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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 2 + "Gloss" to "Gordon, Charles George" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: October 29, 2011 [EBook #37880] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 12 SL 2 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME XII SLICE II<br /><br /> +Gloss to Gordon, Charles George</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">GLOSS, GLOSSARY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">GOLDBEATING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">GLOSSOP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">GOLDBERG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">GOLD COAST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">GOLDEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">GLOUCESTER, HUMPHREY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">GOLDEN BULL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">GOLDEN-EYE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">GLOUCESTER, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">GOLDEN FLEECE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">GOLDEN HORDE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">GLOUCESTER</a> (city of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">GOLDEN ROD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">GLOUCESTER</a> (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">GOLDEN ROSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">GLOUCESTER CITY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">GOLDEN RULE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">GLOUCESTERSHIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">GOLDFIELD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">GLOVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">GOLDFINCH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">GLOVER, SIR JOHN HAWLEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">GOLDFISH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">GLOVER, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">GOLDFUSS, GEORG AUGUST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">GLOVERSVILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE DASHWOOD TAUBMAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">GLOW-WORM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">GOLDING, ARTHUR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">GLOXINIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">GOLDINGEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">GLUCINUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">GOLDMARK, KARL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">GLUCK, CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">GOLDONI, CARLO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">GLÜCKSBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">GOLDS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">GLÜCKSTADT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">GOLDSBORO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">GLUCOSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">GOLDSCHMIDT, HERMANN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">GLUCOSIDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">GOLDSMID</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">GLUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">GOLDSMITH, LEWIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">GLUTARIC ACID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">GOLDSMITH, OLIVER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">GLUTEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">GOLDSTÜCKER, THEODOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">GLUTTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">GOLDWELL, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">GLYCAS, MICHAEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">GLYCERIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">GOLETTA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">GLYCOLS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">GOLF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">GLYCONIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">GOLIAD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">GLYPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">GOLIARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">GLYPTODON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">GOLIATH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">GLYPTOTHEK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">GOLITSUIN, BORIS ALEKSYEEVICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">GMELIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">GOLITSUIN, DMITRY MIKHAILOVICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">GMÜND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">GOLITSUIN, VASILY VASILEVICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">GMUNDEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">GOLIUS, JACOBUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">GNAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">GOLLNOW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">GNATHOPODA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">GOLOSH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">GNATIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">GOLOVIN, FEDOR ALEKSYEEVICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">GNEISENAU, AUGUST WILHELM ANTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">GOLOVKIN, GAVRIIL IVANOVICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">GNEISS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">GOLOVNIN, VASILY MIKHAILOVICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">GNEIST, HEINRICH RUDOLF HERMANN FRIEDRICH VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">GOLTZ, BOGUMIL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">GNESEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">GOLTZ, COLMAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">GNOME, and GNOMIC POETRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">GNOMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">GOLUCHOWSKI, AGENOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">GNOMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">GOMAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">GNOSTICISM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">GOMARUS, FRANZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">GNU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">GOMBERVILLE, MARIN LE ROY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">GO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">GOMER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">GOA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">GOMERA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">GOAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">GOMEZ, DIOGO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">GOALPARA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167"> GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA, GERTRUDIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">GOAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">GOMM, SIR WILLIAM MAYNARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">GOATSUCKER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">GOMPERS, SAMUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">GOBAT, SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">GOMPERZ, THEODOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">GOBEL, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">GONAGUAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">GOBELIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">GONÇALVES DIAS, ANTONIO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">GOBI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">GONCHAROV, IVAN ALEXANDROVICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">GOBLET, RENÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">GONCOURT, DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">GOBLET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">GONDA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">GOBY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">GONDAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">GOCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">GONDAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">GOD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">GONDOKORO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">GODALMING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">GONDOMAR, DIEGO SARMIENTO DE ACUÑA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">GODARD, BENJAMIN LOUIS PAUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">GONDOPHARES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">GODAVARI</a> (river of India)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">GONDWANA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">GODAVARI</a> (district of India)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">GONFALON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">GODEFROY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">GONG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">GODESBERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">GÓNGORA Y ARGOTE, LUIS DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">GODET, FRÉDÉRIC LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">GONIOMETER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">GODFREY, SIR EDMUND BERRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">GONTAUT, MARIE JOSÉPHINE LOUISE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">GODFREY OF BOUILLON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">GONVILE, EDMUND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">GODFREY OF VITERBO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">GONZAGA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">GODHRA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">GONZAGA, THOMAZ ANTONIO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">GODIN, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">GONZÁLEZ-CARVAJAL, TOMAS JOSÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">GODIVA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">GONZALO DE BERCEO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">GOOCH, SIR DANIEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">GODMANCHESTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">GOOD, JOHN MASON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">GÖDÖLLÖ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">GOOD FRIDAY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">GODOLPHIN, SIDNEY GODOLPHIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">GOODMAN, GODFREY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">GODOY, ALVAREZ DE FARIA, RIOS SANCHEZ Y ZARZOSA, MANUEL DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">GOODRICH, SAMUEL GRISWOLD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">GODROON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">GOODRICH, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">GODWIN, FRANCIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">GOODSIR, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">GOODWILL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">GODWIN, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">GOODWIN, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">GODWIN-AUSTEN, ROBERT ALFRED CLOYNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">GOODWIN, NATHANIEL CARL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">GODWINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">GOODWIN, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">GODWIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">GOEBEN, AUGUST KARL VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">GOODWIN SANDS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">GOODWOOD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">GOES, DAMIÃO DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">GOODYEAR, CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">GOES, HUGO VAN DER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">GOOGE, BARNABE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">GOES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">GOOLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">GOOSE</a> (bird)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">GOETZ, HERMANN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">GOOSE</a> (game)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">GOFFE, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">GOOSEBERRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">GOFFER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">GOOTY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">GOG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">GOPHER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">GOGO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">GÖPPINGEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">GOGOL, NIKOLAI VASILIEVICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">GORAKHPUR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">GOGRA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">GORAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">GOHIER, LOUIS JÉRÔME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">GORAMY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">GÖHRDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">GÖRBERSDORF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">GOITO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">GORBODUC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">GOITRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">GORCHAKOV</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">GOKAK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">GORDIAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">GOKCHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">GORDIUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">GOLCONDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">GORDON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">GOLD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">GOLD AND SILVER THREAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">GORDON, ALEXANDER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">GOLDAST AB HAIMINSFELD, MELCHIOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" id="page124"></a>124</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">GLOSS, GLOSSARY,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> &c. The Greek word <span class="grk" title="glôssa">γλῶσσα</span> (whence +our “gloss”), meaning originally a tongue, then a language or +dialect, gradually came to denote any obsolete, foreign, provincial, +technical or otherwise peculiar word or use of a word (see Arist. +<i>Rhet.</i> iii. 3. 2). The making of collections and explanations<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of +such <span class="grk" title="glôssai">γλῶσσαι</span> was at a comparatively early date a well-recognized +form of literary activity. Even in the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, among +the many writings of Abdera was included a treatise entitled +<span class="grk" title="Peri Homêrou ê orthoepeiês kai glôsseôn">Περὶ Ὁμήρου ἤ ὀρθοεπείης καὶ γλωσσέων</span>. It was not, however, +until the Alexandrian period that the <span class="grk" title="glôssographoi">γλωσσογράφοι</span>, glossographers +(writers of glosses), or glossators, became numerous. +Of many of these perhaps even the names have perished; but +Athenaeus the grammarian alone (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 250) alludes to no +fewer than thirty-five. Among the earliest was Philetas of Cos +(d. <i>c.</i> 290 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the elegiac poet, to whom Aristarchus dedicated +the treatise <span class="grk" title="Pros Philptan">Πρὸς Φιλπτᾶν</span>; he was the compiler of a lexicographical +work, arranged probably according to subjects, and +entitled <span class="grk" title="Hatakta">Ἅτακτα</span> or <span class="grk" title="Glôssai">Γγῶσσαι</span> (sometimes <span class="grk" title="Ataktoi glôssai">Ἅτακτοι γλῶσσαι</span>). +Next came his disciple Zenodotus of Ephesus (<i>c.</i> 280 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), one of +the earliest of the Homeric critics and the compiler of +<span class="grk" title="Glôssai Homêrikai">Γλῶσσαι Ὁμηρικαί</span>; Zenodotus in turn was succeeded by his greater pupil +Aristophanes of Byzantium (<i>c.</i> 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), whose great compilation +<span class="grk" title="Peri lexeôn">Περὶ λέξεων</span> (still partially preserved in that of Pollux), is known +to have included <span class="grk" title="Attikai lexeis, Lakônikai glôssai">Ἀττικαὶ λέξεις, Λακωνικαὶ γλῶσσαι</span>, and the +like. From the school of Aristophanes issued more than one +glossographer of name,—Diodorus, Artemidorus (<span class="grk" title="Glôssai">Γλῶσσαι</span>, and +a collection of <span class="grk" title="lexeis opsartutikai">λέξεις ὀψαρτυτικαί</span>), Nicander of Colophon +(<span class="grk" title="Glôssai">Γλῶσσαι</span>, of which some twenty-six fragments still survive), +and Aristarchus (<i>c.</i> 210 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the famous critic, whose numerous +labours included an arrangement of the Homeric vocabulary +(<span class="grk" title="lexeis">λέξεις</span>) in the order of the books. Contemporary with the +last named was Crates of Mallus, who, besides making some +new contributions to Greek lexicography and dialectology, +was the first to create at Rome a taste for similar investigations +in connexion with the Latin idioms. From his school proceeded +Zenodotus of Mallus, the compiler of <span class="grk" title="Ethnikai lexeis">Ἐθνικαὶ λέξεις</span> or <span class="grk" title="glôssai">γλῶσσαι</span>, +a work said to have been designed chiefly to support the views +of the school of Pergamum as to the allegorical interpretation of +Homer.<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Of later date were Didymus (Chalcenterus, <i>c.</i> 50 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), +who made collections of <span class="grk" title="lexeis tragôdoumenai kômikai">λέξεις τραγωδουμέναι κωμικαί</span>, &c.; Apollonius +Sophista (<i>c.</i> 20 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), whose Homeric Lexicon has come +down to modern times; and Neoptolemus, known distinctively as +<span class="grk" title="ho glôssographos">ὁ γλωσσογράφος</span>. In the beginning of the 1st century of the +Christian era Apion, a grammarian and rhetorician at Rome +during the reigns of Tiberius and Claudius, followed up the labours +of Aristarchus and other predecessors with <span class="grk" title="Glôssai Homêrikai">Γλῶσσαι Ὁμηρικαί</span>, +and a treatise <span class="grk" title="Peri tês Hrômaïkês dialekton">Περὶ τῆς Ῥωμαΐκῆς διαλέκτου</span>; Heliodorus or +Herodorus was another almost contemporary glossographer; +Erotian also, during the reign of Nero, prepared a special glossary +for the writings of Hippocrates, still preserved. To this period +also Pamphilus, the author of the <span class="grk" title="Leimôn">Λειμών</span>, from which Diogenian +and Julius Vestinus afterwards drew so largely, most probably +belonged. In the following century one of the most prominent +workers in this department of literature was Aelius Herodianus, +whose treatise <span class="grk" title="Peri monêrous lexeôs">Περὶ μονήρους λέξεως</span> has been edited in modern +times, and whose <span class="grk" title="Epimerismoi">Ἐπιμερισμοί</span> we still possess in an abridgment; +also Pollux, Diogenian (<span class="grk" title="Lexis pantodapê">Λέξις παντοδαπή</span>), Julius Vestinus +(<span class="grk" title="’Epitomê tôn Pamphilou glôssôn">Ἐπιτομὴ τῶν Παμφίλου γλωσσῶν</span>) and especially Phrynichus, +who flourished towards the close of the 2nd century, and whose +<i>Eclogae nominum et verborum Atticorum</i> has frequently been +edited. To the 4th century belongs Ammonius of Alexandria +(<i>c.</i> 389), who wrote <span class="grk" title="Peri Homoiôn kai diaphorôn lexeôn">Περὶ ὁμοίων καὶ διαφόρων λέξεων</span>, a dictionary +of words used in senses different from those in which they had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125"></a>125</span> +been employed by older and approved writers. Of somewhat +later date is the well-known Hesychius, whose often-edited +<span class="grk" title="Lexikon">Λεξικόν</span> superseded all previous works of the kind; Cyril, the +celebrated patriarch of Alexandria, also contributed somewhat +to the advancement of glossography by his <span class="grk" title="Sunagôgê tôn pros +diaphoron sêmasian diaphorôs tonoumenôn lexeôn">Συναγωγὴ τῶν πρὸς διάφορον σημασίαν διαφόρως τονουμένων λέξεων</span>; while Orus, +Orion, Philoxenus and the two Philemons also belong to this +period. The works of Photius, Suidas and Zonaras, as also the +<i>Etymologicum magnum</i>, to which might be added the <i>Lexica +Sangermania</i> and the <i>Lexica Segueriana</i>, are referred to in the +article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dictionary</a></span>.