel-Wesel. Pop. (1905) 10,232. It has a Protestant and a Roman +Catholic church and manufactures of brushes, plush goods, cigars and +margarine. In the middle ages it was the seat of a large trade in linen. +Goch became a town in 1231 and belonged to the dukes of Gelderland and +later to the dukes of Cleves. + + + + +GOD, the common Teutonic word for a personal object of religious +worship. It is thus, like the Gr. [Greek: theos] and Lat. _deus_, +applied to all those superhuman beings of the heathen mythologies who +exercise power over nature and man and are often identified with some +particular sphere of activity; and also to the visible material objects, +whether an image of the supernatural being or a tree, pillar, &c. used +as a symbol, an idol. The word "god," on the conversion of the Teutonic +races to Christianity, was adopted as the name of the one Supreme Being, +the Creator of the universe, and of the Persons of the Trinity. The _New +English Dictionary_ points out that whereas the old Teutonic type of the +word is neuter, corresponding to the Latin _numen_, in the Christian +applications it becomes masculine, and that even where the earlier +neuter form is still kept, as in Gothic and Old Norwegian, the +construction is masculine. Popular etymology has connected the word with +"good"; this is exemplified by the corruption of "God be with you" into +"good-bye." "God" is a word common to all Teutonic languages. In Gothic +it is _Guth_; Dutch has the same form as English; Danish and Swedish +have _Gud_, German _Gott_. According to the _New English Dictionary_, +the original may be found in two Aryan roots, both of the form _gheu_, +one of which means "to invoke," the other "to pour" (cf. Gr. [Greek: +cheein]); the last is used of sacrificial offerings. The word would thus +mean the object either of religious invocation or of religious worship +by sacrifice. It has been also suggested that the word might mean a +"molten image" from the sense of "pour." + + See RELIGION; HEBREW RELIGION; THEISM, &c. + + + + +GODALMING, a market-town and municipal borough in the Guildford +parliamentary division of Surrey, England, 34 m. S.W. of London by the +London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 8748. It is beautifully +situated on the right bank of the Wey, which is navigable thence to the +Thames, and on the high road between London and Portsmouth. Steep hills, +finely wooded, enclose the valley. The chief public buildings are the +church of SS. Peter and Paul, a cruciform building of mixed +architecture, but principally Early English and Perpendicular; the +town-hall, Victoria hall, and market-house, and a technical institute +and school of science and art. Charterhouse School, one of the principal +English public schools, originally founded in 1611, was transferred from +Charterhouse Square, London, to Godalming in 1872. It stands within +grounds 92 acres in extent, half a mile north of Godalming, and consists +of spacious buildings in Gothic style, with a chapel, library and hall, +besides boarding-houses, masters' houses and sanatoria. (See +CHARTERHOUSE.) Godalming has manufactures of paper, leather, parchment +and hosiery, and some trade in corn, malt, bark, hoops and timber; and +the Bargate stone, of which the parish church is built, is still +quarried. The borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. +Area, 812 acres. + +Godalming (Godelminge) belonged to King Alfred, and was a royal manor at +the time of Domesday. The manor belonged to the see of Salisbury in the +middle ages, but reverted to the crown in the time of Henry VIII. +Godalming was incorporated by Elizabeth in 1574, when the borough +originated. The charter was confirmed by James I. in 1620, and a fresh +charter was granted by Charles II. in 1666. The borough was never +represented in parliament. The bishop of Salisbury in 1300 received the +grant of a weekly market to be held on Mondays: the day was altered to +Wednesday by Elizabeth's charter. The bishop's grant included a fair at +the feast of St Peter and St Paul (29th of June). Another fair at +Candlemas (2nd of February) was granted by Elizabeth. The market is +still held. The making of cloth, particularly Hampshire kerseys, was the +staple industry of Godalming in the middle ages, but it began to decay +early in the 17th century and by 1850 was practically extinct. As in +other cases, dyeing was subsidiary to the cloth industry. Tanning, +introduced in the 15th century, survives. The present manufacture of +fleecy hosiery dates from the end of the 18th century. + + + + +GODARD, BENJAMIN LOUIS PAUL (1849-1895); French composer, was born in +Paris, on the 18th of August 1849. He studied at the Conservatoire, and +competed for the Prix de Rome without success in 1866 and 1867. He began +by publishing a number of songs, many of which are charming, such as "Je +ne veux pas d'autres choses," "Ninon," "Chanson de Florian," also a +quantity of piano pieces, some chamber music, including several violin +sonatas, a trio for piano and strings, a quartet for strings, a violin +concerto and a second work of the same kind entitled "Concerto +Romantique." Godard's chance arrived in the year 1878, when with his +dramatic cantata, _Le Tasse_, he shared with M. Theodore Dubois the +honour of winning the musical competition instituted by the city of +Paris. From that time until his death Godard composed a surprisingly +large number of works, including four operas, _Pedro de Zalamea_, +produced at Antwerp in 1884; _Jocelyn_, given in Paris at the Theatre du +Chateau d'Eau, in 1888; _Dante_, played at the Opera Comique two years +later; and _La Vivandiere_, left unfinished and partly scored by another +hand. This last work was heard at the Opera Comique in 1895, and has +been played in England by the Carl Rosa Opera Company. His other works +include the "Symphonie legendaire," "Symphonie gothique," "Diane" and +various orchestral works. Godard's productivity was enormous, and his +compositions are, for this reason only, decidedly unequal. He was at his +best in works of smaller dimensions, and has left many exquisite songs. +Among his more ambitious works the "Symphonie legendaire" may be singled +out as being one of the most distinctive. He had a decided +individuality, and his premature death at Cannes on the 10th of January +1895 was a loss to French art. + + + + +GODAVARI, a river of central and western India. It flows across the +Deccan from the Western to the Eastern Ghats; its total length is 900 +m., the estimated area of its drainage basin, 112,200 sq. m. Its +traditional source is on the side of a hill behind the village of +Trimbak in Nasik district, Bombay, where the water runs into a +reservoir from the lips of an image. But according to popular legend it +proceeds from the same ultimate source as the Ganges, though +underground. Its course is generally south-easterly. After passing +through Nasik district, it crosses into the dominions of the nizam of +Hyderabad. When it again strikes British territory it is joined by the +Pranhita, with its tributaries the Wardha, the Penganga and Wainganga. +For some distance it flows between the nizam's dominions and the Upper +Godavari district, and receives the Indravati, the Tal and the Sabari. +The stream has here a channel varying from 1 to 2 m. in breadth, +occasionally broken by alluvial islands. Parallel to the river stretch +long ranges of hills. Below the junction of the Sabari the channel +begins to contract. The flanking hills gradually close in on both sides, +and the result is a magnificent gorge only 200 yds. wide through which +the water flows into the plain of the delta, about 60 m. from the sea. +The head of the delta is at the village of Dowlaishweram, where the main +stream is crossed by the irrigation anicut. The river has seven mouths, +the largest being the Gautami Godavari. The Godavari is regarded as +peculiarly sacred, and once every twelve years the great bathing +festival called _Pushkaram_ is held on its banks at Rajahmundry. + +The upper waters of the Godavari are scarcely utilized for irrigation, +but the entire delta has been turned into a garden of perennial crops by +means of the anicut at Dowlaishweram, constructed by Sir Arthur Cotton, +from which three main canals are drawn off. The river channel here is +3-1/2 m. wide. The anicut is a substantial mass of stone, bedded in lime +cement, about 2-1/4 m. long, 130 ft. broad at the base, and 12 ft. high. +The stream is thus pent back so as to supply a volume of 3000 cubic ft. +of water per second during its low season, and 12,000 cubic ft. at time +of flood. The main canals have a total length of 493 m., irrigating +662,000 acres, and all navigable; and there are 1929 m. of distributary +channels. In 1864 water-communication was opened between the deltas of +the Godavari and Kistna. Rocky barriers and rapids obstruct navigation +in the upper portion of the Godavari. Attempts have been made to +construct canals round these barriers with little success, and the +undertaking has been abandoned. + + + + +GODAVARI, a district of British India, in the north-east of the Madras +presidency. It was remodelled in 1907-1908, when part of it was +transferred to Kistna district. Its present area is 5634 sq. m. Its +territory now lies mainly east of the Godavari river, including the +entire delta, with a long narrow strip extending up its valley. The apex +of the delta is at Dowlaishweram, where a great dam renders the waters +available for irrigation. Between this point and the coast there is a +vast extent of rice fields. Farther inland, and enclosing the valley of +the great river, are low hills, steep and forest-clad. The north-eastern +part, known as the Agency tract, is occupied by spurs of the Eastern +Ghats. The coast is low, sandy and swampy, the sea very shallow, so that +vessels must lie nearly 5 m. from Cocanada, the chief port. The Sabari +is the principal tributary of the Godavari within the district. The +Godavari often rises in destructive floods. The population of the +present area in 1901 was 1,445,961. In the old district the increase +during the last decade was 11%. The chief towns are Cocanada and +Rajahmundry. The forests are of great value; coal is known, and graphite +is worked. The population is principally occupied in agriculture, the +principal crops being rice, oil-seeds, tobacco and sugar. The cigars +known in England as Lunkas are partly made from tobacco grown on +_lankas_ or islands in the river Godavari. Sugar (from the juice of the +palmyra palm) and rum are made by European processes at Samalkot. The +administrative headquarters are now at Cocanada, the chief seaport; but +Rajahmundry, at the head of the delta, is the old capital. A large but +decreasing trade is conducted at Cocanada, rice being shipped to +Mauritius and Ceylon, and cotton and oil-seeds to Europe. Rice-cleaning +mills have been established here and at other places. The district is +traversed by the main line of the East Coast railway, with a branch to +Cocanada; the iron girder bridge of forty-two spans over the Godavari +river near Rajahmundry was opened in 1900. There is a government college +at Rajahmundry, with a training college attached, and an aided college +at Cocanada. + +The Godavari district formed part of the Andhra division of Dravida, the +north-west portion being subject to the Orissa kings, and the +south-western belonging to the Vengi kingdom. For centuries it was the +battlefield on which various chiefs fought for independence with varying +success till the beginning of the 16th century, when the whole country +may be said to have passed under Mahommedan power. At the conclusion of +the struggle with the French in the Carnatic, Godavari with the Northern +Circars was conquered by the English, and finally ceded by imperial +_sanad_ in 1765. The district was constituted in 1859, by the +redistribution of the territory comprising the former districts of +Guntur, Rajahmundry and Masulipatam, into what are now the Kistna and +Godavari districts. + + See H. Morris, _District Manual_ (1878); _District Gazetteer_ (1906). + + + + +GODEFROY (GOTHOFREDUS), a French noble family, which numbered among its +members several distinguished jurists and historians. The family claimed +descent from Symon Godefroy, who was born at Mons about 1320 and was +lord of Sapigneulx near Berry-au-bac, now in the department of Aisne. + +DENIS GODEFROY (Dionysius Gothofredus) (1549-1622), jurist, son of Leon +Godefroy, lord of Guignecourt, was born in Paris on the 17th of October +1549. He was educated at the College de Navarre, and studied law at +Louvain, Cologne and Heidelberg, returning to Paris in 1573. He embraced +the reformed religion, and in 1579 left Paris, where his abilities and +connexions promised a brilliant career, to establish himself at Geneva. +He became professor of law there, received the freedom of the city in +1580; and in 1587 became a member of the Council of the Two Hundred. +Henry IV. induced him to return to France by making him _grand bailli_ +of Gex, but no sooner had he installed himself than the town was sacked +and his library burnt by the troops of the duke of Savoy. In 1591 he +became professor of Roman law at Strassburg, where he remained until +April 1600, when in response to an invitation from Frederick IV., +elector palatine, he removed to Heidelberg. The difficulties of his +position led to his return to Strassburg for a short time, but in +November 1604 he definitely settled at Heidelberg. He was made head of +the faculty of law in the university, and was from time to time employed +on missions to the French court. His repeated refusal of offers of +advancement in his own country was due to his Calvinism. He died at +Strassburg on the 7th of September 1622, having left Heidelberg before +the city was sacked by the imperial troops in 1621. His most important +work was the _Corpus juris civilis_, originally published at Geneva in +1583, which went through some twenty editions, the most valuable of them +being that printed by the Elzevirs at Amsterdam in 1633 and the Leipzig +edition of 1740. + + Lists of his other learned works may be found in Senebier's _Hist. + litt. de Geneve_, vol. ii., and in Niceron's _Memoires_, vol. xvii. + Some of his correspondence with his learned friends, with his kinsman + President de Thou, Isaac Casaubon, Jean Jacques Grynaeus and others, + is preserved in the libraries of the British Museum, of Basel and + Paris. + +His eldest son, THEODORE GODEFROY (1580-1649), was born at Geneva on the +14th of July 1580. He abjured Calvinism, and was called to the bar in +Paris. He became historiographer of France in 1613, and was employed +from time to time on diplomatic missions. He was employed at the +congress of Munster, where he remained after the signing of peace in +1648 as charge d'affaires until his death on the 5th of October of the +next year. His most important work is _Le Ceremonial de France ..._ +(1619), a work which became a classic on the subject of royal +ceremonial, and was re-edited by his son in an enlarged edition in 1649. + + Besides his printed works he made vast collections of historical + material which remains in MS. and fills the greater part of the + Godefroy collection of over five hundred portfolios in the Library of + the Institute in Paris. These were catalogued by Ludovic Lalanne in + the _Annuaire Bulletin_ (1865-1866 and 1892) of the _Societe de + l'histoire de France_. + + +The second son of Denis, JACQUES GODEFROY (1587-1652), jurist, was born +at Geneva on the 13th of September 1587. He was sent to France in 1611, +and studied law and history at Bourges and Paris. He remained faithful +to the Calvinist persuasion, and soon returned to Geneva, where he +became active in public affairs. He was secretary of state from 1632 to +1636, and syndic or chief magistrate in 1637, 1641, 1645 and 1649. He +died on the 23rd of June 1652. In addition to his civic and political +work he lectured on law, and produced, after thirty years of labour, his +edition of the _Codex Theodosianus_. This code formed the principal, +though not the only, source of the legal systems of the countries formed +from the Western Empire. Godefroy's edition was enriched with a +multitude of important notes and historical comments, and became a +standard authority on the decadent period of the Western Empire. It was +only printed thirteen years after his death under the care of his friend +Antoine Marville at Lyons (4 vols. 1665), and was reprinted at Leipzig +(6 vols.) in 1736-1745. Of his numerous other works the most important +was the reconstruction of the twelve tables of early Roman law. + + See also the dictionary of Moreri, Niceron's _Memoires_ (vol. 17) and + a notice in the _Bibliotheque universelle de Geneve_ (Dec. 1837). + +DENIS GODEFROY (1615-1681), eldest son of Theodore, succeeded his father +as historiographer of France, and re-edited various chronicles which had +been published by him. He was entrusted by Colbert with the care and +investigation of the records concerning the Low Countries preserved at +Lille, where great part of his life was spent. He was also the historian +of the reigns of Charles VII. and Charles VIII. + +Other members of the family who attained distinction in the same branch +of learning were the two sons of Denis Godefroy--Denis (1653-1719), also +an historian, and Jean, sieur d'Aumont (1656-1732), who edited the +letters of Louis XII., the memoirs of Marguerite de Valois, of Castelnau +and Pierre de l'Estoile, and left some useful material for the history +of the Low Countries; Jean Baptiste Achille Godefroy, sieur de Maillart +(1697-1759), and Denis Joseph Godefroy, sieur de Maillart (1740-1819), +son and grandson of Jean Godefroy, who were both officials at Lille, and +left valuable historical documents which have remained in MS. + + For further details see _Les Savants Godefroy_ (Paris, 1873) by the + marquis de Godefroy-Menilglaise, son of Denis Joseph Godefroy. + + + + +GODESBERG, a spa of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the left +bank of the Rhine, almost opposite Konigswinter, and 4 m. S. of Bonn, on +the railway to Coblenz. It is a fashionable summer resort, and contains +numerous pretty villas, the residences of merchants from Cologne, +Elberfeld, Crefeld and other Rhenish manufacturing centres. It has an +Evangelical and three Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue and several +educational establishments. Its chalybeate springs annually attract a +large number of visitors, and the pump-room, baths and public grounds +are arranged on a sumptuous scale. On a conical basalt hill, close by, +are the ruins, surmounted by a picturesque round tower, of Godesberg +castle. Built by Archbishop Dietrich I. of Cologne in the 13th century, +it was destroyed by the Bavarians in 1583. + + See Dennert, _Godesberg, eine Perle des Rheins_ (Godesberg, 1900). + + + + +GODET, FREDERIC LOUIS (1812-1900), Swiss Protestant theologian, was born +at Neuchatel on the 25th of October 1812. After studying theology at +Neuchatel, Bonn and Berlin, he was in 1850 appointed professor of +theology at Neuchatel. From 1851 to 1866 he also held a pastorate. In +1873 he became one of the founders of the free Evangelical Church of +Neuchatel, and professor in its theological faculty. He died there on +the 29th of October 1900. A conservative scholar, Godet was the author +of some of the most noteworthy French commentaries published in recent +times. + + His commentaries are on the Gospel of St John (2 vols., 1863-1865; 3rd + ed., 1881-1888; Eng. trans. 1886, &c.); St Luke (2 vols., 1871; 3rd + ed., 1888; Eng. trans. 1875, &c.); the Epistle to the Romans (2 vols., + 1879-1880; 2nd ed., 1883-1890; Eng. trans., 1880, &c.); Corinthians (2 + vols., 1886-1887; Eng. trans. 1886, &c.). His other works include + _Etudes bibliques_ (2 vols., 1873-1874; 4th ed., 1889; Eng. trans. + 1875 f.), and _Introduction au Nouveau Testament_ (1893 f.; Eng. + trans., 1894, &c.); _Lectures in Defence of the Christian Faith_ (Eng. + trans. 4th ed., 1900). + + + + +GODFREY, SIR EDMUND BERRY (1621-1678), English magistrate and +politician, younger son of Thomas Godfrey (1586-1664), a member of an +old Kentish family, was born on the 23rd of December 1621. He was +educated at Westminster school and at Christ Church, Oxford, and after +entering Gray's Inn became a dealer in wood. His business prospered. He +was made a justice of the peace for the city of Westminster, and in +September 1666 was knighted as a reward for his services as magistrate +and citizen during the great plague in London; but in 1669 he was +imprisoned for a few days for instituting the arrest of the king's +physician, Sir Alexander Fraizer (d. 1681), who owed him money. The +tragic events in Godfrey's life began in September 1678 when Titus Oates +and two other men appeared before him with written information about the +_Popish Plot_, and swore to the truth of their statements. During the +intense excitement which followed the magistrate expressed a fear that +his life was in danger, but took no extra precautions for safety. On the +12th of October he did not return home as usual, and on the 17th his +body was found on Primrose Hill, Hampstead. Medical and other evidence +made it certain that he had been murdered, and the excited populace +regarded the deed as the work of the Roman Catholics. Two committees +investigated the occurrence without definite result, but in December +1678 a certain Miles Prance, who had been arrested for conspiracy, +confessed that he had shared in the murder. According to Prance the deed +was instigated by some Roman Catholic priests, three of whom witnessed +the murder, and was committed in the courtyard of Somerset House, where +Godfrey was strangled by Robert Green, Lawrence Hill and Henry Berry, +the body being afterwards taken to Hampstead. The three men were +promptly arrested; the evidence of the informer William Bedloe, although +contradictory, was similar on a few points to that of Prance, and in +February 1679 they were hanged. Soon afterwards, however, some doubt was +cast upon this story; a war of words ensued between Prance and others, +and it was freely asserted that Godfrey had committed suicide. Later the +falsehood of Prance's confession was proved and Prance pleaded guilty to +perjury; but the fact remains that Godfrey was murdered. Godfrey was an +excellent magistrate, and was very charitable both in public and in +private life. Mr John Pollock, in the _Popish Plot_ (London, 1903), +confirms the view that the three men, Green, Hill and Berry, were +wrongfully executed, and thinks the murder was committed by some Jesuits +aided by Prance. Godfrey was feared by the Jesuits because he knew, +through Oates, that on the 24th of April 1678 a Jesuit congregation had +met at the residence of the duke of York to concert plans for the king's +murder. He concludes thus: "The success of Godfrey's murder as a +political move is indubitable. The duke of York was the pivot of the +Roman Catholic scheme in England, and Godfrey's death saved both from +utter ruin." On the other hand Mr Alfred Marks in his _Who killed Sir E. +B. Godfrey?_ (1905) maintains that suicide was the cause of Godfrey's +death. + + See the article OATES, TITUS, also R. Tuke, _Memoirs of the Life and + Death of Sir Edmondbury Godfrey_ (London, 1682); and G. Burnet, + _History of my Own Time; The Reign of Charles II._, edited by O. Airy + (Oxford, 1900). + + + + +GODFREY OF BOUILLON (c. 1060-1100), a leader in the First Crusade, was +the second son of Eustace II., count of Boulogne, by his marriage with +Ida, daughter of Duke Godfrey II. of Lower Lorraine. He was designated +by Duke Godfrey as his successor; but the emperor Henry IV. gave him +only the mark of Antwerp, in which the lordship of Bouillon was included +(1076). He fought for Henry, however, both on the Elster and in the +siege of Rome; and he was invested in 1082 with the duchy of Lower +Lorraine. Lorraine had been penetrated by Cluniac influences, and +Godfrey would seem to have been a man of notable piety. Accordingly, +though he had himself served as an imperialist, and though the Germans +in general had little sympathy with the Crusaders (_subsannabant ... +quasi delirantes_), Godfrey, nevertheless, when the call came "to +follow Christ," almost literally sold all that he had, and followed. +Along with his brothers Eustace and Baldwin (the future Baldwin I. of +Jerusalem) he led a German contingent, some 40,000 strong, along +"Charlemagne's road," through Hungary to Constantinople, starting in +August 1096, and arriving at Constantinople, after some difficulties in +Hungary, in November. He was the first of the crusading princes to +arrive, and on him fell the duty of deciding what the relations of the +princes to the eastern emperor Alexius were to be. Eventually, after +several disputes and some fighting, he did homage to Alexius in January +1097; and his example was followed by the other princes. From this time +until the beginning of 1099 Godfrey appears as one of the minor princes, +plodding onwards, and steadily fighting, while men like Bohemund and +Raymund, Baldwin and Tancred were determining the course of events. + +In 1099 he came once more to the front. The mass of the crusaders became +weary of the political factions which divided some of their leaders; and +Godfrey, who was more of a pilgrim than a politician, becomes the +natural representative of this feeling. He was thus able to force the +reluctant Raymund to march southward to Jerusalem; and he took a +prominent part in the siege, his division being the first to enter when +the city was captured. It was natural therefore that, when Raymund of +Provence refused the offered dignity, Godfrey should be elected ruler of +Jerusalem (July 22, 1099). He assumed the title not of king, but of +"advocate"[1] of the Holy Sepulchre. The new dignity proved still more +onerous than honourable; and during his short reign of a year Godfrey +had to combat the Arabs of Egypt, and the opposition of Raymund and the +patriarch Dagobert. He was successful In repelling the Egyptian attack +at the battle of Ascalon (August 1099); but he failed, owing to +Raymund's obstinacy and greed, to acquire the town of Ascalon after the +battle. Left alone, at the end of the autumn, with an army of some 2000 +men, Godfrey was yet able, in the spring of 1100, probably with the aid +of new pilgrims, to exact tribute from towns like Acre, Ascalon, Arsuf +and Caesarea. But already, at the end of 1099 Dagobert, archbishop of +Pisa, had been substituted as patriarch for Arnulf (who had been acting +as vicar) by the influence of Bohemund; and Dagobert, whose vassal +Godfrey had at once piously acknowledged himself, seems to have forced +him to an agreement in April 1100, by which he promised Jerusalem and +Jaffa to the patriarch, in case he should acquire in their place Cairo +or some other town, or should die without issue. Thus were the +foundations of a theocracy laid in Jerusalem; and when Godfrey died +(July 1100) he left the question to be decided, whether a theocracy or a +monarchy should be the government of the Holy Land. + +Because he had been the first ruler in Jerusalem Godfrey was idolized in +later saga. He was depicted as the leader of the crusades, the king of +Jerusalem, the legislator who laid down the assizes of Jerusalem. He was +none of these things. Bohemund was the leader of the crusades; Baldwin +was first king; the assizes were the result of a gradual development. In +still other ways was the figure of Godfrey idealized by the grateful +tradition of later days; but in reality he would seem to have been a +quiet, pious, hard-fighting knight, who was chosen to rule in Jerusalem +because he had no dangerous qualities, and no obvious defects. + + LITERATURE.--The narrative of Albert of Aix may be regarded as + presenting the Lotharingian point of view, as the _Gesta_ presents the + Norman, and Raymund of Agiles the Provencal. The career of Godfrey has + been discussed in modern times by R. Rohricht, _Die Deutschen im + heiligen Lande_, Band ii., and _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges, + passim_ (Innsbruck, 1901). (E. Br.) + +_Romances._--Godfrey was the principal hero of two French _chansons de +geste_ dealing with the Crusade, the _Chanson d'Antioche_ (ed. P. Paris, +2 vols., 1848) and the _Chanson de Jerusalem_ (ed. C. Hippeau, 1868), +and other poems, containing less historical material, were subsequently +added. In addition the parentage and early exploits of Godfrey were made +the subject of legend. His grandfather was said to be Helias, knight of +the Swan, one of the brothers whose adventures are well known, though +with some variation, in the familiar fairy tale of "The Seven Swans." +Helias, drawn by the swan, one day disembarked at Nijmwegen, and +reconquered her territory for the duchess of Bouillon. Marrying her +daughter he exacted a promise that his wife should not inquire into his +origin. The tale, which is almost identical with the Lohengrin legend, +belongs to the class of the Cupid and Psyche narratives. See LOHENGRIN. + + See also C. Hippeau, _Le Chevalier au cygne_ (Paris, 2 vols., + 1874-1877); H. Pigeonneau, _Le Cycle de la croisade et de la famille + de Bouillon_ (1877); W. Golther, "Lohengrin," in _Roman. Forsch._ + (vol. v., 1889); _Hist. litt. de la France_, vol. xxii. pp. 350-402; + the English romance of _Helyas, Knyghte of the Swanne_ was printed by + W. Copland about 1550. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] An "advocate" was a layman who had been invested with part of an + ecclesiastic estate, on condition that he defended the rest, and + exercised the blood-ban in lieu of the ecclesiastical owner (see + ADVOCATE, sec. _Advocatus ecclesiae_). + + + + +GODFREY OF VITERBO (c. 1120-c. 1196), chronicler, was probably an +Italian by birth, although some authorities assert that he was a Saxon. +He evidently passed some of his early life at Viterbo, where also he +spent his concluding days, but he was educated at Bamberg, gaining a +good knowledge of Latin. About 1140 he became chaplain to the German +king, Conrad III.; but the greater part of his life was spent as +secretary (_notarius_) in the service of the emperor Frederick I., who +appears to have thoroughly trusted him, and who employed him on many +diplomatic errands. Incessantly occupied, he visited Sicily, France and +Spain, in addition to many of the German cities, in the emperor's +interests, and was by his side during several of the Italian campaigns. +Both before and after Frederick's death in 1190 he enjoyed the favour of +his son, the emperor Henry VI., for whom he wrote his _Speculum regum_, +a work of very little value. Godfrey also wrote _Memoria seculorum_, or +_Liber memorialis_, a chronicle dedicated to Henry VI., which professes +to record the history of the world from the creation until 1185. It is +written partly in prose and partly in verse. A revision of this work was +drawn up by Godfrey himself as _Pantheon_, or _Universitatis libri qui +chronici appellantur_. The author borrowed from Otto of Freising, but +the earlier part of his chronicle is full of imaginary occurrences. +_Pantheon_ was first printed in 1559, and extracts from it are published +by L. A. Muratori in the _Rerum Italicarum scriptores_, tome vii. +(Milan, 1725). The only part of Godfrey's work which is valuable is the +_Gesta Friderici I._, verses relating events in the emperor's career +from 1155 to 1180. Concerned mainly with affairs in Italy, the poem +tells of the sieges of Milan, of Frederick's flight to Pavia in 1167, of +the treaty with Pope Alexander III. at Venice, and of other stirring +episodes with which the author was intimately acquainted, and many of +which he had witnessed. Attached to the _Gesta Friderici_ is the _Gesta +Heinrici VI._, a shorter poem which is often attributed to Godfrey, +although W. Wattenbach and other authorities think it was not written by +him. The _Memoria seculorum_ was very popular during the middle ages, +and has been continued by several writers. + + Godfrey's works are found in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_, Band + xxii. (Hanover, 1872). The _Gesta Friderici I. et Heinrici VI._ is + published separately with an introduction by G. Waitz (Hanover, 1872). + See also H. Ulmann, _Gotfried von Viterbo_ (Gottingen, 1863), and W. + Wattenbach, _Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen_, Band ii. (Berlin, 1894). + (A. W. H.*) + + + + +GODHRA, a town of British India, administrative headquarters of the +Panch Mahals district of Bombay, and also of the Rewa Kantha political +agency; situated 52 m. N.E. of Baroda on the railway from Anand to +Ratlam. Pop. (1901) 20,915. It has a trade in timber from the +neighbouring forests. + + + + +GODIN, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRE (1817-1888), French socialist, was born on +the 26th of January 1817 at Esqueheries (Aisne). The son of an artisan, +he entered an iron-works at an early age, and at seventeen made a tour +of France as journeyman. Returning to Esqueheries in 1837, he started a +small factory for the manufacture of castings for heating-stoves. The +business increased rapidly, and for the purpose of railway facilities +was transferred to Guise in 1846. At the time of Godin's death in 1888 +the annual output was over four millions of francs (L160,000), and in +1908 the employees numbered over 2000 and the output was over L280,000. +An ardent disciple of Fourier, he advanced a considerable sum of money +towards the disastrous Fourierist experiment of V. P. Considerant (q.v.) +in Texas. He profited, however, by its failure, and in 1859 started the +_familistere_ or community settlement of Guise on more carefully laid +plans. It comprises, in addition to the workshops, three large +buildings, four storeys high, capable of housing all the work-people, +each family having two or three rooms. Attached to each building is a +vast central court, covered with a glass roof, under which the children +can play in all weathers. There are also creches, nurseries, hospital, +refreshment rooms and recreation rooms of various kinds, stores for the +purchase of groceries, drapery and every necessity, and a large theatre +for concerts and dramatic entertainments. In 1880 the whole was turned +into a co-operative society, with provision by which it eventually +became the property of the workers. In 1871 Godin was elected deputy for +Aisne, but retired in 1876 to devote himself to the management of the +_familistere_. In 1882 he was created a knight of the legion of honour. + + Godin was the author of _Solutions sociales_ (1871); _Les Socialistes + et les droits du travail_ (1874); _Mutualite sociale_ (1880); _La + Republique du travail et la reforme parlementaire_ (1889). See + Bernardot, _Le Familistere de Guise et son fondateur_ (Paris, 1887); + Fischer, _Die Familistere Godin's_ (Berlin, 1890); Lestelle, _Etude + sur le familistere de Guise_ (Paris, 1904); D. F. P., _Le Familistere + illustre, resultats de vingt ans d'association_, 1880-1900 (Eng. + trans., _Twenty-eight years of co-partnership at Guise_, by A. + Williams, 1908). + + + + +GODIVA, a Saxon lady, who, according to the legend, rode naked through +the streets of Coventry to gain from her husband a remission of the +oppressive toll imposed on his tenants. The story is that she was the +beautiful wife of Leofric, earl of Mercia and lord of Coventry. The +people of that city suffering grievously under the earl's oppressive +taxation, Lady Godiva appealed again and again to her husband, who +obstinately refused to remit the tolls. At last, weary of her +entreaties, he said he would grant her request if she would ride naked +through the streets of the town. Lady Godiva took him at his word, and +after issuing a proclamation that all persons should keep within doors +or shut their windows, she rode through, clothed only in her long hair. +One person disobeyed her proclamation, a tailor, ever afterwards known +as Peeping Tom. He bored a hole in his shutters that he might see Godiva +pass, and is said to have been struck blind. Her husband kept his word +and abolished the obnoxious taxes. + +The oldest form of the legend makes Godiva pass through Coventry market +from one end to the other when the people were assembled, attended only +by two soldiers, her long hair down so that none saw her, "apparentibus +cruribus tamen candidissimis." This version is given in _Flores +historiarum_ by Roger of Wendover, who quoted from an earlier writer. +The later story, with its episode of Peeping Tom, has been evolved by +later chroniclers. Whether the lady Godiva of this story is the Godiva +or Godgifu of history is undecided. That a lady of this name existed in +the early part of the 11th century is certain, as evidenced by several +ancient documents, such as the Stow charter, the Spalding charter and +the Domesday survey, though the spelling of the name varies +considerably. It would appear from _Liber Eliensis_ (end of 12th +century) that she was a widow when Leofric married her in 1040. In or +about that year she aided in the founding of a monastery at Stow, +Lincolnshire. In 1043 she persuaded her husband to build and endow a +Benedictine monastery at Coventry. Her mark, "[cross] Ego Godiva +Comitissa diu istud desideravi," was found on the charter given by her +brother, Thorold of Bucknall--sheriff of Lincolnshire--to the +Benedictine monastery of Spalding in 1051; and she is commemorated as +benefactress of other monasteries at Leominster, Chester, Wenlock, +Worcester and Evesham. She probably died a few years before the Domesday +survey (1085-1086), and was buried in one of the porches of the abbey +church. Dugdale (1656) says that a window, with representations of +Leofric and Godiva, was placed in Trinity Church, Coventry, about the +time of Richard II. The Godiva procession, a commemoration of the +legendary ride instituted on the 31st of May 1678 as part of Coventry +fair, was celebrated at intervals until 1826. From 1848 to 1887 it was +revived, and recently further attempts have been made to popularize the +pageant. The wooden effigy of Peeping Tom which, since 1812, has looked +out on the world from a house at the north-west corner of Hertford +Street, Coventry, represents a man in armour, and was probably an image +of St George. It was removed from another part of the town to its +present position. + + + + +GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE (1831-1902), American publicist, was born in +Moyne, county Wicklow, Ireland, on the 2nd of October 1831. His father, +James Godkin, was a Presbyterian minister and a journalist, and the son, +after graduating in 1851 at Queen's College, Belfast, and studying law +in London, was in 1853-1855 war correspondent for the London _Daily +News_ in Turkey and Russia, being present at the capture of Sevastopol, +and late in 1856 went to America and wrote letters to the same journal, +giving his impressions of a tour of the southern states of the American +Union. He studied law in New York City, was admitted to the bar in 1859, +travelled in Europe in 1860-1862, wrote for the London _News_ and the +New York _Times_ in 1862-1865, and in 1865 founded in New York City the +_Nation_, a weekly projected by him long before, for which Charles Eliot +Norton gained friends in Boston and James Miller McKim (1810-1874) in +Philadelphia, and which Godkin edited until the end of the year 1899. In +1881 he sold the _Nation_ to the New York _Evening Post_, and became an +associate editor of the _Post_, of which he was editor-in-chief in +1883-1899, succeeding Carl Schurz. In the 'eighties he engaged in a +controversy with Goldwin Smith over the Irish question. Under his +leadership the _Post_ broke with the Republican party in the +presidential campaign of 1884, when Godkin's opposition to Blaine did +much to create the so-called Mugwump party (see MUGWUMP), and his organ +became thoroughly independent, as was seen when it attacked the +Venezuelan policy of President Cleveland, who had in so many ways +approximated the ideal of the _Post_ and _Nation_. He consistently +advocated currency reform, the gold basis, a tariff for revenue only, +and civil service reform, rendering the greatest aid to the last cause. +His attacks on Tammany Hall were so frequent and so virulent that in +1894 he was sued for libel because of biographical sketches of certain +leaders in that organization--cases which never came up for trial. His +opposition to the war with Spain and to imperialism was able and +forcible. He retired from his editorial duties on the 30th of December +1899, and sketched his career in the _Evening Post_ of that date. +Although he recovered from a severe apoplectic stroke early in 1900, his +health was shattered, and he died in Greenway, Devonshire, England, on +the 21st of May 1902. Godkin shaped the lofty and independent policy of +the _Post_ and the _Nation_, which had a small but influential and +intellectual class of readers. But as editor he had none of the personal +magnetism of Greeley, for instance, and his superiority to the influence +of popular feeling made Charles Dudley Warner style the Nation the +"weekly judgment day." He was an economist of the school of Mill, urged +the necessity of the abstraction called "economic man," and insisted +that socialism put in practice would not improve social and economic +conditions in general. In politics he was an enemy of sentimentalism and +loose theories in government. He published _A History of Hungary, A.D. +300-1850_ (1856), _Government_ (1871, in the American Science Series), +_Reflections and Comments_ (1895), _Problems of Modern Democracy_ (1896) +and _Unforeseen Tendencies of Democracy_ (1898). + + See _Life and Letters of E. L. Godkin_, edited by Rollo Ogden (2 + vols., New York, 1907). + + + + +GODMANCHESTER, a municipal borough in the southern, parliamentary +division of Huntingdonshire, England, on the right bank of the Ouse, 1 +m. S.S.E. of Huntingdon, on a branch of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. +(1901) 2017. It has a beautiful Perpendicular church (St Mary's) and an +agricultural trade, with flour mills. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 +aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 4907 acres. + +A Romano-British village occupied the site of Godmanchester. The town +(_Gumencestre, Gomecestre_) belonged to the king before the Conquest and +at the time of the Domesday survey. In 1213 King John granted the manor +to the men of the town at a fee-farm of L120 yearly, and confirmation +charters were granted by several succeeding kings, Richard II. in +1391-1392 adding exemption from toll, pannage, &c. James I. granted an +incorporation charter in 1605 under the title of bailiffs, assistants +and commonalty, but under the Municipal Reform Act of 1835 the +corporation was changed to a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. +Godmanchester was formerly included for parliamentary purposes in the +borough of Huntingdon, which has ceased to be separately represented +since 1885. The incorporation charter of 1605 recites that the burgesses +are chiefly engaged in agriculture, and grants them a fair, which still +continues every year on Tuesday in Easter week. + + See _Victoria County History, Huntingdon_; Robert Fox, _The History of + Godmanchester_ (1831). + + + + +GODOLLO, a market town of Hungary, in the county of +Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kiskun, 23 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) +5875. Godollo is the summer residence of the Hungarian royal family, and +the royal castle, built in the second half of the 18th century by Prince +Anton Grassalkovich, was, with the beautiful domain, presented by the +Hungarian nation to King Francis Joseph I. after the coronation in 1867. +In its park there are a great number of stags and wild boars. Godollo is +a favourite summer resort of the inhabitants of Budapest. In its +vicinity is the famous place of pilgrimage Maria-Besnyo, with a fine +Franciscan monastery, which contains the tombs of the Grassalkovich +family. + + + + +GODOLPHIN, SIDNEY GODOLPHIN, EARL OF (c. 1645-1712), was a cadet of an +ancient family of Cornwall. At the Restoration he was introduced into +the royal household by Charles II., with whom he had previously become a +favourite, and he also at the same period entered the House of Commons +as member for Helston. Although he very seldom addressed the House, and, +when he did so, only in the briefest manner, he gradually acquired a +reputation as its chief if not its only financial authority. In March +1679 he was appointed a member of the privy council, and in the +September following he was promoted, along with Viscount Hyde +(afterwards earl of Rochester) and the earl of Sunderland, to the chief +management of affairs. Though he voted for the Exclusion Bill in 1680, +he was continued in office after the dismissal of Sunderland, and in +September 1684 he was created Baron Godolphin of Rialton, and succeeded +Rochester as first lord of the treasury. After the accession of James +II. he was made chamberlain to the queen, and, along with Rochester and +Sunderland, enjoyed the king's special confidence. In 1687 he was named +commissioner of the treasury. He was one of the council of five +appointed by King James to represent him in London, when he went to join +the army after the landing of William, prince of Orange, in England, +and, along with Halifax and Nottingham, he was afterwards appointed a +commissioner to treat with the prince. On the accession of William, +though he only obtained the third seat at the treasury board, he had +virtually the chief control of affairs. He retired in March 1690, but +was recalled on the November following and appointed first lord. While +holding this office he for several years continued, in conjunction with +Marlborough, a treacherous intercourse with James II., and is said even +to have anticipated Marlborough in disclosing to James intelligence +regarding the intended expedition against Brest. Godolphin was not only +a Tory by inheritance, but had a romantic admiration for the wife of +James II. He also wished to be safe whatever happened, and his treachery +in this case was mostly due to caution. After Fenwick's confession in +1696 regarding the attempted assassination of William III., Godolphin, +who was compromised, was induced to tender his resignation; but when the +Tories came into power in 1700, he was again appointed lord treasurer +and retained office for about a year. Though not a favourite with Queen +Anne, he was, after her accession, appointed to his old office, on the +strong recommendation of Marlborough. He also in 1704 received the +honour of knighthood, and in December 1706 he was created Viscount +Rialton and earl of Godolphin. Though a Tory he had an active share in +the intrigues which gradually led to the predominance of the Whigs in +alliance with Marlborough. The influence of the Marlboroughs with the +queen was, however, gradually supplanted by that of Mrs Masham and +Harley, earl of Oxford, and with the fortunes of the Marlboroughs those +of Godolphin were indissolubly united. The services of both were so +appreciated by the nation that they were able for a time to regard the +loss of the queen's favour with indifference, and even in 1708 to +procure the expulsion of Harley from office; but after the Tory reaction +which followed the impeachment of Dr Sacheverel, who abused Godolphin +under the name of Volpone, the queen made use of the opportunity to take +the initiatory step towards delivering herself from the irksome thraldom +of Marlborough by abruptly dismissing Godolphin from office on the 7th +of August 1710. He died on the 15th of September 1712. + +Godolphin owed his rise to power and his continuance in it under four +sovereigns chiefly to his exceptional mastery of financial matters; for +if latterly he was in some degree indebted for his promotion to the +support of Marlborough, he received that support mainly because +Marlborough recognized that for the prosecution of England's foreign +wars his financial abilities were an indispensable necessity. He was +cool, reserved and cautious, but his prudence was less associated with +high sagacity than traceable to the weakness of his personal antipathies +and prejudices, and his freedom from political predilections. Perhaps it +was his unlikeness to Marlborough in that moral characteristic which so +tainted Marlborough's greatness that rendered possible between them a +friendship so intimate and undisturbed: he was, it would appear, +exceptionally devoid of the passion of avarice; and so little advantage +did he take of his opportunities of aggrandizement that, though his +style of living was unostentatious,--and in connexion with his favourite +pastimes of horse-racing, card-playing and cock-fighting he gained +perhaps more than he lost,--all that he left behind him did not, +according to the duchess of Marlborough, amount to more than L12,000. + +Godolphin married Margaret Blagge, the pious lady whose life was written +by Evelyn, on the 16th of May 1675, and married again after her death in +1678. His son and successor, Francis (1678-1766), held various offices +at court, and was lord privy seal from 1735 to 1740. He married +Henrietta Churchill (d. 1733), daughter of the duke of Marlborough, who +in 1722 became in her own right duchess of Marlborough. He died without +male issue in January 1766, when the earldom became extinct, and the +estates passed to Thomas Osborne, 4th duke of Leeds, the husband of the +earl's daughter Mary, whose descendant is the present representative of +the Godolphins. + + A life of Godolphin was published in 1888 in London by the Hon. H. + Elliot. + + + + +GODOY, ALVAREZ DE FARIA, RIOS SANCHEZ Y ZARZOSA, MANUEL DE (1767-1851), +duke of El Alcudia and prince of the Peace, Spanish royal favourite and +minister, was born at Badajoz on the 12th of May 1767. His father, Don +Jose de Godoy, was the head of a very ancient but impoverished family of +nobles in Estremadura. His mother, whose maiden name was Maria Antonia +Alvarez de Faria, belonged to a Portuguese noble family. Manuel boasts +in his memoirs that he had the best masters, but it is certain that he +received only the very slight education usually given at that time to +the sons of provincial nobles. In 1784 he entered the Guardia de Corps, +a body of gentlemen who acted as the immediate body-guard of the king. +His well-built and stalwart person, his handsome foolish face, together +with a certain geniality of character which he must have possessed, +earned him the favour of Maria Luisa of Parma, the princess of Asturias, +a coarse, passionate woman who was much neglected by her husband, who on +his part cared for nothing but hunting. + +When King Charles III. died in 1788, Godoy's fortune was soon made. The +princess of Asturias, now queen, understood how to manage her husband +Charles IV. Godoy says in his memoirs that the king, who had been +carefully kept apart from affairs during his father's life, and who +disliked his father's favourite minister Floridablanca, wished to have a +creature of his own. This statement is no doubt true as far as it goes. +But it requires to be completed by the further detail that the queen put +her lover in her husband's way, and that the king was guided by them, +when he thought he was ruling for himself through a subservient +minister. In some respects King Charles was obstinate, and Godoy is +probably right in saying that he never was an absolute "viceroy," and +that he could not always secure the removal of colleagues whom he knew +to be his enemies. He could only rule by obeying. Godoy adopted without +scruple this method of pushing his fortunes. When the king was set on a +particular course, he followed it; the execution was left to him and the +queen. His pliability endeared him to his master, whose lasting +affection he earned. In practice he commonly succeeded in inspiring the +wishes which he then proceeded to gratify. From the very beginning of +the new reign he was promoted in the army with scandalous rapidity, made +duke of El Alcudia, and in 1792 minister under the premiership of +Aranda, whom he succeeded in displacing by the close of the year. + +His official life is fairly divided by himself into three periods. From +1792 to 1798 he was premier. In the latter year his unpopularity and the +intrigues of the French government, which had taken a dislike to him, +led to his temporary retirement, without, however, any diminution of the +king's personal favour. He asserts that he had no wish to return to +office, but letters sent by him to the queen show that he begged for +employment. They are written in a very unpleasant mixture of gush and +vulgar familiarity. In 1801 he returned to office, and until 1807 he was +the executant of the disastrous policy of the court. The third period of +his public life is the last year, 1807-1808, when he was desperately +striving for his place between the aggressive intervention of Napoleon +on the one hand, and the growing hatred of the nation, organized behind, +and about, the prince of Asturias, Ferdinand. On the 17th of March 1808 +a popular outbreak at Aranjuez drove him into hiding. When driven out by +hunger and thirst he was recognized and arrested. By Ferdinand's order +he was kept in prison, till Napoleon demanded that he should be sent to +Bayonne. Here he rejoined his master and mistress. He remained with them +till Charles IV. died at Rome in 1819, having survived his queen. The +rest of Godoy's life was spent in poverty and obscurity. After the death +of Ferdinand VII., in 1833, he returned to Madrid, and endeavoured to +secure the restoration of his property confiscated in 1808. Part of it +was the estate of the Soto de Roma, granted by the cortes to the duke of +Wellington. He failed, and during his last years lived on a small +pension granted him by Louis Philippe. He died in Paris on the 4th of +October 1851. + +As a favourite Godoy is remarkable for the length of his hold on the +affection of his sovereigns, and for its completeness. Latterly he was +supported rather by the husband than by the wife. He got rid of Aranda +by adopting, in order to please the king, a policy which tended to bring +on war with France. When the war proved disastrous, he made the peace of +Basel, and was created prince of the Peace for his services. Then he +helped to make war with England, and the disasters which followed only +made him dearer to the king. Indeed it became a main object with Charles +IV. to protect "Manuelito" from popular hatred, and if possible secure +him a principality. The queen endured his infidelities to her, which +were flagrant. The king arranged a marriage for him with Dona Teresa de +Bourbon, daughter of the infante Don Luis by a morganatic marriage, +though he was probably already married to Dona Josefa Tudo, and +certainly continued to live with her. Godoy, in his memoirs, lays claim +to have done much for Spanish agriculture and industry, but he did +little more than issue proclamations and appoint officers. His +intentions may have been good, but the policy of his government was +financially ruinous. In his private life he was not only profligate and +profuse, but childishly ostentatious. The best that can be said for him +is that he was good-natured, and did his best to restrain the +Inquisition and the purely reactionary parties. + + AUTHORITIES.--Godoy's _Memoirs_ were published in Spanish, English and + French in 1836. A general account of his career will be found in the + _Memoires sur la Revolution d'Espagne_, by the Abbe de Pradt (1816). + + + + +GODROON, or GADROON (Fr. _godron_, of unknown etymology), in +architecture, a convex decoration (said to be derived from raised work +on linen) applied in France to varieties of the bead and reel, in which +the bead is often carved with ornament. In England the term is +constantly used by auctioneers to describe the raised convex decorations +under the bowl of stone or terra-cotta vases. The godroons radiate from +the vertical support of the vase and rise half-way up the bowl. + + + + +GODWIN, FRANCIS (1562-1633), English divine, son of Thomas Godwin, +bishop of Bath and Wells, was born at Hannington, Northamptonshire, in +1562. He was elected student of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1578, took his +bachelor's degree in 1580, and that of master in 1583. After holding two +Somersetshire livings he was in 1587 appointed subdean of Exeter. In +1590 he accompanied William Camden on an antiquarian tour through Wales. +He was created bachelor of divinity in 1593, and doctor in 1595. In 1601 +he published his _Catalogue of the Bishops of England since the first +planting of the Christian Religion in this Island_, a work which +procured him in the same year the bishopric of Llandaff. A second +edition appeared in 1615, and in 1616 he published an edition in Latin +with a dedication to King James, who in the following year conferred +upon him the bishopric of Hereford. The work was republished, with a +continuation by William Richardson, in 1743. In 1616 Godwin published +_Rerum Anglicarum, Henrico VIII., Edwardo VI. et Maria regnantibus, +Annales_, which was afterwards translated and published by his son +Morgan under the title _Annales of England_ (1630). He is also the +author of a somewhat remarkable story, published posthumously in 1638, +and entitled _The Man in the Moone, or a Discourse of a Voyage thither, +by Domingo Gonsales_, written apparently some time between the years +1599 and 1603. In this production Godwin not only declares himself a +believer in the Copernican system, but adopts so far the principles of +the law of gravitation as to suppose that the earth's attraction +diminishes with the distance. The work, which displays considerable +fancy and wit, was translated into French, and was imitated in several +important particulars by Cyrano de Bergerac, from whom (if not from +Godwin direct) Swift obtained valuable hints in writing of Gulliver's +voyage to Laputa. Another work of Godwin's, _Nuncius inanimatus +Utopiae_, originally published in 1629 and again in 1657, seems to have +been the prototype of John Wilkins's _Mercury, or the Secret and Swift +Messenger_, which appeared in 1641. He died, after a lingering illness, +in April 1633. + + + + +GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (1759-1797), English miscellaneous writer, +was born at Hoxton, on the 27th of April 1759. Her family was of Irish +extraction, and Mary's grandfather, who was a respectable manufacturer +in Spitalfields, realized the property which his son squandered. Her +mother, Elizabeth Dixon, was Irish, and of good family. Her father, +Edward John Wollstonecraft, after dissipating the greater part of his +patrimony, tried to earn a living by farming, which only plunged him +into deeper difficulties, and he led a wandering, shifty life. The +family roamed from Hoxton to Edmonton, to Essex, to Beverley in +Yorkshire, to Laugharne, Pembrokeshire, and back to London again. + +After Mrs Wollstonecraft's death in 1780, soon followed by her husband's +second marriage, the three daughters, Mary, Everina and Eliza, sought to +earn their own livelihood. The sisters were all clever women--Mary and +Eliza far above the average--but their opportunities of culture had been +few. Mary, the eldest, went in the first instance to live with her +friend Fanny Blood, a girl of her own age, whose father, like +Wollstonecraft, was addicted to drink and dissipation. As long as she +lived with the Bloods, Mary helped Mrs Blood to earn money by taking in +needlework, while Fanny painted in watercolours. Everina went to live +with her brother Edward, and Eliza made a hasty and, as it proved, +unhappy marriage with a Mr Bishop. A legal separation was afterwards +obtained, and the sisters, together with Fanny Blood, took a house, +first at Islington, afterwards at Newington Green, and opened a school, +which was carried on with indifferent success for nearly two years. +During their residence at Newington Green, Mary was introduced to Dr +Johnson, who, as Godwin tells us, "treated her with particular kindness +and attention." + +In 1785 Fanny Blood married Hugh Skeys, a merchant, and went with him to +Lisbon, where she died in childbed after sending for Mary to nurse her. +"The loss of Fanny," as she said in a letter to Mrs Skeys's brother, +George Blood, "was sufficient of itself to have cast a cloud over my +brightest days.... I have lost all relish for pleasure, and life seems a +burden almost too heavy to be endured." Her first novel, _Mary, a +Fiction_ (1788), was intended to commemorate her friendship with Fanny. +After closing the school at Newington Green, Mary became governess in +the family of Lord Kingsborough, in Ireland. Her pupils were much +attached to her, especially Margaret King, afterwards Lady Mountcashel; +and indeed, Lady Kingsborough gave the reason for dismissing her after +one year's service that the children loved their governess better than +their mother. Mary now resolved to devote herself to literary work, and +she was encouraged by Johnson, the publisher in St Paul's churchyard, +for whom she acted as literary adviser. She also undertook translations, +chiefly from the French. _The Elements of Morality_ (1790) from the +German of Salzmann, illustrated by Blake, an old-fashioned book for +children, and Lavater's _Physiognomy_ were among her translations. Her +_Original Stories from Real Life_ were published in 1791, and, with +illustrations by Blake, in 1796. In 1792 appeared _A Vindication of the +Rights of Woman_, the work with which her name is always associated. + +It is not among the least oddities of this book that it is dedicated to +M. Talleyrand Perigord, late bishop of Autun. Mary Wollstonecraft still +believed him to be sincere, and working in the same direction as +herself. In the dedication she states the "main argument" of the work, +"built on this simple principle that, if woman be not prepared by +education to become the companion of man, she will stop the progress of +knowledge, for truth must be common to all, or it will be inefficacious +with respect to its influence or general practice." In carrying out this +argument she used great plainness of speech, and it was this that caused +all, or nearly all, the outcry. For she did not attack the institution +of marriage, nor assail orthodox religion; her book was really a plea +for equality of education, passing into one for state education and for +the joint education of the sexes. It was a protest against the +assumption that woman was only the plaything of man, and she asserted +that intellectual companionship was the chief, as it is the lasting, +happiness of marriage. She thus directly opposed the teaching of +Rousseau, of whom she was in other respects an ardent disciple. + +Mrs Wollstonecraft, as she now styled herself, desired to watch the +progress of the Revolution in France, and went to Paris in 1792. Godwin, +in his memoir of his wife, considers that the change of residence may +have been prompted by the discovery that she was becoming attached to +Henry Fuseli, but there is little to confirm this surmise; indeed, it +was first proposed that she should go to Paris in company with him and +his wife, nor was there any subsequent breach in their friendship. She +remained in Paris during the Reign of Terror, when communication with +England was difficult or almost impossible. Some time in the spring or +summer of 1793 Captain Gilbert Imlay, an American, became acquainted +with Mary--an acquaintance which ended in a more intimate connexion. +There was no legal ceremony of marriage, and it is doubtful whether such +a marriage would have been valid at the time; but she passed as Imlay's +wife, and Imlay himself terms her in a legal document, "Mary Imlay, my +best friend and wife." In August 1793 Imlay was called to Havre on +business, and was absent for some months, during which time most of the +letters published after her death by Godwin were written. Towards the +end of the year she joined Imlay at Havre, and there in the spring of +1794 she gave birth to a girl, who received the name of Fanny, in +memory of the dear friend of her youth. In this year she published the +first volume of a never completed _Historical and Moral View of the +French Revolution_. Imlay became involved in a multitude of +speculations, and his affection for Mary and their child was already +waning. He left Mary for some months at Havre. In June 1795, after +joining him in England, Mary left for Norway on business for Imlay. Her +letters from Norway, divested of all personal details, were afterwards +published. She returned to England late in 1795, and found letters +awaiting her from Imlay, intimating his intention to separate from her, +and offering to settle an annuity on her and her child. For herself she +rejected this offer with scorn: "From you," she wrote, "I will not +receive anything more. I am not sufficiently humbled to depend on your +beneficence." They met again, and for a short time lived together, until +the discovery that he was carrying on an intrigue under her own roof +drove her to despair, and she attempted to drown herself by leaping from +Putney bridge, but was rescued by watermen. Imlay now completely +deserted her, although she continued to bear his name. + +In 1796, when Mary Wollstonecraft was living in London, supporting +herself and her child by working, as before, for Mr Johnson, she met +William Godwin. A friendship sprang up between them,--a friendship, as +he himself says, which "melted into love." Godwin states that "ideas +which he is now willing to denominate prejudices made him by no means +willing to conform to the ceremony of marriage"; but these prejudices +were overcome, and they were married at St Pancras church on the 29th of +March 1797. And now Mary had a season of real calm in her stormy +existence. Godwin, for once only in his life, was stirred by passion, +and his admiration for his wife equalled his affection. But their +happiness was of short duration. The birth of her daughter Mary, +afterwards the wife of Percy Bysshe Shelley, on the 30th of August 1797, +proved fatal, and Mrs Godwin died on the 10th of September following. +She was buried in the churchyard of Old St Pancras, but her remains were +afterwards removed by Sir Percy Shelley to the churchyard of St Peter's, +Bournemouth. + + Her principal published works are as follows:--_Thoughts on the + Education of Daughters, ..._ (1787); _The Female Reader_ (selections) + (1789); _Original Stories from Real Life_ (1791); _An Historical and + Moral View of the Origin and Progress of the French Revolution, and + the effects it has produced in Europe_, vol. i. (no more published) + (1790); _Vindication of the Rights of Woman_ (1792); _Vindication of + the Rights of Man_ (1793); _Mary, a Fiction_ (1788); _Letters written + during a Short Residence in Sweden, Norway and Denmark_ (1796); + _Posthumous Works_ (4 vols., 1798). It is impossible to trace the many + articles contributed by her to periodical literature. + + A memoir of her life was published by Godwin in 1798. A large portion + of C. Kegan Paul's work, _William Godwin, his Friends and + Contemporaries_, was devoted to her, and an edition of the _Letters to + Imlay_ (1879), of which the first edition was published by Godwin, is + prefaced by a somewhat fuller memoir. See also E. Dowden, _The French + Revolution and English Literature_ (1897) pp. 82 et seq.; E. R. + Pennell, _Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin_ (1885), in the Eminent Women + Series; E. R. Clough, _A Study of Mary Wollstonecraft and the Rights + of Woman_ (1898); an edition of her _Original Stories_ (1906), with + William Blake's illustrations and an introduction by E. V. Lucas; and + the _Love Letters of Mary Wollstonecraft to Gilbert Imlay_ (1908), + with an introduction by Roger Ingpen. + + + + +GODWIN, WILLIAM, (1756-1836), English political and miscellaneous +writer, son of a Nonconformist minister, was born on the 3rd of March +1756, at Wisbeach in Cambridgeshire. His family came on both sides of +middle-class people, and it was probably only as a joke that Godwin, a +stern political reformer and philosophical radical, attempted to trace +his pedigree to a time before the Norman conquest and the great earl +Godwine. Both parents were strict Calvinists. The father died young, and +never inspired love or much regret in his son; but in spite of wide +differences of opinion, tender affection always subsisted between +William Godwin and his mother, until her death at an advanced age. + +William Godwin was educated for his father's profession at Hoxton +Academy, where he was under Andrew Kippis the biographer and Dr Abraham +Rees of the _Cyclopaedia_, and was at first more Calvinistic than his +teachers, becoming a Sandemanian, or follower of John Glas (q.v.), whom +he describes as "a celebrated north-country apostle who, after Calvin +had damned ninety-nine in a hundred of mankind, has contrived a scheme +for damning ninety-nine in a hundred of the followers of Calvin." He +then acted as a minister at Ware, Stowmarket and Beaconsfield. At +Stowmarket the teachings of the French philosophers were brought before +him by a friend, Joseph Fawcet, who held strong republican opinions. He +came to London in 1782, still nominally a minister, to regenerate +society with his pen--a real enthusiast, who shrank theoretically from +no conclusions from the premises which he laid down. He adopted the +principles of the Encyclopaedists, and his own aim was the complete +overthrow of all existing institutions, political, social and religious. +He believed, however, that calm discussion was the only thing needful to +carry every change, and from the beginning to the end of his career he +deprecated every approach to violence. He was a philosophic radical in +the strictest sense of the term. + +His first published work was an anonymous _Life of Lord Chatham_ (1783). +Under the inappropriate title _Sketches of History_ (1784) he published +under his own name six sermons on the characters of Aaron, Hazael and +Jesus, in which, though writing in the character of an orthodox +Calvinist, he enunciates the proposition "God Himself has no right to be +a tyrant." Introduced by Andrew Kippis, he began to write in 1785 for +the _Annual Register_ and other periodicals, producing also three novels +now forgotten. The "Sketches of English History" written for the _Annual +Register_ from 1785 onward still deserve study. He joined a club called +the "Revolutionists," and associated much with Lord Stanhope, Horne +Tooke and Holcroft. His clerical character was now completely dropped. + +In 1793 Godwin published his great work on political science, _The +Inquiry concerning Political Justice, and its Influence on General +Virtue and Happiness_. Although this work is little known and less read +now, it marks a phase in English thought. Godwin could never have been +himself a worker on the active stage of life. But he was none the less a +power behind the workers, and for its political effect, _Political +Justice_ takes its place with Milton's _Areopagitica_, with Locke's +_Essay on Education_ and with Rousseau's _Emile_. By the words +"political justice" the author meant "the adoption of any principle of +morality and truth into the practice of a community," and the work was +therefore an inquiry into the principles of society, of government and +of morals. For many years Godwin had been "satisfied that monarchy was a +species of government unavoidably corrupt," and from desiring a +government of the simplest construction, he gradually came to consider +that "government by its very nature counteracts the improvement of +original mind." Believing in the perfectibility of the race, that there +are no innate principles, and therefore no original propensity to evil, +he considered that "our virtues and our vices may be traced to the +incidents which make the history of our lives, and if these incidents +could be divested of every improper tendency, vice would be extirpated +from the world." All control of man by man was more or less intolerable, +and the day would come when each man, doing what seems right in his own +eyes, would also be doing what is in fact best for the community, +because all will be guided by principles of pure reason. But all was to +be done by discussion, and matured change resulting from discussion. +Hence, while Godwin thoroughly approved of the philosophic schemes of +the precursors of the Revolution, he was as far removed as Burke himself +from agreeing with the way in which they were carried out. So logical +and uncompromising a thinker as Godwin could not go far in the +discussion of abstract questions without exciting the most lively +opposition in matters of detailed opinion. An affectionate son, and ever +ready to give of his hard-earned income to more than one ne'er-do-well +brother, he maintained that natural relationship had no claim on man, +nor was gratitude to parents or benefactors any part of justice or +virtue. In a day when the penal code was still extremely severe, he +argued gravely against all punishments, not only that of death. Property +was to belong to him who most wanted it; accumulated property was a +monstrous injustice. Hence marriage, which is law, is the worst of all +laws, and as property the worst of all properties. A man so passionless +as Godwin could venture thus to argue without suspicion that he did so +only to gratify his wayward desires. Portions of this treatise, and only +portions, found ready acceptance in those minds which were prepared to +receive them. Perhaps no one received the whole teaching of the book. +But it gave cohesion and voice to philosophic radicalism; it was the +manifesto of a school without which liberalism of the present day had +not been. Godwin himself in after days modified his communistic views, +but his strong feeling for individualism, his hatred of all restrictions +on liberty, his trust in man, his faith in the power of reason remained; +it was a manifesto which enunciated principles modifying action, even +when not wholly ruling it. + +In May 1794 Godwin published the novel of _Caleb Williams, or Things as +they are_, a book of which the political object is overlooked by many +readers in the strong interest of the story. The book was dramatized by +the younger Colman as _The Iron Chest_. It is one of the few novels of +that time which may be said still to live.[1] A theorist who lived +mainly in his study, Godwin yet came forward boldly to stand by +prisoners arraigned of high treason in that same year--1794. The danger +to persons so charged was then great, and he deliberately put himself +into this same danger for his friends. But when his own trial was +discussed in the privy council, Pitt sensibly held that _Political +Justice_, the work on which the charge could best have been founded, was +priced at three guineas, and could never do much harm among those who +had not three shillings to spare. + +From this time Godwin became a notable figure in London society, and +there was scarcely an important person in politics, on the Liberal side, +in literature, art or science, who does not appear familiarly in the +pages of Godwin's singular diary. For forty-eight years, beginning in +1788, and continuing to the very end of his life, Godwin kept a record +of every day, of the work he did, the books he read, the friends he saw. +Condensed in the highest degree, the diary is yet easy to read when the +style is once mastered, and it is a great help to the understanding of +his cold, methodical, unimpassioned character. He carried his method +into every detail of life, and lived on his earnings with extreme +frugality. Until he made a large sum by the publication of _Political +Justice_, he lived on an average of L120 a year. + +In 1797, the intervening years having been spent in strenuous literary +labour, Godwin married Mary Wollstonecraft (see GODWIN, MARY +WOLLSTONECRAFT). Since both held the same views regarding the slavery of +marriage, and since they only married at all for the sake of possible +offspring, the marriage was concealed for some time, and the happiness +of the avowed married life was very brief; his wife's death on the 10th +of September left Godwin prostrated by affliction, and with a charge for +which he was wholly unfit--his infant daughter Mary, and her stepsister, +Fanny Imlay, who from that time bore the name of Godwin. His unfitness +for the cares of a family, far more than love, led him to contract a +second marriage with Mary Jane Clairmont in 1801. She was a widow with +two children, one of whom, Clara Mary Jane Clairmont, became the +mistress of Lord Byron. The second Mrs Godwin was energetic and +painstaking, but a harsh stepmother; and it may be doubted whether the +children were not worse off under her care than they would have been +under Godwin's neglect. + +The second novel which proceeded from Godwin's pen was called _St Leon_, +and published in 1799. It is chiefly remarkable for the beautiful +portrait of Marguerite, the heroine, drawn from the character of his own +wife. His opinions underwent a change in the direction of theism, +influenced, he says, by his acquaintance with Coleridge. He also became +known to Wordsworth and Lamb. Study of the Elizabethan dramatists led to +the production in 1800 of the _Tragedy of Antonio_. Kemble brought it +out at Drury Lane, but the failure of this attempt made him refuse +_Abbas, King of Persia_, which Godwin offered him in the next year. He +was more successful with his _Life of Chaucer_, for which he received +L600. + +The events of Godwin's life were few. Under the advice of the second Mrs +Godwin, and with her active co-operation, he carried on business as a +bookseller under the pseudonym of Edward Baldwin, publishing several +useful school books and books for children, among them Charles and Mary +Lamb's _Tales from Shakespeare_. But the speculation was unsuccessful, +and for many years Godwin struggled with constant pecuniary +difficulties, for which more than one subscription was raised by the +leaders of the Liberal party and by literary men. He became bankrupt in +1822, but during the following years he accomplished one of his best +pieces of work, _The History of the Commonwealth_, founded on pamphlets +and original documents, which still retains considerable value. In 1833 +the government of Earl Grey conferred upon him the office known as +yeoman usher of the exchequer, to which were attached apartments in +Palace Yard, where he died on the 7th of April 1836. + +In his own time, by his writings and by his conversation, Godwin had a +great power of influencing men, and especially young men. Though his +character would seem, from much which is found in his writings, and from +anecdotes told by those who still remember him, to have been +unsympathetic, it was not so understood by enthusiastic young people, +who hung on his words as those of a prophet. The most remarkable of +these was Percy Bysshe Shelley, who in the glowing dawn of his genius +turned to Godwin as his teacher and guide. The last of the long series +of young men who sat at Godwin's feet was Edward Lytton Bulwer, +afterwards Lord Lytton, whose early romances were formed after those of +Godwin, and who, in _Eugene Aram_, succeeded to the story as arranged, +and the plan to a considerable extent sketched out, by Godwin, whose age +and failing health prevented him from completing it. Godwin's character +appears in the worst light in connexion with Shelley. His early +correspondence with Shelley, which began in 1811, is remarkable for its +genuine good sense and kindness; but when Shelley carried out the +principles of the author of _Political Justice_ in eloping with Mary +Godwin, Godwin assumed a hostile attitude that would have been +unjustifiable in a man of ordinary views, and was ridiculous in the +light of his professions. He was not, moreover, too proud to accept +L1000 from his son-in-law, and after the reconciliation following on +Shelley's marriage in 1816, he continued to demand money until Shelley's +death. His character had no doubt suffered under his long embarrassments +and his unhappy marriage. + + Godwin's more important works are--_The Inquiry concerning Political + Justice, and its Influence on General Virtue and Happiness_ (1793); + _Things as they are, or the Adventures of Caleb Williams_ (1794); _The + Inquirer, a series of Essays_ (1797); _Memoirs of the Author of the + Rights of Woman_ (1798); _St Leon, a Tale of the Sixteenth Century_ + (1799); _Antonio, a Tragedy_ (1800); _The Life of Chaucer_ (1803); + _Fleetwood, a Novel_ (1805); _Faulkner, a Tragedy_ (1807); _Essay on + Sepulchres_ (1809); _Lives of Edward and John Philips, the Nephews of + Milton_ (1815); _Mandeville, a Tale of the Times of Cromwell_ (1817); + _Of Population, an answer to Malthus_ (1820); _History of the + Commonwealth_ (1824-1828); _Cloudesley, a Novel_ (1830); _Thoughts on + Man, a series of Essays_ (1831); _Lives of the Necromancers_ (1834). A + volume of essays was also collected from his papers and published in + 1873, as left for publication by his daughter Mrs Shelley. Many other + short and anonymous works proceeded from his ever busy pen, but many + are irrecoverable, and all are forgotten. Godwin's life was published + in 1876 in two volumes, under the title _William Godwin, his Friends + and Contemporaries_, by C. Kegan Paul. The best estimate of his + literary position is that given by Sir Leslie Stephen in his _English + Thought in the 18th Century_ (ii. 264-281; ed., 1902). See also the + article on William Godwin in W. Hazlitt's _The Spirit of the Age_ + (1825), and "Godwin and Shelley" in Sir L. Stephen's _Hours in a + Library_ (vol. iii., ed. 1892). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For an analysis of _Caleb Williams_ see the chapter on "Theorists + of Revolution" in Professor E. Dowden's _The French Revolution and + English Literature_ (1897). + + + + +GODWIN-AUSTEN, ROBERT ALFRED CLOYNE (1808-1884), English geologist, the +eldest son of Sir Henry E. Austen, was born on the 17th of March 1808. +He was educated at Oriel College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow in +1830. He afterwards entered Lincoln's Inn. In 1833 he married the only +daughter and heiress of General Sir Henry T. Godwin, K.C.B., and he took +the additional name of Godwin by Royal licence in 1854. At Oxford as a +pupil of William Buckland he became deeply interested in geology, and +soon afterwards becoming acquainted with De la Beche, he was inspired by +that great master, and assisted him by making a geological map of the +neighbourhood of Newton Abbot, which was embodied in the Geological +Survey map. He also published an elaborate memoir "On the Geology of the +South-East of Devonshire" (_Trans. Geol. Soc._ ser. 2, vol. viii.). His +attention was next directed to the Cretaceous rocks of Surrey, his +home-county, his estates being situated at Chilworth and Shalford near +Guildford. Later he dealt with the superficial accumulations bordering +the English Channel, and with the erratic boulders of Selsea. In 1855 he +brought before the Geological Society of London his celebrated paper "On +the possible Extension of the Coal-Measures beneath the South-Eastern +part of England," in which he pointed out on well-considered theoretical +grounds the likelihood of coal-measures being some day reached in that +area. In this article he also advocated the freshwater origin of the Old +Red Sandstone, and discussed the relations of that formation, and of the +Devonian, to the Silurian and Carboniferous. He was elected F.R.S. in +1849, and in 1862 he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological +Society of London, on which occasion he was styled by Sir R. I. +Murchison "pre-eminently the physical geographer of bygone periods." He +died at Shalford House near Guildford on the 25th of November 1884. + +His son, Lieut-Colonel HENRY HAVERSHAM GODWIN-AUSTEN (b. 1834), entered +the army in 1851, and served for many years on the Trigonometrical +Survey of India, retiring in 1877. He gave much attention to geology, +but is more especially distinguished for his researches on the natural +history of India and as the author of _The Land and Freshwater Mollusca +of India_ (1882-1887). + + + + +GODWINE (d. 1053), son of Wulfnoth, earl of the West-Saxons, the leading +Englishman in the first half of the 11th century. His birth and origin +are utterly uncertain; but he rose to power early in Canute's reign and +was an earl in 1018. He received in marriage Gytha, a connexion of the +king's, and in 1020 became earl of the West-Saxons. On the death of +Canute in 1035 he joined with Queen Emma in supporting the claim of +Hardicanute, the son of Canute and Emma, to the crown of his father, in +opposition to Leofric and the northern party who supported Harold +Harefoot (see HARDICANUTE). While together they held Wessex for +Hardicanute, the aetheling Aelfred, son of Emma by her former husband +Aethelred II., landed in England in the hope of winning back his father's +crown; but falling into the hands of Godwine, he and his followers were +cruelly done to death. On the death of Hardicanute in 1042 Godwine was +foremost in promoting the election of Edward (the Confessor) to the +vacant throne. He was now the first man in the kingdom, though his power +was still balanced by that of the other great earls, Leofric of Mercia +and Siward of Northumberland. His sons Sweyn and Harold were promoted to +earldoms; and his daughter Eadgyth was married to the king (1045). His +policy was strongly national in opposition to the marked Normanizing +tendencies of the king. Between him and Edward's foreign favourites, +particularly Robert of Jumieges, there was deadly feud. The appointment +of Robert to the archbishopric of Canterbury in 1051 marks the decline +of Godwine's power; and in the same year a series of outrages committed +by one of the king's foreign favourites led to a breach between the king +and the earl, which culminated in the exile of the latter with all his +family (see EDWARD THE CONFESSOR). But next year Godwine returned in +triumph; and at a great meeting held outside London he and his family +were restored to all their offices and possessions, and the archbishop +and many other Normans were banished. In the following year Godwine was +smitten with a fit at the king's table, and died three days later on the +15th of April 1053. + +Godwine appears to have had seven sons, three of whom--King Harold, +Gyrth and Leofwine--were killed at Hastings; two others, Wulfnoth and +Aelfgar, are of little importance; another was Earl Tostig (q.v.). The +eldest son was Sweyn, or Swegen (d. 1052), who was outlawed for seducing +Eadgifu abbess of Leominster. After fighting for the king of Denmark he +returned to England in 1049, when his murder of his cousin Beorn +compelled him to leave England for the second time. In 1050, however, he +regained his earldom, and in 1051 he shared his father's exile. To atone +for the murder of Beorn, Sweyn went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and on +the return journey he died on the 29th of September 1052, meeting his +death, according to one account, at the hands of the Saracens. + + + + +GODWIT, a word of unknown origin, the name commonly applied to a +marsh-bird in great repute, when fattened, for the table, and formerly +abundant in the fens of Norfolk, the Isle of Ely and Lincolnshire. In +Turner's days (1544) it was worth three times as much as a snipe, and at +the same period Belon said of it--"C'est vn Oyseau es delices des +Francoys." Casaubon, who Latinized its name "_Dei ingenium_" +(_Ephemerides_, 19th September 1611), was told by the "_ornithotrophaeus_" +he visited at Wisbech that in London it fetched twenty pence. Its fame as +a delicacy is perpetuated by many later writers, Ben Jonson among them, +and Pennant says that in his time (1766) it sold for half-a-crown or five +shillings. Under the name godwit two perfectly distinct species of British +birds were included, but that which seems to have been especially prized +is known to modern ornithologists as the black-tailed godwit, _Limosa +aegocephala_, formerly called, from its loud cry, a yarwhelp,[1] shrieker +or barker, in the districts it inhabited. The practice of netting this +bird in large numbers during the spring and summer, coupled with the +gradual reclamation of the fens, to which it resorted, has now rendered it +but a visitor in England; and it probably ceased from breeding regularly +in England in 1824 or thereabouts, though under favourable conditions it +may have occasionally laid its eggs for some thirty years later or more +(Stevenson, _Birds of Norfolk_, ii. 250). This godwit is a species of wide +range, reaching Iceland, where it is called _Jardraeka_ (= earth-raker), +in summer, and occurring numerously in India in winter. Its chief +breeding-quarters seem to extend from Holland eastwards to the south of +Russia. The second British species is that which is known as the +bar-tailed godwit, _L. lapponica_, and this seems to have never been more +than a bird of double passage in the United Kingdom, arriving in large +flocks on the south coast about the 12th of May, and, after staying a few +days, proceeding to the north-eastward. It is known to breed in Lapland, +but its eggs are of great rarity. Towards autumn the young visit the +English coasts, and a few of them remain, together with some of the other +species, in favourable situations throughout the winter. One of the local +names by which the bar-tailed godwit is known to the Norfolk gunners is +scamell, a word which, in the mouth of Caliban (_Tempest_, II. ii.), has +been the cause of much perplexity to Shakespearian critics. + +The godwits belong to the group _Limicolae_, and are about as big as a +tame pigeon, but possess long legs, and a long bill with a slight upward +turn. It is believed that in the genus _Limosa_ the female is larger +than the male. While the winter plumage is of a sober greyish-brown, the +breeding-dress is marked by a predominance of bright bay or chestnut, +rendering the wearer a very beautiful object. The black-tailed godwit, +though varying a good deal in size, is constantly larger than the +bar-tailed, and especially longer in the legs. The species may be +further distinguished by the former having the proximal third of the +tail-quills pure white, and the distal two-thirds black, with a narrow +white margin, while the latter has the same feathers barred with black +and white alternately for nearly their whole length. + +America possesses two species of the genus, the very large marbled +godwit or marlin, _L. fedoa_, easily recognized by its size and the buff +colour of its axillaries, and the smaller Hudsonian godwit, _L. +hudsonica_, which has its axillaries of a deep black. This last, though +less numerous than its congener, seems to range over the whole of the +continent, breeding in the extreme north, while it has been obtained +also in the Strait of Magellan and the Falkland Islands. The first seems +not to go farther southward than the Antilles and the Isthmus of +Panama. + +From Asia, or at least its eastern part, two species have been +described. One of them, _L. melanuroides_, differs only from _L. +aegocephala_ in its smaller size, and is believed to breed in Amurland, +wintering in the islands of the Pacific, New Zealand and Australia. The +other, _L. uropygialis_, is closely allied to and often mistaken for _L. +lapponica_, from which it chiefly differs by having the rump barred like +the tail. This was found breeding in the extreme north of Siberia by Dr +von Middendorff, and ranges to Australia, whence it was, like the last, +first described by Gould. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This name seems to have survived in Whelp Moor, near Brandon, in + Suffolk. + + + + +GOEBEN, AUGUST KARL VON (1816-1880), Prussian general of infantry, came +of old Hanoverian stock. Born at Stade on the 10th of December 1816, he +aspired from his earliest years to the Prussian service rather than that +of his own country, and at the age of seventeen obtained a commission in +the 24th regiment of Prussian infantry. But there was little scope there +for the activities of a young and energetic subaltern, and, leaving the +service in 1836, he entered the Carlist army campaigning in Spain. In +the five campaigns which he made in the service of Don Carlos he had +many and various vicissitudes of fortune. He had not fought for two +months when he fell, severely wounded, into the hands of the Spanish +Royal troops. After eight months' detention he escaped, but it was not +long before he was captured again. This time his imprisonment was long +and painful, and on two occasions he was compelled to draw lots for his +life with his fellow-captives. When released, he served till 1840 with +distinction. In that year he made his way back, a beggar without means +or clothing, to Prussia. The Carlist lieutenant-colonel was glad to be +re-admitted into the Prussian service as a second lieutenant, but he was +still young, and few subalterns could at the age of twenty-four claim +five years' meritorious war service. In a few years we find him serving +as captain on the Great General Staff, and in 1848 he had the good +fortune to be transferred to the staff of the IV. army corps, his +immediate superior being Major von Moltke. The two "coming men" became +fast friends, and their mutual esteem was never disturbed. In the Baden +insurrection Goeben served with distinction on the staff of Prince +William, the future emperor. Staff and regimental duty (as usual in the +Prussian service) alternated for some years after this, till in 1863 he +became major-general commanding the 26th infantry brigade. In 1860, it +should be mentioned, he was present with the Spanish troops in Morocco, +and took part in the battle of Tetuan. + +In the first of Prussia's great wars (1864) he distinguished himself at +the head of his brigade at Rackebull and Sonderburg. In the war of 1866 +Lieutenant-General von Goeben commanded the 13th division, of which his +old brigade formed part, and, in this higher sphere, once more displayed +the qualities of a born leader and skilful tactician. He held almost +independent command with conspicuous success in the actions of Dermbach, +Laufach, Kissingen, Aschaffenburg, Gerchsheim, Tauber-Bischofsheim and +Wurzburg. The mobilization of 1870 placed him at the head of the VIII. +(Rhineland) army corps, forming part of the First Army under Steinmetz. +It was his resolute and energetic leading that contributed mainly to the +victory of Spicheren (6th August), and won the only laurels gained on +the Prussian right wing at Gravelotte (18th August). Under Manteuffel +the VIII. corps took part in the operations about Amiens and Bapaume, +and on the 8th of January 1871 Goeben succeeded that general in the +command of the First Army, with which he had served throughout the +campaign as a corps commander. A fortnight later he had brought the war +in northern France to a brilliant conclusion, by the decisive victory of +St Quentin (18th and 19th January 1871). The close of the Franco-German +War left Goeben one of the most distinguished men in the victorious +army. He was colonel of the 28th infantry, and had the grand cross of +the Iron Cross. He commanded the VIII. corps at Coblenz until his death +in 1880. + +General von Goeben left many writings. His memoirs are to be found in +his works _Vier Jahre in Spanien_ (Hanover, 1841), _Reise- und +Lagerbriefe aus Spanien und vom spanischen Heere in Marokko_ (Hanover, +1863) and in the Darmstadt _Allgemeine Militarzeitung_. The former +French port (Queuleu) at Metz was renamed Goeben after him, and the 28th +infantry bears his name. A statue of Goeben by Schaper was erected at +Coblenz in 1884. + + See G. Zernin, _Das Leben des Generals August von Goeben_ (2 vols., + Berlin, 1895-1897); H. Barth, _A. von Goeben_ (Berlin, 1906); and, for + his share in the war of 1870-71; H. Kunz, _Der Feldzug im N. und N.W. + Frankreichs 1870-1871_ (Berlin, 1889), and the 14th Monograph of the + Great General Staff (1891). + + + + +GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE (1836-1909), Dutch orientalist, was born in +Friesland in 1836. He devoted himself at an early age to the study of +oriental languages and became especially proficient in Arabic, under the +guidance of Dozy and Juynboll, to whom he was afterwards an intimate +friend and colleague. He took his degree of doctor at Leiden in 1860, +and then studied for a year in Oxford, where he examined and collated +the Bodleian MSS. of Idrisi (part being published in 1866, in +collaboration with R. P. Dozy, as _Description de l'Afrique et de +l'Espagne_). About the same time he wrote _Memoires de l'histoire et de +la geographie orientales_, and edited _Expugnatio regionum_. In 1883, on +the death of Dozy, he became Arabic professor at Leiden, retiring in +1906. He died on the 17th of May 1909. Though perhaps not a teacher of +the first order, he wielded a great influence during his long +professoriate not only over his pupils, but over theologians and eastern +administrators who attended his lectures, and his many editions of +Arabic texts have been of the highest value to scholars, the most +important being his great edition of Tabari. Though entirely averse from +politics, he took a keen interest in the municipal affairs of Leiden and +made a special study of elementary education. He took the leading part +in the International Congress of Orientalists at Algiers in 1905. He was +a member of the Institut de France, was awarded the German Order of +Merit, and received an honorary doctorate of Cambridge University. At +his death he was president of the newly formed International Association +of Academies of Science. Among his chief works are _Fragmenta +historicorum Arabicorum_ (1869-1871); _Diwan of Moslim ibn al-Walid_ +(1875); _Bibliotheca geographorum Arabicorum_ (1870-1894); _Annals of +Tabari_ (1879-1901); edition of Ibn Qutaiba's biographies (1904); of the +travels of Ibn Jubaye (1907, 5th vol. of Gibb Memorial). He was also the +chief editor of the _Encyclopaedia of Islam_ (vols. i.