</p> + +<p>To a special category of technical glossaries belongs a large +and important class of works relating to the law-compilations of +Justinian. Although the emperor forbade under severe penalties +all commentaries (<span class="grk" title="hupomnêmata">ὑπομνήματα</span>) on his legislation (<i>Const. Deo +Auctore</i>, sec. 12; <i>Const. Tanta</i>, sec. 21), yet indices (<span class="grk" title="indikes">ἴνδικες</span>) +and references (<span class="grk" title="paratitla">παράτιτλα</span>), as well as translations (<span class="grk" title="ermêneiai +kata poda">ἑρμηνεῖαι κατὰ πόδα</span>) and paraphrases (<span class="grk" title="hermêneiai eis platos">ἑρμηνεῖαι εἰς πλάτος</span>), were +expressly permitted, and lavishly produced. Among the +numerous compilers of alphabetically arranged <span class="grk" title="lexeis Rhômaïkai">λέξεις Ῥωμαΐκαί</span> +or <span class="grk" title="Lateinikai">Λατεινικαί</span>, and <span class="grk" title="glôssai nomikai">γλῶσσαι νομικαί</span> (glossae nomicae), +Cyril and Philoxenus are particularly noted; but the authors +of <span class="grk" title="paragraphai">παραγραφαί</span>, or <span class="grk" title="sêmeiôseis">σημειώσεις</span>, whether <span class="grk" title="exôthen">ἔξωθεν</span> or <span class="grk" title="esôthen +keimenai">ἔσωθεν κείμεναι</span>, are too numerous to mention. A collection of these +<span class="grk" title="paragraphai tôn palaiôn">παραγραφαί τῶν παλαιῶν</span>, combined with <span class="grk" title="neai paragraphai">νέαι παραγραφαί</span> on +the revised code called <span class="grk" title="ta basilika">τὰ βασιλικά</span>, was made about the middle +of the 12th century by a disciple of Michael Hagiotheodorita. +This work is known as the <i>Glossa ordinaria</i> <span class="grk" title="tôn basilikôn">τῶν βασιλικῶν</span>.<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>In Italy also, during the period of the Byzantine ascendancy, +various glossae (glosae) and scholia on the Justinian code were +produced<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a>; particularly the Turin gloss (reprinted by Savigny), +to which, apart from later additions, a date prior to 1000 is +usually assigned. After the total extinction of the Byzantine +authority in the West the study of law became one of the free +arts, and numerous schools for its cultivation were instituted. +Among the earliest of these was that of Bologna, where Pepo +(1075) and Irnerius (1100-1118) began to give their expositions. +They had a numerous following, who, besides delivering exegetical +lectures (“ordinariae” on the <i>Digest</i> and <i>Code</i>, “extraordinariae” +on the rest of the <i>Corpus juris civilis</i>), also wrote +Glossae, first interlinear, afterwards marginal.<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The series +of these glossators was closed by Accursius (<i>q.v.</i>) with the compilation +known as the <i>Glossa ordinaria</i> or <i>magistralis</i>, the +authority of which soon became very great, so that ultimately +it came to be a recognized maxim, “Quod non agnoscit glossa, +non agnoscit curia.”<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a> For some account of the glossators on +the canon law, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canon Law</a></span>.</p> + +<p>In late classical and medieval Latin, <i>glosa</i> was the vulgar and +romanic (<i>e.g.</i> in the early 8th century Corpus Glossary, and the +late 8th century Leiden Glossary), <i>glossa</i> the learned form +(Varro, <i>De ling. Lat.</i> vii. 10; Auson. <i>Epigr</i>. 127. 2 (86. 2), written +in Greek, Quint, i. 1. 34). The diminutive <i>glossula</i> occurs in +Diom. 426. 26 and elsewhere. The same meaning has <i>glossarium</i> +(Gell. xviii. 7. 3 <i>glosaria</i> = <span class="grk" title="glôssarion">γλωσσάριον</span>), which also occurs in the +modern sense of “glossary” (Papias, “unde <i>glossarium</i> dictum +quod omnium fere partium glossas contineat”), as do the words +<i>glossa</i>, <i>glossae</i>, <i>glossulae</i>, <i>glossemata</i> (Steinmeyer, <i>Alth. Gloss.</i> iv. +408, 410), expressed in later times by <i>dictionarium</i>, <i>dictionarius</i>, +<i>vocabularium</i>, <i>vocabularius</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dictionary</a></span>). <i>Glossa</i> and +<i>glossema</i> (Varro vii. 34. 107; Asinius Gallus, ap. Suet. <i>De gramm.</i> +22; Fest. 166<span class="sp">b</span>. 8, 181<span class="sp">a</span>. 18; Quint. i. 8. 15, &c.) are synonyms, +signifying (<i>a</i>) the word which requires explanation; or (<i>b</i>) +such a word (called <i>lemma</i>) together with the interpretation +(<i>interpretamentum</i>); or (<i>c</i>) the interpretation alone (so first +in the <i>Anecd. Helv.</i>).</p> + +<p>Latin, like Greek glossography, had its origin chiefly in the +practical wants of students and teachers, of whose names we +only know a few. No doubt even in classical times collections +of glosses (“glossaries”) were compiled, to which allusion seems +to be made by Varro (<i>De ling. Lat.</i> vii. 10, “tesca, aiunt sancta esse +qui glossas scripserunt”) and Verrius-Festus (166<span class="sp">b</span> .6, “naucum +... glossematorum ... scriptures fabae grani quod haereat in +fabulo”), but it is not known to what extent Varro, for instance, +used them, or retained their original forms. The <i>scriptores +glossematorum</i> were distinguished from the learned glossographers +like Aurelius Opilius (cf. his <i>Musae</i>, ap. Suet. <i>De gramm.</i> 6; +Gell. i. 25. 17; Varro vii. 50, 65, 67, 70, 79, 106), Servius Clodius +(Varro vii. 70. 106), Aelius Stilo, L. Ateius Philol., whose <i>liber +glossematorum</i> Festus mentions (181<span class="sp">a</span>. 18).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Verrius Flaccus and his epitomists, Festus and Paulus, have +preserved many treasures of early glossographers who are now lost to +us. He copied Aelius Stilo (Reitzenstein, “Verr. Forsch.,” in vol. i. +of <i>Breslauer philol. Abhandl.</i>, p. 88; Kriegshammer, <i>Comm. phil. +Ien.</i> vii. 1. 74 sqq.), Aurelius Opilius, Ateius Philol., the treatise +<i>De obscuris Catonis</i> (Reitzenstein, <i>ib.</i> 56. 92). He often made use of +Varro (Willers, <i>De Verrio Flacco</i>, Halle, 1898), though not of his +<i>ling. lat.</i> (Kriegshammer, 74 sqq.); and was also acquainted with +later glossographers. Perhaps we owe to him the <i>glossae asbestos</i> +(Goetz, <i>Corpus</i>, iv.; <i>id., Rhein. Mus.</i> xl. 328). Festus was used by +Ps.-Philoxenus (Dammann, “De Festo Ps.-Philoxeni auctore,” +<i>Comm. Ien.</i> v. 26 sqq.), as appears from the <i>glossae ab absens</i> (Goetz, +“De Astrabae Pl. fragmentis,” <i>Ind. Ien.</i>, 1893, iii. sqq.). The +distinct connexions with Nonius need not be ascribed to borrowing, +as Plinius and Caper may have been used (P. Schmidt, <i>De Non. Marc. +auctt. gramm.</i> 145; Nettleship, <i>Lect. and Ess. 229</i>; Fröhde, <i>De Non. +Marc. et Verrio Flacco</i>, 2; W. M. Lindsay, “Non. Marc.,” <i>Dict. of +Repub. Latin</i>, 100, &c.).</p> + +<p>The <i>bilingual</i> (Gr.-Lat., Lat.-Gr.) glossaries also point to an early +period, and were used by the grammarians (1) to explain the peculiarities +(<i>idiomata</i>) of the Latin language by comparison with the +Greek, and (2) for instruction in the two languages (Charis. 254. +9, 291. 7, 292. 16 sqq.; Marschall, <i>De Q. Remmii P. libris gramm. 22</i>; +Goetz, <i>Corp. gloss. lat.</i> ii. 6).</p> + +<p>For the purposes of grammatical instruction (Greek for the Romans, +Latin for the Hellenistic world), we have systematic works, a translation +of Dositheus and the so-called <i>Hermeneutica</i>, parts of which +may be dated as early as the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, and lexica (cf. +Schoenemann, <i>De lexicis ant.</i> 122; Knaack, in <i>Phil. Rundsch.</i>, 1884, +372; Traube, in <i>Byzant. Ztschr.</i> iii. 605; David, <i>Comment. Ien.</i> v. +197 sqq.).</p> + +<p>The most important remains of bilingual glossaries are two well-known +lexica; one (Latin-Greek), formerly attributed (but wrongly, +see Rudorff, in <i>Abh.. Akad. Berl.</i>, 1865, 220 sq.; Loewe, <i>Prodr.</i> 183, +190; Mommsen, <i>C.I.L.</i> v. 8120; A. Dammann, <i>De Festo Pseudo-philoxeni +auctore</i>, 12 sqq.; Goetz, Corp. ii. 1-212) to Philoxenus +(consul <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 525), clearly consists of two closely allied glossaries +(containing glosses to Latin authors, as Horace, Cicero, Juvenal, +Virgil, the Jurists, and excerpts from Festus), worked into one by +some Greek grammarian, or a person who worked under Greek +influence (his alphabet runs A, B, G, D, E, &c.); the other (Greek-Latin) +is ascribed to Cyril (Stephanus says it was found at the end +of some of his writings), and is considered to be a compilation of +not later than the 6th century (Macrobius is used, and the <i>Cod. +Harl.</i>, which is the source of all the other MSS., belongs to the 7th +century); cf. Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> ii. 215-483, 487-506, praef. <i>ibid.</i> p. +xx. sqq. Furthermore, the bilingual medico-botanic glossaries had +their origin in old lists of plants, as Ps.-Apuleius in the treatise +<i>De herbarum virtutibus</i>, and Ps.-Dioscorides (cf. M. Wellmann, +<i>Hermes</i>, xxxiii. 360 sqq., who thinks that the latter work is based on +Pamphilus, <i>q.v.</i>; Goetz, Corp. iii.); the glossary, entitled <i>Hermeneuma</i>, +printed from the <i>Cod. Vatic.</i> reg. Christ. 1260, contains names +of diseases.</p> + +<p>Just as grammar developed, so we see the original form of the +glosses extend. If <i>massucum edacem</i> in Placidus indicates the +original form, the allied gloss of Festus (<i>masucium edacem a mandendo +scilicet</i>) shows an etymological addition. Another extension +consists in adding special references to the original source, as <i>e.g.</i> +at the gloss <i>Ocrem</i> (Fest. 181<span class="sp">a</span>. 17), which is taken from Ateius +Philol. In this way collections arose like the <i>priscorum verborum +cum exemplis</i>, a title given by Fest. (218<span class="sp">b</span>. 10) to a particular work. +Further the <i>glossae veterum</i> (Charis. 242. 10); the <i>glossae antiquitatum</i> +(<i>id.</i> 229. 30); the <i>idonei vocum antiquarum enarratores</i> (Gell. xviii. +6. 8); the <i>libri rerum verborumque veterum</i> (<i>id.</i> xiii. 24. 25). L. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126"></a>126</span> +Cincius, according to Festus (330<span class="sp">b</span>. 2), wrote <i>De verbis priscis</i>; Santra, +<i>De antiquitate verborum</i> (Festus 277<span class="sp">a</span>. 2).</p> + +<p>Of Latin glossaries of the first four centuries of the Roman emperors +few traces are left, if we except Verrius-Festus. Charis, 229. 30, +speaks of <i>glossae antiquitatum</i> and 242. 10 of <i>glossae veterum</i>, but it +is not known whether these glosses are identic, or in what relation +they stand to the <i>glossemata per litteras Latinas ordine composita</i>, +which were incorporated with the works of this grammarian according +to the index in Keil, p. 6. Latin glosses occur in Ps.-Philoxenus, +and Nonius must have used Latin glossaries; there exists a <i>glossarium +Plautinum</i> (Ritschl, <i>Op.