-iii.), and +contributed many articles to periodicals. He wrote for the 9th and the +present edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. + + + + +GOES, DAMIAO DE (1502-1574), Portuguese humanist, was born of a +patrician family at Alemquer, in February 1502. Under King John III. he +was employed abroad for many years from 1523 on diplomatic and +commercial missions, and he travelled over the greater part of Europe. +He was intimate with the leading scholars of the time, was acquainted +with Luther and other Protestant divines, and in 1532 became the pupil +and friend of Erasmus. Goes took his degree at Padua in 1538 after a +four years' course. In 1537, at the instance of his friend Cardinal +Sadoleto, he undertook to mediate between the Church and the Lutherans, +but failed through the attitude of the Protestants. He married in +Flanders a rich and noble Dutch lady, D. Joanna de Hargen, and settled +at Louvain, then the literary centre of the Low Countries, where he was +living in 1542 when the French besieged the town. He was given the +command of the defending forces, and saved Louvain, but was taken +prisoner and confined for nine months in France, till he obtained his +freedom by a heavy ransom. He was rewarded, however, by a grant of arms +from Charles V. He finally returned to Portugal in 1545, with a view of +becoming tutor to the king's son, but he failed to obtain this post, +owing to the denunciations of Father Simon Rodriguez, provincial of the +Jesuits, who accused Goes of favouring the Lutheran doctrines and of +being a disciple of Erasmus. Nevertheless in 1548 he was appointed chief +keeper of the archives and royal chronicler, and at once introduced some +much-needed reforms into the administration of his office. + +In 1558 he was given a commission to write a history of the reign of +King Manoel, a task previously confided to Joao de Barros, but +relinquished by him. It was an onerous undertaking for a conscientious +historian, since it was necessary to expose the miseries as well as +relate the glories of the period, and so to offend some of the most +powerful families. Goes had already written a _Chronicle_ of Prince John +(afterwards John II.), and when, after more than eight years' labour, he +produced the First Part of his _Chronicle_ of King Manoel (1566), a +chorus of attacks greeted it, the edition was destroyed, and he was +compelled to issue a revised version. He brought out the three other +parts in 1566-1567, though chapters 23 to 27 of the Third Part were so +mutilated by the censorship that the printed text differs largely from +the MS. Hitherto Goes, notwithstanding his Liberalism, had escaped the +Inquisition, though in 1540 his _Fides, religio, moresque Aethiopum_ had +been prohibited by the chief inquisitor, Cardinal D. Henrique; but the +denunciation of Father Rodriguez in 1545, which had been vainly renewed +in 1550, was now brought into action, and in 1571 he was arrested to +stand his trial. There seems to be no doubt that the Inquisition made +itself on this occasion, as on others, the instrument of private enmity; +for eighteen months Goes lay ill in prison, and then he was condemned, +though he had lived for thirty years as a faithful Catholic, and the +worst that could be proved against him was that in his youth he had +spoken against Indulgences, disbelieved in auricular confession, and +consorted with heretics. He was sentenced to a term of reclusion, and +his property was confiscated to the crown. After he had abjured his +errors in private, he was sent at the end of 1572 to do penance at the +monastery of Batalha. Later he was allowed to return home to Alemquer, +where he died on the 30th of January 1574. He was buried in the church +of Nossa Senhora da Varzea. + +Damiao de Goes was a man of wide culture and genial and courtly manners, +a skilled musician and a good linguist. He wrote both Portuguese and +Latin with classic strength and simplicity, and his style is free from +affectation and rhetorical ornaments. His portrait by Albrecht Durer +shows an open, intelligent face, and the record of his life proves him +to have been upright and fearless. His prosperity doubtless excited +ill-will, but above all, his ideas, advanced for Portugal, his foreign +ways, outspokenness and honesty contributed to the tragedy of his end, +at a time when the forces of ignorant reaction held the ascendant. He +had, it may be presumed, given some umbrage to the court by condemning, +in the _Chronicle of King Manoel_, the royal ingratitude to +distinguished public servants, though he received a pension and other +rewards for that work, and he had certainly offended the nobility by his +administration of the archive office and by exposing false genealogical +claims in his _Nobiliario_. He paid the penalty for telling the truth, +as he knew it, in an age when an historian had to choose between +flattery of the great and silence. The _Chronicle of King Manoel_ was +the first official history of a Portuguese reign to be written in a +critical spirit, and Damiao de Goes has the honour of having been the +first Portuguese royal chronicler to deserve the name of an historian. + + His Portuguese works include _Chronica do felicissimo rei Dom Emanuel_ + (parts i. and ii., Lisbon, 1566, parts iii. and iv., ib. 1567). Other + editions appeared in Lisbon in 1619 and 1749 and in Coimbra in 1790. + _Chronica do principe Dom Joam_ (Lisbon, 1558), with subsequent + editions in 1567 and 1724 in Lisbon and in 1790 in Coimbra. _Livro de + Marco Tullio Ciceram chamado Catam Mayor_ (Venice, 1538). This is a + translation of Cicero's _De senectute_. His Latin works, published + separately, comprise: (1) _Legatio magni imperatoris Presbiteri + Joannis, &c._ (Antwerp, 1532); (2) _Legatio Davidis Ethiopiae regis, + &c._ (Bologna, 1533); (3) _Commentarii rerum gestarum in India_ + (Louvain, 1539); (4) _Fides, religio, moresque Aethiopum_ (Louvain, + 1540), incorporating Nos. (1) and (2); (5) _Hispania_ (Louvain, 1542); + (6) _Aliquot epistolae Sadoleti Bembi et aliorum clarissimorum + virorum, &c._ (Louvain, 1544); (7) _Damiani a Goes equitis Lusitani + aliquot opuscula_ (Louvain, 1544); (8) _Urbis Lovaniensis obsidia_ + (Lisbon, 1546); (9) _De bello Cambaico ultimo_ (Louvain, 1549); (10) + _Urbis Olisiponensis descriptio_ (Evora, 1554); (11) _Epistola ad + Hieronymum Cardosum_ (Lisbon, 1556). Most of the above went through + several editions, and many were afterwards included with new works in + such collections as No. (7), and seven sets of _Opuscula_ appeared, + all incomplete. Nos. (3), (4) and (5) suffered mutilation in + subsequent editions, at the hands of the censors, because they + offended against religious orthodoxy or family pride. + + AUTHORITIES.--(A) Joaquim de Vasconcellos, _Goesiana_ (5 vols.), with + the following sub-titles: (1) _O Retrato de Albrecht Durer_ (Porto, + 1879); (2) _Bibliographia_ (Porto, 1879), which describes 67 numbers + of books by Goes; (3) As Variantes das Chronicus Portuguezas (Porto, + 1881); (4) _Damiao de Goes: Novos Estudos_ (Porto, 1897); (5) _As + Cartas Latinas_--in the press (1906). Snr. Vasconcellos only printed a + very limited number of copies of these studies for distribution among + friends, so that they are rare. (B) Guilherme J. C. Henriques, + _Ineditos Goesianos_, vol. i. (Lisbon, 1896), vol. ii. (containing the + proceedings at the trial by the Inquisition) (Lisbon, 1898). (C) A. P. + Lopes de Mendonca, _Damiao de Goes e a Inquisicao de Portugal_ + (Lisbon, 1859). (D) Dr Sousa Viterbo, _Damiao de Goes e D. Antonio + Pinheiro_ (Coimbra, 1895). (E) Dr Theophilo Braga, _Historia da + Universidade de Coimbra_ (Lisbon, 1892), i. 374-380. (F) Menendez y + Pelayo, _Historia de los Heter. Espanoles_, ii. 129-143. (E. Pr.) + + + + +GOES, HUGO VAN DER (d. 1482), a painter of considerable celebrity at +Ghent, was known to Vasari, as he is known to us, by a single picture in +a Florentine monastery. At a period when the family of the Medici had +not yet risen from the rank of a great mercantile firm to that of a +reigning dynasty, it employed as an agent at the port of Bruges Tommaso +Portinari, a lineal descendant, it was said, of Folco, the father of +Dante's Beatrix. Tommaso, at that time patron of a chapel in the +hospital of Santa Maria Nuova at Florence, ordered an altar-piece of +Hugo van der Goes, and commanded him to illustrate the sacred theme of +"Quem genuit adoravit." In the centre of a vast triptych, comprising +numerous figures of life size, Hugo represented the Virgin kneeling in +adoration before the new-born Christ attended by Shepherds and Angels. +On the wings he portrayed Tommaso and his two sons in prayer under the +protection of Saint Anthony and St Matthew, and Tommaso's wife and two +daughters supported by St Margaret and St Mary Magdalen. The triptych, +which has suffered much from decay and restoring, was for over 400 years +at Santa Maria Nuova, and is now in the Uffizi Gallery. Imposing because +composed of figures of unusual size, the altar-piece is more remarkable +for portrait character than for charms of ideal beauty. + +There are also small pieces in public galleries which claim to have been +executed by Van der Goes. One of these pictures in the National Gallery +in London is more nearly allied to the school of Memling than to the +triptych of Santa Maria Nuova; another, a small and very beautiful "John +the Baptist," at the Pinakothek of Munich, is really by Memling; whilst +numerous fragments of an altar-piece in the Belvedere at Vienna, though +assigned to Hugo, are by his more gifted countryman of Bruges. Van der +Goes, however, was not habitually a painter of easel pieces. He made his +reputation at Bruges by producing coloured hangings in distemper. After +he settled at Ghent, and became a master of his gild in 1465, he +designed cartoons for glass windows. He also made decorations for the +wedding of Charles the Bold and Margaret of York in 1468, for the +festivals of the Rhetoricians and papal jubilees on repeated occasions, +for the solemn entry of Charles the Bold into Ghent in 1470-1471, and +for the funeral of Philip the Good in 1474. The labour which he expended +on these occasions might well add to his fame without being the less +ephemeral. About the year 1475 he retired to the monastery of Rouge +Cloitre near Ghent, where he took the cowl. There, though he still clung +to his profession, he seems to have taken to drinking, and at one time +to have shown decided symptoms of insanity. But his superiors gradually +cured him of his intemperance, and he died in the odour of sanctity in +1482. + + + + +GOES, a town in the province of Zeeland, Holland, on the island of South +Beveland, 11-1/2 m. by rail E. of Middelburg. Pop. (1900) 6919. It is +connected by a short canal with the East Scheldt, and has a good harbour +(1819) defended by a fort. The principal buildings are the interesting +Gothic church (1423) and the picturesque old town hall (restored 1771). +There are various educational and charitable institutions. Goes has +preserved for centuries its prosperous position as the market-town of +the island. The chief industries are boat-building, brewing, +book-binding and cigar-making. The town had its origin in the castle of +Oostende, built here by the noble family of Borssele. It received a +charter early in the 15th century from the countess Jacoba of Holland, +who frequently stayed at the castle. + + + + +GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON (1749-1832), German poet, dramatist and +philosopher, was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 28th of August 1749. +He came, on his father's side, of Thuringian stock, his +great-grandfather, Hans Christian Goethe, having been a farrier at +Artern-on-the-Unstrut, about the middle of the 17th century. Hans +Christian's son, Friedrich Georg, was brought up to the trade of a +tailor, and in this capacity settled in Frankfort in 1686. A second +marriage, however, brought him into possession of the Frankfort inn, +"Zum Weidenhof," and he ended his days as a well-to-do innkeeper. His +son, Johann Kaspar, the poet's father (1710-1782), studied law at +Leipzig, and, after going through the prescribed courses of practical +training at Wetzlar, travelled in Italy. He hoped, on his return to +Frankfort, to obtain an official position in the government of the free +city, but his personal influence with the authorities was not +sufficiently strong. In his disappointment he resolved never again to +offer his services to his native town, and retired into private life, a +course which his ample means facilitated. In 1742 he acquired, as a +consolation for the public career he had missed, the title of +_kaiserlicher Rat_, and in 1748 married Katharina Elisabeth (1731-1808), +daughter of the _Schultheiss_ or _Burgermeister_ of Frankfort, Johann +Wolfgang Textor. The poet was the eldest son of this union. Of the later +children only one, Cornelia, born in 1750, survived the years of +childhood; she died as the wife of Goethe's friend, J. G. Schlosser, in +1777. The best elements in Goethe's genius came from his mother's side; +of a lively, impulsive disposition, and gifted with remarkable +imaginative power, Frau Rat was the ideal mother of a poet; moreover, +being hardly eighteen at the time of her son's birth, she was herself +able to be the companion of his childhood. From his father, whose stern, +somewhat pedantic nature repelled warmer feelings on the part of the +children, Goethe Inherited that "holy earnestness" and stability of +character which brought him unscathed through temptations and passions, +and held the balance to his all too powerful imagination. + +Unforgettable is the picture which the poet subsequently drew of his +childhood spent in the large house with its many nooks and crannies, in +the Grosse Hirschgraben at Frankfort. Books, pictures, objects of art, +antiquities, reminiscences of Rat Goethe's visit to Italy, above all a +marionette theatre, kindled the child's quick intellect and imagination. +His training was conducted in its early stages by his father, and was +later supplemented by tutors. Meanwhile the varied and picturesque life +of Frankfort was in itself an education. In 1759, during the Seven +Years' War, the French, as Maria Theresa's allies, occupied the town, +and, much to the irritation of Goethe's father, who was a stanch +partisan of Frederick the Great, a French lieutenant, Count Thoranc, was +quartered on the Goethe household. The foreign occupation also led to +the establishment of a French troupe of actors, and to their +performances the boy, through his grandfather's influence, had free +access. Goethe has also recorded his memories of another picturesque +event, the coronation of the emperor Joseph II. in the Frankfort Romer +or town hall in 1764; but these memories were darkened by being +associated in his mind with the tragic denouement of his first love +affair. The object of this passion was a certain Gretchen, who seems to +have taken advantage of the boy's interest in her to further the +dishonest ends of one of her friends. The discovery of the affair and +the investigation that followed cooled Goethe's ardour and caused him to +turn his attention seriously to the studies which were to prepare him +for the university. Meanwhile the literary instinct had begun to show +itself; we hear of a novel in letters--a kind of linguistic exercise, in +which the characters carried on the correspondence in different +languages--of a prose epic on the subject of Joseph, and various +religious poems of which one, _Die Hollenfahrt Christi_, found its way +in a revised form into the poet's complete works. + +In October 1765, Goethe, then a little over sixteen, left Frankfort for +Leipzig, where a wider and, in many respects, less provincial life +awaited him. He entered upon his university studies with zeal, but his +own education in Frankfort had not been the best preparation for the +scholastic methods which still dominated the German universities; of his +professors, only Gellert seems to have won his interest, and that +interest was soon exhausted. The literary beginnings he had made in +Frankfort now seemed to him amateurish and trivial; he felt that he had +to turn over a new leaf, and, under the guidance of E. W. Behrisch, a +genial, original comrade, he learned the art of writing those light +Anacreontic lyrics which harmonized with the tone of polite Leipzig +society. Artificial as this poetry is, Goethe was, nevertheless, +inspired by a real passion in Leipzig, namely, for Anna Katharina +Schonkopf, the daughter of a wine-merchant at whose house he dined. She +is the "Annette" after whom the recently discovered collection of lyrics +was named, although it must be added that neither these lyrics nor the +_Neue Lieder_, published in 1770, express very directly Goethe's +feelings for Kathchen Schonkopf. To his Leipzig student-days belong also +two small plays in Alexandrines, _Die Laune des Verliebten_, a pastoral +comedy in one act, which reflects the lighter side of the poet's love +affair, and _Die Mitschuldigen_ (published in a revised form, 1769), a +more sombre picture, in which comedy is incongruously mingled with +tragedy. In Leipzig Goethe also had time for what remained one of the +abiding interests of his life, for art; he regarded A. F. Oeser +(1717-1799), the director of the academy of painting in the +Pleissenburg, who had given him lessons in drawing, as the teacher who +in Leipzig had influenced him most. His art studies were also furthered +by a short visit to Dresden. His stay in Leipzig came, however, to an +abrupt conclusion; the distractions of student life proved too much for +his strength; a sudden haemorrhage supervened, and he lay long ill, +first in Leipzig, and, after it was possible to remove him, at home in +Frankfort. These months of slow recovery were a time of serious +introspection for Goethe. He still corresponded with his Leipzig +friends, but the tone of his letters changed; life had become graver and +more earnest for him. He pored over books on occult philosophy; he +busied himself with alchemy and astrology. A friend of his mother's, +Susanne Katharina von Klettenberg, who belonged to pietist circles in +Frankfort, turned the boy's thoughts to religious mysticism. On his +recovery his father resolved that he should complete his legal studies +at Strassburg, a city which, although then outside the German empire, +was, in respect of language and culture, wholly German. From the first +moment Goethe set foot in the narrow streets of the Alsatian capital, in +April 1770, the whole current of his thought seemed to change. The +Gothic architecture of the Strassburg minster became to him the symbol +of a national and German ideal, directly antagonistic to the French +tastes and the classical and rationalistic atmosphere that prevailed in +Leipzig. The second moment of importance in Goethe's Strassburg period +was his meeting with Herder, who spent some weeks in Strassburg +undergoing an operation of the eye. In this thinker, who was his senior +by five years, Goethe found the master he sought; Herder taught him the +significance of Gothic architecture, revealed to him the charm of +nature's simplicity, and inspired him with enthusiasm for Shakespeare +and the _Volkslied_. Meanwhile Goethe's legal studies were not +neglected, and he found time to add to knowledge of other subjects, +notably that of medicine. Another factor of importance in Goethe's +Strassburg life was his love for Friederike Brion, the daughter of an +Alsatian village pastor in Sesenheim. Even more than Herder's precept +and example, this passion showed Goethe how trivial and artificial had +been the Anacreontic and pastoral poetry with which he had occupied +himself in Leipzig; and the lyrics inspired by Friederike, such as +_Kleine Blumen, kleine Blatter_ and _Wie herrlich leuchtet mir die +Natur!_ mark the beginning of a new epoch in German lyric poetry. The +idyll of Sesenheim, as described in _Dichtung und Wahrheit_, is one of +the most beautiful love-stories in the literature of the world. From the +first, however, it was clear that Friederike Brion could never become +the wife of the Frankfort patrician's son; an unhappy ending to the +romance was unavoidable, and, as is to be seen in passionate outpourings +like the _Wanderers Sturmlied_, and in the bitter self-accusations of +_Clavigo_, it left deep wounds on the poet's sensitive soul. + +To Strassburg we owe Goethe's first important drama, _Gotz von +Berlichingen_, or, as it was called in its earliest form, _Geschichte +Gottfriedens von Berlichingen dramatisiert_ (not published until 1831). +Revised under the now familiar title, it appeared in 1773, after +Goethe's return to Frankfort. In estimating this drama we must bear in +mind Goethe's own Strassburg life, and the turbulent spirit of his own +age, rather than the historical facts, which the poet found in the +autobiography of his hero published in 1731. The latter supplied only +the rough materials; the Gotz von Berlichingen whom Goethe drew, with +his lofty ideals of right and wrong, and his enthusiasm for freedom, is +a very different personage from the unscrupulous robber-knight of the +16th century, the rough friend of Franz von Sickingen and of the +revolting peasants. Still less historical justification is to be found +for the vacillating Weisslingen in whom Goethe executed poetic justice +on himself as the lover of Friederike, or in the women of the play, the +gentle Maria, the heartless Adelheid. But there is genial, creative +power in the very subjectivity of these characters, and a vigorous +dramatic life, which is irresistible in its appeal. With _Gotz von +Berlichingen_, Shakespeare's art first triumphed on the German stage, +and the literary movement known as _Sturm und Drang_ was inaugurated. + +Having received his degree in Strassburg, Goethe returned home in August +1771, and began his initiation into the routine of an advocate's +profession. In the following year, in order to gain insight into another +side of his calling, he spent four months at Wetzlar, where the imperial +law-courts were established. But Goethe's professional duties had only a +small share in the eventful years which lay between his return from +Strassburg and that visit to Weimar at the end of 1775, which turned the +whole course of his career, and resulted in his permanent attachment to +the Weimar court. Goethe's life in Frankfort was a round of stimulating +literary intercourse; in J. H. Merck (1741-1791), an army official in +the neighbouring town of Darmstadt, he found a friend and mentor, whose +irony and common-sense served as a corrective to his own exuberance of +spirits. Wetzlar brought new friends and another passion, that for +Charlotte Buff, the daughter of the _Amtmann_ there--a love-story which +has been immortalized in _Werthers Leiden_--and again the young poet's +nature was obsessed by a love which was this time strong enough to bring +him to the brink of that suicide with which the novel ends. A visit to +the Rhine, where new interests and the attractions of Maximiliane von +Laroche, a daughter of Wieland's friend, the novelist Sophie von +Laroche, brought partial healing; his intense preoccupation with +literary work on his return to Frankfort did the rest. In 1775 Goethe +was attracted by still another type of woman, Lili Schonemann, whose +mother was the widow of a wealthy Frankfort banker. A formal betrothal +took place, and the beauty of the lyrics which Lili inspired leaves no +room for doubt that here was a passion no less genuine than that for +Friederike or Charlotte. But Goethe--more worldly wise than on former +occasions--felt instinctively that the gay, social world in which Lili +moved was not really congenial to him. A visit to Switzerland in the +summer of 1775 may not have weakened his interest in her, but it at +least allowed him to regard her objectively; and, without tragic +consequences on either side, the passion was ultimately allowed to yield +to the dictates of common-sense. Goethe's departure for Weimar in +November made the final break less difficult. + +The period from 1771 to 1775 was, in literary respects, the most +productive of the poet's life. It had been inaugurated with _Gotz von +Berlichingen_, and a few months later this tragedy was followed by +another, _Clavigo_, hardly less convincing in its character-drawing, and +reflecting even more faithfully than the former the experiences Goethe +had gone through in Strassburg. Again poetic justice is effected on the +unfortunate hero who has chosen his own personal advancement in +preference to his duty to the woman he loves; more pointedly than in +_Gotz_ is the moral enforced by Clavigo's worldly friend Carlos, that +the ground of Clavigo's tragic end lies not so much in the defiance of a +moral law as in the hero's vacillation and want of character. With _Die +Leiden des jungen Werthers_ (1774), the literary precipitate of the +author's own experiences in Wetzlar, Goethe succeeded in attracting, as +no German had done before him, the attention of Europe. Once more it was +the gospel that the world belongs to the strong, which lay beneath the +surface of this romance. This, however, was not the lesson which was +drawn from it by Goethe's contemporaries; they shed tears of sympathy +over the lovelorn youth whose burden becomes too great for him to bear. +While _Gotz_ inaugurated the manlier side of the _Sturm und Drang_ +literature, _Werther_ was responsible for its sentimental excesses. And +to the sentimental rather than to the heroic side belongs also _Stella_, +"a drama for lovers," in which the poet again reproduced, if with less +fidelity than in _Werther_, certain aspects of his own love troubles. A +lighter vein is to be observed in various dramatic satires written at +this time, such as _Gotter_, _Helden und Wieland_ (1774), _Hanswursts +Hochzeit_, _Fastnachtsspiel vom Pater Brey_, _Satyros_, and in the +_Singspiele_, _Erwin und Elmire_ (1775) and _Claudine von Villa Bella_ +(1776); while in the _rankfurter Gelehrte Anzeiger_ (1772-1773), Goethe +drove home the principles of the new movement of _Sturm und Drang_ in +terse and pointed criticism. The exuberance of the young poet's genius +is also to be seen in the many unfinished fragments of this period; at +one time we find him occupied with dramas on _Caesar_ and _Mahomet_, at +another with an epic on _Der ewige Jude_, and again with a tragedy on +_Prometheus_, of which a magnificent fragment has passed into his works. +Greatest of all the torsos of this period, however, was the +dramatization of _Faust_. Thanks to a manuscript copy of the play in its +earliest form--discovered as recently as 1887--we are now able to +distinguish how much of this tragedy was the immediate product of the +_Sturm und Drang_, and to understand the intentions with which the young +poet began his masterpiece. Goethe's hero changed with the author's +riper experience and with his new conceptions of man's place and duties +in the world, but the Gretchen tragedy was taken over into the finished +poem, practically unaltered, from the earliest _Faust_ of the _Sturm und +Drang_. With these wonderful scenes, the most intensely tragic in all +German literature, Goethe's poetry in this period reaches its climax. +Still another important work, however, was conceived, and in large +measure written at this time, the drama of _Egmont_, which was not +published until 1788. This work may, to some extent, be regarded as +supplementary to _Faust_; it presents the lighter, more cheerful and +optimistic side of Goethe's philosophy in these years; Graf Egmont, the +most winning and fascinating of the poet's heroes, is endowed with that +"demonic" power over the sympathies of men and women, which Goethe +himself possessed in so high a degree. But _Egmont_ depends for its +interest almost solely on two characters, Egmont himself and Klarchen, +Gretchen's counterpart; regarded as a drama, it demonstrates the +futility of that defiance of convention and rules with which the _Sturm +und Drang_ set out. It remained for Goethe, in the next period of his +life, to construct on classic models a new vehicle for German dramatic +poetry. + +In December 1774 the young "hereditary prince" of Weimar, Charles +Augustus, passing through Frankfort on his way to Paris, came into +personal touch with Goethe, and invited the poet to visit Weimar when, +in the following year, he took up the reins of government. In October +1775 the invitation was repeated, and on the 7th of November of that +year Goethe arrived in the little Saxon capital which was to remain his +home for the rest of his life. During the first few months in Weimar the +poet gave himself up to the pleasures of the moment as unreservedly as +his patron; indeed, the Weimar court even looked upon him for a time as +a tempter who led the young duke astray. But the latter, although +himself a mere stripling, had implicit faith in Goethe, and a firm +conviction that his genius could be utilized in other fields besides +literature. Goethe was not long in Weimar before he was entrusted with +responsible state duties, and events soon justified the duke's +confidence. Goethe proved the soul of the Weimar government, and a +minister of state of energy and foresight. He interested himself in +agriculture, horticulture and mining, which were of paramount importance +to the welfare of the duchy, and out of these interests sprang his own +love for the natural sciences, which took up so much of his time in +later years. The inevitable love-interest was also not wanting. As +Friederike had fitted into the background of Goethe's Strassburg life, +Lotte into that of Wetzlar, and Lili into the gaieties of Frankfort, so +now Charlotte von Stein, the wife of a Weimar official, was the +personification of the more aristocratic ideals of Weimar society. We +possess only the poet's share of his correspondence with Frau von Stein, +but it is possible to infer from it that, of all Goethe's loves, this +was intellectually the most worthy of him. Frau von Stein was a woman of +refined literary taste and culture, seven years older than he and the +mother of seven children. There was something more spiritual, something +that partook rather of the passionate friendships of the 18th century +than of love in Goethe's relations with her. Frau von Stein dominated +the poet's life for twelve years, until his journey to Italy in +1786-1788. Of other events of this period the most notable were two +winter journeys, the first in 1777, to the Harz Mountains, the second, +two years later, to Switzerland--journeys which gave Goethe scope for +that introspection and reflection for which his Weimar life left him +little time. On the second of these journeys he revisited Friederike in +Sesenheim, saw Lili, who had married and settled in Strassburg, and made +the personal acquaintance of Lavater in Zurich. + +The literary results of these years cannot be compared with those of the +preceding period; they are virtually limited to a few wonderful lyrics, +such as _Wanderers Nachtlied_, _An den Mond_, _Gesang der Geister uber +den Wassern_, or ballads, such as _Der Erlkonig_, a charming little +drama, _Die Geschwister_ (1776), in which the poet's relations to both +Lili and Frau von Stein seem to be reflected, a dramatic satire, _Der +Triumph der Empfindsamkeit_ (1778), and a number of _Singspiele_, _Lila_ +(1777), _Die Fischerin_, _Scherz, List und Rache_, and _Jery und Bately_ +(1780). But greater works were in preparation. A religious epic, _Die +Geheimnisse_, and a tragedy _Elpenor_, did not, it is true, advance much +further than plans; but in 1777, under the influence of the theatrical +experiments at the Weimar court, Goethe conceived and in great measure +wrote a novel of the theatre, which was to have borne the title _Wilhelm +Meisters theatralische Sendung_; and in 1779 himself took part in a +representation before the court at Ettersburg, of his drama _Iphigenie +auf Tauris_. This _Iphigenie_ was, however, in prose; in the following +year Goethe remoulded it in iambics, but it was not until he went to +Rome that the drama finally received the form in which we know it. + +In September, 1786 Goethe set out from Karlsbad--secretly and +stealthily, his plan known only to his servant--on that memorable +journey to Italy, to which he had looked forward with such intense +longing; he could not cross the Alps quickly enough, so impatient was he +to set foot in Italy. He travelled by way of Munich, the Brenner and +Lago di Garda to Verona and Venice, and from thence to Rome, where he +arrived on the 29th of October 1786. Here he gave himself up +unreservedly to the new impressions which crowded on him, and he was +soon at home among the German artists in Rome, who welcomed him warmly. +In the spring of 1787 he extended his journey as far as Naples and +Sicily, returning to Rome in June 1787, where he remained until his +final departure for Germany on the 2nd of April 1788. It is difficult to +exaggerate the importance of Goethe's Italian journey. He himself +regarded it as a kind of climax to his life; never before had he +attained such complete understanding of his genius and mission in the +world; it afforded him a vantage-ground from which he could renew the +past and make plans for the future. In Weimar he had felt that he was no +longer in sympathy with the _Sturm und Drang_, but it was Italy which +first taught him clearly what might take the place of that movement in +German poetry. To the modern reader, who may well be impressed by +Goethe's extraordinary receptivity, it may seem strange that his +interests in Italy were so limited; for, after all, he saw comparatively +little of the art treasures of Italy. He went to Rome in Winckelmann's +footsteps; it was the antique he sought, and his interest in the artists +of the Renaissance was virtually restricted to their imitation of +classic models. This search for the classic ideal is reflected in the +works he completed or wrote under the Italian sky. The calm beauty of +Greek tragedy is seen in the new iambic version of _Iphigenie auf +Tauris_ (1787); the classicism of the Renaissance gives the ground-tone +to the wonderful drama of _Torquato Tasso_ (1790), in which the conflict +of poetic genius with the prosaic world is transmuted into imperishable +poetry. Classic, too, in this sense, were the plans of a drama on +_Iphigenie auf Delphos_ and of an epic, _Nausikaa_. Most interesting of +all, however, is the reflection of the classic spirit in works already +begun in earlier days, such as _Egmont_ and _Faust_. The former drama +was finished in Italy and appeared in 1788, the latter was brought a +step further forward, part of it being published as a _Fragment_ in +1790. + +Disappointment in more senses than one awaited Goethe on his return to +Weimar. He came back from Italy with a new philosophy of life, a +philosophy at once classic and pagan, and with very definite ideas of +what constituted literary excellence. But Germany had not advanced; in +1788 his countrymen were still under the influence of that _Sturm und +Drang_ from which the poet had fled. The times seemed to him more out of +joint than ever, and he withdrew into himself. Even his relations to the +old friends were changed. Frau von Stein had not known of his flight to +Italy until she received a letter from Rome; but he looked forward to +her welcome on his return. The months of absence, however, the change he +had undergone, and doubtless those lighter loves of which the _Romische +Elegien_ bear evidence, weakened the Weimar memories; if he left Weimar +as Frau von Stein's lover he returned only as her friend; and she +naturally resented the change. Goethe, meanwhile, satisfied to continue +the freer customs to which he had adapted himself in Rome, found a new +mistress in Christiane Vulpius (1765-1816), the least interesting of all +the women who attracted him. But Christiane gradually filled up a gap in +the poet's life; she gave him, quietly, unobtrusively, without making +demands on him, the comforts of a home. She was not accepted by court +society; it did not matter to her that even Goethe's intimate friends +ignored her; and she, who had suited the poet's whim when he desired to +shut himself off from all that might dim the recollection of Italy, +became with the years an indispensable helpmate to him. On the birth in +1789 of his son, Goethe had some thought of legalizing his relations +with Christiane, but this intention was not realized until 1806, when +the invasion of Weimar by the French made him fear for both life and +property. + +The period of Goethe's life which succeeded his return from Italy was +restless and unsettled; relieved of his state duties, he returned in +1790 to Venice, only to be disenchanted with the Italy he had loved so +intensely a year or two before. A journey with the duke of Weimar to +Breslau followed, and in 1792 he accompanied his master on that campaign +against France which ended so ingloriously for the German arms at Valmy. +In later years Goethe published his account both of this _Campagne in +Frankreich_ and of the _Belagerung von Mainz_, at which he was also +present in 1793. His literary work naturally suffered under these +distractions. _Tasso_, and the edition of the _Schriften_ in which it +was to appear, had still to be completed on his return from Italy; the +_Romische Elegien_, perhaps the most Latin of all his works, were +published in 1795, and the _Venetianische Epigramme_, the result of the +second visit to Italy, in 1796. The French Revolution, in which all +Europe was engrossed, was in Goethe's eyes only another proof that the +passing of the old regime meant the abrogation of all law and order, and +he gave voice to his antagonism to the new democratic principles in the +dramas _Der Grosskophta_ (1792), _Der Burgergeneral_ (1793), and in the +unfinished fragments _Die Aufgeregten_ and _Das Madchen von Oberkirch_. +The spirited translation of the epic of _Reinecke Fuchs_ (1794) he took +up as a relief and an antidote to the social disruption of the time. Two +new interests, however, strengthened the ties between Goethe and +Weimar,--ties which the Italian journey had threatened to sever: his +appointment in 1791 as director of the ducal theatre, a post which he +occupied for twenty-two years, and his absorption in scientific studies. +In 1790 he published his important _Versuch, die Metamorphose der +Pflanzen zu erklaren_, which was an even more fundamental achievement +for the new science of comparative morphology than his discovery some +six years earlier of the existence of a formation in the human jaw-bone +analogous to the intermaxillary bone in apes; and in 1791 and 1792 +appeared two parts of his _Beitrage zur Optik_. + +Meanwhile, however, Goethe had again taken up the novel of the theatre +which he had begun years before, with a view to finishing it and +including it in the edition of his _Neue Schriften_ (1792-1800). +_Wilhelm Meisters theatralische Sendung_ became _Wilhelm Meisters +Lehrjahre_; the novel of purely theatrical interests was widened out to +embrace the history of a young man's apprenticeship to life. The change +of plan explains, although it may not exculpate, the formlessness and +loose construction of the work, its extremes of realistic detail and +poetic allegory. A hero, who was probably originally intended to +demonstrate the failure of the vacillating temperament when brought face +to face with the problems of art, proved ill-adapted to demonstrate +those precepts for the guidance of life with which the _Lehrjahre_ +closes; unstable of purpose, Wilhelm Meister is not so much an +illustration of the author's life-philosophy as a lay-figure on which he +demonstrates his views. _Wilhelm Meister_ is a work of extraordinary +variety, ranging from the commonplace realism of the troupe of strolling +players to the poetic romanticism of Mignon and the harper; its flashes +of intuitive criticism and its weighty apothegms add to its value as a +_Bildungsroman_ in the best sense of that word. Of all Goethe's works, +this exerted the most immediate and lasting influence on German +literature; it served as a model for the best fiction of the next thirty +years. + +In completing _Wilhelm Meister_, Goethe found a sympathetic and +encouraging critic in Schiller, to whom he owed in great measure his +renewed interest in poetry. After years of tentative approaches on +Schiller's part, years in which that poet concealed even from himself +his desire for a friendly understanding with Goethe, the favourable +moment arrived; it was in June 1794, when Schiller was seeking +collaborators for his new periodical _Die Horen_; and his invitation +addressed to Goethe was the beginning of a friendship which continued +unbroken until the younger poet's death. The friendship of Goethe and +Schiller, of which their correspondence is a priceless record, had its +limitations; it was purely intellectual in character, a certain barrier +of personal reserve being maintained to the last. But for the literary +life of both poets the gain was incommensurable. As far as actual work +was concerned, Goethe went his own way as he had always been accustomed +to do; but the mere fact that he devoted himself with increasing +interest to literature was due to Schiller's stimulus. It was Schiller, +too, who induced him to undertake those studies on the nature of epic +and dramatic poetry which resulted in the epic of _Hermann und Dorothea_ +and the fragment of the _Achilleis_; without the friendship there would +have been no _Xenien_ and no ballads, and it was his younger friend's +encouragement which induced Goethe to betake himself once more to the +"misty path" of _Faust_, and bring the first part of that drama to a +conclusion. + +Goethe's share in the _Xenien_ (1796) may be briefly dismissed. This +collection of distichs, written in collaboration with Schiller, was +prompted by the indifference and animosity of contemporary criticism, +and its disregard for what the two poets regarded as the higher +interests of German poetry. The _Xenien_ succeeded as a retaliation on +the critics, but the masterpieces which followed them proved in the long +run much more effective weapons against the prevailing mediocrity. Prose +works like the _Unterhaltungen deutscher Ausgewanderten_ (1795) were +unworthy of the poet's genius, and the translation of Benvenuto +Cellini's _Life_ (1796-1797) was only a translation. But in 1798 +appeared _Hermann und Dorothea_, one of Goethe's most perfect poems. It +is indeed remarkable--when we consider by how much reflection and +theoretic discussion the composition of the poem was preceded and +accompanied--that it should make upon the reader so simple and "naive" +an impression; in this respect it is the triumph of an art that conceals +art. Goethe has here taken a simple story of village life, mirrored in +it the most pregnant ideas of his time, and presented it with a skill +which may well be called Homeric; but he has discriminated with the +insight of genius between the Homeric method of reproducing the heroic +life of primitive Greece and the same method as adapted to the +commonplace happenings of 18th-century Germany. In this respect he was +undoubtedly guided by a forerunner who has more right than he to the +attribute "naive," by J. H. Voss, the author of _Luise_. Hardly less +imposing in their calm, placid perfection are the poems with which, in +friendly rivalry, Goethe seconded the more popular ballads of his +friend; _Der Zauberlehrling_, _Der Gott und die Bayadere_, _Die Braut +von Korinth_, _Alexis und Dora_, _Der neue Pausias_ and _Die schone +Mullerin_--a cycle of poems in the style of the _Volkslied_--are among +the masterpieces of Goethe's poetry. On the other hand, even the +friendship with Schiller did not help him to add to his reputation as a +dramatist. _Die naturliche Tochter_ (1803), in which he began to embody +his ideas of the Revolution on a wide canvas, proved impossible on the +stage, and the remaining dramas, which were to have formed a trilogy, +were never written. Goethe's classic principles, when applied to the +swift, direct art of the theatre, were doomed to failure, and _Die +naturliche Tochter_, notwithstanding its good theoretic intention, +remains the most lifeless and shadowy of all his dramas. Even less in +touch with the living present were the various prologues and +_Festspiele_, such as _Palaophron und Neoterpe_ (1800), _Was wir +bringen_ (1802), which in these years he composed for the Weimar +theatre. + +Goethe's classicism brought him into inevitable antagonism with the new +Romantic movement which had been inaugurated in 1798 by the _Athenaeum_, +edited by the brothers Schlegel. The sharpness of the conflict was, +however, blunted by the fact that, without exception, the young Romantic +writers looked up to Goethe as its master; they modelled their fiction +on _Wilhelm Meister_; they regarded his lyrics as the high-water mark of +German poetry; Goethe, Novalis declared, was the "Statthalter of poetry +on earth." With regard to painting and sculpture, however, Goethe felt +that a protest was necessary, if the insidious ideas propounded in works +like Wackenroder's _Herzensergiessungen_ were not to do irreparable +harm, by bringing back the confusion of the _Sturm und Drang_; and, as a +rejoinder to the Romantic theories, Goethe, in conjunction with his +friend Heinrich Meyer (1760-1832), published from 1798 to 1800 an art +review, _Die Propylaen_. Again, in _Winckelmann und seine Zeit_ (1805) +Goethe vigorously defended the classical ideals of which Winckelmann had +been the founder. But in the end he proved himself the greatest enemy to +the strict classic doctrine by the publication in 1808 of the completed +first part of _Faust_, a work which was accepted by contemporaries as a +triumph of Romantic art. _Faust_ is a patchwork of many colours. With +the aid of the vast body of _Faust_ literature which has sprung up in +recent years, and the many new documents bearing on its history--above +all, the so-called _Urfaust_, to which reference has already been +made--we are able now to ascribe to their various periods the component +parts of the work; it is possible to discriminate between the _Sturm und +Drang_ hero of the opening scenes and of the Gretchen tragedy--the +contemporary of Gotz and Clavigo--and the superimposed Faust of calmer +moral and intellectual ideals--a Faust who corresponds to Hermann and +Wilhelm Meister. In its original form the poem was the dramatization of +a specific and individualized story; in the years of Goethe's friendship +with Schiller it was extended to embody the higher strivings of +18th-century humanism; ultimately, as we shall see, it became, in the +second part, a vast allegory of human life and activity. Thus the +elements of which _Faust_ is composed were even more difficult to blend +than were those of _Wilhelm Meister_; but the very want of uniformity is +one source of the perennial fascination of the tragedy, and has made it +in a peculiar degree the national poem of the German people, the mirror +which reflects the national life and poetry from the outburst of _Sturm +und Drang_ to the well-weighed and tranquil classicism of Goethe's old +age. + +The third and final period of Goethe's long life may be said to have +begun after Schiller's death. He never again lost touch with literature +as he had done in the years which preceded his friendship with +Schiller; but he stood in no active or immediate connexion with the +literary movement of his day. His life moved on comparatively +uneventfully. Even the Napoleonic regime of 1806-1813 disturbed but +little his equanimity. Goethe, the cosmopolitan _Weltburger_ of the 18th +century, had himself no very intense feelings of patriotism, and, having +seen Germany flourish as a group of small states under enlightened +despotisms, he had little confidence in the dreamers of 1813 who hoped +to see the glories of Barbarossa's empire revived. Napoleon, moreover, +he regarded not as the scourge of Europe, but as the defender of +civilization against the barbarism of the Slavs; and in the famous +interview between the two men at Erfurt the poet's admiration was +reciprocated by the French conqueror. Thus Goethe had no great sympathy +for the war of liberation which kindled young hearts from one end of +Germany to the other; and when the national enthusiasm rose to its +highest pitch he buried himself in those optical and morphological +studies, which, with increasing years, occupied more and more of his +time and interest. + +The works and events of the last twenty-five years of Goethe's life may +be briefly summarized. In 1805, as we have seen, he suffered an +irreparable loss in the death of Schiller; in 1806, Christiane became +his legal wife, and to the same year belongs the magnificent tribute to +his dead friend, the _Epilog zu Schillers Glocke_. Two new friendships +about this time kindled in the poet something of the juvenile fire and +passion of younger days. Bettina von Arnim came into personal touch with +Goethe in 1807, and her _Briefwechsel Goethes mit einem Kinde_ +(published in 1835) is, in its mingling of truth and fiction, one of the +most delightful products of the Romantic mind; but the episode was of +less importance for Goethe's life than Bettina would have us believe. On +the other hand, his interest in Minna Herzlieb, foster-daughter of the +publisher Frommann in Jena, was of a warmer nature, and has left its +traces on his sonnets. + +In 1808, as we have seen, appeared the first part of _Faust_, and in +1809 it was followed by _Die Wahlverwandtschaften_. The novel, hardly +less than the drama, effected a change in the public attitude towards +the poet. Since the beginning of the century the conviction had been +gaining ground that Goethe's mission was accomplished, that the day of +his leadership was over; but here were two works which not merely +re-established his ascendancy, but proved that the old poet was in +sympathy with the movement of letters, and keenly alive to the change of +ideas which the new century had brought in its train. The intimate +psychological study of four minds, which forms the subject of the +_Wahlverwandtschaften_, was an essay in a new type of fiction, and +pointed out the way for developments of the German novel after the +stimulus of _Wilhelm Meister_ had exhausted itself. Less important than +_Die Wahlverwandtschaften_ was _Pandora_ (1810), the final product of +Goethe's classicism, and the most uncompromisingly classical and +allegorical of all his works. And in 1810, too, appeared his treatise on +_Farbenlehre_. In the following year the first volume of his +autobiography was published under the title _Aus meinem Leben, Dichtung +und Wahrheit_. The second and third volumes of this work followed in +1812 and 1814; the fourth, bringing the story of his life up to the +close of the Frankfort period in 1833, after his death. Goethe felt, +even late in life, too intimately bound up with Weimar to discuss in +detail his early life there, and he shrank from carrying his biography +beyond the year 1775. But a number of other publications--descriptions +of travel, such as the _Italienische Reise_ (1816-1817), the materials +for a continuation of _Dichtung und Wahrheit_ collected in _Tag- und +Jahreshefte_ (1830)--have also to be numbered among the writings which +Goethe has left us as documents of his life. Meanwhile no less valuable +biographical materials were accumulating in his diaries, his voluminous +correspondence and his conversations, as recorded by J. P. Eckermann, +the chancellor Muller and F. Soret. Several periodical publications, +_Uber Kunst und Altertum_ (1816-1832), _Zur Naturwissenschaft uberhaupt_ +(1817-1824). _Zur Morphologie_ (1817-1824), bear witness to the +extraordinary breadth of Goethe's interests in these years. Art, +science, literature--little escaped his ken--and that not merely in +Germany: English writers, Byron, Scott and Carlyle, Italians like +Manzoni, French scientists and poets, could all depend on friendly words +of appreciation and encouragement from Weimar. + +In _West-ostlicher Diwan_ (1819), a collection of lyrics--matchless in +form and even more concentrated in expression than those of earlier +days--which were suggested by a German translation of Hafiz, Goethe had +another surprise in store for his contemporaries. And, again, it was an +actual passion--that for Marianne von Willemer, whom he met in 1814 and +1815--which rekindled in him the lyric fire. Meanwhile the years were +thinning the ranks of Weimar society: Wieland, the last of Goethe's +greater literary contemporaries, died in 1813, his wife in 1816, +Charlotte von Stein in 1827 and Duke Charles Augustus in 1828. Goethe's +retirement from the direction of the theatre in 1817 meant for him a +break with the literary life of the day. In 1822 a passion for a young +girl, Ulrike von Levetzow, whom he met at Marienbad, inspired the fine +_Trilogie der Leidenschaft_, and between 1821 and 1829 appeared the +long-expected and long-promised continuation of _Wilhelm Meister, +Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre_. The latter work, however, was a +disappointment: perhaps it could not have been otherwise. Goethe had +lost the thread of his romance and it was difficult for him to resume +it. Problems of the relation of the individual to society and industrial +questions were to have formed the theme of the _Wanderjahre_; but since +the French Revolution these problems had themselves entered on a new +phase and demanded a method of treatment which it was not easy for the +old poet to learn. Thus his intentions were only partially carried out, +and the volumes were filled out by irrelevant stories, which had been +written at widely different periods. + +But the crowning achievement of Goethe's literary life was the +completion of _Faust_. The poem had accompanied him from early manhood +to the end and was the repository for the fullest "confession" of his +life; it is the poetic epitome of his experience. The second part is, in +form, far removed from the impressive realism of the _Urfaust_. It is a +phantasmagory; a drama the actors in which are not creatures of flesh +and blood, but the shadows of an unreal world of allegory. The lover of +Gretchen had, as far as poetic continuity is concerned, disappeared with +the close of the first part. In the second part it is virtually a new +Faust who, at the hands of a new Mephistopheles, goes out into a world +that is not ours. Yet behind these unconvincing shadows of an imperial +court with its financial difficulties, of the classical +_Walpurgisnacht_, of the fantastic creation of the Homunculus, the noble +Helena episode and the impressive mystery-scene of the close, where the +centenarian Faust finally triumphs over the powers of evil, there lies a +philosophy of life, a ripe wisdom born of experience, such as no +European poet had given to the world since the Renaissance. _Faust_ has +been well called the "divine comedy" of 18th-century humanism. + +The second part of _Faust_ forms a worthy close to the life of Germany's +greatest man of letters, who died in Weimar on the 22nd of March 1832. +He was the last of those universal minds which have been able to compass +all domains of human activity and knowledge; for he stood on the brink +of an era of rapidly expanding knowledge which has made for ever +impossible the universality of interest and sympathy which distinguished +him. As a poet, his fame has undergone many vicissitudes since his +death, ranging from the indifference of the "Young German" school to the +enthusiastic admiration of the closing decades of the 19th century--an +enthusiasm to which we owe the Weimar _Goethe-Gesellschaft_ (founded in +1885) and a vast literature dealing with the poet's life and work; but +the fact of his being Germany's greatest poet and the master of her +classical literature has never been seriously put in question. The +intrinsic value of his poetic work, regarded apart from his personality, +is smaller in proportion to its bulk than is the case with many lesser +German poets and with the greatest poets of other literatures. But +Goethe was a type of literary man hitherto unrepresented among the +leading writers of the world's literature; he was a poet whose supreme +greatness lay in his subjectivity. Only a small fraction of Goethe's +work was written in an impersonal and objective spirit, and sprang from +what might be called a conscious artistic impulse; by far the +larger--and the better--part is the immediate reflex of his feelings and +experiences. + +It is as a lyric poet that Goethe's supremacy is least likely to be +challenged; he has given his nation, whose highest literary expression +has in all ages been essentially lyric, its greatest songs. No other +German poet has succeeded in attuning feeling, sentiment and thought so +perfectly to the music of words as he; none has expressed so fully that +spirituality in which the quintessence of German lyrism lies. Goethe's +dramas, on the other hand, have not, in the eyes of his nation, +succeeded in holding their own beside Schiller's; but the reason is +rather because Goethe, from what might be called a wilful obstinacy, +refused to be bound by the conventions of the theatre, than because he +was deficient in the cunning of the dramatist. For, as an interpreter of +human character in the drama, Goethe is without a rival among modern +poets, and there is not one of his plays that does not contain a few +scenes or characters which bear indisputable testimony to his mastery. +_Faust_ is Germany's most national drama, and it remains perhaps for the +theatre of the future to prove itself capable of popularizing +psychological masterpieces like _Tasso_ and _Iphigenie_. It is as a +novelist that Goethe has suffered most by the lapse of time. The +_Sorrows of Werther_ no longer moves us to tears, and even _Wilhelm +Meister_ and _Die Wahlverwandtschaften_ require more understanding for +the conditions under which they were written than do _Faust_ or +_Egmont_. Goethe could fill his prose with rich wisdom, but he was only +the perfect artist in verse. + +Little attention is nowadays paid to Goethe's work in other fields, work +which he himself in some cases prized more highly than his poetry. It is +only as an illustration of his many-sidedness and his manifold activity +that we now turn to his work as a statesman, as a theatre-director, as a +practical political economist. His art-criticism is symptomatic of a +phase of European taste which tried in vain to check the growing +individualism of Romanticism. His scientific studies and discoveries +awaken only an historical interest. We marvel at the obstinacy with +which he, with inadequate mathematical knowledge, opposed the Newtonian +theory of light and colour; and at his championship of "Neptunism," the +theory of aqueous origin, as opposed to "Vulcanism," that of igneous +origin of the earth's crust. Of far-reaching importance was, on the +other hand, his foreshadowing of the Darwinian theory in his works on +the metamorphosis of plants and on animal morphology. Indeed, the +deduction to be drawn from Goethe's contributions to botany and anatomy +is that he, as no other of his contemporaries, possessed that type of +scientific mind which, in the 19th century, has made for progress; he +was Darwin's predecessor by virtue of his enunciation of what has now +become one of the commonplaces of natural science--organic evolution. +Modern, too, was the outlook of the aging poet on the changing social +conditions of the age, wonderfully sympathetic his attitude towards +modern industry, which steam was just beginning to establish on a new +basis, and towards modern democracy. The Europe of his later years was +very different from the idyllic and enlightened autocracy of the 18th +century, in which he had spent his best years and to which he had +devoted his energies; yet Goethe was at home in it. + +From the philosophic movement, in which Schiller and the Romanticists +were so deeply involved, Goethe stood apart. Comparatively early in life +he had found in Spinoza the philosopher who responded to his needs; +Spinoza taught him to see in nature the "living garment of God," and +more he did not seek or need to know. As a convinced realist he took his +standpoint on nature and experience, and could afford to look on +objectively at the controversies of the metaphysicians. Kant he by no +means ignored, and under Schiller's guidance he learned much from him; +but of the younger thinkers, only Schelling, whose mystic +nature-philosophy was a development of Spinoza's ideas, touched a +sympathetic chord in his nature. As a moralist and a guide to the +conduct of life--an aspect of Goethe's work which Carlyle, viewing him +through the coloured glasses of Fichtean idealism, emphasized and +interpreted not always justly--Goethe was a powerful force on German +life in years of political and intellectual depression. It is difficult +even still to get beyond the maxims of practical wisdom he scattered so +liberally through his writings, the lessons to be learned from _Meister_ +and _Faust_, or even that calm, optimistic fatalism which never deserted +Goethe, and was so completely justified by the tenor of his life. If the +philosophy of Spinoza provided the poet with a religion which made +individual creeds and dogmas unnecessary and impossible, so Leibnitz's +doctrine of predestinism supplied the foundations for his faith in the +divine mission of human life. + +This many-sided activity is a tribute to the greatness of Goethe's mind +and personality; we may regard him merely as the embodiment of his +particular age, or as a poet "for all time"; but with one opinion all +who have felt the power of Goethe's genius are in agreement--the opinion +which was condensed in Napoleon's often cited words, uttered after the +meeting at Erfurt: _Voila un homme!_ Of all modern men, Goethe is the +most universal type of genius. It is the full, rich humanity of his life +and personality--not the art behind which the artist disappears, or the +definite pronouncements of the thinker or the teacher--that constitutes +his claim to a place in the front rank of men of letters. His life was +his greatest work. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(a) _Collected Works, Diaries, Correspondence, + Conversations_. The following authorized editions of Goethe's writings + appeared in the poet's lifetime: _Schriften_ (8 vols., Leipzig, + 1787-1790); _Neue Schriften_ (7 vols., Berlin, 1792-1800); _Werke_ (13 + vols., Stuttgart, 1806-1810); _Werke_ (20 vols., Stuttgart, + 1815-1819); to which six volumes were added in 1820-1822; Werke + (Vollstandige Ausgabe letzter Hand) (40 vols., Stuttgart, 1827-1830). + Goethe's _Nachgelassene Werke_ appeared as a continuation of this + edition in 15 volumes (Stuttgart, 1832-1834), to which five volumes + were added in 1842. These were followed by several editions of + Goethe's _Samtliche Werke_, mostly in forty volumes, published by + Cotta of Stuttgart. The first critical edition with notes was + published by Hempel, Berlin, in thirty-six volumes, 1868-1879; that in + Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_, vols. 82-117 (1882-1897) is + also important. In 1887 the monumental Weimar edition, which is now + approaching completion, began to appear; it is divided into four + sections: I. _Werke_ (c. 56 vols.); II. _Naturwissenschaftliche Werke_ + (12 vols.); III. _Tagebucher_ (13 vols.); IV. _Briefe_ (c. 45 vols.). + Of other recent editions the most noteworthy are: Samtliche Werke + (Jubilaums-Ausgabe), edited by E. von der Hellen (40 vols., Stuttgart, + 1902 ff.); _Werke_, edited by K. Heinemann (30 vols., Leipzig, 1900 + ff.), and the cheap edition of the _Samtliche Werke_, edited by L. + Geiger (44 vols., Leipzig, 1901). There are also innumerable editions + of selected works; reference need only be made here to the useful + collection of the early writings and letters published by S. Hirzel + with an introduction by M. Bernays, _Der junge Goethe_ (3 vols., + Leipzig, 1875, 2nd ed., 1887). A French translation of Goethe's + _Oeuvres completes_, by J. Porchat, appeared in 9 vols., at Paris, in + 1860-1863. There is, as yet, no uniform English edition, but Goethe's + chief works have all been frequently translated and a number of them + will be found in Bohn's standard library. + + The definitive edition of Goethe's diaries and letters is that forming + Sections III. and IV. of the Weimar edition. Collections of selected + letters based on the Weimar edition have been published by E. von der + Hellen (6 vols., 1901 ff.), and by P. Stein (8 vols., 1902 ff.). Of + the many separate collections of Goethe's correspondence mention may + be made of the _Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Goethe_, edited by + Goethe himself (1828-1829; 4th ed., 1881; also several cheap reprints. + English translation by L. D. Schmitz, 1877-1879); _Briefwechsel + zwischen Goethe und Zelter_ (6 vols., 1833-1834; reprint in Reclam's + _Universalbibliothek_, 1904; English translation by A. D. Coleridge, + 1887); _Bettina von Arnim, Goethes Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde_ + (1835; 4th ed., 1890; English translation, 1838); _Briefe von und an + Goethe_, edited by F. W. Riemer (1846); _Goethes Briefe an Frau von + Stein_, edited by A. Scholl (1848-1851; 3rd ed. by J. Wahle, + 1899-1900); _Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und K. F. von Reinhard_ + (1850); _Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Knebel_ (2 vols., 1851); + _Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Staatsrat Schultz_ (1853); + _Briefwechsel des Herzogs Karl August mit Goethe_ (2 vols., 1863); + _Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Kaspar Graf von Sternberg_ (1866); + _Goethes naturwissenschaftliche Korrespondenz_, and _Goethes + Briefwechsel mit den Gebrudern von Humboldt_, edited by F. T. + Bratranek (1874-1876); _Goethes und Carlyles Briefwechsel_ (1887), + also in English; _Goethe und die Romantik_, edited by C. Schuddekopf + and O. Walzel (2 vols., 1898-1899); _Goethe und Lavater_, edited by H. + Funck (1901); _Goethe und Osterreich_, edited by A. Sauer (2 vols., + 1902-1903). Besides the correspondence with Schiller and Zelter, + Bonn's library contains a translation of _Early and Miscellaneous_ + _Letters_, by E. Bell (1884). The chief collections of Goethe's + conversations are: J. P. Eckermann, _Gesprache mit Goethe_ (1836; vol. + iii., also containing conversations with Soret, 1848; 7th ed. by H. + Duntzer, 1899; also new edition by L. Geiger, 1902; English + translation by J. Oxenford, 1850). The complete conversations with + Soret have been published in German translation by C. A. H. Burkhardt + (1905); _Goethes Unterhaltungen mit dem Kanzler F. von Muller_ (1870). + Goethe's collected _Gesprache_ were published by W. von Biedermann in + 10 vols. (1889-1896). + + (b) _Biography._--Goethe's autobiography, _Aus meinem Leben: Dichtung + und Wahrheit_, appeared in three parts between 1811 and 1814, a fourth + part, bringing the history of his life as far as his departure for + Weimar in 1775, in 1833 (English translation by J. Oxenford, 1846); it + is supplemented by other biographical writings, as the _Italienische + Reise, Aus einer Reise in die Schweiz im Jahre 1797_; _Aus einer Reise + am Rhein, Main und Neckar in den Jahren 1814 und 1815, Tag- und + Jahreshefte_, &c., and especially by his diaries and correspondence. + The following are the more important biographies: H. Doring, _Goethes + Leben_ (1828; subsequent editions, 1833, 1849, 1856); H. Viehoff, + _Goethes Leben_ (4 vols., 1847-1854; 5th ed., 1887); J. W. Schafer, + _Goethes Leben_ (2 vols., 1851; 3rd ed., 1877); G. H. Lewes, _The Life + and Works of Goethe_ (2 vols., 1855; 2nd ed., 1864; 3rd ed., 1875; + cheap reprint, 1906; the German translation by J. Frese is in its 18th + edition, 1900; a shorter biography was published by Lewes in 1873 + under the title _The Story of Goethe's Life)_; W. Mezieres, _W. + Goethe, les oeuvres expliquees par la vie_ (1872-1873); A. Bossert, + _Goethe_ (1872-1873); K. Goedeke, _Goethes Leben und Schriften_ (1874; + 2nd ed., 1877); H. Grimm, _Goethe: Vorlesungen_ (1876; 8th ed., 1903; + English translation, 1880); A. Hayward, _Goethe_ (1878); H. H. + Boyesen, _Goethe and Schiller, their Lives and Works_ (1879); H. + Duntzer, _Goethes Leben_ (1880; 2nd ed., 1883; English translation, + 1883); A. Baumgartner, _Goethe, sein Leben und seine Werke_ (1885); J. + Sime, _Life of Goethe_ (1888); K. Heinemann, _Goethes Leben und Werke_ + (1889; 3rd ed., 1903); R. M. Meyer, _Goethe_ (1894; 3rd ed., 1904); A. + Bielschowsky, _Goethe, sein Leben und seine Werke_ (vol. i., 1895; 5th + ed., 1904; vol. ii., 1903; English translation by W. A. Cooper, 1905 + ff.); G. Witkowsky, Goethe (1899); H. G. Atkins, _J. W. Goethe_ + (1904); P. Hansen and R. Meyer, _Goethe, hans Liv og Vaerker_ (1906). + + Of writings on special periods and aspects of Goethe's life the more + important are as follows (the titles are arranged as far as possible + in the chronological sequence of the poet's life): H. Duntzer, + _Goethes Stammbaum_ (1894); K. Heinemann, _Goethes Mutter_ (1891; 6th + ed., 1900); P. Bastier, _La Mere de Goethe_ (1902); _Briefe der Frau + Rat_ (2 vols., 2nd ed., 1905); F. Ewart, _Goethes Vater_ (1899); G. + Witkowski, _Cornelia die Schwester Goethes_ (1903); P. Besson, + _Goethe, sa soeur et ses amies_ (1898); H. Duntzer, _Frauenbilder aus + Goethes Jugendzeit_ (1852); W. von Biedermann, _Goethe und Leipzig_ + (1865); P. F. Lucius, _Friederike Brion_ (1878; 3rd ed., 1904); A. + Bielschowsky, _Friederike Brion_ (1880); F. E. von Durckheim, _Lili's + Bild geschichtlich entworfen_ (1879; 2nd ed., 1894); W. Herbst, + _Goethe in Wetzlar_ (1881); A. Diezmann, _Goethe und die lustige Zeit + in Weimar_ (1857; 2nd ed., 1901); H. Duntzer, _Goethe und Karl August_ + (1859-1864; 2nd ed., 1888); also, by the same author, _Aus Goethes + Freundeskreise_ (1868) and _Charlotte von Stein_ (2 vols., 1874); J. + Haarhuus, _Auf Goethes Spuren in Italien_ (1896-1898); O. Harnack, + _Zur Nachgeschichte der italienischen Reise_ (1890); H. Grimm, + _Schiller und Goethe_ (_Essays_, 1858; 3rd ed., 1884); G. Berlit, + _Goethe und Schiller im personlichen Verkehre, nach brieflichen + Mitteilungen von H. Voss_ (1895); E. Pasque, _Goethes Theaterleitung + in Weimar_ (2 vols., 1863); C. A. H. Burkhards, _Das Repertoire des + weimarischen Theaters unter Goethes Leitung_ (1891); J. Wahle, _Das + Weimarer Hoftheater unter Goethes Leitung_ (1892); O. Harnack, _Goethe + in der Epoche seiner Vollendung_ (2nd ed., 1901); J. Barbey + d'Aurevilly, _Goethe et Diderot_ (1880); A Fischer, _Goethe und + Napoleon_ (1899; 2nd ed., 1900); R. Steig, _Goethe und die Gebruder + Grimm_ (1892). + + (c) _Criticism._--H. G. Graef, _Goethe uber seine Dichtungen_ (1901 + ff.); J. W. Braun, _Goethe im Urteile seiner Zeitgenossen_ (3 vols., + 1883-1885); T. Carlyle, _Essays on Goethe_ (1828-1832); X. Marmier, + _Etudes sur Goethe_ (1835); W. von Biedermann, _Goethe-Forschungen_ + (1879, 1886); J. Minor and A. Sauer, _Studien zur Goethe-Philologie_ + (1880); H. Duntzer, _Abhandlungen zu Goethes Leben und Werken_ (1881); + A. Scholl, _Goethe in Hauptzugen seines Lebens und Wirkens_ (1882); V. + Hehn, _Gedanken uber Goethe_ (1884; 4th ed., 1900); W. Scherer, + _Aufsatze uber Goethe_ (1886); J. R. Seeley, _Goethe reviewed after + Sixty Years_ (1894); E. Dowden, _New Studies in Literature_ (1895); E. + Rod, _Essai sur Goethe_ (1898); A. Luther, _Goethe, sechs Vortrage_ + (1905); R. Saitschik, _Goethes Charakter_ (1898); W. Bode, _Goethes + Lebenskunst_ (1900; 2nd ed., 1902); by the same, _Goethes Asthetik_ + (1901); T. Vollbehr, _Goethe und die bildende Kunst_ (1895); E. + Lichtenberger, _Etudes sur les poesies lyriques de Goethe_ (1878); T. + Achelis, _Grundzuge der Lyrik Goethes_ (1900); B. Litzmann, _Goethes + Lyrik_ (1903); R. Riemann, _Goethes Romantechnik_ (1901); R. Virchow, + _Goethe als Naturforscher_ (1861); E. Caro, _La Philosophie de Goethe_ + (1866; 2nd ed., 1870); R. Steiner, _Goethes Weltanschauung_ (1897); F. + Siebeck, _Goethe als Denker_ (1902); F. Baldensperger, Goethe en + France (1904); S. Waetzoldt, _Goethe und die Romantik_ (1888). + + More special treatises dealing with individual works are the + following: W. Scherer, _Aus Goethes Fruhzeit_ (1879); R. Weissenfels, + _Goethe in Sturm und Drang_, vol. i. (1894); W. Wilmanns, + _Quellenstudien zu Goethes Gotz von Berlichingen_ (1874); J. + Baechtold, _Goethes Gotz von Berlichingen in dreifacher Gestalt_ + (1882); J. W. Appell, _Werther und seine Zeit_ (1855; 4th ed., 1896); + E. Schmidt, _Richardson, Rousseau und Goethe_ (1875); M. Herrmann, + _Das Jahrmarktsfest zu Plundersweilen_ (1900); E. Schmidt, Goethes + Faust in ursprunglicher Gestalt (1887; 5th ed., 1901); J. Collin, + _Goethes Faust in seiner altesten Gestalt_ (1896); H. Hettner, + _Goethes Iphigenie in ihrem Verhaltnis zur Bildungsgeschichte des + Dichters_ (1861; in _Kleine Schriften_, 1884); K. Fischer, _Goethes + Iphigenie_ (1888); F. T. Bratranek, _Goethes Egmont und Schillers + Wallenstein_ (1862); C. Schuchardt, _Goethes italienische Reise_ + (1862); H. Duntzer, _Iphigenie auf Tauris; die drei altesten + Bearbeitungen_ (1854); F. Kern, _Goethes Tasso_ (1890); J. Schubart, + _Die philosophischen Grundgedanken in Goethes Wilhelm Meister_ (1896); + E. Boas, _Schiller und Goethe in Xenienkampf_ (1851); E. Schmidt and + B. Suphan, _Xenien 1796, nach den Handschriften_ (1893); W. von + Humboldt, _Asthetische Versuche: Hermann und Dorothea_ (1799); V. + Hehn, _Uber Goethes Hermann und Dorothea_ (1893); A. Fries, _Quellen + und Komposition der Achilleis_ (1901); K. Alt, _Studien zur + Entstehungsgeschichte von Dichtung und Wahrheit_ (1898); A. Jung, + _Goethes Wanderjahre und die wichtigsten Fragen des 19. Jahrhunderts_ + (1854); F. Kreyssig, _Vorlesungen uber Goethes Faust_ (1866); the + editions of _Faust_ by G. von Loeper (2 vols., 1879), and K. J. + Schroer (2 vols., 3rd and 4th ed., 1898-1903); K. Fischer, _Goethes + Faust_ (3 vols., 1893, 1902, 1903); O. Pniower, _Goethes Faust, + Zeugnisse und Excurse zu seiner Entstehungsgeschichte_ (1899); J. + Minor, _Goethes Faust, Entstehungsgeschichte und Erklarung_ (2 vols., + 1901). + + (d) _Bibliographical Works, Goethe-Societies, &c._--L. Unflad, _Die + Goethe-Literatur in Deutschland_ (1878); S. Hirzel, _Verzeichnis einer + Goethe-Bibliothek_ (1884), to which G. von Loeper and W. von + Biedermann have supplied supplements. F. Strehlke, _Goethes Briefe: + Verzeichnis unter Angabe der Quelle_ (1882-1884); _British Museum + Catalogue of Printed Books: Goethe_ (1888); Goedeke's _Grundriss zur + Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung_ (2nd ed., vol. iv. 1891); and the + bibliographies in the _Goethe-Jahrbuch_ (since 1880). Also K. Hoyer, + _Zur Einfuhrung in die Goethe-Literatur_ (1904). On Goethe in England + see E. Oswald, _Goethe in England and America_ (1899; 2nd ed., 1909); + W. Heinemann, _A Bibliographical List of the English Translations and + Annotated Editions of Goethe's Faust_ (1886). Reference may also be + made here to F. Zarncke's _Verzeichnis der Originalaufnahmen von + Goethes Bildnissen_ (1888). + + _A Goethe-Gesellschaft_ was founded at Weimar in 1885, and numbers + over 2800 members; its publications include the annual + _Goethe-Jahrbuch_ (since 1880), and a series of _Goethe-Schriften_. A + _Goethe-Verein_ has existed in Vienna since 1887, and an English + Goethe society, which has also issued several volumes of publications, + since 1886. (J. G. R.) + +_Goethe's Descendants._--Goethe's only son, AUGUST, born on the 25th of +December 1789 at Weimar, married in 1817 Ottilie von Pogwisch +(1796-1872), who had come as a child to Weimar with her mother (_nee_ +Countess Henckel von Donnersmarck). The marriage was a very unhappy one, +the husband having no qualities that could appeal to a woman who, +whatever the censorious might say of her moral character, was +distinguished to the last by a lively intellect and a singular charm. +August von Goethe, whose sole distinction was his birth and his position +as grand-ducal chamberlain, died in Italy, on the 27th of October 1830, +leaving three children; WALTHER WOLFGANG, born on April 9, 1818, died on +April 15, 1885; WOLFGANG MAXIMILIAN, born on September 18, 1820, died on +January 20, 1883; ALMA, born on October 22, 1827, died on September 29, +1844. + +Of Walther von Goethe little need be said. In youth he had musical +ambitions, studied under Mendelssohn and Weinlig at Leipzig, under Loewe +at Stettin, and afterwards at Vienna. He published a few songs of no +great merit, and had at his death no more than the reputation among his +friends of a kindly and accomplished man. + +Wolfgang or, as he was familiarly called, Wolf von Goethe, was by far +the more gifted of the two brothers, and his gloomy destiny by so much +the more tragic. A sensitive and highly imaginative boy, he was the +favourite of his grandfather, who made him his constant companion. This +fact, instead of being to the boy's advantage, was to prove his bane. +The exalted atmosphere of the great man's ideas was too rarefied for the +child's intellectual health, and a brain well fitted to do excellent +work in the world was ruined by the effort to live up to an impossible +ideal. To maintain himself on the same height as his grandfather, and to +make the name of Goethe illustrious in his descendants also, became +Wolfgang's ambition; and his incapacity to realize this, very soon borne +in upon him, paralyzed his efforts and plunged him at last into bitter +revolt against his fate and gloomy isolation from a world that seemed to +have no use for him but as a curiosity. From the first, too, he was +hampered by wretched health; at the age of sixteen he was subjected to +one of those terrible attacks of neuralgia which were to torment him to +the last; physically and mentally alike he stood in tragic contrast with +his grandfather, in whose gigantic personality the vigour of his race +seems to have been exhausted. + +From 1839 to 1845 Wolfgang studied law at Bonn, Jena, Heidelberg and +Berlin, taking his degree of _doctor juris_ at Heidelberg in 1845. +During this period he had made his first literary efforts. His +_Studenten-Briefe_ (Jena, 1842), a medley of letters and lyrics, are +wholly conventional. This was followed by _Der Mensch und die +elementarische Natur_ (Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1845), in three parts +(_Beitrage_): (1) an historical and philosophical dissertation on the +relations of mankind and the "soul of nature," largely influenced by +Schelling, (2) a dissertation on the juridical side of the question, _De +fragmento Vegoiae_, being the thesis presented for his degree, (3) a +lyrical drama, _Erlinde_. In this last, as in his other poetic attempts, +Wolfgang showed a considerable measure of inherited or acquired ability, +in his wealth of language and his easy mastery of the difficulties of +rhythm and rhyme. But this was all. The work was characteristic of his +self-centred isolation: ultra-romantic at a time when Romanticism was +already an outworn fashion, remote alike from the spirit of the age and +from that of Goethe. The cold reception it met with shattered at a blow +the dream of Wolfgang's life; henceforth he realized that to the world +he was interesting mainly as "Goethe's grandson," that anything he might +achieve would be measured by that terrible standard, and he hated the +legacy of his name. + +The next five years he spent in Italy and at Vienna, tormented by facial +neuralgia. Returning to Weimar in 1850, he was made a chamberlain by the +grand-duke, and in 1852, his health being now somewhat restored, he +entered the Prussian diplomatic service and went as attache to Rome. The +fruit of his long years of illness was a slender volume of lyrics, +_Gedichte_ (Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1851), good in form, but seldom +inspired, and showing occasionally the influence of a morbid sensuality. +In 1854 he was appointed secretary of legation; but the aggressive +ultramontanism of the Curia became increasingly intolerable to his +overwrought nature, and in 1856 he was transferred, at his own request, +as secretary of legation to Dresden. This post he resigned in 1859, in +which year he was raised to the rank of _Freiherr_ (baron). In 1866 he +received the title of councillor of legation; but he never again +occupied any diplomatic post. + +The rest of his life he devoted to historical research, ultimately +selecting as his special subject the Italian libraries up to the year +1500. The outcome of all his labours was, however, only the first part +of _Studies and Researches in the Times and Life of Cardinal Bessarion_, +embracing the period of the council of Florence (privately printed at +Jena, 1871), a catalogue of the MSS. in the monastery of Sancta Justina +at Padua (Jena, 1873), and a mass of undigested material, which he +ultimately bequeathed to the university of Jena. + +In 1870 Ottilie von Goethe, who had resided mainly at Vienna, returned +to Weimar and took up her residence with her two sons in the Goethehaus. +So long as she lived, her small salon in the attic storey of the great +house was a centre of attraction for many of the most illustrious +personages in Europe. But after her death in 1872 the two brothers lived +in almost complete isolation. The few old friends, including the +grand-duke Charles Alexander, who continued regularly to visit the +house, were entertained with kindly hospitality by Baron Walther; +Wolfgang refused to be drawn from his isolation even by the advent of +royalty. "Tell the empress," he cried on one occasion, "that I am not a +wild beast to be stared at!" In 1879, his increasing illness +necessitating the constant presence of an attendant, he went to live at +Leipzig, where he died. + +Goethe's grandsons have been so repeatedly accused of having displayed a +dog-in-the-manger temper in closing the Goethehaus to the public and +the Goethe archives to research, that the charge has almost universally +come to be regarded as proven. It is true that the house was closed and +access to the archives only very sparingly allowed until Baron Walther's +death in 1885. But the reason for this was not, as Herr Max Hecker +rather absurdly suggests, Wolfgang's jealousy of his grandfather's +oppressive fame, but one far more simple and natural. From one cause or +another, principally Ottilie von Goethe's extravagance, the family was +in very straitened circumstances; and the brothers, being thoroughly +unbusinesslike, believed themselves to be poorer than they really +were.[1] They closed the Goethehaus and the archives, because to have +opened them would have needed an army of attendants.[2] If they deserve +any blame it is for the pride, natural to their rank and their +generation, which prevented them from charging an entrance fee, an +expedient which would not only have made it possible for them to give +access to the house and collections, but would have enabled them to save +the fabric from falling into the lamentable state of disrepair in which +it was found after their death. In any case, the accusation is +ungenerous. With an almost exaggerated _Pietat_ Goethe's descendants +preserved his house untouched, at great inconvenience to themselves, and +left it, with all its treasures intact, to the nation. Had they been the +selfish misers they are sometimes painted, they could have realized a +fortune by selling its contents. + + _Wolf Goethe_ (Weimar, 1889) is a sympathetic appreciation by Otto + Mejer, formerly president of the Lutheran consistory in Hanover. See + also Jenny v. Gerstenbergk, _Ottilie von Goethe und ihre Sohne Walther + und Wolf_ (Stuttgart, 1901), and the article on Maximilian Wolfgang + von Goethe by Max F. Hecker in _Allgem. deutsche Biographie_, Bd. 49, + _Nachtrage_ (Leipzig, 1904). (W. A. P.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] After Walther's death upwards of L10,000 in bonds, &c., were + discovered put away and forgotten in escritoires and odd corners. + + [2] This was the reason given by Baron Walther himself to the + writer's mother, an old friend of Frau von Goethe, who lived with her + family in the Goethehaus for some years after 1871. + + + + +GOETZ, HERMANN (1840-1876), German musical composer, was born at +Konigsberg in Prussia, on the 17th of December 1840, and began his +regular musical studies at the comparatively advanced age of seventeen. +He entered the music-school of Professor Stern at Berlin, and studied +composition chiefly under Ulrich and Hans von Bulow. In 1863 he was +appointed organist at Winterthur in Switzerland, where he lived in +obscurity for a number of years, occupying himself with composition +during his leisure hours. One of his works was an opera, _The Taming of +the Shrew_, the libretto skilfully adapted from Shakespeare's play. +After much delay it was produced at Mannheim (in October 1874), and its +success was as instantaneous as it has up to the present proved lasting. +It rapidly made the round of the great German theatres, and spread its +composer's fame over all the land. But Goetz did not live to enjoy this +happy result for long. In December 1876 he died at Zurich from overwork. +A second opera, _Francesco da Rimini_, on which he was engaged, remained +a fragment; but it was finished according to his directions, and was +performed for the first time at Mannheim a few months after the +composer's death on the 4th of December 1876. Besides his dramatic work, +Goetz also wrote various compositions for chamber-music, of which a trio +(Op. 1) and a quintet (Op. 16) have been given with great success at the +London Monday Popular Concerts. Still more important is the _Symphony in +F_. As a composer of comic opera Goetz lacks the sprightliness and +artistic _savoir faire_ so rarely found amongst Germanic nations. His +was essentially a serious nature, and passion and pathos were to him +more congenial than humour. The more serious sides of the subject are +therefore insisted upon more successfully than Katherine's ravings and +Petruchio's eccentricities. There are, however, very graceful passages, +e.g. the singing lesson Bianca receives from her disguised lover. +Goetz's style, although influenced by Wagner and other masters, shows +signs of a distinct individuality. The design of his music is +essentially of a polyphonic character, and the working out and +interweaving of his themes betray the musician of high scholarship. But +breadth and beautiful flow of melody also were his, as is seen in the +symphony, and perhaps still more in the quintet for pianoforte and +strings above referred to. The most important of Goetz's posthumous +works are a setting of the 137th Psalm for soprano solo, chorus and +orchestra, a "Spring" overture (Op. 15), and a pianoforte sonata for +four hands (Op. 17). + + + + +GOFFE (or GOUGH), WILLIAM (fl. 1642-1660), English parliamentarian, son +of Stephen Goffe, puritan rector of Stanmer in Essex, began life as an +apprentice to a London salter, a zealous parliamentarian, but on the +outbreak of the civil war he joined the army and became captain in +Colonel Harley's regiment of the new model in 1645. He was imprisoned in +1642 for his share in the petition to give the control of the militia to +the parliament. By his marriage with Frances, daughter of General Edward +Whalley, he became connected with Oliver Cromwell's family and one of +his most faithful followers. He was a member of the deputation which on +the 6th of July 1647 brought up the charge against the eleven members. +He was active in bringing the king to trial and signed the death +warrant. In 1649 he received the honorary degree of M.A. at Oxford. He +distinguished himself at Dunbar, commanding a regiment there and at +Worcester. He assisted in the expulsion of Barebone's parliament in +1653, took an active part in the suppression of Penruddock's rising in +July 1654, and in October 1655 was appointed major-general for +Berkshire, Sussex and Hampshire. Meanwhile he had been elected member +for Yarmouth in the parliament of 1654 and for Hampshire in that of +1656. He supported the proposal to bestow a royal title upon Cromwell, +who greatly esteemed him, was included in the newly-constituted House of +Lords, obtained Lambert's place as major-general of the Foot, and was +even thought of as a fit successor to Cromwell. As a member of the +committee of nine appointed in June 1658 on public affairs, he was +witness to the protector's appointment of Richard Cromwell as his +successor. He supported the latter during his brief tenure of power and +his fall involved his own loss of influence. In November 1659 he took +part in the futile mission sent by the army to Monk in Scotland, and at +the Restoration escaped with his father-in-law General Edward Whalley to +Massachusetts. Goffe's political aims appear not to have gone much +beyond fighting "to pull down Charles and set up Oliver"; and he was no +doubt a man of deep religious feeling, who acted throughout according to +a strict sense of duty as he conceived it. He was destined to pass the +rest of his life in exile, separated from his wife and children, dying, +it is supposed, about 1679. + + + + +GOFFER, to give a fluted or crimped appearance to anything, particularly +to linen or lace frills or trimmings by means of heated irons of a +special shape, called goffering-irons or tongs. "Goffering," or the +French term _gaufrage_, is also used of the wavey or crimped edging in +certain forms of porcelain, and also of the stamped or embossed +decorations on the edges of the binding of books. The French word +_gaufre_, from which the English form is adapted, means a thin cake +marked with a pattern like a honeycomb, a "wafer," which is +etymologically the same word. _Waufre_ appears in the phrase _un fer a +waufres_, an iron for baking cakes on (quotation of 1433 in J. B. +Roquefort's _Glossaire de la langue romane_). The word is Teutonic, cf. +Dutch _wafel_, Ger. _Waffel_, a form seen in "waffle," the name given to +the well-known batter-cakes of America. The "wafer" was so called from +its likeness to a honeycomb, _Wabe_, ultimately derived from the root +_wab_-, to weave, the cells of the comb appearing to be woven together. + + + + +GOG (possibly connected with the Gentilic _Gagaya_, "of the land of +Gag," used in Amarna Letters i. 38, as a synonym for "barbarian," or +with Ass. _Gagu_, a ruler of the land of _Sahi_, N. of Assyria, or with +_Gyges_, Ass. _Gugu_, a king of Lydia), a Hebrew name found in Ezek. +xxxviii.