</i> ii. 234 sqq.), and the bilingual +glossaries have been used by the later grammarian Martyrius; but +of this early period we know by name only Fulgentius and Placidus, +who is sometimes called Luctatius Placidus, by confusion with +the Statius scholiast, with whom the <i>glossae Placidi</i> have no connexion. +All that we know of him tends to show that he lived in +North Africa (like Fulgentius and Nonius and perhaps Charisius) +in the 6th century, from whence his glosses came to Spain, and were +used by Isidore and the compiler of the <i>Liber glossarum</i> (see below). +These glosses we know from (1) Codices Romani (15th and 16th +century); (2) the <i>Liber glossarum</i>; (3) the Cod. Paris. nov. acquis. +1298 (saec. xi.), a collection of glossaries, in which the Placidus-glosses +are kept separate from the others, and still retain traces of +their original order (cf. the editions published by A. Mai, <i>Class. +auct.</i> iii. 427-503, and Deuerling, 1875; Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> v.; P. Karl, +“De Placidi glossis,” <i>Comm. Ien.</i> vii. 2. 99, 103 sqq.; Loewe, +<i>Gloss. Nom.</i> 86; F. Bücheler, in <i>Thesaur. gloss. emend.</i>). His +collection includes glosses from Plautus and Lucilius.</p> + +<p>(Fabius Planciades) Fulgentius (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 468-533) wrote <i>Expositio +sermonum antiquorum</i> (ed. Rud. Helm, Lips. 1898; cf. Wessner, <i>Comment. +Ien.</i> vi. 2. 135 sqq.) in sixty-two paragraphs, each containing a +lemma (sometimes two or three) with an explanation giving quotations +and names of authors. Next to him come the <i>glossae Nonianae</i>, which +arose from the contents of the various paragraphs in Nonius Marcellus’ +work being written in the margin without the words of the +text; these epitomized glosses were alphabetized and afterwards +copied for other collections (see Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> v. 637 sqq., <i>id.</i> v. +Praef. xxxv.; Onions and Lindsay, <i>Harvard Stud.</i> ix. 67 sqq.; +Lindsay, <i>Nonii praef.</i> xxi.). In a similar way arose the <i>glossae +Eucherii</i> or <i>glossae spiritales secundum Eucherium episcopum</i> found +in many MSS. (cf. K. Wotke, <i>Sitz. Ber. Akad. Wien</i>, cxv. 425 sqq.; += the <i>Corpus Glossary</i>, first part), which are an alphabetical extract +from the <i>formulae spiritalis intelligentiae</i> of St Eucherius, bishop of +Lyons, <i>c.</i> 434-450.<a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p> + +<p>Other sources were the <i>Differentiae</i>, already known to Placidus and +much used in the medieval glossaries; and the <i>Synonyma Ciceronis</i>; +cf. Goetz, “Der Liber glossarum,” in <i>Abhandl. der philol.-hist. Cl. +der sächs. Gesellsch. d. Wiss.</i>, 1893, p. 215; <i>id.</i> in <i>Berl. philol. +Wochenschr.</i>, 1890, p. 195 sqq.; Beck, in <i>Wochenschr.</i>, p. 297 sqq., +and Sittls, <i>ibid.</i> p. 267; <i>Archiv f. lat. Lex.</i> vi. 594; W. L. Mahne, +(Leid. 1850, 1851); also various collections of <i>scholia</i>. By the side +of the scholiasts come the grammarians, as Charisius, or an ars similar +to that ascribed to him; further, treatises <i>de dubiis generibus</i>, the +<i>scriptores orthographici</i> (especially Caper and Beda), and Priscianus, +the chief grammarian of the middle ages (cf. Goetz in <i>Mélanges +Boissier</i>, 224).</p> + +<p>During the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries glossography developed in +various ways; old glossaries were worked up into new forms, or +amalgamated with more recent ones. It ceased, moreover, to be +exclusively Latin-Latin, and interpretations in Germanic (Old High +German, Anglo-Saxon) and Romanic dialects took the place of or +were used side by side with earlier Latin ones. The origin and +development of the late classic and medieval glossaries preserved +to us can be traced with certainty. While reading the manuscript +texts of classical authors, the Bible or early Christian and profane +writers, students and teachers, on meeting with any obscure or out-of-the-way +words which they considered difficult to remember or to +require elucidation, wrote above them, or in the margins, interpretations +or explanations in more easy or better-known words. The +interpretations written above the line are called “interlinear,” +those written in the margins of the MSS. “marginal glosses.” +Again, MSS. of the Bible or portions of the Bible were often provided +with literal translations in the vernacular written above the lines of +the Latin version (interlinear versions).</p> + +<p>Of such glossed MSS. or translated texts, photographs may be +seen in the various palaeographical works published in recent years; +cf. <i>The Palaeogr. Society</i>, 1st ser. vol. ii. pls. 9 (Terentius MS. of +4th or 5th century, interlinear glosses) and 24 (Augustine’s epistles, +6th or 7th century, marginal glosses); see further, plates 10, 12, +33, 40, 50-54, 57, 58, 63, 73, 75, 80; vol. iii. plates 10, 24, 31, 39, +44, 54, 80.</p> + +<p>From these glossed or annotated MSS. and interlinear versions +glossaries were compiled; that is, the obscure and difficult Latin +words, together with the interpretations, were excerpted and +collected in separate lists, in the order in which they appeared, one +after the other, in the MSS., without any alphabetical arrangement, +but with the names of the authors or the titles of the books whence +they were taken, placed at the head of each separate collection or +chapter. In this arrangement each article by itself is called a gloss; +when reference is made only to the word explained it is called the +<i>lemma</i>, while the explanation is termed the <i>interpretamentum</i>. +In most cases the form of the lemma was retained just as it stood +in its source, and explained by a single word (<i>tesca</i>: <i>sancta</i>, +Varro vii. 10; <i>clucidatus: suavis, id.</i> vii. 107; cf. Isid. <i>Etym.</i> i. +30. 1, “quid enim illud sit in uno verbo positum declarat [<i>scil.</i> +glossa] ut conticescere est tacere”), so that we meet with lemmata +in the accusative, dative and genitive, likewise explained by words +in the same cases; the forms of verbs being treated in the same way. +Of this first stage in the making of glossaries, many traces are +preserved, for instance, in the late 8th century Leiden Glossary +(Voss. 69, ed. J. H. Hessels), where chapter iii. contains words or +glosses excerpted from the <i>Life of St Martin</i> by Sulpicius Severus; +chs. iv., v. and xxxv. glosses from Rufinus; chs. vi. and xl. from +Gildas; chs. vii. to xxv. from books of the Bible (Paralipomenon; +Proverbs, &c., &c.); chs. xxvi. to xlviii, from Isidore, the Vita S. +<i>Anthonii</i>, Cassiodorus, St Jerome, Cassianus, Orosius, St Augustine, +St Clement, Eucherius, St Gregory, the grammarians Donatus, +Phocas, &c. (See also Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> v. 546. 23-547. 6. and i. 5-40 +from Ovid’s <i>Metam.</i>; v. 657 from Apuleius, <i>De deo Socratis</i>; cf. +Landgraf, in <i>Arch.</i> ix. 174).</p> + +<p>By a second operation the glosses came to be arranged in <i>alphabetical</i> +order according to the first letter of the lemma, but still retained +in separate chapters under the names of authors or the titles +of books. Of this <i>second</i> stage the Leiden Glossary contains traces +also: ch. i. (<i>Verba de Canonibus</i>) and ii. (<i>Sermones de Regulis</i>); see +Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> v. 529 sqq. (from Terentius), iv. 427 sqq. (Virgil).</p> + +<p>The third operation collected all the accessible glosses in alphabetical +order, in the first instance according to the first letters of the +lemmata. In this arrangement the names of the authors or the titles +of the books could no longer be preserved, and consequently the +sources whence the glosses were excerpted became uncertain, +especially if the grammatical forms of the lemmata had been +normalized.</p> + +<p>A fourth arrangement collected the glosses according to the first +two letters of the lemmata, as in the Corpus Glossary and in the still +earlier <i>Cod. Vat.</i> 3321 (Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> iv. 1 sqq.), where even many +attempts were made to arrange them according to the first three +letters of the alphabet. A peculiar arrangement is seen in the +<i>Glossae affatim</i> (Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> iv. 471 sqq.), where all words are +alphabetized, first according to the initial letter of the word (a, b, c, +&c.), and then further according to the first <i>vowel</i> in the word +(a, e, i, o, u).</p> + +<p>No date or period can be assigned to any of the above stages or +arrangements. For instance, the first and second are both found in +the Leiden Glossary, which dates from the end of the 8th century, +whereas the Corpus Glossary, written in the beginning of the same +century, represents already the fourth stage.</p> + +<p>For the purpose of identification titles have of late years been +given to the various nameless collections of glosses, derived partly +from their first lemma, partly from other characteristics, as glossae +<i>abstrusae</i>; glossae <i>abavus major</i> and <i>minor</i>; g. <i>affatim</i>; g. <i>ab absens</i>; +g. <i>abactor</i>; g. <i>Abba Pater</i>; g. <i>a, a</i>; g. <i>Vergilianae</i>; g. <i>nominum</i> +(Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> ii. 563, iv.); g. Sangallenses (Warren, <i>Transact</i>. +<i>Amer. Philol. Assoc.</i> xv., 1885, p. 141 sqq.).</p> + +<p>A chief landmark in glossography is represented by the <i>Origines</i> +(<i>Etymologiae</i>) of Isidore (d. 636), an encyclopedia in which he, like +Cassiodorus, mixed human and divine subjects together. In many +places we can trace his sources, but he also used glossaries. His work +became a great mine for later glossographers. In the tenth book he +deals with the etymology of many substantives and adjectives +arranged alphabetically according to the first letter of the words, +perhaps by himself from various sources. His principal source +is Servius, then the fathers of the Church (Augustine, Jerome, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>127</span> +Lactantius) and Donatus the grammarian. This tenth book was +also copied and used separately, and mixed up with other works +(cf. Loewe, <i>Prodr.</i> 167. 21). Isidore’s <i>Differentiae</i> have also had a +great reputation.</p> + +<p>Next comes the <i>Liber glossarum</i>, chiefly compiled from Isidore, +but all articles arranged alphabetically; its author lived in Spain +c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 690-750; he has been called Ansileubus, but not in any of +the MSS., some of which belong to the 8th century; hence this name +is suspected to be merely that of some owner of a copy of the book +(cf. Goetz, “Der Liber Glossarum,” in <i>Abhandl. der philol.-hist. +Class, der kön. sächs. Ges.</i> xiii., 1893; <i>id., Corp.</i> v., praef. xx. 161).</p> + +<p>Here come, in regard to time, some Latin glossaries already largely +mixed with Germanic, more especially Anglo-Saxon interpretations: +(1) the Corpus Glossary (ed. J. H. Hessels), written in the beginning +of the 8th century, preserved in the library of Corpus Christi College, +Cambridge; (2) the Leiden Glossary (end of 8th century, ed. Hessels; +another edition by Plac. Glogger), preserved in the Leiden MS. Voss. +Q<span class="sp">o</span>. 