-xxxix. and in Rev. xx., and denoting an antitheocratic power +that is to manifest itself in the world immediately before the final +dispensation. In the later passage, Gog and Magog are spoken of as +co-ordinate; in the earlier, Gog is given as the name of the person or +people and Magog as that of the land of origin. Magog is perhaps a +contracted form of Mat-gog, _mat_ being the common Assyrian word for +"land." The passages are, however, intimately related and both depend +upon Gen. x. 2, though here Magog alone is mentioned. He is the second +"son" of Japhet, and the order of the names here and in Ezekiel xxxviii. +2, indicates a locality between Cappadocia and Media, i.e. in Armenia. +According to Josephus, who is followed by Jerome, the Scythians were +primarily intended by this designation; and this plausible opinion has +been generally followed. The name [Greek: Skythai], it is to be +observed, however, is often but a vague word for any or all of the +numerous and but partially known tribes of the north; and any attempt to +assign a more definite locality to Magog can only be very hesitatingly +made. According to some, the Maiotes about the Palus Maeotis are meant; +according to others, the Massagetae; according to Kiepert, the +inhabitants of the northern and eastern parts of Armenia. The imagery +employed in Ezekiel's prophetic description was no doubt suggested by +the Scythian invasion which about the time of Josiah, 630 B.C., had +devastated Asia (Herodotus i. 104-106; Jer. iv. 3-vi. 30). Following on +this description, Gog figures largely in Jewish and Mahommedan as well +as in Christian eschatology. In the district of Astrakhan a legend is +still to be met with, to the effect that Gog and Magog were two great +races, which Alexander the Great subdued and banished to the inmost +recesses of the Caucasus, where they are meanwhile kept in by the terror +of twelve trumpets blown by the winds, but whence they are destined +ultimately to make their escape and destroy the world. + +The legends that attach themselves to the gigantic effigies (dating from +1708 and replacing those destroyed in the Great Fire) of Gog and Magog +in Guildhall, London, are connected only remotely, if at all, with the +biblical notices. According to the _Recuyell des histoires de Troye_, +Gog and Magog were the survivors of a race of giants descended from the +thirty-three wicked daughters of Diocletian; after their brethren had +been slain by Brute and his companions, Gog and Magog were brought to +London (Troy-novant) and compelled to officiate as porters at the gate +of the royal palace. It is known that effigies similar to the present +existed in London as early as the time of Henry V.; but when this legend +began to attach to them is uncertain. They may be compared with the +giant images formerly kept at Antwerp (Antigomes) and Douai (Gayant). +According to Geoffrey of Monmouth (_Chronicles_, i. 16), Goemot or +Goemagot (either corrupted from or corrupted into "Gog and Magog") was a +giant who, along with his brother Corineus, tyrannized in the western +horn of England until slain by foreign invaders. + + + + +GOGO, or GOGHA, a town of British India in Ahmedabad district, Bombay, +193 m. N.W. of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 4798. About 3/4 m. east of the town +is an excellent anchorage, in some measure sheltered by the island of +Piram, which lies still farther east. The natives of this place are +reckoned the best sailors in India; and ships touching here may procure +water and supplies, or repair damages. The anchorage is a safe refuge +during the south-west monsoon, the bottom being a bed of mud and the +water always smooth. Gogo has lost its commercial importance and has +steadily declined in population and trade since the time of the American +Civil War, when it was an important cotton-mart. + + + + +GOGOL, NIKOLAI VASILIEVICH (1809-1852), Russian novelist, was born in +the province of Poltava, in South Russia, on the 31st of March 1809. +Educated at the Niezhin gymnasium, he there started a manuscript +periodical, "The Star," and wrote several pieces including a tragedy, +_The Brigands_. Having completed his course at Niezhin, he went in 1829 +to St Petersburg, where he tried the stage but failed. Next year he +obtained a clerkship in the department of appanages, but he soon gave it +up. In literature, however, he found his true vocation. In 1829 he +published anonymously a poem called _Italy_, and, under the pseudonym of +V. Alof, an idyll, _Hans Kuchel Garten_, which he had written while +still at Niezhin. The idyll was so ridiculed by a reviewer that its +author bought up all the copies he could secure, and burnt them in a +room which he hired for the purpose at an inn. Gogol then fell back upon +South Russian popular literature, and especially the tales of Cossackdom +on which his boyish fancy had been nursed, his father having occupied +the post of "regimental secretary," one of the honorary officials in +the Zaporogian Cossack forces. + +In 1830 he published in a periodical the first of the stories which +appeared next year under the title of _Evenings in a Farm near Dikanka: +by Rudy Panko_. This work, containing a series of attractive pictures of +that Little-Russian life which lends itself to romance more readily than +does the monotony of "Great-Russian" existence, immediately obtained a +great success--its light and colour, its freshness and originality being +hailed with enthusiasm by the principal writers of the day in Russia. +Whereupon Gogol planned, not only a history of Little-Russia, but also +one of the middle ages, to be completed in eight or nine volumes. This +plan he did not carry out, though it led to his being appointed to a +professorship in the university of St Petersburg, a post in which he met +with small success and which he resigned in 1835. Meanwhile he had +published his _Arabesques_, a collection of essays and stories; his +_Taras Bulba_, the chief of the _Cossack Tales_ translated into English +by George Tolstoy; and a number of novelettes, which mark his transition +from the romantic to the realistic school of fiction, such as the +admirable sketch of the tranquil life led in a quiet country house by +two kindly specimens of _Old-world Gentlefolks_, or the description of +the petty miseries endured by an ill-paid clerk in a government office, +the great object of whose life is to secure the "cloak" from which his +story takes its name. To the same period belongs his celebrated comedy, +the _Revizor_, or government inspector. His aim in writing it was to +drag into light "all that was bad in Russia," and to hold it up to +contempt. And he succeeded in rendering contemptible and ludicrous the +official life of Russia, the corruption universally prevailing +throughout the civil service, the alternate arrogance and servility of +men in office. The plot of the comedy is very simple. A traveller who +arrives with an empty purse at a provincial town is taken for an +inspector whose arrival is awaited with fear, and he receives all the +attentions and bribes which are meant to propitiate the dreaded +investigator of abuses. The play appeared on the stage in the spring of +1836, and achieved a full success, in spite of the opposition attempted +by the official classes whose malpractices it exposed. The aim which +Gogol had in view when writing the _Revizor_ he afterwards fully +attained in his great novel, _Mertvuiya Dushi_, or Dead Souls, the first +part of which appeared in 1842. The hero of the story is an adventurer +who goes about Russia making fictitious purchases of "dead souls," i.e. +of serfs who have died since the last census, with the view of pledging +his imaginary property to the government. But his adventures are merely +an excuse for drawing a series of pictures, of an unfavourable kind, of +Russian provincial life, and of introducing on the scene a number of +types of Russian society. Of the force and truth with which these +delineations are executed the universal consent of Russian critics in +their favour may be taken as a measure. From the French version of the +story a general idea of its merits may be formed, and some knowledge of +its plot and its principal characters may be gathered from the English +adaptation published in 1854, as an original work, under the title of +_Home Life in Russia_. But no one can fully appreciate Gogol's merits as +a humorist who is not intimate with the language in which he wrote as +well as with the society which he depicted. + +In 1836 Gogol for the first time went abroad. Subsequently he spent a +considerable amount of time out of Russia, chiefly in Italy, where much +of his _Dead Souls_ was written. His residence there, especially at +Rome, made a deep impression on his mind, which, during his later years, +turned towards mysticism. The last works which he published, his +_Confession_ and _Correspondence with Friends_, offer a painful contrast +to the light, bright, vigorous, realistic, humorous writings which had +gained and have retained for him his immense popularity in his native +land. Asceticism and mystical exaltation had told upon his nervous +system, and its feeble condition showed itself in his literary +compositions. In 1848 he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and on his +return settled down at Moscow, where he died on the 3rd of March 1852. + + See _Materials for the Biography of Gogol_ (in Russian) (1897), by + Shenrok; "Illness and Death of Gogol," by N. Bazhenov, _Russkaya + Muisl_, January 1902. (W. R. S.-R.) + + + + +GOGRA, or GHAGRA, a river of northern India. It is an important +tributary of the Ganges, bringing down to the plains more water than the +Ganges itself. It rises in Tibet near Lake Manasarowar, not far from the +sources of the Brahmaputra and the Sutlej, passes through Nepal where it +is known as the Kauriala, and after entering British territory becomes +the most important waterway in the United Provinces. It joins the Ganges +at Chapra after a course of 600 m. Its tributary, the Rapti, also has +considerable commercial importance. The Gogra has the alternative name +of Sarju, and in its lower course is also known as the Deoha. + + + + +GOHIER, LOUIS JEROME (1746-1830), French politician, was born at +Semblancay (Indre-et-Loire) on the 27th of February 1746, the son of a +notary. He was called to the bar at Rennes, and practised there until he +was sent to represent the town in the states-general. In the Legislative +Assembly he represented Ille-et-Vilaine. He took a prominent part in the +deliberations; he protested against the exaction of a new oath from +priests (Nov. 22, 1791), and demanded the sequestration of the +emigrants' property (Feb. 7, 1792). He was minister of justice from +March 1793 to April 1794, and in June 1799 he succeeded Treilhard in the +Directory, where he represented the republican interest. His wife was +intimate with Josephine Bonaparte, and when Bonaparte suddenly returned +from Egypt in October 1799 he repeatedly protested his friendship for +Gohier, who was then president of the Directory, and tried in vain to +gain him over. After the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th Brumaire (Nov. 9, +1799), he refused to abdicate his functions, and sought out Bonaparte at +the Tuileries "to save the republic," as he boldly expressed it. He was +escorted to the Luxembourg, and on his release he retired to his estate +at Eaubonne. In 1802 Napoleon made him consul-general at Amsterdam, and +on the union of the Netherlands with France he was offered a similar +post in the United States. His health did not permit of his taking up a +new appointment, and he died at Eaubonne on the 29th of May 1830. + + His _Memoires d'un veteran irreprochable de la Revolution_ was + published in 1824, his report on the papers of the civil list + preparatory to the trial of Louis XVI. is printed in Le _Proces de + Louis XVI_ (Paris, an III) and elsewhere, while others appear in the + _Moniteur_. + + + + +GOHRDE, a forest of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, +immediately W. of the Elbe, between Wittenberg and Luneburg. It has an +area of about 85 sq. m. and is famous for its oaks, beeches and game +preserves. It is memorable for the victory gained here, on the 16th of +September 1813, by the allies, under Wallmoden, over the French forces +commanded by Pecheur. The hunting-box situated in the forest was built +in 1689 and was restored by Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover. It is +known to history on account of the constitution of Gohrde, promulgated +here in 1719. + + + + +GOITO, a village of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Mantua, from +which it is 11 m. N.W., on the road to Brescia. Pop. (village) 737; +(commune) 5712. It is situated on the right bank of the Mincio near the +bridge. Its position has given it a certain military importance in +various campaigns and it has been repeatedly fortified as a bridge-head. +The Piedmontese forces won two actions (8th of April and 30th of May +1848) over the Austrians here. + + + + +GOITRE (from Lat. _guttur_, the throat; synonyms, Bronchocele, +Derbyshire Neck), a term applied to a swelling in the front of the neck +caused by enlargement of the thyroid gland. This structure, which lies +between the skin and the anterior surface of the windpipe, and in health +is not large enough to give rise to any external prominence (except in +the pictures of certain artists), is liable to variations in size, more +especially in females, a temporary enlargement of the gland being not +uncommon at the catamenial periods, as well as during pregnancy. In +goitre the swelling is conspicuous and is not only unsightly but may +occasion much discomfort from its pressure upon the windpipe and other +important parts of the neck. J. L. Alibert recorded cases of goitre +where the tumour hung down over the breast, or reached as low as the +middle of the thigh. + +Goitre usually appears in early life, often from the eighth to the +twelfth year; its growth is at first slow, but after several years of +comparative quiescence a sudden increase is apt to occur. In the earlier +stages the condition of the gland is simply an enlargement of its +constituent parts, which retain their normal soft consistence; but in +the course of time other changes supervene, and it may become cystic, or +acquire hardness from increase of fibrous tissue or from calcareous +deposits. Occasionally the enlargement is uniform, but more commonly one +of the lobes, generally the right, is the larger. In rare instances the +disease is limited to the isthmus which connects the two lobes of the +gland. The growth is unattended with pain, and is not inconsistent with +good health. + +Goitre is a marked example of an endemic disease. There are few parts of +the world where it is not found prevailing in certain localities, these +being for the most part valleys and elevated plains in mountainous +districts (see CRETINISM). The malady is generally ascribed to the use +of drinking water impregnated with the salts of lime and magnesia, in +which ingredients the water of goitrous districts abounds. But in +localities not far removed from those in which goitre prevails, and +where the water is of the same chemical composition, the disease may be +entirely unknown. The disease may be the result of a combination of +causes, among which local telluric or malarial influences concur with +those of the drinking water. Goitre is sometimes cured by removal of the +individual from the district where it prevails, and it is apt to be +acquired by previously healthy persons who settle in goitrous +localities; and it is only in such places that the disease exhibits +hereditary tendencies. + +In the early stages, change of air, especially to the seaside, is +desirable, and small doses of iron and of iodine should be given; if +this fails small doses of thyroid extract should be tried. If palliative +measures prove unsuccessful, operation must be undertaken for the +removal of one lateral lobe and the isthmus of the tumour. This may be +done under chloroform or after the subcutaneous injection of cocaine. If +chloroform is used, it must be given very sparingly, as the breathing is +apt to become seriously embarrassed during the operation. After the +successful performance of the operation great improvement takes place, +the remaining part of the gland slowly decreasing in size. The whole of +the gland must not be removed during the operation, lest the strange +disease known as Myxoedema should be produced (see METABOLIC DISEASES). + +In _exophthalmic goitre_ the bronchocele is but one of three phenomena, +which together constitute the disease, viz. palpitation of the heart, +enlargement of the thyroid gland, and protrusion of the eyeballs. This +group of symptoms is known by the name of "Graves's disease" or "Von +Basedow's disease"--the physicians by whom the malady was originally +described. Although occasionally observed in men, this affection occurs +chiefly in females, and in comparatively early life. It is generally +preceded by impoverishment of blood, and by nervous or hysterical +disorders, and it is occasionally seen in cases of organic heart +disease. It has been suddenly developed as the effect of fright or of +violent emotion. The first symptom is usually the palpitation of the +heart, which is aggravated by slight exertion, and may be so severe as +not only to shake the whole frame but even to be audible at some +distance. A throbbing is felt throughout the body, and many of the +larger blood-vessels are, like the heart, seen to pulsate strongly. The +enlargement of the thyroid is gradual, and rarely increases to any great +size, thus differing from the commoner form of goitre. The enlarged +gland is of soft consistence, and communicates a thrill to the touch +from its dilated and pulsating blood-vessels. Accompanying the goitre a +remarkable change is observed in the eyes, which attract attention by +their prominence, and by the startled expression thus given to the +countenance. In extreme cases the eyes protrude from their sockets to +such a degree that the eyelids cannot be closed, and injury may thus +arise to the constantly exposed eyeballs. Apart from such risk, however, +the vision is rarely affected. It occasionally happens that in undoubted +cases of the disease one or other of the three above-named phenomena is +absent, generally either the goitre or the exophthalmos. The palpitation +of the heart is the most constant symptom. Sleeplessness, irritability, +disorders of digestion, diarrhoea and uterine derangements, are frequent +accompaniments. It is a serious disease and, if unchecked, may end +fatally. Some cases are improved by general hygienic measures, others by +electric treatment, or by the administration of animal extracts or of +sera. Some cases, on the other hand, may be considered suitable for +operative treatment. (E. O.*) + + + + +GOKAK, a town of British India, in the Belgaum district of Bombay, 8 m. +from a station on the Southern Mahratta railway. Pop. (1901) 9860. It +contains old temples with inscriptions, and is known for a special +industry of modelled toys. About 4 m. N.W. are the Gokak Falls, where +the Ghatprabha throws itself over a precipice 170 ft. high. Close by, +the water has been impounded for a large reservoir, which supplies not +only irrigation but also motive power for a cotton-mill employing 2000 +hands. + + + + +GOKCHA, (GOK-CHAI; Armenian _Sevanga_; ancient _Haosravagha_), the +largest lake of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of Erivan, in +40 deg. 9' to 40 deg. 38' N. and 45 deg. 1' to 45 deg. 40' E. Its +altitude is 6345 ft., it is of triangular shape, and measures from +north-west to south-east 45 m., its greatest width being 25 m., and its +maximum depth 67 fathoms. Its area is 540 sq. m. It is surrounded by +barren mountains of volcanic origin, 12,000 ft. high. Its outflow is the +Zanga, a left bank tributary of the Aras (_Araxes_); it never freezes, +and its level undergoes periodical oscillations. It contains four +species of _Salmonidae_, and two of _Cyprinidae_, which are only met +with in the drainage area of this lake. A lava island in the middle is +crowned by an Armenian monastery. + + + + +GOLCONDA, a fortress and ruined city of India, in the Nizam's Dominions, +5 m. W. of Hyderabad city. In former times Golconda was the capital of a +large and powerful kingdom of the Deccan, ruled by the Kutb Shahi +dynasty which was founded in 1512 by a Turkoman adventurer on the +downfall of the Bahmani dynasty, but the city was subdued by Aurangzeb +in 1687, and annexed to the Delhi empire. The fortress of Golconda, +situated on a rocky ridge of granite, is extensive, and contains many +enclosures. It is strong and in good repair, but is commanded by the +summits of the enormous and massive mausolea of the ancient kings about +600 yds. distant. These buildings, which are now the chief +characteristics of the place, form a vast group, situated in an arid, +rocky desert. They have suffered considerably from the ravages of time, +but more from the hand of man, and nothing but the great solidity of +their walls has preserved them from utter ruin. These tombs were erected +at a great expense, some of them being said to have cost as much as +L150,000. Golconda fort is now used as the Nizam's treasury, and also as +the state prison. Golconda has given its name in English literature to +the diamonds which were found in other parts of the dominions of the +Kutb Shahi dynasty, not near Golconda itself. + + + + +GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1), 197.2(O = 16)], a metallic +chemical element, valued from the earliest ages on account of the +permanency of its colour and lustre. Gold ornaments of great variety and +elaborate workmanship have been discovered on sites belonging to the +earliest known civilizations, Minoan, Egyptian, Assyrian, Etruscan (see +JEWELRY, PLATE, EGYPT, CRETE, AEGEAN CIVILIZATION, NUMISMATICS), and in +ancient literature gold is the universal symbol of the highest purity +and value (cf. passages in the Old Testament, e.g. Ps. xix. 10 "More to +be desired are they than gold, yea, than much fine gold"). With regard +to the history of the metallurgy of gold, it may be mentioned that, +according to Pliny, mercury was employed in his time both as a means of +separating the precious metals and for the purposes of gilding. +Vitruvius also gives a detailed account of the means of recovering gold, +by amalgamation, from cloth into which it had been woven. + +_Physical Properties._--Gold has a characteristic yellow colour, which +is, however, notably affected by small quantities of other metals; thus +the tint is sensibly lowered by small quantities of silver, and +heightened by copper. When the gold is finely divided, as in "purple of +Cassius," or when it is precipitated from solutions, the colour is +ruby-red, while in very thin leaves it transmits a greenish light. It is +nearly as soft as lead and softer than silver. When pure, it is the most +malleable of all metals (see GOLDBEATING). It is also extremely ductile; +a single grain may be drawn into a wire 500 ft. in length, and an ounce +of gold covering a silver wire is capable of being extended more than +1300 m. The presence of minute quantities of cadmium, lead, bismuth, +antimony, arsenic, tin, tellurium and zinc renders gold brittle, +1/2000th part of one of the three metals first named being sufficient to +produce that quality. Gold can be readily welded cold; the finely +divided metal, in the state in which it is precipitated from solution, +may be compressed between dies into disks or medals. The specific +gravity of gold obtained by precipitation from solution by ferrous +sulphate is from 19.55 to 20.72. The specific gravity of cast gold +varies from 18.29 to 19.37, and by compression between dies the specific +gravity may be raised from 19.37 to 19.41; by annealing, however, the +previous density is to some extent recovered, as it is then found to be +19.40. The melting-point has been variously given, the early values +ranging from 1425 deg. C. to 1035 deg. C. Using improved methods, C. T. +Heycock and F. H. Neville determined it to be 1061.7 deg. C.; Daniel +Berthelot gives 1064 deg. C., while Jaquerod and Perrot give +1066.1-1067.4 deg. C. At still higher temperatures it volatilizes, +forming a reddish vapour. Macquer and Lavoisier showed that when gold is +strongly heated, fumes arise which gild a piece of silver held in them. +Its volatility has also been studied by L. Eisner, and, in the presence +of other metals, by Napier and others. The volatility is barely +appreciable at 1075 deg.; at 1250 deg. it is four times as much as at +1100 deg. Copper and zinc increase the volatility far more than lead, +while the greatest volatility is induced, according to T. Kirke Rose, by +tellurium. It has also been shown that gold volatilizes when a +gold-amalgam is distilled. Gold is dissipated by sending a powerful +charge of electricity through it when in the form of leaf or thin wire. +The electric conductivity is given by A. Matthiessen as 73 at 0 deg. C., +pure silver being 100; the value of this coefficient depends greatly on +the purity of the metal, the presence of a few thousandths of silver +lowering it by 10%. Its conductivity for heat has been variously given +as 103 (C. M. Despretz), 98 (F. Crace-Calvert and R. Johnson), and 60 +(G. H. Wiedemann and R. Franz), pure silver being 100. Its specific heat +is between 0.0298 (Dulong and Petit) and 0.03244 (Regnault). Its +coefficient of expansion for each degree between 0 deg. and 100 deg. C. +is 0.000014661, or for gold which has been annealed 0.000015136 (Laplace +and Lavoisier). The spark spectrum of gold has been mapped by A. +Kirchhoff, R. Thalen, Sir William Huggins and H. Kruss; the brightest +lines are 6277, 5960, 5955 and 5836 in the orange and yellow, and 5230 +and 4792 in the green and blue. + +_Chemical Properties._--Gold is permanent in both dry and moist air at +ordinary or high temperatures. It is insoluble in hydrochloric, nitric +and sulphuric acids, but dissolves in _aqua regia_--a mixture of +hydrochloric and nitric acids--and when very finely divided in a heated +mixture of strong sulphuric acid and a little nitric acid; dilution with +water, however, precipitates the metal as a violet or brown powder from +this solution. The metal is soluble in solutions of chlorine, bromine, +thiosulphates and cyanides; and also in solutions which generate +chlorine, such as mixtures of hydrochloric acid with nitric acid, +chromic acid, antimonious acid, peroxides and nitrates, and of nitric +acid with a chloride. Gold is also attacked when strong sulphuric acid +is submitted to electrolysis with a gold positive pole. W. Skey showed +that in substances which contain small quantities of gold the precious +metal may be removed by the solvent action of iodine or bromine in +water. Filter paper soaked with the clear, solution is burnt, and the +presence of gold is indicated by the purple colour of the ash. In +solution minute quantities of gold may be detected by the formation of +"purple of Cassius," a bluish-purple precipitate thrown down by a +mixture of ferric and stannous chlorides. + +The atomic weight of gold was first determined with accuracy by +Berzelius, who deduced the value 195.7 (H = 1) from the amount of +mercury necessary to precipitate it from the chloride, and 195.2 from +the ratio between gold and potassium chloride in potassium aurichloride, +KAuCl4. Later determinations were made by Sir T. E. Thorpe and A. P. +Laurie, Kruss and J. W. Mallet. Thorpe and Laurie converted potassium +auribromide into a mixture of metallic gold and potassium bromide by +careful heating. The relation of the gold to the potassium bromide, as +well as the amounts of silver and silver bromide which are equivalent to +the potassium bromide, were determined. The mean value thus adduced was +195.86. Kruss worked with the same salt, and obtained the value 195.65; +while Mallet, by analyses of gold chloride and bromide, and potassium +auribromide, obtained the value 195.77. + +_Occlusion of Gas by Gold._--T. Graham showed that gold is capable of +occluding by volume 0.48% of hydrogen, 0.20% of nitrogen, 0.29% of +carbon monoxide, and 0.16% of carbon dioxide. Varrentrapp pointed out +that "cornets" from the assay of gold may retain gas if they are not +strongly heated. + +_Occurrence and Distribution._--Gold is found in nature chiefly in the +metallic state, i.e. as "native gold," and less frequently in +combination with tellurium, lead and silver. These are the only certain +examples of natural combinations of the metal, the minute, though +economically valuable, quantity often found in pyrites and other +sulphides being probably only present in mechanical suspension. The +native metal crystallizes in the cubic system, the octahedron being the +commonest form, but other and complex combinations have been observed. +Owing to the softness of the metal, large crystals are rarely well +defined, the points being commonly rounded. In the irregular crystalline +aggregates branching and moss-like forms are most common, and in +Transylvania thin plates or sheets with diagonal structures are found. +More characteristic, however, than the crystallized are the irregular +forms, which, when large, are known as "nuggets" or "pepites," and when +in pieces below 1/4 to 1/2 oz. weight as gold dust, the larger sizes +being distinguished as coarse or nuggety gold, and the smaller as gold +dust proper. Except in the larger nuggets, which may be more or less +angular, or at times even masses of crystals, with or without associated +quartz or other rock, gold is generally found bean-shaped or in some +other flattened form, the smallest particles being scales of scarcely +appreciable thickness, which, from their small bulk as compared with +their surface, subside very slowly when suspended in water, and are +therefore readily carried away by a rapid current. These form the "float +gold" of the miner. The physical properties of native gold are generally +similar to that of the melted metal. + + Of the minerals containing gold the most important are sylvanite or + graphic tellurium (Ag, Au) Te2, with 24 to 26%; calaverite, AuTe2, + with 42%; nagyagite or foliate tellurium (Pb, Au)16 Sb3(S, Te)24, with + 5 to 9% of gold; petzite, (Ag, Au)2Te, and white tellurium. These are + confined to a few localities, the oldest and best known being those of + Nagyag and Offenbanya in Transylvania; they have also been found at + Red Cloud, Colorado, in Calaveras county, California, and at Perth and + Boulder, West Australia. The minerals of the second class, usually + spoken of as "auriferous," are comparatively numerous. Prominent among + these are galena and iron pyrites, the former being almost invariably + gold-bearing. Iron pyrites, however, is of greater practical + importance, being in some districts exceedingly rich, and, next to the + native metal, is the most prolific source of gold. Magnetic pyrites, + copper pyrites, zinc blende and arsenical pyrites are other and less + important examples, the last constituting the gold ore formerly worked + in Silesia. A native gold amalgam is found as a rarity in California, + and bismuth from South America is sometimes rich in gold. Native + arsenic and antimony are also very frequently found to contain gold + and silver. + + The association and distribution of gold may be considered under two + different heads, namely, as it occurs in mineral veins--"reef gold," + and in alluvial or other superficial deposits which are derived from + the waste of the former--"alluvial gold." Four distinct types of reef + gold deposits may be distinguished: (1) Gold may occur disseminated + through metalliferous veins, generally with sulphides and more + particularly with pyrites. These deposits seem to be the primary + sources of native gold. (2) More common are the auriferous + quartz-reefs--veins or masses of quartz containing gold in flakes + visible to the naked eye, or so finely divided as to be invisible. (3) + The "banket" formation, which characterizes the goldfields of South + Africa, consists of a quartzite conglomerate throughout which gold is + very finely disseminated. (4) The siliceous sinter at Mount Morgan, + Queensland, which is obviously associated with hydrothermal action, is + also gold-bearing. The genesis of the last three types of deposit is + generally assigned to the simultaneous percolation of solutions of + gold and silica, the auriferous solution being formed during the + disintegration of the gold-bearing metalliferous veins. But there is + much uncertainty as to the mechanism of the process; some authors hold + that the soluble chloride is first formed, while others postulate the + intervention of a soluble aurate. + + In the alluvial deposits the associated minerals are chiefly those of + great density and hardness, such as platinum, osmiridium and other + metals of the platinum group, tinstone, chromic, magnetic and brown + iron ores, diamond, ruby and sapphire, zircon, topaz, garnet, &c. + which represent the more durable original constituents of the rocks + whose distintegration has furnished the detritus. + +_Statistics of Gold Production._--The supply of gold, and also its +relation to the supply of silver, has, among civilized nations, always +been of paramount importance in the economic questions concerning money +(see MONEY and BIMETALLISM); in this article a summary of the modern +gold-producing areas will be given, and for further details reference +should be made to the articles on the localities named. The chief +sources of the European supply during the middle ages were the mines of +Saxony and Austria, while Spain also contributed. The supplies from +Mexico and Brazil were important during the 16th and 17th centuries. +Russia became prominent in 1823, and for fourteen years contributed the +bulk of the supply. The United States (California) after 1848, and +Australia after 1851, were responsible for enormous increases in the +total production, which has been subsequently enhanced by discoveries in +Canada, South Africa, India, China and other countries. + + TABLE I. + + +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Period. | Oz. | Period. | Oz. | + +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 1801-1810 | 590,750 | 1856-1860 | 6,350,180 | + | 1811-1820 | 380,300 | 1861-1865 | 5,951,770 | + | 1821-1830 | 472,400 | 1866-1870 | 6,169,660 | + | 1831-1840 | 674,200 | 1871-1875 | 5,487,400 | + | 1841-1850 | 1,819,600 | 1876-1880 | 5,729,300 | + | 1851-1855 | 6,350,180 | -- | -- | + +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + +The average annual world's production for certain periods from 1801 to +1880 in ounces is given in Table I. The average production of the five +years 1881-1885 was the smallest since the Australian and Californian +mines began to be worked in 1848-1849; the minimum 4,614,588 oz., +occurred in 1882. It was not until after 1885 that the annual output of +the world began to expand. Of the total production in 1876, 5,016,488 +oz., almost the whole was derived from the United States, Australasia +and Russia. Since then the proportion furnished by these countries has +been greatly lowered by the supplies from South Africa, Canada, India +and China. The increase of production has not been uniform, the greater +part having occurred most notably since 1895. Among the regions not +previously important as gold-producers which now contribute to the +annual output, the most remarkable are the goldfields of South Africa +(Transvaal and Rhodesia, the former of which were discovered in 1885). +India likewise has been added to the list, its active production having +begun at about the same time as that of South Africa. The average annual +product of India for the period 1886 to 1899 inclusive was L698,208, and +its present annual product averages about 550,000 oz., or about +L2,200,000, obtained almost wholly from the free-milling quartz veins of +the Colar goldfields in Mysore, southern India. In 1900 the output was +valued at L1,891,804, in 1905 at L2,450,536, and in 1908 at L2,270,000. +Canada, too, assumed an important rank, having contributed in 1900 +L5,583,300; but the output has since steadily declined to L1,973,000 in +1908. The great increase during the few years preceding 1899 was due to +the development of the goldfields of the North-Western Territory, +especially British Columbia. From the district of Yukon (Klondike, &c.) +L2,800,000 was obtained in 1899, wholly from alluvial workings, but the +progress made since has been slower than was expected by sanguine +people. It is, however, probable that the North-Western Territory will +continue to yield gold in important quantities for some time to come. + +The output of the United States increased from L7,050,000 in 1881 to +L16,085,567 in 1900, L17,916,000 in 1905, and to L20,065,000 in 1908. +This increase was chiefly due to the exploitation of new goldfields. The +fall in the price of silver stimulated the discovery and development of +gold deposits, and many states formerly regarded as characteristically +silver districts have become important as gold producers. Colorado is a +case in point, its output having increased from about L600,000 in 1880 +to L6,065,000 in 1900; it was L5,139,800 in 1905. Somewhat more than +one-half of the Colorado gold is obtained from the Cripple Creek +district. Other states also showed a largely augmented product. On the +other hand, the output of California, which was producing over +L3,000,000 per annum in 1876, has fallen off, the average annual output +from 1876 to 1900 being L2,800,000; in 1905 the yield was L3,839,000. +This decrease was largely caused by the practical suspension for many +years of the hydraulic mining operations, in preparation for which +millions of dollars had been expended in deep tunnels, flumes, &c., and +the active continuance of which might have been expected to yield some +L2,000,000 of gold annually. This interruption, due to the practical +prohibition of the industry by the United States courts, on the ground +that it was injuring, through the deposit of tailings, agricultural +lands and navigable streams, was lessened, though not entirely removed, +by compromises and regulations which permit, under certain restrictions, +the renewed exploitation of the ancient river-beds by the hydraulic +method. On the other hand, the progressive reduction of mining and +metallurgical costs effected by improved transportation and machinery, +and the use of high explosives, compressed air, electric-power +transmission, &c., resulted in California (as elsewhere) in a notable +revival of deep mining. This was especially the case on the "Mother +Lode," where highly promising results were obtained. Not only is +vein-material formerly regarded as unremunerative now extracted at a +profit, but in many instances increased gold-values have been +encountered below zones of relative barrenness, and operators have been +encouraged to make costly preparations for really deep mining--more than +3000 ft. below the surface. The gold product of California, therefore, +may be fairly expected to maintain itself, and, indeed, to show an +advance. Alaska appeared in the list of gold-producing countries in +1886, and gradually increased its annual output until 1897, when the +country attracted much attention with a production valued at over +L500,000; the opening up of new workings has increased this figure +immensely, from about L1,400,000 in 1901 to L3,006,500 in 1905. The +Alaska gold was derived almost wholly from the large low-grade quartz +mines of Douglas Island prior to 1899, but in that year an important +district was discovered at Cape Nome, on the north-western coast. The +result of a few months' working during that year was more than L500,000 +of gold, and a very much larger annual output may reasonably be +anticipated in the future; in 1905 it was about L900,000. The gold +occurs in alluvial deposits designated as gulch-, bar-, beach-, tundra- +and bench-placers. The tundra is a coastal plain, swampy and covered +with undergrowth and underlaid by gravel. The most interesting and, thus +far, the most productive are the beach deposits, similar to those on the +coast of Northern California. These occur in a strip of comparatively +fine gravel and sand, 150 yds. wide, extending along the shore. The gold +is found in stratified layers, with "ruby" and black sand. The "ruby" +sand consists chiefly of fine garnets and magnetites, with a few +rose-quartz grains. Further exploration of the interior will probably +result in the discovery of additional gold districts. + +Mexico, from a gold production of L200,000 in 1891, advanced to about +L1,881,800 in 1900 and to about L3,221,000 in 1905. Of this increase, a +considerable part was derived from gold-quartz mining, though much was +also obtained as a by-product in the working of the ores of other +metals. The product of Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Brazil, +Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador amounted in 1900 to +L2,481,000 and to L2,046,000 in 1905. + +In 1876 Australasia produced L7,364,000, of which Victoria contributed +L3,084,000. The annual output of Victoria declined until the year 1892, +when it began to increase rapidly, but not to its former level, the +values for 1900 and 1905 being L3,142,000 and L3,138,000. There has been +an important increase in Queensland, which advanced from L1,696,000 in +1876 to L2,843,000 in 1900, and subsequently declined to L2,489,000 in +1905. There has been no increase, and, indeed, no large fluctuation +until quite recently in the output of New Zealand, which averaged +L1,054,000 per annum from 1876 to 1898, but the production of the two +years 1900 and 1905 rose to L1,425,459 and L2,070,407 respectively. By +far the most important addition to the Australasian product has come +from West Australia, which began its production in 1887--about the time +of the inception of mining at Witwatersrand ("the Rand") in South +Africa--and by continuous increase, which assumed large proportions +towards the close of the 19th century, was L6,426,000 in 1899, +L6,179,000 in 1900, and L8,212,000 in 1905. The total Australasian +production in 1908 was valued at L14,708,000. + +Undoubtedly the greatest of the gold discoveries made in the latter half +of the 19th century was that of the Witwatersrand district in the +Transvaal. By reason of its unusual geological character and great +economic importance this district deserves a more extended description. +The gold occurs in conglomerate beds, locally known as "banket." There +are several series of parallel beds, interstratified with quartzite and +schist, the most important being the "main reef" series. The gold in +this conglomerate reef is partly of detrital origin and partly of the +genetic character of ordinary vein-gold. The formation is noted for its +regularity as regards both the thickness and the gold-tenor of the +ore-bearing reefs, in which respect it is unparalleled in the geology of +the auriferous formations. The gold carries, on an average, L2 per ton, +and is worked by ordinary methods of gold-mining, stamp-milling and +cyaniding. In 1899, 5762 stamps were in operation, crushing 7,331,446 +tons of ore, and yielding L15,134,000, equivalent to 25.5% of the +world's production. Of this, 80% came from within 12 m. of Johannesburg. +After September 1899 operations were suspended, almost entirely owing to +the Boer War, but on the 2nd of May 1901 they were started again. In +1905 the yield was valued at L20,802,074, and in 1909 at L30,925,788. So +certain is the ore-bearing formation that engineers in estimating its +auriferous contents feel justified in assuming, as a factor in their +calculations, a vertical extension limited only by the lowest depths at +which mining is feasible. On such a basis they arrived at more than +L600,000,000 as the available gold contained in the Witwatersrand +conglomerates. This was a conservative estimate, and was made before the +full extent of the reefs was known; in 1904 Lionel Phillips stated that +the main reef series had been proved for 61 m., and he estimated the +gold remaining to be mined to be worth L2,500,000,000. Deposits similar +to the Witwatersrand banket occur in Zululand, and also on the Gold +Coast of Africa. In Rhodesia, the country lying north of the Transvaal, +where gold occurs in well-defined quartz-veins, there is unquestionable +evidence of extensive ancient workings. The economic importance of the +region generally has been fully proved. Rhodesia produced L386,148 in +1900 and L722,656 in 1901, in spite of the South African War; the +product for 1905 was valued at L1,480,449, and for 1908 at L2,526,000. + +The gold production of Russia has been remarkably constant, averaging +L4,899,262 per annum; the gold is derived chiefly from placer workings +in Siberia. + +The gold production of China was estimated for 1899 at L1,328,238 and +for 1900 at L860,000; it increased in 1901 to about L1,700,000, to fall +to L340,000 in 1905; in 1906 and 1907 it recovered to about L1,000,000. + + TABLE II.--_Gold Production of Certain Countries, 1881-1908 (in oz.)._ + + +------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+----------+-----------+-----------+------------+ + | | Austral- | | | | | | United | | + | Year.| asia. | Africa. | Canada. | India. | Mexico. | Russia. | States. | Totals. | + +------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+----------+-----------+-----------+------------+ + | 1881 | 1,475,161 | .. | 52,483 | .. | 41,545 | 1,181,853 | 1,678,612 | 4,976,980 | + | 1882 | 1,438,067 | .. | 52,000 | .. | 45,289 | 1,154,613 | 1,572,187 | 4,825,794 | + | 1883 | 1,333,849 | .. | 46,150 | .. | 46,229 | 1,132,219 | 1,451,250 | 4,614,588 | + | 1884 | 1,352,761 | .. | 46,000 | .. | 57,227 | 1,055,642 | 1,489,950 | 4,902,889 | + | 1885 | 1,309,804 | .. | 53,987 | .. | 46,941 | 1,225,738 | 1,538,325 | 5,002,584 | + | 1886 | 1,257,670 | .. | 66,061 | .. | 29,702 | 922,226 | 1,693,125 | 5,044,363 | + | 1887 | 1,290,202 | 28,754 | 59,884 | 15,403 | 39,861 | 971,656 | 1,596,375 | 5,061,490 | + | 1888 | 1,344,002 | 240,266 | 53,150 | 35,034 | 47,117 | 1,030,151 | 1,604,841 | 5,175,623 | + | 1889 | 1,540,607 | 366,023 | 62,658 | 78,649 | 33,862 | 1,154,076 | 1,587,000 | 5,611,245 | + | 1890 | 1,453,172 | 497,817 | 55,625 | 107,273 | 37,104 | 1,134,590 | 1,588,880 | 5,726,966 | + | 1891 | 1,518,690 | 729,268 | 45,022 | 131,776 | 48,375 | 1,168,764 | 1,604,840 | 6,287,591 | + | 1892 | 1,638,238 | 1,210,869 | 43,905 | 164,141 | 54,625 | 1,199,809 | 1,597,098 | 7,102,172 | + | 1893 | 1,711,892 | 1,478,477 | 44,853 | 207,152 | 63,144 | 1,345,224 | 1,739,323 | 7,772,585 | + | 1894 | 2,020,180 | 2,024,164 | 50,411 | 210,412 | 217,688 | 1,167,455 | 1,910,813 | 8,813,848 | + | 1895 | 2,170,505 | 2,277,640 | 92,440 | 257,830 | 290,250 | 1,397,767 | 2,254,760 | 9,814,505 | + | 1896 | 2,185,872 | 2,280,892 | 136,274 | 323,501 | 314,437 | 1,041,794 | 2,568,132 | 9,950,861 | + | 1897 | 2,547,704 | 2,832,776 | 294,582 | 350,585 | 362,812 | 1,124,511 | 2,774,935 | 11,420,068 | + | 1898 | 3,137,644 | 3,876,216 | 669,445 | 376,431 | 411,187 | 1,231,791 | 3,118,398 | 13,877,806 | + | 1899 | 3,837,181 | 3,532,488 |1,031,563 | 418,869 | 411,187 | 1,072,333 | 3,437,210 | 14,837,775 | + | 1900 | 3,555,506 | 419,503 |1,348,720 | 456,444 | 435,375 | 974,537 | 3,829,897 | 12,315,135 | + | 1901 | 3,719,080 | 439,704 |1,167,216 | 454,527 | 497,527 | 1,105,412 | 3,805,500 | 12,698,089 | + | 1902 | 3,946,374 | 1,887,773 |1,003,355 | 463,824 | 491,156 | 1,090,053 | 3,870,000 | 14,313,660 | + | 1903 | 4,315,538 | 3,289,409 | 911,118 | 552,873 | 516,524 | 1,191,582 | 3,560,000 | 15,852,620 | + | 1904 | 4,245,744 | 4,156,084 | 793,350 | 556,097 | 609,781 | 1,199,857 | 3,892,480 | 16,790,351 | + | 1905 | 4,159,220 | 5,477,841 | 700,863 | 576,889 | 779,181 | 1,063,883 | 4,265,742 | 18,360,945 | + | 1906 | 3,984,538 | 6,449,749 | 581,709 | 525,527 | 896,615 | 1,087,056 | 4,565,333 | 19,620,272 | + | 1907 | 3,659,693 | 7,270,464 | 399,844 | 495,965 | 903,672 | 1,282,635 | 4,374,827 | 19,988,144 | + | 1908 | 3,557,705 | 7,983,348 | 462,467 | 504,309 |1,182,445 | 1,497,076 | 4,659,360 | 21,529,300 | + +------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+----------+-----------+-----------+------------+ + + _Alloys._--Gold forms alloys with most metals, and of these many are + of great importance in the arts. The alloy with mercury--gold + amalgam--is so readily formed that mercury is one of the most powerful + agents for extracting the precious metal. With 10% of gold present the + amalgam is fluid, and with 12.5% pasty, while with 13% it consists of + yellowish-white crystals. Gold readily alloys with silver and copper + to form substances in use from remote times for money, jewelry and + plate. Other metals which find application in the metallurgy of gold + by virtue of their property of extracting the gold as an alloy are + lead, which combines very readily when molten, and which can + afterwards be separated by cupellation, and copper, which is separated + from the gold by solution in acids or by electrolysis; molten lead + also extracts gold from the copper-gold alloys. The relative amount of + gold in an alloy is expressed in two ways: (1) as "fineness," i.e. the + amount of gold in 1000 parts of alloy; (2) as "carats," i.e. the + amount of gold in 24 parts of alloy. Thus, pure gold is 1000 "fine" or + 24 carat. In England the following standards are used for plate and + jewelry: 375, 500, 625, 750 and 916.6, corresponding to 9, 12, 15, 18 + and 22 carats, the alloying metals being silver and copper in varying + proportions. In France three alloys of the following standards are + used for jewelry, 920, 840 and 750. A greenish alloy used by + goldsmiths contains 70% of silver and 30% of gold. "Blue gold" is + stated to contain 75% of gold and 25% of iron. The Japanese use for + ornament an alloy of gold and silver, the standard of which varies + from 350 to 500, the colour of the precious metal being developed by + "pickling" in a mixture of plum-juice, vinegar and copper sulphate. + They may be said to possess a series of bronzes, in which gold and + silver replace tin and zinc, all these alloys being characterized by + patina having a wonderful range of tint. The common alloy, + Shi-ya-ku-Do, contains 70% of copper and 30% of gold; when exposed to + air it becomes coated with a fine black patina, and is much used in + Japan for sword ornaments. Gold wire may be drawn of any quality, but + it is usual to add 5 to 9 dwts. of copper to the pound. The "solders" + used for red gold contain 1 part of copper and 5 of gold; for light + gold, 1 part of copper, 1 of silver and 4 of gold. + + _Gold and Silver._--Electrum is a natural alloy of gold and silver. + Matthiessen observed that the density of alloys, the composition of + which varies from AuAg6 to Au6Ag, is greater than that calculated from + the densities of the constituent metals. These alloys are harder, more + fusible and more sonorous than pure gold. The alloys of the formulae + AuAg, AuAg2, AuAg4 and AuAg20 are perfectly homogeneous, and have been + studied by Levol. Molten alloys containing more than 80% of silver + deposit on cooling the alloy AuAg9, little gold remaining in the + mother liquor. + + _Gold and Zinc._--When present in small quantities zinc renders gold + brittle, but it may be added to gold in larger quantities without + destroying the ductility of the precious metal; Peligot proved that a + triple alloy of gold, copper and zinc, which contains 5.8% of the + last-named, is perfectly ductile. The alloy of 11 parts gold and 1 + part of zinc is, however, stated to be brittle. + + _Gold and Tin._--Alchorne showed that gold alloyed with 1/37th part of + tin is sufficiently ductile to be rolled and stamped into coin, + provided the metal is not annealed at a high temperature. The alloys + of tin and gold are hard and brittle, and the combination of the + metals is attended with contraction; thus the alloy SnAu has a density + 14.243, instead of 14.828 indicated by calculation. Matthiessen and + Bose obtained large crystals of the alloy Au2Sn5, having the colour of + tin, which changed to a bronze tint by oxidation. + + _Gold and Iron._--Hatchett found that the alloy of 11 parts gold and 1 + part of iron is easily rolled without annealing. In these proportions + the density of the alloy is less than the mean of its constituent + metals. + + _Gold and Palladium._--These metals are stated to alloy in all + proportions. According to Chenevix, the alloy composed of equal parts + of the two metals is grey, is less ductile than its constituent metals + and has the specific gravity 11.08. The alloy of 4 parts of gold and 1 + part of palladium is white, hard and ductile. Graham showed that a + wire of palladium alloyed with from 24 to 25 parts of gold does not + exhibit the remarkable retraction which, in pure palladium, attends + its loss of occluded hydrogen. + + _Gold and Platinum._--Clarke states that the alloy of equal parts of + the two metals is ductile, and has almost the colour of gold. + + _Gold and Rhodium._--Gold alloyed with 1/4th or 1/5th of rhodium is, + according to Wollaston, very ductile, infusible and of the colour of + gold. + + _Gold and Iridium._--Small quantities of iridium do not destroy the + ductility of gold, but this is probably because the metal is only + disseminated through the mass, and not alloyed, as it falls to the + bottom of the crucible in which the gold is fused. + + _Gold and Nickel._--Eleven parts of gold and 1 of nickel yield an + alloy resembling brass. + + _Gold and Cobalt._--Eleven parts of gold and 1 of cobalt form a + brittle alloy of a dull yellow colour. + + _Compounds._--Aurous oxide, Au2O, is obtained by cautiously adding + potash to a solution of aurous bromide, or by boiling mixed solutions + of auric chloride and mercurous nitrate. It forms a dark-violet + precipitate which dries to a greyish-violet powder. When freshly + prepared it dissolves in cold water to form an indigo-coloured + solution with a brownish fluorescence of colloidal aurous oxide; it is + insoluble in hot water. This oxide is slightly basic. Auric oxide, + Au2O3, is a brown powder, decomposed into its elements when heated to + about 250 deg. or on exposure to light. When a concentrated solution + of auric chloride is treated with caustic potash, a brown precipitate + of auric hydrate, Au(OH)3, is obtained, which, on heating, loses water + to form auryl hydrate, AuO(OH), and auric oxide, Au2O3. It functions + chiefly as an acidic oxide, being less basic than aluminium oxide, and + forming no stable oxy-salts. It dissolves in alkalis to form + well-defined crystalline salts; potassium aurate, KAuO2.3H2O, is very + soluble in water, and is used in electro-gilding. With concentrated + ammonia auric oxide forms a black, highly explosive compound of the + composition AuN2H3.3H2O, named "fulminating gold"; this substance is + generally considered to be Au(NH2)NH.3H2O, but it may be an ammine of + the formula [Au(NH3)2(OH)2]OH. Other oxides, e.g. Au2O2, have been + described. + + Aurous chloride, AuCl, is obtained as a lemon-yellow, amorphous + powder, insoluble in water, by heating auric chloride to 185 deg. It + begins to decompose into gold and chlorine at 185 deg., the + decomposition being complete at 230 deg.; water decomposes it into + gold and auric chloride. Auric chloride, or gold trichloride, AuCl3, + is a dark ruby-red or reddish-brown, crystalline, deliquescent powder + obtained by dissolving the metal in aqua regia. It is also obtained by + carefully evaporating a solution of the metal in chlorine water. The + gold chloride of commerce, which is used in photography, is really a + hydrochloride, chlorauric or aurichloric acid, HAuCl4.3H2O, and is + obtained in long yellow needles by crystallizing the acid solution. + Corresponding to this acid, a series of salts, named chloraurates or + aurichlorides, are known. The potassium salt is obtained by + crystallizing equivalent quantities of potassium and auric chlorides. + Light-yellow monoclinic needles of 2KAuCl4.H2O are deposited from + warm, strongly acid solutions, and transparent rhombic tables of + KAuCl4.2H2O from neutral solutions. By crystallizing an aqueous + solution, red crystals of AuCl3.2H2O are obtained. Auric chloride + combines with the hydrochlorides of many organic bases--amines, + alkaloids, &c.--to form characteristic compounds. Gold dichloride, + probably Au2Cl4, = Au.AuCl4, aurous chloraurate, is said to be + obtained as a dark-red mass by heating finely divided gold to 140 + deg.-170 deg. in chlorine. Water decomposes it into gold and auric + chloride. The bromides and iodides resemble the chlorides. Aurous + bromide, AuBr, is a yellowish-green powder obtained by heating the + tribromide to 140 deg.; auric bromide, AuBr3, forms reddish-black or + scarlet-red leafy crystals, which dissolve in water to form a + reddish-brown solution, and combines with bromides to form bromaurates + corresponding to the chloraurates. Aurous iodide, AuI, is a + light-yellow, sparingly soluble powder obtained, together with free + iodine, by adding potassium iodide to auric chloride; auric iodide, + AuI3, is formed as a dark-green powder at the same time, but it + readily decomposes to aurous iodide and iodine. Aurous iodide is also + obtained as a green solid by acting upon gold with iodine. The + iodaurates correspond to the chlor- and bromaurates; the potassium + salt, KAuI4, forms highly lustrous, intensely black, four-sided + prisms. + + Aurous cyanide, AuCN, forms yellow, microscopic, hexagonal tables, + insoluble in water, and is obtained by the addition of hydrochloric + acid to a solution of potassium aurocyanide, KAu(CN)2. This salt is + prepared by precipitating a solution of gold in _aqua regia_ by + ammonia, and then introducing the well-washed precipitate into a + boiling solution of potassium cyanide. The solution is filtered and + allowed to cool, when colourless rhombic pyramids of the aurocyanide + separate. It is also obtained in the action of potassium cyanide on + gold in the presence of air, a reaction utilized in the + MacArthur-Forrest process of gold extraction (see below). Auric + cyanide, Au(CN)3, is not certainly known; its double salts, however, + have been frequently described. Potassium auricyanide, 2KAu(CN)4.3H2O, + is obtained as large, colourless, efflorescent tablets by + crystallizing concentrated solutions of auric chloride and potassium + cyanide. The acid, auricyanic acid, 2HAu(CN)4.3H2O, is obtained by + treating the silver salt (obtained by precipitating the potassium salt + with silver nitrate) with hydrochloric acid; it forms tabular + crystals, readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether. + + Gold forms three sulphides corresponding to the oxides; they readily + decompose on heating. Aurous sulphide, Au2S, is a brownish-black + powder formed by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a solution of + potassium aurocyanide and then acidifying. Sodium aurosulphide, + NaAuS.4H2O, is prepared by fusing gold with sodium sulphide and + sulphur, the melt being extracted with water, filtered in an + atmosphere of nitrogen, and evaporated in a vacuum over sulphuric + acid. It forms colourless, monoclinic prisms, which turn brown on + exposure to air. This method of bringing gold into solution is + mentioned by Stahl in his _Observationes Chymico-Physico-Medicae_; he + there remarks that Moses probably destroyed the golden calf by burning + it with sulphur and alkali (Ex. xxxii. 20). Auric sulphide, Au2S3, is + an amorphous powder formed when lithium aurichloride is treated with + dry sulphuretted hydrogen at -10 deg. It is very unstable, decomposing + into gold and sulphur at 200 deg. + + Oxy-salts of gold are almost unknown, but the sulphite and + thiosulphate form double salts. Thus by adding acid sodium sulphite + to, or by passing sulphur dioxide at 50 deg. into, a solution of + sodium aurate, the salt, 3Na2SO3.Au2SO3.3H2O is obtained, which, when + precipitated from its aqueous solution by alcohol, forms a purple + powder, appearing yellow or green by reflected light. Sodium + aurothiosulphate, 3Na2S2O3.Au2S2O3.4H2O, forms colourless needles; it + is obtained in the direct action of sodium thiosulphate on gold in the + presence of an oxidizing agent, or by the addition of a dilute + solution of auric chloride to a sodium thiosulphate solution. + + +_Mining and Metallurgy._ + +The various deposits of gold may be divided into two classes--"veins" +and "placers." The vein mining of gold does not greatly differ from that +of similar deposits of metals (see MINERAL DEPOSITS). In the placer or +alluvial deposits, the precious metal is found usually in a water-worn +condition imbedded in earthy matter, and the method of working all such +deposits is based on the disintegration of the earthy matter by the +action of a stream of water, which washes away the lighter portions and +leaves the denser gold. In alluvial deposits the richest ground is +usually found in contact with the "bed rock"; and, when the overlying +cover of gravel is very thick, or, as sometimes happens, when the older +gravel is covered with a flow of basalt, regular mining by shafts and +levels, as in what are known as tunnel-claims, may be required to reach +the auriferous ground. + +The extraction of gold may be effected by several methods; we may +distinguish the following leading types: + +1. By simple washing, i.e. dressing auriferous sands, gravels, &c.; + +2. By amalgamation, i.e. forming a gold amalgam, afterwards removing the +mercury by distillation; + +3. By chlorination, i.e. forming the soluble gold chloride and then +precipitating the metal; + +4. By the cyanide process, i.e. dissolving the gold in potassium cyanide +solution, and then precipitating the metal; + +5. Electrolytically, generally applied to the solutions obtained in +processes (3) and (4). + + 1. _Extraction of Gold by Washing._--In the early days of gold-washing + in California and Australia, when rich alluvial deposits were common + at the surface, the most simple appliances sufficed. The most + characteristic is the "pan," a circular dish of sheet-iron or "tin," + with sloping sides about 13 or 14 in. in diameter. The pan, about + two-thirds filled with the "pay dirt" to be washed, is held in the + stream or in a hole filled with water. The larger stones having been + removed by hand, gyratory motion is given to the pan by a combination + of shaking and twisting movements so as to keep its contents + suspended in the stream of water, which carries away the bulk of the + lighter material, leaving the heavy minerals, together with any gold + which may have been present. The washing is repeated until enough of + the enriched sand is collected, when the gold is finally recovered by + careful washing or "panning out" in a smaller pan. In Mexico and South + America, instead of the pan, a wooden dish or trough, known as + "batea," is used. + + The "cradle" is a simple appliance for treating somewhat larger + quantities, and consists essentially of a box, mounted on rockers, and + provided with a perforated bottom of sheet iron in which the "pay + dirt" is placed. Water is poured on the dirt, and the rocking motion + imparted to the cradle causes the finer particles to pass through the + perforated bottom on to a canvas screen, and thence to the base of the + cradle, where the auriferous particles accumulate on transverse bars + of wood, called "riffles." + + The "tom" is a sort of cradle with an extended sluice placed on an + incline of about 1 in 12. The upper end contains a perforated riddle + plate which is placed directly over the riffle box, and under certain + circumstances mercury may be placed behind the riffles. Copper plates + amalgamated with mercury are also used when the gold is very fine, and + in some instances amalgamated silver coins have been used for the same + purpose. Sometimes the stuff is disintegrated with water in a + "puddling machine," which was used, especially in Australia, when the + earthy matters are tenacious and water scarce. The machine frequently + resembles a brickmaker's wash-mill, and is worked by horse or steam + power. + + In workings on a larger scale, where the supply of water is abundant, + as in California, sluices were generally employed. They are shallow + troughs about 12 ft. long, about 16 to 20 in. wide and 1 ft. in depth. + The troughs taper slightly so that they can be joined in series, the + total length often reaching several hundred feet. The incline of the + sluice varies with the conformation of the ground and the tenacity of + the stuff to be washed, from 1 in 16 to 1 in 8. A rectangular trough + of boards, whose dimensions depend chiefly on the size of the planks + available, is set up on the higher part of the ground at one side of + the claim to be worked, upon trestles or piers of rough stone-work, at + such an inclination that the stream may carry off all but the largest + stones, which are kept back by a grating of boards about 2 in. apart. + The gravel is dug by hand and thrown in at the upper end, the stones + kept back being removed at intervals by two men with four-pronged + steel forks. The floor of the sluice is laid with riffles made of + strips of wood 2 in. square laid parallel to the direction of the + current, and at other points with boards having transverse notches + filled with mercury. These were known originally as Hungarian riffles. + + In larger plant the upper ends of the sluices are often cut in rock or + lined with stone blocks, the grating stopping the larger stones being + known as a "grizzly." In order to save very fine and especially rusty + particles of gold, so-called "under-current sluices" are used; these + are shallow wooden tanks, 50 sq. yds. and upwards in area, which are + placed somewhat below the main sluice, and communicate with it above + and below, the entry being protected by a grating so that only the + finer material is admitted. These are paved with stone blocks or lined + with mercury riffles, so that from the greatly reduced velocity of + flow, due to the sudden increase of surface, the finer particles of + gold may collect. In order to save finely divided gold, amalgamated + copper plates are sometimes placed in a nearly level position, at a + considerable distance from the head of the sluice, the gold which is + retained in it being removed from time to time. Sluices are often made + double, and they are usually cleaned up--that is, the deposit rich in + gold is removed from them--once a week. + + The "pan" is now only used by prospectors, while the "cradle" and + "tom" are practically confined to the Chinese; the sluice is + considered to be the best contrivance for washing gold gravels. + +2. _The Amalgamation Process._--This method is employed to extract gold +from both alluvial and reef deposits: in the first case it is combined +with "hydraulic mining," i.e. disintegrating auriferous gravels by +powerful jets of water, and the sluice system described above; in the +second case the vein stuff is prepared by crushing and the amalgamation +is carried out in mills. + + Hydraulic mining has for the most part been confined to the country of + its invention, California, and the western territories of America, + where the conditions favourable for its use are more fully developed + than elsewhere--notably the presence of thick banks of gravel that + cannot be utilized by other methods, and abundance of water, even + though considerable work may be required at times to make it + available. The general conditions to be observed in such workings may + be briefly stated as follows: (1) The whole of the auriferous gravel, + down to the "bed rock," must be removed,--that is, no selection of + rich or poor parts is possible; (2) this must be accomplished by the + aid of water alone, or at times by water supplemented by blasting; (3) + the conglomerate must be mechanically disintegrated without + interrupting the whole system; (4) the gold must be saved without + interrupting the continuous flow of water; and (5) arrangements must + be made for disposing of the vast masses of impoverished gravel. + + The water is brought from a ditch on the high ground, and through a + line of pipes to the distributing box, whence the branch pipes + supplying the jets diverge. The stream issues through a nozzle, + termed a "monitor" or "giant," which is fitted with a ball and socket + joint, so that the direction of the jet may be varied through + considerable angles by simply moving a handle. The material of the + bank being loosened by blasting and the cutting action of the water, + crumbles into holes, and the superincumbent mass, often with large + trees and stones, falls into the lower ground. The stream, laden with + stones and gravel, passes into the sluices, where the gold is + recovered in the manner already described. Under the most advantageous + conditions the loss of gold may be estimated at 15 or 20%, the amount + recovered representing a value of about two shillings per ton of + gravel treated. The loss of mercury is about the same, from 5 to 6 + cwt. being in constant use per mile of sluice. + + In working auriferous river-beds, dredges have been used with + considerable success in certain parts of New Zealand and on the + Pacific slope in America. The dredges used in California are almost + exclusively of the endless-chain bucket or steam-shovel pattern. Some + dredges have a capacity under favourable conditions of over 2000 cub. + yds. of gravel daily. The gravel is excavated as in the ordinary form + of endless-chain bucket dredge and dumped on to the deck of the + dredge. It then passes through screens and grizzlies to retain the + coarse gravel, the finer material passing on to sluice boxes provided + with riffles, supplied with mercury. There are belt conveyers for + discharging the gravel and tailings at the end of the vessel remote + from the buckets. The water necessary to the process is pumped from + the river; as much as 2000 gallons per minute is used on the larger + dredges. + + The dressing or mechanical preparation of vein stuff containing gold + is generally similar to that of other ores (see ORE-DRESSING), except + that the precious metal should be removed from the waste substances as + quickly as possible, even although other minerals of value that are + subsequently recovered may be present. In all cases the quartz or + other vein stuff must be reduced to a very fine powder as a + preliminary to further operations. This may be done in several ways, + e.g. either (1) by the Mexican crusher or _arrastra_, in which the + grinding is effected upon a bed of stone, over which heavy blocks of + stone attached to cross arms are dragged by the rotation of the arms + about a central spindle, or (2) by the Chilean mill or _trapiche_, + also known as the edge-runner, where the grinding stones roll upon the + floor, at the same time turning about a central upright--contrivances + which are mainly used for the preparation of silver ores; but by far + the largest proportion of the gold quartz of California, Australia and + Africa is reduced by (3) the stamp mill, which is similar in principle + to that used in Europe for the preparation of tin and other ores. + + The stamp mill was first used in California, and its use has since + spread over the whole world. In the mills of the Californian type the + stamp is a cylindrical iron pestle faced with a chilled cast iron + shoe, removable so that it can be renewed when necessary, attached to + a round iron rod or lifter, the whole weighing from 600 to 900 lb.; + stamps weighing 1320 lb. are in use in the Transvaal. The lift is + effected by cams acting on the under surface of tappets, and formed by + cylindrical boxes keyed on to the stems of the lifter about one-fourth + of their length from the top. As, however, the cams, unlike those of + European stamp mills, are placed to one side of the stamp, the latter + is not only lifted but turned partly round on its own axis, whereby + the shoes are worn down uniformly. The height of lift may be between 4 + and 18 in., and the number of blows from 30 to over 100 per minute. + The stamps are usually arranged in batteries of five; the order of + working is usually 1, 4, 2, 5, 3, but other arrangements, e.g. 1, 3, + 5, 2, 4, and 1, 5, 2, 4, 3, are common. The stuff, previously broken + to about 2-in. lumps in a rock-breaker, is fed in through an aperture + at the back of the "battery box," a constant supply of water is + admitted from above, and mercury in a finely divided state is added at + frequent intervals. The discharge of the comminuted material takes + place through an aperture, which is covered by a thin steel plate + perforated with numerous slits about 1/50th in. broad and 1/2 in. + long, a certain volume being discharged at every blow and carried + forward by the flushing water over an apron or table in front, covered + by copper plates filled with mercury. Similar plates are often used to + catch any particles of gold that may be thrown back, while the main + operation is so conducted that the bulk of the gold may be reduced to + the state of amalgam by bringing the two metals into intimate contact + under the stamp head, and remain in the battery. The tables in front + are laid at an incline of about 8 deg. and are about 13 ft. long; they + collect from 10 to 15% of the whole gold; a further quantity is + recovered by leading the sands through a gutter about 16 in. broad and + 120 ft. long, also lined with amalgamated copper plates, after the + pyritic and other heavy minerals have been separated by depositing in + catch pits and other similar contrivances. + + When the ore does not contain any considerable amount of free gold + mercury is not, as a rule, used during the crushing, but the + amalgamation is carried out in a separate plant. Contrivances of the + most diverse constructions have been employed. The most primitive is + the rubbing together of the concentrated crushings with mercury in + iron mortars. Barrel amalgamation, i.e. mixing the crushings with + mercury in rotating barrels, is rarely used, the process being + wasteful, since the mercury is specially apt to be "floured" (see + below). + + At Schemnitz, Kerpenyes, Kreuzberg and other localities in Hungary, + quartz vein stuff containing a little gold, partly free and partly + associated with pyrites and galena, is, after stamping in mills, + similar to those described above, but without rotating stamps, passed + through the so-called "Hungarian gold mill" or "quick-mill." This + consists of a cast-iron pan having a shallow cylindrical bottom + holding mercury, in which a wooden muller, nearly of the same shape as + the inside of the pan, and armed below with several projecting blades, + is made to revolve by gearing wheels. The stuff from the stamps is + conveyed to the middle of the muller, and is distributed over the + mercury, when the gold subsides, while the quartz and lighter + materials are guided by the blades to the circumference and are + discharged, usually into a second similar mill, and subsequently pass + over blanket tables, i.e. boards covered with canvas or sacking, the + gold and heavier particles becoming entangled in the fibres. The + action of this mill is really more nearly analogous to that of a + centrifugal pump, as no grinding action takes place in it. The amalgam + is cleaned out periodically--fortnightly or monthly--and after + filtering through linen bags to remove the excess of mercury, it is + transferred to retorts for distillation (see below). + + Many other forms of pan-amalgamators have been devised. The Laszlo is + an improved Hungarian mill, while the Piccard is of the same type. In + the Knox and Boss mills, which are also employed for the amalgamation + of silver ores, the grinding is effected between flat horizontal + surfaces instead of conical or curved surfaces as in the previously + described forms. + + One of the greatest difficulties in the treatment of gold by + amalgamation, and more particularly in the treatment of pyrites, + arises from the so-called "sickening" or "flouring" of the mercury; + that is, the particles, losing their bright metallic surfaces, are no + longer capable of coalescing with or taking up other metals. Of the + numerous remedies proposed the most efficacious is perhaps sodium + amalgam. It appears that amalgamation is often impeded by the tarnish + found on the surface of the gold when it is associated with sulphur, + arsenic, bismuth, antimony or tellurium. Henry Wurtz in America (1864) + and Sir William Crookes in England (1865) made independently the + discovery that, by the addition of a small quantity of sodium to the + mercury, the operation is much facilitated. It is also stated that + sodium prevents both the "sickening" and the "flouring" of the mercury + which is produced by certain associated minerals. The addition of + potassium cyanide has been suggested to assist the amalgamation and to + prevent "flouring," but Skey has shown that its use is attended with + loss of gold. + + _Separation of Gold from the Amalgam._--The amalgam is first pressed + in wetted canvas or buckskin in order to remove excess of mercury. + Lumps of the solid amalgam, about 2 in. in diameter, are introduced + into an iron vessel provided with an iron tube that leads into a + condenser containing water. The distillation is then effected by + heating to dull redness. The amalgam yields about 30 to 40% of gold. + Horizontal cylindrical retorts, holding from 200 to 1200 lb. of + amalgam, are used in the larger Californian mills, pot retorts being + used in the smaller mills. The bullion left in the retorts is then + melted in black-lead crucibles, with the addition of small quantities + of suitable fluxes, e.g. nitre, sodium carbonate, &c. + + The extraction of gold from auriferous minerals by fusion, except as + an incident in their treatment for other metals, is very rarely + practised. It was at one time proposed to treat the concentrated black + iron obtained in the Ural gold washings, which consists chiefly of + magnetite, as an iron ore, by smelting it with charcoal for auriferous + pig-iron, the latter metal possessing the property of dissolving gold + in considerable quantity. By subsequent treatment with sulphuric acid + the gold could be recovered. Experiments on this point were made by + Anossow in 1835, but they have never been followed in practice. + + Gold in galena or other lead ores is invariably recovered in the + refining or treatment of the lead and silver obtained. Pyritic ores + containing copper are treated by methods analogous to those of the + copper smelter. In Colorado the pyritic ores containing gold and + silver in association with copper are smelted in reverberatory + furnaces for regulus, which, when desilverized by Ziervogel's method, + leaves a residue containing 20 or 30 oz. of gold per ton. This is + smelted with rich gold ores, notably those containing tellurium, for + white metal or regulus; and by a following process of partial + reduction analogous to that of selecting in copper smelting, "bottoms" + of impure copper are obtained in which practically all the gold is + concentrated. By continuing the treatment of these in the ordinary way + of refining, poling and granulating, all the foreign matters other + than gold, copper and silver are removed, and, by exposing the + granulated metal to a high oxidizing heat for a considerable time the + copper may be completely oxidized while the precious metals are + unaltered. Subsequent treatment with sulphuric acid renders the copper + soluble in water as sulphate, and the final residue contains only gold + and silver, which is parted or refined in the ordinary way. This + method of separating gold from copper, by converting the latter into + oxide and sulphate, is also used at Oker in the Harz. + +_Extraction by Means of Aqueous Solutions._--Many processes have been +suggested in which the gold of auriferous deposits is converted into +products soluble in water, from which solutions the gold may be +precipitated. Of these processes, two only are of special importance, +viz. the chlorination or Plattner process, in which the metal is +converted into the chloride, and the cyanide or MacArthur-Forrest +process, in which it is converted into potassium aurocyanide. + + (3) _Chlorination or Plattner Process._--In this process moistened + gold ores are treated with chlorine gas, the resulting gold chloride + dissolved out with water, and the gold precipitated with ferrous + sulphate, charcoal, sulphuretted hydrogen or otherwise. The process + originated in 1848 with C. F. Plattner, who suggested that the + residues from certain mines at Reichenstein, in Silesia, should be + treated with chlorine after the arsenical products had been extracted + by roasting. It must be noticed, however, that Percy independently + made the same discovery, and stated his results at the meeting of the + British Association (at Swansea) in 1849, but the Report was not + published until 1852. The process was introduced in 1858 by Deetken at + Grass Valley, California, where the waste minerals, principally + pyrites from tailings, had been worked for a considerable time by + amalgamation. The process is rarely applied to ores direct; + free-milling ores are generally amalgamated, and the tailings and + slimes, after concentration, operated upon. Three stages in the + process are to be distinguished: (i) calcination, to convert all the + metals, except gold and silver, into oxides, which are unacted upon by + chlorine; (ii.) chlorinating the gold and lixiviating the product; + (iii.) precipitating the gold. + + The calcination, or roasting, is conducted at a low temperature in + some form of reverberatory furnace. Salt is added in the roasting to + convert any lime, magnesia or lead which may be present, into the + corresponding chlorides. The auric chloride is, however, decomposed at + the elevated temperature into finely divided metallic gold, which is + then readily attacked by the chlorine gas. The high volatility of gold + in the presence of certain metals must also be considered. According + to Egleston the loss may be from 40 to 90% of the total gold present + in cupriferous ores according to the temperature and duration of + calcination. The roasted mineral, slightly moistened, is introduced + into a vat made of stoneware or pitched planks, and furnished with a + double bottom. Chlorine, generally prepared by the interaction of + pyrolusite, salt and sulphuric acid, is led from a suitable generator + beneath the false bottom, and rises through the moistened ore, which + rests on a bed of broken quartz; the gold is thus converted into a + soluble chloride, which is afterwards removed by washing with water. + Both fixed and rotating vats are employed, the chlorination proceeding + more rapidly in the latter case; rotating barrels are sometimes used. + There have also been introduced processes in which the chlorine is + generated in the chloridizing vat, the reagents used being dilute + solutions of bleaching powder and an acid. Munktell's process is of + this type. In the Thies process, used in many districts in the United + States, the vats are rotating barrels made, in the later forms, of + iron lined with lead, and provided with a filter formed of a finely + perforated leaden grating running from one end of the barrel to the + other, and rigidly held in place by wooden frames. Chlorine is + generated within the barrel from sulphuric acid and chloride of lime. + After charging, the barrel is rotated, and when the chlorination is + complete the contents are emptied on a filter of quartz or some + similar material, and the filtrate led to settling tanks. + + After settling the solution is run into the precipitating tanks. The + precipitants in use are: ferrous sulphate, charcoal and sulphuretted + hydrogen, either alone or mixed with sulphur dioxide; the use of + copper and iron sulphides has been suggested, but apparently these + substances have achieved no success. + + In the case of ferrous sulphate, prepared by dissolving iron in dilute + sulphuric acid, the reaction follows the equation AuCl3 + 3FeSO4 = + FeCl3 + Fe2(SO4)3 + Au. At the same time any lead, calcium, barium and + strontium present are precipitated as sulphates; it is therefore + advantageous to remove these metals by the preliminary addition of + sulphuric acid, which also serves to keep any basic iron salts in + solution. The precipitation is carried out in tanks or vats made with + wooden sides and a cement bottom. The solutions are well mixed by + stirring with wooden poles, and the gold allowed to settle, the time + allowed varying from 12 to 72 hours. The supernatant liquid is led + into settling tanks, where a further amount of gold is deposited, and + is then filtered through sawdust or sand, the sawdust being afterwards + burnt and the gold separated from the ashes and the sand treated in + the chloridizing vat. The precipitated gold is washed, treated with + salt and sulphuric acid to remove iron salts, roughly dried by + pressing in cloths or on filter paper, and then melted with salt, + borax and nitre in graphite crucibles. Thus prepared it has a fineness + of 800-960, the chief impurities usually being iron and lead. + + Charcoal is used as the precipitant at Mount Morgan, Australia. Its + use was proposed as early as 1818 and 1819 by Hare and Henry; Percy + advocated it in 1869, and Davis adopted it on the large scale at a + works in Carolina in 1880. The action is not properly understood; it + may be due to the reducing gases (hydrogen, hydrocarbons, &c.) which + are invariably present in wood charcoal. The process consists + essentially in running the solution over layers of charcoal, the + charcoal being afterwards burned. It has been found that the reaction + proceeds faster when the solution is heated. + + Precipitation with sulphur dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen proceeds + much more rapidly, and has been adopted at many works. Sulphur + dioxide, generated by burning sulphur, is forced into the solution + under pressure, where it interacts with any free chlorine present to + form hydrochloric and sulphuric acids. Sulphuretted hydrogen, obtained + by treating iron sulphide or a coarse matte with dilute sulphuric + acid, is forced in similarly. The gold is precipitated as the + sulphide, together with any arsenic, antimony, copper, silver and lead + which may be present. The precipitate is collected in a filter-press, + and then roasted in muffle furnaces with nitre, borax and sodium + carbonate. The fineness of the gold so obtained is 900 to 950. + + 4. _Cyanide Process._--This process depends upon the solubility of + gold in a dilute solution of potassium cyanide in the presence of air + (or some other oxidizing agent), and the subsequent precipitation of + the gold by metallic zinc or by electrolysis. The solubility of gold + in cyanide solutions was known to K. W. Scheele in 1782; and M. + Faraday applied it to the preparation of extremely thin films of the + metal. L. Eisner recognized, in 1846, the part played by the + atmosphere, and in 1879 Dixon showed that bleaching powder, manganese + dioxide, and other oxidizing agents, facilitated the solution. S. B. + Christy (_Trans. A.I.M.E._, 1896, vol. 26) has shown that the solution + is hastened by many oxidizing agents, especially sodium and manganese + dioxides and potassium ferricyanide. According to G. Bodlander (_Zeit. + f. angew. Chem._, 1896, vol. 19) the rate of solution in potassium + cyanide depends upon the subdivision of the gold--the finer the + subdivision the quicker the solution,--and on the concentration of the + solution--the rate increasing until the solution contains 0.25% of + cyanide, and remaining fairly stationary with increasing + concentration. The action proceeds in two stages; in the first + hydrogen peroxide and potassium aurocyanide are formed, and in the + second the hydrogen peroxide oxidizes a further quantity of gold and + potassium cyanide to aurocyanide, thus (1) 2Au + 4KCN + O2 + 2H2O = + 2KAu(CN)2 + 4KOH + H2O2; (2) 2Au + 4KCN + 2H2O2 = 2KAu(CN)2 + 4KOH. + The end reaction may be written 4Au + 8KCN + 2H2O + O2 = 4KAu(CN)2 + + 4KOH. + + The commercial process was patented in 1890 by MacArthur and Forrest, + and is now in use all over the world. It is best adapted for + free-milling ores, especially after the bulk of the gold has been + removed by amalgamation. It has been especially successful in the + Transvaal. In the Witwatersrand the ore, which contains about 9 dwts. + of gold to the metric ton (2000 lb.), is stamped and amalgamated, and + the slimes and tailings, containing about 3-1/2 dwts. per ton, are + cyanided, about 2 dwts. more being thus extracted. The total cost per + ton of ore treated is about 6s., of which the cyaniding costs from 2s. + to 4s. + + The process embraces three operations: (1) Solution of the gold; (2) + precipitation of the gold; (3) treatment of the precipitate. + + The ores, having been broken and ground, generally in tube mills, + until they pass a 150 to 200-mesh sieve, are transferred to the + leaching vats, which are constructed of wood, iron or masonry; steel + vats, coated inside and out with pitch, of circular section and + holding up to 1000 tons, have come into use. The diameter is generally + 26 ft., but may be greater; the best depth is considered to be a + quarter of the diameter. The vats are fitted with filters made of + coco-nut matting and jute cloth supported on wooden frames. The + leaching is generally carried out with a strong, medium, and with a + weak liquor, in the order given; sometimes there is a preliminary + leaching with a weak liquor. The strengths employed depend also upon + the mode of precipitation adopted, stronger solutions (up to 0.25% + KCN) being used when zinc is the precipitant. For electrolytic + precipitation the solution may contain up to 0.1% KCN. The liquors are + run off from the vats to the electrolysing baths or precipitating + tanks, and the leached ores are removed by means of doors in the sides + of the vats into wagons. In the Transvaal the operation occupies 3-1/2 + to 4 days for fine sands, and up to 14 days for coarse sands; the + quantity of cyanide per ton of tailings varies from 0.26 to 0.28 lb., + for electrolytic precipitation, and 0.5 lb. for zinc precipitation. + + The precipitation is effected by zinc in the form of bright turnings, + or coated with lead, or by electrolysis. According to Christy, the + precipitation with zinc follows equations 1 or 2 according as + potassium cyanide is present or not: + + (1) 4KAu(CN)2 + 4Zn + 2H2O = 2Zn(CN)2 + K2Zn(CN)4 + Zn(OK)2 + 4H + 4Au; + + (2) 2KAu(CN)2 + 3Zn + 4KCN + 2H2O = 2K2Zn(CN)4 + Zn(OK)2 + 4H + 2Au; + + one part of zinc precipitating 3.1 parts of gold in the first case, + and 2.06 in the second. It may be noticed that the potassium zinc + cyanide is useless in gold extraction, for it neither dissolves gold + nor can potassium cyanide be regenerated from it. + + The precipitating boxes, generally made of wood but sometimes of + steel, and set on an incline, are divided by partitions into + alternately wide and narrow compartments, so that the liquor travels + upwards in its passage through the wide divisions and downwards + through the narrow divisions. In the wider compartments are placed + sieves having sixteen holes to the square inch and bearing zinc + turnings. The gold and other metals are precipitated on the under + surfaces of the turnings and fall to the bottom of the compartment as + a black slime. The slime is cleaned out fortnightly or monthly, the + zinc turnings being cleaned by rubbing and the supernatant liquor + allowed to settle in the precipitating boxes or in separate vessels. + The slime so obtained consists of finely divided gold and silver + (5-50%), zinc (30-60%), lead (10%), carbon (10%), together with tin, + copper, antimony, arsenic and other impurities of the zinc and ores. + After well washing with water, the slimes are roughly dried in + bag-filters or filter-presses, and then treated with dilute sulphuric + acid, the solution being heated by steam. This dissolves out the zinc. + Lime is added to bring down the gold, and the sediment, after washing + and drying, is fused in graphite crucibles. + + 5. _Electrolytic Processes._--The electrolytic separation of the gold + from cyanide solutions was first practised in the Transvaal. The + process, as elaborated by Messrs. Siemens and Halske, essentially + consists in the electrolysis of weak solutions with iron or steel + plate anodes, and lead cathodes, the latter, when coated with gold, + being fused and cupelled. Its advantages over the zinc process are + that the deposited gold is purer and more readily extracted, and that + weaker solutions can be employed, thereby effecting an economy in + cyanide. + + In the process employed at the Worcester Works in the Transvaal, the + liquors, containing about 150 grains of gold per ton and from 0.08 to + 0.01% of cyanide, are treated in rectangular vats in which is placed a + series of iron and leaden plates at intervals of 1 in. The cathodes, + which are sheets of thin lead foil weighing 1-1/2 lb. to the sq. yd., + are removed monthly, their gold content being from 0.5 to 10%, and + after folding are melted in reverberatory furnaces to ingots + containing 2 to 4% of gold. Cupellation brings up the gold to about + 900 fine. Many variations of the electrolytic process as above + outlined have been suggested. S. Cowper Coles has suggested aluminium + cathodes; Andreoli has recommended cathodes of iron and anodes of lead + coated with lead peroxide, the gold being removed from the iron + cathodes by a brief immersion in molten lead; in the Pelatan-Cerici + process the gold is amalgamated at a mercury cathode (see also below). + +_Refining or Parting of Gold._--Gold is almost always silver-bearing, +and it may be also noticed that silver generally contains some gold. +Consequently the separation of these two metals Is one of the most +important metallurgical processes. In addition to the separation of the +silver the operation extends to the elimination of the last traces of +lead, tin, arsenic, &c. which have resisted the preceding cupellation. + + The "parting" of gold and silver is of considerable antiquity. Thus + Strabo states that in his time a process was employed for refining and + purifying gold in large quantities by cementing or burning it with an + aluminous earth, which, by destroying the silver, left the gold in a + state of purity. Pliny shows that for this purpose the gold was placed + on the fire in an earthen vessel with treble its weight of salt, and + that it was afterwards again exposed to the fire with two parts of + salt and one of argillaceous rock, which, in the presence of moisture, + effected the decomposition of the salt; by this means the silver + became converted into chloride. + + The methods of parting can be classified into "dry," "wet" and + electrolytic methods. In the "dry" methods the silver is converted + into sulphide or chloride, the gold remaining unaltered; in the "wet" + methods the silver is dissolved by nitric acid or boiling sulphuric + acid; and in the electrolytic processes advantage is taken of the fact + that under certain current densities and other circumstances silver + passes from an anode composed of a gold-silver alloy to the cathode + more readily than gold. Of the dry methods only F. B. Miller's + chlorine process is of any importance, this method, and the wet + process of refining by sulphuric acid, together with the electrolytic + process, being the only ones now practised. + + The conversion of silver into the sulphide may be effected by heating + with antimony sulphide, litharge and sulphur, pyrites, or with sulphur + alone. The antimony, or _Guss und Fluss_, method was practised up till + 1846 at the Dresden mint; it is only applicable to alloys containing + more than 50% of gold. The fusion results in the formation of a + gold-antimony alloy, from which the antimony is removed by an + oxidizing fusion with nitre. The sulphur and litharge, or + _Pfannenschmied_, process was used to concentrate the gold in an alloy + in order to make it amenable to "quartation," or parting with nitric + acid. Fusion with sulphur was used for the same purpose as the + Pfannenschmied process. It was employed in 1797 at the St Petersburg + mint. + + The conversion of the silver into the chloride may be effected by + means of salt--the "cementation" process--or other chlorides, or by + free chlorine--Miller's process. The first process consists + essentially in heating the alloy with salt and brickdust; the latter + absorbs the chloride formed, while the gold is recovered by washing. + It is no longer employed. The second process depends upon the fact + that, if chlorine be led into the molten alloy, the base metals and + the silver are converted into chlorides. It was proposed in 1838 by + Lewis Thompson, but it was only applied commercially after Miller's + improvements in 1867, when it was adopted at the Sydney mint. Sir W. + C. Roberts-Austen introduced it at the London mint; and it has also + been used at Pretoria. It is especially suitable to gold containing + little silver and base metals--a character of Australian gold--but it + yields to the sulphuric acid and electrolytic methods in point of + economy. + + The separation of gold from silver in the wet way may be effected by + nitric acid, sulphuric acid or by a mixture of sulphuric acid and + _aqua regia_. + + Parting by nitric acid is of considerable antiquity, being mentioned + by Albertus Magnus (13th cent.), Biringuccio (1540) and Agricola + (1556). It is now rarely practised, although in some refineries both + the nitric acid and the sulphuric acid processes are combined, the + alloy being first treated with nitric acid. It used to be called + "quartation" or "inquartation," from the fact that the alloy best + suited for the operation of refining contained 3 parts of silver to 1 + of gold. The operation may be conducted in vessels of glass or + platinum, and each pound of granulated metal is treated with a pound + and a quarter of nitric acid of specific gravity 1.32. The method is + sometimes employed in the assay of gold. + + Refining by sulphuric acid, the process usually adopted for separating + gold from silver, was first employed on the large scale by d'Arcet in + Paris in 1802, and was introduced into the Mint refinery, London, by + Mathison in 1829. It is based upon the facts that concentrated hot + sulphuric acid converts silver and copper into soluble sulphates + without attacking the gold, the silver sulphate being subsequently + reduced to the metallic state by copper plates with the formation of + copper sulphate. It is applicable to any alloy, and is the best method + for parting gold with the exception of the electrolytic method. + + The process embraces four operations: (1) the preparation of an alloy + suitable for parting; (2) the treatment with sulphuric acid; (3) the + treatment of the residue for gold; (4) the treatment of the solution + for silver. + + It is necessary to remove as completely as possible any lead, tin, + bismuth, antimony, arsenic and tellurium, impurities which impair the + properties of gold and silver, by an oxidizing fusion, e.g. with + nitre. Over 10% of copper makes the parting difficult; consequently in + such alloys the percentage of copper is diminished by the addition of + silver free from copper, or else the copper is removed by a chemical + process. Other undesirable impurities are the platinum metals, special + treatment being necessary when these substances are present. The + alloy, after the preliminary refining, is granulated by being poured, + while molten, in a thin stream into cold water which is kept well + agitated. + + The acid treatment is generally carried out in cast iron pots; + platinum vessels used to be employed, while porcelain vessels are only + used for small operations, e.g. for charges of 190 to 225 oz. as at + Oker in the Harz. The pots, which are usually cylindrical with a + hemispherical bottom, may hold as much as 13,000 to 16,000 oz. of + alloy. They are provided with lids, made either of lead or of wood + lined with lead, which have openings to serve for the introduction of + the alloy and acid, and a vent tube to lead off the vapours evolved + during the operation. The bullion with about twice its weight of + sulphuric acid of 66 deg. Be is placed in the pot, and the whole + gradually heated. Since the action is sometimes very violent, + especially when the bullion is treated in the granulated form (it is + steadier when thin plates are operated upon), it is found expedient to + add the acid in several portions. The heating is continued for 4 to 12 + hours according to the amount of silver present; the end of the + reaction is known by the absence of any hissing. Generally the + reaction mixture is allowed to cool, and the residue, which settles to + the bottom of the pot, consists of gold together with copper, lead and + iron sulphates, which are insoluble in strong sulphuric acid; silver + sulphate may also separate if present in sufficient quantity and the + solution be sufficiently cooled. The solution is removed by ladles or + by siphons, and the residue is leached out with boiling water; this + removes the sulphates. A certain amount of silver is still present + and, according to M. Pettenkofer, it is impossible to remove all the + silver by means of sulphuric acid. Several methods are in use for + removing the silver. Fusion with an alkaline bisulphate converts the + silver into the sulphate, which may be extracted by boiling with + sulphuric acid and then with water. Another process consists in + treating a mixture of the residue with one-quarter of its weight of + calcined sodium sulphate with sulphuric acid, the residue being + finally boiled with a large quantity of acid. Or the alloy is + dissolved in _aqua regia_, the solution filtered from the insoluble + silver chloride, and the gold precipitated by ferrous chloride. + + The silver present in the solution obtained in the sulphuric acid + boiling is recovered by a variety of processes. The solution may be + directly precipitated with copper, the copper passing into solution as + copper sulphate, and the silver separating as a mud, termed "cement + silver." Or the silver sulphate may be separated from the solution by + cooling and dilution, and then mixed with iron clippings, the + interaction being accompanied with a considerable evolution of heat. + Or Gutzkow's method of precipitating the metal with ferrous sulphate + may be employed. + + The electrolytic parting of gold and silver has been shown to be more + economical and free from the objections--such as the poisonous + fumes--of the sulphuric acid process. One process depends upon the + fact that, with a suitable current density, if a very dilute solution + of silver nitrate be electrolysed between an auriferous silver anode + and a silver cathode, the silver of the anode is dissolved out and + deposited at the cathode, the gold remaining at the anode. The silver + is quite free from gold, and the gold after boiling with nitric acid + has a fineness of over 999. + + Gold is left in the anode slime when copper or silver are refined by + the usual processes, but if the gold preponderate in the anode these + processes are inapplicable. A cyanide bath, as used in electroplating, + would dissolve the gold, but is not suitable for refining, because + other metals (silver, copper, &c.) passing with gold into the solution + would deposit with it. Bock, however, in 1880 (_Berg- und + huttenmannische Zeitung_, 1880, p. 411) described a process used at + the North German Refinery in Hamburg for the refining of gold + containing platinum with a small proportion of silver, lead or + bismuth, and a subsequent patent specification (1896) and a paper by + Wohlwill (_Zeits. f. Elektrochem._, 1898, pp. 379, 402, 421) have + thrown more light upon the process. The electrolyte is gold chloride + (2.5-3 parts of pure gold per 100 of solution) mixed with from 2 to 6% + of the strongest hydrochloric acid to render the gold anodes readily + soluble, which they are not in the neutral chloride solution. The bath + is used at 65 deg. to 70 deg. C. (150 deg. to 158 deg. F.), and if + free chlorine be evolved, which is known at once by its pungent smell, + the temperature is raised, or more acid is added, to promote the + solubility of the gold. The bath is used with a current-density of 100 + amperes per sq. ft. at 1 volt (or higher), with electrodes about 1.2 + in. apart. In this process all the anode metals pass into solution + except iridium and other refractory metals of that group, which remain + as metals, and silver, which is converted into insoluble chloride; + lead and bismuth form chloride and oxychloride respectively, and these + dissolve until the bath is saturated with them, and then precipitate + with the silver in the tank. But if the gold-strength of the bath be + maintained, only gold is deposited at the cathode--in a loose powdery + condition from pure solutions, but in a smooth detachable deposit from + impure liquors. Under good conditions the gold should contain 99.98% + of the pure metal. The tank is of porcelain or glazed earthenware, the + electrodes for impure solutions are 1/2 in. apart (or more with pure + solutions), and are on the multiple system, and the potential + difference at the terminals of the bath is 1 volt. A high + current-density being employed, the turn-over of gold is rapid--an + essential factor of success when the costliness of the metal is taken + into account. Platinum and palladium dissolved from the anode + accumulate in the solution, and are removed at intervals of, say, a + few months by chemical precipitation. It is essential that the bath + should not contain more than 5% of palladium, or some of this metal + will deposit with the gold. The slimes are treated chemically for the + separation of the metals contained in them. + + AUTHORITIES.