69; (3) the Épinal Glossary, written in the beginning of the 9th +century<a name="fa8a" id="fa8a" href="#ft8a"><span class="sp">8</span></a> and published in facsimile by the London Philol. Society +from a MS. in the town library at Épinal; (4) the <i>Glossae Amplonianae</i>, +<i>i.e.</i> three glossaries preserved in the Amplonian library at +Erfurt, known as Erfurt<span class="sp">1</span>, Erfurt<span class="sp">2</span> and Erfurt<span class="sp">3</span>. The first, published +by Goetz (<i>Corp.</i> v. 337-401; cf. also Loewe, <i>Prodr.</i> 114 sqq.) with +the various readings of the kindred Épinal, consists, like the latter, +of different collections of glosses (also some from Aldhelm), some +arranged alphabetically according to the first letter of the lemma, +others according to the first two letters. The title of Erfurt<span class="sp">2</span> (<i>incipit +II. conscriptio glosarum in unam</i>) shows that it is also a combination +of various glossaries; it is arranged alphabetically according to the +first two letters of the lemmata, and contains the <i>affatim</i> and <i>abavus +maior</i> glosses, also a collection from Aldhelm; Erfurt<span class="sp">3</span> are the +<i>Glossae nominum</i>, mixed also with Anglo-Saxon interpretations +(Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> ii. 563). The form in which the three Erfurt glossaries +have come down to us points back to the 8th century.</p> + +<p>The first great glossary or collection of various glosses and glossaries +is that of Salomon, bishop of Constance, formerly abbot of St Gall, +who died <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 919. An edition of it in two parts was printed <i>c.</i> 1475 +at Augsburg, with the headline <i>Salemonis ecclesie Constantiensis +episcopi glosse ex illustrissimis collecte auctoribus</i>. The oldest MSS. +of this work date from the 11th century. Its sources are the <i>Liber +glossarum</i> (Loewe, Prodr. 234 sqq.), the glossary preserved in the +9th-century MS. <i>Lat. Monac.</i> 14429 (Goetz, “Lib. Gloss.” 35 sqq.), +and the great Abavus Gloss (<i>id., ibid.</i> p. 37; <i>id., Corp.</i> iv. praef. +xxxvii.).</p> + +<p>The <i>Lib. glossarum</i> has also been the chief source for the important +(but not original) glossary of Papias, of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1053 (cf. Goetz in <i>Sitz. +Ber. Akad. Münch.</i>, 1903, p. 267 sqq., who enumerates eighty-seven +MSS. of the 12th to the 15th centuries), of whom we only know that he +lived among clerics and dedicated his work to his two sons. An +edition of it was published at Milan “per Dominicum de Vespolate” +on the 12th of December 1476; other editions followed in 1485, +1491, 1496 (at Venice). He also wrote a grammar, chiefly compiled +from Priscianus (Hagen, <i>Anecd. Helv.</i> clxxix. sqq.).</p> + +<p>The same <i>Lib. gloss.</i> is the source (1) for the <i>Abba Pater</i> Glossary +(cf. Goetz, <i>ibid.</i> p. 39), published by G. M. Thomas (<i>Sitz. Ber. Akad. +Münch.</i>, 1868, ii. 369 sqq.); (2) the Greek glossary <i>Absida lucida</i> +(Goetz, <i>ib.</i> p. 41); and (3) the Lat.-Arab. glossary in the <i>Cod. Leid. +Scal. Orient.</i> No. 231 (published by Seybold in <i>Semit. Studien</i>, Heft +xv.-xvii., Berlin, 1900).</p> + +<p>The Paulus-Glossary (cf. Goetz, “Der Liber Glossarum,” p. 215) is +compiled from the second Salomon-Glossary (<i>abacti magistratus</i>), +the <i>Abavus major</i> and the <i>Liber glossarum</i>, with a mixture of +Hebraica. Many of his glosses appear again in other compilations, +as in the Cod. Vatic. 1469 (cf. Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> v. 520 sqq.), mixed up +with glosses from Beda, Placidus, &c. (cf. a glossary published by +Ellis in <i>Amer. Journ. of Philol.</i> vi. 4, vii. 3, containing besides +Paulus glosses, also excerpts from Isidore; Cambridge <i>Journ. of +Philol.</i> viii. 71 sqq., xiv. 81 sqq.).</p> + +<p>Osbern of Gloucester (<i>c.</i> 1123-1200) compiled the glossary entitled +<i>Panormia</i> (published by Angelo Mai as <i>Thesaurus novus Latinitatis</i>, +from Cod. Vatic. reg. Christ. 1392; cf. W. Meyer, <i>Rhein. Mus.</i> +xxix., 1874; Goetz in <i>Sitzungsber. sächs. Ges. d. Wiss.</i>, 1903, p. 133 +sqq.; <i>Berichte üb. die Verhandl. der kön. sächs. Gesellsch. der Wiss.</i>, +Leipzig, 1902); giving derivations, etymologies, testimonia collected +from Paulus, Priscianus, Plautus, Horace, Virgil, Ovid, Mart. +Capella, Macrobius, Ambrose, Sidonius, Prudentius, Josephus, +Jerome, &c., &c. Osbern’s material was also used by Hugucio, +whose compendium was still more extensively used (cf. Goetz, l.c., +p. 121 sqq., who enumerates one hundred and three MSS. of his +treatise), and contains many biblical glosses, especially Hebraica, +some treatises on Latin numerals, &c. (cf. Hamann, <i>Weitere Mitteil. +aus dem Breviloquus Benthemianus</i>, Hamburg, 1882; A. Thomas, +“Glosses provençales inéd.” in <i>Romania</i>, xxxiv. p. 177 sqq; P. +Toynbee, <i>ibid.</i> xxv. p. 537 sqq.).</p> + +<p>The great work of Johannes de Janua, entitled <i>Summa quae +vocatur catholicon</i>, dates from the year 1286, and treats of (1) accent, +(2) etymology, (3) syntax, and (4) so-called prosody, <i>i.e.</i> a lexicon, +which also deals with quantity. It mostly uses Hugucio and Papias; +its classical quotations are limited, except from Horace; it quotes the +Vulgate by preference, frequently independently from Hugucio; +it excerpts Priscianus, Donatus, Isidore, the fathers of the Church, +especially Jerome, Gregory, Augustine, Ambrose; it borrows +many Hebrew glosses, mostly from Jerome and the other collections +then in use; it mentions the <i>Graecismus</i> of Eberhardus Bethuniensis, +the works of Hrabanus Maurus, the <i>Doctrinale</i> of Alexander de Villa +Dei, and the <i>Aurora</i> of Petrus de Riga. Many quotations from the +<i>Catholicon</i> in Du Cange are really from Hugucio, and may be traced +to Osbern. There exist many MSS. of this work, and the Mainz +edition of 1460 is well known (cf. Goetz in <i>Berichte üb. die Verhandl. +der kön. sächs. Gesellsch. der Wiss.</i>, Leipzig, 1902).</p> + +<p>The gloss MSS. of the 9th and 10th centuries are numerous, but a +diminution becomes visible towards the 11th. We then find grammatical +treatises arise, for which also glossaries were used. The chief +material was (1) the <i>Liber glossarum</i>; (2) the Paulus glosses; (3) +the <i>Abavus major</i>; (4) excerpts from Priscian and glosses to Priscian; +(5) Hebrew-biblical collections of proper names (chiefly from Jerome). +After these comes medieval material, as the <i>derivationes</i> which are +found in many MSS. (cf. Goetz in <i>Sitzungsber. sächs. Ges. d. Wiss.</i>, +1903, p. 136 sqq.; Traube in <i>Archiv f. lat. Lex.</i> vi. 264), containing +quotations from Plautus, Ovid, Juvenal, Persius, Terence, occasionally +from Priscian, Eutyches, and other grammarians, with etymological +explanations. These <i>derivationes</i> were the basis for the +grammatical works of Osbern, Hugucio and Joannes of Janua.</p> + +<p>A peculiar feature of the late middle ages are the medico-botanic +glossaries based on the earlier ones (see Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> iii.). The +additions consisted in Arabic words with Latin explanations, while +Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Arabic, interchange with English, French, +Italian and German forms. Of glossaries of this kind we have (1) +the <i>Glossae alphita</i> (published by S. de Renzi in the 3rd vol. of the +<i>Collect. Salernitana</i>, Naples, 1854, from two Paris MSS. of the 14th +and 15th centuries, but some of the glosses occur already in earlier +MSS.); (2) <i>Sinonoma Bartholomei</i>, collected by John Mirfeld, +towards the end of the 14th century, ed. J. L. G. Mowat (<i>Anecd. +Oxon.</i> i. 1, 1882, cf. Loewe, <i>Gloss. Nom.</i> 116 sqq.); it seems to have +used the same or some similar source as No. 1; (3) the compilations +of Simon de Janua (<i>Clavis sanationis</i>, end of 13th century), and of +Matthaeus Silvaticus (<i>Pandectae medicinae</i>, 14th century; cf. +H. Stadler, “Dioscor. Longob.” in <i>Roman. Forsch.</i> x. 3. 371; +Steinmeyer, <i>Althochd. Gloss.</i> iii.).</p> + +<p>Of biblical glossaries we have a large number, mostly mixed with +glosses on other, even profane, subjects, as Hebrew and other +biblical proper names, and explanations of the text of the Vulgate +in general, and the prologues of Hieronymus. So we have the +<i>Glossae veteris ac novi testamenti</i> (beginning “Prologus graece latine +praelocutio sive praefatio”) in numerous MSS. of the 9th to 14th +centuries, mostly retaining the various books under separate headings +(cf. Arevalo, <i>Isid.</i> vii. 407 sqq.; Loewe, <i>Prodr.</i> 141; Steinmeyer +iv. 459; S. Berger, <i>De compendiis exegeticis quibusdam medii aevi</i>, +Paris, 1879). Special mention should be made of Guil. Brito, who +lived about 1250, and compiled a <i>Summa</i> (beginning “difficiles studeo +partes quas Biblia gestat Pandere”), contained in many MSS. especially +in French libraries. This <i>Summa</i> gave rise to the <i>Mammotrectus</i> +of Joh. Marchesinus, about 1300, of which we have editions printed +in 1470, 1476, 1479, &c.</p> + +<p>Finally we may mention such compilations as the <i>Summa Heinrici</i>; +the work of Johannes de Garlandia, which he himself calls <i>dictionarius</i> +(cf. Scheler in <i>Jahrb. f. rom. u. engl. Philol.</i> vi., 1865, p. 142 sqq.); +and that of Alexander Neckam (<i>ib.</i> vii. p. 60 sqq., cf. R. Ellis, in +<i>Amer. Journ. of Phil.</i> x. 2); which are, strictly speaking, not glossographic. +The <i>Breviloquus</i> drew its chief material from Papias, +Hugucio, Brito, &c. (K. Hamann, <i>Mitteil. aus dem Breviloquus +Benthemianus</i>, Hamburg, 1879; <i>id.</i>, <i>Weitere Mitteil.</i>, &c., Hamburg, +1882); so also the <i>Vocabularium Ex quo</i>; the various <i>Gemmae</i>; +<i>Vocabularia rerum</i> (cf. Diefenbach, <i>Glossar. Latino-Germanicum</i>).</p> + +<p>After the revival of learning, J. Scaliger (1540-1609) was the first +to impart to glossaries that importance which they deserve (cf. +Goetz, in <i>Sitzungsber. sächs. Ger. d. Wiss.</i>, 1888, p. 219 sqq.), and in +his edition of Festus made great use of Ps.-Philoxenus, which enabled +O. Müller, the later editor of Festus, to follow in his footsteps. +Scaliger also planned the publication of a <i>Corpus glossarum</i>, and left +behind a collection of glosses known as <i>glossae Isidori</i> (Goetz, <i>Corp.</i> +v. p. 589 sqq.; id. in <i>Sitzungsber. sächs. Ges.</i>, 1888, p. 224 sqq.; Loewe, +<i>Prodr.</i> 23 sqq.), which occurs also in old glossaries, clearly in reference +to the tenth book of the <i>Etymologiae</i>.</p> + +<p>The study of glosses spread through the publication, in 1573, +of the bilingual glossaries by H. Stephanus (Estienne), containing, +besides the two great glossaries, also the <i>Hermeneumata Stephani</i>, +which is a recension of the <i>Ps.-Dositheana</i> (republished Goetz, +<i>Corp.</i> iii. 438-474), and the <i>glossae Stephani</i>, excerpted from a +collection of the <i>Hermeneumata</i> (<i>ib.</i> iii. 438-474).</p> + +<p>In 1600 Bonav. Vulcanius republished the same glossaries, adding +(1) the glossae <i>Isidori</i>, which now appeared for the first time; (2) +the <i>Onomasticon</i>; (3) <i>notae</i> and <i>castigationes</i>, derived from Scaliger +(Loewe, <i>Prodr.</i> 183).</p> + +<p>In 1606 Carolus and Petrus Labbaeus published, with the effective +help of Scaliger, another collection of glossaries, republished, in 1679, +by Du Cange, after which the 17th and 18th centuries produced no +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>128</span> +further glossaries (Erasm. Nyerup published extracts from the +Leiden Glossary, Voss. 69, in 1787, <i>Symbolae ad Literat. Teut.</i>), +though glosses were constantly used or referred to by Salmasius, +Meursius, Heraldus, Barth, Fabricius and Burman at Leiden, where +a rich collection of glossaries had been obtained by the acquisition +of the Vossius library (cf. Loewe, <i>Prodr.</i> 168). In the 19th century +came Osann’s <i>Glossarii Latini specimen</i> (1826); the glossographic +publications of Angelo Mai (<i>Classici auctores</i>, vols. iii., vi., vii., viii., +Rome, 1831-1836, containing Osbern’s <i>Panormia</i>, Placidus and +various glosses from Vatican MSS.); Fr. Oehler’s treatise (1847) +on the <i>Cod. Amplonianus</i> of Osbern, and his edition of the three +Erfurt glossaries, so important for Anglo-Saxon philology; in 1854 +G. F. Hildebrand’s <i>Glossarium Latinum</i> (an extract from <i>Abavus +minor</i>), preserved in a Cod. Paris. lat. 7690; 1857, Thomas Wright’s +vol. of Anglo-Saxon glosses, which were republished with others in +1884 by R. Paul Wülcker under the title <i>Anglo-Saxon and Old English +Vocabularies</i> (London, 2 vols., 1857); L. Diefenbach’s supplement +to Du Cange, entitled <i>Glossarium Latino-Germanicum mediae et +infimae aetatis</i>, containing mostly glosses collected from glossaries, +vocabularies, &c., enumerated in the preface; Ritschl’s treatise +(1870) on Placidus, which called forth an edition (1875) of Placidus +by Deuerling; G. Loewe’s <i>Prodromus</i> (1876), and other treatises +by him, published after his death by G. Goetz (Leipzig, 1884); +1888, the second volume of Goetz’s own great <i>Corpus glossariorum +Latinorum</i>, of which seven volumes (except the first) had seen the +light by 1907, the last two being separately entitled <i>Thesaurus +glossarum emendatarum</i>, containing many emendations and corrections +of earlier glossaries by the author and other scholars; 1900, +Arthur S. Napier, <i>Old English Glosses</i> (Oxford), collected chiefly from +Aldhelm MSS., but also from Augustine, Avianus, Beda, Boethius, +Gregory, Isidore, Juvencus, Phocas, Prudentius, &c.</p> + +<p>There are a very great number of glossaries still in MS. scattered in +various libraries of Europe, especially in the Vatican, at Monte Cassino, +Paris, Munich, Bern, the British Museum, Leiden, Oxford, Cambridge, +&c. Much has already been done to make the material contained in +these MSS. accessible in print, and much may yet be done with what +is still unpublished, though we may find that the differences between +the glossaries which often present themselves at first sight are mere +differences in form introduced by successive more or less qualified +copyists.</p> + +<p>Some Celtic (Breton, Cornish, Welsh, Irish) glossaries have been +preserved to us, the particulars of which may be learnt from the +publications of Whitley Stokes, Sir John Rhys, Kuno Meyer, L. C. +Stern, G. I. Ascoli, Heinr. Zimmer, Ernst Windisch, Nigra, and many +others; these are published separately as books or in Zeuss’s <i>Grammatica +Celtica</i>, A. Kühn’s <i>Beiträge zur vergleich. Sprachforschung, +Zeitschr. für celtische Philologie, Archiv für Celtische Lexicographie, +the Revue celtique, Transactions of the London Philological Society</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>The first Hebrew author known to have used glosses was R. +Gershom of Metz (1000) in his commentaries on the Talmud. But +he and other Hebrew writers after him mostly used the Old French +language (though sometimes also Italian, Slavonic, German) of which +an example has been published by Lambert and Brandin, in their +<i>Glossaire hébreu-français du XIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle: recueil de mots hébreux +bibliques avec traduction française</i> (Paris, 1905). See further <i>The +Jewish Encyclopedia</i> (New York and London, 1903), article “Gloss.”</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—For a great part of what has been said above, the +writer is indebted to G. Goetz’s article on “Latein. Glossographie” +in Pauly’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>. By the side of Goetz’s <i>Corpus</i> stands +the great collection of Steinmeyer and Sievers, <i>Die althochdeutschen +Glossen</i> (in 4 vols., 1879-1898), containing a vast number of (also +Anglo-Saxon) glosses culled from Bible MSS. and MSS. of classical +Christian authors, enumerated and described in the 4th vol. Besides +the works of the editors of, or writers on, glosses, already mentioned, +we refer here to a few others, whose writings may be consulted: +Hugo Blümner; <i>Catholicon Anglicum</i> (ed. Hertage); De-Vit (at +end of Forcellini’s <i>Lexicon</i>); F. Deycks; Du Cange; Funck; +J. H. Gallée (<i>Altsächs. Sprachdenkm.</i>, 1894); Gröber; K. Gruber +(<i>Hauptquellen des Corpus, Épin. u. Erfurt Gloss.</i>, Erlangen, 1904); +Hattemer; W. Heraeus (<i>Die Sprache des Petronius und die Glossen</i>, +Leipzig, 1899); Kettner; Kluge; Krumbacher; Lagarde; Landgraf; +Marx; W. Meyer-Lubke (“Zu den latein. Glossen” in +<i>Wiener Stud.</i> xxv. 90 sqq.); Henry Nettleship; Niedermann, +<i>Notes d’étymol. lat.</i> (Macon, 1902), <i>Contribut. à la critique des glosses +latines</i> (Neuchâtel, 1905); Pokrowskij; Quicherat; Otto B. +Schlutter (many important articles in <i>Anglia, Englische Studien, +Archiv f. latein. Lexicographie</i>, &c.); Schöll; Schuchardt; Leo +Sommer; Stadler; Stowasser; Strachan; H. Sweet; Usener +(<i>Rhein. Mus.</i> xxiii. 496, xxiv. 382); A. Way, <i>Promptorium parvulorum +sive clericorum</i> (3 vols., London, 1843-1865); Weyman; Wilmanns (in +<i>Rhein. Mus.</i> xxiv. 363); Wölfflin in <i>Arch. für lat. Lexicogr.</i>; Zupitza. +Cf. further, the various volumes of the following periodicals: +<i>Romania</i>; <i>Zeitschr. für deutsches Alterthum</i>; <i>Anglia</i>; <i>Englische +Studien</i>; <i>Journal of English and German Philology</i> (ed. Cook and +Karsten); <i>Archiv für latein. Lexicogr.</i>, and others treating of philology, +lexicography, grammar, &c.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. H.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The history of the literary gloss in its proper sense has given +rise to the common English use of the word to mean an interpretation, +especially in a disingenuous, sinister or false way; the form “gloze,” +more particularly associated with explaining away, palliating or +talking speciously, is simply an alternative spelling. The word has +thus to some extent influenced, or been influenced by, the meaning +of the etymologically different “gloss” = lustrous surface (from the +same root as “glass”; cf. “glow”), in its extended sense of “outward +fair seeming.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Matthaei, <i>Glossaria Graeca</i> (Moscow, 1774/5).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See Labbé, <i>Veteres glossae verborum juris quae passim in Basilicis +reperiuntur</i> (1606); Otto, <i>Thesaurus juris Romani</i>, iii. (1697); +Stephens, <i>Thesaurus linguae Graecae</i>, viii. (1825).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See Biener, <i>Geschichte der Novellen</i>, p. 229 sqq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Irnerius himself is with some probability believed to have been +the author of the Brachylogus (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Thus Fil. Villani (<i>De origine civitatis Florentiae</i>, ed. 1847, p. 23), +speaking of the Glossator Accursius, says of the Glossae that “tantae +auctoritatis gratiaeque fuere, ut omnium consensu publice approbarentur, +et reiectis aliis, quibuscumque penitus abolitis, solae +juxta textum legum adpositae sunt et ubique terrarum sine controversia +pro legibus celebrantur, ita ut nefas sit, non secus quam +textui, Glossis Accursii contraire.” For similar testimonies see +Bayle’s <i>Dictionnaire</i>, s.v. “Accursius,” and Rudorff, <i>Röm. Rechtsgeschichte</i>, +i. 338 (1857).</p> + +<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The so-called <i>Malberg</i> glosses, found in various texts of the Lex +Salica, are not glosses in the ordinary sense of the word, but precious +remains of the parent of the present literary Dutch, namely, the Low +German dialect spoken by the Salian Franks who conquered Gaul +from the Romans at the end of the 5th century. It is supposed that +the conquerors brought their Frankish law with them, either written +down, or by oral tradition; that they translated it into Latin for +the sake of the Romans settled in the country, and that the translators, +not always knowing a proper Latin equivalent for certain +things or actions, retained in their translations the Frankish technical +names or phrases which they had attempted to translate into Latin. +E.g. in chapter ii., by the side of “<i>porcellus lactans</i>” (a sucking-pig), +we find the Frankish “<i>chramnechaltio</i>,” lit. a stye-porker. The +person who stole such a pig (still kept in an enclosed place, in a stye) +was fined three times as much as one who stole a “<i>porcellus de campo +qui sine matre vivere possit</i>,” as the Latin text has it, for which the +Malberg technical expression appears to have been <i>ingymus</i>, that is, +a one year (winter) old animal, <i>i.e.</i> a yearling. Nearly all these +glosses are preceded by “<i>mal</i>” or “<i>malb</i>,” which is thought to be +a contraction for “<i>malberg</i>,” the Frankish for “forum.” The +antiquity and importance of these glosses for philology may be +realized from the fact that the Latin translation of the Lex Salica +probably dates from the latter end of the 5th century. For further +information cf. Jac. Grimm’s preface to Joh. Merkel’s ed. (1850), +and H. Kern’s notes to J. H. Hessels’s ed. (London, 1880) of the Lex +Salica.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8a" id="ft8a" href="#fa8a"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Anglo-Saxon scholars ascribe an earlier date to the text of the +MS. on account of certain archaisms in its Anglo-Saxon words.