--Standard works on the metallurgy of gold are the + treatises of T. Kirke Rose and of M. Eissler. The cyanide process is + especially treated by M. Eissler, _Cyanide Process for the Extraction + of Gold_, which pays particular attention to the Witwatersrand + methods; Alfred James, _Cyanide Practice_; H. Forbes Julian and Edgar + Smart, _Cyaniding Gold and Silver Ores_. Gold milling is treated by + Henry Louis, _A Handbook of Gold Milling_; C. G. Warnford Lock, _Gold + Milling_; T. A. Rickard, _Stamp Milling of Gold Ores_. Gold dredging + is treated by Captain C. C. Longridge in _Gold Dredging_, and + hydraulic mining is discussed by the same author in his _Hydraulic + Mining_. For operations in special districts see J. M. Maclaren, + _Gold_ (1908); J. H. Curle, _Gold Mines of the World_; Africa: F. H. + Hatch and J. A. Chalmers, _Gold Mines of the Rand_; S. J. Truscott, + _Witwatersrand Goldfields Banket and Mining Practice_; Australasia: D. + Clark, _Australian Mining and Metallurgy_; Karl Schmeisser, + _Goldfields of Australasia_; A. G. Charleton, _Gold Mining and Milling + in Western Australia_; India: F. H. Hatch, _The Kolar Gold-Field_. + + + + +GOLD AND SILVER THREAD. Under this heading some general account may be +given of gold and silver strips, threads and gimp used in connexion with +varieties of weaving, embroidery and twisting and plaiting or lace work. +To this day, in many oriental centres where it seems that early +traditions of the knowledge and the use of fabrics wholly or partly +woven, ornamented, and embroidered with gold and silver have been +maintained, the passion for such brilliant and costly textiles is still +strong and prevalent. One of the earliest mentions of the use of gold in +a woven fabric occurs in the description of the ephod made for Aaron +(Exod. xxxix. 2, 3), "And he made the ephod of gold, blue, and purple, +and scarlet, and fine twined linen. And they did beat the gold into thin +plates, and cut it into wires (strips), to work it in the blue, and in +the purple, and in the scarlet, and in the fine linen, with cunning +work." This is suggestive of early Syrian or Arabic in-darning or +weaving with gold strips or tinsel. In both the _Iliad_ and the +_Odyssey_ allusion is frequently made to inwoven and embroidered golden +textiles. Assyrian sculpture gives an elaborately designed ornament upon +the robe of King Assur-nasir-pal (884 B.C.) which was probably an +interweaving of gold and coloured threads, and testifies to the +consummate skill of Assyrian or Babylonian workers at that date. From +Assyrian and Babylonian weavers the conquering Persians of the time of +Darius derived their celebrity as weavers and users of splendid stuffs. +Herodotus describes the corselet given by Amasis king of Egypt to the +Minerva of Lindus and how it was inwoven or embroidered with gold. +Darius, we are told, wore a war mantle on which were figured (probably +inwoven) two golden hawks as if pecking at each other. Alexander the +Great is said to have found Eastern kings and princes arrayed in robes +of gold and purple. More than two hundred years later than Alexander the +Great was the king of Pergamos (the third bearing the name Attalus) who +gave much attention to working in metals and is mentioned by Pliny as +having invented weaving with gold, hence the historic Attalic cloths. +There are several references in Roman writings to costumes and stuffs +woven and embroidered with gold threads and the Graeco-Roman +_chryso-phrygium_ and the Roman _auri-phrygium_ are evidences not only +of Roman work with gold threads but also of its indebtedness to Phrygian +sources. The famous tunics of Agrippina and those of Heliogabalus are +said to have been of tissues made entirely with gold threads, whereas +the robes which Marcus Aurelius found in the treasury of Hadrian, as +well as the costumes sold at the dispersal of the wardrobe of Commodus, +were different in character, being of fine linen and possibly even of +silken stuffs inwoven or embroidered with gold threads. The same +description is perhaps correct of the reputedly splendid hangings with +which King Dagobert decorated the early medieval oratory of St Denis. +Reference to these and many such stuffs is made by the respectively +contemporary or almost contemporary writers; and a very full and +interesting work by Monsieur Francisque Michel (Paris, 1852) is still a +standard book for consultation in respect of the history of silk, gold +and silver stuffs. + +From indications such as these, as well as those of later date, one sees +broadly that the art of weaving and embroidering with gold and silver +threads passed from one great city to another, travelling as a rule +westward. Babylon, Tarsus, Bagdad, Damascus, the islands of Cyprus and +Sicily, Constantinople, Venice and southern Spain appear successively in +the process of time as famous centres of these much-prized manufactures. +During the middle ages European royal personages and high ecclesiastical +dignitaries used cloth and tissues of gold and silver for their state +and ceremonial robes, as well as for costly hangings and decoration; and +various names--ciclatoun, tartarium, naques or nac, baudekin or +baldachin (Bagdad) and tissue--were applied to textiles in the making of +which gold threads were almost always introduced in combination with +others. The thin flimsy paper known as tissue paper is so called because +it originally was placed between the folds of gold "tissue" (or weaving) +to prevent the contiguous surfaces from fraying each other. Under the +articles dealing with carpets, embroidery, lace and tapestry will be +found notices of the occasional use in such productions of gold and +silver threads. Of early date in the history of European weaving are +rich stuffs produced in Southern Spain by Moors, as well as by Saracenic +and Byzantine weavers at Palermo and Constantinople in the 12th century, +in which metallic threads were freely used. Equally esteemed at about +the same period were corresponding stuffs made in Cyprus, whilst for +centuries later the merchants in such fabrics eagerly sought for and +traded in Cyprus gold and silver threads. Later the actual manufacture +of them was not confined to Cyprus, but was also carried on by Italian +thread and trimming makers from the 14th century onwards. For the most +part the gold threads referred to were of silver gilt. In rare instances +of middle-age Moorish or Arabian fabrics the gold threads are made with +strips of parchment or paper gilt and still rarer are instances of the +use of real gold wire. + +In India the preparation of varieties of gold and silver threads is an +ancient and important art. The "gold wire" of the manufacturer has been +and is as a rule silver wire gilt, the silver wire being, of course, +composed of pure silver. The wire is drawn by means of simple +draw-plates, with rude and simple appliances, from rounded bars of +silver, or gold-plated silver, as the case may be. The wire is flattened +into strip, tinsel or ribbon-like form, by passing fourteen or fifteen +strands simultaneously, over a fine, smooth, round-topped anvil and +beating each as it passes with a heavy hammer having a slightly convex +surface. Such strips or tinsel of wire so flattened are woven into +Indian _soniri_, tissue or cloth of gold, the web or warp being composed +entirely of golden strips, and _ruperi_, similar tissue of silver. Other +gold and silver threads suitable for use in embroidery, pillow and +needlepoint lace making, &c., consist of fine strips of flattened wire +wound round cores of orange (in the case of silver, white) silk thread +so as to completely cover them. Wires flattened or partially flattened +are also twisted into exceedingly fine spirals and much used for heavy +embroideries. Spangles for embroideries, &c., are made from spirals of +comparatively stout wire, by cutting them down ring by ring, laying each +C-like ring on an anvil, and by a smart blow with a hammer flattening it +out into a thin round disk with a slit extending from the centre to one +edge. The demand for many kinds of loom-woven and embroidered gold and +silver work in India is immense, and the variety of textiles so +ornamented is also very great, chief amongst which are the golden or +silvery tinsel fabrics known as kincobs. + +Amongst Western communities the demand for gold and silver embroideries +and braid lace now exists chiefly in connexion with naval, military and +other uniforms, masonic insignia, court costumes, public and private +liveries, ecclesiastical robes and draperies, theatrical dresses, &c. + +The proportions of gold and silver in the gold thread for the woven +braid lace or ribbon trade varies, but in all cases the proportion of +gold is exceedingly small. An ordinary gold braid wire is drawn from a +bar containing 90 parts of silver and 7 of copper, and plated with 3 of +gold. On an average each ounce troy of a bar so plated is drawn into +1500 yds. of wire; and therefore about 16 grains of gold cover 1 m. of +wire. (A. S. C.) + + + + +GOLDAST AB HAIMINSFELD, MELCHIOR (1576-1635), Swiss writer, an +industrious though uncritical collector of documents relating to the +medieval history and Constitution of Germany, was born on the 6th of +January 1576 (some say 1578), of poor Protestant parents, near +Bischofszell, in the Swiss Canton of Thurgau. His university career, +first at Ingolstadt (1585-1586), then at Altdorf near Nuremberg +(1597-1598), was cut short by his poverty, from which he suffered all +his life, and which was the main cause of his wanderings. In 1598 he +found a rich protector in the person of Bartholomaeus Schobinger, of St +Gall, by whose liberality he was enabled to study at St Gall (where he +first became interested in medieval documents, which abound in the +conventual library) and elsewhere in Switzerland. Before his patron's +death (1604) he became (1603) secretary to Henry, duke of Bouillon, with +whom he went to Heidelberg and Frankfort. But in 1604 he entered the +service of the Baron von Hohensax, then the possessor of the precious +MS. volume of old German poems, returned from Paris to Heidelberg in +1888, and, partially published by Goldast. Soon he was back in +Switzerland, and by 1606 in Frankfort, earning his living by preparing +and correcting books for the press. In 1611 he was appointed councillor +at the court of Saxe-Weimar, and in 1615 he entered the service of the +count of Schaumburg at Buckeburg. In 1624 he was forced by the war to +retire to Bremen; there in 1625 he deposited his library in that of the +town (his books were bought by the town in 1646, but many of his MSS. +passed to Queen Christina of Sweden, and hence are now in the Vatican +library), he himself returning to Frankfort. In 1627 he became +councillor to the emperor and to the archbishop-elector of Treves, and +in 1633 passed to the service of the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt. He +died at Giessen early in 1635. + +His immense industry is shown by the fact that his biographer, +Senckenburg, gives a list of 65 works published or written by him, some +extending to several substantial volumes. Among the more important are +his _Paraeneticorum veterum pars i._ (1604), which contained the old +German tales of _Kunig Tyrol von Schotten_, the _Winsbeke_ and the +_Winsbekin; Suevicarum rerum scriptores_ (Frankfort, 1605, new edition, +1727); _Rerum Alamannicarum scriptores_ (Frankfort, 1606, new edition by +Senckenburg, 1730); _Constitutiones imperiales_ (Frankfort, 1607-1613, 4 +vols.); _Monarchia s. Romani imperii_ (Hanover and Frankfort, 1612-1614, +3 vols.); _Commentarii de regni Bohemiae juribus_ (Frankfort, 1627, new +edition by Schmink, 1719). He also edited De Thou's _History_ +(1609-1610) and Willibald Pirckheimer's works (1610). In 1688 a volume +of letters addressed to him by his learned friends was published. + + _Life_ by Senckenburg, prefixed to his 1730 work. See also R. von + Raumer's _Geschichte d. germanischen Philologie_ (Munich, 1870). + (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +GOLDBEATING.--The art of goldbeating is of great antiquity, being +referred to by Homer; and Pliny (_N.H._ 33. 19) states that 1 oz. of +gold was extended to 750 leaves, each leaf being four fingers (about 3 +in.) square; such a leaf is three times as thick as the ordinary leaf +gold of the present time. In all probability the art originated among +the Eastern nations, where the working of gold and the use of gold +ornaments have been distinguishing characteristics from the most remote +periods. On Egyptian mummy cases specimens of original leaf-gilding are +met with, where the gold is so thin that it resembles modern gilding +(q.v.). The minimum thickness to which gold can be beaten is not known +with certainty. According to Mersenne (1621) 1 oz. was spread out over +105 sq. ft.; Reaumur (1711) obtained 146-1/2 sq. ft.; other values are +189 sq. ft. and 300 sq. ft. Its malleability is greatly diminished by +the presence of other metals, even in very minute quantity. In practice +the average degree of tenuity to which the gold is reduced is not nearly +so great as the last example quoted above. A "book of gold" containing +25 leaves measuring each 3-1/4 in., equal to an area of 264 sq. in., +generally weighs from 4 to 5 grains. + +The gold used by the goldbeater is variously alloyed, according to the +colour required. Fine gold is commonly supposed to be incapable of being +reduced to thin leaves. This, however, is not the case, although its use +for ordinary purposes is undesirable on account of its greater cost. It +also adheres on one part of a leaf touching another, thus causing a +waste of labour by the leaves being spoiled; but for work exposed to the +weather it is much preferable, as it is more durable, and does not +tarnish or change colour. The external gilding on many public buildings, +e.g. the Albert Memorial in Kensington Gardens, London, is done with +pure gold. The following is a list of the principal classes of leaf +recognized and ordinarily prepared by British beaters, with the +proportions of alloy per oz. they contain. + + +---------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | |Proportion |Proportion |Proportion | + | Name of leaf. | of gold. | of Silver.| of Copper.| + +---------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | Grains. | Grains. | Grains. | + | Red | 456-460 | .. | 20-24 | + | Pale red | 464 | .. | 16 | + | Extra deep | 456 | 12 | 12 | + | Deep | 444 | 24 | 12 | + | Citron | 440 | 30 | 10 | + | Yellow | 408 | 72 | .. | + | Pale yellow | 384 | 96 | .. | + | Lemon | 360 | 120 | .. | + | Green or pale | 312 | 168 | .. | + | White | 240 | 240 | .. | + +---------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + + The process of goldbeating is as follows: The gold, having been + alloyed according to the colour desired, is melted in a crucible at a + higher temperature than is simply necessary to fuse it, as its + malleability is improved by exposure to a greater heat; sudden cooling + does not interfere with its malleability, gold differing in this + respect from some other metals. It is then cast into an ingot, and + flattened, by rolling between a pair of powerful smooth steel rollers, + into a ribbon of 1-1/2 in. wide and 10 ft. in length to the oz. After + being flattened it is annealed and cut into pieces of about 6-1/2 grs. + each, or about 75 per oz., and placed between the leaves of a "cutch," + which is about 1/2 in. thick and 3-1/2 in. square, containing about + 180 leaves of a tough paper. Formerly fine vellum was used for this + purpose, and generally still it is interleaved in the proportion of + about one of vellum to six of paper. The cutch is beaten on for about + 20 minutes with a 17-lb. hammer, which rebounds by the elasticity of + the skin, and saves the labour of lifting, by which the gold is spread + to the size of the cutch; each leaf is then taken out, and cut into + four pieces, and put between the skins of a "shoder," 4-1/2 in. square + and 3/4 in. thick, containing about 720 skins, which have been worn + out in the finishing or "mould" process. The shoder requires about two + hours' beating upon with a 9-lb. hammer. As the gold will spread + unequally, the shoder is beaten upon after the larger leaves have + reached the edges. The effect of this is that the margins of larger + leaves come out of the edges in a state of dust. This allows time for + the smaller leaves to reach the full size of the shoder, thus + producing a general evenness of size in the leaves. Each leaf is again + cut into four pieces, and placed between the leaves of a "mould," + composed of about 950 of the finest gold-beaters' skins, 5 in. square + and 3/4 in. thick, the contents of one shoder filling three moulds. + The material has now reached the last and most difficult stage of the + process; and on the fineness of the skin and judgment of the workman + the perfection and thinness of the leaf of gold depend. During the + first hour the hammer is allowed to fall principally upon the centre + of the mould. This causes gaping cracks upon the edges of the leaves, + the sides of which readily coalesce and unite without leaving any + trace of the union after being beaten upon. At the second hour, when + the gold is about the 150,000th part of an inch in thickness, it for + the first time permits the transmission of the rays of light. Pure + gold, or gold but slightly alloyed, transmits green rays; gold highly + alloyed with silver transmits pale violet rays. The mould requires in + all about four hours' beating with a 7-lb. hammer, when the ordinary + thinness for the gold leaf of commerce will be reached. A single ounce + of gold will at this stage be extended to 75 X 4 X 4 = 1200 leaves, + which will trim to squares of about 3-1/4 in. each. The finished leaf + is then taken out of the mould, and the rough edges are trimmed off by + slips of the ratan fixed in parallel grooves of an instrument called a + waggon, the leaf being laid upon a leathern cushion. The leaves thus + prepared are placed into "books" capable of holding 25 leaves each, + which have been rubbed over with red ochre to prevent the gold + clinging to the paper. Dentist gold is gold leaf carried no farther + than the cutch stage, and should be perfectly pure gold. + + By the above process also silver is beaten, but not so thin, the + inferior value of the metal not rendering it commercially desirable to + bestow so much labour upon it. Copper, tin, zinc, palladium, lead, + cadmium, platinum and aluminium can be beaten into thin leaves, but + not to the same extent as gold or silver. + +The fine membrane called goldbeater's skin, used for making up the +shoder and mould, is the outer coat of the caecum or blind gut of the +ox. It is stripped off in lengths about 25 or 30 in., and freed from fat +by dipping in a solution of caustic alkali and scraping with a blunt +knife. It is afterwards stretched on a frame; two membranes are glued +together, treated with a solution of aromatic substances or camphor in +isinglass, and subsequently coated with white of egg. Finally they are +cut into squares of 5 or 5-1/2 in.; and to make up a mould of 950 pieces +the gut of about 380 oxen is required, about 2-1/2 skins being got from +each animal. A skin will endure about 200 beatings in the mould, after +which it is fit for use in the shoder alone. + + The dryness of the cutch, shoder and mould is a matter of extreme + delicacy. They require to be hot-pressed every time they are used, + although they may be used daily, to remove the moisture which they + acquire from the atmosphere, except in extremely frosty weather, when + they acquire so little moisture that a difficulty arises from their + over-dryness, whereby the brilliancy of the gold is diminished, and it + spreads very slowly under the hammer. On the contrary, if the cutch or + shoder be damp, the gold will become pierced with innumerable + microscopic holes; and in the moulds in its more attenuated state it + will become reduced to a pulverulent state. This condition is more + readily produced in alloyed golds than in fine gold. It is necessary + that each skin of the mould should be rubbed over with calcined gypsum + each time the mould may be used, in order to prevent the adhesion of + the gold to the surface of the skin in beating. + + + + +GOLDBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia,[1] 14 +m. by rail S.W. of Liegnitz, on the Katzbach, an affluent of the Oder. +Pop. (1905) 6804. The principal buildings are an old church dating from +the beginning of the 13th century, the Schwabe-Priesemuth institution, +completed in 1876, for the board and education of orphans, and the +classical school or gymnasium (founded in 1524 by Duke Frederick II. of +Liegnitz), which in the 17th century enjoyed great prosperity, and +numbered Wallenstein among its pupils. The chief manufactures are +woollen cloth, flannel, gloves, stockings, leather and beer, and there +is a considerable trade in corn and fruit. Goldberg owes its origin and +name to a gold mine in the neighbourhood, which, however, has been +wholly abandoned since the time of the Hussite wars. The town obtained +civic rights in 1211. It suffered heavily from the Tatars in 1241, from +the plague in 1334, from the Hussites in 1428, and from the Saxon, +Imperial and Swedish forces during the Thirty Years' War. On the 27th of +May 1813 a battle took place near it between the French and the +Russians; and on the 23rd and the 27th of August of the same year +fights between the allies and the French. + + See Sturm, _Geschichte der Stadt Goldberg in Schlesien_ (1887). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Goldberg is also the name of a small town in the grand-duchy of + Mecklenburg-Schwerin. + + + + +GOLD COAST, that portion of the Guinea Coast (West Africa) which extends +from Assini upon the west to the river Volta on the east. It derives its +name from the quantities of grains of gold mixed with the sand of the +rivers traversing the district. The term Gold Coast is now generally +identified with the British Gold Coast colony. This extends from 3 deg. +7' W. to 1 deg. 14' E., the length of the coast-line being about 370 m. +It is bounded W. by the Ivory Coast colony (French), E. by Togoland +(German). On the north the British possessions, including Ashanti (q.v.) +and the Northern Territories, extend to the 11th degree of north +latitude. The frontier separating the colony from Ashanti (fixed by +order in council, 22nd of October 1906) is in general 130 m. from the +coast, but in the central portion of the colony the southern limits of +Ashanti project wedge-like to the confluence of the rivers Ofin and +Prah, which point is but 60 m. from the sea at Cape Coast. The combined +area of the Gold Coast, Ashanti and the Northern Territories, is about +80,000 sq. m., with a total population officially estimated in 1908 at +2,700,000; the Gold Coast colony alone has an area of 24,200 sq. m., +with a population of over a million, of whom about 2000 are Europeans. + +[Map: Gold Coast and Hinterland.] + + _Physical features._--Though the lagoons common to the West African + coast are found both at the western and eastern extremities of the + colony (Assini in the west and Kwitta in the east) the greater part of + the coast-line is of a different character. Cape Three Points (4 deg. + 44' 40" N. 2 deg. 5' 45" W.) juts boldly into the sea, forming the + most southerly point of the colony. Thence the coast trends E. by N., + and is but slightly indented. The usually low sandy beach is, however, + diversified by bold, rocky headlands. The flat belt of country does + not extend inland any considerable distance, the spurs of the great + plateau which forms the major part of West Africa advancing in the + east, in the Akwapim district, near to the coast. Here the hills reach + an altitude of over 2000 ft. Out of the level plain rise many isolated + peaks, generally of conical formation. Numerous rivers descend from + the hills, but bars of sand block their mouths, and the Gold Coast + possesses no harbours. Great Atlantic rollers break unceasingly upon + the shore. The chief rivers are the Volta (q.v.), the Ankobra and the + Prah. The Ankobra or Snake river traverses auriferous country, and + reaches the sea some 20 m. west of Cape Three Points. It has a course + of about 150 m., and is navigable in steam launches for about 80 m. + The Prah ("Busum Prah," sacred river) is regarded as a fetish stream + by the Fanti and Ashanti. One of its sub-tributaries has its rise near + Kumasi. The Prah rises in the N.E. of the colony and flows S.W. Some + 60 m. from its mouth it is joined by the Ofin, which comes from the + north-west. The united stream flows S. and reaches the sea in 1 deg. + 35' W. As a waterway the river, which has a course of 400 m., is + almost useless, owing to the many cataracts in its course. Another + river is the Tano, which for some distance in its lower course forms + the boundary between the colony and the Ivory Coast. + + _Geology._--Cretaceous rocks occur at intervals along the coast belt, + but are mostly hidden under an extensive development of superficial + deposits. Basalt occurs at Axim. Inland is a broad belt of sandstone + and marl with an occasional band of auriferous conglomerate, best + known and most extensively worked for gold in the Wasaw district. + Though the conglomerates bear some resemblance to the "Banket" of + South Africa they are most probably of more recent date. The alluvial + silts and gravels also carry gold. + + _Climate._--The climate on the coast is hot, moist and unhealthy, + especially for Europeans. The mean temperature in the shade in the + coast towns is 78 deg. to 80 deg. F. Fevers and dysentery are the + diseases most to be dreaded by the European. The native inhabitants, + although they enjoy tolerable health and live to an average age, are + subject in the rainy season to numerous chest complaints. There are + two wet seasons. From April to August are the greater rains, whilst in + October and November occur the "smalls" or second rains. From the end + of December to March the dry harmattan wind blows from the Sahara. In + consequence of the prevalence of the sea-breeze from the south-west + the western portion of the colony, up to the mouth of the Sekum river + (a small stream to the west of Accra), is called the windward + district, the eastward portion being known as the leeward. The + rainfall at Accra, in the leeward district, averages 27 in. in the + year, but at places in the windward district is much greater, + averaging 79 in. at Axim. + + _Flora._--The greater part (probably three-fourths) of the colony is + covered with primeval forest. Here the vegetation is so luxuriant that + for great distances the sky is shut out from view. As a result of the + struggle to reach the sunlight the forest growths are almost entirely + vertical. The chief trees are silk cottons, especially the bombax, and + gigantic hard-wood trees, such as the African mahogany, ebony, odum + and camwood. The bombax rises for over 100 ft., a straight column-like + shaft, 25 to 30 ft. in circumference, and then throws out horizontally + a large number of branches. The lowest growth in the forest consists + of ferns and herbaceous plants. Of the ferns some are climbers + reaching 30 to 40 ft. up the stems of the trees they entwine. + Flowering plants are comparatively rare; they include orchids and a + beautiful white lily. The "bush" or intermediate growth is made up of + smaller trees, the rubber vine and other creepers, some as thick as + hawsers, bamboos and sensitive mimosa, and has a height of from 30 to + 60 ft. The creepers are found not only in the bush, but on the ground + and hanging from the branches of the highest trees. West of the Prah + the forest comes down to the edge of the Atlantic. East of that river + the coast land is covered with bushes 5 to 12 ft. high, occasional + large trees and groves of oil palms. Still farther east, by Accra, are + numerous arborescent Euphorbias, and immediately west of the lower + Volta forests of oil palms and grassy plains with fan palms. Behind + all these eastern regions is a belt of thin forest country before the + denser forest is reached. In the north-east are stretches of + orchard-like country with wild plum, shea-butter and kola trees, + baobabs, dwarf date and fan palms. The cotton and tobacco plants grow + wild. At the mouths of the rivers and along the lagoons the mangrove + is the characteristic tree. There are numerous coco-nut palms along + the coast. The fruit trees and plants also include the orange, + pine-apple, mango, papaw, banana and avocado or alligator pear. + + _Fauna._--The fauna includes leopards, panthers, hyenas, Potto lemurs, + jackals, antelopes, buffaloes, wild-hogs and many kinds of monkey, + including the chimpanzee and the _Colobus vellerosus_, whose skin, + with long black silky hair, is much prized in Europe. The elephant has + been almost exterminated by ivory hunters. The snakes include pythons, + cobras, horned and puff adders and the venomous water snake. Among the + lesser denizens of the forest are the squirrel and porcupine. + Crocodiles and in fewer numbers manatees and otters frequent the + rivers and lagoons and hippopotami are found in the Volta. Lizards of + brilliant hue, tortoises and great snails are common. Birds, which are + not very numerous, include parrots and hornbills, kingfishers, + ospreys, herons, crossbills, curlews, woodpeckers, doves, pigeons, + storks, pelicans, swallows, vultures and the spur plover (the + last-named rare). Shoals of herrings frequent the coast, and the other + fish include mackerel, sole, skate, mullet, bonito, flying fish, + fighting fish and shynose. Sharks abound at the mouths of all the + rivers, edible turtle are fairly common, as are the sword fish, + dolphin and sting ray (with poisonous caudal spine). Oysters are + numerous on rocks running into the sea and on the exposed roots of + mangrove trees. Insect life is multitudinous; beetles, spiders, ants, + fireflies, butterflies and jiggers abound. The earthworm is rare. The + mosquitos include the _Culex_ or ordinary kind, the _Anopheles_, which + carry malarial fever, and the _Stegomyia_, a striped white and black + mosquito which carries yellow-fever. + + _Inhabitants._--The natives are all of the Negro race. The most + important tribe is the Fanti (q.v.), and the Fanti language is + generally understood throughout the colony. The Fanti and Ashanti are + believed to have a common origin. It is certain that the Fanti came + originally from the north and conquered many of the coast tribes, who + anciently had owned the rule of the king of Benin. The districts in + general are named after the tribes inhabiting them. Those in the + western part of the colony are mainly of Fanti stock; the Accra and + allied tribes inhabit the eastern portion and are believed to be the + aboriginal inhabitants. The Akim (Akem), who occupy the north-east + portion of the colony, have engaged in gold-digging from time + immemorial. The capital of their country is Kibbi. The Akwapim + (Aquapem), southern neighbours of the Akim, are extensively engaged in + agriculture and in trade. The Accra, a clever race, are to be found in + all the towns of the West African coast as artisans and sailors. They + are employed by the interior tribes as middlemen and interpreters. On + the right bank of the Volta occupying the low marshy land near the sea + are the Adangme. The Krobos live in little villages in the midst of + the palm tree woods which grow round about the Kroboberg, an eminence + about 1000 ft. high. Their country lies between that of the Akim and + the Adangme. In the west of the colony is the Ahanta country, formerly + an independent kingdom. The inhabitants were noted for their skill in + war. They are one of the finest and most intelligent of the tribes of + Accra stock. The Apollonia, a kindred race, occupy the coast region + nearest the Ivory Coast. + + + Native Languages. + + The Tshi, Tchwi or Chi language,[1] which is that spoken on the Gold + Coast, belongs to the great prefix-pronominal group. It comprises many + dialects, which may, however, be reduced to two classes or types. Akan + dialects are spoken in Assini, Amanahia (Apollonia), Awini, Ahanta, + Wasaw, Tshuforo (Juffer or Tufel), and Denkyera in the west, and in + Asen, Akim, and Akwapim in the east, as well as in the different parts + of Ashanti. Fanti dialects are spoken, not only in Fanti proper, but + in Afutu or the country round Cape Coast, in Abora, Agymako, Akomfi, + Gomoa and Agona. The difference between the two types is not very + great; a Fanti, for example, can converse without much difficulty with + a native of Akwapim or Ashanti, his language being in fact a + deteriorated form of the same original. Akim is considered the finest + and purest of all the Akan dialects. The Akwapim, which is based on + the Akim but has imbibed Fanti influences, has been made the + book-language by the Basel missionaries. They had reduced it to + writing before 1850. About a million people in all, it is estimated, + speak dialects of the Tshi. + + The south-eastern corner of the Gold Coast is occupied by another + language known as the Ga or Accra, which comprises the Ga proper and + the Adangme and Krobo dialects. Ga proper is spoken by about 40,000 + people, including the inhabitants of Ga and Kinka (i.e. Accra, in + Tshi, Nkran and Kankan), Osu (i.e. Christiansborg), La, Tessi, Ningua + and numerous inland villages. It has been reduced to writing by the + missionaries. The Adangme and Krobo dialects are spoken by about + 80,000 people. They differ very considerably from Ga proper, but books + printed in Ga can be used by both the Krobo and Adangme natives. + Another language known as Guan is used in parts of Akwapim and in Anum + beyond the Volta; but not much is known either about it or the Obutu + tongue spoken in a few towns in Agona, Gomoa and Akomfi. + + + Religion and education. + + Fetishism (q.v.) is the prevailing religion of all the tribes. Belief + in a God is universal, as also is a belief in a future state. + Christianity and Mahommedanism are both making progress. The natives + professing Christianity number about 40,000. A Moravian mission was + started at Christiansborg about 1736; the Basel mission (Evangelical) + was begun in 1828, the missionaries combining manual training and farm + labour with purely religious work; the Wesleyans started a mission + among the Fanti in 1835, and the Anglican and Roman Catholic Churches + are also represented, as well as the Bremen Missionary Society. + Elementary education is chiefly in the hands of the Wesleyan, Basel, + Bremen and Roman Catholic missions, who have schools at many towns + along the coast and in the interior. There are also government and + Mahommedan schools. The natives generally are extremely intelligent. + They obtain easily the means of subsistence, and are disinclined to + unaccustomed labour, such as working in mines. They are keen traders. + The native custom of burying the dead under the floors of the houses + prevailed until 1874, when it was prohibited by the British + authorities. + + _Towns._--Unlike the other British possessions on the west coast of + Africa, the colony has many towns along the shore, this being due to + the multiplicity of traders of rival nations who went thither in quest + of gold. Beginning at the west, Newtown, on the Assini or Eyi lagoon, + is just within the British frontier. The first place of importance + reached is Axim (pop., 1901, 2189), the site of an old Dutch fort + built near the mouth of the Axim river, and in the pre-railway days + the port of the gold region. Rounding Cape Three Points, whose + vicinity is marked by a line of breakers nearly 2-1/2 m. long, Dixcove + is reached. Twenty miles farther east is Sekondi (q.v.), (pop. about + 5000), the starting-point of the railway to the goldfields and Kumasi. + Elmina (q.v.), formerly one of the most important posts of European + settlement, is reached some distance after passing the mouth of the + Prah. Eight miles east of Elmina is Cape Coast (q.v.), pop. (1901) + 28,948. Anamabo is 9 m. farther east. Here, in 1807, a handful of + English soldiers made a heroic and successful defence of its fort + against the whole Ashanti host. Saltpond, towards the end of the 19th + century, diverted to itself the trade formerly done by Anamabo, from + which it is distant 9 m. Saltpond is a well-built, flourishing town, + and is singular in possessing no ancient fort. Between Anamabo and + Saltpond is Kormantine (Cormantyne), noted as the place whence the + English first exported slaves from this coast. Hence the general name + Coromantynes given in the West Indies to slaves from the Gold Coast. + Eighty miles from Cape Coast is Accra (q.v.) (pop. 17,892), capital of + the colony. (Winnebah is passed 30 m. before Accra is reached. It is + an old town noted for the manufacture of canoes.) There is no station + of much importance in the 60 m. between Accra and the Volta, on the + right bank of which river, near its mouth, is the town of Addah (pop. + 13,240). Kwitta (pop. 3018) lies beyond the Volta not far from the + German frontier. Of the inland towns Akropong, the residence of the + king of Akwapim, is one of the best known. It is 39 m. N.E. of Accra, + stands on a ridge 1400 ft. above sea-level, and is a healthy place for + European residents. At Akropong are the headquarters of the Basel + Missionary Society. Akuse is a large town on the banks of the Volta. + Tarkwa is the centre of the gold mining industry in the Wasaw + district. Its importance dates from the beginning of the 20th century. + Accra, Cape Coast and Sekondi possess municipal government. + + _Agriculture and Trade._--The soil is everywhere very fertile and the + needs of the people being few there is little incentive to work. The + forests alone supply an inexhaustible source of wealth, notably in the + oil palm. Among vegetable products cultivated are cocoa, cotton, + Indian corn, yams, cassava, peas, peppers, onions, tomatoes, + groundnuts (_Arachis hypogaea_), Guinea corn (_Sorghum vulgare_) and + Guinea grains (_Amomum grana-paradisi_). The most common article of + cultivation is, however, the kola nut (_Sterculia acuminata_), the + favourite substitute in West Africa for the betel nut. In 1890 efforts + were made by the establishment of a government botanical station at + Aburi in the Accra district to induce the natives to improve their + methods of cultivation and to enlarge the number of their crops. This + resulted in the formation of hundreds of cocoa plantations, chiefly in + the district immediately north of Accra. Subsequently the cultivation + of the plant extended to every district of the colony. The industry + had been founded in 1879 by a native of Accra, but it was not until + 1901, as the result of the government's fostering care, that the + export became of importance. In that year the quantity exported + slightly exceeded 2,000,000 lb. and fetched L42,000. In 1907 the + quantity exported was nearly 21,000,000 lb. and in value exceeded + L515,000. In 1904 efforts were begun by the government and the British + Cotton Growing Association in co-operation to foster the growing of + cotton for export and by 1907 the cotton industry had become firmly + established. Tobacco and coffee are grown at some of the Basel + missionary stations. + + The chief exports are gold, palm oil and palm kernels, cocoa, rubber, + timber (including mahogany) and kola nuts. Of these articles the gold + and rubber are shipped chiefly to England, whilst Germany, France and + America, take the palm products and groundnuts. The rubber comes + chiefly from Ashanti. The imports consist of cotton goods, rum, gin + and other spirits, rice, sugar, tobacco, beads, machinery, building + materials and European goods generally. + + The value of the trade increased from L1,628,309 in 1896 to L4,055,351 + in 1906. In the last named year the imports were valued at L2,058,839 + and the exports at L1,996,412. While the value of imports had remained + nearly stationary since 1902 the value of exports had nearly trebled + in that period. In the five years 1903-1907 the total trade increased + from L3,063,486 to L5,007,869. Great Britain and British colonies take + 66% of the exports and supply over 60% of the imports. In both import + and export trade Germany is second, followed by France and the United + States. Specie is included in these totals, over a quarter of a + million being imported in 1904. + + Fishing is carried on extensively along the coast, and salted and + sun-dried fish from Addah and Kwitta districts find a ready sale + inland. Cloths are woven by the natives from home-grown and imported + yarn; the making of canoes, from the silk-cotton trees, is a + flourishing industry, and salt from the lagoons near Addah is roughly + prepared. There are also native artificers in gold and other metals, + the workmanship in some cases being of conspicuous merit. Odum wood is + largely used in building and for cabinet work. + + _Gold Mining._--Gold is found in almost every part of the colony, but + only in a few districts in paying quantities. Although since the + discovery of the coast gold had been continuously exported to Europe + from its ports, it was not until the last twenty years of the 19th + century that efforts were made to extract gold according to modern + methods. The richness of the Tarkwa main reef was first discovered by + a French trader, M. J. Bennat, about 1880. During the period 1880 to + 1900 the value of the gold exported varied from a minimum of L32,000 + to a maximum (1889) of L103,000. The increased interest shown in the + industry led to the construction of a railway (see below) to the chief + goldfields, whereby the difficulties of transport were largely + overcome. Consequent upon the taking up of a number of concessions, a + concessions ordinance was issued in August 1900. This was followed in + 1901 by the grant of 2825 concessions, and a "boom" in the West + African market on the London stock exchange. Many concessions were + speedily abandoned, and in 1901 the export of gold dropped to its + lowest point, 6162 oz., worth L22,186, but in 1902 a large company + began crushing ore and the output of gold rose to 26,911 oz., valued + at L96,880. In 1907 the export was 292,125 oz., worth L1,164,676. It + should be noted that one of the principal gold mines is not in the + colony proper, but at Obuassi in Ashanti. Underground labour is + performed mainly by Basas and Krumen from Liberia. Of native tribes + the Apollonia have proved the best for underground work, as they have + mining traditions dating from Portuguese times. A good deal of + alluvial gold is obtained by dredging apparatus. The use of dredging + apparatus is modern, but the natives have worked the alluvial soil and + the sand of the seashore for generations to get the gold they contain. + + _Communications._--The colony possesses a railway, built and owned by + the government, which serves the gold mines, and has its sea terminus + at Sekondi. Work was begun in August 1898, but owing to the + disturbance caused by the Ashanti rising of 1900 the rails only + reached Tarkwa (39 m.) in May 1901. Thence the line is carried to + Kumasi, the distance to Obuassi (124 m.) being completed by December + 1902, whilst the first train entered the Ashanti capital on the 1st of + October 1903. The total length of the line is 168 m. The cost of + construction was L1,820,000. The line has a gauge 3 ft. 6 in. There is + a branch line, 20 m. long, from Tarkwa N.W. to Prestea on the Ankobra + river. Another railway, built 1907-10, 35 m. in length, runs from + Accra to Mangoase, in the centre of the chief cocoa plantations. An + extension to Kumasi has been surveyed. + + Tortuous bush tracks are the usual means of internal communication. + These are kept in fair order in the neighbourhood of government + stations. There is a well-constructed road 141 m. long from Cape Coast + to Kumasi, and roads connecting neighbouring towns are maintained by + the government. Systematic attempts to make use of the upper Volta as + a means of conveying goods to the interior were first tried in 1900. + The rapids about 60 m. from the mouth of the river effectually prevent + boats of large size passing up the stream. Where railways or canoes + are not available goods are generally carried on the heads of porters, + 60 lb. being a full load. Telegraphs, introduced in 1882, connect all + the important towns in the colony, and a line starting at Cape Coast + stretches far inland, via Kumasi to Wa in the Northern Territories. + Accra and Sekondi are in telegraphic communication with Europe, the + Ivory Coast, Lagos and the Cape of Good Hope. There is regular and + frequent steamship communication with Europe by British, Belgian and + German lines. + + _Administration, Revenue, &c._--The country is governed as a crown + colony, the governor being assisted by a legislative council composed + of officials and nominated unofficial members. Laws, called + ordinances, are enacted by the governor with the advice and consent of + this council. The law of the colony is the common law and statutes of + general application in force in England in 1874, modified by local + ordinances passed since that date. The governor is also governor of + Ashanti and the Northern Territories, but in those dependencies the + legislative council has no authority. + + Native laws and customs--which are extremely elaborate and + complicated--are not interfered with "except when repugnant to natural + justice." Those relating to land tenure and succession may be thus + summarized. Individual tenure is not unknown, but most land is held by + the tribe or by the family in common, each member having the right to + select a part of the common land for his own use. Permanent alienation + can only take place with the unanimous consent of the family and is + uncommon, but long leases are granted. Succession is through the + female, i.e. when a man dies his property goes to his sister's + children. The government of the tribes is by their own kings and + chiefs under the supervision of district commissioners. Slavery has + been abolished in the colony. In the Northern Territories the dealing + in slaves is unlawful, neither can any person be put in pawn for debt; + nor will any court give effect to the relations between master and + slave except in so far as those relations may be in accordance with + the English laws relating to master and servant. + + For administrative purposes the colony is divided into three provinces + under provincial commissioners, and each province is subdivided into + districts presided over by commissioners, who exercise judicial as + well as executive functions. The supreme court consists of a chief + justice and three puisne judges. The defence of the colony is + entrusted to the Gold Coast regiment of the West African Frontier + Force, a force of natives controlled by the Colonial Office but + officered from the British army. There is also a corps of volunteers + (formed 1892). + + The chief source of revenue is the customs and (since 1902) railway + receipts, whilst the heaviest items of expenditure are transport + (including railways) and mine surveys, medical and sanitary services, + and maintenance of the military force. The revenue, which in the + period 1894-1898 averaged L244,559 yearly, rose in 1898-1903 to an + average of L556,316 a year. For the five years 1903-1907 the average + annual revenue was L647,557 and the average annual expenditure + L615,696. Save for municipal purposes there is no direct taxation in + the colony and no poor-houses exist. There is a public debt of + (December 1907) L2,206,964. It should be noted that the expenditure on + Ashanti and the Northern Territories is included in the Gold Coast + budget. + +_History._--It is a debated question whether the Gold Coast was +discovered by French or by Portuguese sailors. The evidence available is +insufficient to prove the assertion, of which there is no contemporary +record, that a company of Norman merchants established themselves about +1364 at a place they named La Mina (Elmina), and that they traded with +the natives for nearly fifty years, when the enterprise was abandoned. +It is well established that a Portuguese expedition under Diogo +d'Azambuja, accompanied probably by Christopher Columbus, took +possession of (or founded) Elmina in 1481-1482. By the Portuguese it was +called variously Sao Jorge da Mina or Ora del Mina--the mouth of the +(gold) mines. That besides alluvial washings they also worked the gold +mines was proved by discoveries in the latter part of the 19th century. +The Portuguese remained undisturbed in their trade until the +Reformation, when the papal bull which had given the country, with many +others, to Portugal ceased to have a binding power. English ships in +1553 brought back from Guinea gold to the weight of 150 lb. The fame of +the Gold Coast thereafter attracted to it adventurers from almost every +European nation. The English were followed by French, Danes, +Brandenburgers, Dutch and Swedes. The most aggressive were the Dutch, +who from the end of the 16th century sought to oust the Portuguese from +the Gold Coast, and in whose favour the Portuguese did finally withdraw +in 1642, in return for the withdrawal on the part of the Dutch of their +claims to Brazil. The Dutch henceforth made Elmina their headquarters on +the coast. Traces of the Portuguese occupation, which lasted 160 years, +are still to be found, notably in the language of the natives. Such +familiar words as palaver, fetish, caboceer and dash (i.e. a gift) have +all a Portuguese origin. + + + Appearance of the English. + +An English company built a fort at Kormantine previously to 1651, and +some ten years later Cape Coast Castle was built. The settlements made +by the English provoked the hostility of the Dutch and led to war +between England and Holland, during which Admiral de Ruyter destroyed +(1664-1665) all the English forts save Cape Coast castle. The treaty of +Breda in 1667 confirmed the Dutch in the possession of their conquests, +but the English speedily opened other trading stations. Charles II. in +1672 granted a charter to the Royal African Company, which built forts +at Dixcove, Sekondi, Accra, Whydah and other places, besides repairing +Cape Coast Castle. At this time the trade both in slaves and gold was +very great, and at the beginning of the 18th century the value of the +gold exported annually was estimated by Willem Bosman, the chief Dutch +factor at Elmina, to be over L200,000. The various European traders were +constantly quarrelling among themselves and exercised scarcely any +control over the natives. Piracy was rife along the coast, and was not +indeed finally stamped out until the middle of the 19th century. The +Royal African Company, which lost its monopoly of trade with England in +1700, was succeeded by another, the African Company of Merchants, which +was constituted in 1750 by act of parliament and received an annual +subsidy from government. The slave trade was then at its height and some +10,000 negroes were exported yearly. Many of the slaves were prisoners +of war sold to the merchants by the Ashanti, who had become the chief +native power. The abolition of the slave trade (1807) crippled the +company, which was dissolved in 1821, when the crown took possession of +the forts. + + + Danish and Dutch forts purchased. + +Since the beginning of the 19th century the British had begun to +exercise territorial rights in the towns where they held forts, and in +1817 the right of the British to control the natives living in the coast +towns was recognized by Ashanti. In 1824 the first step towards the +extension of British authority beyond the coast region was taken by +Governor Sir Charles M'Carthy, who incited the Fanti to rise against +their oppressors, the Ashanti. (The Fanti's country had been conquered +by the Ashanti in 1807.) Sir Charles and the Fanti army were defeated, +the governor losing his life, but in 1826 the English gained a victory +over the Ashanti at Dodowah. At this period, however, the home +government, disgusted with the Gold Coast by reason of the perpetual +disturbances in the protectorate and the trouble it occasioned, +determined to abandon the settlements, and sent instructions for the +forts to be destroyed and the Europeans brought home. The merchants, +backed by Major Rickets, 2nd West India regiments, the administrator, +protested, and as a compromise the forts were handed over to a committee +of merchants (Sept. 1828), who were given a subsidy of L4000 a year. The +merchants secured (1830) as their administrator Mr George Maclean--a +gentleman with military experience on the Gold Coast and not engaged in +trade. To Maclean is due the consolidation of British interests in the +interior. He concluded, 1831, a treaty with the Ashanti advantageous to +the Fanti, whilst with very inadequate means he contrived to extend +British influence over the whole region of the present colony. In the +words of a Fanti trader Maclean understood the people, "he settled +things quietly with them and the people also loved him."[2] Complaints +that Maclean encouraged slavery reached England, but these were +completely disproved, the governor being highly commended on his +administration by the House of Commons Committee. It was decided, +nevertheless, that the Colonial Office should resume direct control of +the forts, which was done in 1843, Maclean continuing to direct native +affairs until his death in 1847. The jurisdiction of England on the Gold +Coast was defined by the bond of the 6th of March 1844, an agreement +with the native chiefs by which the crown received the right of trying +criminals, repressing human sacrifice, &c. The limits of the +protectorate inland were not defined. The purchase of the Danish forts +in 1850, and of the Dutch forts and territory in 1871, led to the +consolidation of the British power along the coast; and the Ashanti war +of 1873-74 resulted in the extension of the area of British influence. +Since that time the colony has been chiefly engaged in the development +of its material resources, a development accompanied by a slow but +substantial advance in civilization among the native population. (For +further historical information see ASHANTI.) + +For a time the Gold Coast formed officially a limb of the "West African +Settlements" and was virtually a dependency of Sierra Leone. In 1874 the +settlements on the Gold Coast and Lagos were created a separate crown +colony, this arrangement lasting until 1886 when Lagos was cut off from +the Gold Coast administration. + + +_Northern Territories._ + +The Northern Territories of the Gold Coast form a British protectorate +to the north of Ashanti. They are bounded W. and N.--where 11 deg. N. is +the frontier line except at the eastern extremity--by the French +colonies of the Ivory Coast and Upper Senegal and Niger, E. by the +German colony of Togoland. The southern frontier, separating the +protectorate from Ashanti, is the Black Volta to a point a little above +its junction with the White Volta. Thence the frontier turns south and +afterwards east so as to include the Brumasi district in the +protectorate, the frontier gaining the main Volta below Yeji. The +Territories include nearly all the country from the meridian of +Greenwich to 3 deg. W. and between 8 deg. and 11 deg. N., and cover an +area of about 33,000 sq. m. + +Lying north of the great belt of primeval forest which extends parallel +to the Guinea coast, the greater part of the protectorate consists of +open country, well timbered, and much of it presenting a park-like +appearance. There are also large stretches of grassy plains, and in the +south-east an area of treeless steppe. The flora and fauna resemble +those of Ashanti. The country is well watered, the Black Volta forming +the west and southern frontier for some distance, while the White Volta +traverses its central regions. Both rivers, and also the united stream, +contain rapids which impede but do not prevent navigation (see VOLTA). +The climate is much healthier than that of the coast districts, and the +fever experienced is of a milder type. The rainfall is less than on the +coast; the dry season lasts from November (when the harmattan begins to +blow) to March. The mean temperature at Gambaga is 80 deg. F., the mean +annual rainfall 43 in. The inhabitants were officially estimated in 1907 +to number "at least 1,000,000." The Dagomba, Dagarti, Grunshi, Kangarga, +Moshi and Zebarima, Negro or Negroid tribes, constitute the bulk of the +people, and Fula, Hausa and Yoruba have settled as traders or cattle +raisers. A large number of the natives are Moslems, the rest are fetish +worshippers. The tribal organization is maintained by the British +authorities, who found comparatively little difficulty in putting an end +to slave-raiding and gaining the confidence of the chiefs. Trained by +British officers, the natives make excellent soldiers. + + _Agriculture and Trade._--The chief crops are maize, guinea-corn, + millet, yams, rice, beans, groundnuts, tobacco and cotton. Cotton is + grown in most parts of the protectorate, the soil and climate in many + districts being very suitable for its cultivation. Rubber is found in + the north-western regions. When the protectorate was assumed by Great + Britain the Territories were singularly destitute of fruit trees. The + British have introduced the orange, citron, lime, guava, mango and + soursop, and among plants the banana, pine-apple and papaw. A large + number of vegetables and flowers have also been introduced by the + administration. + + Stock-raising is carried on extensively, and besides oxen and sheep + there are large numbers of horses and donkeys in the Territories. The + chief exports are cattle, _dawa-dawa_ (a favourite flavouring matter + for soup among the Ashanti and other tribes) and shea-butter--the + latter used in cooking and as an illuminant. The principal imports are + kola-nuts, salt and cotton goods. A large proportion of the European + goods imported is German and comes through Togoland. The + administration levies a tax on traders' caravans, and in return + ensures the safety of the roads. This tax is the chief local source of + revenue. The revenue and expenditure of the Territories, as well as + statistics of trade, are included in those of the Gold Coast. + + Gold exists in quartz formation, chiefly in the valley of the Black + Volta, and is found equally on the British and French sides of the + frontier. + + _Towns._--The headquarters of the administration are at Tamale (or + Tamari), a town in the centre of the Dagomba country east of the White + Volta and 200 m. N.E. of Kumasi. Its inhabitants are keen traders, and + it forms a distributing centre for the whole protectorate. Gambaga, an + important commercial centre and from 1897 to 1907 the seat of + government, is in Mamprusi, the north-east corner of the protectorate + and is 85 m. N.N.E. of Tamale. A hundred and forty miles due south of + Gambaga is Salaga. This town is situated on the caravan route from the + Hausa states to Ashanti, and has a considerable trade in kola-nuts, + shea-butter and salt. On the White Volta, midway between Gambaga and + Salaga, is the thriving town of Daboya. On the western frontier are + Bole (Baule) and Wa. They carry on an extensive trade with Bontuku, + the capital of Jaman, and other places in the Ivory Coast colony. In + all the towns the population largely consists of aliens--Hausa, + Ashanti, Mandingos, &c. + + _Communications._--Lack of easy communication with the sea hinders the + development of the country. The ancient caravan routes have been, + however, supplemented by roads built by the British, who have further + organized a service of boats on the Volta. Large cargo boats, chiefly + laden with salt, ascend that river from Addah to Yeji and Daboya. From + Yeji, the port of Salaga, a good road, 150 m. long, has been made to + Gambaga. There is also a river service from Yeji to Longoro on the + Black Volta, the port of Kintampo, in northern Ashanti. There is a + complete telegraphic system connecting the towns of the protectorate + with Kumasi and the Gold Coast ports. + +_History._--It was not until the last quarter of the 19th century that +the country immediately north of Ashanti became known to Europeans. The +first step forward was made by Monsieur M. J. Bonnat (one of the Kumasi +captives, see ASHANTI) who, ascending the Volta, reached Salaga +(1875-1876). In 1882 Captain R. La Trobe Lonsdale, an officer in British +colonial service, went farther, visiting Yendi in the north and Bontuku +in the west. Two years later Captain Brandon Kirby made his way to +Kintampo. In 1887-1889 Captain L. G. Binger, a French officer, traversed +the country from north to south. Thereafter the whole region was visited +by British, French and German political missions. Prominent among the +British agents was Mr George E. Ferguson, a native of West Africa, who +had previously explored northern Ashanti. Between 1892 and 1897 Ferguson +concluded several treaties guarding British interests. In 1897 +Lieutenant Henderson and Ferguson occupied Wa, where they were attacked +by the _sofas_ of Samory (see SENEGAL, S 3). Henderson, who had gone to +the _sofa_ camp to parley, was held prisoner for some time, while +Ferguson was killed. Meantime negotiations were opened in Europe to +settle the spheres of influence of the respective countries. (The +Anglo-French agreement of 1889 had fixed the boundaries of the +hinterlands of the French colony of the Ivory Coast and the British +colony of the Gold Coast as far as 9 deg. N. only.) A period of +considerable tension, arising from the proximity of British and French +troops in the disputed territory, was ended by the signature of a +convention in Paris (14th of June 1898), in which the western and +northern boundaries were defined. The British abandoned their claim to +the important town and district of Wagadugu in the north. In the +following year (14th of November 1899) an agreement defining the eastern +frontier was concluded with Germany. Previously a square block of +territory to the north of 8 deg. N. had been regarded as neutral, both +by Britain and Germany. This was in virtue of an arrangement made in +1888. By the 1899 convention the neutral zone was parcelled out between +the two powers. The delimitation of the frontiers agreed upon took place +during 1900-1904. + +In 1897 the Northern Territories were constituted a separate district of +the Gold Coast hinterland, and were placed in charge of a chief +commissioner. Colonel H. P. Northcott (killed in the Boer War, +1899-1902) was the first commissioner and commandant of the troops. He +was succeeded by Col. A. H. Morris. In 1901 the Territories were made a +distinct administration, under the jurisdiction of the governor of the +Gold Coast colony. The government was at first of a semi-military +character, but in 1907 a civilian staff was appointed to carry on the +administration, and a force of armed constabulary replaced the troops +which had been stationed in the protectorate and which were then +disbanded. The prosperity of the country under British administration +has been marked. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A good summary of the condition and history of the + colony to the close of the 19th century will be found in vol. 3, "West + Africa," of the _Historical Geography of the British Empire_ by C. P. + Lucas (2nd ed., Oxford, 1900). For current information see the _Gold + Coast Civil Service List_ (London, yearly), the annual Blue Books + published in the colony, and the annual _Report_ issued by the + Colonial Office, London. For fuller information consult the _Report + from the Select Committee on Africa_ (_Western Coast_) (London, 1865), + a mine of valuable information; _The Gold Coast, Past and Present_, by + G. Macdonald (London, 1898); _History of the Gold Coast and Ashanti_, + by C. C. Reindorf, a native pastor (Basel, 1895); _A History of the + Gold Coast_, by Col. A. B. Ellis (London, 1893); _Wanderings in West + Africa_ (London, 1863) and _To the Gold Coast for Gold_ (London, + 1883), both by Sir Richard Burton. Of the earlier books the most + notable are _The Golden Coast or a Description of Guinney together + with a relation of such persons as got wonderful estates by their + trade thither_ (London, 1665), and _A New and Accurate Description of + the Coast of Guinea_ written (in Dutch) by Willem Bosman, chief factor + for the Dutch at Elmina (Eng. trans., 2nd ed., 1721). For a complete + survey of the Gold Coast under Dutch control see "Die Niederlandisch + West-Indische Compagnie an der Gold-Kuste" by J. G. Doorman in _Tijds + Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenk_, vol. 40 (1898). For ethnography, + religion, law, &c., consult _The Land of Fetish_ (London, 1883) and + _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the West Coast of Africa_ (London, + 1887), both by Col. A. B. Ellis; _Fanti Customary Law_ (2nd ed., + London, 1904) and _Fanti Law Report_ (London, 1904), both by J. M. + Sarbah. The _Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa_ by Sir Alfred + Moloney (London, 1887) contains a comprehensive list of economic + plants. See also _Report on Economic Agriculture on the Gold Coast_ + (Colonial Office Reports, No. 110, 1890), and _Papers relating to the + Construction of Railways in ... the Gold Coast_ (London, 1904). The + best map is that of Major F. G. Guggisberg, over 70 sheets, scale 1 : + 125,000 (London, 1907-1909). There is a War Office map on the scale 1 + : 1,000,000 in one sheet. See also the works quoted under ASHANTI. + + For the Northern Territories see L. G. Binger, _Du Niger au Golfe de + Guinee_ (Paris, 1892), a standard authority; H. P. Northcott, _Report + on the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast_ (War Office, London, + 1899), a valuable compilation summarizing the then available + information. Annual _Reports_ on the protectorate are issued by the + British Colonial Office. A map on the scale of 1 : 1,000,000 is issued + by the War Office. (F. R. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This name appears in a great variety of forms--Kwi, Ekwi, Okwi, + Oji, Odschi, Otsui, Tyi, Twi, Tschi, Chwee or Chee. + + [2] Blue Book on _Africa_ (_Western Coast_) (1865), p. 233. + + + + +GOLDEN, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county, Colorado, +U.S.A., on Clear Creek (formerly called the Vasquez fork of the South +Platte), about 14 m. W. by N. of Denver. Pop. (1900) 2152; (1910) 2477. +Golden is a residential suburb of Denver, served by the Colorado & +Southern, the Denver & Intermountain (electric), and the Denver & +North-Western Electric railways. It is about 5700 ft. above sea-level. +About 600 ft. above the city is Castle Rock, with an amusement park, and +W. of Golden is Lookout Mountain, a natural park of 3400 acres. About 1 +m. S. of the city is a state industrial school for boys, and in Golden +is the Colorado State School of Mines (opened 1874), which offers +courses in mining engineering and metallurgical engineering. The +Independent Pyritic Smelter is at Golden, and among the city's +manufactures are pottery, firebrick and tile, made from clays found near +by, and flour. There are deposits of coal, copper and gold in the +vicinity. Truck-farming and the growing of fruit are important +industries in the neighbourhood. The first settlement here was a gold +mining camp, established in 1859, and named in honour of Tom Golden, one +of the pioneer prospectors. The village was laid out in 1860, and Golden +was incorporated as a town in 1865 and was chartered as a city in 1870. +Golden was made the capital of Colorado Territory in 1862, and several +sessions (or parts of sessions) of the Assembly were held here between +1864 and 1868, when the seat of government was formally established at +Denver; the territorial offices of Colorado, however, were at Golden +only in 1866-1867. + + + + +GOLDEN BULL (Lat. _Bulla Aurea_), the general designation of any charter +decorated with a golden seal or _bulla_, either owing to the intrinsic +importance of its contents, or to the rank and dignity of the bestower +or the recipient. The custom of thus giving distinction to certain +documents is said to be of Byzantine origin, though if this be the case +it is somewhat strange that the word employed as an equivalent for +golden bull in Byzantine Greek should be the hybrid [Greek: +chrysoboullon] (cf. Codinus Curopalates, [Greek: ho megas logothetes +diatattei ta para tou basileos apostellomena prostagmata kai +chrysoboulla pros te Hregas, Soultanas, kai toparchous]; and Anna +Comnena, Alexiad, lib. iii. [Greek: dia Xpusobouliou logou]; lib. viii., +[Greek: chrysoboulon logon]). In Germany a Golden Bull is mentioned +under the reign of Henry I. the Fowler in Chronica Cassin. ii. 31, and +the oldest German example, if it be genuine, dates from 983. At first +the golden seal was formed after the type of a solid coin, but at a +later date, while the golden surface presented to the eye was greatly +increased, the seal was really composed of two thin metal plates filled +in with wax. The number of golden bulls issued by the imperial chancery +must have been very large; the city of Frankfort, for example, preserves +no fewer than eight. + +The name, however, has become practically restricted to a few documents +of unusual political importance, the golden bull of the Empire, the +golden bull of Brabant, the golden bull of Hungary and the golden bull +of Milan--and of these the first is undoubtedly _the_ Golden Bull _par +excellence_. The main object of the Golden Bull was to provide a set of +rules for the election of the German kings, or kings of the Romans, as +they are called in this document. Since the informal establishment of +the electoral college about a century before (see ELECTORS), various +disputes had taken place about the right of certain princes to vote at +the elections, these and other difficulties having arisen owing to the +absence of any authoritative ruling. The spiritual electors, it is true, +had exercised their votes without challenge, but far different was the +case of the temporal electors. The families ruling in Saxony and in +Bavaria had been divided into two main branches and, as the German +states had not yet accepted the principles of primogeniture, it was +uncertain which member of the divided family should vote. Thus, both the +prince ruling in Saxe-Lauenburg and the prince ruling in Saxe-Wittenberg +claimed the vote, and the two branches of the family of Wittelsbach, one +settled in Bavaria and the other in the Rhenish palatinate, were +similarly at variance, while the duke of Bavaria also claimed the vote +at the expense of the king of Bohemia. Moreover, there had been several +disputed and double elections to the German crown during the past +century. In more than one instance a prince, chosen by a minority of the +electors, had claimed to exercise the functions of king, and as often +civil war had been the result. Under these circumstances the emperor +Charles IV. determined by an authoritative pronouncement to make such +proceedings impossible in the future, and at the same time to add to his +own power and prestige, especially in his capacity as king of Bohemia. + +Having arranged various disputes in Germany, and having in April 1355 +secured his coronation in Rome, Charles gave instructions for the bull +to be drawn up. It is uncertain who is responsible for its actual +composition. The honour has been assigned to Bartolo of Sassoferrato, +professor of law at Pisa and Perugia, to the imperial secretary, Rudolph +of Friedberg, and even to the emperor himself, but there is no valid +authority for giving it to any one of the three in preference to the +others. In its first form the bull was promulgated at the diet of +Nuremberg on the 10th of January 1356, but it was not accepted by the +princes until some modifications had been introduced, and in its final +form it was issued at the diet of Metz on the 25th of December +following. + +The text of the Golden Bull consists of a prologue and of thirty-one +chapters. Some lines of verse invoking the aid of Almighty God are +followed by a rhetorical statement of the evils which arise from discord +and division, illustrations being taken from Adam, who was divided from +obedience and thus fell, and from Helen of Troy who was divided from her +husband. The early chapters are mainly concerned with details of the +elaborate ceremonies which are to be observed on the occasion of an +election. The number of electors is fixed at seven, the duke of +Saxe-Wittenberg, not the duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, receiving the Saxon +vote, and the count palatine, not the duke of Bavaria, obtaining the +vote of the Wittelsbachs. The electors were arranged in order of +precedence thus: the archbishops of Mainz, of Trier and of Cologne, the +king of Bohemia, _qui inter electores laicos ex regiae dignitatis +fastigio jure et merito obtinet primatiam_, the count palatine of the +Rhine, the duke of Saxony and the margrave of Brandenburg. The three +archbishops were respectively arch-chancellors of the three principal +divisions of the Empire, Germany, Arles and Italy, and the four secular +electors each held an office in the imperial household, the functions of +which they were expected to discharge on great occasions. The king of +Bohemia was the arch-cupbearer, the count palatine was the arch-steward +(_dapifer_), the duke of Saxony was arch-marshal, and the margrave of +Brandenburg was arch-chamberlain. The work of summoning the electors and +of presiding over their deliberations fell to the archbishop of Mainz, +but if he failed to discharge this duty the electors were to assemble +without summons within three months of the death of a king. Elections +were to be held at Frankfort; they were to be decided by a majority of +votes, and the subsequent coronation at Aix-la-Chapelle was to be +performed by the archbishop of Cologne. During a vacancy in the Empire +the work of administering the greater part of Germany was entrusted to +the count palatine of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony being responsible, +however, for the government of Saxony, or rather for the districts _ubi +Saxonica jura servantur_. + +The chief result of the bull was to add greatly to the power of the +electors; for, to quote Bryce (_Holy Roman Empire_), it "confessed and +legalized the independence of the electors and the powerlessness of the +crown." To these princes were given sovereign rights in their dominions, +which were declared indivisible and were to pass according to the rule +of primogeniture. Except in extreme cases, there was to be no appeal +from the sentences of their tribunals, and they were confirmed in the +right of coining money, of taking tolls, and in other privileges, while +conspirators against their lives were to suffer the penalties of +treason. One clause gave special rights and immunities to the king of +Bohemia, who, it must be remembered, at this time was Charles himself, +and others enjoined the observance of the public peace. Provision was +made for an annual meeting of the electors, to be held at Metz four +weeks after Easter, when matters _pro bono et salute communi_ were to be +discussed. This arrangement, however, was not carried out, although the +electors met occasionally. Another clause forbade the cities to receive +_Pfahlburger_, i.e. forbade them to take men dwelling outside their +walls under their protection. It may be noted that there is no admission +whatever that the election of a king needs confirmation from the pope. + +The Golden Bull was thus a great victory for the electors, but it +weakened the position of the German king and was a distinct humiliation +for the other princes and for the cities. The status of those rulers who +did not obtain the electoral privilege was lowered by this very fact, +and the regulations about the _Pfahlburger_, together with the +prohibition of new leagues and associations, struck a severe blow at the +cities. The German kings were elected according to the conditions laid +down in the bull until the dissolution of the Empire in 1806. At first +the document was known simply as the Lex Carolina; but gradually the +name of the Book with the Golden Bull came into use, and the present +elliptical title was sufficiently established by 1417 to be officially +employed in a charter by King Sigismund. The original autograph was +committed to the care of the elector of Mainz, and it was preserved in +the archives at Mainz till 1789. Official transcripts were probably +furnished to each of the seven electors at the time of the promulgation, +and before long many of the other members of the Empire secured copies +for themselves. The transcript which belonged to the elector of Trier is +preserved in the state archives at Stuttgart, that of the elector of +Cologne in the court library at Darmstadt, and that of the king of +Bohemia in the imperial archives at Vienna. Berlin, Munich and Dresden +also boast the possession of an electoral transcript; and the town of +Kitzingen has a contemporary copy in its municipal archives. There +appears, however, to be good reason to doubt the genuineness of most of +these so-called original transcripts. But perhaps the best known example +is that of Frankfort-on-Main, which was procured from the imperial +chancery in 1366, and is adorned with a golden seal like the original. +Not only was it regularly quoted as the indubitable authority in regard +to the election of the emperors in Frankfort itself, but it was from +time to time officially consulted by members of the Empire. + + The manuscript consists of 43 leaves of parchment of medium quality, + each measuring about 10-1/8 in. in height by 7-1/8 in breadth. The + seal is of the plate and wax type. On the obverse appears a figure of + the emperor seated on his throne, with the sceptre in his right hand + and the globe in his left; a shield, with the crowned imperial eagle, + occupies the space on the one side of the throne, and a corresponding + shield, with the crowned Bohemian lion with two tails, occupies the + space on the other side; and round the margin runs the legend, + _Karolus quartus divina favente clementia, Romanorum imperator semper + Augustus et Boemiae rex_. On the reverse is a castle, with the words + _Aurea Roma_ on the gate, and the circumscription reads, _Roma caput + mundi regit orbis frena rotundi_. The original Latin text of the bull + was printed at Nuremberg by Friedrich Creussner in 1474, and a second + edition by Anthonius Koburger (d. 1532) appeared at the same place in + 1477. Since that time it has been frequently reprinted from various + manuscripts and collections. M. Goldast gave the Palatine text, + compared with those of Bohemia and Frankfort, in his _Collectio + constitutionum et legum imperialium_ (Frankfort, 1613). Another is to + be found in _De comitiis imperii_ of O. Panvinius, and a third, of + unknown history, is prefixed to the _Codex recessuum Imperii_ (Mainz, + 1599, and again 1615). The Frankfort text appeared in 1742 as _Aurea + Bulla secundum exemplar originale Frankfurtense_, edited by W. C. + Multz, and the text is also found in J. J. Schmauss, Corpus juris + publici, edited by R. von Hommel (Leipzig, 1794), and in the + _Ausgewahlte Urkunden zur Erlauterung der Verfassungsgeschichte + Deutschlands im Mittelalter_, edited by W. Altmann and E. Bernheim + (Berlin, 1891, and again 1895). German translations, none of which, + however, had any official authority, were published at Nuremberg about + 1474, at Venice in 1476, and at Strassburg in 1485. Among the earlier + commentators on the document are H. Canisius and J. Limnaeus who wrote + _In Auream Bullam_ (Strassburg, 1662). The student will find a good + account of the older literature on the subject in C. G. Biener's + _Commentarii de origine et progressu legum juriumque Germaniae_ + (1787-1795). See also J. D. von Olenschlager, _Neue Erlauterungen der + Guldenen Bulle_ (Frankfort and Leipzig, 1766); H. G. von Thulemeyer, + _De Bulla Aurea, Argentea_, &c. (Heidelberg, 1682); J. St Putter, + _Historische Entwickelung der heutigen Staatsverfassung des teutschen + Reichs_ (Gottingen, 1786-1787), and O. Stobbe, _Geschichte der + deutschen Rechtsquellen_ (Brunswick, 1860-1864). Among the more modern + works may be mentioned: E. Nerger, _Die Goldne Bulle nach ihrem + Ursprung_ (Gottingen, 1877), O. Hahn, _Ursprung und Bedeutung der + Goldnen Bulle_ (Breslau, 1903); and M. G. Schmidt, _Die + staatsrechtliche Anwendung der Goldnen Bulle_ (Halle, 1894). There is + a valuable contribution to the subject in the _Quellensammlung zur + Geschichte der deutschen Reichsverfassung_, edited by K. Zeumer + (Leipzig, 1904), and another by O. Harnack in his _Das Kurfursten + Kollegium bis zur Mitte des 14ten Jahrhunderts_ (Giessen, 1883). There + is an English translation of the bull in E. F. Henderson's _Select + Historical Documents of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1903). + (A. W. H.*) + + + + +GOLDEN-EYE, a name indiscriminately given in many parts of Britain to +two very distinct species of ducks, from the rich yellow colour of their +irides. The commonest of them--the _Anas fuligula_ of Linnaeus and +_Fuligula cristata_ of most modern ornithologists--is, however, usually +called by English writers the tufted duck, while "golden-eye" is +reserved in books for the _A. clangula_ and _A. glaucion_ of Linnaeus, +who did not know that the birds he so named were but examples of the +same species, differing only in age or sex; and to this day many fowlers +perpetuate a like mistake, deeming the "Morillon," which is the female +or young male, distinct from the "Golden-eye" or "Rattle-wings" (as from +its noisy flight they oftener call it), which is the adult male. This +species belongs to the group known as diving ducks, and is the type of +the very well-marked genus _Clangula_ of later systematists, which, +among other differences, has the posterior end of the sternum prolonged +so as to extend considerably over, and, we may not unreasonably suppose, +protect the belly--a character possessed in a still greater degree by +the mergansers (_Merginae_), while the males also exhibit in the +extraordinarily developed bony labyrinth of their trachea and its midway +enlargement another resemblance to the members of the same subfamily. +The golden-eye, _C. glaucion_ of modern writers, has its home in the +northern parts of both hemispheres, whence in winter it migrates +southward; but as it is one of the ducks that constantly resorts to +hollow trees for the purpose of breeding it hardly transcends the limit +of the Arctic forests on either continent. So well known is this habit +to the people of the northern districts of Scandinavia, that they very +commonly devise artificial nest-boxes for its accommodation and their +own profit. Hollow logs of wood are prepared, the top and bottom closed, +and a hole cut in the side. These are affixed to the trunks of living +trees in suitable places, at a convenient distance from the ground, and, +being readily occupied by the birds in the breeding season, are +regularly robbed, first of the numerous eggs, and finally of the down +they contain, by those who have set them up. + +The adult male golden-eye is a very beautiful bird, mostly black above, +but with the head, which is slightly crested, reflecting rich green +lights, a large oval white patch under each eye and elongated white +scapulars; the lower parts are wholly white and the feet bright orange, +except the webs, which are dusky. In the female and young male, dark +brown replaces the black, the cheek-spots are indistinct and the +elongated white scapulars wanting. The golden-eye of North America has +been by some authors deemed to differ, and has been named _C. +americana_, but apparently on insufficient grounds. North America, +however, has, in common with Iceland, a very distinct species, _C. +islandica_, often called Barrow's duck, which is but a rare straggler to +the continent of Europe, and never, so far as known, to Britain. In +Iceland and Greenland it is the only habitual representative of the +genus, and it occurs from thence to the Rocky Mountains. In +breeding-habits it differs from the commoner species, not placing its +eggs in tree-holes; but how far this difference is voluntary may be +doubted, for in the countries it frequents trees are wanting. It is a +larger and stouter bird, and in the male the white cheek-patches take a +more crescentic form, while the head is glossed with purple rather than +green, and the white scapulars are not elongated. The New World also +possesses a third and still more beautiful species of the genus in _C. +albeola_, known in books as the buffel-headed duck, and to American +fowlers as the "spirit-duck" and "butter-ball"--the former name being +applied from its rapidity in diving, and the latter from its exceeding +fatness in autumn. This is of small size, but the lustre of the feathers +in the male is most brilliant, exhibiting a deep plum-coloured gloss on +the head. It breeds in trees, and is supposed to have occurred more than +once in Britain. (A. N.) + + + + +GOLDEN FLEECE, in Greek mythology, the fleece of the ram on which +Phrixus and Helle escaped, for which see ARGONAUTS. For the modern +order of the Golden Fleece, see KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY, section _Orders +of Knighthood_. + + + + +GOLDEN HORDE, the name of a body of Tatars who in the middle of the 13th +century overran a great portion of eastern Europe and founded in Russia +the Tatar empire of khanate known as the Empire of the Golden Horde or +Western Kipchaks. They invaded Europe about 1237 under the leadership of +Batu Khan, a younger son of Juji, eldest son of Jenghiz Khan, passed +over Russia with slaughter and destruction, and penetrated into Silesia, +Poland and Hungary, finally defeating Henry II., duke of Silesia, at +Liegnitz in the battle known as the Wahlstatt on the 9th of April 1241. +So costly was this victory, however, that Batu, finding he could not +reduce Neustadt, retraced his steps and established himself in his +magnificent tent (whence the name "golden") on the Volga. The new +settlement was known as _Sir Orda_ ("Golden Camp," whence "Golden +_Horde_"). Very rapidly the powers of Batu extended over the Russian +princes, and so long as the khanate remained in the direct descent from +Batu nothing occurred to check the growth of the empire. The names of +Batu's successors are Sartak (1256), Bereke (Baraka) (1256-1266), +Mangu-Timur (1266-1280), Tuda Mangu (1280-1287). (?) Tula Bugha +(1287-1290), Toktu (1290-1312), Uzbeg (1312-1340), Tin-Beg (1340), +Jani-Beg (1340-1357). The death of Jani-Beg, however, threw the empire +into confusion. Birdi-Beg (Berdi-Beg) only reigned for two years, after +which two rulers, calling themselves sons of Jani-Beg occupied the +throne during one year. From that time (1359) till 1378 no single ruler +held the whole empire under control, various members of the other +branches of the old house of Juji assuming the title. At last in 1378 +Toktamish, of the Eastern Kipchaks, succeeded in ousting all rivals, and +establishing himself as ruler of eastern and western Kipchak. For a +short time the glory of the Golden Horde was renewed, until it was +finally crushed by Timur in 1395. + + See further MONGOLS and RUSSIA; Sir Henry Howorth's _History of the + Mongols_; S. Lane-Poole's _Mohammadan Dynasties_ (1894), pp. 222-231; + for the relations of the various descendants of Jenghiz, see Stockvis, + _Manuel d'histoire_, vol. i. chap. ix. table 7. + + + + +GOLDEN ROD, in botany, the popular name for _Solidago virgaurea_ +(natural order Compositae), a native of Britain and widely distributed +in the north temperate region. It is an old-fashioned border-plant +flowering from July to September, with an erect, sparingly-branched stem +and small bright-yellow clustered heads of flowers. It grows well in +common soil and is readily propagated by division in the spring or +autumn. + + + + +GOLDEN ROSE (_rosa aurea_), an ornament made of wrought gold and set +with gems, generally sapphires, which is blessed by the pope on the +fourth (_Laetare_) Sunday of Lent, and usually afterwards sent as a mark +of special favour to some distinguished individual, to a church, or a +civil community. Formerly it was a single rose of wrought gold, coloured +red, but the form finally adopted is a thorny branch with leaves and +flowers, the petals of which are decked with gems, surmounted by one +principal rose. The origin of the custom is obscure. From very early +times popes have given away a rose on the fourth Sunday of Lent, whence +the name Dominica Rosa, sometimes given to this feast. The practice of +blessing and sending some such symbol (e.g. _eulogiae_) goes back to the +earliest Christian antiquity, but the use of the rose itself does not +seem to go farther back than the 11th century. According to some +authorities it was used by Leo IX. (1049-1054), but in any case Pope +Urban II. sent one to Fulk of Anjou during the preparations for the +first crusade. Pope Urban V., who sent a golden rose to Joanna of Naples +in 1366, is alleged to have been the first to determine that one should +be consecrated annually. Beginning with the 16th century there went +regularly with the rose a letter relating the reasons why it was sent, +and reciting the merits and virtues of the receiver. When the change was +made from the form of the simple rose to the branch is uncertain. The +rose sent by Innocent IV. in 1244 to Count Raymond Berengar IV. of +Provence was a simple flower without any accessory ornamentation, while +the one given by Benedict XI. in 1303 or 1304 to the church of St +Stephen at Perugia consisted of a branch garnished with five open and +two closed roses enriched with a sapphire, the whole having a value of +seventy ducats. The value of the gift varied according to the character +or rank of the recipient. John XXII. gave away some weighing 12 oz., and +worth from L250 to L325. Among the recipients of this honour have been +Henry VI. of England, 1446; James III. of Scotland, on whom the rose +(made by Jacopo Magnolio) was conferred by Innocent VIII., James IV. of +Scotland; Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony, who received a rose +from Leo X. in 1518; Henry VIII. of England, who received three, the +last from Clement VII. in 1524 (each had nine branches, and rested on +different forms of feet, one on oxen, the second on acorns, and the +third on lions); Queen Mary, who received one in 1555 from Julius III.; +the republic of Lucca, so favoured by Pius IV., in 1564; the Lateran +Basilica by Pius V. three years later; the sanctuary of Loreto by +Gregory XIII. in 1584; Maria Theresa, queen of France, who received it +from Clement IX. in 1668; Mary Casimir, queen of Poland, from Innocent +XI. in 1684 in recognition of the deliverance of Vienna by her husband, +John Sobieski; Benedict XIII. (1726) presented one to the cathedral of +Capua, and in 1833 it was sent by Gregory XVI. to the church of St +Mark's, Venice. In more recent times it was sent to Napoleon III. of +France, the empress Eugenie, and the queens Isabella II., Christina +(1886) and Victoria (1906) of Spain. The gift of the golden rose used +almost invariably to accompany the coronation of the king of the Romans. +If in any particular year no one is considered worthy of the rose, it is +laid up in the Vatican. + +Some of the most famous Italian goldsmiths have been employed in making +the earlier roses; and such intrinsically valuable objects have, in +common with other priceless historical examples of the goldsmiths' art, +found their way to the melting-pot. It is, therefore, not surprising +that the number of existing historic specimens is very small. These +include one of the 14th century in the Cluny Museum, Paris, believed to +have been sent by Clement V. to the prince-bishop of Basel; another +conferred in 1458 on his native city of Siena by Pope Pius II.; and the +rose bestowed upon Siena by Alexander VII., a son of that city, which is +depicted in a procession in a fresco in the Palazzo Pubblico at Siena. +The surviving roses of more recent date include that presented by +Benedict XIII. to Capua cathedral; the rose conferred on the empress +Caroline by Pius VII., 1819, at Vienna; one of 1833 (Gregory XVI.) at St +Mark's, Venice; and Pope Leo XIII.'s rose sent to Queen Christina of +Spain, which is at Madrid. + + AUTHORITIES.