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLOSSOP,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough, in the +High Peak parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, on +the extreme northern border of the county; 13 m. E. by S. of +Manchester by the Great Central railway. Pop. (1901) 21,526. +It is the chief seat of the cotton manufacture in Derbyshire, +and it has also woollen and paper mills, dye and print works, +and bleaching greens. The town consists of three main divisions, +the Old Town (or Glossop proper), Howard Town (or Glossop +Dale) and Mill Town. An older parish church was replaced by +that of All Saints in 1830; there is also a very fine Roman +Catholic church. In the immediate neighbourhood is Glossop +Hall, the seat of Lord Howard, lord of the manor, a picturesque +old building with extensive terraced gardens. On a hill near the +town is Melandra Castle, the site of a Roman fort guarding +Longdendale and the way into the hills of the Peak District. +In the neighbourhood also a great railway viaduct spans the +Dinting valley with sixteen arches. To the north, in Longdendale, +there are five lakes belonging to the water-supply system +of Manchester, formed by damming the Etherow, a stream which +descends from the high moors north-east of Glossop. The town +is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, +3052 acres.</p> + +<p>Glossop was granted by Henry I. to William Peverel, on the +attainder of whose son it reverted to the crown. In 1157 it +was gifted by Henry II. to the abbey of Basingwerk. Henry +VIII. bestowed it on the earl of Shrewsbury. It was made a +municipal borough in 1866.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF.<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> The English +earldom of Gloucester was held by several members of the royal +family, including Robert, a natural son of Henry I., and John, +afterwards king, and others, until 1218, when Gilbert de Clare +was recognized as earl of Gloucester. It remained in the family +of Clare (<i>q.v.</i>) until 1314, when another Earl Gilbert was killed +at Bannockburn; and after this date it was claimed by various +relatives of the Clares, among them by the younger Hugh le +Despenser (d. 1326) and by Hugh Audley (d. 1347), both of whom +had married sisters of Earl Gilbert. In 1397 Thomas le Despenser +(1373-1400), a descendant of the Clares, was created earl of +Gloucester; but in 1399 he was degraded from his earldom +and in January 1400 was beheaded.</p> + +<p>The dukedom dates from 1385, when Thomas of Woodstock, +a younger son of Edward III., was created duke of Gloucester, +but his honours were forfeited when he was found guilty of +treason in 1397. The next holder of the title was Humphrey, +a son of Henry IV., who was created duke of Gloucester in 1414. +He died without sons in 1447, and in 1461 the title was revived +in favour of Richard, brother of Edward IV., who became king +as Richard III. in 1483.</p> + +<p>In 1659 Henry (1639-1660), a brother of Charles II., was +formally created duke of Gloucester, a title which he had borne +since infancy. This prince, sharing the exile of the Stuarts, had +incensed his mother, Queen Henrietta Maria, by his firm adherence +to the Protestant religion, and had fought among the +Spaniards at Dunkirk in 1658. Having returned to England +with Charles II., he died unmarried in London on the 13th of +September 1660. The next duke was William (1689-1700), +son of the princess Anne, who was, after his mother, the heir to +the English throne, and who was declared duke of Gloucester by +his uncle, William III., in 1689, but no patent for this creation +was ever passed. William died on the 30th of July 1700, and +again the title became extinct.</p> + +<p>Frederick Louis, the eldest son of George II., was known +for some time as duke of Gloucester, but when he was raised to +the peerage in 1726 it was as duke of Edinburgh only. In 1764 +Frederick’s third son, William Henry (1743-1805), was created +duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh by his brother, George III. +This duke’s secret marriage with Maria (d. 1807), an illegitimate +daughter of Sir Edward Walpole and widow of James, 2nd +Earl Waldegrave, in 1766, greatly incensed his royal relatives +and led to his banishment from court. Gloucester died on the +25th of August 1805, leaving an only son, William Frederick +(1776-1834), who now became duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh. +The duke, who served with the British army in Flanders, married +his cousin Mary (1776-1857), a daughter of George III. He +died on the 30th of November 1834, leaving no children, and his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id="page129"></a>129</span> +widow, the last survivor of the family of George III., died on the +30th of April 1857.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl of</span> (1243-1295), +was a son of Richard de Clare, 7th earl of Gloucester and 8th +earl of Clare, and was born at Christchurch, Hampshire, on the +2nd of September 1243. Having married Alice of Angoulême, +half-sister of king Henry III., he became earl of Gloucester +and Clare on his father’s death in July 1262, and almost at once +joined the baronial party led by Simon de Montfort, earl of +Leicester. With Simon Gloucester was at the battle of Lewes +in May 1264, when the king himself surrendered to him, and +after this victory he was one of the three persons selected to +nominate a council. Soon, however, he quarrelled with Leicester. +Leaving London for his lands on the Welsh border he met +Prince Edward, afterwards king Edward I., at Ludlow, just +after his escape from captivity, and by his skill contributed +largely to the prince’s victory at Evesham in August 1265. But +this alliance was as transitory as the one with Leicester. Gloucester +took up the cudgels on behalf of the barons who had +surrendered at Kenilworth in November and December 1266, +and after putting his demands before the king, secured possession +of London. This happened in April 1267, but the earl quickly +made his peace with Henry III. and with Prince Edward, and, +having evaded an obligation to go on the Crusade, he helped +to secure the peaceful accession of Edward I. to the throne +in 1272. Gloucester then passed several years in fighting in +Wales, or on the Welsh border; in 1289 when the barons were +asked for a subsidy he replied on their behalf that they would +grant nothing until they saw the king in person (<i>nisi prius +personaliter viderent in Anglia faciem regis</i>), and in 1291 he was +fined and imprisoned on account of his violent quarrel with +Humphrey de Bohun, earl of Hereford. Having divorced his +wife Alice, he married in 1290 Edward’s daughter Joan, or +Johanna (d. 1307). Earl Gilbert, who is sometimes called the +“Red,” died at Monmouth on the 7th of December 1295, +leaving in addition to three daughters a son, Gilbert, earl of +Gloucester and Clare, who was killed at Bannockburn.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Bémont, <i>Simon de Montfort, comte de Leicester</i> (1884), and +G. W. Prothero, <i>Simon de Montfort</i> (1877).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLOUCESTER, HUMPHREY,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duke of</span> (1391-1447), fourth +son of Henry IV. by Mary de Bohun, was born in 1391. He was +knighted at his father’s coronation on the 11th of October +1399, and created duke of Gloucester by Henry V. at Leicester +on the 16th of May 1414. He served in the war next year, +and was wounded at Agincourt, where he owed his life to his +brother’s valour. In April 1416 Humphrey received the emperor +Sigismund at Dover and, according to a 16th-century story, +did not let him land till he had disclaimed all title to imperial +authority in England. In the second invasion of France +Humphrey commanded the force which during 1418 reduced +the Cotentin and captured Cherbourg. Afterwards he joined +the main army before Rouen, and took part in subsequent +campaigns till January 1420. He then went home to replace +Bedford as regent in England, and held office till Henry’s +own return in February 1421. He was again regent for his +brother from May to September 1422.</p> + +<p>Henry V. measured Humphrey’s capacity, and by his will +named him merely deputy for Bedford in England. Humphrey +at once claimed the full position of regent, but the parliament +and council allowed him only the title of protector during +Bedford’s absence, with limited powers. His lack of discretion +soon justified this caution. In the autumn of 1422 he married +Jacqueline of Bavaria, heiress of Holland, to whose lands +Philip of Burgundy had claims. Bedford, in the interest of so +important an ally, endeavoured vainly to restrain his brother. +Finally in October 1424 Humphrey took up arms in his wife’s +behalf, but after a short campaign in Hainault went home, +and left Jacqueline to be overwhelmed by Burgundy. Returning +to England in April 1425 he soon entangled himself in a +quarrel with the council and his uncle Henry Beaufort, and +stirred up a tumult in London. Open war was averted only by +Beaufort’s prudence, and Bedford’s hurried return. Humphrey +had charged his uncle with disloyalty to the late and present +kings. With some difficulty Bedford effected a formal reconciliation +at Leicester in March 1426, and forced Humphrey to accept +Beaufort’s disavowal. When Bedford left England next year +Humphrey renewed his intrigues. But one complication was +removed by the annulling in 1428 of his marriage with Jacqueline. +His open adultery with his mistress, Eleanor Cobham, also made +him unpopular. To check his indiscretion the council, in +November 1429, had the king crowned, and so put an end to +Humphrey’s protectorate. However, when Henry VI. was soon +afterwards taken to be crowned in France, Humphrey was made +lieutenant and warden of the kingdom, and thus ruled England +for nearly two years. His jealousy of Bedford and Beaufort +still continued, and when the former died in 1435 there was no +one to whom he would defer. The defection of Burgundy roused +English feeling, and Humphrey won popularity as leader of the +war party. In 1436 he commanded in a short invasion of +Flanders. But he had no real power, and his political importance +lay in his persistent opposition to Beaufort and the +councillors of his party. In 1439 he renewed his charges against +his uncle without effect. His position was further damaged by +his connexion with Eleanor Cobham, whom he had now married. +In 1441 Eleanor was charged with practising sorcery against +the king, and Humphrey had to submit to see her condemned, +and her accomplices executed. Nevertheless, he continued +his political opposition, and endeavoured to thwart Suffolk, +who was now taking Beaufort’s place in the council, by opposing +the king’s marriage to Margaret of Anjou. Under Suffolk’s +influence Henry VI. grew to distrust his uncle altogether. The +crisis came in the parliament of Bury St Edmunds in February +1447. Immediately on his arrival there Humphrey was arrested, +and four days later, on the 23rd of February, he died. Rumour +attributed his death to foul play. But his health had been long +undermined by excesses, and his end was probably only hastened +by the shock of his arrest.