--Angelo Rocca, _Aurea Rosa_, &c. (1719); Busenelli, _De + Rosa Aurea. Epistola_ (1759); Girbal, _La Rosa de oro_ (Madrid, 1820); + C. Joret, _La Rose d'or dans l'antiquite et au moyen age_ (Paris, + 1892), pp. 432-435; Eugene Muntz in _Revue d'art chretien_ (1901), + series v. vol. 12 pp. 1-11; De F. Mely, _Le Tresor de Chartres_ + (1886); Marquis de Mac Swiney Mashanaglass, _Le Portugal et le Saint + Siege: Les Roses d'or envoyees par les Papes aux rois de Portugal au + XVI^e siecle_ (1904); Sir C. Young, _Ornaments and Gift consecrated by + the Roman Pontiffs: the Golden Rose, the Cap and Swords presented to + Sovereigns of England and Scotland_ (1864). (J. T. S.*; E. A. J.) + + + + +GOLDEN RULE, the term applied in all European languages to the rule of +conduct laid down in the New Testament (Matthew vii. 12 and Luke vi. +31). "whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to +them, for this is the law and the prophets." This principle has often +been stated as the fundamental precept of social morality. It is +sometimes put negatively or passively, "do not that to another which +thou wouldst not have done to thyself" (cf. Hobbes, _Leviathan_, xv. 79, +xvii. 85), but it should be observed that in this form it implies merely +abstention from evil doing. In either form the precept in ordinary +application is part of a hedonistic system of ethics, the criterion of +action being strictly utilitarian in character. + + See H. Sidgwick, _History of Ethics_ (5th ed., 1902), p. 167; James + Seth, _Ethical Principles_, p. 97 foll. + + + + +GOLDFIELD, a town and the county-seat of Esmeralda county, Nevada, +U.S.A., about 170 m. S.E. of Carson City. Pop. (1910, U.S. census) 4838. +It is served by the Tonopah & Groldfield, Las Vegas & Tonopah, and +Tonopah & Tidewater railways. The town lies in the midst of a desert +abounding in high-grade gold ores, and is essentially a mining camp. The +discovery of gold at Tonopah, about 28 m. N. of Goldfield, in 1900 was +followed by its discovery at Goldfield in 1902 and 1903; in 1904 the +Goldfield district produced about 800 tons of ore, which yielded +$2,300,000 worth of gold, or 30% of that of the State. This remarkable +production caused Goldfield to grow rapidly, and it soon became the +largest town in the state. In addition to the mines, there are large +reduction works. In 1907 Goldfield became the county-seat. The gold +output in 1907 was $8,408,396; in 1908, $4,880,251. Soon after mining on +an extensive scale began, the miners organized themselves as a local +branch of the Western Federation of Miners, and in this branch were +included many labourers in Goldfield other than miners. Between this +branch and the mine-owners there arose a series of more or less serious +differences, and there were several set strikes--in December 1906 and +January 1907, for higher wages; in March and April 1907, because the +mine-owners refused to discharge carpenters who were members of the +American Federation of Labour, but did not belong to the Western +Federation of Miners or to the Industrial Workers of the World +affiliated with it, this last organization being, as a result of the +strike, forced out of Goldfield; in August and September 1907, because a +rule was introduced at some of the mines requiring miners to change +their clothing before entering and after leaving the mines,--a rule made +necessary, according to the operators, by the wholesale stealing (in +miners' parlance, "high-grading") of the very valuable ore (some of it +valued at as high as $20 a pound); and in November and December 1907, +because some of the mine-owners, avowedly on account of the hard times, +adopted a system of paying in cashier's checks. Excepting occasional +attacks upon non-union workmen, or upon persons supposed not to be in +sympathy with the miners' union, there had been no serious disturbance +in Goldfield; but in December 1907, Governor Sparks, at the instance of +the mine-owners, appealed to President Roosevelt to send Federal troops +to Goldfield, on the ground that the situation there was ominous, that +destruction of life and property seemed probable, and that the state had +no militia and would be powerless to maintain order. President Roosevelt +thereupon (December 4th) ordered General Frederick Funston, commanding +the Division of California, at San Francisco, to proceed with 300 +Federal troops to Goldfield. The troops arrived in Goldfield on the 6th +of December, and immediately afterwards the mine-owners reduced wages +and announced that no members of the Western Federation of Miners would +thereafter be employed in the mines. President Roosevelt, becoming +convinced that conditions had not warranted Governor Sparks's appeal for +Federal assistance, but that the immediate withdrawal of the troops +might nevertheless lead to serious disorders, consented that they should +remain for a short time on condition that the state should immediately +organize an adequate militia or police force. Accordingly, a special +meeting of the legislature was immediately called, a state police force +was organized, and on the 7th of March 1908 the troops were withdrawn. +Thereafter work was gradually resumed in the mines, the contest having +been won by the mine-owners. + + + + +GOLDFINCH (Ger. _Goldfink_[1]), the _Fringilla carduelis_ of Linnaeus +and the _Carduelis elegans_ of later authors, an extremely well-known +bird found over the greater parts of Europe and North Africa, and +eastwards to Persia and Turkestan. Its gay plumage is matched by its +sprightly nature; and together they make it one of the most favourite +cage-birds among all classes. As a songster it is indeed surpassed by +many other species, but its docility and ready attachment to its master +or mistress make up for any defect in its vocal powers. In some parts of +England the trade in goldfinches is very considerable. In 1860 Mr Hussey +reported (_Zool._, p. 7144) the average annual captures near Worthing to +exceed 11,000 dozens--nearly all being cock-birds; and a witness before +a committee of the House of Commons in 1873 stated that, when a boy, he +could take forty dozens in a morning near Brighton. In these districts +and others the number has become much reduced, owing doubtless in part +to the fatal practice of catching the birds just before or during the +breeding-season; but perhaps the strongest cause of their growing +scarcity is the constant breaking-up of waste lands, and the extirpation +of weeds (particularly of the order _Compositae_) essential to the +improved system of agriculture; for in many parts of Scotland, East +Lothian for instance, where goldfinches were once as plentiful as +sparrows, they are now only rare stragglers, and yet there they have not +been thinned by netting. Though goldfinches may occasionally be observed +in the coldest weather, incomparably the largest number leave Britain in +autumn, returning in spring, and resorting to gardens and orchards to +breed, when the lively song of the cock, and the bright yellow wings of +both sexes, quickly attract notice. The nest is a beautifully neat +structure, often placed at no great height from the ground, but +generally so well hidden by the leafy bough on which it is built as not +to be easily found, until, the young being hatched, the constant visits +of the parents reveal its site. When the broods leave the nest they move +into the more open country, and frequenting pastures, commons, heaths +and downs, assemble in large flocks towards the end of summer. Eastward +of the range of the present species its place is taken by its congener +_C. caniceps_, which is easily recognized by wanting the black hood and +white ear-coverts of the British bird. Its home seems to be in Central +Asia, but it moves southward in winter, being common at that season in +Cashmere, and is not unfrequently brought for sale to Calcutta. The +position of the genus _Carduelis_ in the family _Fringillidae_ is not +very clear. Structurally it would seem to have some relation to the +siskins (_Chrysomitris_), though the members of the two groups have very +different habits, and perhaps its nearest kinship lies with the +hawfinches (_Coccothraustes_). See FINCH. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The more common German name, however, is _Distelfink_ + (Thistle-Finch) or _Stieglitz_. + + + + +GOLDFISH (_Cyprinus_ or _Carassius auratus_), a small fish belonging to +the Cyprinid family, a native of China but naturalized in other +countries. In the wild state its colours do not differ from those of a +Crucian carp, and like that fish it is tenacious of life and easily +domesticated. Albinos seem to be rather common; and as in other fishes +(for instance, the tench, carp, eel, flounder), the colour of most of +these albinos is a bright orange or golden yellow; occasionally even +this shade of colour is lost, the fish being more or less pure white or +silvery. The Chinese have domesticated these albinos for a long time, +and by careful selection have succeeded in propagating all those strange +varieties, and even monstrosities, which appear in every domestic +animal. In some individuals the dorsal fin is only half its normal +length, in others entirely absent; in others the anal fin has a double +spine; in others all the fins are of nearly double the usual length. The +snout is frequently malformed, giving the head of the fish an appearance +similar to that of a bull-dog. The variety most highly prized has an +extremely short snout, eyes which almost wholly project beyond the +orbit, no dorsal fin, and a very long three- or four-lobed caudal fin +(Telescope-fish). + +[Illustration: Telescope-fish.] + +The domestication of the goldfish by the Chinese dates back from the +highest antiquity, and they were introduced into Japan at the beginning +of the 16th century; but the date of their importation into Europe is +still uncertain. The great German ichthyologist, M. E. Bloch, thought he +could trace it back in England to the reign of James I., whilst other +authors fix the date at 1691. It appears certain that they were brought +to France, only much later, as a present to Mme de Pompadour, although +the de Goncourts, the historians of the mistresses of Louis XV., have +failed to trace any records of this event. The fish has since spread +over a considerable part of Europe, and in many places it has reverted +to its wild condition. In many parts of south-eastern Asia, in +Mauritius, in North and South Africa, in Madagascar, in the Azores, it +has become thoroughly acclimatized, and successfully competes with the +indigenous fresh-water fishes. It will not thrive in rivers; in large +ponds it readily reverts to the coloration of the original wild stock. +It flourishes best in small tanks and ponds, in which the water is +constantly changing and does not freeze; in such localities, and with a +full supply of food, which consists of weeds, crumbs of bread, bran, +worms, small crustaceans and insects, it attains to a length of from 6 +to 12 in., breeding readily, sometimes at different times of the same +year. + + + + +GOLDFUSS, GEORG AUGUST (1782-1848), German palaeontologist, born at +Thurnau near Bayreuth on the 18th of April 1782, was educated at +Erlangen, where he graduated Ph.D. in 1804 and became professor of +zoology in 1818. He was subsequently appointed professor of zoology and +mineralogy in the university of Bonn. Aided by Count G. Munster he +issued the important _Petrefacta Germaniae_ (1826-1844), a work which +was intended to illustrate the invertebrate fossils of Germany, but it +was left incomplete after the sponges, corals, crinoids, echinids and +part of the mollusca had been figured. Goldfuss died at Bonn on the 2nd +of October 1848. + + + + +GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE DASHWOOD TAUBMAN (1846- ), English administrator, +the founder of Nigeria, was born on the 20th of May 1846 at the Nunnery +in the Isle of Man, being the youngest son of Lieut.-Colonel John +Taubman Goldie-Taubman, speaker of the House of Keys, by his second wife +Caroline, daughter of John E. Hoveden of Hemingford, Cambridgeshire. Sir +George resumed his paternal name, Goldie, by royal licence in 1887. He +was educated at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and for about two +years held a commission in the Royal Engineers. He travelled in all +parts of Africa, gaining an extensive knowledge of the continent, and +first visited the country of the Niger in 1877. He conceived the idea of +adding to the British empire the then little known regions of the lower +and middle Niger, and for over twenty years his efforts were devoted to +the realization of this conception. The method by which he determined to +work was the revival of government by chartered companies within the +empire--a method supposed to be buried with the East India Company. The +first step was to combine all British commercial interests in the Niger, +and this he accomplished in 1879 when the United African Company was +formed. In 1881 Goldie sought a charter from the imperial government +(the 2nd Gladstone ministry). Objections of various kinds were raised. +To meet them the capital of the company (renamed the National African +Company) was increased from L125,000 to L1,000,000, and great energy was +displayed in founding stations on the Niger. At this time French +traders, encouraged by Gambetta, established themselves on the lower +river, thus rendering it difficult for the company to obtain territorial +rights; but the Frenchmen were bought out in 1884, so that at the Berlin +conference on West Africa in 1885 Mr Goldie, present as an expert on +matters relating to the river, was able to announce that on the lower +Niger the British flag alone flew. Meantime the Niger coast line had +been placed under British protection. Through Joseph Thomson, David +Mclntosh, D. W. Sargent, J. Flint, William Wallace, E. Dangerfield and +numerous other agents, over 400 political treaties--drawn up by +Goldie--were made with the chiefs of the lower Niger and the Hausa +states. The scruples of the British government being overcome, a charter +was at length granted (July 1886), the National African Company +becoming the Royal Niger Company, with Lord Aberdare as governor and +Goldie as vice-governor. In 1895, on Lord Aberdare's death, Goldie +became governor of the company, whose destinies he had guided +throughout. + +The building up of Nigeria as a British state had to be carried on in +face of further difficulties raised by French travellers with political +missions, and also in face of German opposition. From 1884 to 1890, +Prince Bismarck was a persistent antagonist, and the strenuous efforts +he made to secure for Germany the basin of the lower Niger and Lake Chad +were even more dangerous to Goldie's schemes of empire than the +ambitions of France. Herr E. R. Flegel, who had travelled in Nigeria +during 1882-1884 under the auspices of the British company, was sent out +in 1885 by the newly-formed German Colonial Society to secure treaties +for Germany, which had established itself at Cameroon. After Flegel's +death in 1886 his work was continued by his companion Dr Staudinger, +while Herr Hoenigsberg was despatched to stir up trouble in the occupied +portions of the Company's territory,--or, as he expressed it, "to burst +up the charter." He was finally arrested at Onitsha, and, after trial by +the company's supreme court at Asaba, was expelled the country. Prince +Bismarck then sent out his nephew, Herr von Puttkamer, as German +consul-general to Nigeria, with orders to report on this affair, and +when this report was published in a White Book, Bismarck demanded heavy +damages from the company. Meanwhile Bismarck maintained constant +pressure on the British government to compel the Royal Niger Company to +a division of spheres of influence, whereby Great Britain would have +lost a third, and the most valuable part, of the company's territory. +But he fell from power in March 1890, and in July following Lord +Salisbury concluded the famous "Heligoland" agreement with Germany. +After this event the aggressive action of Germany in Nigeria entirely +ceased, and the door was opened for a final settlement of the +Nigeria-Cameroon frontiers. These negotiations, which resulted in an +agreement in 1893, were initiated by Goldie as a means of arresting the +advance of France into Nigeria from the direction of the Congo. By +conceding to Germany a long but narrow strip of territory between +Adamawa and Lake Chad, to which she had no treaty claims, a barrier was +raised against French expeditions, semi-military and semi-exploratory, +which sought to enter Nigeria from the east. Later French efforts at +aggression were made from the western or Dahomeyan side, despite an +agreement concluded with France in 1890 respecting the northern +frontier. + +The hostility of certain Fula princes led the company to despatch, in +1897, an expedition against the Mahommedan states of Nupe and Illorin. +This expedition was organized and personally directed by Goldie and was +completely successful. Internal peace was thus secured, but in the +following year the differences with France in regard to the frontier +line became acute, and compelled the intervention of the British +government. In the negotiations which ensued Goldie was instrumental in +preserving for Great Britain the whole of the navigable stretch of the +lower Niger. It was, however, evidently impossible for a chartered +company to hold its own against the state-supported protectorates of +France and Germany, and in consequence, on the 1st of January 1900, the +Royal Niger Company transferred its territories to the British +government for the sum of L865,000. The ceded territory together with +the small Niger Coast Protectorate, already under imperial control, was +formed into the two protectorates of northern and southern Nigeria (see +further NIGERIA). + +In 1903-1904, at the request of the Chartered Company of South Africa, +Goldie visited Rhodesia and examined the situation in connexion with the +agitation for self-government by the Rhodesians. In 1902-1903 he was one +of the royal commissioners who inquired into the military preparations +for the war in South Africa (1899-1902) and into the operations up to +the occupation of Pretoria, and in 1905-1906 was a member of the royal +commission which investigated the methods of disposal of war stores +after peace had been made. In 1905 he was elected president of the Royal +Geographical Society and held that office for three years. In 1908 he +was chosen an alderman of the London County Council. Goldie was created +K.C.M.G. in 1887, and a privy councillor in 1898. He became an F.R.S., +honorary D.C.L. of Oxford University (1897) and honorary LL.D. of +Cambridge (1897). He married in 1870 Matilda Catherine (d. 1898), +daughter of John William Elliott of Wakefield. + + + + +GOLDING, ARTHUR (c. 1536-c. 1605), English translator, son of John +Golding of Belchamp St Paul and Halsted, Essex, one of the auditors of +the exchequer, was born probably in London about 1536. His half-sister, +Margaret, married John de Vere, 16th earl of Oxford. In 1549 he was +already in the service of Protector Somerset, and the statement that he +was educated at Queen's College, Cambridge, lacks corroboration. He +seems to have resided for some time in the house of Sir William Cecil, +in the Strand, with his nephew, the poet, the 17th earl of Oxford, whose +receiver he was, for two of his dedications are dated from Cecil House. +His chief work is his translation of Ovid. _The Fyrst Fower Bookes of P. +Ovidius Nasos worke, entitled Metamorphosis, translated oute of Latin +into Englishe meter_ (1565), was supplemented in 1567 by a translation +of the fifteen books. Strangely enough the translator of Ovid was a man +of strong Puritan sympathies, and he translated many of the works of +Calvin. To his version of the _Metamorphoses_ he prefixed a long +metrical explanation of his reasons for considering it a work of +edification. He sets forth the moral which he supposes to underlie +certain of the stories, and shows how the pagan machinery may be brought +into line with Christian thought. It was from Golding's pages that many +of the Elizabethans drew their knowledge of classical mythology, and +there is little doubt that Shakespeare was well acquainted with the +book. Golding translated also the _Commentaries_ of Caesar (1565), +Calvin's commentaries on the Psalms (1571), his sermons on the Galatians +and Ephesians, on Deuteronomy and the book of Job, Theodore Beza's +_Tragedie of Abrahams Sacrifice_ (1577) and the _De Beneficiis_ of +Seneca (1578). He completed a translation begun by Sidney from Philippe +de Mornay, _A Worke concerning the Trewnesse of the Christian Religion_ +(1604). His only original work is a prose _Discourse_ on the earthquake +of 1580, in which he saw a judgment of God on the wickedness of his +time. He inherited three considerable estates in Essex, the greater part +of which he sold in 1595. The last trace we have of Golding is contained +in an order dated the 25th of July 1605, giving him licence to print +certain of his works. + + + + +GOLDINGEN (Lettish, _Kuldiga_), a town of Russia, in the government of +Courland, 55 m. by rail N.E. of Libau, and on Windau river, in 56 deg. +58' N. and 22 deg. E. Pop. (1897) 9733. It has woollen mills, needle and +match factories, breweries and distilleries, a college for teachers, and +ruins of a castle of the Teutonic Knights, built in 1248 and used in the +17th century as the residence of the dukes of Courland. + + + + +GOLDMARK, KARL (1832- ), Hungarian composer, was born at +Keszthely-am-Plattensee, in Hungary, on the 18th of May 1832. His +father, a poor cantor in the local Jewish synagogue, was unable to +assist to any extent financially in the development of his son's +talents. Yet in the household much music was made, and on a cheap violin +and home-made flute, constructed by Goldmark himself from reeds cut from +the riverbank, the future composer gave rein to his musical ideas. His +talent was fostered by the village schoolmaster, by whose aid he was +able to enter the music-school of the Oedenburger Verein. Here he +remained but a short time, his success at a school concert finally +determining his parents to allow him to devote himself entirely to +music. In 1844, then, he went to Vienna, where Jansa took up his cause +and eventually obtained for him admission to the conservatorium. For two +years Goldmark worked under Jansa at the violin, and on the outbreak of +the revolution, after studying all the orchestral instruments he +obtained an engagement in the orchestra at Raab. There, on the +capitulation of Raab, he was to have been shot for a spy, and was only +saved at the eleventh hour by the happy arrival of a former colleague. +In 1850 Goldmark left Raab for Vienna, where from his friend Mittrich he +obtained his first real knowledge of the classics. There, too, he +devoted himself to composition. In 1857 Goldmark, who was then engaged +in the Karl-theater band, gave a concert of his own works with such +success that his first quartet attracted very general attention. Then +followed the "Sakuntala" and "Penthesilea" overtures, which show how +Wagner's influence had supervened upon his previous domination by +Mendelssohn, and the delightful "Landliche Hochzeit" symphony, which +carried his fame abroad. Goldmark's reputation was now made, and very +largely increased by the production at Vienna in 1875 of his first and +best opera, _Die Konigin von Saba_. Over this opera he spent seven +years. Its popularity is still almost as great as ever. It was followed +in November 1886, also at Vienna, by _Merlin_, much of which has been +rewritten since then. A third opera, a version of Dickens's _Cricket on +the Hearth_, was given by the Royal Carl Rosa Company in London in 1900. +Goldmark's chamber music has not made much lasting impression, but the +overtures "Im Fruhling," "Prometheus Bound," and "Sapho" are fairly well +known. A "programme" seems essential to him. In opera he is most +certainly at his best, and as an orchestral colourist he ranks among the +very highest. + + + + +GOLDONI, CARLO (1707-1793), Italian dramatist, the real founder of +modern Italian comedy, was born at Venice, on the 25th of February 1707, +in a fine house near St Thomas's church. His father Giulio was a native +of Modena. The first playthings of the future writer were puppets which +he made dance; the first books he read were plays,--among others, the +comedies of the Florentine Cicognini. Later he received a still stronger +impression from the _Mandragora_ of Machiavelli. At eight years old he +had tried to sketch a play. His father, meanwhile, had taken his degree +in medicine at Rome and fixed himself at Perugia, where he made his son +join him; but, having soon quarrelled with his colleagues in medicine, +he departed for Chioggia, leaving his son to the care of a philosopher, +Professor Caldini of Rimini. The young Goldoni soon grew tired of his +life at Rimini, and ran away with a Venetian company of players. He +began to study law at Venice, then went to continue the same pursuit at +Pavia, but at that time he was studying the Greek and Latin comic poets +much more and much better than books about law. "I have read over +again," he writes in his own _Memoirs_, "the Greek and Latin poets, and +I have told to myself that I should like to imitate them in their style, +their plots, their precision; but I would not be satisfied unless I +succeeded in giving more interest to my works, happier issues to my +plots, better drawn characters and more genuine comedy." For a satire +entitled _Il Colosso_, which attacked the honour of several families of +Pavia, he was driven from that town, and went first to study with the +jurisconsult Morelli at Udine, then to take his degree in law at Modena. +After having worked some time as clerk in the chanceries of Chioggia and +Feltre, his father being dead, he went to Venice, to exercise there his +profession as a lawyer. But the wish to write for the stage was always +strong in him, and he tried to do so; he made, however, a mistake in his +choice, and began with a tragedy, _Amalasunta_, which was represented at +Milan and proved a failure. In 1734 he wrote another tragedy, +_Belisario_, which, though not much better, chanced nevertheless to +please the public. This first success encouraged him to write other +tragedies, some of which were well received; but the author himself saw +clearly that he had not yet found his proper sphere, and that a radical +dramatic reform was absolutely necessary for the stage. He wished to +create a characteristic comedy in Italy, to follow the example of +Moliere, and to delineate the realities of social life in as natural a +manner as possible. His first essay of this kind was _Momolo Cortesan_ +(Momolo the Courtier), written in the Venetian dialect, and based on his +own experience. Other plays followed--some interesting from their +subject, others from the characters; the best of that period are--_Le +Trentadue Disgrazie d' Arlecchino_, _La Notte critica_, _La Bancarotta_, +_La Donna di Garbo_. Having, while consul of Genoa at Venice, been +cheated by a captain of Ragusa, he founded on this his play +_L'Impostore_. At Leghorn he made the acquaintance of the comedian +Medebac, and followed him to Venice, with his company, for which he +began to write his best plays. Once he promised to write sixteen +comedies in a year, and kept his word; among the sixteen are some of his +very best, such as _Il Caffe_, _Il Bugiardo_, _La Pamela_. When he left +the company of Medebac, he passed over to that maintained by the +patrician Vendramin, continuing to write with the greatest facility. In +1761 he was called to Paris, and before leaving Venice he wrote _Una +delle ultime sere di Carnevale_ (One of the Last Nights of Carnival), an +allegorical comedy in which he said good-bye to his country. At the end +of the representation of this play, the theatre resounded with applause, +and with shouts expressive of good wishes. Goldoni, at this proof of +public sympathy, wept as a child. At Paris, during two years, he wrote +comedies for the Italian actors; then he taught Italian to the royal +princesses; and for the wedding of Louis XVI. and of Marie Antoinette he +wrote in French one of his best comedies, _Le Bourru bienfaisant_, which +was a great success. When he retired from Paris to Versailles, the king +made him a gift of 6000 francs, and fixed on him an annual pension of +1200 francs. It was at Versailles he wrote his _Memoirs_, which occupied +him till he reached his eightieth year. The Revolution deprived him all +at once of his modest pension, and reduced him to extreme misery; he +dragged on his unfortunate existence till 1793, and died on the 6th of +February. The day after, on the proposal of Andre Chenier, the +Convention agreed to give the pension back to the poet; and as he had +already died, a reduced allowance was granted to his widow. + + The best comedies of Goldoni are: _La Donna di Garbo_, _La Bottega di + Caffe_, _Pamela nubile_, _Le Baruffe chiozzotte_, _I Rusteghi_, + _Todero Brontolon_, _Gli Innamorati_, _Il Ventaglio_, _Il Bugiardo_, + _La Casa nova_, _Il Burbero benefico_, _La Locandiera_. A collected + edition (Venice, 1788) was republished at Florence in 1827. See P. G. + Molmenti, _Carlo Goldoni_ (Venice, 1875); Rabany, _Carlo Goldoni_ + (Paris, 1896). The _Memoirs_ were translated into English by John + Black (Boston, 1877). with preface by W. D. Howells. + + + + +GOLDS, a Mongolo-Tatar people, living on the Lower Amur in south-eastern +Siberia. Their chief settlements are on the right bank of the Amur and +along the Sungari and Usuri rivers. In physique they are typically +Mongolic. Like the Chinese they wear a pigtail, and from them, too, have +learnt the art of silk embroidery. The Golds live almost entirely on +fish, and are excellent boatmen. They keep large herds of swine and +dogs, which live, like themselves, on fish. Geese, wild duck, eagles, +bears, wolves and foxes are also kept in menageries. There is much +reverence paid to the eagles, and hence the Manchus call the Golds +"Eaglets." Their religion is Shamanism. + + See L. Schrenck, _Die Volker des Amurlandes_ (St Petersburg, 1891); + Laufer, "The Amoor Tribes," in _American Anthropologist_ (New York, + 1900); E. G. Ravenstein, _The Russians on the Amur_ (1861). + + + + +GOLDSBORO, a city and the county-seat of Wayne county, North Carolina, +U.S.A., on the Neuse river, about 50 m. S.E. of Raleigh. Pop. (1890) +4017; (1900) 5877 (2520 negroes); (1910) 6107. It is served by the +Southern, the Atlantic Coast Line and the Norfolk & Southern railways. +The surrounding country produces large quantities of tobacco, cotton and +grain, and trucking is an important industry, the city being a +distributing point for strawberries and various kinds of vegetables. The +city's manufactures include cotton goods, knit goods, cotton-seed oil, +agricultural implements, lumber and furniture. Goldsboro is the seat of +the Eastern insane asylum (for negroes) and of an Odd Fellows' orphan +home. The municipality owns and operates its water-works and +electric-lighting plant. Goldsboro was settled in 1838, and was first +incorporated in 1841. In the campaign of 1865 Goldsboro was the point of +junction of the Union armies under generals Sherman and Schofield, +previous to the final advance to Greensboro. + + + + +GOLDSCHMIDT, HERMANN (1802-1866), German painter and astronomer, was the +son of a Jewish merchant, and was born at Frankfort on the 17th of June +1802. He for ten years assisted his father in his business; but, his +love of art having been awakened while journeying in Holland, he in 1832 +began the study of painting at Munich under Cornelius and Schnorr, and +in 1836 established himself at Paris, where he painted a number of +pictures of more than average merit, among which may be mentioned the +"Cumaean Sibyl" (1844); an "Offering to Venus" (1845); a "View of Rome" +(1849); the "Death of Romeo and Juliet" (1857); and several Alpine +landscapes. In 1847 he began to devote his attention to astronomy; and +from 1852 to 1861 he discovered fourteen asteroids between Mars and +Jupiter, on which account he received the grand astronomical prize from +the Academy of Sciences. His observations of the protuberances on the +sun, made during the total eclipse on the 10th of July 1860, are +included in the work of Madler on the eclipse, published in 1861. +Goldschmidt died at Fontainebleau on the 26th of August 1866. + + + + +GOLDSMID, the name of a family of Anglo-Jewish bankers sprung from Aaron +Goldsmid (d. 1782), a Dutch merchant who settled in England about 1763. +Two of his sons, Benjamin Goldsmid (c. 1753-1808) and Abraham Goldsmid +(c. 1756-1810), began business together about 1777 as bill-brokers in +London, and soon became great powers in the money market, during the +Napoleonic war, through their dealings with the government. Abraham +Goldsmid was in 1810 joint contractor with the Barings for a government +loan, but owing to a depreciation of the scrip he was forced into +bankruptcy and committed suicide. His brother, in a fit of depression, +had similarly taken his own life two years before. Both were noted for +their public and private generosity, and Benjamin had a part in founding +the Royal Naval Asylum. Benjamin left four sons, the youngest being +Lionel Prager Goldsmid; Abraham a daughter, Isabel. + +Their nephew, Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, Bart. (1778-1859), was born in +London, and began in business with a firm of bullion brokers to the Bank +of England and the East India Company. He amassed a large fortune, and +was made Baron da Palmeira by the Portuguese government in 1846 for +services rendered In settling a monetary dispute between Portugal and +Brazil, but he is chiefly known for his efforts to obtain the +emancipation of the Jews in England and for his part in founding +University College, London. The Jewish Disabilities Bill, first +introduced in Parliament by Sir Robert Grant in 1830, owed its final +passage to Goldsmid's energetic work. He helped to establish the +University College hospital in 1834, serving as its treasurer for +eighteen years, and also aided in the efforts to obtain reform in the +English penal code. Moreover he assisted by his capital and his +enterprise to build part of the English southern railways and also the +London docks. In 1841 he became the first Jewish baronet, the honour +being conferred upon him by Lord Melbourne. He had married his cousin +Isabel (see above), and their second son was Sir Francis Henry Goldsmid, +Bart. (1808-1878), born in London, and called to the bar at Lincoln's +Inn in 1833 (the first Jew to become an English barrister; Q.C. 1858). +After the passing of the Jewish Disabilities Bill, in which he had aided +his father with a number of pamphlets that attracted great attention, he +entered Parliament in 1860 (having succeeded to the baronetcy) as member +for Reading, and represented that constituency until his death. He was +strenuous on behalf of the Jewish religion, and the founder of the great +Jews' Free School. He was a munificent contributor to charities and +especially to the endowment of University College. He, like his father, +married a cousin, and, dying without issue, was succeeded in the +baronetcy by his nephew Sir Julian Goldsmid, Bart. (1838-1896), son of +Frederick David Goldsmid (1812-1866), long M.P. for Honiton. Sir Julian +was for many years in Parliament, and his wealth, ability and influence +made him a personage of considerable importance. He was eventually made +a privy councillor. He had eight daughters, but no son, and his entailed +property passed to his relation, Mr d'Avigdor, his house in Piccadilly +being converted into the Isthmian Club. + +Another distinguished member of the same family, Sir Frederic John +Goldsmid (1818-1908), son of Lionel Prager Goldsmid (see above), was +educated at King's College, London, and entering the Madras army in 1839 +served in the China War of 1840-41, with the Turkish troops in eastern +Crimea in 1855-56, and was given political employment by the Indian +government. He received the thanks of the commander-in-chief and of the +war office for services during the Egyptian campaign, and was retired a +major-general in 1875. Sir Frederic Goldsmid's name is, however, +associated less with military service than with much valuable work in +exploration and in surveying, for which he repeatedly received the +thanks of government. From 1865 to 1870 he was director-general of the +Indo-European telegraph, and carried through the telegraph convention +with Persia; and between 1870 and 1872, as commissioner, he settled with +Persia the difficult questions of the Perso-Baluch and Perso-Afghan +boundaries. In the course of his work he had to travel extensively, and +he followed this up by various responsible missions connected with +emigration questions. In 1881-1882 he was in Egypt, as controller of the +Daira Sanieh, and doing other miscellaneous military work; and in 1883 +he went to the Congo, on behalf of the king of the Belgians, as one of +the organizers of the new state, but had to return on account of +illness. From his early years he had made studies of several Eastern +languages, and he ranked among the foremost Orientalists of his day. In +1886 he was president of the geographical section of the British +Association meeting held at Birmingham. He had married in 1849, and had +two sons and four daughters. In 1871 he was made a K.C.S.I. Besides +important contributions to the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia +Britannica_ and many periodicals, he wrote an excellent and +authoritative biography of Sir James Outram (2 vols., 1880). + +A sister of the last-named married Henry Edward Goldsmid (1812-1855), an +eminent Indian civil servant, son of Edward Goldsmid; his reform of the +revenue system in Bombay, and introduction of a new system, established +after his death, through his reports in 1840-1847, and his devoted +labour in land-surveys, were of the highest importance to western India, +and established his memory there as a public benefactor. + + + + +GOLDSMITH, LEWIS (c. 1763-1846), Anglo-French publicist, of +Portuguese-Jewish extraction, was born near London about 1763. Having +published in 1801 _The Crimes of Cabinets, or a Review of the Plans and +Aggressions for Annihilating the Liberties of France, and the +Dismemberment of her Territories_, an attack on the military policy of +Pitt, he moved, in 1802, from England to Paris. Talleyrand introduced +him to Napoleon, who arranged for him to establish in Paris an English +tri-weekly, the _Argus_, which was to review English affairs from the +French point of view. According to his own account, he was in 1803 +entrusted with a mission to obtain from the head of the French royal +family, afterwards Louis XVIII., a renunciation of his claims to the +throne of France, in return for the throne of Poland. The offer was +declined, and Goldsmith says that he then received instructions to +kidnap Louis and kill him if he resisted, but, instead of executing +these orders, he revealed the plot. He was, nevertheless, employed by +Napoleon on various other secret service missions till 1807, when his +Republican sympathies began to wane. In 1809 he returned to England, +where he was at first imprisoned but soon released; and he became a +notary in London. In 1811, being now violently anti-republican, he +founded a Sunday newspaper, the _Anti-Gallican Monitor_ and +_Anti-Corsican Chronicle_, subsequently known as the _British Monitor_, +in which he denounced the French Revolution. In 1811 he proposed that a +public subscription should be raised to put a price on Napoleon's head, +but this suggestion was strongly reprobated by the British government. +In the same year he published _Secret History of the Cabinet of +Bonaparte and Recueil des manifestes, or a Collection of the Decrees of +Napoleon Bonaparte_, and in 1812 _Secret History of Bonaparte's +Diplomacy_. Goldsmith alleged that in the latter year he was offered +L200,000 by Napoleon to discontinue his attacks. In 1815 he published +_An Appeal to the Governments of Europe on the Necessity of bringing +Napoleon Bonaparte to a Public Trial_. In 1825 he again settled down in +Paris, and in 1832 published his _Statistics of France_. His only child, +Georgiana, became, in 1837, the second wife of Lord Lyndhurst. He died +in Paris on the 6th of January 1846. + + + + +GOLDSMITH, OLIVER (1728-1774), English poet, playwright, novelist and +man of letters, came of a Protestant and Saxon family which had long +been settled in Ireland. He is usually said to have been born at Pallas +or Pallasmore, Co. Longford; but recent investigators have contended, +with much show of probability, that his true birthplace was Smith-Hill +House, Elphin, Roscommon, the residence of his mother's father, the Rev. +Oliver Jones. His father, Charles Goldsmith, lived at Pallas, supporting +with difficulty his wife and children on what he could earn, partly as a +curate and partly as a farmer. + +While Oliver was still a child his father was presented to the living of +Kilkenny West, in the county of West Meath. This was worth about L200 a +year. The family accordingly quitted their cottage at Pallas for a +spacious house on a frequented road, near the village of Lissoy. Here +the boy was taught his letters by a relative and dependent, Elizabeth +Delap, and was sent in his seventh year to a village school kept by an +old quartermaster on half-pay, who professed to teach nothing but +reading, writing and arithmetic, but who had an inexhaustible fund of +stories about ghosts, banshees and fairies, about the great Rapparee +chiefs, Baldearg O'Donnell and galloping Hogan, and about the exploits +of Peterborough and Stanhope, the surprise of Monjuich and the glorious +disaster of Brihuega. This man must have been of the Protestant +religion; but he was of the aboriginal race, and not only spoke the +Irish language, but could pour forth unpremeditated Irish verses. Oliver +early became, and through life continued to be, a passionate admirer of +the Irish music, and especially of the compositions of Carolan, some of +the last notes of whose harp he heard. It ought to be added that Oliver, +though by birth one of the Englishry, and though connected by numerous +ties with the Established Church, never showed the least sign of that +contemptuous antipathy with which, in his days, the ruling minority in +Ireland too generally regarded the subject majority. So far indeed was +he from sharing in the opinions and feelings of the caste to which he +belonged that he conceived an aversion to the Glorious and Immortal +Memory, and, even when George III. was on the throne, maintained that +nothing but the restoration of the banished dynasty could save the +country. + +From the humble academy kept by the old soldier Goldsmith was removed in +his ninth year. He went to several grammar-schools, and acquired some +knowledge of the ancient languages. His life at this time seems to have +been far from happy. He had, as appears from the admirable portrait of +him by Reynolds at Knole, features harsh even to ugliness. The small-pox +had set its mark on him with more than usual severity. His stature was +small, and his limbs ill put together. Among boys little tenderness is +shown to personal defects; and the ridicule excited by poor Oliver's +appearance was heightened by a peculiar simplicity and a disposition to +blunder which he retained to the last. He became the common butt of boys +and masters, was pointed at as a fright in the play-ground, and flogged +as a dunce in the schoolroom. When he had risen to eminence, those who +had once derided him ransacked their memory for the events of his early +years, and recited repartees and couplets which had dropped from him, +and which, though little noticed at the time, were supposed, a quarter +of a century later, to indicate the powers which produced the _Vicar of +Wakefield_ and the _Deserted Village_. + +On the 11th of June 1744, being then in his sixteenth year, Oliver went +up to Trinity College, Dublin, as a sizar. The sizars paid nothing for +food and tuition, and very little for lodging; but they had to perform +some menial services from which they have long been relieved. Goldsmith +was quartered, not alone, in a garret of what was then No. 35 in a range +of buildings which has long since disappeared. His name, scrawled by +himself on one of its window-panes is still preserved in the college +library. From such garrets many men of less parts than his have made +their way to the woolsack or to the episcopal bench. But Goldsmith, +while he suffered all the humiliations, threw away all the advantages of +his situation. He neglected the studies of the place, stood low at the +examinations, was turned down to the bottom of his class for playing the +buffoon in the lecture-room, was severely reprimanded for pumping on a +constable, and was caned by a brutal tutor for giving a ball in the +attic storey of the college to some gay youths and damsels from the +city. + +While Oliver was leading at Dublin a life divided between squalid +distress and squalid dissipation, his father died, leaving a mere +pittance. In February 1749 the youth obtained his bachelor's degree, +and left the university. During some time the humble dwelling to which +his widowed mother had retired was his home. He was now in his +twenty-first year; it was necessary that he should do something; and his +education seemed to have fitted him to do nothing but to dress himself +in gaudy colours, of which he was as fond as a magpie, to take a hand at +cards, to sing Irish airs, to play the flute, to angle in summer and to +tell ghost stories by the fire in winter. He tried five or six +professions in turn without success. He applied for ordination; but, as +he applied in scarlet clothes, he was speedily turned out of the +episcopal palace. He then became tutor in an opulent family, but soon +quitted his situation in consequence of a dispute about pay. Then he +determined to emigrate to America. His relations, with much +satisfaction, saw him set out for Cork on a good horse, with L30 in his +pocket. But in six weeks he came back on a miserable hack, without a +penny, and informed his mother that the ship in which he had taken his +passage, having got a fair wind while he was at a party of pleasure, had +sailed without him. Then he resolved to study the law. A generous uncle, +Mr Contarine, advanced L50. With this sum Goldsmith went to Dublin, was +enticed into a gaming-house and lost every shilling. He then thought of +medicine. A small purse was made up; and in his twenty-fourth year he +was sent to Edinburgh. At Edinburgh he passed eighteen months in nominal +attendance on lectures, and picked up some superficial information about +chemistry and natural history. Thence he went to Leiden, still +pretending to study physic. He left that celebrated university, the +third university at which he had resided, in his twenty-seventh year, +without a degree, with the merest smattering of medical knowledge, and +with no property but his clothes and his flute. His flute, however, +proved a useful friend. He rambled on foot through Flanders, France and +Switzerland, playing tunes which everywhere set the peasantry dancing, +and which often procured for him a supper and a bed. He wandered as far +as Italy. His musical performances, indeed, were not to the taste of the +Italians; but he contrived to live on the alms which he obtained at the +gates of convents. It should, however, be observed that the stories +which he told about this part of his life ought to be received with +great caution; for strict veracity was never one of his virtues; and a +man who is ordinarily inaccurate in narration is likely to be more than +ordinarily inaccurate when he talks about his own travels. Goldsmith, +indeed, was so regardless of truth as to assert in print that he was +present at a most interesting conversation between Voltaire and +Fontenelle, and that this conversation took place at Paris. Now it is +certain that Voltaire never was within a hundred leagues of Paris during +the whole time which Goldsmith passed on the continent. + +In February 1756 the wanderer landed at Dover, without a shilling, +without a friend and without a calling. He had indeed, if his own +unsupported evidence may be trusted, obtained a doctor's degree on the +continent; but this dignity proved utterly useless to him. In England +his flute was not in request; there were no convents; and he was forced +to have recourse to a series of desperate expedients. There is a +tradition that he turned strolling player. He pounded drugs and ran +about London with phials for charitable chemists. He asserted, upon one +occasion, that he had lived "among the beggars in Axe Lane." He was for +a time usher of a school, and felt the miseries and humiliations of this +situation so keenly that he thought it a promotion to be permitted to +earn his bread as a bookseller's hack; but he soon found the new yoke +more galling than the old one, and was glad to become an usher again. He +obtained a medical appointment in the service of the East India Company; +but the appointment was speedily revoked. Why it was revoked we are not +told. The subject was one on which he never liked to talk. It is +probable that he was incompetent to perform the duties of the place. +Then he presented himself at Surgeons' Hall for examination, as "mate to +an hospital." Even to so humble a post he was found unequal. Nothing +remained but to return to the lowest drudgery of literature. Goldsmith +took a room in a tiny square off Ludgate Hill, to which he had to climb +from Sea-coal Lane by a dizzy ladder of flagstones called Breakneck +Steps. Green Arbour Court and the ascent have long disappeared. Here, at +thirty, the unlucky adventurer sat down to toil like a galley slave. +Already, in 1758, during his first bondage to letters, he had translated +Marteilhe's remarkable _Memoirs of a Protestant, Condemned to the +Galleys of France for his Religion_. In the years that now succeeded he +sent to the press some things which have survived, and many which have +perished. He produced articles for reviews, magazines and newspapers; +children's books, which, bound in gilt paper and adorned with hideous +woodcuts, appeared in the window of Newbery's once far-famed shop at the +corner of Saint Paul's churchyard; _An Inquiry into the State of Polite +Learning in Europe_, which, though of little or no value, is still +reprinted among his works; a volume of essays entitled _The Bec; a Life +of Beau Nash_; a superficial and incorrect, but very readable, _History +of England_, in a series of letters purporting to be addressed by a +nobleman to his son; and some very lively and amusing sketches of London +Society in another series of letters purporting to be addressed by a +Chinese traveller to his friends. All these works were anonymous; but +some of them were well known to be Goldsmith's; and he gradually rose in +the estimation of the booksellers for whom he drudged. He was, indeed, +emphatically a popular writer. For accurate research or grave +disquisition he was not well qualified by nature or by education. He +knew nothing accurately; his reading had been desultory; nor had he +meditated deeply on what he had read. He had seen much of the world; but +he had noticed and retained little more of what he had seen than some +grotesque incidents and characters which had happened to strike his +fancy. But, though his mind was very scantily stored with materials, he +used what materials he had in such a way as to produce a wonderful +effect. There have been many greater writers; but perhaps no writer was +ever more uniformly agreeable. His style was always pure and easy, and, +on proper occasions, pointed and energetic. His narratives were always +amusing, his descriptions always picturesque, his humour rich and +joyous, yet not without an occasional tinge of amiable sadness. About +everything that he wrote, serious or sportive, there was a certain +natural grace and decorum, hardly to be expected from a man a great part +of whose life had been passed among thieves and beggars, street-walkers +and merryandrews, in those squalid dens which are the reproach of great +capitals. + +As his name gradually became known, the circle of his acquaintance +widened. He was introduced to Johnson, who was then considered as the +first of living English writers; to Reynolds, the first of English +painters; and to Burke, who had not yet entered parliament, but had +distinguished himself greatly by his writings and by the eloquence of +his conversation. With these eminent men Goldsmith became intimate. In +1763 he was one of the nine original members of that celebrated +fraternity which has sometimes been called the Literary Club, but which +has always disclaimed that epithet, and still glories in the simple name +of the Club. + +By this date Goldsmith had quitted his miserable dwelling at the top of +Breakneck Steps, and, after living for some time at No. 6 Wine Office +Court, Fleet Street, had moved into the Temple. But he was still often +reduced to pitiable shifts, the most popular of which is connected with +the sale of his solitary novel, the _Vicar of Wakefield_. Towards the +close of 1764(?) his rent is alleged to have been so long in arrear that +his landlady one morning called in the help of a sheriff's officer. The +debtor, in great perplexity, despatched a messenger to Johnson; and +Johnson, always friendly, though often surly, sent back the messenger +with a guinea, and promised to follow speedily. He came, and found that +Goldsmith had changed the guinea, and was railing at the landlady over a +bottle of Madeira. Johnson put the cork into the bottle, and entreated +his friend to consider calmly how money was to be procured. Goldsmith +said that he had a novel ready for the press. Johnson glanced at the +manuscript, saw that there were good things in it, took it to a +bookseller, sold it for L60 and soon returned with the money. The rent +was paid; and the sheriff's officer withdrew. (Unfortunately, however, +for this time-honoured version of the circumstances, it has of late +years been discovered that as early as October 1762 Goldsmith had +already sold a third of the _Vicar_ to one Benjamin Collins of +Salisbury, a printer, by whom it was eventually printed for F. Newbery, +and it is difficult to reconcile this fact with Johnson's narrative.) + +But before the _Vicar of Wakefield_ appeared in 1766, came the great +crisis of Goldsmith's literary life. In Christmas week 1764 he published +a poem, entitled the _Traveller_. It was the first work to which he had +put his name, and it at once raised him to the rank of a legitimate +English classic. The opinion of the most skilful critics was that +nothing finer had appeared in verse since the fourth book of the +_Dunciad_. In one respect the _Traveller_ differs from all Goldsmith's +other writings. In general his designs were bad, and his execution good. +In the _Traveller_ the execution, though deserving of much praise, is +far inferior to the design. No philosophical poem, ancient or modern, +has a plan so noble, and at the same time so simple. An English +wanderer, seated on a crag among the Alps, near the point where three +great countries meet, looks down on the boundless prospect, reviews his +long pilgrimage, recalls the varieties of scenery, of climate, of +government, of religion, of national character, which he has observed, +and comes to the conclusion, just or unjust, that our happiness depends +little on political institutions, and much on the temper and regulation +of our own minds. + +While the fourth edition of the _Traveller_ was on the counters of the +booksellers, the _Vicar of Wakefield_ appeared, and rapidly obtained a +popularity which has lasted down to our own time, and which is likely to +last as long as our language. The fable is indeed one of the worst that +ever was constructed. It wants, not merely that probability which ought +to be found in a tale of common English life, but that consistency which +ought to be found even in the wildest fiction about witches, giants and +fairies. But the earlier chapters have all the sweetness of pastoral +poetry, together with all the vivacity of comedy. Moses and his +spectacles, the vicar and his monogamy, the sharper and his cosmogony, +the squire proving from Aristotle that relatives are related, Olivia +preparing herself for the arduous task of converting a rakish lover by +studying the controversy between Robinson Crusoe and Friday, the great +ladies with their scandal about Sir Tomkyn's amours and Dr Burdock's +verses, and Mr Burchell with his "Fudge," have caused as much harmless +mirth as has ever been caused by matter packed into so small a number of +pages. The latter part of the tale is unworthy of the beginning. As we +approach the catastrophe, the absurdities lie thicker and thicker, and +the gleams of pleasantry become rarer and rarer. + +The success which had attended Goldsmith as a novelist emboldened him to +try his fortune as a dramatist. He wrote the _Good Natur'd Man_, a piece +which had a worse fate than it deserved. Garrick refused to produce it +at Drury Lane. It was acted at Covent Garden in January 1768, but was +coldly received. The author, however, cleared by his benefit nights, and +by the sale of the copyright, no less than L500, five times as much as +he had made by the _Traveller_ and the _Vicar of Wakefield_ together. +The plot of the _Good Natur'd Man_ is, like almost all Goldsmith's +plots, very ill constructed. But some passages are exquisitely +ludicrous,--much more ludicrous indeed than suited the taste of the town +at that time. A canting, mawkish play, entitled _False Delicacy_, had +just been produced, and sentimentality was all the mode. During some +years more tears were shed at comedies than at tragedies; and a +pleasantry which moved the audience to anything more than a grave smile +was reprobated as low. It is not strange, therefore, that the very best +scene in the _Good Natur'd Man_, that in which Miss Richland finds her +lover attended by the bailiff and the bailiff's follower in full court +dresses, should have been mercilessly hissed, and should have been +omitted after the first night, not to be restored for several years. + +In May 1770 appeared the _Deserted Village_. In mere diction and +versification this celebrated poem is fully equal, perhaps superior, to +the _Traveller_; and it is generally preferred to the _Traveller_ by +that large class of readers who think, with Bayes in the _Rehearsal_, +that the only use of a plot is to bring in fine things. More discerning +judges, however, while they admire the beauty of the details, are +shocked by one unpardonable fault which pervades the whole. The fault +which we mean is not that theory about wealth and luxury which has so +often been censured by political economists. The theory is indeed false; +but the poem, considered merely as a poem, is not necessarily the worse +on that account. The finest poem in the Latin language--indeed, the +finest didactic poem in any language--was written in defence of the +silliest and meanest of all systems of natural and moral philosophy. A +poet may easily be pardoned for reasoning ill; but he cannot be pardoned +for describing ill, for observing the world in which he lives so +carelessly that his portraits bear no resemblance to the originals, for +exhibiting as copies from real life monstrous combinations of things +which never were and never could be found together. What would be +thought of a painter who should mix August and January in one landscape, +who should introduce a frozen river into a harvest scene? Would it be a +sufficient defence of such a picture to say that every part was +exquisitely coloured, that the green hedges, the apple-trees loaded with +fruit, the waggons reeling under the yellow sheaves, and the sun-burned +reapers wiping their foreheads were very fine, and that the ice and the +boys sliding were also very fine? To such a picture the _Deserted +Village_ bears a great resemblance. It is made up of incongruous parts. +The village in its happy days is a true English village. The village in +its decay is an Irish village. The felicity and the misery which +Goldsmith has brought close together belong to two different countries +and to two different stages in the progress of society. He had assuredly +never seen in his native island such a rural paradise, such a seat of +plenty, content and tranquillity, as his Auburn. He had assuredly never +seen in England all the inhabitants of such a paradise turned out of +their homes in one day and forced to emigrate in a body to America. The +hamlet he had probably seen in Kent; the ejectment he had probably seen +in Munster; but by joining the two, he has produced something which +never was and never will be seen in any part of the world. + +In 1773 Goldsmith tried his chance at Covent Garden with a second play, +_She Stoops to Conquer_. The manager was, not without great difficulty, +induced to bring this piece out. The sentimental comedy still reigned, +and Goldsmith's comedies were not sentimental. The _Good Natur'd Man_ +had been too funny to succeed; yet the mirth of the _Good Natur'd Man_ +was sober when compared with the rich drollery of _She Stoops to +Conquer_, which is, in truth, an incomparable farce in five acts. On +this occasion, however, genius triumphed. Pit, boxes and galleries were +in a constant roar of laughter. If any bigoted admirer of Kelly and +Cumberland ventured to hiss or groan, he was speedily silenced by a +general cry of "turn him out," or "throw him over." Later generations +have confirmed the verdict which was pronounced on that night. + +While Goldsmith was writing the _Deserted Village_ and _She Stoops to +Conquer_, he was employed on works of a very different kind--works from +which he derived little reputation but much profit. He compiled for the +use of schools a _History of Rome_, by which he made L250; a _History of +England_, by which he made L500; a _History of Greece_, for which he +received L250; a _Natural History_, for which the booksellers covenanted +to pay him 800 guineas. These works he produced without any elaborate +research, by merely selecting, abridging and translating into his own +clear, pure and flowing language, what he found in books well known to +the world, but too bulky or too dry for boys and girls. He committed +some strange blunders, for he knew nothing with accuracy. Thus, in his +_History of England_, he tells us that Naseby is in Yorkshire; nor did +he correct this mistake when the book was reprinted. He was very nearly +hoaxed into putting into the _History of Greece_ an account of a battle +between Alexander the Great and Montezuma. In his _Animated Nature_ he +relates, with faith and with perfect gravity, all the most absurd lies +which he could find in books of travels about gigantic Patagonians, +monkeys that preach sermons, nightingales that repeat long +conversations. "If he can tell a horse from a cow," said Johnson, "that +is the extent of his knowledge of zoology." How little Goldsmith was +qualified to write about the physical sciences is sufficiently proved by +two anecdotes. He on one occasion denied that the sun is longer in the +northern than in the southern signs. It was vain to cite the authority +of Maupertuis. "Maupertuis!" he cried, "I understand those matters +better than Maupertuis." On another occasion he, in defiance of the +evidence of his own senses, maintained obstinately, and even angrily, +that he chewed his dinner by moving his upper jaw. + +Yet, ignorant as Goldsmith was, few writers have done more to make the +first steps in the laborious road to knowledge easy and pleasant. His +compilations are widely distinguished from the compilations of ordinary +bookmakers. He was a great, perhaps an unequalled, master of the arts of +selection and condensation. In these respects his histories of Rome and +of England, and still more his own abridgments of these histories, well +deserved to be studied. In general nothing is less attractive than an +epitome; but the epitomes of Goldsmith, even when most concise, are +always amusing; and to read them is considered by intelligent children +not as a task but as a pleasure. + +Goldsmith might now be considered as a prosperous man. He had the means +of living in comfort, and even in what to one who had so often slept in +barns and on bulks must have been luxury. His fame was great and was +constantly rising. He lived in what was intellectually far the best +society of the kingdom, in a society in which no talent or +accomplishment was wanting, and in which the art of conversation was +cultivated with splendid success. There probably were never four talkers +more admirable in four different ways than Johnson, Burke, Beauclerk and +Garrick; and Goldsmith was on terms of intimacy with all the four. He +aspired to share in their colloquial renown, but never was ambition more +unfortunate. It may seem strange that a man who wrote with so much +perspicuity, vivacity and grace should have been, whenever he took a +part in conversation, an empty, noisy, blundering rattle. But on this +point the evidence is overwhelming. So extraordinary was the contrast +between Goldsmith's published works and the silly things which he said, +that Horace Walpole described him as an inspired idiot. "Noll," said +Garrick, "wrote like an angel, and talked like poor Poll." Charnier +declared that it was a hard exercise of faith to believe that so foolish +a chatterer could have really written the _Traveller_. Even Boswell +could say, with contemptuous compassion, that he liked very well to hear +honest Goldsmith run on. "Yes, sir," said Johnson, "but he should not +like to hear himself." Minds differ as rivers differ. There are +transparent and sparkling rivers from which it is delightful to drink as +they flow; to such rivers the minds of such men as Burke and Johnson may +be compared. But there are rivers of which the water when first drawn is +turbid and noisome, but becomes pellucid as crystal and delicious to the +taste, if it be suffered to stand till it has deposited a sediment; and +such a river is a type of the mind of Goldsmith. His first thoughts on +every subject were confused even to absurdity, but they required only a +little time to work themselves clear. When he wrote they had that time, +and therefore his readers pronounced him a man of genius; but when he +talked he talked nonsense and made himself the laughing-stock of his +hearers. He was painfully sensible of his inferiority in conversation; +he felt every failure keenly; yet he had not sufficient judgment and +self-command to hold his tongue. His animal spirits and vanity were +always impelling him to try to do the one thing which he could not do. +After every attempt he felt that he had exposed himself, and writhed +with shame and vexation; yet the next moment he began again. + +His associates seem to have regarded him with kindness, which, in spite +of their admiration of his writings, was not unmixed with contempt. In +truth, there was in his character much to love, but very little to +respect. His heart was soft even to weakness; he was so generous that +he quite forgot to be just; he forgave injuries so readily that he might +be said to invite them, and was so liberal to beggars that he had +nothing left for his tailor and his butcher. He was vain, sensual, +frivolous, profuse, improvident. One vice of a darker shade was imputed +to him, envy. But there is not the least reason to believe that this bad +passion, though it sometimes made him wince and utter fretful +exclamations, ever impelled him to injure by wicked arts the reputation +of any of his rivals. The truth probably is that he was not more +envious, but merely less prudent, than his neighbours. His heart was on +his lips. All those small jealousies, which are but too common among men +of letters, but which a man of letters who is also a man of the world +does his best to conceal, Goldsmith avowed with the simplicity of a +child. When he was envious, instead of affecting indifference, instead +of damning with faint praise, instead of doing injuries slyly and in the +dark, he told everybody that he was envious. "Do not, pray, do not, talk +of Johnson in such terms," he said to Boswell; "you harrow up my very +soul." George Steevens and Cumberland were men far too cunning to say +such a thing. They would have echoed the praises of the man whom they +envied, and then have sent to the newspapers anonymous libels upon him. +Both what was good and what was bad in Goldsmith's character was to his +associates a perfect security that he would never commit such villainy. +He was neither ill-natured enough, nor long-headed enough, to be guilty +of any malicious act which required contrivance and disguise. + +Goldsmith has sometimes been represented as a man of genius, cruelly +treated by the world, and doomed to struggle with difficulties, which at +last broke his heart. But no representation can be more remote from the +truth. He did, indeed, go through much sharp misery before he had done +anything considerable in literature. But after his name had appeared on +the title-page of the _Traveller_, he had none but himself to blame for +his distresses. His average income, during the last seven years of his +life, certainly exceeded L400 a year, and L400 a year ranked, among the +incomes of that day, at least as high as L800 a year would rank at +present. A single man living in the Temple, with L400 a year, might then +be called opulent. Not one in ten of the young gentlemen of good +families who were studying the law there had so much. But all the wealth +which Lord Clive had brought from Bengal and Sir Lawrence Dundas from +Germany, joined together, would not have sufficed for Goldsmith. He +spent twice as much as he had. He wore fine clothes, gave dinners of +several courses, paid court to venal beauties. He had also, it should be +remembered, to the honour of his heart, though not of his head, a +guinea, or five, or ten, according to the state of his purse, ready for +any tale of distress, true or false. But it was not in dress or +feasting, in promiscuous amours or promiscuous charities, that his chief +expense lay. He had been from boyhood a gambler, and at once the most +sanguine and the most unskilful of gamblers. For a time he put off the +day of inevitable ruin by temporary expedients. He obtained advances +from booksellers by promising to execute works which he never began. But +at length this source of supply failed. He owed more than L2000; and he +saw no hope of extrication from his embarrassments. His spirits and +health gave way. He was attacked by a nervous fever, which he thought +himself competent to treat. It would have been happy for him if his +medical skill had been appreciated as justly by himself as by others. +Notwithstanding the degree which he pretended to have received on the +continent, he could procure no patients. "I do not practise," he once +said; "I make it a rule to prescribe only for my friends." "Pray, dear +Doctor," said Beauclerk, "alter your rule; and prescribe only for your +enemies." Goldsmith, now, in spite of this excellent advice, prescribed +for himself. The remedy aggravated the malady. The sick man was induced +to call in real physicians; and they at one time imagined that they had +cured the disease. Still his weakness and restlessness continued. He +could get no sleep. He could take no food. "You are worse," said one of +his medical attendants, "than you should be from the degree of fever +which you have. Is your mind at ease?" "No; it is not," were the last +recorded words of Oliver Goldsmith. He died on the 4th of April 1774, in +his forty-sixth year. He was laid in the churchyard of the Temple; but +the spot was not marked by any inscription and is now forgotten. The +coffin was followed by Burke and Reynolds. Both these great men were +sincere mourners. Burke, when he heard of Goldsmith's death, had burst +into a flood of tears. Reynolds had been so much moved by the news that +he had flung aside his brush and palette for the day. + +A short time after Goldsmith's death, a little poem appeared, which +will, as long as our language lasts, associate the names of his two +illustrious friends with his own. It has already been mentioned that he +sometimes felt keenly the sarcasm which his wild blundering talk brought +upon him. He was, not long before his last illness, provoked into +retaliating. He wisely betook himself to his pen; and at that weapon he +proved himself a match for all his assailants together. Within a small +compass he drew with a singularly easy and vigorous pencil the +characters of nine or ten of his intimate associates. Though this little +work did not receive his last touches, it must always be regarded as a +masterpiece. It is impossible, however, not to wish that four or five +likenesses which have no interest for posterity were wanting to that +noble gallery, and that their places were supplied by sketches of +Johnson and Gibbon, as happy and vivid as the sketches of Burke and +Garrick. + +Some of Goldsmith's friends and admirers honoured him with a cenotaph in +Westminster Abbey. Nollekens was the sculptor, and Johnson wrote the +inscription. It is much to be lamented that Johnson did not leave to +posterity a more durable and a more valuable memorial of his friend. A +life of Goldsmith would have been an inestimable addition to the Lives +of the Poets. No man appreciated Goldsmith's writings more justly than +Johnson; no man was better acquainted with Goldsmith's character and +habits; and no man was more competent to delineate with truth and spirit +the peculiarities of a mind in which great powers were found in company +with great weaknesses. But the list of poets to whose works Johnson was +requested by the booksellers to furnish prefaces ended with Lyttelton, +who died in 1773. The line seems to have been drawn expressly for the +purpose of excluding the person whose portrait would have most fitly +closed the series. Goldsmith, however, has been fortunate in his +biographers. (M.) + + Goldsmith's life has been written by Prior (1837), by Washington + Irving (1844-1849), and by John Forster (1848, 2nd ed. 1854). The + diligence of Prior deserves great praise; the style of Washington + Irving is always pleasing; but the highest place must, in justice, be + assigned to the eminently interesting work of Forster. Subsequent + biographies are by William Black (1878), and Austin Dobson (1888, + American ed. 1899). The above article by Lord Macaulay has been + slightly revised for this edition by Mr Austin Dobson, as regards + questions of fact for which there has been new evidence. + + + + +GOLDSTUCKER, THEODOR (1821-1872), German Sanskrit scholar, was born of +Jewish parents at Konigsberg on the 18th of January 1821, and, after +attending the gymnasium of that town, entered the university in 1836 as +a student of Sanskrit. In 1838 he removed to Bonn, and, after graduating +at Konigsberg in 1840, proceeded to Paris; in 1842 he edited a German +translation of the _Prabodha Chandrodaya_. From 1847 to 1850 he resided +at Berlin, where his talents and scholarship were recognized by +Alexander von Humboldt, but where his advanced political views caused +the authorities to regard him with suspicion. In the latter year he +removed to London, where in 1852 he was appointed professor of Sanskrit +in University College. He now worked on a new Sanskrit dictionary, of +which the first instalment appeared in 1856. In 1861 he published his +chief work: _Panini: his place in Sanskrit Literature_; and he was one +of the founders and chief promoters of the Sanskrit Text Society; he was +also an active member of the Philological Society, and of other learned +bodies. He died in London on the 6th of March 1872. + + As _Literary Remains_ some of his writings were published in two + volumes (London, 1879), but his papers were left to the India Office + with the request that they were not to be published until 1920. + + + + +GOLDWELL, THOMAS (d. 1585), English ecclesiastic, began his career as +vicar of Cheriton in 1531, after graduating M.A. at All Souls College, +Oxford. He became chaplain to Cardinal Pole and lived with him at Rome, +was attainted in 1539, but returned to England on Mary's accession, and +in 1555 became bishop of St Asaph, a diocese which he did much to win +back to the old faith. On the death of Mary, Goldwell escaped from +England and in 1561 became superior of the Theatines at Naples. He was +the only English bishop at the council of Trent, and in 1562 was again +attainted. In the following year he was appointed vicar-general to Carlo +Borromeo, archbishop of Milan. He died in Rome in 1585, the last of the +English bishops who had refused to accept the Reformation. + + + + +GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ (1850- ), Jewish Hungarian orientalist, was born in +Stuhlweissenburg on the 22nd of June 1850. He was educated at the +universities of Budapest, Berlin, Leipzig and Leiden, and became privat +docent at Budapest in 1872. In the next year, under the auspices of the +Hungarian government, he began a journey through Syria, Palestine and +Egypt, and took the opportunity of attending lectures of Mahommedan +sheiks in the mosque of el-Azhar in Cairo. He was the first Jewish +scholar to become professor in the Budapest University (1894), and +represented the Hungarian government and the Academy of Sciences at +numerous international congresses. He received the large gold medal at +the Stockholm Oriental Congress in 1889. He became a member of several +Hungarian and other learned societies, was appointed secretary of the +Jewish community in Budapest. He was made Litt. D. of Cambridge (1904) +and LL.D. of Aberdeen (1906). His eminence in the sphere of scholarship +is due primarily to his careful investigation of pre-Mahommedan and +Mahommedan law, tradition, religion and poetry, in connexion with which +he published a large number of treatises, review articles and essays +contributed to the collections of the Hungarian Academy. + + Among his chief works are: _Beitrage zur Literaturgeschichte der + Schi'a_ (1874); _Beitrage zur Geschichte der Sprachgelehrsamkeit bei + den Arabern_ (Vienna, 1871-1873); _Der Mythos bei den Hebraern und + seine geschichtliche Entwickelung_ (Leipzig, 1876; Eng. trans., R. + Martineau, London, 1877); _Muhammedanische Studien_ (Halle, 1889-1890, + 2 vols.); _Abhandlungen zur arabischen Philologie_ (Leiden, 1896-1899, + 2 vols.); _Buch v. Wesen d. Seele_ (ed. 1907). + + + + +GOLETTA [LA GOULETTE], a town on the Gulf of Tunis in 36 deg. 50' N. 10 +deg. 19' E., a little south of the ruins of Carthage, and on the north +side of the ship canal which traverses the shallow Lake of Tunis and +leads to the city of that name. Built on the narrow strip of sand which +separates the lake from the gulf, Goletta is defended by a fort and +battery. The town contains a summer palace of the bey, the old seraglio, +arsenal and customhouse, and many villas, gardens and pleasure resorts, +Goletta being a favourite place for sea-bathing. A short canal, from +which the name of the town is derived (Arab. _Halk-el-Wad_, "throat of +the canal"), 40 ft. broad and 8-1/2 ft. deep, divides the town and +affords communication between the ship canal and a dock or basin, 1082 +ft. long and 541 ft. broad. An electric tramway which runs along the +north bank of the ship canal connects Goletta with the city of Tunis +(q.v.). Pop. (1907) about 5000, mostly Jews and Italian fishermen. + +Beyond Cape Carthage, 5 m. N. of Goletta, is La Marsa, a summer resort +overlooking the sea. The bey has a palace here, and the French +resident-general, the British consul, other officials, and many +Tunisians have country-houses, surrounded by groves of olive trees. + +Before the opening of the ship canal in 1893 Goletta, as the port of +Tunis, was a place of considerable importance. The basin at the Goletta +end of the canal now serves as a subsidiary harbour to that of Tunis. +The most stirring events in the history of the town are connected with +the Turkish conquest of the Barbary states. Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa +having made himself master of Tunis and its port, Goletta was attacked +in 1535 by the emperor Charles V., who seized the pirate's fleet, which +was sheltered in the small canal, his arsenal, and 300 brass cannon. The +Turks regained possession in 1574. (See TUNISIA: _History_.) + + + + +GOLF (in its older forms GOFF, GOUFF or GOWFF, the last of which gives +the genuine old pronunciation), a game which probably derives its name +from the Ger. _kolbe_, a club--in Dutch, _kolf_--which last is nearly in +sound identical and might suggest a Dutch origin,[1] which many pictures +and other witnesses further support. + +_History._--One of the most ancient and most interesting of the pictures +in which the game is portrayed is the tailpiece to an illuminated _Book +of Hours_ made at Bruges at the beginning of the 16th century. The +original is in the British Museum. The players, three in number, have +but one club apiece. The heads of the clubs are steel or steel covered. +They play with a ball each. That which gives this picture a peculiar +interest over the many pictures of Dutch schools that portray the game +in progress is that most of them show it on the ice, the putting being +at a stake. In this _Book of Hours_ they are putting at a hole in the +turf, as in our modern golf. It is scarcely to be doubted that the game +is of Dutch origin, and that it has been in favour since very early +days. Further than that our knowledge does not go. The early Dutchmen +played golf, they painted golf, but they did not write it. + +It is uncertain at what date golf was introduced into Scotland, but in +1457 the popularity of the game had already become so great as seriously +to interfere with the more important pursuit of archery. In March of +that year the Scottish parliament "decreted and ordained that +_wapinshawingis_ be halden be the lordis and baronis spirituale and +temporale, four times in the zeir; and that the fute-ball and _golf be +utterly cryit down, and nocht usit_; and that the bowe-merkis be maid at +ilk paroche kirk a pair of buttis, and _schuttin be usit ilk Sunday_." +Fourteen years afterwards, in May 1471, it was judged necessary to pass +another act "anent wapenshawings," and in 1491 a final and evidently +angry fulmination was issued on the general subject, with pains and +penalties annexed. It runs thus--"Futeball and Golfe forbidden. Item, it +is statut and ordainit that in na place of the realme there be usit +fute-ball, _golfe, or uther sik unprofitabill sportis_," &c. This, be it +noted, is an edict of James IV.; and it is not a little curious +presently to find the monarch himself setting an ill example to his +commons, by practice of this "unprofitabill sport," as is shown by +various entries in the accounts of the lord high treasurer of Scotland +(1503-1506). + +About a century later, the game again appears on the surface of history, +and it is quite as popular as before. In the year 1592 the town council +of Edinburgh "ordanis proclamation to be made threw this burgh, that na +inhabitants of the samyn be seen at ony pastymes within or without the +toun, upoun the Sabboth day, sic as golfe, &c."[2] The following year +the edict was re-announced, but with the modification that the +prohibition was "in tyme of sermons." + +Golf has from old times been known in Scotland as "The _Royal and +Ancient_ Game of Goff." Though no doubt Scottish monarchs handled the +club before him, James IV. is the first who figures formally in the +golfing record. James V. was also very partial to the game distinctively +known as "royal"; and there is some scrap of evidence to show that his +daughter, the unhappy Mary Stuart, was a golfer. It was alleged by her +enemies that, as showing her shameless indifference to the fate of her +husband, a very few days after his murder, she "was seen playing _golf_ +and pallmall in the fields beside Seton."[3] That her son, James VI. +(afterwards James I. of England), was a golfer, tradition confidently +asserts, though the evidence which connects him with the personal +practice of the game is slight. Of the interest he took in it we have +evidence in his act--already alluded to--"anent _golfe ballis_," +prohibiting their importation, except under certain restrictions. +Charles I. (as his brother Prince Henry had been[4]) was devotedly +attached to the game. Whilst engaged in it on the links of Leith, in +1642, the news reached him of the Irish rebellion of that year. He had +not the equanimity to finish his match, but returned precipitately and +in much agitation to Holyrood.[5] Afterwards, while prisoner to the +Scots army at Newcastle, he found his favourite diversion in "the royal +game." "The King was nowhere treated with more honour than at Newcastle, +as he himself confessed, both he and his train having liberty to go +abroad and play at goff in the Shield Field, without the walls."[6] Of +his son, Charles II., as a golfer, nothing whatever is ascertained, but +James II. was a known devotee.[7] After the Restoration, James, then +duke of York, was sent to Edinburgh in 1681/2 as commissioner of the +king to parliament, and an historical monument of his prowess as a +golfer remains there to this day in the "Golfer's Land," as it is still +called, 77 Canongate. The duke having been challenged by two English +noblemen of his suite, to play a match against them, for a very large +stake, along with any Scotch ally he might select, chose as his partner +one "Johne Patersone," a shoemaker. The duke and the said Johne won +easily, and half of the large stake the duke made over to his humble +coadjutor, who therewith built himself the house mentioned above. In +1834 William IV. became patron of the St Andrews Golf Club (St Andrews +being then, as now, the most famous seat of the game), and approved of +its being styled "The _Royal and Ancient_ Golf Club of St Andrews." In +1837, as further proof of royal favour, he presented to it a magnificent +gold medal, which "should be challenged and played for annually"; and in +1838 the queen dowager, duchess of St Andrews, became patroness of the +club, and presented to it a handsome gold medal--"The Royal +Adelaide"--with a request that it should be worn by the captain, as +president, on all public occasions. In June 1863 the prince of Wales +(afterwards Edward VII.) signified his desire to become patron of the +club, and in the following September was elected captain by acclamation. +His engagements did not admit of his coming in person to undertake the +duties of the office, but his brother Prince Leopold (the duke of +Albany), having in 1876 done the club the honour to become its captain, +twice visited the ancient city in that capacity. + +In more recent days, golf has become increasingly popular in a much +wider degree. In 1880 the man who travelled about England with a set of +golf clubs was an object of some astonishment, almost of alarm, to his +fellow-travellers. In those days the commonest of questions in regard to +the game was, "You have to be a fine rider, do you not, to play golf?" +so confounded was it in the popular mind with the game of polo. At +Blackheath a few Scotsmen resident in London had long played golf. In +1864 the Royal North Devon Club was formed at Westward Ho, and this was +the first of the seaside links discovered and laid out for golf in +England. In 1869 the Royal Liverpool Club established itself in +possession of the second English course of this quality at Hoylake, in +Cheshire. A golf club was formed in connexion with the London Scottish +Volunteers corps, which had its house on the Putney end of Wimbledon +Common on Putney Heath; and, after making so much of a start, the +progress of the game was slow, though steady, for many years. A few more +clubs were formed; the numbers of golfers grew; but it could not be said +that the game was yet in any sense popular in England. All at once, for +no very obvious reason, the qualities of the ancient Scottish game +seemed to strike home, and from that moment its popularity has been +wonderfully and increasingly great. The English links that rose into +most immediate favour was the fine course of the St George's Golf Club, +near Sandwich, on the coast of Kent. To the London golfer it was the +first course of the first class that was reasonably accessible, and the +fact made something like an epoch in English golf. A very considerable +increase, it is true, in the number of English golfers and English golf +clubs had taken place before the discovery for golfing purposes of the +links at Sandwich. Already there was a chain of links all round the +coast, besides numerous inland courses; but since 1890 their increase +has been extraordinary, and the number which has been formed in the +colonies and abroad is very large also, so that in the _Golfer's Year +Book_ for 1906 a space of over 300 pages was allotted to the Club +Directory alone, each page containing, on a rough average, six clubs. To +compute the average membership of these clubs is very difficult. There +is not a little overlapping, in the sense that a member of one club will +often be a member of several others; but probably the average may be +placed at something like 200 members for each club. + +The immense amount of golf-playing that this denotes, the large industry +in the making of clubs and balls, in the upkeep of links, in the actual +work of club-carrying by the caddies, and in the instruction given by +the professional class, is obvious. Golf has taken a strong hold on the +affections of the people in many parts of Ireland, and the fashion for +golf in England has reacted strongly on Scotland itself, the ancient +home of the game, where since 1880 golfers have probably increased in +the ratio of forty to one. Besides the industry that such a growth of +the game denotes in the branches immediately connected with it, as +mentioned above, there is to be taken into further account the visiting +population that it brings to all lodging-houses and hotels within reach +of a tolerable golf links, so that many a fishing village has risen into +a moderate watering-place by virtue of no other attractions than those +which are offered by its golf course. Therefore to the Briton, golf has +developed from something of which he had a vague idea--as of +"curling"--to something in the nature of an important business, a +business that can make towns and has a considerable effect on the +receipts of railway companies. + +Moreover, ladies have learned to play golf. Although this is a crude and +brief sentence, it does not state the fact too widely nor too forcibly, +for though it is true that before 1885 many played on the short links of +St Andrews, North Berwick, Westward Ho and elsewhere, still it was +virtually unknown that they should play on the longer courses, which +till then had been in the undisputed possession of the men. At many +places women now have their separate links, at others they play on the +same course as the men. But even where links are set apart for women, +they are far different from the little courses that used to be assigned +to them. They are links only a little less formidable in their bunkers, +a little less varied in their features than those of men. The ladies +have their annual championship, which they play on the long links of the +men, sometimes on one, sometimes on another, but always on courses of +the first quality, demanding the finest display of golfing skill. + +The claim that England made to a golfing fellowship with Scotland was +conceded very strikingly by the admission of three English greens, first +those of Hoylake and of Sandwich, and in 1909 Deal, into the exclusive +list of the links on which the open championship of the game is decided. +Before England had so fully assimilated Scotland's game this great +annual contest was waged at St Andrews, Musselburgh and Prestwick in +successive years. Now the ancient green of Musselburgh, somewhat worn +out with length of hard and gallant service, and moreover, as a +nine-holes course inadequately accommodating the numbers who compete in +the championships to-day, has been superseded by the course at Muirfield +as a championship arena. + +While golf had been making itself a force in the southern kingdom, the +professional element--men who had learned the game from childhood, had +become past-masters, were capable of giving instruction, and also of +making clubs and balls and looking after the greens on which golf was +played--had at first been taken from the northern side of the Border. +But when golf had been started long enough in England for the little +boys who were at first employed as "caddies"--in carrying the players' +clubs--to grow to sufficient strength to drive the ball as far as their +masters, it was inevitable that out of the number who thus began to play +in their boyhood some few should develop an exceptional talent for the +game. This, in fact, actually happened, and English golfers, both of the +amateur and the professional classes, have proved themselves so adept +at Scotland's game, that the championships in either the Open or the +Amateur competitions have been won more often by English than by +Scottish players of late years. Probably in the United Kingdom to-day +there are as many English as Scottish professional golf players, and +their relative number is increasing. + +Golf also "caught on," to use the American expression, in the United +States. To the American of 1890 golf was largely an unknown thing. Since +then, however, golf has become perhaps a greater factor in the life of +the upper and upper-middle classes in the United States than it ever has +been in England or Scotland. Golf to the English and the Scots meant +only one among several of the sports and pastimes that take the man and +the woman of the upper and upper-middle classes into the country and the +fresh air. To the American of like status golf came as the one thing to +take him out of his towns and give him a reason for exercise in the +country. To-day golf has become an interest all over North America, but +it is in the Eastern States that it has made most difference in the life +of the classes with whom it has become fashionable. Westerners and +Southerners found more excuses before the coming of golf for being in +the open country air. It is in the Eastern States more especially that +it has had so much influence in making the people live and take exercise +out of doors. In a truly democratic spirit the American woman golfer +plays on a perfect equality with the American man. She does not compete +in the men's championships; she has championships of her own; but she +plays, without question, on the same links. There is no suggestion of +relegating her, as a certain cynical writer in the Badminton volume on +golf described it, to a waste corner, a kind of "Jews' Quarter," of the +links. And the Americans have taken up golf in the spirit of a sumptuous +and opulent people, spending money on magnificent clubhouses beyond the +finest dreams of the Englishman or the Scot. The greatest success +achieved by any American golfer fell to the lot of Mr Walter Travis of +the Garden City club, who in 1904 won the British amateur championship. + +So much enthusiasm and so much golf in America have not failed to make +their influence felt in the United Kingdom. Naturally and inevitably +they have created a strong demand for professional instruction, both by +example and by precept, and for professional advice and assistance in +the laying-out and upkeep of the many new links that have been created +in all parts of the States, sometimes out of the least promising +material. By the offer of great prizes for exhibition matches, and of +wages that are to the British rate on the scale of the dollar to the +shilling, they have attracted many of the best Scottish and English +professionals to pay them longer or shorter visits as the case may be, +and thus a new opening has been created for the energies of the +professional golfing class. + +_The Game._--The game of golf may be briefly defined as consisting in +hitting the ball over a great extent of country, preferably of that +sand-hill nature which is found by the seaside, and finally hitting or +"putting" it into a little hole of some 4 in. diameter cut in the turf. +The place of the hole is commonly marked by a flag. Eighteen is the +recognized number of these holes on a full course, and they are at +varying distances apart, from 100 yds. up to anything between a 1/4 and +1/2 m. For the various strokes required to achieve the hitting of the +ball over the great hills, and finally putting it into the small hole, a +number of different "clubs" has been devised to suit the different +positions in which the ball may be found and the different directions in +which it is wished to propel it. At the start for each hole the ball may +be placed on a favourable position (e.g. "tee'd" on a small mound of +sand) for striking it, but after that it may not be touched, except with +the club, until it is hit into the next hole. A "full drive," as the +farthest distance that the ball can be hit is called, is about 200 yds. +in length, of which some three-fourths will be traversed in the air, and +the rest by bounding or running over the ground. It is easily to be +understood that when the ball is lying on the turf behind a tall +sand-hill, or in a bunker, a differently-shaped club is required for +raising it over such an obstacle from that which is needed when it is +placed on the tee to start with; and again, that another club is needed +to strike the ball out of a cup or out of heavy grass. It is this +variety that gives the game its charm. Each player plays with his own +ball, with no interference from his opponent, and the object of each is +to hit the ball from the starting-point into each successive hole in the +fewest strokes. The player who at the end of the round (i.e. of the +course of eighteen holes) has won the majority of the holes is the +winner of the round; or the decision may be reached before the end of +the round by one side gaining more holes than there remain to play. For +instance, if one player be four holes to the good, and only three holes +remain to be played, it is evident that the former must be the winner, +for even if the latter win every remaining hole, he still must be one to +the bad at the finish. + +The British Amateur Championship is decided by a tournament in matches +thus played, each defeated player retiring, and his opponent passing on +into the next round. In the case of the Open Championship, and in most +medal competitions, the scores are differently reckoned--each man's +total score (irrespective of his relative merit at each hole) being +reckoned at the finish against the total score of the other players in +the competition. There is also a species of competition called "bogey" +play, in which each man plays against a "bogey" score--a score fixed for +each hole in the round before starting--and his position in the +competition relatively to the other players is determined by the number +of holes that he is to the good or to the bad of the "bogey" score at +the end of the round. The player who is most holes to the good, or +fewest holes to the bad, wins the competition. It may be mentioned +incidentally that golf occupies the almost unique position of being the +only sport in which even a single player can enjoy his game, his +opponent in this event being "Colonel Bogey"--more often than not a +redoubtable adversary. + + The links which have been thought worthy, by reason of their + geographical positions and their merits, of being the scenes on which + the golf championships are fought out, are, as we have already said, + three in Scotland--St Andrews, Prestwick and Muirfield--and three in + England--Hoylake, Sandwich and Deal. This brief list is very far from + being complete as regards links of first-class quality in Great + Britain. Besides those named, there are in Scotland--Carnoustie, North + Berwick, Cruden Bay, Nairn, Aberdeen, Dornoch, Troon, Machrihanish, + South Uist, Islay, Gullane, Luffness and many more. In England there + are--Westward Ho, Bembridge, Littlestone, Great Yarmouth, Brancaster, + Seaton Carew, Formby, Lytham, Harlech, Burnham, among the seaside + ones; while of the inland, some of them of very fine quality, we + cannot even attempt a selection, so large is their number and so + variously estimated their comparative merits. Ireland has Portrush, + Newcastle, Portsalon, Dollymount and many more of the first class; and + there are excellent courses in the Isle of Man. In America many fine + courses have been constructed. There is not a British colony of any + standing that is without its golf course--Australia, India, South + Africa, all have their golf championships, which are keenly contested. + Canada has had courses at Quebec and Montreal for many years, and the + Calcutta Golf Club, curiously enough, is the oldest established (next + to the Blackheath Club), the next oldest being the club at Pau in the + Basses-Pyrenees. + + The Open Championship of golf was started in 1860 by the Prestwick + Club giving a belt to be played for annually under the condition that + it should become the property of any who could win it thrice in + succession. The following is the list of the champions:-- + + 1860. W. Park, Musselburgh 174--at Prestwick. + 1861. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick 163--at Prestwick. + 1862. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick 163--at Prestwick. + 1863. W. Park, Musselburgh 168--at Prestwick. + 1864. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick 160--at Prestwick. + 1865. A. Strath, St Andrews 162--at Prestwick. + 1866. W. Park, Musselburgh 169--at Prestwick. + 1867. Tom Morris, sen., St Andrews 170--at Prestwick. + 1868. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews 154--at Prestwick. + 1869. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews 157--at Prestwick. + 1870. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews 149--at Prestwick. + + Tom Morris, junior, thus won the belt finally, according to the + conditions. In 1871 there was no competition; but by 1872 the three + clubs of St Andrews, Prestwick and Musselburgh had subscribed for a + cup which should be played for over the course of each subscribing + club successively, but should never become the property of the winner. + In later years the course at Muirfield was substituted for that at + Musselburgh, and Hoylake and Sandwich were admitted into the list of + championship courses. Up to 1891, inclusive, the play of two rounds, + or thirty-six holes, determined the championship, but from 1892 the + result has been determined by the play of 72 holes. + + After the interregnum of 1871, the following were the champions:-- + + 1872. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews 166--at Prestwick. + 1873. Tom Kidd, St Andrews 179--at St Andrews. + 1874. Mungo Park, Musselburgh 159--at Musselburgh. + 1875. Willie Park, Musselburgh 166--at Prestwick. + 1876. Bob Martin, St Andrews 176--at St Andrews. + 1877. Jamie Anderson, St Andrews 160--at Musselburgh. + 1878. Jamie Anderson, St Andrews 157--at Prestwick. + 1879. Jamie Anderson, St Andrews 170--at St Andrews. + 1880. Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh 162--at Musselburgh. + 1881. Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh 170--at Prestwick. + 1882. Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh 171--at St Andrews. + 1883. W. Fernie, Dumfries 159--at Musselburgh. + 1884. Jack Simpson, Carnoustie 160--at Prestwick. + 1885. Bob Martin, St Andrews 171--at St Andrews. + 1886. D. Brown, Musselburgh 157--at Musselburgh. + 1887. Willie Park, jun., Musselburgh 161--at Prestwick. + 1888. Jack Burns, Warwick 171--at St Andrews. + 1889. Willie Park, jun., Musselburgh 155--at Musselburgh. + 1890. Mr John Ball, jun., Hoylake 164--at Prestwick. + 1891. Hugh Kirkaldy, St Andrews 166--at St Andrews. + 1892. Mr H. H. Hilton, Hoylake 305--at Muirfield. + 1893. W. Auchterlonie, St Andrews 322--at Prestwick. + 1894. J. H. Taylor, Winchester 326--at Sandwich. + 1895. J. H. Taylor, Winchester 322--at St Andrews. + 1896. H. Vardon, Scarborough 316--at Muirfield. + 1897. Mr H. H. Hilton, Hoylake 314--at Hoylake. + 1898. H. Vardon, Scarborough 307--at Prestwick. + 1899. H. Vardon, Scarborough 310--at Sandwich. + 1900. J. H. Taylor, Richmond 309--at St Andrews. + 1901. J. Braid, Romford 309--at Muirfield. + 1902. A. Herd, Huddersfield 307--at Hoylake. + 1903. H. Vardon, Ganton 300--at Prestwick. + 1904. J. White, Sunningdale 296--at Sandwich. + 1905. J. Braid, Walton Heath 318--at St Andrews. + 1906. J. Braid, Walton Heath 300--at Muirfield. + 1907. Arnaud Massey, La Boulie 312--at Hoylake. + 1908. J. Braid, Walton Heath 291--at Prestwick. + 1909. J. H. Taylor, Richmond 295--at Deal. + 1910. J. Braid, Walton Heath 298--at St Andrews. + + The Amateur Championship is of far more recent institution. + + 1886. Mr Horace Hutchinson at St Andrews. + 1887. Mr Horace Hutchinson at Hoylake. + 1888. Mr John Ball at Prestwick. + 1889. Mr J. E. Laidlay at St Andrews. + 1890. Mr John Ball at Hoylake. + 1891. Mr J. E. Laidlay at St Andrews. + 1892. Mr John Ball at Sandwich. + 1893. Mr P. Anderson at Prestwick. + 1894. Mr John Ball at Hoylake. + 1895. Mr L. Balfour-Melville at St Andrews. + 1896. Mr F. G. Tait at Sandwich. + 1897. Mr J. T. Allan at Muirfield. + 1898. Mr John Ball at Prestwick. + 1899. Mr F. G. Tait at Hoylake. + 1900. Mr H. H. Hilton at Sandwich. + 1901. Mr H. H. Hilton at St Andrews. + 1902. Mr C. Hutchings at Hoylake. + 1903. Mr R. Maxwell at Muirfield. + 1904. Mr W. J. Travis at Sandwich. + 1905. Mr A. G. Barry at St Andrews. + 1906. Mr J. Robb at Hoylake. + 1907. Mr John Ball at St Andrews. + 1908. Mr E. A. Lassen at Sandwich. + 1909. Mr Robert Maxwell at Muirfield. + 1910. Mr John Ball at Hoylake. + + The Ladies' Championship was started in 1893. + + 1893. Lady M. Scott at St Annes. + 1894. Lady M. Scott at Littlestone. + 1895. Lady M. Scott at Portrush. + 1896. Miss A. B. Pascoe at Hoylake. + 1897. Miss E. C. Orr at Gullane. + 1898. Miss L. Thompson at Yarmouth. + 1899. Miss M. Hezlet at Newcastle. + 1900. Miss R. K. Adair at Westward Ho. + 1901. Miss M. A. Graham at Aberdovy. + 1902. Miss M. Hezlet at Deal. + 1903. Miss R. K. Adair at Portrush. + 1904. Miss L. Dod at Troon. + 1905. Miss B. Thompson at Cromer. + 1906. Mrs Kennion at Burnham. + 1907. Miss M. Hezlet at Newcastle (Co. Down). + 1908. Miss M. Titterton at St Andrews. + 1909. Miss D. Campbell at Birkdale. + 1910. Miss Grant Suttie at Westward Ho. + +There have been some slight changes of detail and arrangement as time +has gone on, in the rules of the game (the latest edition of the Rules +should be consulted). A new class of golfer has arisen, requiring a code +of rules framed rather more exactly than the older code. The Scottish +golfer, who was "teethed" on a golf club, as Mr Andrew Lang has +described it, imbibed all the traditions of the game with his natural +sustenance. Very few rules sufficed for him. But when the Englishman, +and still more the American (less in touch with the traditions), began +to play golf as a new game, then they began to ask for a code of rules +that should be lucid and illuminating on every point--an ideal perhaps +impossible to realize. It was found, at least, that the code put forward +by the Royal and Ancient Club of St Andrews did not realize it +adequately. Nevertheless the new golfers were very loyal indeed to the +club that had ever of old held, by tacit consent, the position of fount +of golfing legislation. The Royal and Ancient Club was appealed to by +English golfers to step into the place, analogous to that of the +Marylebone Cricket Club in cricket, that they were both willing and +anxious to give it. It was a place that the Club at St Andrews did not +in the least wish to occupy, but the honour was thrust so insistently +upon it, that there was no declining. The latest effort to meet the +demands for some more satisfactory legislation on the thousand and one +points that continually must arise for decision in course of playing a +game of such variety as golf, consists of the appointment of a standing +committee, called the "Rules of Golf Committee." Its members all belong +to the Royal and Ancient Club; but since this club draws its membership +from all parts of the United Kingdom, this restriction is quite +consistent with a very general representation of the views of north, +south, east and west--from Westward Ho and Sandwich to Dornoch, and all +the many first-rate links of Ireland--on the committee. Ireland has, +indeed, some of the best links in the kingdom, and yields to neither +Scotland nor England in enthusiasm for the game. This committee, after a +general revision of the rules into the form in which they now stand, +consider every month, either by meeting or by correspondence, the +questions that are sent up to it by clubs or by individuals; and the +committee's answers to these questions have the force of law until they +have come before the next general meeting of the Royal and Ancient Club +at St Andrews, which may confirm or may reject them at will. The ladies +of Great Britain manage otherwise. They have a Golfing Union which +settles questions for them; but since this union itself accepts as +binding the answers given by the Rules of Golf Committee, they really +arrive at the same conclusions by a slightly different path. Nor does +the American Union, governing the play of men and women alike in the +States, really act differently. The Americans naturally reserve to +themselves freedom to make their own rules, but in practice they conform +to the legislation of Scotland, with the exception of a more drastic +definition of the status of the amateur player, and certain differences +as to the clubs used. + +A considerable modification has been effected in the implements of the +game. The tendency of the modern wooden clubs is to be short in the head +as compared with the clubs of, say, 1880 or 1885. The advantage claimed +(probably with justice) for this shape is that it masses the weight +behind the point on which the ball is struck. Better material in the +wood of the club is a consequence of the increased demand for these +articles and the increased competition among their makers. Whereas under +the old conditions a few workers at the few greens then in existence +were enough to supply the golfing wants, now there is a very large +industry in golf club and ball making, which not only employs workers in +the local club-makers' shops all the kingdom over, but is an important +branch of the commerce of the stores and of the big athletic outfitters, +both in Great Britain and in the United States. By far the largest +modification in the game since the change to gutta-percha balls from +balls of leather-covering stuffed with feathers, is due to the American +invention of the india-rubber cased balls. Practically it is as an +American invention that it is still regarded, although the British law +courts decided, after a lengthy trial (1905), that there had been "prior +users" of the principle of the balls' manufacture, and therefore that +the patent of Mr Haskell, by whose name the first balls of the kind +were called, was not good. It is singular to remark that in the first +introduction of the gutta-percha balls, superseding the leather and +feather compositions, they also were called by the name of their first +maker, "Gourlay." The general mode of manufacture of the rubber-cored +ball, which is now everywhere in use, is interiorly, a hard core of +gutta-percha or some other such substance; round this is wound, by +machinery, india-rubber thread or strips at a high tension, and over all +is an outer coat of gutta-percha. Some makers have tried to dispense +with the kernel of hard substance, or to substitute for it kernels of +some fluid or gelatinous substance, but in general the above is a +sufficient, though rough, description of the mode of making all these +balls. Their superiority over the solid gutta-percha lies in their +superior resiliency. The effect is that they go much more lightly off +the club. It is not so much in the tee-shots that this superiority is +observed, as in the second shots, when the ball is lying badly; balls of +the rubber-cored kind, with their greater liveliness, are more easy to +raise in the air from a lie of this kind. They also go remarkably well +off the iron clubs, and thus make the game easier by placing the player +within an iron shot of the hole at a distance at which he would have to +use a wooden club if he were playing with a solid gutta-percha ball. +They also tend to make the game more easy by the fact that if they are +at all mis-hit they go much better than a gutta-percha ball similarly +inaccurately struck. As a slight set-off against these qualities, the +ball, because of the greater liveliness, is not quite so good for the +short game as the solid ball; but on the whole its advantages distinctly +overbalance its disadvantages. + +When these balls were first put on the market they were sold at two +shillings each and even, when the supply was quite unequal to the +demand, at a greater deal higher price, rising to as much as a guinea a +ball. But the normal price, until about a year after the decision in the +British courts of law affirming that there was no patent in the balls, +was always two shillings for the best quality of ball. Subsequently +there was a reduction down to one shilling for the balls made by many of +the manufacturing companies, though in 1910 the rise in the price of +rubber sent up the cost. The rubber-cored ball does not go out of shape +so quickly as the gutta-percha solid ball and does not show other marks +of ill-usage with the club so obviously. It has had the effect of making +the game a good deal easier for the second- and third-class players, +favouring especially those who were short drivers with the old +gutta-percha ball. To the best players it has made the least difference, +nevertheless those who were best with the old ball are also best with +the new; its effect has merely been to bring the second, third and +fourth best closer to each other and to the best. + +Incidentally, the question of the expense of the game has been touched +on in this notice of the new balls. There is no doubt that the balls +themselves tend to a greater economy, not only because of their own +superior durability but also because, as a consequence of their greater +resiliency, they are not nearly so hard on the clubs, and the clubs +themselves being perhaps made of better material than used to be given +to their manufacture, the total effect is that a man's necessary annual +expenditure on them is very small indeed even though he plays pretty +constantly. Four or five rounds are not more than the average of golfers +will make an india-rubber cored ball last them, so that the outlay on +the weapons is very moderate. On the other hand the expenditure of the +clubs on their courses has increased and tends to increase. Demands are +more insistent than they used to be for a well kept course, for +perfectly mown greens, renewed teeing grounds and so on, and probably +the modern golfer is a good deal more luxurious in his clubhouse wants +than his father used to be. This means a big staff of servants and +workers on the green, and to meet this a rather heavy subscription is +required. Such a subscription as five guineas added to a ten or fifteen +guinea entrance fee is not uncommon, and even this is very moderate +compared with the subscriptions to some of the clubs in the United +States, where a hundred dollars a year, or twenty pounds of our money, +is not unusual. But on the whole golf is a very economical pastime, as +compared with almost any other sport or pastime which engages the +attention of Britons, and it is a pastime for all the year round, and +for all the life of a man or woman. + + _Glossary of Technical Terms used in the Game._ + + _Addressing the Ball._--Putting oneself in position to strike the + ball. + + _All Square._--Term used to express that the score stands level, + neither side being a hole up. + + _Baff._--To strike the ground with the club when playing, and so loft + the ball unduly. + + _Baffy._--A short wooden club, with laid-back face, for lofting shots. + + _Bogey._--The number of strokes which a good average player should + take to each hole. This imaginary player is usually known as "Colonel + Bogey," and plays a fine game. + + _Brassy._--A wooden club with a brass sole. + + _Bulger._--A driver in which the face "bulges" into a convex shape. + The head is shorter than in the older-fashioned driver. + + _Bunker._--A sand-pit. + + _Bye._--The holes remaining after one side has become more holes up + than remain for play. + + _Caddie._--The person who carries the clubs. Diminutive of "cad"; cf. + laddie (from Fr. _cadet_). + + _Cleek._--The iron-headed club that is capable of the farthest drive + of any of the clubs with iron heads. + + _Cup._--A depression in the ground causing the ball to lie badly. + + _Dead._--A ball is said to be "dead" when so near the hole that the + putting it in in the next stroke is a "dead" certainty. A ball is said + to "fall dead" when it pitches with hardly any run. + + _Divot._--A piece of turf cut out in the act of playing, which, be it + noted, should always be replaced before the player moves on. + + _Dormy._--One side is said to be "dormy" when it is as many holes to + the good as remain to be played--so that it cannot be beaten. + + _Driver._--The longest driving club, used when the ball lies very well + and a long shot is needed. + + _Foozle._--Any very badly missed or bungled stroke. + + "_Fore!_"--A cry of warning to people in front. + + _Foursome._--A match in which four persons engage, two on each side + playing alternately with the same ball. + + _Green._--(a) The links as a whole; (b) the "putting-greens" around + the holes. + + _Grip._--(a) The part of the club-shaft which is held in the hands + while playing; (b) the grasp itself--e.g. "a firm grip," "a loose + grip," are common expressions. + + _Half-Shot._--A shot played with something less than a full swing. + + _Halved._--A hole is "halved" when both sides have played it in the + same number of strokes. A round is "halved" when each side has won and + lost the same number of holes. + + _Handicap._--The strokes which a player receives either in match play + or competition. + + _Hanging._--Said of a ball that lies on a slope inclining downwards in + regard to the direction in which it is wished to drive. + + _Hazard._--A general term for bunker, whin, long grass, roads and all + kinds of bad ground. + + _Heel._--To hit the ball on the "heel" of the club, i.e. the part of + the face nearest the shaft, and so send the ball to the right, with + the same result as from a slice. + + _Honour._--The privilege (which its holder is not at liberty to + decline) of striking off first from the tee. + + _Iron._--An iron-headed club intermediate between the cleek and + lofting mashie. There are driving irons and lofting irons according to + the purposes for which they are intended. + + _Lie._--(a) The angle of the club-head with the shaft (e.g. a "flat + lie," "an upright lie"); (b) the position of the ball on the ground + (e.g. "a good lie," "a bad lie"). + + _Like, The._--The stroke which makes the player's score equal to his + opponent's in course of playing a hole. + + _Like-as-we-Lie._--Said when both sides have played the same number of + strokes. + + _Line._--The direction in which the hole towards which the player is + progressing lies with reference to the present position of his ball. + + _Mashie._--Ah iron club with a short head. The _lofting mashie_ has + the blade much laid back, for playing a short lofting shot. The + _driving mashie_ has the blade less laid back, and is used for longer, + less lofted shots. + + _Match-Play._--Play in which the score is reckoned by holes won and + lost. + + _Medal-Play._--Play in which the score is reckoned by the total of + strokes taken on the round. + + _Niblick._--A short stiff club with a short, laid back, iron head, + used for getting the ball out of a very bad lie. + + _Odd, The._--A stroke more than the opponent has played. + + _Press._--To strive to hit harder than you can hit with accuracy. + + _Pull._--To hit the ball with a pulling movement of the club, so as to + make it curve to the left. + + _Putt._--To play the short strokes near the hole (pronounced as in + "but"). + + _Putter._--The club used for playing the short strokes near the hole. + Some have a wooden head, some an iron head. + + _Rub-of-the-Green._--Any chance deflection that the ball receives as + it goes along. + + _Run Up._--To send the ball low and close to the ground in approaching + the hole--opposite to lofting it up. + + _Scratch Player._--Player who receives no odds in handicap + competitions. + + _Slice._--To hit the ball with a cut across it, so that it flies + curving to the right. + + _Stance._--(a) The place on which the player has to stand when + playing--e.g. "a bad stance," "a good stance," are common expressions; + (b) the position relative to each other of the player's feet. + + _Stymie._--When one ball lies in a straight line between another and + the hole the first is said to "stymie," or "to be a stymie to" the + other--from an old Scottish word given by Jamieson to mean "the + faintest form of anything." The idea probably was, the "stymie" only + left you the "faintest form" of the hole to aim at. + + _Tee._--The little mound of sand on which the ball is generally placed + for the first drive to each hole. + + _Teeing-Ground._--The place marked as the limit, outside of which it + is not permitted to drive the ball off. This marked-out ground is also + sometimes called "the tee." + + _Top._--To hit the ball above the centre, so that it does not rise + much from the ground. + + _Up._--A player is said to be "one up," "two up," &c., when he is so + many holes to the good of his opponent. + + _Wrist-Shot._--A shot less in length than a half-shot, but longer than + a putt. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature of the game has grown to some + considerable bulk. For many years it was practically comprised in the + fine work by Mr Robert Clark, _Golf: A Royal and Ancient Game_, + together with two handbooks on the game by Mr Chambers and by Mr + Forgan respectively, and the _Golfiana Miscellanea_ of Mr Stewart. A + small book by Mr Horace Hutchinson, named _Hints on Golf_, was very + shortly followed by a much more important work by Sir Walter Simpson, + Bart., called _The Art of Golf_, a title which sufficiently explains + itself. The Badminton Library book on _Golf_ attempted to collect into + one volume the most interesting historical facts known about the game, + with _obiter dicta_ and advice to learners, and, on similar didactic + lines, books have been written by Mr H. C. S. Everard, Mr Garden Smith + and W. Park, the professional player. Mr H. J. Whigham, sometime + amateur champion golfer of the United States, has given us a book + about the game in that country. _The Book of Golf and Golfers_, + compiled, with assistance, by Mr Horace Hutchinson, is in the first + place a picture-gallery of famous golfers in their respective + attitudes of play. Taylor, Vardon and Braid have each contributed a + volume of instruction, and Mr G. W. Beldam has published a book with + admirable photographs of players in action, called _Great Golfers: + their Methods at a Glance_. A work intended for the use of green + committees is among the volumes of the _Country Life_ Library of + Sport. Much interesting lore is contained in the _Golfing Annual_, in + the _Golfer's Year Book_ and in the pages of _Golf_, which has now + become _Golf Illustrated_, a weekly paper devoted to the game. Among + works that have primarily a local interest, but yet contain much of + historical value about the game, may be cited the _Golf Book of East + Lothian_, by the Rev. John Kerr, and the _Chronicle of Blackheath + Golfers_, by Mr W. E. Hughes. (H. G. H.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] From an enactment of James VI. (then James I. of England), + bearing date 1618, we find that a considerable importation of golf + balls at that time took place from Holland, and as thereby "na small + quantitie of gold and silver is transported zierly out of his Hienes' + kingdome of Scoteland" (see letter of His Majesty from Salisbury, the + 5th of August 1618), he issues a royal prohibition, at once as a wise + economy of the national moneys, and a protection to native industry + in the article. From this it might almost seem that the game was at + that date still known and practised in Holland. + + [2] _Records of the City of Edinburgh_. + + [3] _Inventories of Mary Queen of Scots_, preface, p. lxx. (1863). + + [4] Anonymous author of MS. in the Harleian Library. + + [5] See _History of Leith_, by A. Campbell (1827). + + [6] _Local Records of Northumberland_, by John Sykes (Newcastle, + 1833). + + [7] Robertson's _Historical Notices of Leith_. + + + + +GOLIAD, an unincorporated village and the county-seat of Goliad county, +Texas, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the San Antonio river, 85 m. S.E. of +San Antonio. Pop. (1900) about 1700. It is served by the Galveston, +Harrisburg & San Antonio railway (Southern Pacific System). Situated in +the midst of a rich farming and stock-raising country, Goliad has flour +mills, cotton gins and cotton-seed oil mills. Here are the interesting +ruins of the old Spanish mission of La Bahia, which was removed to this +point from the Guadaloupe river in 1747. During the struggle between +Mexico and Spain the Mexican leader Bernardo Gutierrez (1778-1814) was +besieged here. The name Goliad, probably an anagram of the name of the +Mexican patriot Hidalgo (1753-1811), was first used about 1829. On the +outbreak of the Texan War of Liberation Goliad was garrisoned by a small +force of Mexicans, who surrendered to the Texans in October 1835, and on +the 20th of December a preliminary "declaration of independence" was +published here, antedating by several months the official Declaration +issued at Old Washington, Texas, on the 2nd of March 1836. In 1836, when +Santa Anna began his advance against the Texan posts, Goliad was +occupied by a force of about 350 Americans under Colonel James W. Fannin +(c. 1800-1836), who was overtaken on the Coletta Creek while attempting +to carry out orders to withdraw from Goliad and to unite with General +Houston; he surrendered after a sharp fight (March 19-20) in which he +inflicted a heavy loss on the Mexicans, and was marched back with his +force to Goliad, where on the morning of the 27th of March they were +shot down by Santa Anna's orders. Goliad was nearly destroyed by a +tornado on the 19th of May 1903. + + + + +GOLIARD, a name applied to those wandering students (_vagantes_) and +clerks in England, France and Germany, during the 12th and 13th +centuries, who were better known for their rioting, gambling and +intemperance than for their scholarship. The derivation of the word is +uncertain. It may come from the Lat. _gula_, gluttony (Wright), but was +connected by them with a mythical "Bishop Golias," also called +"_archipoeta_" and "_primas_"--especially in Germany--in whose name +their satirical poems were mostly written. Many scholars have accepted +Budinger's suggestion (_Uber einige Reste der Vagantenpoesie in +Osterreich_, Vienna, 1854) that the title of Golias goes back to the +letter of St Bernard to Innocent II., in which he referred to Abelard as +Goliath, thus connecting the goliards with the keen-witted student +adherents of that great medieval critic. Giesebrecht and others, +however, support the derivation of goliard from _gailliard_, a gay +fellow, leaving "Golias" as the imaginary "patron" of their fraternity. + +Spiegel has ingeniously disentangled something of a biography of an +_archipoeta_ who flourished mainly in Burgundy and at Salzburg from 1160 +to beyond the middle of the 13th century; but the proof of the reality +of this individual is not convincing. It is doubtful, too, if the +jocular references to the rules of the "gild" of goliards should be +taken too seriously, though their aping of the "orders" of the church, +especially their contrasting them with the mendicants, was too bold for +church synods. Their satires were almost uniformly directed against the +church, attacking even the pope. In 1227 the council of Treves forbade +priests to permit the goliards to take part in chanting the service. In +1229 they played a conspicuous part in the disturbances at the +university of Paris, in connexion with the intrigues of the papal +legate. During the century which followed they formed a subject for the +deliberations of several church councils, notably in 1289 when it was +ordered that "no clerks shall be jongleurs, goliards or buffoons," and +in 1300 (at Cologne) when they were forbidden to preach or engage in the +indulgence traffic. This legislation was only effective when the +"privileges of clergy" were withdrawn from the goliards. Those +historians who regard the middle ages as completely dominated by ascetic +ideals, regard the goliard movement as a protest against the spirit of +the time. But it is rather indicative of the wide diversity in +temperament among those who crowded to the universities in the 13th +century, and who found in the privileges of the clerk some advantage and +attraction in the student life. The goliard poems are as truly +"medieval" as the monastic life which they despised; they merely voice +another section of humanity. Yet their criticism was most keenly +pointed, and marks a distinct step in the criticism of abuses in the +church. + +Along with these satires went many poems in praise of wine and riotous +living. A remarkable collection of them, now at Munich, from the +monastery at Benedictbeuren in Bavaria, was published by Schmeller (3rd +ed., 1895) under the title _Carmina Burana_. Many of these, which form +the main part of song-books of German students to-day, have been +delicately translated by John Addington Symonds in a small volume, +_Wine, Women and Song_ (1884). As Symonds has said, they form a prelude +to the Renaissance. The poems of "Bishop Golias" were later attributed +to Walter Mapes, and have been published by Thomas Wright in _The Latin +Poems commonly attributed to Walter Mapes_ (London, 1841). + +The word "goliard" itself outlived these turbulent bands which had given +it birth, and passed over into French and English literature of the 14th +century in the general meaning of jongleur or minstrel, quite apart from +any clerical association. It is thus used in _Piers Plowman_, where, +however, the _goliard_ still rhymes in Latin, and in Chaucer. + + See, besides the works quoted above, M. Haezner, _Goliardendichtung + und die Satire im 13ten Jahrhundert in England_ (Leipzig, 1905); + Spiegel, _Die Vaganten und ihr "Orden"_ (Spires, 1892); Hubatsch, _Die + lateinischen Vagantenlieder des Mittelalters_ (Gorlitz, 1870); and the + article in _La grande Encyclopedie_. All of these have bibliographical + apparatus. (J. T. S.*) + + + + +GOLIATH, the name of the giant by slaying whom David achieved renown (1 +Sam. xvii.). The Philistines had come up to make war against Saul and, +as the rival camps lay opposite each other, this warrior came forth day +by day to challenge to single combat. Only David ventured to respond, +and armed with a sling and pebbles he overcame Goliath. The Philistines, +seeing their champion killed, lost heart and were easily put to flight. +The giant's arms were placed in the sanctuary, and it was his famous +sword which David took with him in his flight from Saul (1 Sam. xxi. +1-9). From another passage we learn that Goliath of Gath, "the shaft of +whose spear was like a weaver's beam," was slain by a certain Elhanan of +Bethlehem in one of David's conflicts with the Philistines (2 Sam. xxi. +18-22)--the parallel 1 Chron. xx. 5, avoids the contradiction by reading +the "brother of Goliath." But this old popular story has probably +preserved the more original tradition, and if Elhanan is the son of Dodo +in the list of David's mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 9, 24), the resemblance +between the two names may have led to the transference. The narratives +of David's early life point to some exploit by means of which he gained +the favour of Saul, Jonathan and Israel, but the absence of all +reference to his achievement in the subsequent chapters (1 Sam. xxi. 11, +xxix. 5) is evidence of the relatively late origin of a tradition which +in course of time became one of the best-known incidents in David's life +(Ps. cxliv., LXX. title, the apocryphal Ps. cli., Ecclus. xlvii. 4). + + See DAVID; SAMUEL (BOOKS) and especially Cheyne, _Aids and Devout + Study of Criticism_, pp. 80 sqq., 125 sqq. In the old Egyptian romance + of _Sinuhit_ (ascribed to about 2000 B.C.), the story of the slaying + of the Bedouin hero has several points of resemblance with that of + David and Goliath. See L. B. Paton, _Hist. of Syr. and Pal._, p. 60; + A. Jeremias, _Das A. T. im Lichte d. alten Orients_, 2nd ed. pp. 299, + 491; A. R. S. Kennedy, _Century Bible: Samuel_, p. 122, argues that + David's Philistine adversary was originally nameless, in 1 Sam. xvii. + he is named only in v. 4. + + + + +GOLITSUIN, BORIS ALEKSYEEVICH (1654-1714), Russian statesman, came of a +princely family, claiming descent from Prince Gedimin of Lithuania. +Earlier members of the family were Mikhail (d. c. 1552), a famous +soldier, and his great-grandson Vasily Vasilevich (d. 1619), who was +sent as ambassador to Poland to offer the Russian crown to Prince +Ladislaus. Boris became court chamberlain in 1676. He was the young tsar +Peter's chief supporter when, in 1689, Peter resisted the usurpations of +his elder sister Sophia, and the head of the loyal council which +assembled at the Troitsa monastery during the crisis of the struggle. +Golitsuin it was who suggested taking refuge in that strong fortress and +won over the boyars of the opposite party. In 1690 he was created a +boyar and shared with Lev Naruishkin, Peter's uncle, the conduct of home +affairs. After the death of the tsaritsa Natalia, Peter's mother, in +1694, his influence increased still further. He accompanied Peter to the +White Sea (1694-1695); took part in the Azov campaign (1695); and was +one of the triumvirate who ruled Russia during Peter's first foreign +tour (1697-1698). The Astrakhan rebellion (1706), which affected all the +districts under his government, shook Peter's confidence in him, and +seriously impaired his position. In 1707 he was superseded in the Volgan +provinces by Andrei Matvyeev. A year before his death he entered a +monastery. Golitsuin was a typical representative of Russian society of +the end of the 17th century in its transition from barbarism to +civilization. In many respects he was far in advance of his age. He was +highly educated, spoke Latin with graceful fluency, frequented the +society of scholars and had his children carefully educated according to +the best European models. Yet this eminent, this superior personage was +an habitual drunkard, an uncouth savage who intruded upon the +hospitality of wealthy foreigners, and was not ashamed to seize upon any +dish he took a fancy to, and send it home to his wife. It was his +reckless drunkenness which ultimately ruined him in the estimation of +Peter the Great, despite his previous inestimable services. + + See S. Solovev, _History of Russia_ (Rus.), vol. xiv. (Moscow, 1858); + R. N. Bain, _The First Romanovs_ (London, 1905). (R. N. B.) + + + + +GOLITSUIN, DMITRY MIKHAILOVICH (1665-1737), Russian statesman, was sent +in 1697 to Italy to learn "military affairs"; in 1704 he was appointed +to the command of an auxiliary corps in Poland against Charles XII.; +from 1711 to 1718 he was governor of Byelogorod. In 1718 he was +appointed president of the newly erected _Kammer Kollegium_ and a +senator. In May 1723 he was implicated in the disgrace of the +vice-chancellor Shafirov and was deprived of all his offices and +dignities, which he only recovered through the mediation of the empress +Catherine I. After the death of Peter the Great, Golitsuin became the +recognized head of the old Conservative party which had never forgiven +Peter for putting away Eudoxia and marrying the plebeian Martha +Skavronskaya. But the reformers, as represented by Alexander Menshikov +and Peter Tolstoi, prevailed; and Golitsuin remained in the background +till the fall of Menshikov, 1727. During the last years of Peter II. +(1728-1730), Golitsuin was the most prominent statesman in Russia and +his high aristocratic theories had full play. On the death of Peter II. +he conceived the idea of limiting the autocracy by subordinating it to +the authority of the supreme privy council, of which he was president. +He drew up a form of constitution which Anne of Courland, the newly +elected Russian empress, was forced to sign at Mittau before being +permitted to proceed to St Petersburg. Anne lost no time in repudiating +this constitution, and never forgave its authors. Golitsuin was left in +peace, however, and lived for the most part in retirement, till 1736, +when he was arrested on suspicion of being concerned in the conspiracy +of his son-in-law Prince Constantine Cantimir. This, however, was a mere +pretext, it was for his anti-monarchical sentiments that he was really +prosecuted. A court, largely composed of his antagonists, condemned him +to death, but the empress reduced the sentence to lifelong imprisonment +in Schlusselburg and confiscation of all his estates. He died in his +prison on the 14th of April 1737, after three months of confinement. + + See R. N. Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London, 1897). + (R. N. B.) + + + + +GOLITSUIN, VASILY VASILEVICH (1643-1714), Russian statesman, spent his +early days at the court of Tsar Alexius where he gradually rose to the +rank of boyar. In 1676 he was sent to the Ukraine to keep in order the +Crimean Tatars and took part in the Chigirin campaign. Personal +experience of the inconveniences and dangers of the prevailing system of +preferment, the so-called _myestnichestvo_, or rank priority, which had +paralysed the Russian armies for centuries, induced him to propose its +abolition, which was accomplished by Tsar Theodore III. (1678). The May +revolution of 1682 placed Golitsuin at the head of the _Posolsky +Prikaz_, or ministry of foreign affairs, and during the regency of +Sophia, sister of Peter the Great, whose lover he became, he was the +principal minister of state (1682-1689) and "keeper of the great seal," +a title bestowed upon only two Russians before him, Athonasy +Orduin-Nashchokin and Artamon Matvyeev. In home affairs his influence +was insignificant, but his foreign policy was distinguished by the peace +with Poland in 1683, whereby Russia at last recovered Kiev. By the terms +of the same treaty, he acceded to the grand league against the Porte, +but his two expeditions against the Crimea (1687 and 1689), "the First +Crimean War," were unsuccessful and made him extremely unpopular. Only +with the utmost difficulty could Sophia get the young tsar Peter to +decorate the defeated commander-in-chief as if he had returned a victor. +In the civil war between Sophia and Peter (August-September 1689), +Golitsuin half-heartedly supported his mistress and shared her ruin. His +life was spared owing to the supplications of his cousin Boris, but he +was deprived of his boyardom, his estates were confiscated and he was +banished successively to Kargopol, Mezen and Kologora, where he died on +the 21st of April 1714. Golitsuin was unusually well educated. He +understood German and Greek as well as his mother-tongue, and could +express himself fluently in Latin. He was a great friend of foreigners, +who generally alluded to him as "the great Golitsuin." + +His brother MIKHAIL (1674-1730) was a celebrated soldier, who is best +known for his governorship of Finland (1714-1721), where his admirable +qualities earned the remembrance of the people whom he had conquered. +And Mikhail's son Alexander (1718-1783) was a diplomat and soldier, who +rose to be field-marshal and governor of St Petersburg. + + See R. N. Bain, _The First Romanovs_ (London, 1905); A. Bruckner, + _Furst Golizin_ (Leipzig, 1887); S. Solovev, _History of Russia_ + (Rus.), vols. xiii.-xiv. (Moscow, 1858, &c.). (R. N. B.) + + + + +GOLIUS or (GOHL), JACOBUS (1596-1667), Dutch Orientalist, was born at +the Hague in 1596, and studied at the university of Leiden, where in +Arabic and other Eastern languages he was the most distinguished pupil +of Erpenius. In 1622 he accompanied the Dutch embassy to Morocco, and on +his return he was chosen to succeed Erpenius (1624). In the following +year he set out on a Syrian and Arabian tour from which he did not +return until 1629. The remainder of his life was spent at Leiden where +he held the chair of mathematics as well as that of Arabic. He died on +the 28th of September 1667. + + His most important work is the _Lexicon Arabico-Latinum_, fol., + Leiden, 1653, which, based on the _Sihah_ of Al-Jauhari, was only + superseded by the corresponding work of Freytag. Among his earlier + publications may be mentioned editions of various Arabic texts + (_Proverbia quaedam Alis, imperatoris Muslemici, et Carmen + Tograipoetae doctissimi, necnon dissertatio quaedam Aben Synae_, 1629; + and _Ahmedis Arabsiadae vitae et rerum gestarum Timuri, qui vulgo + Tamer, lanes dicitur, historia_, 1636). In 1656 he published a new + edition, with considerable additions, of the _Grammatica Arabica_ of + Erpenius. After his death, there was found among his papers a + _Dictionarium Persico-Latinum_ which was published, with additions, by + Edmund Castell in his _Lexicon heptaglotton_ (1669). Golius also + edited, translated and annotated the astronomical treatise of Alfragan + (_Muhammedis, filii Ketiri Ferganensis, qui vulgo Alfraganus dicitur, + elementa astronomica Arabice et Latine_, 1669). + + + + +GOLLNOW, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania, on +the right bank of the Ihna, 14 m. N.N.E. of Stettin, with which it has +communication by rail and steamer. Pop. (1905) 8539. It possesses two +Evangelical churches, a synagogue and some small manufactures. Gollnow +was founded in 1190, and was raised to the rank of a town in 1268. It +was for a time a Hanse town, and came into the possession of Prussia in +1720, having belonged to Sweden since 1648. + + + + +GOLOSH, or GALOSH (from the Fr. _galoche_, Low Lat. _calopedes_, a +wooden shoe or clog; an adaptation of the Gr. [Greek: kalopodion], a +diminutive formed of [Greek: kalon], wood, and [Greek: pous], foot), +originally a wooden shoe or patten, or merely a wooden sole fastened to +the foot by a strap or cord. In the middle ages "galosh" was a general +term for a boot or shoe, particularly one with a wooden sole. In modern +usage, it is an outer shoe worn in bad weather to protect the inner one, +and keep the feet dry. Goloshes are now almost universally made of +rubber, and in the United States they are known as "rubbers" simply, the +word golosh being rarely if ever used. In the bootmakers' trade, a +"golosh" is the piece of leather, of a make stronger than, or different +from that of the "uppers," which runs around the bottom part of a boot +or shoe, just above the sole. + + + + +GOLOVIN, FEDOR ALEKSYEEVICH, COUNT (d. 1706), Russian statesman, learnt, +like so many of his countrymen in later times, the business of a ruler +in the Far East. During the regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the +Great, he was sent to the Amur to defend the new Muscovite fortress of +Albazin against the Chinese. In 1689 he concluded with the Celestial +empire the treaty of Nerchinsk, by which the line of the Amur, as far as +its tributary the Gorbitsa, was retroceded to China because of the +impossibility of seriously defending it. In Peter's grand embassy to the +West in 1697 Golovin occupied the second place immediately after Lefort. +It was his chief duty to hire foreign sailors and obtain everything +necessary for the construction and complete equipment of a fleet. On +Lefort's death, in March 1699, he succeeded him as admiral-general. The +same year he was created the first Russian count, and was also the first +to be decorated with the newly-instituted Russian order of St Andrew. +The conduct of foreign affairs was at the same time entrusted to him, +and from 1699 to his death he was "the premier minister of the tsar." +Golovin's first achievement as foreign minister was to supplement the +treaty of Carlowitz, by which peace with Turkey had only been secured +for three years, by concluding with the Porte a new treaty at +Constantinople (June 13, 1700), by which the term of the peace was +extended to thirty years and, besides other concessions, the Azov +district and a strip of territory extending thence to Kuban were ceded +to Russia. He also controlled, with consummate ability, the operations +of the brand-new Russian diplomatists at the various foreign courts. His +superiority over all his Muscovite contemporaries was due to the fact +that he was already a statesman, in the modern sense, while they were +still learning the elements of statesmanship. His death was an +irreparable loss to the tsar, who wrote upon the despatch announcing it, +the words "Peter filled with grief." + + See R. N. Bain, _The First Romanovs_ (London, 1905). (R. N. B.) + + + + +GOLOVKIN, GAVRIIL IVANOVICH, COUNT (1660-1734), Russian statesman, was +attached (1677), while still a lad, to the court of the tsarevitch +Peter, afterwards Peter the Great, with whose mother Natalia he was +connected, and vigilantly guarded him during the disquieting period of +the regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the Great (1682-1689). He +accompanied the young tsar abroad on his first foreign tour, and worked +by his side in the dockyards of Saardam. In 1706 he succeeded Golovin in +the direction of foreign affairs, and was created the first Russian +grand-chancellor on the field of Poltava (1709). Golovkin held this +office for twenty-five years. In the reign of Catherine I. he became a +member of the supreme privy council which had the chief conduct of +affairs during this and the succeeding reigns. The empress also +entrusted him with her last will whereby she appointed the young Peter +II. her successor and Golovkin one of his guardians. On the death of +Peter II. in 1730 he declared openly in favour of Anne, duchess of +Courland, in opposition to the aristocratic Dolgorukis and Golitsuins, +and his determined attitude on behalf of autocracy was the chief cause +of the failure of the proposed constitution, which would have converted +Russia into a limited monarchy. Under Anne he was a member of the first +cabinet formed in Russia, but had less influence in affairs than +Ostermann and Munnich. In 1707 he was created a count of the Holy Roman +empire, and in 1710 a count of the Russian empire. He was one of the +wealthiest, and at the same time one of the stingiest, magnates of his +day. His ignorance of any language but his own made his intercourse with +foreign ministers very inconvenient. + + See R. N. Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London, 1897). + (R. N. B.) + + + + +GOLOVNIN, VASILY MIKHAILOVICH (1776-1831), Russian vice-admiral, was +born on the 20th of April 1776 in the village of Gulynki in the province +of Ryazan, and received his education at the Cronstadt naval school. +From 1801 to 1806 he served as a volunteer in the English navy. In 1807 +he was commissioned by the Russian government to survey the coasts of +Kamchatka and of Russian America, including also the Kurile Islands. +Golovnin sailed round the Cape of Good Hope, and on the 5th of October +1809, arrived in Kamchatka. In 1810, whilst attempting to survey the +coast of the island of Kunashiri, he was seized by the Japanese, and was +retained by them as a prisoner, until the 13th of October 1813, when he +was liberated, and in the following year he returned to St Petersburg. +Soon after this the government planned another expedition, which had for +its object the circumnavigation of the globe by a Russian ship, and +Golovnin was appointed to the command. He started from St Petersburg on +the 7th of September 1817, sailed round Cape Horn, and arrived in +Kamchatka in the following May. He returned to Europe by way of the Cape +of Good Hope, and landed at St Petersburg on the 17th of September 1819. +He died on the 12th of July 1831. + + Golovnin published several works, of which the following are the most + important:--_Journey to Kamchatka_ (2 vols., 1819); _Journey Round the + World_ (2 vols., 1822); and _Narrative of my Captivity in Japan, + 1811-1813_ (2 vols., 1816). The last has been translated into French, + German and English, the English edition being in three volumes (1824). + A complete edition of his works was published at St Petersburg in five + volumes in 1864, with maps and charts, and a biography of the author + by N. Grech. + + + + +GOLTZ, BOGUMIL (1801-1870), German humorist and satirist, was born at +Warsaw on the 20th of March 1801. After attending the classical schools +of Marienwerder and Konigsberg, he learnt farming on an estate near +Thorn, and in 1821 entered the university of Breslau as a student of +philosophy. But he soon abandoned an academical career, and, after +returning for a while to country life, retired to the small town of +Gollub, where he devoted himself to literary studies. In 1847 he settled +at Thorn, "the home of Copernicus," where he died on the 12th of +November 1870. Goltz is best known to literary fame by his _Buch der +Kindheit_ (Frankfort, 1847; 4th ed., Berlin, 1877), in which, after the +style of Jean Paul, and Adalbert Stifter, but with a more modern +realism, he gives a charming and idyllic description of the impressions +of his own childhood. Among his other works must be noted _Ein +Jugendleben_ (1852); _Der Mensch und die Leute_ (1858); _Zur +Charakteristik und Naturgeschichte der Frauen_ (1859); _Zur Geschichte +und Charakteristik des deutschen Genius_ (1864), and _Die Weltklugheit +und die Lebensweisheit_ (1869). + + Goltz's works have not been collected, but a selection will be found + in Reclam's _Universalbibliothek_ (ed. by P. Stein, 1901 and 1906). + See O. Roquette, _Siebzig Jahre_, i. (1894). + + + + +GOLTZ, COLMAR, FREIHERR VON DER (1843- ), Prussian soldier and +military writer, was born at Bielkenfeld, East Prussia, on the 12th of +August 1843, and entered the Prussian infantry in 1861. In 1864 he +entered the Berlin Military Academy, but was temporarily withdrawn in +1866 to serve in the Austrian war, in which he was wounded at Trautenau. +In 1867 he joined the topographical section of the general staff, and at +the beginning of the Franco-German War of 1870-71 was attached to the +staff of Prince Frederick Charles. He took part in the battles of +Vionville and Gravelotte and in the siege of Metz. After its fall he +served under the Red Prince in the campaign of the Loire, including the +battles of Orleans and Le Mans. He was appointed in 1871 professor at +the military school at Potsdam, and the same year was promoted captain +and placed in the historical section of the general staff. It was then +he wrote _Die Operationen der II. Armee bis zur Capitulation von Metz_ +and _Die Sieben Tage von Le Mans_, both published in 1873. In 1874 he +was appointed to the staff of the 6th division, and while so employed +wrote _Die Operationen der II. Armee an der Loire and Leon Gambetta und +seine Armeen_, published in 1875 and 1877 respectively. The latter was +translated into French the same year, and both are impartially written. +The views expressed in the latter work led to his being sent back to +regimental duty for a time, but it was not long before he returned to +the military history section. In 1878 von der Goltz was appointed +lecturer in military history at the military academy at Berlin, where he +remained for five years and attained the rank of major. He published, in +1883, _Rossbach und Jena_ (new and revised edition, _Von Rossbach bis +Jena und Auerstadt_, 1906), _Das Volk in Waffen_ (English translation +_The Nation in Arms_), both of which quickly became military classics, +and during his residence in Berlin contributed many articles to the +military journals. In June 1883 his services were lent to Turkey to +reorganize the military establishments of the country. He spent twelve +years in this work, the result of which appeared in the Greco-Turkish +War of 1897, and he was made a pasha and in 1895 a _mushir_ or +field-marshal. On his return to Germany in 1896 he became a +lieutenant-general and commander of the 5th division, and in 1898, head +of the Engineer and Pioneer Corps and inspector-general of +fortifications. In 1900 he was made general of infantry and in 1902 +commander of the I. army corps. In 1907 he was made inspector-general of +the newly created sixth army inspection established at Berlin, and in +1908 was given the rank of colonel-general (_Generaloberst_). + + In addition to the works already named and frequent contributions to + military periodical literature, he wrote _Kriegfuhrung_ (1895, later + edition _Krieg- und Heerfuhrung_, 1901; Eng. trans. _The Conduct of + War_); _Der thessalische Krieg_ (Berlin, 1898); _Ein Ausflug nach + Macedonien_ (1894); _Anatolische Ausfluge_ (1896); a map and + description of the environs of Constantinople; _Von Jena bis Pr. + Eylau_ (1907), a most important historical work, carrying on the story + of _Rossbach und Jena_ to the peace of Tilsit, &c. + + + + +GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK (1558-1617), Dutch painter and engraver, was born in +1558 at Mulebrecht, in the duchy of Julich. After studying painting on +glass for some years under his father, he was taught the use of the +burin by Dirk Volkertsz Coornhert, a Dutch engraver of mediocre +attainment, whom he soon surpassed, but who retained his services for +his own advantage. He was also employed by Philip Galle to engrave a set +of prints of the history of Lucretia. At the age of twenty-one he +married a widow somewhat advanced in years, whose money enabled him to +establish at Haarlem an independent business; but his unpleasant +relations with her so affected his health that he found it advisable in +1590 to make a tour through Germany to Italy, where he acquired an +intense admiration for the works of Michelangelo, which led him to +surpass that master in the grotesqueness and extravagance of his +designs. He returned to Haarlem considerably improved in health, and +laboured there at his art till his death, on the 1st of January 1617. +Goltzius ought not to be judged chiefly by the works he valued most, his +eccentric imitations of Michelangelo. His portraits, though mostly +miniatures, are master-pieces of their kind, both on account of their +exquisite finish, and as fine studies of individual character. Of his +larger heads, the life-size portrait of himself is probably the most +striking example. His "master-pieces," so called from their being +attempts to imitate the style of the old masters, have perhaps been +overpraised. In his command of the burin Goltzius is not surpassed even +by Durer; but his technical skill is often unequally aided by higher +artistic qualities. Even, however, his eccentricities and extravagances +are greatly counterbalanced by the beauty and freedom of his execution. +He began painting at the age of forty-two, but none of his works in this +branch of art--some of which are in the imperial collection at +Vienna--display any special excellences. He also executed a few pieces +in chiaroscuro. + + His prints amount to more than 300 plates, and are fully described in + Bartsch's _Peintre-graveur_, and Weigel's supplement to the same work. + + + + +GOLUCHOWSKI, AGENOR, COUNT (1849- ), Austrian statesman, was born on +the 25th of March 1849. His father, descended from an old and noble +Polish family, was governor of Galicia. Entering the diplomatic service, +the son was in 1872 appointed attache to the Austrian embassy at Berlin, +where he became secretary of legation, and thence he was transferred to +Paris. After rising to the rank of counsellor of legation, he was in +1887 made minister at Bucharest, where he remained till 1893. In these +positions he acquired a great reputation as a firm and skilful +diplomatist, and on the retirement of Count Kalnoky in May 1895 was +chosen to succeed him as Austro-Hungarian minister for foreign affairs. +The appointment of a Pole caused some surprise in view of the importance +of Austrian relations with Russia (then rather strained) and Germany, +but the choice was justified by events. In his speech of that year to +the delegations he declared the maintenance of the Triple Alliance, and +in particular the closest intimacy with Germany, to be the keystone of +Austrian policy; at the same time he dwelt on the traditional friendship +between Austria and Great Britain, and expressed his desire for a good +understanding with all the powers. In pursuance of this policy he +effected an understanding with Russia, by which neither power was to +exert any separate influence in the Balkan peninsula, and thus removed a +long-standing cause of friction. This understanding was formally +ratified during a visit to St Petersburg on which he accompanied the +emperor in April 1897. He took the lead in establishing the European +concert during the Armenian troubles of 1896, and again resisted +isolated action on the part of any of the great powers during the Cretan +troubles and the Greco-Turkish War. In November 1897, when the +Austro-Hungarian flag was insulted at Mersina, he threatened to bombard +the town if instant reparation were not made, and by his firm attitude +greatly enhanced Austrian prestige in the East. In his speech to the +delegations in 1898 he dwelt on the necessity of expanding Austria's +mercantile marine, and of raising the fleet to a strength which, while +not vying with the fleets of the great naval powers, would ensure +respect for the Austrian flag wherever her interests needed protection. +He also hinted at the necessity for European combination to resist +American competition. The understanding with Russia in the matter of the +Balkan States temporarily endangered friendly relations with Italy, who +thought her interests threatened, until Goluchowski guaranteed in 1898 +the existing order. He further encouraged a good understanding with +Italy by personal conferences with the Italian foreign minister, +Tittoni, in 1904 and 1905. Count Lamsdorff visited Vienna in December +1902, when arrangements were made for concerted action in imposing on +the sultan reforms in the government of Macedonia. Further steps were +taken after Goluchowski's interview with the tsar at Murzsteg in 1903, +and two civil agents representing the countries were appointed for two +years to ensure the execution of the promised reforms. This period was +extended in 1905, when Goluchowski was the chief mover in forcing the +Porte, by an international naval demonstration at Mitylene, to accept +financial control by the powers in Macedonia. At the conference +assembled at Algeciras to settle the Morocco Question, Austria supported +the German position, and after the close of the conferences the emperor +William II. telegraphed to Goluchowski: "You have proved yourself a +brilliant second on the duelling ground and you may feel certain of like +services from me in similar circumstances." This pledge was redeemed in +1908, when Germany's support of Austria in the Balkan crisis proved +conclusive. By the Hungarians, however, Goluchowski was hated; he was +suspected of having inspired the emperor's opposition to the use of +Magyar in the Hungarian army, and was made responsible for the slight +offered to the Magyar deputation by Francis Joseph in September 1905. So +long as he remained in office there was no hope of arriving at a +settlement of a matter which threatened the disruption of the Dual +monarchy, and on the 11th of October 1906 he was forced to resign. + + + + +GOMAL, or GUMAL, the name of a river of Afghanistan, and of a mountain +pass on the Dera Ismail Khan border of the North-West Frontier Province +of British India. The Gomal river, one of the most important rivers in +Afghanistan, rises in the unexplored regions to the south-east of +Ghazni. Its chief tributary is the Zhob. Within the limits of British +territory the Gomal forms the boundary between the North-West Frontier +Province and Baluchistan, and more or less between the Pathan and Baluch +races. The Gomal pass is the most important pass on the Indian frontier +between the Khyber and the Bolan. It connects Dera Ismail Khan with the +Gomal valley in Afghanistan, and has formed for centuries the outlet for +the povindah trade. Until the year 1889 this pass was almost unknown to +the Anglo-Indian official; but in that year the government of India +decided that, in order to maintain the safety of the railway as well as +to perfect communication between Quetta and the Punjab, the Zhob valley +should, like the Bori valley, be brought under British protection and +control, and the Gomal pass should be opened. After the Waziristan +expedition of 1894 Wana was occupied by British troops in order to +dominate the Gomal and Waziristan; but on the formation of the +North-West Frontier Province in 1901 it was decided to replace these +troops by the South Waziristan militia, who now secure the safety of the +pass. + + + + +GOMARUS, FRANZ (1563-1641), Dutch theologian, was born at Bruges on the +30th of January 1563. His parents, having embraced the principles of the +Reformation, emigrated to the Palatinate in 1578, in order to enjoy +freedom to profess their new faith, and they sent their son to be +educated at Strassburg under Johann Sturm (1507-1589). He remained there +three years, and then went in 1580 to Neustadt, whither the professors +of Heidelberg had been driven by the elector-palatine because they were +not Lutherans. Here his teachers in theology were Zacharius Ursinus +(1534-1583), Hieronymus Zanchius (1560-1590), and Daniel Tossanus +(1541-1602). Crossing to England towards the end of 1582, he attended +the lectures of John Rainolds (1549-1607) at Oxford, and those of +William Whitaker (1548-1595) at Cambridge. He graduated at Cambridge in +1584, and then went to Heidelberg, where the faculty had been by this +time re-established. He was pastor of a Reformed Dutch church in +Frankfort from 1587 till 1593, when the congregation was dispersed by +persecution. In 1594 he was appointed professor of theology at Leiden, +and before going thither received from the university of Heidelberg the +degree of doctor. He taught quietly at Leiden till 1603, when Jakobus +Arminius came to be one of his colleagues in the theological faculty, +and began to teach Pelagian doctrines and to create a new party in the +university. Gomarus immediately set himself earnestly to oppose these +views in his classes at college, and was supported by Johann B. +Bogermann (1570-1637), who afterwards became professor of theology at +Franeker. Arminius "sought to make election dependent upon faith, whilst +they sought to enforce absolute predestination as the rule of faith, +according to which the whole Scriptures are to be interpreted" (J. A. +Dorner, _History of Protestant Theology_, i. p. 417). Gomarus then +became the leader of the opponents of Arminius, who from that +circumstance came to be known as Gomarists. He engaged twice in personal +disputation with Arminius in the assembly of the estates of Holland in +1608, and was one of five Gomarists who met five Arminians or +Remonstrants in the same assembly of 1609. On the death of Arminius +shortly after this time, Konrad Vorstius (1569-1622), who sympathized +with his views, was appointed to succeed him, in spite of the keen +opposition of Gomarus and his friends; and Gomarus took his defeat so +ill that he resigned his post, and went to Middleburg in 1611, where he +became preacher at the Reformed church, and taught theology and Hebrew +in the newly founded _Illustre Schule_. From this place he was called in +1614 to a chair of theology at Saumur, where he remained four years, and +then accepted a call as professor of theology and Hebrew to Groningen, +where he stayed till his death on the 11th of January 1641. He took a +leading part in the synod of Dort, assembled in 1618 to judge of the +doctrines of Arminius. He was a man of ability, enthusiasm and learning, +a considerable Oriental scholar, and also a keen controversialist. He +took part in revising the Dutch translation of the Old Testament in +1633, and after his death a book by him, called the _Lyra Davidis_, was +published, which sought to explain the principles of Hebrew metre, and +which created some controversy at the time, having been opposed by Louis +Cappel. His works were collected and published in one volume folio, in +Amsterdam in 1645. He was succeeded at Groningen in 1643 by his pupil +Samuel Maresius (1599-1673). + + + + +GOMBERVILLE, MARIN LE ROY, SIEUR DU PARC ET DE (1600-1674), French +novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born at Paris in 1600. At +fourteen years of age he wrote a volume of verse, at twenty a _Discours +sur l'histoire_ and at twenty-two a pastoral, _La Carithee_, which is +really a novel. The persons in it, though still disguised as shepherds +and shepherdesses, represent real persons for whose identification the +author himself provides a key. This was followed by a more ambitious +attempt, _Polexandre_ (5 vols. 1632-1637). The hero wanders through the +world in search of the island home of the princess Alcidiane. It +contains much history and geography; the travels of Polexandre extending +to such unexpected places as Benin, the Canary Islands, Mexico and the +Antilles, and incidentally we learn all that was then known of Mexican +history. _Cytheree_ (4 vols.) appeared in 1630-1642, and in 1651 the +_Jeune Alcidiane_, intended to undo any harm the earlier novels may have +done, for Gomberville became a Jansenist and spent the last twenty-five +years of his life in pious retirement. He was one of the earliest and +most energetic members of the Academy. He died in Paris on the 14th of +June 1674. + + + + +GOMER, the biblical name of a race appearing in the table of nations +(Gen. x. 2), as the "eldest son" of Japheth and the "father" of +Ashkenaz, Riphath and Togarmah; and in Ezek. xxxviii. 6 as a companion +of "the house of Togarmah in the uttermost parts of the north," and an +ally of Gog; both Gomer and Togarmah being credited with "hordes,"[1] +E.V., i.e. "bands" or "armies." The "sons" of Gomer are probably tribes +of north-east Asia Minor and Armenia, and Gomer is identified with the +Cimmerians. These are referred to in cuneiform inscriptions under the +Assyrian name _gimmira_ (_gimirrai_) as raiding Asia Minor from the +north and north-east of the Black Sea, and overrunning Lydia in the 7th +century B.C. (see CIMMERII, SCYTHIA, LYDIA). They do not seem to have +made any permanent settlements, unless some such are indicated by the +fact that the Armenians called Cappadocia _Gamir_. It is, however, +suggested that this name is borrowed from the Old Testament.[2] + + The name Gomer (Gomer bath Diblaim) was also borne by the unfaithful + wife of Hosea, whom he pardoned and took back (Hosea i. 3). Hosea uses + these incidents as symbolic of the sin, punishment and redemption of + Israel, but there is no need to regard Gomer as a purely imaginary + person. (W. H. Be.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] [Hebrew: agaf] _Agaph_, a word peculiar to Ezekiel, Clarendon + Press _Heb. Lex._ + + [2] A. Jeremias, _Das A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients_, pp. 145 f. + + + + +GOMERA, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part of the Spanish +archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 15,358; area 144 +sq. m. Gomera lies 20 m. W.S.W. of Teneriffe. Its greatest length is +about 23 m. The coast is precipitous and the interior mountainous, but +Gomera has the most wood and is the best watered of the group. The +inhabitants are very poor. Dromedaries are bred on Gomera in large +numbers. San Sebastian (3187) is the chief town and a port. It was +visited by Columbus on his first voyage of discovery in 1492. + + + + +GOMEZ, DIOGO (DIEGO) (fl. 1440-1482), Portuguese seaman, explorer and +writer. We first trace him as a _cavalleiro_ of the royal household; in +1440 he was appointed receiver of the royal customs--in 1466 judge--at +Cintra (_juiz das causas e feitorias contadas de Cintra_); on the 5th of +March 1482 he was confirmed in the last-named office. He wrote, +especially for the benefit of Martin Behaim, a Latin chronicle of great +value, dealing with the life and discoveries of Prince Henry the +Navigator, and divided into three parts: (1) _De prima inventione +Guineae_; (2) _De insulis primo inventis in mare (sic) Occidentis_; (3) +_De inventione insularum de Acores_. This chronicle contains the only +contemporary account of the rediscovery of the Azores by the Portuguese +in Prince Henry's service, and is also noteworthy for its clear +ascription to the prince of deliberate scientific and commercial purpose +in exploration. For, on the one hand, the infante sent out his caravels +to search for new lands (_ad quaerendas terras_) from his wish to know +the more distant parts of the western ocean, and in the hope of finding +islands or _terra firma_ beyond the limits laid down by Ptolemy (_ultra +descriptionem Tolomei_); on the other hand, his information as to the +native trade from Tunis to Timbuktu and the Gambia helped to inspire his +persistent exploration of the West African coast--"to seek those lands +by way of the sea." Chart and quadrant were used on the prince's +vessels, as by Gomez himself on reaching the Cape Verde Islands; Henry, +at the time of Diogo's first voyage, was in correspondence with an Oran +merchant who kept him informed upon events even in the Gambia +_hinterland_; and, before the discovery of the Senegal and Cape Verde in +1445, Gomez' royal patron had already gained reliable information of +_some_ route to Timbuktu. In the first part of his chronicle Gomez tells +how, no long time after the disastrous expedition of the Danish nobleman +"Vallarte" (Adalbert) in 1448, he was sent out in command of three +vessels along the West African coast, accompanied by one Jacob, an +Indian interpreter, to be employed in the event of reaching India. After +passing the Rio Grande, beyond Cape Verde, strong currents checked his +course; his officers and men feared that they were approaching the +extremity of the ocean, and he put back to the Gambia. He ascended this +river a considerable distance, to the negro town of "Cantor," whither +natives came from "Kukia" and Timbuktu for trade; he gives elaborate +descriptions of the negro world he had now penetrated, refers to the +Sierra Leone ("Serra Lyoa") Mountains, sketches the course of this +range, and says much of Kukia (in the upper Niger basin?), the centre of +the West African gold trade, and the resort of merchants and caravans +from Tunis, Fez, Cairo and "all the land of the Saracens." Mahommedanism +was already dominant at the Cambria estuary, but Gomez seems to have won +over at least one important chief, with his court, to Christianity and +Portuguese allegiance. Another African voyage, apparently made in 1462, +two years after Henry the Navigator's death (though assigned by some to +1460), resulted in a fresh discovery of the Cape Verde Islands, already +found by Cadamosto (q.v.). To the island of Santiago Gomez, like his +Venetian forerunner, claims to have given its present name. His +narrative is a leading authority on the last illness and death of Prince +Henry, as well as on the life, achievements and purposes of the latter; +here alone is recorded what appears to have been the earliest of the +navigator's exploring ventures, that which under Joao de Trasto reached +Grand Canary in 1415. + + Of Gomez' chronicle there is only one MS., viz. _Cod. Hisp._ 27, in + the Hof- und Staats-Bibliothek, Munich; the original Latin text was + printed by Schmeller "Uber Valentim Fernandez Alemao" in the + _Abhandlungen der philosoph.-philolog. Kl. der bayerisch. Akademie der + Wissenschaften_, vol. iv., part iii. (Munich, 1847); see also Sophus + Ruge, "Die Entdeckung der Azoren," pp. 149-180 (esp. 178-179) in the + 27th _Jahresbericht des Vereins fur Erdkunde_ (Dresden, 1901); Jules + Mees, _Histoire de la decouverte des iles Acores_, pp. 44-45, 125-127 + (Ghent, 1901); R. H. Major, _Life of Prince Henry the Navigator_, pp. + xviii., xix., 64-65, 287-299, 303-305 (London, 1868); C. R. Beazley, + _Prince Henry the Navigator_, 289-298, 304-305; and Introduction to + Azurara's _Discovery and Conquest of Guinea_, ii., iv., xiv., + xxv.-xxvii., xcii.-xcvi. (London, 1899). (C. R. B.) + + + + +GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA, GERTRUDIS (1814-1873), Spanish dramatist and poet, +was born at Puerto Principe (Cuba) on the 23rd of March 1814, and +removed to Spain in 1836. Her _Poesias liricas_ (1841), issued with a +laudatory preface by Gallego, made a most favourable impression and were +republished with additional poems in 1850. In 1846 she married a +diplomatist named Pedro Sabater, became a widow within a year, and in +1853 married Colonel Domingo Verdugo. Meanwhile she had published _Sab_ +(1839), _Guatimozin_ (1846), and other novels of no great importance. +She obtained, however, a series of successes on the stage with _Alfonso +Munio_ (1844), a tragedy in the new romantic manner; with _Saul_ (1849), +a biblical drama indirectly suggested by Alfieri; and with _Baltasar_ +(1858), a piece which bears some resemblance to Byron's _Sardanapalus_. +Her commerce with the world had not diminished her natural piety, and, +on the death of her second husband, she found so much consolation in +religion that she had thoughts of entering a convent. She died at Madrid +on the 2nd of February 1873, full of mournful forebodings as to the +future of her adopted country. It is impossible to agree with Villemain +that "le genie de don Luis de Leon et de sainte Therese a reparu sous le +voile funebre de Gomez de Avellaneda," for she has neither the monk's +mastery of poetic form nor the nun's sublime simplicity of soul. She has +a grandiose tragical vision of life, a vigorous eloquence rooted in +pietistic pessimism, a dramatic gift effective in isolated acts or +scenes; but she is deficient in constructive power and in intellectual +force, and her lyrics, though instinct with melancholy beauty, or the +tenderness of resigned devotion, too often lack human passion and +sympathy. The edition of her _Obras literarias_ (5 vols., 1869-1871), +still incomplete, shows a scrupulous care for minute revision uncommon +in Spanish writers; but her emendations are seldom happy. But she is +interesting as a link between the classic and romantic schools of +poetry, and, whatever her artistic shortcomings, she has no rivals of +her own sex in Spain during the 19th century. + + + + +GOMM, SIR WILLIAM MAYNARD (1784-1875), British soldier, was gazetted to +the 9th Foot at the age of ten, in recognition of the services of his +father, Lieut.-Colonel William Gomm, who was killed in the attack on +Guadaloupe (1794). He joined his regiment as a lieutenant in 1799, and +fought in Holland under the duke of York, and subsequently was with +Pulteney's Ferrol expedition. In 1803 he became Captain, and shortly +afterwards qualified as a staff officer at the High Wycombe military +college. On the general staff he was with Cathcart at Copenhagen, with +Wellington in the Peninsula, and on Moore's staff at Corunna. He was +also on Chatham's staff in the disastrous Walcheren expedition of 1809. +In 1810 he rejoined the Peninsular army as Leith's staff officer, and +took part in all the battles of 1810, 1811 and 1812, winning his +majority after Fuentes d'Onor and his lieutenant-colonelcy at Salamanca. +His careful reconnaissances and skilful leading were invaluable to +Wellington in the Vittoria campaign, and to the end of the war he was +one of the most trusted men of his staff. His reward was a transfer to +the Coldstream Guards and the K.C.B. In the Waterloo campaign he served +on the staff of the 5th British Division. From the peace until 1839 he +was employed on home service, becoming colonel in 1829 and major-general +in 1837. From 1839 to 1842 he commanded the troops in Jamaica. He became +lieutenant-general in 1846, and was sent out to be commander-in-chief in +India, arriving only to find that his appointment had been cancelled in +favour of Sir Charles Napier, whom, however, he eventually succeeded +(1850-1855). In 1854 he became general and in 1868 field marshal. In +1872 he was appointed constable of the Tower, and he died in 1875. He +was twice married, but had no children. His _Letters and Journals_ were +published by F. C. Carr-Gomm in 1881. Five "Field Marshal Gomm" +scholarships were afterwards founded in his memory at Keble College, +Oxford. + + + + +GOMPERS, SAMUEL (1850- ), American labour leader, was born in London +on the 27th of January 1850. He was put to work in a shoe-factory when +ten years old, but soon became apprenticed to a cigar-maker, removed to +New York in 1863, became a prominent member of the International +Cigar-makers' Union, was its delegate at the convention of the +Federation of Organized Trade and Labor Unions of the United States and +Canada, later known as the American Federation of Labor, of which he +became first president in 1882. He was successively re-elected up to +1895, when the opposition of the Socialist Labor Party, then attempting +to incorporate the Federation into itself, secured his defeat; he was +re-elected in the following year. In 1894 he became editor of the +Federation's organ, _The American Federationist_. + + + + +GOMPERZ, THEODOR (1832- ), German philosopher and classical scholar, +was born at Brunn on the 29th of March 1832. He studied at Brunn and at +Vienna under Herman Bonitz. Graduating at Vienna in 1867 he became +_Privatdozent_, and subsequently professor of classical philology +(1873). In 1882 he was elected a member of the Academy of Science. He +received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy _honoris causa_ from the +university of Konigsberg, and Doctor of Literature from the universities +of Dublin and Cambridge, and became correspondent for several learned +societies. His principal works are: _Demosthenes der Staatsmann_ (1864), +_Philodemi de ira liber_ (1864). _Traumdeutung und Zauberei_ (1866), +_Herkulanische Studien_ (1865-1866), _Beitrage zur Kritik und Erklarung +griech. Schriftsteller_ (7 vols., 1875-1900), _Neue Bruchstucke Epikurs_ +(1876), _Die Bruchstucke der griech. Tragiker und Cobets neueste +kritische Manier_ (1878), _Herodoteische Studien_ (1883), _Ein bisher +unbekanntes griech. Schriftsystem_ (1884), _Zu Philodems Buchern von der +Musik_ (1885), _Uber den Abschluss des herodoteischen Geschichtswerkes_ +(1886), _Platonische Aufsatze_ (3 vols., 1887-1905), _Zu Heraklits Lehre +und den Uberresten seines Werkes_ (1887), _Zu Aristoteles' Poetik_ (2 +parts, 1888-1896), _Uber die Charaktere Theophrasts_ (1888), _Nachlese +zu den Bruchstucken der griech. Tragiker_ (1888), _Die Apologie der +Heilkunst_ (1890), _Philodem und die asthetischen Schriften der +herculanischen Bibliothek_ (1891), _Die Schrift vom Staatswesen der +Athener_ (1891), _Die jungst entdeckten Uberreste einer den Platonischen +Phadon enthaltenden Papyrusrolle_ (1892), _Aus der Hekale des +Kallimachos_ (1893), _Essays und Erinnerungen_ (1905). He supervised a +translation of J. S. Mill's complete works (12 vols., Leipzig, +1869-1880), and wrote a life (Vienna, 1889) of Mill. His _Griechische +Denker_: _Geschichte der antiken Philosophie_ (vols. i. and ii., +Leipzig, 1893 and 1902) was translated into English by L. Magnus (vol. +i., 1901). + + + + +GONAGUAS ("borderers"), descendants of a very old cross between the +Hottentots and the Kaffirs, on the "ethnical divide" between the two +races, apparently before the arrival of the whites in South Africa. They +have been always a despised race and regarded as outcasts by the Bantu +peoples. They were threatened with extermination during the Kaffir wars, +but were protected by the British. At present they live in settled +communities under civil magistrates without any tribal organization, and +in some districts could be scarcely distinguished from the other natives +but for their broken Hottentot-Dutch-English speech. + + + + +GONCALVES DIAS, ANTONIO (1823-1864), Brazilian lyric poet, was born near +the town of Caxias, in Maranhao. From the university of Coimbra, in +Portugal, he returned in 1845 to his native province, well-equipped with +legal lore, but the literary tendency which was strong within him led +him to try his fortune as an author at Rio de Janeiro. Here he wrote for +the newspaper press, ventured to appear as a dramatist, and in 1846 +established his reputation by a volume of poems--_Primeiros +Cantos_--which appealed to the national feelings of his Brazilian +readers, were remarkable for their autobiographic impress, and by their +beauty of expression and rhythm placed their author at the head of the +lyric poets of his country. In 1848 he followed up his success by +_Segundos Cantos e sextilhas de Frei Antao_, in which, as the title +indicates, he puts a number of the pieces in the mouth of a simple old +Dominican friar; and in the following year, in fulfilment of the duties +of his new post as professor of Brazilian history in the Imperial +College of Pedro II. at Rio de Janeiro, he published an edition of +Berredo's _Annaes historicos do Maranhao_ and added a sketch of the +migrations of the Indian tribes. A third volume of poems, which appeared +with the title of _Ultimos Cantos_ in 1851, was practically the poet's +farewell to the service of the muse, for he spent the next eight years +engaged under government patronage in studying the state of public +instruction in the north and the educational institutions of Europe. On +his return to Brazil in 1860 he was appointed a member of an expedition +for the exploration of the province of Ceara, was forced in 1862 by the +state of his health to try the effects of another visit to Europe, and +died in September 1864, the vessel that was carrying him being wrecked +off his native shores. While in Germany he published at Leipzig a +complete collection of his lyrical poems, which went through several +editions, the four first cantos of an epic poem called _Os Tymbiras_ +(1857) and a _Diccionario da lingua Tupy_ (1858). + + A complete edition of the works of Dias has made its appearance at Rio + de Janeiro. See Wolf, _Bresil litteraire_ (Berlin, 1863); Innocencio + de Silva, _Diccionario bibliographico portuguez_, viii. 157; Sotero + dos Reis, _Curso de litteratura portugueza e brazileira_, iv. + (Maranhao, 1868); Jose Verissimo, _Estudos de literatura brazileira, + segunda serie_ (Rio, 1901). + + + + +GONCHAROV, IVAN ALEXANDROVICH (1812-1891), Russian novelist, was born +6/18 July 1812, being the son of a rich merchant in the town of +Simbirsk. At the age of ten he was placed in one of the gymnasiums at +Moscow, from which he passed, though not without some difficulty on +account of his ignorance of Greek, into the Moscow University. He read +many French works of fiction, and published a translation of one of the +novels of Eugene Sue. During his university career he devoted himself to +study, taking no interest in the political and Socialistic agitation +among his fellow-students. He was first employed as secretary to the +governor of Simbirsk, and afterwards in the ministry of finance at St +Petersburg. Being absorbed in bureaucratic work, Goncharov paid no +attention to the social questions then ardently discussed by such men as +Herzen, Aksakov and Bielinski. He began his literary career by +publishing translations from Schiller, Goethe and English novelists. His +first original work was _Obuiknovennaya Istoria_, "A Common Story" +(1847). In 1856 he sailed to Japan as secretary to Admiral Putiatin for +the purpose of negotiating a commercial treaty, and on his return to +Russia he published a description of the voyage under the title of "The +Frigate _Pallada_." His best work is _Oblomov_ (1857), which exposed the +laziness and apathy of the smaller landed gentry in Russia anterior to +the reforms of Alexander II. Russian critics have pronounced this work +to be a faithful characterization of Russia and the Russians. Dobrolubov +said of it, "Oblomofka [the country-seat of the Oblomovs] is our +fatherland: something of Oblomov is to be found in every one of us." +Peesarev, another celebrated critic, declared that "Oblomovism," as +Goncharov called the sum total of qualities with which he invested the +hero of his story, "is an illness fostered by the nature of the Slavonic +character and the life of Russian society." In 1858 Goncharov was +appointed a censor, and in 1868 he published another novel called +_Obreev_. He was not a voluminous writer, and during the latter part of +his life produced nothing of any importance. His death occurred on 15/27 +September 1891. + + + + +GONCOURT, DE, a name famous in French literary history. EDMOND LOUIS +ANTOINE HUOT DE GONCOURT was born at Nancy on the 26th of May 1822, and +died at Champrosay on the 16th of July 1896. JULES ALFRED HUOT DE +GONCOURT, his brother, was born in Paris on the 17th of December 1830, +and died in Paris on the 20th of June 1870. + +Writing always in collaboration, until the death of the younger, it was +their ambition to be not merely novelists, inventing a new kind of +novel, but historians; not merely historians, but the historians of a +particular century, and of what was intimate and what is unknown in it; +to be also discriminating, indeed innovating, critics of art, but of a +certain section of art, the 18th century, in France and Japan; and also +to collect pictures and bibelots, always of the French and Japanese 18th +century. Their histories (_Portraits intimes du XVIII^e siecle_ (1857), +_La Femme au XVIII^{e} siecle_ (1862), _La du Barry_ (1878), &c.) are +made entirely out of documents, autograph letters, scraps of costume, +engravings, songs, the unconscious self-revelations of the time; their +three volumes on _L'Art du XVIII^e siecle_ (1859-1875) deal with Watteau +and his followers in the same scrupulous, minutely enlightening way, +with all the detail of unpublished documents; and when they came to +write novels, it was with a similar attempt to give the inner, +undiscovered, minute truths of contemporary existence, the _inedit_ of +life. The same morbidly sensitive noting of the _inedit_, of whatever +came to them from their own sensations of things and people around them, +gives its curious quality to the nine volumes of the _Journal_, +1887-1896, which will remain, perhaps, the truest and most poignant +chapter of human history that they have written. Their novels, _Soeur +Philomene_ (1861), _Renee Mauperin_ (1864), _Germinie Lacerteux_ (1865), +_Manette Salomon_ (1865), _Madame Gervaisais_ (1869), and, by Edmond +alone, _La Fille Elisa_ (1878), _Les Freres Zemganno_ (1879), _La +Faustin_ (1882), _Cherie_ (1884), are, however, the work by which they +will live as artists. Learning something from Flaubert, and teaching +almost everything to Zola, they invented a new kind of novel, and their +novels are the result of a new vision of the world, in which the very +element of sight is decomposed, as in a picture of Monet. Seen through +the nerves, in this conscious abandonment to the tricks of the eyesight, +the world becomes a thing of broken patterns and conflicting colours, +and uneasy movement. A novel of the Goncourts is made up of an infinite +number of details, set side by side, every detail equally prominent. +While a novel of Flaubert, for all its detail, gives above all things an +impression of unity, a novel of the Goncourts deliberately dispenses +with unity in order to give the sense of the passing of life, the heat +and form of its moments as they pass. It is written in little chapters, +sometimes no longer than a page, and each chapter is a separate notation +of some significant event, some emotion or sensation which seems to +throw sudden light on the picture of a soul. To the Goncourts humanity +is as pictorial a thing as the world it moves in; they do not search +further than "the physical basis of life," and they find everything that +can be known of that unknown force written visibly upon the sudden faces +of little incidents, little expressive moments. The soul, to them, is a +series of moods, which succeed one another, certainly without any of the +too arbitrary logic of the novelist who has conceived of character as a +solid or consistent thing. Their novels are hardly stories at all, but +picture-galleries, hung with pictures of the momentary aspects of the +world. French critics have complained that the language of the Goncourts +is no longer French, no longer the French of the past; and this is true. +It is their distinction--the finest of their inventions--that, in order +to render new sensations, a new vision of things, they invented a new +language. (A. Sy.) + + In his will Edmond de Goncourt left his estate for the endowment of an + academy, the formation of which was entrusted to MM. Alphonse Daudet + and Leon Hennique. The society was to consist of ten members, each of + whom was to receive an annuity of 6000 francs, and a yearly prize of + 5000 francs was to be awarded to the author of some work of fiction. + Eight of the members of the new academy were nominated in the will. + They were: Alphonse Daudet, J. K. Huysmans, Leon Hennique, Octave + Mirbeau, the two brothers J. H. Rosny, Gustave Geffroy and Paul + Margueritte. On the 19th of January 1903, after much litigation, the + academy was constituted, with Elemir Bourges, Lucien Descaves and + Leon Daudet as members in addition to those mentioned in de Goncourt's + will, the place of Alphonse Daudet having been left vacant by his + death in 1897. + + On the brothers de Goncourt see the _Journal des Goncourt_ already + cited; also M. A. Belloc (afterwards Lowndes) and M. L. Shedlock, + _Edmond and Jules de Goncourt, with Letters and Leaves from their + Journals_ (1895); Alidor Delzant, _Les Goncourt_ (1889) which contains + a valuable bibliography; _Lettres de Jules de Goncourt_ (1888), with + preface by H. Ceard; R. Doumic, _Portraits d'ecrivains_ (1892); Paul + Bourget, _Nouveaux Essais de psychologie contemporaine_ (1886); Emile + Zola, _Les Romanciers naturalistes_ (1881). &c. + + + + +GONDA, a town and district of British India, in the Fyzabad division of +the United Provinces. The town is 28 m. N.W. of Fyzabad, and is an +important junction on the Bengal & North-Western railway. The site on +which it stands was originally a jungle, in the centre of which was a +cattle-fold (_Gontha_ or _Gothah_), where the cattle were enclosed at +night as a protection against wild beasts, and from this the town +derives its name. Pop. (1901) 15,811. The cantonments were abandoned in +1863. + +The district of Gonda has an area of 2813 sq. m. It consists of a vast +plain with very slight undulations, studded with groves of mango trees. +The surface consists of a rich alluvial deposit which is naturally +divided into three great belts known as the _tarai_ or swampy tract, the +_uparhar_ or uplands, and the _tarhar_ or wet lowlands, all three being +marvellously fertile. Several rivers flow through the district, but only +two, the Gogra and Rapti, are of any commercial importance, the first +being navigable throughout the year, and the latter during the rainy +season. The country is dotted with small lakes, the water of which is +largely used for irrigation. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857, the +raja of Gonda, after honourably escorting the government treasure to +Fyzabad, joined the rebels. His estates, along with those of the rani of +Tulsipur, were confiscated, and conferred as rewards upon the maharajas +of Balrampur and Ajodhya, who had remained loyal. In 1901 the population +was 1,403,195, showing a decrease of 4% in one decade. The district is +traversed by the main line and three branches of the Bengal & +Northwestern railway. + + + + +GONDAL, a native state of India, in the Kathiawar political agency of +Bombay, situated in the centre of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Its area +is 1024 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 162,859. The estimated gross revenue is +about L100,000, and the tribute L7000. Grain and cotton are the chief +products. The chief, whose title is Thakur Sahib, is a Jadeja Rajput, of +the same clan as the Rao of Cutch. The Thakur Sahib, Sir Bhagvat Sinhji +(b. 1865), was educated at the Rajkot college, and afterwards graduated +in arts and medicine at the university of Edinburgh. He published (in +English) a _Journal of a Visit to England_ and _A Short History of Aryan +Medical Science_. In 1892 he received the honorary degree of D.C.L. of +Oxford University. He was created K.C.I.E. in 1887 and G.C.I.E. in 1897. +The state has long been conspicuous for its progressive administration. +It is traversed by a railway connecting it with Bhaunagar, Rajkot and +the sea-board. The town of Gondal is 23 m. by rail S. of Rajkot; pop. +(1901) 19,592. + + + + +GONDAR, properly GUENDAR, a town of Abyssinia, formerly the capital of +the Amharic kingdom, situated on a basaltic ridge some 7500 ft. above +the sea, about 21 m. N.E. of Lake Tsana, a splendid view of which is +obtained from the castle. Two streams, the Angreb on the east side and +the Gaha or Kaha on the west, flow from the ridge, and meeting below the +town, pass onwards to the lake. In the early years of the 20th century +the town was much decayed, numerous ruins of castles, palaces and +churches indicating its former importance. It was never a compact city, +being divided into districts separated from each other by open spaces. +The chief quarters were those of the Abun-Bed or bishop, the Etchege-Bed +or chief of the monks, the Debra Berhan or Church of the Light, and the +Gemp or castle. There was also a quarter for the Mahommedans. Gondar was +a small village when at the beginning of the 16th century it was chosen +by the Negus Sysenius (Seged I.) as the capital of his kingdom. His son +Fasilidas, or A'lem-Seged (1633-1667), was the builder of the castle +which bears his name. Later emperors built other castles and palaces, +the latest in date being that of the Negus Yesu II. This was erected +about 1736, at which time Gondar appears to have been at the height of +its prosperity. Thereafter it suffered greatly from the civil wars which +raged in Abyssinia, and was more than once sacked. In 1868 it was much +injured by the emperor Theodore, who did not spare either the castle or +the churches. After the defeat of the Abyssinians at Debra Sin in August +1887 Gondar was looted and fired by the dervishes under Abu Anga. +Although they held the town but a short time they inflicted very great +damage, destroying many churches, further damaging the castles and +carrying off much treasure. The population, estimated by James Bruce in +1770 at 10,000 families, had dwindled in 1905 to about 7000. Since the +pacification of the Sudan by the British (1886-1889) there has been some +revival of trade between Gondar and the regions of the Blue Nile. Among +the inhabitants are numbers of Mahommedans, and there is a settlement of +Falashas. Cotton, cloth, gold and silver ornaments, copper wares, fancy +articles in bone and ivory, excellent saddles and shoes are among the +products of the local industry. + +Unlike any other buildings in Abyssinia, the castles and palaces of +Gondar resemble, with some modifications, the medieval fortresses of +Europe, the style of architecture being the result of the presence in +the country of numbers of Portuguese. The Portuguese were expelled by +Fasilidas, but his castle was built, by Indian workmen, under the +superintendence of Abyssinians who had learned something of architecture +from the Portuguese adventurers, helped possibly by Portuguese still in +the country. The castle has two storeys, is 90 ft. by 84 ft., has a +square tower and circular domed towers at the corners. The most +extensive ruins are a group of royal buildings enclosed in a wall. These +ruins include the palace of Yesu II., which has several fine chambers. +Christian Levantines were employed in its construction and it was +decorated in part with Venetian mirrors, &c. In the same enclosure is a +small castle attributed to Yesu I. The exterior walls of the castles and +palaces named are little damaged and give to Gondar a unique character +among African towns. Of the forty-four churches, all in the circular +Abyssinian style, which are said to have formerly existed in Gondar or +its immediate neighbourhood, Major Powell-Cotton found only one intact +in 1900. This church contained some well-executed native paintings of St +George and the Dragon, The Last Supper, &c. Among the religious +observances of the Christians of Gondar is that of bathing in large +crowds in the Gaha on the Feast of the Baptist, and again, though in +more orderly fashion, on Christmas day. + + See E. Ruppell, _Reise in Abyssinien_ (Frankfort-on-the-Main, + 1838-1840); T. von Heuglin, _Reise nach Abessinien_ (Jena, 1868); G. + Lejean, _Voyage en Abyssinie_ (Paris, 1872); Achille Raffray, _Afrique + orientale; Abyssinie_ (Paris, 1876); P. H. G. Powell-Cotton, _A + Sporting Trip through Abyssinia_, chaps. 27-30 (London, 1902); and + _Boll. Soc. Geog. Italiana_ for 1909. Views of the castle are given by + Heuglin, Raffray and Powell-Cotton. + + + + +GONDOKORO, a government station and trading-place on the east bank of +the upper Nile, in 4 deg. 54' N., 31 deg. 43' E. It is the headquarters +of the Northern Province of the (British) Uganda protectorate, is 1070 +m. by river S. of Khartum and 350 m. N.N.W. in a direct line of Entebbe +on Victoria Nyanza. The station, which is very unhealthy, is at the top +of a cliff 25 ft. above the river-level. Besides houses for the civil +and military authorities and the lines for the troops, there are a few +huts inhabited by Bari, the natives of this part of the Nile. The +importance of Gondokoro lies in the fact that it is within a few miles +of the limit of navigability of the Nile from Khartum up stream. From +this point the journey to Uganda is continued overland. + +Gondokoro was first visited by Europeans in 1841-1842, when expeditions +sent out by Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, ascended the Nile as far as the +foot of the rapids above Gondokoro. It soon became an ivory and +slave-trading centre. In 1851 an Austrian Roman Catholic mission was +established here, but it was abandoned in 1859. It was at Gondokoro that +J. H. Speke and J. A. Grant, descending the Nile after their discovery +of its source, met, on the 15th of February 1863, Mr (afterwards Sir) +Samuel Baker and his wife who were journeying up the river. In 1871 +Baker, then governor-general of the equatorial provinces of Egypt, +established a military post at Gondokoro which he named Ismailia, after +the then khedive. Baker made this post his headquarters, but Colonel +(afterwards General) C. G. Gordon, who succeeded him in 1874, abandoned +the station on account of its unhealthy site, removing to Lado. +Gondokoro, however, remained a trading-station. It fell into the hands +of the Mahdists in 1885. After the destruction of the Mahdist power in +1898 Gondokoro was occupied by British troops and has since formed the +northernmost post on the Nile of the Uganda protectorate (see SUDAN; +NILE; and UGANDA). + + + + +GONDOMAR, DIEGO SARMIENTO DE ACUNA, COUNT OF (1567-1626), Spanish +diplomatist, was the son of Garcia Sarmiento de Sotomayor, corregidor of +Granada, and governor of the Canary Islands, by his marriage with Juana +de Acuna, an heiress. Diego Sarmiento, their eldest son, was born in the +parish of Gondomar, in the bishopric of Tuy, Galicia, Spain, on the 1st +of November 1567. He inherited wide estates both in Galicia and in Old +Castile. In 1583 he was appointed by Philip II. to the military command +of the Portuguese frontier and sea coast of Galicia. He is said to have +taken an active part in the repulse of an English coast-raid in 1585, +and in the defence of the country during the unsuccessful English attack +on Corunna in 1589. In 1593 he was named corregidor of Toro. In 1603 he +was sent from court to Vigo to superintend the distribution of the +treasure brought from America by two galleons which were driven to take +refuge at Vigo, and on his return was named a member of the board of +finance. In 1609 he was again employed on the coast of Galicia, this +time to repel a naval attack made by the Dutch. Although he held +military commands, and administrative posts, his habitual residence was +at Valladolid, where he owned the Casa del Sol and was already +collecting his fine library. He was known as a courtier, and apparently +as a friend of the favourite, the duke of Lerma. In 1612 he was chosen +as ambassador in England, but did not leave to take up his appointment +till May 1613. + +His reputation as a diplomatist is based on his two periods of service +in England from 1613 to 1618 and from 1619 to 1622. The excellence of +his latinity pleased the literary tastes of James I., whose character he +judged with remarkable insight. He flattered the king's love of books +and of peace, and he made skilful use of his desire for a matrimonial +alliance between the prince of Wales and a Spanish infanta. The +ambassador's task was to keep James from aiding the Protestant states +against Spain and the house of Austria, and to avert English attacks on +Spanish possessions in America. His success made him odious to the +anti-Spanish and puritan parties. The active part he took in promoting +the execution of Sir Walter Raleigh aroused particular animosity. He was +attacked in pamphlets, and the dramatist Thomas Middleton made him a +principal person in the strange political play _A Game of Chess_, which +was suppressed by order of the council. In 1617 Sarmiento was created +count of Gondomar. In 1618 he obtained leave to come home for his +health, but was ordered to return by way of Flanders and France with a +diplomatic mission. In 1619 he returned to London, and remained till +1622, when he was allowed to retire. On his return he was named a member +of the royal council and governor of one of the king's palaces, and was +appointed to a complimentary mission to Vienna. Gondomar was in Madrid +when the prince of Wales--afterwards Charles I.--made his journey there +in search of a wife. He died at the house of the constable of Castile, +near Haro in the Rioja, on the 2nd of October 1626. + +Gondomar was twice married, first to his niece Beatrix Sarmiento, by +whom he had no children, and then to his cousin Constanza de Acuna, by +whom he had four sons and three daughters. The hatred he aroused in +England, which was shown by constant jeers at the intestinal complaint +from which he suffered for years, was the best tribute to the zeal with +which he served his own master. Gondomar collected, both before he came +to London and during his residence there, a very fine library of +printed books and manuscripts. Orders for the arrangement, binding and +storing of his books in his house at Valladolid take a prominent place +in his voluminous correspondence. In 1785 the library was ceded by his +descendant and representative the marquis of Malpica to King Charles +III., and it is now in the Royal Library at Madrid. A portrait of +Gondomar, attributed to Valazquez, was formerly at Stowe. It was +mezzotinted by Robert Cooper. + + AUTHORITIES.--Gondomar's missions to England are largely dealt with in + S. R. Gardiner's _History of England_ (London, 1883-1884). In Spanish, + Don Pascual de Gayangos wrote a useful biographical introduction to a + publication of a few of his letters--_Cinco Cartas politico-literarias + de Don Diego Sarmiento de Acuna, Conde de Gondomar_, issued at Madrid + 1869 by the _Sociedad de Bibliofilos_ of the Spanish Academy; and + there is a life in English by F. H. Lyon (1910). (D. H.) + + + + +GONDOPHARES, or GONDOPHERNES, an Indo-Parthian king who ruled over the +Kabul valley and the Punjab. By means of his coins his accession may be +dated with practical certainty at A.D. 21, and his reign lasted for some +thirty years. He is notable for his association with St Thomas in early +Christian tradition. The legend is that India fell to St Thomas, who +showed unwillingness to start until Christ appeared in a vision and +ordered him to serve King Gondophares and build him a palace. St Thomas +accordingly went to India and suffered martyrdom there. This legend is +not incompatible with what is known of the chronology of Gondophares' +reign. + + + + +GONDWANA, the historical name for a large tract of hilly country in +India which roughly corresponds with the greater part of the present +Central Provinces. It is derived from the aboriginal tribe of Gonds, who +still form the largest element in the population and who were at one +time the ruling power. From the 12th to as late as the 18th century +three or four Gond dynasties reigned over this region with a degree of +civilization that seems surprising when compared with the existing +condition of the people. They built large walled cities, and accumulated +immense treasures of gold and silver and jewels. On the whole, they +maintained their independence fairly well against the Mahommedans, being +subject only to a nominal submission and occasional payment of tribute. +But when the Mahratta invaders appeared, soon after the beginning of the +18th century, the Gond kingdoms offered but a feeble resistance and the +aboriginal population fled for safety to the hills. Gondwana was thus +included in the dominions of the Bhonsla raja of Nagpur, from whom it +finally passed to the British in 1853. + +The Gonds, who call themselves Koitur or "highlanders," are the most +numerous tribe of Dravidian race in India. Their total number in 1901 +was 2,286,913, of whom nearly two millions were enumerated in the +Central Provinces, where they form 20% of the population. They have a +language of their own, with many dialects, which is intermediate between +the two great Dravidian languages, Tamil and Telugu. It is unwritten and +has no literature, except a little provided by the missionaries. More +than half the Gonds in the Central Provinces have now abandoned their +own dialects, and have adopted Aryan forms of speech. This indicates the +extent to which they have become Hinduized. The higher class among them, +called Raj Gonds, have been definitely admitted into Hinduism as a pure +cultivating caste; but the great majority still retain the animistic +beliefs, ceremonial observances and impure customs of food which are +common to most of the aboriginal tribes of India. + + + + +GONFALON (the late French and Italian form, also found in other Romanic +languages, of _gonfanon_, which is derived from the O.H. Ger. +_gundfano_, _gund_, war, and _fano_, flag, cf. Mod. Ger. _Fahne_, and +English "vane"), a banner or standard of the middle ages. It took the +form of a small pennon attached below the head of a knight's lance, or +when used in religious processions and ceremonies, or as the banner of a +city or state or military order, it became a many-streamered rectangular +ensign, frequently swinging from a cross-bar attached to a pole. This is +the most frequent use of the word. The title of "gonfalonier," the +bearer of the gonfalon, was in the middle ages both military and civil. +It was borne by the counts of Vexin, as leaders of the men of Saint +Denis, and when the Vexin was incorporated in the kingdom of France the +title of _Gonfalonier de Sant Denis_ passed to the kings of France, who +thus became the bearers of the "oriflamme," as the banner of St Denis +was called. "Gonfalonier" was the title of civic magistrates of various +degrees of authority in many of the city republics of Italy, notably of +Florence, Sienna and Lucca. At Florence the functions of the office +varied. At first the gonfaloniers were the leaders of the various +military divisions of the inhabitants. In 1293 was created the office of +gonfalonier of justice, who carried out the orders of the signiory. By +the end of the 14th century the gonfalonier was the chief of the +signiory. At Lucca he was the chief magistrate of the republic. At Rome +two gonfaloniers must be distinguished, that of the church and that of +the Roman people; both offices were conferred by the pope. The first was +usually granted to sovereigns, who were bound to defend the church and +lead her armies. The second bore a standard with the letters S.P.Q.R. on +any enterprise undertaken in the name of the church and the people of +Rome, and also at ceremonies, processions, &c. This was granted by the +pope to distinguished families. Thus the Cesarini held the office till +the end of the 17th century. The Pamphili held it from 1686 till 1764. + + + + +GONG (Chinese, _gong-gong_ or _tam-tam_), a sonorous or musical +instrument of Chinese origin and manufacture, made in the form of a +broad thin disk with a deep rim. Gongs vary in diameter from about 20 to +40 in., and they are made of bronze containing a maximum of 22 parts of +tin to 78 of copper; but in many cases the proportion of tin is +considerably less. Such an alloy, when cast and allowed to cool slowly, +is excessively brittle, but it can be tempered and annealed in a +peculiar manner. If suddenly cooled from a cherry-red heat, the alloy +becomes so soft that it can be hammered and worked on the lathe, and +afterwards it may be hardened by re-heating and cooling it slowly. In +these properties it will be observed, the alloy behaves in a manner +exactly opposite to steel, and the Chinese avail themselves of the known +peculiarities for preparing the thin sheets of which gongs are made. +They cool their castings of bronze in water, and after hammering out the +alloy in the soft state, harden the finished gongs by heating them to a +cherry-red and allowing them to cool slowly. These properties of the +alloy long remained a secret, said to have been first discovered in +Europe by Jean Pierre Joseph d'Arcet at the beginning of the 19th +century. Riche and Champion are said to have succeeded in producing +tam-tams having all the qualities and timbre of the Chinese instruments. +The composition of the alloy of bronze used for making gongs is stated +to be as follows:[1] Copper, 76.52; Tin, 22.43; Lead, 0.62; Zinc, 0.23; +Iron, 0.18. The gong is beaten with a round, hard, leather-covered pad, +fitted on a short stick or handle. It emits a peculiarly sonorous sound, +its complex vibrations bursting into a wave-like succession of tones, +sometimes shrill, sometimes deep. In China and Japan it is used in +religious ceremonies, state processions, marriages and other festivals; +and it is said that the Chinese can modify its tone variously by +particular ways of striking the disk. + + The gong has been effectively used in the orchestra to intensify the + impression of fear and horror in melodramatic scenes. The tam-tam was + first introduced into a western orchestra by Francois Joseph Gossec in + the funeral march composed at the death of Mirabeau in 1791. Gaspard + Spontini used it in _La Vestale_ (1807), in the finale of act II., an + impressive scene in which the high pontiff pronounces the anathema on + the faithless vestal. It was also used in the funeral music played + when the remains of Napoleon the Great were brought back to France in + 1840. Meyerbeer made use of the instrument in the scene of the + resurrection of the three nuns in _Robert le diable_. Four tam-tams + are now used at Bayreuth in _Parsifal_ to reinforce the bell + instruments, although there is no indication given in the score (see + PARSIFAL). The tam-tam has been treated from its ethnographical side + by Franz Heger.[1] (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See _La grande Encyclopedie_, vol. viii. (Paris), "Bronze," p. + 146a. + + [2] _Alte Metalltrommeln aus Sudost-Asien_ (Leipzig, 1902). Bd. i., + Text; Bd. ii., Tafeln. + + + + +GONGORA Y ARGOTE, LUIS DE (1561-1627), Spanish lyric poet, was born at +Cordova on the 11th of July 1561. His father, Francisco de Argote, was +_corregidor_ of that city; the poet early adopted the surname of his +mother, Leonora de Gongora, who was descended from an ancient family. +At the age of fifteen he entered as a student of civil and canon law at +the university of Salamanca; but he obtained no academic distinctions +and was content with an ordinary pass degree. He was already known as a +poet in 1585 when Cervantes praised him in the _Galatea_; in this same +year he took minor orders, and shortly afterwards was nominated to a +canonry at Cordova. About 1605-1606 he was ordained priest, and +thenceforth resided principally at Valladolid and Madrid, where, as a +contemporary remarks, he "noted and stabbed at everything with his +satirical pen." His circle of admirers was now greatly enlarged; but the +acknowledgment accorded to his singular genius was both slight and +tardy. Ultimately indeed, through the influence of the duke of Sandoval, +he obtained an appointment as honorary chaplain to Philip III., but even +this slight honour he was not permitted long to enjoy. In 1626 a severe +illness, which seriously impaired his memory, compelled his retirement +to Cordova, where he died on the 24th of May 1627. An edition of his +poems was published almost immediately after his death by Juan Lopez de +Vicuna; the frequently reprinted edition by Hozes did not appear till +1633. The collection consists of numerous sonnets, odes, ballads, songs +for the guitar, and of certain larger poems, such as the _Soledades_ and +the _Polifemo_. Too many of them exhibit that tortuous elaboration of +style (_estilo culto_) with which the name of Gongora is inseparably +associated; but though Gongora has been justly censured for affected +Latinisms, unnatural transpositions, strained metaphors and frequent +obscurity, it must be admitted that he was a man of rare genius,--a fact +cordially acknowledged by those of his contemporaries who were most +capable of judging. It was only in the hands of those who imitated +Gongora's style without inheriting his genius that _culteranismo_ became +absurd. Besides his lyrical poems Gongora is the author of a play +entitled _Las Firmezas de Isabel_ and of two incomplete dramas, the +_Comedia venatoria_ and _El Doctor Carlino_. The only satisfactory +edition of his works is that published by R. Foulche-Delbose in the +_Bibliotheca Hispanica_. + + See Edward Churton, _Gongora_ (London, 1862, 2 vols.); M. Gonzalez y + Frances, _Gongora racionero_ (Cordoba, 1895); M. Gonzalez y Frances, + _Don Luis de Gongora vindicando su fama ante el propio obispo_ + (Cordoba, 1899); "Vingt-six Lettres de Gongora" in the _Revue + hispanique_, vol. x. pp. 184-225 (Paris, 1903). + + + + +GONIOMETER (from Gr. [Greek: gonia], angle, and [Greek: metron], +measure), an instrument for measuring the angles of crystals; there are +two kinds--the contact goniometer and the reflecting goniometer. +Nicolaus Stena in 1669 determined the interfacial angles of quartz +crystals by cutting sections perpendicular to the edges, the plane +angles of the sections being then the angles between the faces which are +perpendicular to the sections. The earliest instrument was the contact +goniometer devised by Carangeot in 1783. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Contact Goniometer.] + + _The Contact Goniometer_ (or _Hand-Goniometer_).--This consists of two + metal rules pivoted together at the centre of a graduated semicircle + (fig. 1). The instrument is placed with its plane perpendicular to an + edge between two faces of the crystal to be measured, and the rules + are brought into contact with the faces; this is best done by holding + the crystal up against the light with the edge in the line of sight. + The angle between the rules, as read on the graduated semicircle, then + gives the angle between the two faces. The rules are slotted, so that + they may be shortened and their tips applied to a crystal partly + embedded in its matrix. The instrument represented in fig. 1 is + practically the same in all its details as that made for Carangeot, + and it is employed at the present day for the approximate measurement + of large crystals with dull and rough faces. S. L. Penfield (1900) has + devised some cheap and simple forms of contact goniometer, consisting + of jointed arms and protractors made of cardboard or celluloid. + + _The Reflecting Goniometer._--This is an instrument of far greater + precision, and is always used for the accurate measurement of the + angles when small crystals with bright faces are available. As a rule, + the smaller the crystal the more even are its faces, and when these + are smooth and bright they reflect sharply defined images of a bright + object. By turning the crystal about an axis parallel to the edge + between two faces, the image reflected from a second face may be + brought into the same position as that formerly occupied by the image + reflected from the first face; the angle through which the crystal has + been rotated, as determined by a graduated circle to which the crystal + is fixed, is the angle between the normals to the two faces. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Vertical-Circle Goniometer.] + + Several forms of instruments depending on this principle have been + devised, the earliest being the vertical-circle goniometer of W. H. + Wollaston, made in 1809. This consists of a circle m (fig. 2), + graduated to degrees of arc and reading with the vernier h to minutes, + which turns with the milled head t about a horizontal axis. The + crystal is attached with wax (a mixture of beeswax and pitch) to the + holder q, and by means of the pivoted arcs it may be adjusted so that + the edge between two faces (a zone-axis) is parallel to, and + coincident with, the axis of the instrument. The crystal-holder and + adjustment-arcs, together with the milled head s, are carried on an + axis which passes through the hollow axis of the graduated circle, and + may thus be rotated independently of the circle. In use, the + goniometer is placed directly opposite to a window, with its axis + parallel to the horizontal window-bars, and as far distant as + possible. The eye is placed quite close to the crystal, and the image + of an upper window-bar (or better still a slit in a dark screen) as + seen in the crystal-face is made to coincide with a lower window-bar + (or chalk mark on the floor) as seen directly: this is done by turning + the milled head s, the reading of the graduated circle having + previously been observed. Without moving the eye, the milled head t, + together with the crystal, is then rotated until the image from a + second face is brought into the same position; the difference between + the first and second readings of the graduated circle will then give + the angle between the normals of the two faces. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Horizontal-Circle Goniometer.] + + Several improvements have been made on Wollaston's goniometer. The + adjustment-arcs have been modified; a mirror of black glass fixed to + the stand beneath the crystal gives a reflected image of the signal, + with which the reflection from the crystal can be more conveniently + made to coincide; a telescope provided with cross-wires gives greater + precision to the direction of the reflected rays of light; and with + the telescope a collimator has sometimes been used. + + A still greater improvement was effected by placing the graduated + circle in a horizontal position, as in the instruments of E. L. Malus + (1810), F. C. von Riese (1829) and J. Babinet (1839). Many forms of + the _horizontal-circle goniometer_ have been constructed; they are + provided with a telescope and collimator, and in construction are + essentially the same as a spectrometer, with the addition of + arrangements for adjusting and centring the crystal. The instrument + shown in fig. 3 is made by R. Fuess of Berlin. It has four concentric + axes, which enable the crystal-holder A, together with the + adjustment-arcs B and centring-slides D, to be raised or lowered, or + to be rotated independently of the circle H; further, either the + crystal-holder or the telescope T may be rotated with the circle, + while the other remains fixed. The crystal is placed on the holder + and adjusted so that the edge (zone-axis) between two faces is + coincident with the axis of the instrument. Light from an incandescent + gas-burner passes through the slit of the collimator C, and the image + of the slit (signal) reflected from the crystal face is viewed in the + telescope. The clamp a and slow-motion screw F enable the image to be + brought exactly on the cross-wires of the telescope, and the position + of the circle with respect to the vernier is read through the lens. + The crystal and the circle are then rotated together until the image + from a second face is brought on the cross-wires of the telescope, and + the angle through which they have been turned is the angle between the + normals to the two faces. While measuring the angles between the faces + of crystals the telescope remains fixed by the clamp [beta], but when + this is released the instrument may be used as a spectrometer or + refractometer for determining, by the method of minimum deviation, the + indices of refraction of an artificially cut prism or of a transparent + crystal when the faces are suitably inclined to one another. + + With a one-circle goniometer, such as is described above, it is + necessary to mount and re-adjust the crystal afresh for the + measurement of each zone of faces (i.e. each set of faces intersecting + in parallel edges); with very small crystals this operation takes a + considerable time, and the minute faces are not readily identified + again. Further, in certain cases, it is not possible to measure the + angles between zones, nor to determine the position of small faces + which do not lie in prominent zones on the crystal. These difficulties + have been overcome by the use of a two-circle goniometer or + theodolite-goniometer, which as a combination of a vertical-circle + goniometer and one with a horizontal-circle was first employed by W. + H. Miller in 1874. Special forms have been designed by E. S. Fedorov + (1889), V. Goldschmidt (1893). S. Czapski (1893) and F. Stoeber + (1898), which differ mainly in the arrangement of the optical parts. + In these instruments the crystal is set up and adjusted once for all, + with the axis of a prominent zone parallel to the axis of either the + horizontal or the vertical circle. As a rule, only in this zone can + the angles between the faces be measured directly; the positions of + all the other faces, which need be observed only once, are fixed by + the simultaneous readings of the two circles. These readings, + corresponding to the polar distance and azimuth, or latitude and + longitude readings of astronomical telescopes, must be plotted on a + projection before the symmetry of the crystal is apparent; and + laborious calculations are necessary in order to determine the indices + of the faces and the angles between them, and the other constants of + the crystal, or to test whether any three faces are accurately in a + zone. + + These disadvantages are overcome by adding still another graduated + circle to the instrument, with its axis perpendicular to the axis of + the vertical circle, thus forming a three-circle goniometer. With such + an instrument measurements may be made in any zone or between any two + faces without re-adjusting the crystal; further the troublesome + calculations are avoided, and, indeed, the instrument may be used for + solving spherical triangles. Different forms of three-circle + goniometers have been designed by G. F. H. Smith (1899 and 1904), E. + S. Fedorov (1900) and J. F. C. Klein (1900). Besides being used as a + one-, two-, or three-circle goniometer for the measurement of the + interfacial angles of crystals, and as a refractometer for determining + refractive indices by the prismatic method or by total reflection, + Klein's instrument, which is called a polymeter, is fitted with + accessory optical apparatus which enables it to be used for examining + a crystal in parallel or convergent polarized light and for measuring + the optic axial angle. + + Goniometers of special construction have been devised for certain + purposes; for instance, the inverted horizontal-circle goniometer of + H. A. Miers (1903) for measuring crystals during their growth in the + mother-liquid. A. E. Tutton (1894) has combined a goniometer with + lapidaries' appliances for cutting section-plates and prisms from + crystals accurately in any desired direction. The instrument commonly + employed for measuring the optic axial angle of biaxial crystals is + really a combination of a goniometer with a polariscope. For the + optical investigation of minute crystals under the microscope, various + forms of stage-goniometer with one, two or three graduated circles + have been constructed. An ordinary microscope fitted with cross-wires + and a rotating graduated stage serves the purpose of a goniometer for + measuring the plane angles of a crystal face or section, being the + same in principle as the contact goniometer. + + For fuller descriptions of goniometers reference may be made to the + text-books of Crystallography and Mineralogy, especially to P. H. + Groth, _Physikalische Krystallographie_ (4th ed., Leipzig, 1905). See + also C. Leiss, _Die optischen Instrumente der Firma R. Fuess, deren + Beschreibung, Justierung und Anwendung_ (Leipzig, 1899). + (L. J. S.) + + + + +GONTAUT, MARIE JOSEPHINE LOUISE, DUCHESSE DE (1773-1857). was born in +Paris on the 3rd of August 1773, daughter of Augustin Francois, comte de +Montaut-Navailles, who had been governor of Louis XVI. and his two +brothers when children. The count of Provence (afterwards Louis XVIII.) +and his wife stood sponsors to Josephine de Montaut, and she shared the +lessons given by Madame de Genlis to the Orleans family, with whom her +mother broke off relations after the outbreak of the Revolution. Mother +and daughter emigrated to Coblenz in 1792; thence they went to +Rotterdam, and finally to England, where Josephine married the marquis +Charles Michel de Gontaut-Saint-Blacard. They returned to France at the +Restoration, and resumed their place at court. Madame de Gontaut became +lady-in-waiting to Caroline, duchess of Berry, and, on the birth of the +princess Louise (Mlle d'Artois, afterwards duchess of Parma), governess +to the children of France. Next year the birth of Henry, duke of +Bordeaux (afterwards known as the comte de Chambord), added to her +charge the heir of the Bourbons. She remained faithful to his cause all +her life. Her husband died in 1822, and in 1827 she was created duchesse +de Gontaut. She followed the exiled royal family in 1830 to Holyrood +Palace, and then to Prague, but in 1834, owing to differences with +Pierre Louis, duc de Blacas, who thought her comparatively liberal views +dangerous for the prince and princess, she received a brusque conge from +Charles X. Her twin daughters, Josephine (1796-1844) and Charlotte +(1796-1818), married respectively Ferdinand de Chabot, prince de Leon +and afterwards duc de Rohan, and Francois, comte de Bourbon-Busset. She +herself wrote in her old age some naive memoirs, which throw an odd +light on the pretensions of the "governess of the children of France." +She died in Paris in 1857. + + See her _Memoirs_ (Eng. ed., 2 vols., 1894), and _Lettres inedites_ + (1895). + + + + +GONVILE, EDMUND (d. 1351), founder of Gonville Hall, now Gonville and +Caius College, at Cambridge, England, is thought to have been the son of +William de Gonvile, and the brother of Sir Nicholas Gonvile. In 1320 he +was rector of Thelnetham, Suffolk, and steward there for William, earl +Warren and the earl of Lancaster. Six years later he was rector of +Rushworth, and in 1342 rector of Terrington St John and commissioner for +the marshlands of Norfolk. In this year he founded and endowed a +collegiate church at Rushworth, suppressed in 1541. The foundation of +Gonville Hall at Cambridge was effected by a charter granted by Edward +III. in 1348. It was called, officially, the Hall of the Annunciation of +the Blessed Virgin, but was usually known as Gunnell or Gonville Hall. +Its original site was in Free-school Lane, where Corpus Christi College +now stands. Gonvile apparently wished it to be devoted to training for +theological study, but after his death the foundation was completed by +William Bateman, bishop of Norwich and founder of Trinity Hall, on a +different site and with considerably altered statutes. (See also CAIUS, +JOHN.) + + + + +GONZAGA, an Italian princely family named after the town where it +probably had its origin. Its known history begins with the 13th century, +when Luigi I. (1267-1360), after fierce struggles supplanted his +brother-in-law Rinaldo (nicknamed Passerino) Bonacolsi as lord of Mantua +in August 1328, with the title of captain-genera, and afterwards of +vicar-general of the empire, adding the designation of count of +Mirandola and Concordia, which fief the Gonzagas held from 1328 to 1354. +In July 1335 his son Guido, with the help of Filippino and Feltrino +Gonzaga, wrested Reggio from the Scaligeri and held it until 1371. Luigi +was succeeded by Guido (d. 1369); the latter's son Luigi II. came next +in succession (d. 1382), and then Giovan Francesco I. (d. 1407), who, +although at one time allied with the treacherous Gian Galeazzo Visconti, +incurred the latter's enmity and all but lost his estates and his life +in consequence; eventually he joined the Florentines and Bolognese, +enemies of Visconti. He promoted commerce and wisely developed the +prosperity of his dominions. His son Giovan Francesco II. (d. 1444) +succeeded him under the regency of his uncle Carlo Malatesta and the +protection of the Venetians. He became a famous general, and was +rewarded for his services to the emperor Sigismund with the title of +marquess of Mantua for himself and his descendants (1432), an +investiture which legitimatized the usurpations of the house of Gonzaga. +His son Luigi III. "il Turco" (d. 1478) likewise became a celebrated +soldier, and was also a learned and liberal prince, a patron of +literature and the arts. His son Federigo I. (d. 1484) followed in his +father's footsteps, and served under various foreign sovereigns, +including Bona of Savoy and Lorenzo de' Medici; subsequently he upheld +the rights of the house of Este against Pope Sixtus IV. and the +Venetians, whose ambitious claims were a menace to his own dominions of +Ferrara and Mantova. His son Giovan Francesco III. (d. 1519) continued +the military traditions of the family, and commanded the allied Italian +forces against Charles VIII. at the battle of Fornovo; he afterwards +fought in the kingdom of Naples and in Tuscany, until captured by the +Venetians in 1509. On his liberation he adopted a more peaceful and +conciliatory policy, and with the help of his wife, the famous Isabella +d'Este, he promoted the fine arts and letters, collecting pictures, +statues and other works of art with intelligent discrimination. He was +succeeded by his son Federigo II. (d. 1540), captain-general of the +papal forces. After the peace of Cambrai (1529) his ally and protector, +the emperor Charles V., raised his title to that of duke of Mantua in +1530; in 1536 the emperor decided the controversy for the succession of +Monferrato between Federigo and the house of Savoy in favour of the +former. His son Francesco I. succeeded him, and, being a minor, was +placed under the regency of his uncle Cardinal Ercole; he was +accidentally drowned in 1550, leaving his possessions to his brother +Guglielmo. The latter was an extravagant spendthrift, but having subdued +a revolt in Monferrato was presented with that territory by the emperor +Maximilian II. At his death in 1587 he was succeeded by his son Vincenzo +I. (d. 1612), who was more addicted to amusements than to warfare. Then +followed in succession his sons Francesco II. (d. 1612), Ferdinando (d. +1626), and Vincenzo II. (d. 1627), all three incapable and dissolute +princes. The last named appointed as his successor Charles, the son of +Henriette, the heiress of the French family of Nevers-Rethel, who was +only able to take possession of the ducal throne after a bloody +struggle; his dominions were laid waste by foreign invasions and he +himself was reduced to the sorest straits. He died in 1637, leaving his +possessions to his grandson Charles (Carlo) II. under the regency of the +latter's mother Maria Gonzaga, which lasted until 1647. Charles died in +consequence of his own profligacy and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand +Charles (Ferdinando Carlo), who was likewise for some years under the +regency of his mother Isabella of Austria. Ferdinand Charles, another +extravagant and dissolute prince, acquired the county of Guastalla by +marriage in 1678, but lost it soon afterwards; he involved his country +in useless warfare, with the result that in 1708 Austria annexed the +duchy. On the 5th of July of the same year he died in Venice, and with +him the Gonzagas of Mantua came to an end. + +Of the cadet branches of the house one received the lordship of Bozzolo, +another the counties of Novellara and Bagnolo, a third, of which the +founder was Ferrante I. (d. 1557), retained the county of Guastalla, +raised to a duchy in 1621, and came to an end with the death of Giuseppe +Maria on the 16th of August 1746. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--S. Maffei, _Annali di Mantova_ (Tortona, 1675); G. + Veronesi, _Quadro storico della Mirandola_ (Modena, 1847); T. Affo, + _Storia di Guastalla_ (Guastalla, 1875, 4 vols.); Alessandro Luzio, _I + Precattori d'Isabella d'Este_ (Ancona, 1887); A. Luzio and R. Renier, + "Francesco Gonzaga alla battaglia di Fornovo (1495). secondo i + documenti Mantovani" (in _Archivio storico italiano_, ser. v. vol. + vi., 205-246); _id._, _Mantova e Urbino, Isabella d'Este e Elisabeth + Gonzaga nette relazioni famigliari e nelle vicende politiche_ (Turin, + 1893); L. G., Pelissier, "Les Relations de Francois de Gonzague, + marquis de Mantoue, avec Ludovico Sforza et Louis XII" (in _Annales de + la faculte de Lettres de Bordeaux_, 1893); Antonino Bertolotti, + "Lettere del duca di Savoia Emanuele Filiberto a Guglielmo Gonzaga, + duca di Mantova" (_Arch. stor. it._, ser. v., vol. ix. pp. 250-283); + Edmondo Solari, _Lettere inedite del card. Gasparo Contarini nel + carteggio del card. Ercole Gonzaga_ (Venice, 1904); Arturo Segre, _Il + Richiamo di Don Ferrante Gonzaga dal governo di Milano, e sue + conseguenze_ (Turin, 1904). + + + + +GONZAGA, THOMAZ ANTONIO (1744-1809), Portuguese poet, was a native of +Oporto and the son of a Brazilian-born judge. He spent a part of his +boyhood at Bahia, where his father was _disembargador_ of the appeal +court, and returning to Portugal he went to the university of Coimbra +and took his law degree at the age of twenty-four. He remained on there +for some years and compiled a treatise of natural law on regalist lines, +dedicating it to Pombal, but the fall of the marquis led him to leave +Coimbra and become a candidate for a magistracy, and in 1782 he obtained +the posts of _ouvidor_ and _provedor_ of the goods of deceased and +absent persons at Villa Rica in the province of Minas Geraes in Brazil. +In 1786 he was named _disembargador_ of the appeal court at Bahia, and +three years later, as he was about to marry a young lady of position, D. +Maria de Seixas Brandao, the _Marilia_ of his verses, he suddenly found +himself arrested on the charge of being the principal author of a +Republican conspiracy in Minas. Conducted to Rio, he was imprisoned in a +fortress and interrogated, but constantly asserted his innocence. +However, his friendship with the conspirators compromised him in the +eyes of his absolutist judges, who, on the ground that he had known of +the plot and not denounced it, sentenced him in April 1792 to perpetual +exile in Angola, with the confiscation of his property. Later, this +penalty was commuted into one of ten years of exile to Mozambique, with +a death sentence if he should return to America. After having spent +three years in prison, Gonzaga sailed in May 1792 for Mozambique and +shortly after his arrival a violent fever almost ended his life. A +wealthy Portuguese gentleman, married to a lady of colour, charitably +received him into his house, and when the poet recovered, he married +their young daughter who had nursed him through the attack. He lived in +exile until his death, practising advocacy at intervals, but his last +years were embittered by fits of melancholia, deepening into madness, +which were brought on by the remembrance of his misfortunes. His +reputation as a poet rests on a little volume of bucolics entitled +_Marilia_, which includes all his published verses and is divided into +two parts, corresponding with those of his life. The first extends to +his imprisonment and breathes only love and pleasure, while the main +theme of the second part, written in prison, is his _saudade_ for +_Marilia_ and past happiness. Gonzaga borrowed his forms from the best +models, Anacreon and Theocritus, but the matter, except for an +occasional imitation of Petrarch, the natural, elegant style and the +harmonious metrification, are all his own. The booklet comprises the +most celebrated collection of erotic poetry dedicated to a single person +in the Portuguese tongue; indeed its popularity is so great as to exceed +its intrinsic merit. + + Twenty-nine editions had appeared up to 1854, but the Paris edition of + 1862 in 2 vols, is in every way the best, although the authenticity of + the verses in its 3rd part, which do not relate to _Marilia_, is + doubtful. A popular edition of the first two parts was published in + 1888 (Lisbon, Corazzi). A French version of _Marilia_ by Monglave and + Chalas appeared in Paris in 1825, an Italian by Vegezzi Ruscalla at + Turin in 1844, a Latin by Dr Castro Lopes at Rio in 1868, and there is + a Spanish one by Vedia. + + See Innocencio da Silva, _Diccionario bibliographico portuguez_, vol. + vii. p. 320, also Dr T. Braga, _Filinto Elysio e os Dissidentas da + Arcadia_ (Oporto, 1901). (E. Pr.) + + + + +GONZALEZ-CARVAJAL, TOMAS JOSE (1753-1834), Spanish, poet and statesman, +was born at Seville in 1753. He studied at the university of Seville, +and took the degree of LL.D. at Madrid. He obtained an office in the +financial department of the government; and in 1795 was made intendant +of the colonies which had just been founded in Sierra Morena and +Andalusia. During 1809-1811 he held an intendancy in the patriot army. +He became, in 1812, director of the university of San Isidro; but having +offended the government by establishing a chair of international law, he +was imprisoned for five years (1815-1820). The revolution of 1820 +reinstated him, but the counter-revolution of three years later forced +him into exile. After four years he was allowed to return, and he died, +in 1834, a member of the supreme council of war. Gonzalez-Carvajal +enjoyed European fame as author of metrical translations of the poetical +books of the Bible. To fit himself for this work he commenced the study +of Hebrew at the age of fifty-four. He also wrote other works in verse +and prose, avowedly taking Luis de Leon as his model. + + See biographical notice in _Biblioteca de Rivadeneyra_, vol. lxvii., + _Poetas del siglo 18_. + + + + +GONZALO DE BERCEO (c. 1180-c. 1246), the earliest Castilian poet whose +name is known to us, was born at Berceo, a village in the neighbourhood +of Calahorra in the province of Logrono. In 1221 he became a deacon and +was attached, as a secular priest, to the Benedictine monastery of San +Millan de la Cogolla, in the diocese of Calahorra. His name is to be +met with in a number of documents between the years 1237 and 1246. He +wrote upwards of 13,000 verses, all on devotional subjects. His best +work is a life of St Oria; others treat of the life of St Millan, of St +Dominic of Silos, of the Sacrifice of the Mass, the Martyrdom of St +Laurence, the visible signs preceding the Last Judgment, the Praises of +Our Lady, the Miracles of Our Lady and the Lamentations of the Virgin on +the Passion of her Son. He writes in the common tongue, the _roman +paladino_, and his claim to the name of poet rests on his use of the +_cuaderna via_ (single-rhymed quatrains, each verse being of fourteen +syllables). Sometimes, however, he takes the more modest title of +_juglar_ (_jongleur_), when claiming payment for his poems. His literary +attainments are not great, and he lacks imagination and animation of +style, but he has a certain eloquence, and in speaking of the Virgin and +the saints a certain charm, while his verse bears at times the imprint +of a passionate devotion, recalling the lyrical style of the great +Spanish mystics. There is, however, a very strong popular element in his +writings, which explains his long vogue. The great majority of his +legends of the Virgin are obviously borrowed from the collection of a +Frenchman, Gautier de Coinci; but he has succeeded in making this +material entirely his own by reason of a certain conciseness and a +realism in detail which make his work far superior to the tedious and +colourless narrative of his model. + + His _Poesias_ are in the _Biblioteca de autores espanoles_ of + Rivadeneyra, vol. lvii. (1864); _La Vida de San Domingo de Silos_ has + been edited by J. D. FitzGerald (Paris, 1904; see the _Bibliotheque de + l'Ecole des Hautes Etudes_, part 149); see also F. Fernandez y + Gonzalez in the _Razon_ (vol. i., Madrid, 1860); N. Hergueta, + "Documentos referentes a Gonzalo de Berceo," in the _Revista de + archivos_, (3rd series, Feb.-March, 1904, pp. 178-179). (P. A.) + + + + +GOOCH, SIR DANIEL, Bart. (1816-1889), English mechanical engineer, was +born at Bedlington, in Northumberland, on the 16th of August 1816. At +the age of fifteen, having shown a taste for mechanics, he was put to +work at the Tredegar Ironworks, Monmouthshire. In 1834 he went to +Warrington, where, at the Vulcan foundry, under Robert Stephenson, he +acquired the principles of locomotive design. Subsequently, after +passing a year at Dundee, he was engaged by the Stephensons at their +Gateshead works, where he seems to have conceived that predilection for +the broad gauge for which he was afterwards distinguished, through +having to design some engines for a 6-foot gauge in Russia and noticing +the advantages it offered in allowing greater space for the machinery, +&c., as compared with the standard gauge favoured by Stephenson. In +1837, on I. K. Brunel's recommendation, he was appointed locomotive +superintendent to the Great Western railway at a time when the engines +possessed by the railway were very poor and inefficient. He soon +improved this state of affairs, and gradually provided his employers +with locomotives which were unsurpassed for general excellence and +economy of working. One of the most famous, the "Lord of the Isles," was +awarded a gold medal at the Great Exhibition of 1851, and when, thirty +years afterwards, it was withdrawn from active service it had run more +than three-quarters of a million miles, all with its original boiler. In +1864 he left the Great Western and interested himself in the problem of +laying a telegraph cable across the Atlantic. At this time the "Great +Eastern" was in the hands of the bondholders, of whom he himself was one +of the most important, and it occurred to him that she might +advantageously be utilized in the enterprise. Accordingly, at his +instance she was chartered by the Telegraph Construction Company, of +which also he was a director, and in 1865 was employed in the attempt to +lay a cable, Gooch himself superintending operations. The cable, +however, broke in mid-ocean, and the attempt was a failure. Next year it +was renewed with more success, for not only was a new cable safely put +in place, but the older one was picked up and spliced, so that there +were two complete lines between England and America. For this +achievement Gooch was created a baronet. Meanwhile the Great Western +railway had fallen on evil days, being indeed on the verge of +bankruptcy, when in 1866 the directors appealed to him to accept the +chairmanship of the board and undertake the rehabilitation of the +company. He agreed to the proposal, and was so successful in restoring +its prosperity that in 1889, at the last meeting over which he presided, +a dividend was declared at the rate of 7-1/2%. Under his administration +the system was greatly enlarged and consolidated by the absorption of +various smaller lines, such as the Bristol and Exeter and the Cornwall +railways; and his appreciation of its strategic value caused him to be a +strenuous supporter of the construction of the Severn Tunnel. His death +occurred on the 15th of October 1889 at his residence, Clewer Park, near +Windsor. + + + + +GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827), English writer on medical, religious and +classical subjects, was born on the 25th of May 1764 at Epping, Essex. +After attending a school at Romsey kept by his father, the Rev. Peter +Good, who was a Nonconformist minister, he was, at about the age of +fifteen, apprenticed to a surgeon-apothecary at Gosport. In 1783 he went +to London to prosecute his medical studies, and in the autumn of 1784 he +began to practise as a surgeon at Sudbury in Suffolk. In 1793 he removed +to London, where he entered into partnership with a surgeon and +apothecary. But the partnership was soon dissolved, and to increase his +income he began to devote attention to literary pursuits. Besides +contributing both in prose and verse to the _Analytical_ and _Critical +Reviews_ and the _British_ and _Monthly Magazines_, and other +periodicals, he wrote a large number of works relating chiefly to +medical and religious subjects. In 1794 he became a member of the +British Pharmaceutical Society, and in that connexion, and especially by +the publication of his work, _A History of Medicine_ (1795), he did much +to effect a greatly needed reform in the profession of the apothecary. +In 1820 he took the diploma of M.D. at Marischal College, Aberdeen. He +died at Shepperton, Middlesex, on the 2nd of January 1827. Good was not +only well versed in classical literature, but was acquainted with the +principal European languages, and also with Persian, Arabic and Hebrew. +His prose works display wide erudition; but their style is dull and +tedious. His poetry never rises above pleasant and well-versified +commonplace. His translation of Lucretius, _The Nature of Things_ +(1805-1807), contains elaborate philological and explanatory notes, +together with parallel passages and quotations from European and Asiatic +authors. + + + + +GOOD FRIDAY (probably "God's Friday"), the English name for the Friday +before Easter, kept as the anniversary of the Crucifixion. In the Greek +Church it has been or is known as [Greek: pascha [staurosimon], +paraskeue, paraskeue megale] or [Greek: hagia, soteria] or [Greek: ta +soteria, hemepa tou staurou], while among the Latins the names of most +frequent occurrence are Pascha Crucis, Dies Dominicae Passionis, +Parasceve, Feria Sexta Paschae, Feria Sexta Major in Hierusalem, Dies +Absolutionis. It was called Long Friday by the Anglo-Saxons[1] and +Danes, possibly in allusion to the length of the services which marked +the day. In Germany it is sometimes designated Stiller Freitag (compare +Greek, [Greek: hebdomas apraktos]; Latin, _hebdomas inofficiosa, non +laboriosa_), but more commonly Charfreitag. The etymology of this last +name has been much disputed, but there seems now to be little doubt that +it is derived from the Old High German _chara_, meaning suffering or +mourning. + +The origin of the custom of a yearly commemoration of the Crucifixion is +somewhat obscure. It may be regarded as certain that among Jewish +Christians it almost imperceptibly grew out of the old habit of annually +celebrating the Passover on the 14th of Nisan, and of observing the +"days of unleavened bread" from the 15th to the 21st of that month. In +the Gentile churches, on the other hand, it seems to be well established +that originally no yearly cycle of festivals was known at all. (See +EASTER.) + +From its earliest observance, the day was marked by a specially rigorous +fast, and also, on the whole, by a tendency to greater simplicity in the +services of the church. Prior to the 4th century there is no evidence of +non-celebration of the eucharist on Good Friday; but after that date the +prohibition of communion became common. In Spain, indeed, it became +customary to close the churches altogether as a sign of mourning; but +this practice was condemned by the council of Toledo (633). In the Roman +Catholic Church the Good Friday ritual at present observed is marked by +many special features, most of which can be traced back to a date at +least prior to the close of the 8th century (see the Ordo Romanus in +Muratori's _Liturg. Rom. Vet._). The altar and officiating clergy are +draped in black, this being the only day on which that colour is +permitted. Instead of the epistle, sundry passages from Hosea, Habakkuk, +Exodus and the Psalms are read. The gospel for the day consists of the +history of the Passion as recorded by St John. This is often sung in +plain-chaunt by three priests, one representing the "narrator," the +other two the various characters of the story. The singing of this is +followed by bidding prayers for the peace and unity of the church, for +the pope, the clergy, all ranks and conditions of men, the sovereign, +for catechumens, the sick and afflicted, heretics and schismatics, Jews +and heathen. Then follows the "adoration of the cross" (a ceremony +derived from the church of Jerusalem and said to date back to near the +time of Helena's "invention of the cross"); the hymns _Pange lingua_ and +_Vexilla regis_ are sung, and then follows the "Mass of the +Presanctified." The name is derived from the fact that it is celebrated +with elements consecrated the day before, the liturgy being omitted on +this day. The priest merely places the Sacrament on the altar, censes +it, elevates and breaks the host, and communicates, the prayers and +responses interspersed being peculiar to the day. This again is followed +by vespers, with a special anthem; after which the altar is stripped in +silence. In many Roman Catholic countries--in Spain, for example--it is +usual for the faithful to spend much time in the churches in meditation +on the "seven last words" of the Saviour; no carriages are driven +through the streets; the bells and organs are silent; and in every +possible way it is sought to deepen the impression of a profound and +universal grief. In the Greek Church also the Good Friday fast is +excessively strict; as in the Roman Church, the Passion history is read +and the cross adored; towards evening a dramatic representation of the +entombment takes place, amid open demonstrations of contempt for Judas +and the Jews. In Lutheran churches the organ is silent on this day, and +altar, font and pulpit are draped in black, as indeed throughout Holy +Week. In the Church of England the history of the Passion from the +gospel according to John is also read; the collects for the day are +based upon the bidding prayers which are found in the Ordo Romanus. The +"three hours" service, borrowed from Roman Catholic usage and consisting +of prayers, addresses on the "seven last words from the cross" and +intervals for meditation and silent prayer, has become very popular in +the Anglican Church, and the observance of the day is more marked than +formerly among Nonconformist bodies, even in Scotland. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See Johnson's _Collection of Ecclesiastical Laws_ (vol. i., anno + 957): "Housel ought not to be hallowed on Long Friday, because Christ + suffered for us on that day." + + + + +GOODMAN, GODFREY (1583-1656), bishop of Gloucester, was born at Ruthin, +Denbighshire, and educated at Westminster and Cambridge. He took orders +in 1603, and in 1606 obtained the living of Stapleford Abbots, Essex, +which he held together with several other livings. He was canon of +Windsor from 1617 and dean of Rochester 1620-1621, and became bishop of +Gloucester in 1625. From this time his tendencies towards Roman +Catholicism constantly got him into trouble. He preached an +unsatisfactory sermon at court in 1626, and in 1628 incurred charges of +introducing popery at Windsor. In 1633 he secured the see of Hereford by +bribery, but Archbishop Laud persuaded the king to refuse his consent. +In 1638 he was said to be converted to Rome, and two years later he was +imprisoned for refusing to sign the new canons denouncing popery and +affirming the divine right of kings. He afterwards signed and was +released on bail, but next year the bishops who had signed were all +imprisoned in the Tower, by order of parliament, on the charge of +treason. After eighteen weeks' imprisonment Goodman was allowed to +return to his diocese. About 1650 he settled in London, where he died a +confessed Roman Catholic. His best known book is _The Fall of Man_ +(London, 1616). + + + + +GOODRICH, SAMUEL GRISWOLD (1793-1860), American author, better known +under the pseudonym of "Peter Parley," was born, the son of a +Congregational minister, at Ridgefield, Connecticut, on the 19th of +August 1793. He was largely self-educated, became an assistant in a +country store at Danbury, Conn., in 1808, and at Hartford, Conn., in +1811, and from 1816 to 1822 was a bookseller and publisher at Hartford. +He visited Europe in 1823-1824, and in 1826 removed to Boston, where he +continued in the publishing business, and from 1828 to 1842 he published +an illustrated annual, the _Token_, to which he was a frequent +contributor both in prose and verse. A selection from these +contributions was published in 1841 under the title _Sketches from a +Student's Window_. The _Token_ also contained some of the earliest work +of Nathaniel Hawthorne, N. P. Willis, Henry W. Longfellow and Lydia +Maria Child. In 1841 he established _Merry's Museum_, which he continued +to edit till 1854. In 1827 he began, under the name of "Peter Parley," +his series of books for the young, which embraced geography, biography, +history, science and miscellaneous tales. Of these he was the sole +author of only a few, but in 1857 he wrote that he was "the author and +editor of about 170 volumes," and that about seven millions had been +sold. In 1857 he published _Recollections of a Lifetime_, which contains +a list both of the works of which he was the author or editor and of the +spurious works published under his name. By his writings and +publications he amassed a large fortune. He was chosen a member of the +Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1836, and of the state Senate +in 1837, his competitor in the last election being Alexander H. Everett, +and in 1851-1853 he was consul at Paris, where he remained till 1855, +taking advantage of his stay to have several of his works translated +into French. After his return to America he published, in 1859, +_Illustrated History of the Animal Kingdom_. He died, in New York, on +the 9th of May 1860. + +His brother, CHARLES AUGUSTUS GOODRICH (1790-1862), a Congregational +clergyman, published various ephemeral books, and helped to compile some +of the "Peter Parley" series. + + + + +GOODRICH, or GOODRICKE, THOMAS (d. 1554), English ecclesiastic, was a +son of Edward Goodrich of East Kirkby, Lincolnshire, and was educated at +Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, afterwards becoming a fellow of Jesus +College in the same university. He was among the divines consulted about +the legality of Henry VIII.'s marriage with Catherine of Aragon, became +one of the royal chaplains about 1530, and was consecrated bishop of Ely +in 1534. He was favourable to the Reformation, helped in 1537 to draw up +the _Institution of a Christian Man_ (known as the _Bishops' Book_), and +translated the Gospel of St John for the revised New Testament. On the +accession of Edward VI. in 1547 the bishop was made a privy councillor, +and took a conspicuous part in public affairs during the reign. "A busy +secular spirited man," as Burnet calls him, he was equally opposed to +the zealots of the "old" and the "new religion." He assisted to compile +the First Prayer Book of Edward VI., was one of the commissioners for +the trial of Bishop Gardiner, and in January 1551-1552 succeeded Rich as +lord high chancellor. This office he continued to hold during the nine +days' reign of "Queen Jane" (Lady Jane Grey); but he continued to make +his peace with Queen Mary, conformed to the restored religion, and, +though deprived of the chancellorship, was allowed to keep his bishopric +until his death on the 10th of May 1554. + + See the _Dict. Nat. Biog._, where further authorities are cited. + + + + +GOODSIR, JOHN (1814-1867), Scottish anatomist, born at Anstruther, Fife, +on the 20th of March 1814, was the son of Dr John Goodsir, and grandson +of Dr John Goodsir of Largo. He was educated at the burgh and +grammar-schools of his native place and at the university of St Andrews. +In 1830 he was apprenticed to a surgeon-dentist in Edinburgh, where he +studied anatomy under Robert Knox, and in 1835 he joined his father in +practice at Anstruther. Three years later he communicated to the British +Association a paper on the pulps and sacs of the human teeth, his +researches on the whole process of dentition being at this time +distinguished by their completeness; and about the same date, on the +nomination of Edward Forbes, he was elected to the famous coterie called +the "Universal Brotherhood of the Friends of Truth," which comprised +artists, scholars, naturalists and others, whose relationship became a +potent influence in science. With Forbes he worked at marine zoology, +but human anatomy, pathology and morphology formed his chief study. In +1840 he moved to Edinburgh, where in the following year he was appointed +conservator of the museum of the College of Surgeons, in succession to +William Macgillivray. Much of his reputation rested on his knowledge of +the anatomy of tissues. In his lectures in the theatre of the college in +1842-1843 he evidenced the largeness of his observation of cell-life, +both physiologically and pathologically, insisting on the importance of +the cell as a centre of nutrition, and pointing out that the organism is +subdivided into a number of departments. R. Virchow recognized his +indebtedness to these discoveries by dedicating his _Cellular +Pathologie_ to Goodsir, as "one of the earliest and most acute observers +of cell-life." In 1843 Goodsir obtained the post of curator in the +university of Edinburgh; the following year he was appointed +demonstrator of anatomy, and in 1845 curator of the entire museum. A +year later he was elected to the chair of anatomy in the university, and +devoted all his energies to anatomical research and teaching. + +Human myology was his strong point; no one had laboured harder at the +dissecting-table; and he strongly emphasized the necessity of practice +as a means of research. He believed that anatomy, physiology and +pathology could never be properly advanced without daily consideration +and treatment of disease. In 1848 he became a fellow of the Royal +College of Surgeons, and in the same year he joined the Highland and +Agricultural Society, acting as chairman of the veterinary department, +and advising on strictly agricultural matters. In 1847 he delivered a +series of systematic lectures on the comparative anatomy of the +invertebrata; and, about this period, as member of an aesthetic club, he +wrote papers on the natural principles of beauty, the aesthetics of the +ugly, of smell, the approbation or disapprobation of sounds, &c. Owing +to the failing health of Professor Robert Jameson, Goodsir was induced +to deliver the course of lectures on natural history during the summer +of 1853. + +The lectures were long remembered for their brilliancy, but the infinite +amount of thought and exertion which they cost broke down the health of +the lecturer. Goodsir, nevertheless, persevered in his labours, writing +in 1855 on organic electricity, in 1856 on morphological subjects, and +afterwards on the structure of organized forms. His speculations in the +latter domain gave birth to his theory of a triangle as the mathematical +figure upon which nature had built up both the organic and inorganic +worlds, and he hoped to complete this triangle theory of formation and +law as the greatest of his works. In his lectures on the skull and brain +he held the doctrine that symmetry of brain had more to do with the +higher faculties than bulk or form. He died at Wardie, near Edinburgh, +on the 6th of March 1867, in the same cottage in which his friend Edward +Forbes died. His anatomical lectures were remarkable for their solid +basis of fact; and no one in Britain took so wide a field for survey or +marshalled so many facts for anatomical tabulation and synthesis. + + See _Anatomical Memoirs of John Goodsir, F.R.S., edited by W. Turner, + with Memoir by H. Lonsdale_ (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1868), in which + Goodsir's lectures, addresses and writings are epitomized; _Proc. Roy. + Soc._ vol. iv. (1868); _Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin._ vol. ix. (1868). + + + + +GOODWILL, in the law of property, a term of somewhat vague significance. +It has been defined as every advantage which has been acquired in +carrying on a business, whether connected with the premises in which the +business has been carried on, or with the name of the firm by whom it +has been conducted (_Churton_ v. _Douglas_, 1859, Johns, 174). Goodwill +may be either professional or trade. Professional goodwill usually takes +the form of the recommendation by a retiring professional man, doctor, +solicitor, &c., to his clients of the successor or purchaser coupled +generally with an undertaking not to compete with him. Trade goodwill +varies with the nature of the business with which it is connected, but +there are two rights which, whatever the nature of the business may be, +are invariably associated with it, viz. the right of the purchaser to +represent himself as the owner of the business, and the right to +restrain competition. For the purposes of the Stamp Act, the goodwill of +a business is property, and the proper duty must be paid on the +conveyance of such. (See also PARTNERSHIP; PATENTS.) + + + + +GOODWIN, JOHN (c. 1594-1665), English Nonconformist divine, was born in +Norfolk and educated at Queens' College, Cambridge, where he was elected +fellow in 1617. He was vicar of St Stephen's, Coleman Street, London, +from 1633 to 1645, when he was ejected by parliament for his attacks on +Presbyterianism, especially in his [Greek: Theomachia](1644). He +thereupon established an independent congregation, and put his literary +gifts at Oliver Cromwell's service. In 1648 he justified the proceedings +of the army against the parliament ("Pride's Purge") in a pamphlet +_Might and Right Well Met_, and in 1649 defended the proceedings against +Charles I. (to whom he had offered spiritual advice) in [Greek: +Hubristodikai]. At the Restoration this tract, with some that Milton had +written to Monk in favour of a republic, was publicly burnt, and Goodwin +was ordered into custody, though finally indemnified. He died in 1665. +Among his other writings are _Anti-Cavalierisme_ (1642), a translation +of the _Stratagemata Satanae_ of Giacomo Aconcio, the Elizabethan +advocate of toleration, tracts against Fifth-Monarchy Men, Cromwell's +"Triers" and Baptists, and _Redemption Redeemed, containing a thorough +discussion of ... election, reprobation and the perseverance of the +saints_ (1651, reprinted 1840). Goodwin's strongly Arminian tendencies +brought him into conflict with Robert Baillie, professor of divinity of +Glasgow, George Kendall, the Calvinist prebendary of Exeter, and John +Owen (q.v.), who replied to _Redemption Redeemed_ in _The Doctrine of +the Saints' Perseverance_, paying a high tribute to his opponent's +learning and controversial skill. Goodwin answered all three in the +_Triumviri_ (1658). John Wesley in later days held him in much esteem +and published an abridged edition of his _Imputatio fidei_, a work on +justification that had originally appeared in 1642. + + _Life_ by T. Jackson (London, 1839). + + + + +GOODWIN, NATHANIEL CARL (1857- ), American actor, was born in Boston +on the 25th of July 1857. While clerk in a large shop he studied for the +stage, and made his first appearance in 1873 in Boston in Stuart +Robson's company as the newsboy in Joseph Bradford's _Law_. He made an +immediate success by his imitations of popular actors. A hit in the +burlesque _Black-eyed Susan_ led to his taking part in Rice and +Goodwin's _Evangeline_ company. It was at this time that he married +Eliza Weathersby (d. 1887), an English actress with whom he played in B. +E. Woollf's _Hobbies_. It was not until 1889, however, that Nat +Goodwin's talent as a comedian of the "legitimate" type began to be +recognized. From that time he appeared in a number of plays designed to +display his drily humorous method, such as Brander Matthews' and George +H. Jessop's _A Gold Mine_, Henry Guy Carleton's _A Gilded Fool_ and +_Ambition_, Clyde Fitch's _Nathan Hale_, H. V. Esmond's _When we were +Twenty-one_, &c. Till 1903 he was associated in his performances with +his third wife, the actress Maxine Elliott (b. 1873), whom he married in +1898; this marriage was dissolved in 1908. + + + + +GOODWIN, THOMAS (1600-1680), English Nonconformist divine, was born at +Rollesby, Norfolk, on the 5th of October 1600, and was educated at +Christ's College, Cambridge, where in 1616 he graduated B.A. In 1619 he +removed to Catharine Hall, where in 1620 he was elected fellow. In 1625 +he was licensed a preacher of the university; and three years afterwards +he became lecturer of Trinity Church, to the vicarage of which he was +presented by the king in 1632. Worried by his bishop, who was a zealous +adherent of Laud, he resigned all his preferments and left the university +in 1634. He lived for some time in London, where in 1638 he married the +daughter of an alderman; but in the following year he withdrew to +Holland, and for some time was pastor of a small congregation of English +merchants and refugees at Arnheim. Returning to London soon after Laud's +impeachment by the Long Parliament, he ministered for some years to the +Independent congregation meeting at Paved Alley Church, Lime Street, in +the parish of St Dunstan's-in-the-East, and rapidly rose to considerable +eminence as a preacher; in 1643 he was chosen a member of the Westminster +Assembly, and at once identified himself with the Congregational party, +generally referred to in contemporary documents as "the dissenting +brethren." He frequently preached by appointment before the Commons, and +in January 1650 his talents and learning were rewarded by the House with +the presidentship of Magdalen College, Oxford, a post which he held until +the Restoration. He rose into high favour with the protector, and was one +of his intimate advisers, attending him on his death-bed. He was also a +commissioner for the inventory of the Westminster Assembly, 1650, and for +the approbation of preachers, 1653, and together with John Owen (q.v.) +drew up an amended Westminster Confession in 1658. From 1660 until his +death on the 23rd of February 1680 he lived in London, and devoted +himself exclusively to theological study and to the pastoral charge of +the Fetter Lane Independent Church. + + The works published by Goodwin during his lifetime consist chiefly of + sermons printed by order of the House of Commons; but he was also + associated with Philip Nye and others in the preparation of the + _Apologeticall Narration_ (1643). His collected writings, which + include expositions of the Epistle to the Ephesians and of the + Apocalypse, were published in five folio volumes between 1681 and + 1704, and were reprinted in twelve 8vo volumes (Edin., 1861-1866). + Characterized by abundant yet one-sided reading, remarkable at once + for the depth and for the narrowness of their observation and + spiritual experience, often admirably thorough in their workmanship, + yet in style intolerably prolix--they fairly exemplify both the merits + and the defects of the special school of religious thought to which + they belong. Calamy's estimate of Goodwin's qualities may be quoted as + both friendly and just. "He was a considerable scholar and an eminent + divine, and had a very happy faculty in descanting upon Scripture so + as to bring forth surprising remarks, which yet generally tended to + illustration." A memoir, derived from his own papers, by his son + (Thomas Goodwin, "the younger," 1650?-1716?, Independent minister at + London and Pinner, and author of the _History of the Reign of Henry + V._) is prefixed to the fifth volume of his collected works; as a + "patriarch and Atlas of Independency" he is also noticed by Anthony + Wood in the _Athenae Oxonienses_. An amusing sketch, from Addison's + point of view, of the austere and somewhat fanatical president of + Magdalen is preserved in No. 494 of the _Spectator_. + + + + +GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON (1831- ), American classical scholar, was born +in Concord, Massachusetts, on the 9th of May 1831. He graduated at +Harvard in 1851, studied in Germany, was tutor in Greek at Harvard in +1856-1860, and Eliot professor of Greek there from 1860 until his +resignation in 1901. He became an overseer of Harvard in 1903. In +1882-1883 he was the first director of the American School for Classical +Studies at Athens. Goodwin edited the _Panegyricus_ of Isocrates (1864) +and Demosthenes _On The Crown_ (1901); and assisted in preparing the +seventh edition of Liddell and Scott's _Greek-English Lexicon_. He +revised an English version by several writers of _Plutarch's Morals_ (5 +vols., 1871; 6th ed., 1889), and published the Greek text with literal +English version of Aeschylus' _Agamemnon_ (1906) for the Harvard +production of that play in June 1906. As a teacher he did much to raise +the tone of classical reading from that of a mechanical exercise to +literary study. But his most important work was his _Syntax of the Moods +and Tenses of the Greek Verb_ (1860), of which the seventh revised +edition appeared in 1877 and another (enlarged) in 1890. This was "based +in part on Madvig and Kruger," but, besides making accessible to +American students the works of these continental grammarians, it +presented original matter, including a "radical innovation in the +classification of conditional sentences," notably the "distinction +between particular and general suppositions." Goodwin's _Greek Grammar_ +(elementary edition, 1870; enlarged 1879; revised and enlarged 1892) +gradually superseded in most American schools the _Grammar_ of Hadley +and Allen. Both the _Moods and Tenses_ and the _Grammar_ in later +editions are largely dependent on the theories of Gildersleeve for +additions and changes. Goodwin also wrote a few elaborate syntactical +studies, to be found in _Harvard Studies in Classical Philology_, the +twelfth volume of which was dedicated to him upon the completion of +fifty years as an alumnus of Harvard and forty-one years as Eliot +professor. + + + + +GOODWIN SANDS, a dangerous line of shoals at the entrance to the Strait +of Dover from the North Sea, about 6 m. from the Kent coast of England, +from which they are separated by the anchorage of the Downs. For this +they form a shelter. They are partly exposed at low water, but the sands +are shifting, and in spite of lights and bell-buoys the Goodwins are +frequently the scene of wrecks, while attempts to erect a lighthouse or +beacon have failed. Tradition finds in the Goodwins the remnant of an +island called Lomea, which belonged to Earl Godwine in the first half of +the 11th century, and was afterwards submerged, when the funds devoted +to its protection were diverted to build the church steeple at Tenterden +(q.v.). Four lightships mark the limits of the sands, and also signal by +rockets to the lifeboat stations on the coast when any vessel is in +distress on the sands. Perhaps the most terrible catastrophe recorded +here was the wreck of thirteen ships of war during a great storm in +November 1703. + + + + +GOODWOOD, a mansion in the parish of Boxgrove, in the Chichester +parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 4 m. N.E. of Chichester. It +was built from designs of Sir William Chambers with additions by Wyatt, +after the purchase of the property by the first duke of Richmond in +1720. The park is in a hilly district, and is enriched with magnificent +trees of many varieties, including some huge cedars. In it is a building +containing a Roman slab recording the construction of a temple to +Minerva and Neptune at Chichester. There is mention of a British +tributary prince named Cogidubnus, who perhaps served also as a Roman +official. A reference to early Christianity in Britain has been +erroneously read into this inscription. On the racecourse a famous +annual meeting, dating from 1802, is held in July. The parish church of +SS. Mary and Blaize, Boxgrove, is almost entirely a rich specimen of +Early English work. + + + + +GOODYEAR, CHARLES (1800-1860), American inventor, was born at New Haven, +Connecticut, on the 29th of December 1800, the son of Amasa Goodyear, an +inventor (especially of farming implements) and a pioneer in the +manufacture of hardware in America. The family removed to Naugatuck, +Conn., when Charles was a boy; he worked in his father's button factory +and studied at home until 1816, when he apprenticed himself to a firm of +hardware merchants in Philadelphia. In 1821 he returned to Connecticut +and entered into a partnership with his father at Naugatuck, which +continued till 1830, when it was terminated by business reverses. +Already he was interested in an attempt to discover a method of +treatment by which india-rubber could be made into merchandizable +articles that would stand extremes of heat and cold. To the solution of +this problem the next ten years of his life were devoted. With ceaseless +energy and unwavering faith in the successful outcome of his labours, in +the face of repeated failures and hampered by poverty, which several +times led him to a debtor's prison, he persevered in his endeavours. For +a time he seemed to have succeeded with a treatment (or "cure") of the +rubber with _aqua fortis_. In 1836 he secured a contract for the +manufacture by this process of mail bags for the U.S. government, but +the rubber fabric was useless at high temperatures. In 1837 he met and +worked with Nathaniel Hayward (1808-1865), who had been an employee of a +rubber factory in Roxbury and had made experiments with sulphur mixed +with rubber. Goodyear bought from Hayward the right to use this +imperfect process. In 1839, by dropping on a hot stove some india-rubber +mixed with sulphur, he discovered accidentally the process for the +vulcanization of rubber. Two years more passed before he could find any +one who had faith enough in his discovery to invest money in it. At +last, in 1844, by which time he had perfected his process, his first +patent was granted, and in the subsequent years more than sixty patents +were granted to him for the application of his original process to +various uses. Numerous infringements had to be fought in the courts, the +decisive victory coming in 1852 in the case of _Goodyear_ v. _Day_, in +which his rights were defended by Daniel Webster and opposed by Rufus +Choate. In 1852 he went to England, where articles made under his +patents had been displayed at the International Exhibition of 1851, but +he was unable to establish factories there. In France a company for the +manufacture of vulcanized rubber by his process failed, and in December +1855 he was arrested and imprisoned for debt in Paris. Owing to the +expense of the litigation in which he was engaged and to bad business +management, he profited little from his inventions. He died in New York +City on the 1st of July 1860. He wrote an account of his discovery +entitled _Gum-Elastic and its Varieties_ (2 vols., New Haven, +1853-1855). + + See also B. K. Peirce, _Trials of an Inventor, Life and Discoveries of + Charles Goodyear_ (New York, 1866); James Parton, _Famous Americans of + Recent Times_ (Boston, 1867); and Herbert L. Terry, _India Rubber and + its Manufacture_ (New York, 1907). + + + + +GOOGE, BARNABE (1540-1594), English poet, son of Robert Googe, recorder +of Lincoln, was born on the 11th of June 1540 at Alvingham, +Lincolnshire. He studied at Christ's College, Cambridge, and at New +College, Oxford, but does not seem to have taken a degree at either +university. He afterwards removed to Staple's Inn, and was attached to +the household of his kinsman, Sir William Cecil. In 1563 he became a +gentleman pensioner to Queen Elizabeth. He was absent in Spain when his +poems were sent to the printer by a friend, L. Blundeston. Googe then +gave his consent, and they appeared in 1563 as _Eglogs, Epytaphes, and +Sonettes_. There is extant a curious correspondence on the subject of +his marriage with Mary Darrell, whose father refused Googe's suit on the +ground that she was bound by a previous contract. The matter was decided +by the intervention of Sir William Cecil with Archbishop Parker, and the +marriage took place in 1564 or 1565. Googe was provost-marshal of the +court of Connaught, and some twenty letters of his in this capacity are +preserved in the record office. He died in February 1594. He was an +ardent Protestant, and his poetry is coloured by his religious and +political views. In the third "Eglog," for instance, he laments the +decay of the old nobility and the rise of a new aristocracy of wealth, +and he gives an indignant account of the sufferings of his +co-religionists under Mary. The other eclogues deal with the sorrows of +earthly love, leading up to a dialogue between Corydon and Cornix, in +which the heavenly love is extolled. The volume includes epitaphs on +Nicholas Grimald, John Bale and on Thomas Phaer, whose translation of +Virgil Googe is uncritical enough to prefer to the versions of Surrey +and of Gavin Douglas. A much more charming pastoral than any of those +contained in this volume, "Phyllida was a fayer maid" (_Tottel's +Miscellany_) has been ascribed to Barnabe Googe. He was one of the +earliest English pastoral poets, and the first who was inspired by +Spanish romance, being considerably indebted to the _Diana Enamorada_ of +Montemayor. + + His other works include a translation from Marcellus Palingenius (said + to be an anagram for Pietro Angelo Manzolli) of a satirical Latin + poem, _Zodiacus vitae_ (Venice, 1531?), in twelve books, under the + title of _The Zodyake of Life_ (1560); _The Popish Kingdome, or reign + of Antichrist_ (1570), translated from Thomas Kirchmayer or + Naogeorgus; _The Spiritual Husbandrie_ from the same author, printed + with the last; _Foure Bookes of Husbandrie_ (1577), collected by + Conradus Heresbachius; and _The Proverbes of ... Lopes de Mendoza_ + (1579). + + + + +GOOLE, a market town and port in the Osgoldcross parliamentary division +of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, at the confluence of the Don +and the Ouse, 24 m. W. by S. from Hull, served by the North Eastern, +Lancashire & Yorkshire, Great Central and Asholme joint railways. Pop. +of urban district (1901) 16,576. The town owes its existence to the +construction of the Knottingley canal in 1826 by the Aire and Calder +Navigation Company, after which, in 1829, Goole was made a bonding port. +Previously it had been an obscure hamlet. The port was administratively +combined with that of Hull in 1885. It is 47 m. from the North Sea +(mouth of the Humber), and a wide system of inland navigation opens from +it. There are eight docks supplied with timber ponds, quays, warehouses +and other accommodation. The depth of water is 21 or 22 ft. at high +water, spring tides. Chief exports are coal, stone, woollen goods and +machinery; imports, butter, fruit, indigo, logwood, timber and wool. +Industries include the manufacture of alum, sugar, rope and agricultural +instruments, and iron-founding. Ship-building is also carried on, and +there is a large dry dock and a patent slip for repairing vessels. +Passenger steamship services are worked in connexion with the Lancashire +& Yorkshire railway to Amsterdam, Antwerp, Bruges, Copenhagen, Rotterdam +and other north European ports. The handsome church of St John the +Evangelist, with a lofty tower and spire, dates from 1844. + + + + +GOOSE (a common Teut. word, O. Eng. _gos_, pl. _ges_, Ger. _Gans_, O. +Norse _gas_, from Aryan root, _ghans_, whence Sans. _hansa_, Lat. +_anser_ (for _hanser_), Gr. [Greek: chen], &c.), the general English +name for a considerable number of birds, belonging to the family +_Anatidae_ of modern ornithologists, which are mostly larger than ducks +and less than swans. Technically the word goose is reserved for the +female, the male being called gander (A.-S. _gandra_). + +The most important species of goose, and the type of the genus _Anser_, +is undoubtedly that which is the origin of the well-known domestic race +(see POULTRY), the _Anser ferus_ or _A. cinereus_ of most naturalists, +commonly called in English the grey or grey lag[1] goose, a bird of +exceedingly wide range in the Old World, apparently breeding where +suitable localities are to be found in most European countries from +Lapland to Spain and Bulgaria. Eastwards it extends to China, but does +not seem to be known in Japan. It is the only species indigenous to the +British Islands, and in former days bred abundantly in the English +Fen-country, where the young were caught in large numbers and kept in a +more or less reclaimed condition with the vast flocks of tame-bred geese +that at one time formed so valuable a property to the dwellers in and +around the Fens. It is impossible to determine when the wild grey lag +goose ceased from breeding in England, but it certainly did so towards +the end of the 18th century, for Daniell mentions (_Rural Sports_, iii. +242) his having obtained two broods in one season. In Scotland this +goose continues to breed sparingly in several parts of the Highlands and +in certain of the Hebrides, the nests being generally placed in long +heather, and the eggs seldom exceeding five or six in number. It is most +likely the birds reared here that are from time to time obtained in +England, for at the present day the grey lag goose, though once so +numerous, is, and for many years has been, the rarest species of those +that habitually resort to the British Islands. The domestication of this +species, as Darwin remarks (_Animals and Plants under Domestication_, i. +287), is of very ancient date, and yet scarcely any other animal that +has been tamed for so long a period, and bred so largely in captivity, +has varied so little. It has increased greatly in size and fecundity, +but almost the only change in plumage is that tame geese commonly lose +the browner and darker tints of the wild bird, and are more or less +marked with white--being often indeed wholly of that colour.[2] The most +generally recognized breeds of domestic geese are those to which the +distinctive names of Emden and Toulouse are applied; but a singular +breed, said to have come from Sevastopol, was introduced into western +Europe about the year 1856. In this the upper plumage is elongated, +curled and spirally twisted, having their shaft transparent, and so thin +that it often splits into fine filaments, which, remaining free for an +inch or more, often coalesce again;[3] while the quills are aborted, so +that the birds cannot fly. + +The other British species of typical geese are the bean-goose (_A. +segetum_), the pink-footed (_A. brachyrhynchus_) and the white-fronted +(_A. albifrons_). On the continent of Europe, but not yet recognized as +occurring in Britain, is a small form of the last (_A. erythropus_) +which is known to breed in Lapland. All these, for the sake of +discrimination, may be divided into _two_ groups--(1) those having the +"nail" at the tip of the bill white, or of a very pale flesh colour, and +(2) those in which this "nail" is black. To the former belong the grey +lag goose, as well as _A. albifrons_ and _A. erythropus_, and to the +latter the other two. _A. albifrons_ and _A. erythropus_, which differ +little but in size,--the last being not much bigger than a mallard +(_Anas boschas_),--may be readily distinguished from the grey lag goose +by their bright orange legs and their mouse-coloured upper wing-coverts, +to say nothing of their very conspicuous white face and the broad black +bars which cross the belly, though the last two characters are +occasionally observable to some extent in the grey lag goose, which has +the bill and legs flesh-coloured, and the upper wing-coverts of a +bluish-grey. Of the second group, with the black "nail," _A. segetum_ +has the bill long, black at the base and orange in the middle; the feet +are also orange, and the upper wing-coverts mouse-coloured, as in _A. +albifrons_ and _A. erythropus_, while _A. brachyrhynchus_ has the bill +short, bright pink in the middle, and the feet also pink, the upper +wing-coverts being nearly of the same bluish-grey as in the grey lag +goose. Eastern Asia possesses in _A. grandis_ a third species of this +group, which chiefly differs from _A. segetum_ in its larger size. In +North America there is only one species of typical goose, and that +belongs to the white-"nailed" group. It very nearly resembles _A. +albifrons_, but is larger, and has been described as distinct under the +name of _A. gambeli_. Central Asia and India possess in the bar-headed +goose (_A. indicus_) a bird easily distinguished from any of the +foregoing by the character implied by its English name; but it is +certainly somewhat abnormal, and, indeed, under the name of _Eulabia_, +has been separated from the genus _Anser_, which has no other member +indigenous to the Indian Region, nor any at all to the Ethiopian, +Australian or Neotropical Regions. + +America possesses by far the greatest wealth of Anserine forms. Beside +others, presently to be mentioned, its northern portions are the home of +all the species of snow-geese belonging to the genus _Chen_. The first +of these is _C. hyperboreus_, the snow-goose proper, a bird of large +size, and when adult of a pure white, except the primaries, which are +black. This has long been deemed a visitor to the Old World, and +sometimes in considerable numbers, but the later discovery of a smaller +form, _C. albatus_, scarcely differing except in size, throws some doubt +on the older records, especially since examples which have been obtained +in the British Islands undoubtedly belong to this lesser bird, and it +would be satisfactory to have the occurrence in the Old World of the +true _C. hyperboreus_ placed on a surer footing. So nearly allied to the +species last named as to have been often confounded with it, is the +blue-winged goose, _C. coerulescens_, which is said never to attain a +snowy plumage. Then we have a very small species, long ago described as +distinct by Samuel Hearne, the Arctic traveller, but until 1861 +discredited by ornithologists. Its distinctness has now been fully +recognized, and it has received, somewhat unjustly, the name of _C. +rossi_. Its face is adorned with numerous papillae, whence it has been +removed by Elliot to a separate genus, _Exanthemops_, and for the same +reason it has long been known to the European residents in the fur +countries as the "horned wavey"--the last word being a rendering of a +native name, _Wawa_, which signifies goose. Finally, there appears to +belong to this section, though it has been frequently referred to +another (_Chloephaga_), and has also been made the type of a distinct +genus (_Philacte_), the beautiful emperor goose, _P. canagica_, which is +almost peculiar to the Aleutian Islands, though straying to the +continent in winter, and may be recognized by the white edging of its +remiges. + +The southern portions of the New World are inhabited by about half a +dozen species of geese not nearly akin to the foregoing, and separated +as the genus _Chloephaga_. The most noticeable of them are the rock or +kelp goose, _C. antarctica_, and the upland goose, _C. magellanica_. In +both of these the sexes are totally unlike in colour, but in others a +greater similarity obtains.[4] Formerly erroneously associated with the +birds of this group comes one which belongs to the northern hemisphere, +and is common to the Old World as well as the New. It contains the geese +which have received the common names of bernacles or brents,[5] and the +scientific appellations of _Bernicla_ and _Branta_--for the use of +either of which much may be said by nomenclaturists. All the species of +this section are distinguished by their general dark sooty colour, +relieved in some by white of greater or less purity, and by way of +distinction from the members of the genus _Anser_, which are known as +grey geese, are frequently called by fowlers black geese. Of these, the +best known both in Europe and North America is the brent-goose--the +_Anas bernicla_ of Linnaeus, and the _B. torquata_ of many modern +writers--a truly marine bird, seldom (in Europe at least) quitting +salt-water, and coming southwards in vast flocks towards autumn, +frequenting bays and estuaries on the British coasts, where it lives +chiefly on sea-grass (_Zostera maritima_). It is known to breed in +Spitsbergen and in Greenland. A form which is by some ornithologists +deemed a good species, and called by them _B. nigricans_, occurs chiefly +on the Pacific coast of North America. In it the black of the neck, +which in the common brent terminates just above the breast, extends over +most of the lower parts. The true bernacle-goose,[6] the _B. leucopsis_ +of most authors, is but a casual visitor to North America, but is said +to breed in Iceland, and occasionally in Norway. Its usual _incunabula_, +however, still form one of the puzzles of the ornithologist, and the +difficulty is not lessened by the fact that it will breed freely in +semi-captivity, while the brent-goose will not. From the latter the +bernacle-goose is easily distinguished by its larger size and white +cheeks. Hutchins's goose (_B. Hutchinsi_) seems to be its true +representative in the New World. In this the face is dark, but a white +crescentic or triangular patch extends from the throat on either side +upwards behind the eye. Almost exactly similar in coloration to the +last, but greatly superior in size, and possessing 18 rectrices, while +all the foregoing have but 16, is the common wild goose of America, _B. +canadensis_, which, for more than two centuries has been introduced into +Europe, where it propagates so freely that it has been included by +nearly all the ornithologists of this quarter of the globe as a member +of its fauna. An allied form, by some deemed a species, is _B. +leucopareia_, which ranges over the western part of North America, and, +though having 18 rectrices, is distinguished by a white collar round the +lower part of the neck. The most diverse species of this group of geese +are the beautiful _B. ruficollis_, a native of north-eastern Asia, which +occasionally strays to western Europe, and has been obtained more than +once in Britain, and that which is peculiar to the Hawaian archipelago, +_B. sandvicensis_. + +The largest living goose is that called the Chinese, Guinea or +swan-goose, _Cygnopsis cygnoides_, and this is the stock whence the +domestic geese of several eastern countries have sprung. It may often be +seen in English parks, and it is found to cross readily with the common +tame goose, the offspring being fertile, and Blyth has said that these +crosses are very abundant in India. The true home of the species is in +eastern Siberia or Mongolia. It is distinguished by its long smooth +neck, marked dorsally by a chocolate streak. The reclaimed form is +usually distinguished by the knob at the base of the bill, but the +evidence of many observers shows that this is not found in the wild +race. Of this bird there is a perfectly white breed. + +We have next to mention a very curious form, _Cereopsis +novae-hollandiae_, which is peculiar to Australia, and is a more +terrestrial type of goose than any other now existing. Its short, +decurved bill and green cere give it a very peculiar expression, and its +almost uniform grey plumage, bearing rounded black spots, is also +remarkable. It bears captivity well, breeding in confinement, but is now +seldom seen. It appears to have been formerly very abundant in many +parts of Australia, from which it has of late been exterminated. Some of +its peculiarities seem to have been still more exaggerated in a bird +that is wholly extinct, the _Cnemiornis calcitrans_ of New Zealand, the +remains of which were described in full by Sir R. Owen in 1873 (_Trans. +Zool. Society_, ix. 253). Among the first portions of this singular bird +that were found were the _tibiae_, presenting an extraordinary +development of the _patella_, which, united with the shank-bone, gave +rise to the generic name applied. For some time the affinity of the +owner of this wonderful structure was in doubt, but all hesitation was +dispelled by the discovery of a nearly perfect skeleton, now in the +British Museum, which proved the bird to be a goose, of great size, and +unable, from the shortness of its wings, to fly. In correlation with +this loss of power may also be noted the dwindling of the keel of the +sternum. Generally, however, its osteological characters point to an +affinity to _Cereopsis_, as was noticed by Dr Hector (_Trans. New Zeal. +Institute_, vi. 76-84), who first determined its Anserine character. + +Birds of the genera _Chenalopex_ (the Egyptian and Orinoco geese), +_Plectropterus_, _Sarcidiornis_, _Chlamydochen_ and some others, are +commonly called geese. It seems uncertain whether they should be grouped +with the _Anserinae_. The males of all, like those of the +above-mentioned genus _Chloephaga_, appear to have that curious +enlargement at the junction of the bronchial tubes and the trachea which +is so characteristic of the ducks or _Anatinae_. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The meaning and derivation of this word _lag_ had long been a + puzzle until Skeat suggested (_Ibis_, 1870, p. 301) that it signified + late, last, or slow, as in _laggard_, a loiterer, _lagman_, the last + man, _lagteeth_, the posterior molar or "wisdom" teeth (as the last + to appear), and _lagclock_, a clock that is behind time. Thus the + grey lag goose is the grey goose which in England when the name was + given was not migratory but _lagged_ behind the other wild species at + the season when they betook themselves to their northern + breeding-quarters. In connexion with this word, however, must be + noticed the curious fact mentioned by Rowley (_Orn. Miscell._, iii. + 213), that the flocks of tame geese in Lincolnshire are urged on by + their drivers with the cry of "lag'em, lag'em." + + [2] From the times of the Romans white geese have been held in great + estimation, and hence, doubtless, they have been preferred as + breeding stock, but the practice of plucking geese alive, continued + for so many centuries, has not improbably also helped to perpetuate + this variation, for it is well known to many bird-keepers that a + white feather is often produced in place of one of the natural colour + that has been pulled out. + + [3] In some English counties, especially Norfolk and Lincoln, it was + no uncommon thing formerly for a man to keep a stock of a thousand + geese, each of which might be reckoned to rear on an average seven + goslings. The flocks were regularly taken to pasture and water, just + as sheep are, and the man who tended them was called the gooseherd, + corrupted into gozzerd. The birds were plucked five times in the + year, and in autumn the flocks were driven to London or other large + markets. They travelled at the rate of about a mile an hour, and + would get over nearly 10 m. in the day. For further particulars the + reader may be referred to Pennant's _British Zoology_; Montagu's + _Ornithological Dictionary_; Latham's _General History of Birds_; and + Rowley's _Ornithological Miscellany_ (iii. 206-215), where some + account also may be found of the goose-fatting at Strassburg. + + [4] See Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Society (1876), pp. 361-369. + + [5] The etymology of these two words is exceedingly obscure. The + ordinary spelling bernicle seems to be wrong, if we may judge from + the analogy of the French _Bernache_. In both words the _e_ should be + sounded as _a_. + + [6] The old fable, perhaps still believed by the uneducated in some + parts of the world, was that bernacle-geese were produced from the + barnacles (_Lepadidae_) that grow on timber exposed to salt-water. + + + + +GOOSE (GAME OF), an ancient French game, said to have been derived from +the Greeks, very popular at the close of the middle ages. It was played +on a piece of card-board upon which was drawn a fantastic scroll, called +the _jardin de l'Oie_ (goose-garden), divided into 63 spaces marked with +certain emblems, such as dice, an inn, a bridge, a labyrinth, &c. The +emblem inscribed on 1 and 63, as well as every ninth space between, was +a goose. The object was to land one's counter in number 63, the number +of spaces moved through being determined by throwing two dice. The +counter was advanced or retired according to the space on which it was +placed. For instance if it rested on the inn it must remain there until +each adversary, of which there might be several, had played twice; if it +rested on the _death's head_ the player must begin over again; if it +went beyond 63 it must be retired a certain number of spaces. The game +was usually played for a stake, and special fines were exacted for +resting on certain spaces. At the end of the 18th century a variation of +the game was called the _jeu de la Revolution Francaise_. + + + + +GOOSEBERRY, _Ribes Grossularia_, a well-known fruit-bush of northern and +central Europe, placed in the same genus of the natural order to which +it gives name (Ribesiaceae) as the closely allied currants. It forms a +distinct section _Grossularia_, the members of which differ from the +true currents chiefly in their spinous stems, and in their flowers +growing on short footstalks, solitary, or two or three together, instead +of in racemes. + +The wild gooseberry is a small, straggling bush, nearly resembling the +cultivated plant,--the branches being thickly set with sharp spines, +standing out singly or in diverging tufts of two or three from the bases +of the short spurs or lateral leaf shoots, on which the bell-shaped +flowers are produced, singly or in pairs, from the groups of rounded, +deeply-crenated 3- or 5-lobed leaves. The fruit is smaller than in the +garden kinds, but is often of good flavour; it is generally hairy, but +in one variety smooth, constituting the _R. Uva-crispa_ of writers; the +colour is usually green, but plants are occasionally met with having +deep purple berries. The gooseberry is indigenous in Europe and western +Asia, growing naturally in alpine thickets and rocky woods in the lower +country, from France eastward, perhaps as far as the Himalaya. In +Britain it is often found in copses and hedgerows and about old ruins, +but has been so long a plant of cultivation that it is difficult to +decide upon its claim to a place in the native flora of the island. +Common as it is now on some of the lower slopes of the Alps of Piedmont +and Savoy, it is uncertain whether the Romans were acquainted with the +gooseberry, though it may possibly be alluded to in a vague passage of +Pliny: the hot summers of Italy, in ancient times as at present, would +be unfavourable to its cultivation. Abundant in Germany and France, it +does not appear to have been much grown there in the middle ages, though +the wild fruit was held in some esteem medicinally for the cooling +properties of its acid juice in fevers; while the old English name, +_Fea-berry_, still surviving in some provincial dialects, indicates that +it was similarly valued in Britain, where it was planted in gardens at a +comparatively early period. William Turner describes the gooseberry in +his _Herball_, written about the middle of the 16th century, and a few +years later it is mentioned in one of Thomas Tusser's quaint rhymes as +an ordinary object of garden culture. Improved varieties were probably +first raised by the skilful gardeners of Holland, whose name for the +fruit, _Kruisbezie_, may have been easily corrupted into the present +English vernacular word.[1] Towards the end of the 18th century the +gooseberry became a favourite object of cottage-horticulture, especially +in Lancashire, where the working cotton-spinners have raised numerous +varieties from seed, their efforts having been chiefly directed to +increasing the size of the fruit. Of the many hundred sorts enumerated +in recent horticultural works, few perhaps equal in flavour some of the +older denizens of the fruit-garden, such as the "old rough red" and +"hairy amber." The climate of the British Islands seems peculiarly +adapted to bring the gooseberry to perfection, and it may be grown +successfully even in the most northern parts of Scotland; indeed, the +flavour of the fruit is said to improve with increasing latitude. In +Norway even, the bush flourishes in gardens on the west coast nearly up +to the Arctic circle, and it is found wild as far north as 63 deg. The +dry summers of the French and German plains are less suited to it, +though it is grown in some hilly districts with tolerable success. The +gooseberry in the south of England will grow well in cool situations, +and may be sometimes seen in gardens near London flourishing under the +partial shade of apple trees; but in the north it needs full exposure to +the sun to bring the fruit to perfection. It will succeed in almost any +soil, but prefers a rich loam or black alluvium, and, though naturally a +plant of rather dry places, will do well in moist land, if drained. + +The varieties are most easily propagated by cuttings planted in the +autumn, which root rapidly, and in a few years form good fruit-bearing +bushes. Much difference of opinion prevails regarding the mode of +pruning this valuable shrub; it is probable that in different situations +it may require varying treatment. The fruit being borne on the lateral +spurs, and on the shoots of the last year, it is the usual practice to +shorten the side branches in the winter, before the buds begin to +expand; some reduce the longer leading shoots at the same time, while +others prefer to nip off the ends of these in the summer while they are +still succulent. When large fruit is desired, plenty of manure should +be supplied to the roots, and the greater portion of the berries picked +off while still small. If standards are desired, the gooseberry may be +with advantage grafted or budded on stocks of some other species of +_Ribes_, _R. aureum_, the ornamental golden currant of the flower +garden, answering well for the purpose. The giant gooseberries of the +Lancashire "fanciers" are obtained by the careful culture of varieties +specially raised with this object, the growth being encouraged by +abundant manuring, and the removal of all but a very few berries from +each plant. Single gooseberries of nearly 2 oz. in weight have been +occasionally exhibited; but the produce of such fanciful horticulture is +generally insipid. The bushes at times suffer much from the ravages of +the caterpillars of the gooseberry or magpie moth, _Abraxas +grossulariata_, which often strip the branches of leaves in the early +summer, if not destroyed before the mischief is accomplished. The most +effectual way of getting rid of this pretty but destructive insect is to +look over each bush carefully, and pick off the larvae by hand; when +larger they may be shaken off by striking the branches, but by that time +the harm is generally done--the eggs are laid on the leaves of the +previous season. Equally annoying in some years is the smaller larva of +the V-moth, _Halias vanaria_, which often appears in great numbers, and +is not so readily removed. The gooseberry is sometimes attacked by the +grub of the gooseberry sawfly, _Nematus ribesii_, of which several +broods appear in the course of the spring and summer, and are very +destructive. The grubs bury themselves in the ground to pass into the +pupal state; the first brood of flies, hatched just as the bushes are +coming into leaf in the spring, lay their eggs on the lower side of the +leaves, where the small greenish larvae soon after emerge. For the +destruction of the first broods it has been recommended to syringe the +bushes with tar-water; perhaps a very weak solution of carbolic acid +might prove more effective. The powdered root of white hellebore is said +to destroy both this grub and the caterpillars of the gooseberry moth +and V-moth; infusion of foxglove, and tobacco-water, are likewise tried +by some growers. If the fallen leaves are carefully removed from the +ground in the autumn and burnt, and the surface of the soil turned over +with the fork or spade, most eggs and chrysalids will be destroyed. + +The gooseberry was introduced into the United States by the early +settlers, and in some parts of New England large quantities of the green +fruit are produced and sold for culinary use in the towns; but the +excessive heat of the American summer is not adapted for the healthy +maturation of the berries, especially of the English varieties. Perhaps +if some of these, or those raised in the country, could be crossed with +one of the indigenous species, kinds might be obtained better fitted for +American conditions of culture, although the gooseberry does not readily +hybridize. The attacks of the American gooseberry mildew have largely +contributed to the failure of the crop in America. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--A Fungal Disease of the Gooseberry (_Aecidium +Grossulariae_.) + +1, Leaf showing patches of cluster-cups on surface; 2, Fruit, showing +same; 3, Cluster-cups much enlarged.] + +Occasionally the gooseberry is attacked by the fungus till recently +called _Aecidium Grossulariae_, which forms little cups with white torn +edges clustered together on reddish spots on the leaves or fruits (fig. +1). It has recently been discovered that the spores contained in these +cups will not reproduce the disease on the gooseberry, but infect +species of _Carex_ (sedges) on which they produce a fungus of a totally +different appearance. This stage in the life-history of the parasite +gives its name to the whole fungus, so that it is now known as _Puccinia +Pringsheimiana_. Both _uredospores_ and _teleutospores_ are formed on +the sedge, and the latter live through the winter and produce the +disease on the gooseberry in the succeeding year. In cases where the +disease proves troublesome the sedges in the neighbourhood should be +destroyed. + +[Illustration: From George Massee's _Text-Book of Plant Diseases_, by +permission of Duckworth & Co. + +FIG. 2.--Gooseberry Mildew (Microsphaeria Grossulariae.) + +1, Leaf attacked by the fungus; 2, Fructification or _perithecium_; the +end of one of its numerous appendages is shown more highly magnified in +3, 4, 5, spore sacs (_asci_) from the _perithecium_, containing spores.] + +A much more prevalent disease is that caused by _Microsphaeria +Grossulariae_. This is a mildew growing on the surface of the leaf and +sending suckers into the epidermis. The white mycelium gives the leaves +of the plant the appearance of having been whitewashed (fig. 2). +Numerous white spores are produced in the summer which are able to +germinate immediately, and later small blackish fruits (_perithecia_) +are produced that pass uninjured through the winter liberating the +spores they contain in the spring, which infect the young developing +leaves of the bush. In bad cases the plants are greatly injured but +frequently little harm is done. Attacked plants should be sprayed with +potassium sulphide. + +[Illustration: From the _Journal of the Board of Agriculture_ (May +1907), by permission of the Dept. of Agriculture and Technical +Instruction for Ireland. + +FIG. 3A.--American Gooseberry Mildew (_Sphaerotheca mors-uvae_). Plant +with leaves and fruit attacked by the fungus.] + +An allied fungus, _Sphaerotheca mors-uvae_, of much greater virulence, +has recently appeared in England, causing the disease known as "American +gooseberry mildew" (fig. 3A). In the main the mode of attack is similar +to that of the last-mentioned, but not only are the leaves attacked, but +the tips of the young shoots and the fruits become covered by the +cobweb-like mycelium, the attack frequently resulting in the death of +the shoots and the destruction of the fruits. After a time the mycelium +becomes rusty brown and produces the winter form of the fungus. Through +the winter the shoots are covered thickly with the brown mycelium and in +the spring the spores contained in the perithecia germinate and start +the infection anew, as in the case of the European mildew. This fungus +has recently been the subject of legislation, and when it appears in a +district strong repressive measures are called for. In bad cases the +attacked bushes should be destroyed, while in milder attacks frequent +spraying with potassium sulphide and the pruning off and immediate +destruction by fire of all the young shoots showing the mildew should be +resorted to. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3B.--1, Fructification (_perithecium_) bursting, +ascus containing spores protruding; 2, Ascus with spores more highly +magnified.] + +The gooseberry, when ripe, yields a fine wine by the fermentation of the +juice with water and sugar, the resulting sparkling liquor retaining +much of the flavour of the fruit. By similarly treating the juice of the +green fruit, picked just before it ripens, an effervescing wine is +produced, nearly resembling some kinds of champagne, and, when skilfully +prepared, far superior to much of the liquor sold under that name. +Brandy has been made from ripe gooseberries by distillation; by exposing +the juice with sugar to the acetous fermentation a good vinegar may be +obtained. The gooseberry, when perfectly ripe, contains a large quantity +of sugar, most abundant in the red and amber varieties; in the former it +amounts to from 6 to upwards of 8%. The acidity of the fruit is chiefly +due to malic acid. + +Several other species of the sub-genus produce edible fruit, though none +have as yet been brought under economic culture. Among them may be +noticed _R. oxyacanthoides_ and _R. Cynosbati_, abundant in Canada and +the northern parts of the United States, and _R. gracile_, common along +the Alleghany range. The group is a widely distributed one in the north +temperate zone,--one species is found in Europe extending to the +Caucasus and North Africa (Atlas Mountains), five occur in Asia and +nineteen in North America, the range extending southwards to Mexico and +Guatemala. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The first part of the word has been usually treated as an + etymological corruption either of this Dutch word or the allied Ger. + _Krausbeere_, or of the earlier forms of the Fr. _groseille_. The + _New English Dictionary_ takes the obvious derivation from "goose" + and "berry" as probable; "the grounds on which plants and fruits have + received names associating them with animals are so commonly + inexplicable, that the want of appropriateness in the meaning affords + no sufficient ground for assuming that the word is an etymologizing + corruption." Skeat (_Etym. Dict._, 1898) connects the French, Dutch + and German words, and finds the origin in the M.H.G. _krus_, curling, + crisped, applied here to the hairs on the fruit. The French word was + latinized as _grossularia_ and confused with _groseus_, thick, fat. + + + + +GOOTY, a town and hill fortress in southern India, in the Anantapur +district of Madras, 48 m. E. of Bellary. Pop. (1901) 9682. The town is +surrounded by a circle of rocky hills, connected by a wall. On the +highest of these stands the citadel, 2100 ft. above sea-level and 1000 +ft. above the surrounding country. Here was the stronghold of Morari Rao +Ghorpade, a famous Mahratta warrior and ally of the English, who was +ultimately starved into surrender by Hayder Ali in 1775. + + + + +GOPHER (_Testudo polyphemus_), the only living representative on the +North American continent of the genus _Testudo_ of the family +_Testudinidae_ or land tortoises; it occurs in the south-eastern parts +of the United States, from Florida in the south to the river Savannah in +the north. Its carapace, which is oblong and remarkably compressed, +measures from 12-18 in. in extreme length, the shields which cover it +being grooved, and of a yellow-brown colour. It is characterized by the +shape of the front lobe of the plastron, which is bent upwards and +extends beyond the carapace. The gopher abounds chiefly in the forests, +but occasionally visits the open plains, where it does great damage, +especially to the potato crops, on which it feeds. It is a nocturnal +animal, remaining concealed by day in its deep burrow, and coming forth +at night to feed. The eggs, five in number, almost round and 1-1/2 in. +in diameter, are laid in a separate cavity near the entrance. The flesh +of the gopher or mungofa, as it is also called, is considered excellent +eating. + +The name "gopher" is more commonly applied to certain small rodent +mammals, particularly the pocket-gopher. + + + + +GOPPINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, on the +right bank of the Fils, 22 m. E.S.E. of Stuttgart on the railway to +Friedrichshafen. Pop. (1905) 20,870. It possesses a castle built, partly +with stones from the ruined castle of Hohenstaufen, by Duke Christopher +of Wurttemberg in the 16th century and now used as public offices, two +Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a synagogue, a classical +school, and a modern school. The manufactures are considerable and +include linen and woollen cloth, leather, glue, paper and toys. There +are machine shops and tanneries in the town. Three m. N. of the town are +the ruins of the castle of Hohenstaufen. Goppingen originally belonged +to the house of Hohenstaufen, and in 1270 came into possession of the +counts of Wurttemberg. It was surrounded by walls in 1129, and was +almost entirely rebuilt after a fire in 1782. + + See Pfeiffer, _Beschreibung und Geschichte der Stadt Goppingen_ + (1885). + + + + +GORAKHPUR, a city, district and division of the United Provinces of +British India. The city is situated on the left bank of the river Rapti. +Pop. (1901) 64,148. It is believed to have been founded about 1400 A.D. +It is the civil headquarters of the district and was formerly a military +cantonment. It consists of a number of adjacent village sites, sometimes +separated by cultivated land, and most of the inhabitants are +agriculturists. + +The DISTRICT OF GORAKHPUR has an area of 4535 sq. m. It lies immediately +south of the lower Himalayan slopes, but itself forms a portion of the +great alluvial plain. Only a few sandhills break the monotony of its +level surface, which is, however, intersected by numerous rivers studded +with lakes and marshes. In the north and centre dense forests abound, +and the whole country has a verdant appearance. The principal rivers are +the Rapti, the Gogra, the Gandak and Little Gandak, the Kuana, the +Rohin, the Ami and the Gunghi. Tigers are found in the north, and many +other wild animals abound throughout the district. The lakes are well +stocked with fish. The district is not subject to very intense heat, +from which it is secured by its vicinity to the hills and the moisture +of its soil. Dust-storms are rare, and cool breezes from the north, +rushing down the gorges of the Himalayas, succeed each short interval of +warm weather. The climate is, however, relaxing. The southern and +eastern portions are as healthy as most parts of the province, but the +_tarai_ and forest-tracts are still subject to malaria. + +Gautama Buddha, the founder of the religion bearing his name, was born, +and died near the boundaries of the district. From the beginning of the +6th century the country was the scene of a continuous struggle between +the Bhars and their Aryan antagonists, the Rathors. About 900 the +Domhatars or military Brahmans appeared, and expelled the Rathors from +the town of Gorakhpur, but they also were soon driven back by other +invaders. During the 15th and 16th centuries, after the district had +been desolated by incessant war, the descendants of the various +conquerors held parts of the territory, and each seems to have lived +quite isolated, as no bridges or roads attest any intercourse with each +other. Towards the end of the 16th century Mussulmans occupied Gorakhpur +town, but they interfered very little with the district, and allowed it +to be controlled by the native rajas. In the middle of the 18th century +a formidable foe, the Banjaras from the west, so weakened the power of +the rajas that they could not resist the fiscal exactions of the Oudh +officials, who plundered the country to a great extent. The district +formed part of the territory ceded by Oudh to the British under the +treaty of 1801. During the Mutiny it was lost for a short time, but +under the friendly Gurkhas the rebels were driven out. The population in +1901 was 2,957,074, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. The district +is traversed by the main line and several branches of the Bengal & +North-Western railway, and the Gandak, the Gogra and the Rapti are +navigable. + +The DIVISION has an area of 9534 sq. m. The population in 1901 was +6,333,012, giving an average density of 664 persons per sq. m., being +more than one to every acre, and the highest for any large tract in +India. + + + + +GORAL, the native name of a small Himalayan rough-haired and +cylindrical-horned ruminant classed in the same group as the chamois. +Scientifically this animal is known as _Urotragus_ (or _Cemas_) _goral_; +and the native name is now employed as the designation of all the other +members of the same genus. In addition to certain peculiarities in the +form of the skull, gorals are chiefly distinguished from serows (q.v.) +by not possessing a gland below the eye, nor a corresponding depression +in the skull. Several species are known, ranging from the Himalaya to +Burma, Tibet and North China. Of these, the two Himalayan gorals (_U. +goral_ and _U. bedfordi_) are usually found in small parties, but less +commonly in pairs. They generally frequent grassy hills, or rocky ground +clothed with forest; in fine weather feeding only in the mornings and +evenings, but when the sky is cloudy grazing throughout the day. + + + + +GORAMY, or GOURAMY (_Osphromenus olfax_), reputed to be one of the +best-flavoured freshwater fishes in the East Indian archipelago. Its +original home is Java, Sumatra, Borneo and several other East Indian +islands, but thence it has been transported to and acclimatized in +Penang, Malacca, Mauritius and even Cayenne. Being an almost omnivorous +fish and tenacious of life, it seems to recommend itself particularly +for acclimatization in other tropical countries; and specimens kept in +captivity become as tame as carps. It attains the size of a large +turbot. Its shape is flat and short, the body covered with large scales; +the dorsal and anal fins are provided with numerous spines, and the +ventral fins produced into long filaments. Like _Anabas_, the climbing +perch, it possesses a suprabranchial accessory respiratory organ. + +[Illustration: Goramy.] + + + + +GORBERSDORF, a village and climatic health resort of Germany, in the +Prussian province of Silesia, romantically situated in a deep and +well-wooded valley of the Waldenburg range, 1900 ft. above the sea, 60 +m. S.W. of Breslau by the railway to Friedland and 3 m. from the +Austrian frontier. Pop. 700. It has four large sanatoria for +consumptives, the earliest of which was founded in 1854 by Hermann +Brehmer (1826-1889). + + + + +GORBODUC, a mythical king of Britain. He gave his kingdom away during +his lifetime to his two sons, Ferrex and Porrex. The two quarrelled and +the younger stabbed the elder. Their mother, loving the latter most, +avenged his death by murdering her son, and the people, horrified at her +act, revolted and murdered both her and King Gorboduc. This legend was +the subject of the earliest regular English tragedy which in 1561 was +played before Queen Elizabeth in the Inner Temple hall. It was written +by Thomas Sackville, Lord Buckhurst and Thomas Norton in collaboration. +Under the title of _Gorboduc_ it was published first very corruptly in +1565, and in better form as _The Tragedy of Ferrex and Porrex_ in 1570. + + + + +GORCHAKOV, or GORTCHAKOFF, a noble Russian family, descended from +Michael Vsevolodovich, prince of Chernigov, who, in 1246, was +assassinated by the Mongols. PRINCE ANDREY IVANOVICH (1768-1855), +general in the Russian army, took a conspicuous part in the final +campaigns against Napoleon. ALEXANDER IVANOVICH (1769-1825) served with +distinction under his relative Suvarov in the Turkish Wars, and took +part as a general officer in the Italian and Swiss operations of 1799, +and in the war against Napoleon in Poland in 1806-1807 (battle of +Heilsberg). PETR DMITRIEVICH (1790-1868) served under Kamenski and +Kutusov in the campaign against Turkey, and afterwards against France in +1813-1814. In 1820 he suppressed an insurrection in the Caucasus, for +which service he was raised to the rank of major-general. In 1828-1829 +he fought under Wittgenstein against the Turks, won an action at Aidos, +and signed the treaty of peace at Adrianople. In 1839 he was made +governor of Eastern Siberia, and in 1851 retired into private life. When +the Crimean War broke out he offered his services to the emperor +Nicholas, by whom he was appointed general of the VI. army corps in the +Crimea. He commanded the corps in the battles of Alma and Inkerman. He +retired in 1855 and died at Moscow, on the 18th of March 1868. + +PRINCE MIKHAIL DMITRIEVICH (1795-1861), brother of the last named, +entered the Russian army in 1807 and took part in the campaigns against +Persia in 1810, and in 1812-1815 against France. During the +Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829 he was present at the sieges of Silistria +and Shumla. After being appointed, in 1830, a general officer, he was +present in the campaign in Poland, and was wounded at the battle of +Grochow, on the 25th of February 1831. He also distinguished himself at +the battle of Ostrolenka and at the taking of Warsaw. For these services +he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general. In 1846 he was +nominated military governor of Warsaw. In 1849 he commanded the Russian +artillery in the war against the Hungarians, and in 1852 he visited +London as a representative of the Russian army at the funeral of the +duke of Wellington. At this time he was chief of the staff of the +Russian army and adjutant-general to the tsar. Upon Russia declaring war +against Turkey in 1853, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the +troops which occupied Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1854 he crossed the +Danube and besieged Silistria, but was superseded in April by Prince +Paskevich, who, however, resigned on the 8th of June, when Gorchakov +resumed the command. In July the siege of Silistria was raised, and the +Russian armies recrossed the Danube; in August they withdrew to Russia. +In 1855 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian forces in the +Crimea in place of Prince Menshikov. Gorchakov's defence of Sevastopol, +and final retreat to the northern part of the town, which he continued +to defend till peace was signed in Paris, were conducted with skill and +energy. In 1856 he was appointed governor-general of Poland in +succession to Prince Paskevich. He died at Warsaw on the 30th of May +1861, and was buried, in accordance with his own wish, at Sevastopol. + +PRINCE GORCHAKOV, ALEXANDER MIKHAILOVICH (1798-1883). Russian statesman, +cousin of Princes Petr and Mikhail Gorchakov, was born on the 16th of +July 1798, and was educated at the lyceum of Tsarskoye Selo, where he +had the poet Pushkin as a school-fellow. He became a good classical +scholar, and learnt to speak and write in French with facility and +elegance. Pushkin in one of his poems described young Gorchakov as +"Fortune's favoured son," and predicted his success. On leaving the +lyceum Gorchakov entered the foreign office under Count Nesselrode. His +first diplomatic work of importance was the negotiation of a marriage +between the grand duchess Olga and the crown prince Charles of +Wurttemberg. He remained at Stuttgart for some years as Russian minister +and confidential adviser of the crown princess. He foretold the outbreak +of the revolutionary spirit in Germany and Austria, and was credited +with counselling the abdication of Ferdinand in favour of Francis +Joseph. When the German confederation was re-established in 1850 in +place of the parliament of Frankfort, Gorchakov was appointed Russian +minister to the diet. It was here that he first met Prince Bismarck, +with whom he formed a friendship which was afterwards renewed at St +Petersburg. The emperor Nicholas found that his ambassador at Vienna, +Baron Meyendorff, was not a sympathetic instrument for carrying out his +schemes in the East. He therefore transferred Gorchakov to Vienna, where +the latter remained through the critical period of the Crimean War. +Gorchakov perceived that Russian designs against Turkey, supported by +Great Britain and France, were impracticable, and he counselled Russia +to make no more useless sacrifices, but to accept the bases of a +pacification. At the same time, although he attended the Paris +conference of 1856, he purposely abstained from affixing his signature +to the treaty of peace after that of Count Orlov, Russia's chief +representative. For the time, however, he made a virtue of necessity, +and Alexander II., recognizing the wisdom and courage which Gorchakov +had exhibited, appointed him minister of foreign affairs in place of +Count Nesselrode. Not long after his accession to office Gorchakov +issued a circular to the foreign powers, in which he announced that +Russia proposed, for internal reasons, to keep herself as free as +possible from complications abroad, and he added the now historic +phrase, "_La Russie ne boude pas; elle se recueille_." During the Polish +insurrection Gorchakov rebuffed the suggestions of Great Britain, +Austria and France for assuaging the severities employed in quelling it, +and he was especially acrid in his replies to Earl Russell's despatches. +In July 1863 Gorchakov was appointed chancellor of the Russian empire +expressly in reward for his bold diplomatic attitude towards an +indignant Europe. The appointment was hailed with enthusiasm in Russia, +and at that juncture Prince Chancellor Gorchakov was unquestionably the +most powerful minister in Europe. + +An _approchement_ now began between the courts of Russia and Prussia; +and in 1863 Gorchakov smoothed the way for the occupation of Holstein by +the Federal troops. This seemed equally favourable to Austria and +Prussia, but it was the latter power which gained all the substantial +advantages; and when the conflict arose between Austria and Prussia in +1866, Russia remained neutral and permitted Prussia to reap the fruits +and establish her supremacy in Germany. When the Franco-German War of +1870-71 broke out Russia answered for the neutrality of Austria. An +attempt was made to form an anti-Prussian coalition, but it failed in +consequence of the cordial understanding between the German and Russian +chancellors. In return for Russia's service in preventing the aid of +Austria from being given to France, Gorchakov looked to Bismarck for +diplomatic support in the Eastern Question, and he received an +instalment of the expected support when he successfully denounced the +Black Sea clauses of the treaty of Paris. This was justly regarded by +him as an important service to his country and one of the triumphs of +his career, and he hoped to obtain further successes with the assistance +of Germany, but the cordial relations between the cabinets of St +Petersburg and Berlin did not subsist much longer. In 1875 Bismarck was +suspected of a design of again attacking France, and Gorchakov gave him +to understand, in a way which was not meant to be offensive, but which +roused the German chancellor's indignation, that Russia would oppose any +such scheme. The tension thus produced between the two statesmen was +increased by the political complications of 1875-1878 in south-eastern +Europe, which began with the Herzegovinian insurrection and culminated +at the Berlin congress. Gorchakov hoped to utilize the complications in +such a way as to recover, without war, the portion of Bessarabia ceded +by the treaty of Paris, but he soon lost control of events, and the +Slavophil agitation produced the Russo-Turkish campaign of 1877-78. By +the preliminary peace of San Stefano the Slavophil aspirations seemed to +be realized, but the stipulations of that peace were considerably +modified by the congress of Berlin (13th June to 13th July 1878), at +which the aged chancellor held nominally the post of first +plenipotentiary, but left to the second plenipotentiary, Count Shuvalov, +not only the task of defending Russian interests, but also the +responsibility and odium for the concessions which Russia had to make to +Great Britain and Austria. He had the satisfaction of seeing the lost +portion of Bessarabia restored to his country by the Berlin treaty, but +at the cost of greater sacrifices than he anticipated. After the +congress he continued to hold the post of minister for foreign affairs, +but lived chiefly abroad, and resigned formally in 1882, when he was +succeeded by M. de Giers. He died at Baden-Baden on the 11th of March +1883. Prince Gorchakov devoted himself entirely to foreign affairs, and +took no part in the great internal reforms of Alexander II.'s reign. As +a diplomatist he displayed many brilliant qualities--adroitness in +negotiation, incisiveness in argument and elegance in style. His +statesmanship, though marred occasionally by personal vanity and love of +popular applause, was far-seeing and prudent. In the latter part of his +career his main object was to raise the prestige of Russia by undoing +the results of the Crimean War, and it may fairly be said that he in +great measure succeeded. (D. M. W.) + + + + +GORDIAN, or GORDIANUS, the name of three Roman emperors. The first, +Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus (A.D. 159-238), +an extremely wealthy man, was descended from the Gracchi and Trajan, +while his wife was the great-granddaughter of Antoninus Pius. While he +gained unbounded popularity by his magnificent games and shows, his +prudent and retired life did not excite the suspicion of Caracalla, in +whose honour he wrote a long epic called _Antoninias_. Alexander Severus +called him to the dangerous honours of government in Africa, and during +his proconsulship occurred the usurpation of Maximin. The universal +discontent roused by the oppressive rule of Maximin culminated in a +revolt in Africa in 238, and Gordian reluctantly yielded to the popular +clamour and assumed the purple. His son, Marcus Antonius Gordianus +(192-238), was associated with him in the dignity. The senate confirmed +the choice of the Africans, and most of the provinces gladly sided with +the new emperors; but, even while their cause was so successful abroad, +they had fallen before the sudden inroad of Cappellianus, legatus of +Numidia and a supporter of Maximin. They had reigned only thirty-six +days. Both the Gordians had deserved by their amiable character their +high reputation; they were men of great accomplishments, fond of +literature, and voluminous authors; but they were rather intellectual +voluptuaries than able statesmen or powerful rulers. Having embraced the +cause of Gordian, the senate was obliged to continue the revolt against +Maximin, and appointed Pupienus Maximus and Caelius Balbinus, two of its +noblest and most esteemed members, as joint emperors. At their +inauguration a sedition arose, and the popular outcry for a Gordian was +appeased by the association with them of M. Antonius Gordianus Pius +(224-244), grandson of the elder Gordian, then a boy of thirteen. +Maximin forthwith invaded Italy, but was murdered by his own troops +while besieging Aquileia, and a revolt of the praetorian guards, to +which Pupienus and Balbinus fell victims, left Gordian sole emperor. For +some time he was under the control of his mother's eunuchs, till +Timesitheus,[1] his father-in-law and praefect of the praetorian guard, +persuaded him to assert his independence. When the Persians under Shapur +(Sapor) I. invaded Mesopotamia, the young emperor opened the temple of +Janus for the last time recorded in history, and marched in person to +the East. The Persians were driven back over the Euphrates and defeated +in the battle of Resaena (243), and only the death of Timesitheus (under +suspicious circumstances) prevented an advance into the enemy's +territory. Philip the Arabian, who succeeded Timesitheus, stirred up +discontent in the army, and Gordian was murdered by the mutinous +soldiers in Mesopotamia. + + See lives of the Gordians by Capitolinus in the _Scriptores historiae + Augustae_; Herodian vii. viii.; Zosimus i. 16, 18; Ammianus + Marcellinus, xxiii. 5; Eutropius ix. 2; Aurelius Victor, _Caesares_, + 27; article SHAPUR (I.); Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, i. 2619 f. + (von Rohden). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For this name see footnote to SHAPUR. + + + + +GORDIUM, an ancient city of Phrygia situated on the Persian "Royal road" +from Pessinus to Ancyra, and not far from the Sangarius. It lies +opposite the village Pebi, a little north of the point where the +Constantinople-Angora railway crosses the Sangarius. It is not to be +confused with Gordiou-kome, refounded as Juliopolis, a Bithynian town on +a small tributary of the Sangarius, about 47 m. in an air-line N.W. of +Gordium. According to the legend, Gordium was founded by Gordius, a +Phrygian peasant who had been called to the throne by his countrymen in +obedience to an oracle of Zeus commanding them to select the first +person that rode up to the temple of the god in a wagon. The king +afterwards dedicated his car to the god, and another oracle declared +that whoever succeeded in untying the strangely entwined knot of cornel +bark which bound the yoke to the pole should reign over all Asia. +Alexander the Great, according to the story, cut the knot by a stroke of +his sword. Gordium was captured and destroyed by the Gauls soon after +189 B.C. and disappeared from history. In imperial times only a small +village existed on the site. Excavations made in 1900 by two German +scholars, G. and A. Koerte, revealed practically no remains later than +the middle of the 6th century B.C. (when Phrygia fell under Persian +power). + + See _Jahrbuch des Instituts_, Erganzungsheft v. (1904). + (J. G. C. A.) + + + + +GORDON, the name of a Scottish family, no fewer than 157 main branches +of which are traced by the family historians. A laird of Gorden, in +Berwickshire, near the English border, is said to have fallen in the +battle of the Standard (1138). The families of the two sons ascribed to +him by tradition, Richard Gordon of Gordon and Adam Gordon of Huntly, +were united by the marriage of their great-grandchildren Alicia and Sir +Adam, whose grandson Sir Adam (killed at Halidon Hill, 1333) at first +took the English side in the Scottish struggle for independence, and is +the first member of the family definitely to emerge into history. He was +justiciar of Scotland in 1310, but after Bannockburn he attached himself +to Robert Bruce, who granted him in 1318 the lordship of Strathbogie in +Aberdeenshire, to which Gordon gave the name of Huntly from a village on +the Gordon estate in Berwickshire. He had two sons, Adam and William. +The younger son, laird of Stitchel in Roxburghshire, was the ancestor of +William de Gordon of Stitchel and Lochinvar, founder of the Galloway +branch of the family represented in the Scottish peerage by the dormant +viscounty of Kenmure (q.v.), created in 1633; most of the Irish and +Virginian Gordons are offshoots of this stock. The elder son, Adam, +inherited the Gordon-Huntly estates. He had two grandsons, Sir John (d. +1394) and Sir Adam (slain at Homildon Hill, 1403). Sir John had two +illegitimate sons, Jock of Scurdargue, the ancestor of the earls of +Aberdeen, and Tam of Ruthven. From these two stocks most of the northern +Gordon families are derived. Sir Adam's daughter and heiress, Elizabeth, +married Sir Alexander Seton, and with her husband was confirmed in 1408 +in the possession of the barony of Gordon and Huntly in Berwickshire and +of the Gordon lands in Aberdeen. The Seton-Gordons are their +descendants. Their son Alexander was created earl of Huntly (see HUNTLY, +EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF), probably in 1445; and his heirs became dukes +of Gordon, George Gordon (c. 1650-1716), 4th marquess of Huntly, being +created duke of Gordon in 1684. He had been educated in a French +Catholic seminary, and served in the French army in the campaigns of +1673 to 1675. Under James II. he was made keeper of Edinburgh Castle on +account of his religion, but he refused to support James's efforts to +impose Roman Catholicism on his subjects. He offered little active +resistance when the castle was besieged by William III.'s forces. After +his submission he was more than once imprisoned on suspicion of Jacobite +leanings, and was ordered by George I. to reside on parole in Edinburgh. +For some time before his death he was separated from his wife Elizabeth +Howard, daughter of the 6th duke of Norfolk. His son Alexander, 2nd duke +of Gordon (c. 1678-1728). joined the Old Pretender, but gained the royal +pardon after the surrender of Gordon Castle in 1716. Of his children by +his wife Henrietta Mordaunt, second daughter of Charles Mordaunt, earl +of Peterborough, Cosmo George (c. 1720-1752) succeeded as 3rd duke; Lord +Lewis Gordon (d. 1754) took an active part in the Jacobite rising of +1745; and General Lord Adam Gordon (c. 1726-1801) became commander of +the forces in Scotland in 1782, and governor of Edinburgh Castle in +1786. Lord George Gordon (q.v.) was a younger son of the 3rd duke. + +The title, with the earldom of Norwich and the barony of Gordon Huntly, +became extinct on the death of George, 5th duke (1770-1836), a +distinguished soldier who raised the corps now known as the 2nd +battalion of the Gordon Highlanders. The marquessate of Huntly passed to +his cousin and heir-male, George, 5th earl of Aboyne. Lady Charlotte +Gordon, sister of and co-heiress with the 5th duke, married Charles +Lennox, 4th duke of Richmond, whose son took the name of Gordon-Lennox. +The dukedom of Gordon was revived in 1876 in favour of the 6th duke of +Richmond, who thenceforward was styled duke of Richmond and Gordon. Adam +Gordon of Aboyne (d. 1537) took the courtesy title of earl of Sutherland +in right of his wife Elizabeth, countess of Sutherland in her own right, +sister of the 9th earl. The lawless and turbulent Gordons of Gight were +the maternal ancestors of Lord Byron. + +Among the many soldiers of fortune bearing the name of Gordon was +Colonel John Gordon, one of the murderers of Wallenstein. Patrick Gordon +(1635-1699) was born at Auchleuchries in Aberdeenshire, entered the +service of Charles X. of Sweden in 1651 and served against the Poles. He +changed sides more than once before he found his way to Moscow in 1661 +and took service under the tsar Alexis. He became general in 1687; in +1688 he helped to secure Peter the Great's ascendancy; and later he +crushed the revolt of the Streltzi. His diary was published in German (3 +vols., 1849-1853, Moscow and St Petersburg), and selections from the +English original by the Spalding Club (Aberdeen, 1859). + +The Gordons fill a considerable place in Scottish legend and ballad. +"Captain Car," or "Edom (Adam) of Gordon" describes an incident in the +struggle between the Forbeses and Gordons in Aberdeenshire in 1571; "The +Duke of Gordon's Daughter" has apparently no foundation in fact, though +"Geordie" of the ballad is sometimes said to have been George, 4th earl +of Huntly; "The Fire of Frendraught" goes back to a feud (1630) between +James Crichton of Frendraught and William Gordon of Rothiemay; the +"Gallant Gordons Gay" figure in "Chevy Chase"; William Gordon of +Earlston, the Covenanter, appears in "Bothwell Bridge" &c. + + See William Gordon (of old Aberdeen), _The History of the Ancient, + Noble, and Illustrious House of Gordon_ (2 vols., Edinburgh, + 1726-1727), of which _A Concise History of the ... House of Gordon_, + by C. A. Gordon (Aberdeen, 1754) is little more than an abridgment; + _The Records of Aboyne, 1230-1681_, edited by Charles, 11th marquess + of Huntly, &c. (New Spalding Club, Aberdeen, 1894); _The Gordon Book_, + ed. J. M. Bulloch (1902); _The House of Gordon_, ed. J. M. Bulloch + (Aberdeen, vol. i., 1903); and Mr Bulloch's _The First Duke of Gordon_ + (1909). + + + + +GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY (1833-1870), Australian poet, was born at Fayal, in +the Azores, in 1833, the son of a retired Indian officer who taught +Hindustani at Cheltenham College. Young Gordon was educated there and at +Merton College, Oxford, but a youthful indiscretion led to his being +sent in 1853 to South Australia, where he joined the mounted police. He +then became a horsebreaker, but on his father's death he inherited a +fortune and obtained a seat in the House of Assembly. At this time he +had the reputation of being the best non-professional steeplechase rider +in the colony. In 1867 he moved to Victoria and set up a livery stable +at Ballarat. Two volumes of poems, _Sea Spray and Smoke Drift_ and +_Ashtaroth_, were published in this year, and two years later he gave up +his business and settled at New Brighton, near Melbourne. A third volume +of poetry, _Bush Ballads and Galloping Rhymes_, appeared in 1870. It +brought him more praise than emolument, and, thoroughly discouraged by +his failure to make good his claim to some property in Scotland to which +he believed himself entitled, he committed suicide on the 24th of June +1870. His reputation rose after his death, and he became the best known +and most widely popular of Australian poets. Much of Gordon's poetry +might have been written in England; when, however, it is really local, +it is vividly so; his genuine feeling frequently kindles into passion; +his versification is always elastic and sonorous, but sometimes too +reminiscent of Swinburne. His compositions are almost entirely lyrical, +and their merit is usually in proportion to the degree in which they +partake of the character of the ballad. + + Gordon's poems were collected and published in 1880 with a + biographical introduction by Marcus Clarke. + + + + +GORDON, ALEXANDER (c. 1692-c. 1754), Scottish antiquary, is believed to +have been born in Aberdeen in 1692. He is the "Sandy Gordon" of Scott's +_Antiquary_. Of his parentage and early history nothing is known. He +appears to have distinguished himself in classics at Aberdeen +University, and to have made a living at first by teaching languages and +music. When still young he travelled abroad, probably in the capacity of +tutor. He returned to Scotland previous to 1726, and devoted himself to +antiquarian work. In 1726 appeared the _Itinerarium Septentrionale_, his +greatest and best-known work. He was already the friend of Sir John +Clerk, of Penicuik, better known as Baron Clerk (a baron of the +exchequer); and the baron and Roger Gale (vice-president of the Society +of Antiquaries) are the "two gentlemen, the honour of their age and +country," whose letters were published, without their consent it +appears, as an appendix to the _Itinerarium_. Subsequently Gordon was +appointed secretary to the Society for the Encouragement of Learning, +with an annual salary of L50. Resigning this post, or, as there seems +reason for believing, being dismissed for carelessness in his accounts, +he succeeded Dr Stukeley as secretary to the Society of Antiquaries, and +also acted for a short time as secretary to the Egyptian Club, an +association composed of gentlemen who had visited Egypt. In 1741 he +accompanied James Glen (afterwards governor), to South Carolina. Through +his influence Gordon, besides receiving a grant of land in South +Carolina, became registrar of the province and justice of the peace, and +filled several other offices. From his will, dated the 22nd of August +1754, it appears he had a son Alexander and a daughter Frances, to whom +he bequeathed most of his property, among which were portraits of +himself and of friends painted by his own hand. + + See Sir Daniel Wilson, _Alexander Gordon, the Antiquary_; and his + Papers in the _Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland_, + with Additional Notes and an Appendix of Original Letters by Dr David + Laing (_Proc. Soc. of Antiq. of Scot._ x. 363-382). + + + + +GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE (1833-1885), British soldier and administrator, +fourth son of General H. W. Gordon, Royal Artillery, was born at +Woolwich on the 28th of January 1833. He received his early education at +Taunton school, and was given a cadetship in the Royal Military Academy, +Woolwich, in 1848. He was commissioned as second lieutenant in the corps +of Royal Engineers on the 23rd of June 1852. After passing through a +course of instruction at the Royal Engineers' establishment, Chatham, he +was promoted lieutenant in 1854, and was sent to Pembroke dock to assist +in the construction of the fortifications then being erected for the +defence of Milford Haven. The Crimean War broke out shortly afterwards, +and Gordon was ordered on active service, and landed at Balaklava on the +1st of January 1855. The siege of Sevastopol was in progress, and he had +his full share of the arduous work in the trenches. He was attached to +one of the British columns which assaulted the Redan on the 18th of +June, and was also present at the capture of that work on the 8th of +September. He took part in the expedition to Kinburn, and then returned +to Sevastopol to superintend a portion of the demolition of the Russian +dockyard. After peace with Russia had been concluded, Gordon was +attached to an international commission appointed to delimit the new +boundary, as fixed by treaty, between Russia and Turkey in Bessarabia; +and on the conclusion of this work he was ordered to Asia Minor on +similar duty, with reference to the eastern boundary between the two +countries. While so employed Gordon took the opportunity to make himself +well acquainted with the geography and people of Armenia, and the +knowledge of dealing with eastern nations then gained was of great use +to him in after life. + + + In China. + +He returned to England towards the end of 1858, and was then selected +for the appointment of adjutant and field-works instructor at the Royal +Engineers' establishment, and took up his new duties at Chatham after +promotion to the rank of captain in April 1859. But his stay in England +was brief, for in 1860 war was declared against China, and Gordon was +ordered out there, arriving at Tientsin in September. He was too late +for the attack on the Taku forts, but was present at the occupation of +Peking and destruction of the Summer Palace. He remained with the +British force of occupation in northern China until April 1862, when the +British troops, under the command of General Staveley, proceeded to +Shanghai, in order to protect the European settlement at that place +from the Taiping rebels. The Taiping revolt, which had some remarkable +points of similarity with the Mahdist rebellion in the Sudan, had +commenced in 1850 in the province of Kwangsi. The leader, Hung Sin +Tsuan, a semi-political, semi-religious enthusiast, assumed the title of +Tien Wang, or Heavenly King, and by playing on the feelings of the lower +class of people gradually collected a considerable force. The Chinese +authorities endeavoured to arrest him, but the imperialist troops were +defeated. The area of revolt extended northwards through the provinces +of Hunan and Hupeh, and down the valley of the Yangtsze-kiang as far as +the great city of Nanking, which was captured by the rebels in 1853. +Here the Tien Wang established his court, and while spending his own +time in heavenly contemplation and earthly pleasures, sent the assistant +Wangs on warlike expeditions through the adjacent provinces. For some +years a constant struggle was maintained between the Chinese imperialist +troops and the Taipings, with varying success on both sides. The latter +gradually advanced eastwards, and approaching the important city of +Shanghai, alarmed the European inhabitants, who subscribed to raise a +mixed force of Europeans and Manila men for the defence of the town. +This force, which was placed under the command of an American, Frederick +Townsend Ward (1831-1862), took up a position in the country west of +Shanghai to check the advance of the rebels. Fighting continued round +Shanghai for about two years, but Ward's force was not altogether +successful, and when General Staveley arrived from Tientsin affairs were +in a somewhat critical condition. He decided to clear the district of +rebels within a radius of 30 m. from Shanghai, and Gordon was attached +to his staff as engineer officer. A French force, under the command of +Admiral Protet, co-operated with Staveley and Ward, with his little +army, also assisted. Kahding, Singpo and other towns were occupied, and +the country was fairly cleared of rebels by the end of 1862. Ward was, +unfortunately, killed in the assault of Tseki, and his successor, +Burgevine, having had a quarrel with the Chinese authorities, Li Hung +Chang, the governor of the Kiang-su province, requested General Staveley +to appoint a British officer to command the contingent. Staveley +selected Gordon, who had been made a brevet-major in December 1862 for +his previous services, and the nomination was approved by the British +government. The choice was judicious as further events proved. In March +1863 Gordon proceeded to Sungkiang to take command of the force, which +had received the name of "The Ever-Victorious Army," an encouraging +though somewhat exaggerated title, considering its previous history. +Without waiting to reorganize his troops he marched at once to the +relief of Chansu, a town 40 m. north-west of Shanghai, which was +invested by the rebels. The relief was successfully accomplished, and +the operation established Gordon in the confidence of his troops. He +then reorganized his force, a matter of no small difficulty, and +advanced against Quinsan, which was captured, though with considerable +loss. Gordon then marched through the country, seizing town after town +from the rebels until at length the great city of Suchow was invested by +his army and a body of Chinese imperialist troops. The city was taken on +the 29th of November, and after its capture Gordon had a serious dispute +with Li Hung Chang, as the latter had beheaded certain of the rebel +leaders whose lives the former had promised to spare if they +surrendered. This action, though not opposed to Chinese ethics, was so +opposed to Gordon's ideas of honour that he withdrew his force from +Suchow and remained inactive at Quinsan until February 1864. He then +came to the conclusion that the subjugation of the rebels was more +important than his dispute with Li, and visited the latter in order to +arrange for further operations. By mutual consent no allusion was made +to the death of the Wangs. This was a good example of one of Gordon's +marked characteristics, that, though a man of strong personal feelings, +he was always prepared to subdue them for the public benefit. He +declined, however, to take any decoration or reward from the emperor for +his services at the capture of Suchow. After the meeting with Li Hung +Chang the "Ever-Victorious Army" again advanced and took a number of +towns from the rebels, ending with Chanchufu, the principal military +position of the Taipings. This fell in May, when Gordon returned to +Quinsan and disbanded his force. In June the Tien Wang, seeing his cause +was hopeless, committed suicide, and the capture of Nanking by the +imperialist troops shortly afterwards brought the Taiping revolt to a +conclusion. The suppression of this serious movement was undoubtedly due +in great part to the skill and energy of Gordon, who had shown +remarkable qualities as a leader of men. The emperor promoted him to the +rank of Titu, the highest grade in the Chinese army, and also gave him +the Yellow Jacket, the most important decoration in China. He wished to +give him a large sum of money, but this Gordon refused. He was promoted +lieutenant-colonel for his Chinese services, and made a Companion of the +Bath. Henceforth he was often familiarly spoken of as "Chinese" Gordon. + +Gordon was appointed on his return to England Commanding Royal Engineer +at Gravesend, where he was employed in superintending the erection of +forts for the defence of the Thames. He devoted himself with energy to +his official duties, and his leisure hours to practical philanthropy. +All the acts of kindness which he did for the poor during the six years +he was stationed at Gravesend will never be fully known. In October 1871 +he was appointed British representative on the international commission +which had been constituted after the Crimean War to maintain the +navigation of the mouth of the river Danube, with headquarters at +Galatz. During 1872 Gordon was sent to inspect the British military +cemeteries in the Crimea, and when passing through Constantinople on his +return to Galatz he made the acquaintance of Nubar Pasha, prime minister +of Egypt, who sounded him as to whether he would take service under the +khedive. Nothing further was settled at the time, but the following year +he received a definite offer from the khedive, which he accepted with +the consent of the British government, and proceeded to Egypt early in +1874. He was then a colonel in the army, though still only a captain in +the corps of Royal Engineers. + +To understand the object of the appointment which Gordon accepted in +Egypt, it is necessary to give a few facts with reference to the Sudan. +In 1820-22 Nubia, Sennar and Kordofan had been conquered by Egypt, and +the authority of the Egyptians was subsequently extended southward, +eastward to the Red Sea and westward over Darfur (conquered by Zobeir +Pasha in 1874). One result of the Egyptian occupation of the country was +that the slave trade was largely developed, especially in the White Nile +and Bahr-el-Ghazal districts. Captains Speke and Grant, who had +travelled through Uganda and came down the White Nile in 1863, and Sir +Samuel Baker, who went up the same river as far as Albert Nyanza, +brought back harrowing tales of the misery caused by the slave-hunters. +Public opinion was considerably moved, and in 1869 the khedive Ismail +decided to send an expedition up the White Nile, with the double object +of limiting the evils of the slave trade and opening up the district to +commerce. The command of the expedition was given to Sir Samuel Baker, +who reached Khartum in February 1870, but, owing to the obstruction of +the river by the sudd or grass barrier, did not reach Gondokoro, the +centre of his province, for fourteen months. He met with great +difficulties, and when his four years' service came to an end little had +been effected beyond establishing a few posts along the Nile and placing +some steamers on the river. It was to succeed Baker as governor of the +equatorial regions that the khedive asked for Gordon's services, having +come to the conclusion that the latter was the most likely person to +bring the affair to a satisfactory conclusion. After a short stay in +Cairo, Gordon proceeded to Khartum by way of Suakin and Berber, a route +which he ever afterwards regarded as the best mode of access to the +Sudan. From Khartum he proceeded up the White Nile to Gondokoro, where +he arrived in twenty-four days, the sudd, which had proved such an +obstacle to Baker, having been removed since the departure of the latter +by the Egyptian governor-general. Gordon remained in the equatorial +provinces until October 1876, and then returned to Cairo. The two years +and a half thus spent in Central Africa was a time of incessant toil. A +line of stations was established from the Sobat confluence on the White +Nile to the frontier of Uganda--to which country he proposed to open a +route from Mombasa--and considerable progress was made in the +suppression of the slave trade. The river and Lake Albert were mapped by +Gordon and his staff, and he devoted himself with wonted energy to +improving the condition of the people. Greater results might have been +obtained but for the fact that Khartum and the whole of the Sudan north +of the Sobat were in the hands of an Egyptian governor, independent of +Gordon, and not too well disposed towards his proposals for diminishing +the slave trade. On arriving in Cairo Gordon informed the khedive of his +reasons for not wishing to return to the Sudan, but did not definitely +resign the appointment of governor of the equatorial provinces. But on +reaching London he telegraphed to the British consul-general in Cairo, +asking him to let the khedive know that he would not go back to Egypt. +Ismail Pasha, feeling, no doubt, that Gordon's resignation would injure +his prestige, wrote to him saying that he had promised to return, and +that he expected him to keep his word. Upon this Gordon, to whom the +keeping of a promise was a sacred duty, decided to return to Cairo, but +gave an assurance to some friends that he would not go back to the Sudan +unless he was appointed governor-general of the entire country. After +some discussion the khedive agreed, and made him governor-general of the +Sudan, inclusive of Darfur and the equatorial provinces. + + + Governor-General + +One of the most important questions which Gordon had to take up on his +appointment was the state of the political relations between Egypt and +Abyssinia, which had been in an unsatisfactory condition for some years. +The dispute centred round the district of Bogos, lying not far inland +from Massawa, which both the khedive and King John of Abyssinia claimed +as belonging to their respective dominions. War broke out in 1875, when +an Egyptian expedition was despatched to Abyssinia, and was completely +defeated by King John near Gundet. A second and larger expedition, under +Prince Hassan, the son of the khedive, was sent the following year from +Massawa. The force was routed by the Abyssinians at Gura, but Prince +Hassan and his staff got back to Massawa. Matters then remained quiet +until March 1877, when Gordon proceeded to Massawa to endeavour to make +peace with King John. He went up to Bogos, and had an interview with +Walad Michael, an Abyssinian chief and the hereditary ruler of Bogos, +who had joined the Egyptians with a view to raiding on his own account. +Gordon, with his usual powers of diplomacy, persuaded Michael to remain +quiet, and wrote to the king proposing terms of peace. But he received +no reply at that time, as John, feeling pretty secure on the Egyptian +frontier after his two successful actions against the khedive's troops, +had gone southwards to fight with Menelek, king of Shoa. Gordon, seeing +that the Abyssinian difficulty could wait for a few months, proceeded to +Khartum. Here he took up the slavery question, and proposed to issue +regulations making the registration of slaves compulsory, but his +proposals were not approved by the Cairo government. In the meantime an +insurrection had broken out in Darfur, and Gordon proceeded to that +province to relieve the Egyptian garrisons, which were considerably +stronger than the force he had available, the insurgents also being far +more numerous than his little army. On coming up with the main body of +rebels he saw that diplomacy gave a better chance of success than +fighting, and, accompanied only by an interpreter, rode into the enemy's +camp to discuss the situation. This bold move, which probably no one but +Gordon would have attempted, proved quite successful, as part of the +insurgents joined him, and the remainder retreated to the south. The +relief of the Egyptian garrisons was successfully accomplished, and +Gordon visited the provinces of Berber and Dongola, whence he had again +to return to the Abyssinian frontier to treat with King John. But no +satisfactory settlement was arrived at, and Gordon came back to Khartum +in January 1878. There he had scarcely a week's rest when the khedive +summoned him to Cairo to assist in settling the financial affairs of +Egypt. He reached Cairo in March, and was at once appointed by Ismail as +president of a commission of inquiry into the finances, on the +understanding that the European commissioners of the debt, who were the +representatives of the bondholders, and whom Ismail regarded as +interested parties, should not be members of the commission. Gordon +accepted the post on these terms, but the consuls-general of the +different powers refused to agree to the constitution of the commission, +and it fell to the ground, as the khedive was not strong enough to carry +his point. The attempt of the latter to utilize Gordon as a counterpoise +to the European financiers having failed, Ismail fell into the hands of +his creditors, and was deposed by the sultan in the following year in +favour of his son Tewfik. After the conclusion of the financial episode, +Gordon proceeded to the province of Harrar, south of Abyssinia, and, +finding the administration in a bad condition, dismissed Raouf Pasha, +the governor. He then returned to Khartum, and in 1879 went again into +Darfur to pursue the slave traders, while his subordinate, Gessi Pasha, +fought them with great success in the Bahr-el-Ghazal district and killed +Suleiman, their leader and a son of Zobeir. This put an end to the +revolt, and Gordon went back to Khartum. Shortly afterwards he went down +to Cairo, and when there was requested by the new khedive to pay a visit +to King John and make a definite treaty of peace with Abyssinia. Gordon +had an interesting interview with the king, but was not able to do much, +as the king wanted great concessions from Egypt, and the khedive's +instructions were that nothing material was to be conceded. The matter +ended by Gordon being made a prisoner and sent back to Massawa. Thence +he returned to Cairo and resigned his Sudan appointment. He was +considerably exhausted by the three years' incessant work, during which +he had ridden no fewer than 8500 m. on camels and mules, and was +constantly engaged in the task of trying to reform a vicious system of +administration. + + + 1880-1884. + +In March 1880 Gordon visited the king of the Belgians at Brussels, and +King Leopold suggested that he should at some future date take charge of +the Congo Free State. In April the government of the Cape Colony +telegraphed to him offering the position of commandant of the Cape local +forces, but he declined the appointment. In May the marquess of Ripon, +who had been given the post of governor-general of India, asked Gordon +to go with him as private secretary. This he agreed to do, but a few +days later, feeling that he was not suitable for the position, asked +Lord Ripon to release him. The latter refused to do so, and Gordon +accompanied him to India, but definitely resigned his post on Lord +Ripon's staff shortly afterwards. Hardly had he resigned when he +received a telegram from Sir Robert Hart, inspector-general of customs +in China, inviting him to go to Peking. He started at once and arrived +at Tientsin in July, where he met Li Hung Chang, and learnt that affairs +were in a critical condition, and that there was risk of war with +Russia. Gordon proceeded to Peking and used all his influence in favour +of peace. His arguments, which were given with much plainness of speech, +appear to have convinced the Chinese government, and war was avoided. +Gordon returned to England, and in April 1881 exchanged with a brother +officer, who had been ordered to Mauritius as Commanding Royal Engineer, +but who for family reasons was unable to accept the appointment. He +remained in Mauritius until the March following, when, on promotion to +the rank of major-general, he had to vacate the position of Commanding +Royal Engineer. Just at the same time the Cape ministry telegraphed to +him to ask if he would go to the Cape to consult with the government as +regards settling affairs in Basutoland. The telegram stated that the +position of matters was grave, and that it was of the utmost importance +that the colony should secure the services of someone of proved ability, +firmness and energy. Gordon sailed at once for the Cape, and saw the +governor, Sir Hercules Robinson, Mr Thos. Scanlen, the premier, and Mr. +J. X. Merriman, a member of the ministry, who, for political reasons, +asked him not to go to Basutoland, but to take the appointment of +commandant of the colonial forces at King William's Town. After a few +months, which were spent in reorganizing the colonial forces, Gordon was +requested to go up to Basutoland to try to arrange a settlement with the +chief Masupha, one of the most powerful of the Basuto leaders. Greatly +to his surprise, at the very time he was with Masupha, Mr. J. W. Sauer, +a member of the Cape government, was taking steps to induce Lerethodi, +another chief, to advance against Masupha. This not only placed Gordon +in a position of danger, but was regarded by him as an act of treachery. +He advised Masupha not to deal with the Cape government until the +hostile force was withdrawn, and resigned his appointment. He considered +that the Basuto difficulty was due to the bad system of administration +by the Cape government. That Gordon's views were correct is proved by +the fact that a few years later Basutoland was separated from Cape +Colony and placed directly under the imperial government. After his +return to England from the Cape, being unemployed, Gordon decided to go +to Palestine, a country he had long desired to visit. Here he remained +for a year, and devoted his time to the study of Biblical history and of +the antiquities of Jerusalem. The king of the Belgians then asked him to +take charge of the Congo Free State, and he accepted the mission and +returned to London to make the necessary preparations. But a few days +after his arrival he was requested by the British government to proceed +immediately to the Sudan. To understand the reasons for this, it is +necessary briefly to recapitulate the course of events in that country +since Gordon had left it in 1879. + +After his resignation of the post of governor-general, Raouf Pasha, an +official of the ordinary type, who, as already mentioned, had been +dismissed by Gordon for misgovernment in 1878, was appointed to succeed +him. As Raouf was instructed to increase the receipts and diminish the +expenditure, the system of government naturally reverted to the old +methods, which Gordon had endeavoured to improve. The fact that justice +and firmness were succeeded by injustice and weakness tended naturally +to the outbreak of revolt, and unfortunately there was a leader ready to +head a rebellion--one Mahommed Ahmed, already known for some years as a +holy man, who was insulted by an Egyptian official, and retiring with +some followers to the island of Abba on the White Nile, proclaimed +himself as the mahdi, a successor of the prophet. Raouf endeavoured to +take him prisoner but without success, and the revolt spread rapidly. +Raouf was recalled, and succeeded by Abdel Kader Pasha, a much stronger +governor, who had some success, but whose forces were quite insufficient +to cope with the rebels. The Egyptian government was too busily engaged +in suppressing Arabi's revolt to be able to send any help to Abdel +Kader, and in September 1882, when the British troops entered Cairo, the +position in the Sudan was very perilous. Had the British government +listened to the representations then made to them, that, having +conquered Egypt, it was imperative at once to suppress the revolt in the +Sudan, the rebellion could have been crushed, but unfortunately Great +Britain would do nothing herself, while the steps she allowed Egypt to +take ended in the disaster to Hicks Pasha's expedition. Then, in +December 1883, the British government saw that something must be done, +and ordered Egypt to abandon the Sudan. But abandonment was a policy +most difficult to carry out, as it involved the withdrawal of thousands +of Egyptian soldiers, civilian employes and their families. Abdel Kader +Pasha was asked to undertake the work, and he agreed on the +understanding that he would be supported, and that the policy of +abandonment was not to be announced. But the latter condition was +refused, and he declined the task. The British government then asked +General Gordon to proceed to Khartum to report on the best method of +carrying out the evacuation. The mission was highly popular in England. +Sir Evelyn Baring (Lord Cromer) was, however, at first opposed to +Gordon's appointment. His objections were overcome, and Gordon received +his instructions in London on the 18th of January 1884, and started at +once for Cairo, accompanied by Lieut.-Colonel J. D. H. Stewart. + + + At Khartum. + + Death. + +At Cairo he received further instructions from Sir Evelyn Baring, and +was appointed by the khedive as governor-general, with executive powers. +Travelling by Korosko and Berber, he arrived at Khartum on the 18th of +February, and was well received by the inhabitants, who believed that he +had come to save the country from the rebels. Gordon at once commenced +the task of sending the women and children and the sick and wounded to +Egypt, and about two thousand five hundred had been removed before the +mahdi's forces closed upon Khartum. At the same time he was impressed +with the necessity of making some arrangement for the future government +of the country, and asked for the help of Zobeir (q.v.), who had great +influence in the Sudan, and had been detained in Cairo for some years. +This request was made on the very day Gordon reached Khartum, and was in +accordance with a similar proposal he had made when at Cairo. But, after +delays which involved the loss of much precious time, the British +government refused (13th of March) to sanction the appointment, because +Zobeir had been a notorious slave-hunter. With this refusal vanished all +hope of a peaceful retreat of the Egyptian garrisons. Wavering tribes +went over to the mahdi. The advance of the rebels against Khartum was +combined with a revolt in the eastern Sudan, and the Egyptian troops in +the vicinity of Suakin met with constant defeat. At length a British +force was sent to Suakin under the command of General Sir Gerald Graham, +and routed the rebels in several hard-fought actions. Gordon telegraphed +to Sir Evelyn Baring urging that the road from Suakin to Berber should +be opened by a small force. But this request, though strongly supported +by Baring and the British military authorities in Cairo, was refused by +the government in London. In April General Graham and his forces were +withdrawn from Suakin, and Gordon and the Sudan were seemingly abandoned +to their fate. The garrison of Berber, seeing that there was no chance +of relief, surrendered a month later and Khartum was completely +isolated. Had it not been for the presence of Gordon the city would also +soon have fallen, but with an energy and skill that were almost +miraculous, he so organized the defence that Khartum held out until +January 1885. When it is remembered that Gordon was of a different +nationality and religion to the garrison and population, that he had +only one British officer to assist him, and that the town was badly +fortified and insufficiently provided with food, it is just to say that +the defence of Khartum is one of the most remarkable episodes in +military history. The siege commenced on the 18th of March, but it was +not until August that the British government under the pressure of +public opinion decided to take steps to relieve Gordon. General +Stephenson, who was in command of the British troops in Egypt, wished to +send a brigade at once to Dongola, but he was overruled, and it was not +until the beginning of November that the British relief force was ready +to start from Wadi Haifa under the command of Lord Wolseley. The force +reached Korti towards the end of December, and from that place a column +was despatched across the Bayuda desert to Metemma on the Nile. After +some severe fighting in which the leader of the column, Sir Herbert +Stewart, was mortally wounded, the force reached the river on the 20th +of January, and the following day four steamers, which had been sent +down by Gordon to meet the British advance, and which had been waiting +for them for four months, reported to Sir Charles Wilson, who had taken +command after Sir Herbert Stewart was wounded. On the 24th Wilson +started with two of the steamers for Khartum, but on arriving there on +the 28th he found that the place had been captured by the rebels and +Gordon killed two days before. A belief has been entertained that Wilson +might have started earlier and saved the town, but this is quite +groundless. In the first place, Wilson could not have started sooner +than he did; and in the second, even if he had been able to do so, it +would have made no difference, as the rebels could have taken Khartum +any time they pleased after the 5th of January, when the provisions were +exhausted. Another popular notion, that the capture of the place was due +to treachery on the part of the garrison, is equally without foundation. +The attack was made at a point in the fortifications where the rampart +and ditch had been destroyed by the rising of the Nile, and when the +mahdi's troops entered the soldiers were too weak to make any effectual +resistance. Gordon himself expected the town to fall before the end of +December, and it is really difficult to understand how he succeeded in +holding out until the 26th of January. Writing on the 14th of December +he said, "Now, mark this, if the expeditionary force--and I ask for no +more than two hundred men--does not come in ten days, the town may fall, +and I have done my best for the honour of my country." He had indeed +done his best, and far more than could have been regarded as possible. +To understand what he went through during the latter months of the +siege, it is only necessary to read his own journal, a portion of which, +dating from 10th September to 14th December 1884, was fortunately +preserved and published. + +Gordon was not an author, but he wrote many short memoranda on subjects +that interested him, and a considerable number of these have been +utilized, especially in the work by his brother, Sir Henry Gordon, +entitled _Events in the Life of Charles George Gordon, from its +Beginning to its End_. He was a voluminous letter-writer, and much of +his correspondence has been published. His character was remarkable, and +the influence he had over those with whom he came in contact was very +striking. His power to command men of non-European races was probably +unique. He had no fear of death, and cared but little for the opinion of +others, adhering tenaciously to the course he believed to be right in +the face of all opposition. Though not holding to outward forms of +religion, he was a truly religious man in the highest sense of the word, +and was a constant student of the Bible. To serve God and to do his duty +were the great objects of his life, and he died as he had lived, +carrying out the work that lay before him to the best of his ability. +The last words of his last letter to his sister, written when he knew +that death was very near, sum up his character: "I am quite happy, thank +God, and, like Lawrence, I have _tried_ to do my duty."[1] + + AUTHORITIES.--_The Journals of Major-General Gordon at Khartoum_ + (1885); Lord Cromer, _Modern Egypt_ (2 vols., 1908); F. R. Wingate, + _Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan_ (1891); the _British Parliamentary + Paper on Egypt_ (1884-1885); C. G. Gordon, _Reflections in Palestine_ + (1884); edited by D. C. Boulger, _General Gordon's Letters from the + Crimea, the Danube, and Armenia_ (1884); edited by G. B. Hill, + _Colonel Gordon in Central Africa_ (1881); _Letters of General C. G. + Gordon to his Sister_ (1888); H. W. Gordon, _Events in the Life of C. + G. Gordon_ (1886); Commander L. Brine, _The Taeping Rebellion in + China_ (1862); A. Wilson, _Gordon's Campaigns and the Taeping + Rebellion_ (1868); D. C. Boulger, _Life of Gordon_ (1896); A. Egmont + Hake, _The Story of Chinese Gordon_ (1st vol. 1884, 2nd vol. 1885); + Colonel Sir W. F. Butler, _Charles George Gordon_ (1889); Archibald + Forbes, _Chinese Gordon_ (1884); edited by A. Egmont Hake, _Events in + the Taeping Rebellion_ (1891); S. Mossman, _General Gordon's Diary in + China_ (1885); Lieutenant T. Lister, R.E., _With Gordon in the Crimea_ + (1891); Lieutenant-General Sir G. Graham, _Last Words with Gordon_ + (1887); "War Correspondent," _Why Gordon Perished_ (1896). + (C. M. W.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] With this estimate of Gordon's character may be contrasted those + of Lord Cromer (the most severe of Gordon's critics), and of Lord + Morley of Blackburn; in their strictures as in their praise they help + to explain both the causes of the extraordinary influence wielded by + Gordon over all sorts and conditions of men and also his + difficulties. Lord Cromer's criticism, it should be remembered, does + not deal with Gordon's career as a whole but solely with his last + mission to the Sudan; Lord Morley's is a more general judgment. + + Lord Cromer (_Modern Egypt_, vol. i., ch. xxvii., p. 565-571) says: + "We may admire, and for my own part I do very much admire General + Gordon's personal courage, his disinterestedness and his chivalrous + feeling in favour of the beleaguered garrisons, but admiration of + these qualities is no sufficient plea against a condemnation of his + conduct on the ground that it was quixotic. In his last letter to his + sister, dated December 14, 1884, he wrote: 'I am quite happy, thank + God, and, like Lawrence, I have tried to do my duty' ... I am not now + dealing with General Gordon's character, which was in many respects + noble, or with his military defence of Khartoum, which was heroic, + but with the political conduct of his mission, and from this point of + view I have no hesitation in saying that General Gordon cannot be + considered to have tried to do his duty unless a very strained and + mistaken view be taken of what his duty was.... As a matter of public + morality I cannot think that General Gordon's process of reasoning is + defensible.... I do not think that it can be held that General Gordon + made any serious effort to carry out the main ends of British and + Egyptian policy in the Sudan. He thought more of his personal + opinions than of the interests of the state.... In fact, except + personal courage, great fertility in military resource, a lively + though sometimes ill-directed repugnance to injustice, oppression and + meanness of every description, and a considerable power of acquiring + influence over those, necessarily limited in numbers, with whom he + was brought into personal contact, General Gordon does not appear to + have possessed any of the qualities which would have fitted him to + undertake the difficult task he had in hand." + + Lord Morley (_Life of Gladstone_, vol. iii., 1st ed., 1903, ch. 9, p. + 151) says: "Gordon, as Mr Gladstone said, was a hero of heroes. He + was a soldier of infinite personal courage and daring, of striking + military energy, initiative and resource; a high, pure and single + character, dwelling much in the region of the unseen. But as all who + knew him admit, and as his own records testify, notwithstanding an + undercurrent of shrewd common sense, he was the creature, almost the + sport, of impulse; his impressions and purposes changed with the + speed of lightning; anger often mastered him; he went very often by + intuitions and inspirations rather than by cool inference from + carefully surveyed fact; with many variations of mood he mixed, as we + often see in people less famous, an invincible faith in his own rapid + prepossessions while they lasted. Everybody now discerns that to + despatch a soldier of this temperament on a piece of business [the + mission to the Sudan in 1884] that was not only difficult and + dangerous, as Sir E. Baring said, but profoundly obscure, and needing + vigilant sanity and self-control, was little better than to call in a + wizard with his magic. Mr Gladstone always professed perplexity in + understanding why the violent end of the gallant Cavagnari in + Afghanistan stirred the world so little in comparison with the fate + of Gordon. The answer is that Gordon seized the imagination of + England, and seized it on its higher side. His religion was + eccentric, but it was religion; the Bible was the rock on which he + founded himself, both old dispensation and new; he was known to hate + forms, ceremonies and all the 'solemn plausibilities'; his speech was + sharp, pithy, rapid and ironic; above all, he knew the ways of war + and would not bear the sword for nought." + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 12, Slice 2, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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