</p> + +<p>Humphrey was buried at St Albans Abbey, in a fine tomb, +which still exists. He was ambitious and self-seeking, but +unstable and unprincipled, and, lacking the fine qualities of his +brothers, excelled neither in war nor in peace. Still he was a +cultured and courtly prince, who could win popularity. He +was long remembered as the good Duke Humphrey, and in his +lifetime was a liberal patron of letters. He had been a great +collector of books, many of which he presented to the university +of Oxford. He contributed also to the building of the Divinity +School, and of the room still called Duke Humphrey’s library. +His books were dispersed at the Reformation and only three +volumes of his donation now remain in the Bodleian library. +Titus Livius, an Italian in Humphrey’s service, wrote a life +of Henry V. at his patron’s bidding. Other Italian scholars, +as Leonardo Aretino, benefited by his patronage. Amongst +English men of letters he befriended Reginald Pecock, Whethamstead +of St Albans, Capgrave the historian, Lydgate, and +Gilbert Kymer, who was his physician and chancellor of Oxford +university. A popular error found Humphrey a fictitious tomb +in St Paul’s Cathedral. The adjoining aisle, called Duke +Humphrey’s Walk, was frequented by beggars and needy +adventurers. Hence the 16th-century proverb “to dine with +Duke Humphrey,” used of those who loitered there dinnerless.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The most important contemporary sources are Stevenson’s <i>Wars +of the English in France</i>, Whethamstead’s <i>Register</i>, and Beckington’s +<i>Letters</i> (all in Rolls Ser.), with the various <i>London Chronicles</i>, and +the works of Waurin and Monstrelet. For his relations with +Jacqueline see F. von Löher’s <i>Jacobäa von Bayern und ihre Zeit</i> +(2 vols., Nördlingen, 1869). For other modern authorities consult +W. Stubbs’s <i>Constitutional History</i>; J. H. Ramsay’s <i>Lancaster and +York</i>; <i>Political History of England</i>, vol. iv.; R. Pauli, <i>Pictures of +Old England</i>, pp. 373-401 (1861); and K. H. Viekers, <i>Humphrey, +Duke of Gloucester</i> (1907). For Humphrey’s correspondence with +Piero Candido Decembrio see the <i>English Historical Review</i>, vols. +x., xix., xx.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. L. K.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl of</span> (1222-1262), +was a son of Gilbert de Clare, 6th earl of Gloucester and 7th +earl of Clare, and was born on the 4th of August 1222, succeeding +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>130</span> +to his father’s earldoms on the death of the latter in October +1230. His first wife was Margaret, daughter of Hubert de Burgh, +and after her death in 1237 he married Maud, daughter of John de +Lacy, earl of Lincoln, and passed his early years in tournaments +and pilgrimages, taking for a time a secondary and undecided +part in politics. He refused to help Henry III. on the French +expedition of 1250, but was afterwards with the king at Paris; +then he went on a diplomatic errand to Scotland, and was sent +to Germany to work among the princes for the election of his +stepfather, Richard, earl of Cornwall, as king of the Romans. +About 1258 Gloucester took up his position as a leader of the +barons in their resistance to the king, and he was prominent +during the proceedings which followed the Mad Parliament at +Oxford in 1258. In 1259, however, he quarrelled with Simon de +Montfort, earl of Leicester; the dispute, begun in England, +was renewed in France and he was again in the confidence and +company of the king. This attitude, too, was only temporary, +and in 1261 Gloucester and Leicester were again working in +concord. The earl died at his residence near Canterbury on the +15th of July 1262. A large landholder like his son and successor, +Gilbert, Gloucester was the most powerful English baron of his +time; he was avaricious and extravagant, but educated and able. +He left several children in addition to Earl Gilbert.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLOUCESTER, ROBERT,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl of</span> (d. 1147), was a natural +son of Henry I. of England. He was born, before his father’s +accession, at Caen in Normandy; but the exact date of his birth, +and his mother’s name are unknown. He received from his +father the hand of a wealthy heiress, Mabel of Gloucester, +daughter of Robert Fitz Hamon, and with her the lordships +of Gloucester and Glamorgan. About 1121 the earldom of +Gloucester was created for his benefit. His rank and territorial +influence made him the natural leader of the western baronage. +Hence, at his father’s death, he was sedulously courted by the +rival parties of his half-sister the empress Matilda and of Stephen. +After some hesitation he declared for the latter, but tendered +his homage upon strict conditions, the breach of which should be +held to invalidate the contract. Robert afterwards alleged that +he had merely feigned submission to Stephen with the object +of secretly furthering his half-sister’s cause among the English +barons. The truth appears to be that he was mortified at finding +himself excluded from the inner councils of the king, and so +resolved to sell his services elsewhere. Robert left England for +Normandy in 1137, renewed his relations with the Angevin +party, and in 1138 sent a formal defiance to the king. Returning +to England in the following year, he raised the standard of +rebellion in his own earldom with such success that the greater +part of western England and the south Welsh marches were +soon in the possession of the empress. By the battle of Lincoln +(Feb. 2, 1141), in which Stephen was taken prisoner, the earl +made good Matilda’s claim to the whole kingdom. He accompanied +her triumphal progress to Winchester and London; but +was unable to moderate the arrogance of her behaviour. Consequently +she was soon expelled from London and deserted by +the bishop Henry of Winchester who, as legate, controlled the +policy of the English church. With Matilda the earl besieged +the legate at Winchester, but was forced by the royalists to beat +a hasty retreat, and in covering Matilda’s flight fell into the +hands of the pursuers. So great was his importance that his +party purchased his freedom by the release of Stephen. The earl +renewed the struggle for the crown and continued it until his +death (Oct. 31, 1147); but the personal unpopularity of Matilda, +and the estrangement of the Church from her cause, made his +efforts unavailing. His loyalty to a lost cause must be allowed +to weigh in the scale against his earlier double-dealing. But he +hardly deserves the extravagant praise which is lavished upon +him by William of Malmesbury. The sympathies of the chronicler +are too obviously influenced by the earl’s munificence towards +literary men.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Historia novella</i> by William of Malmesbury (Rolls edition); +the <i>Historia Anglorum</i> by Henry of Huntingdon (Rolls edition); +J. H. Round’s <i>Geoffrey de Mandeville</i> (1892); and O. Rössler’s +<i>Kaiserin Mathilde</i> (Berlin, 1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duke of</span> (1355-1397), +seventh and youngest son of the English king Edward III., +was born at Woodstock on the 7th of January 1355. Having +married Eleanor (d. 1399), daughter and co-heiress of Humphrey +de Bohun, earl of Hereford, Essex and Northampton (d. 1373), +Thomas obtained the office of constable of England, a position +previously held by the Bohuns, and was made earl of Buckingham +by his nephew, Richard II., at the coronation in July 1377. +He took part in defending the English coasts against the attacks +of the French and Castilians, after which he led an army through +northern and central France, and besieged Nantes, which town, +however, he failed to take.</p> + +<p>Returning to England early in 1381, Buckingham found that +his brother, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, had married +his wife’s sister, Mary Bohun, to his own son, Henry, afterwards +King Henry IV. The relations between the brothers, hitherto +somewhat strained, were not improved by this proceeding, as +Thomas, doubtless, was hoping to retain possession of Mary’s +estates. Having taken some part in crushing the rising of the +peasants in 1381, Buckingham became more friendly with +Lancaster; and while marching with the king into Scotland in +1385 was created duke of Gloucester, a mark of favour, however, +which did not prevent him from taking up an attitude of hostility +to Richard. Lancaster having left the country, Gloucester +placed himself at the head of the party which disliked the royal +advisers, Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk and Robert de Vere, +earl of Oxford, whose recent elevation to the dignity of duke of +Ireland had aroused profound discontent. The moment was +propitious for interference, and supported by those who were +indignant at the extravagance and incompetence, real or alleged, +of the king, Gloucester was soon in a position of authority. He +forced on the dismissal and impeachment of Suffolk; was a +member of the commission appointed in 1386 to reform the +kingdom and the royal household; and took up arms when +Richard began proceedings against the commissioners. Having +defeated Vere at Radcot in December 1387 the duke and his +associates entered London to find the king powerless in their +hands. Gloucester, who had previously threatened his uncle +with deposition, was only restrained from taking this extreme +step by the influence of his colleagues; but, as the leader of the +“lords appellant” in the “Merciless Parliament,” which met +in February 1388 and was packed with his supporters, he took +a savage revenge upon his enemies, while not neglecting to add +to his own possessions.</p> + +<p>He was not seriously punished when Richard regained his +power in May 1389, but he remained in the background, although +employed occasionally on public business, and accompanying the +king to Ireland in 1394. In 1396, however, uncle and nephew were +again at variance. Gloucester disliked the peace with France and +Richard’s second marriage with Isabella, daughter of King +Charles VI.; other causes of difference were not wanting, and it +has been asserted that the duke was plotting to seize the king. At +all events Richard decided to arrest him. By refusing an invitation +to dinner the duke frustrated the first attempt, but on the +11th of July 1397 he was arrested by the king himself at his +residence, Pleshey castle in Essex. He was taken at once to +Calais, and it is probable that he was murdered by order of the +king on the 9th of September following. The facts seem to be as +follows. At the beginning of September it was reported that he +was dead. The rumour, probably a deliberate one, was false, and +about the same time a justice, Sir William Rickhill (d. 1407), +was sent to Calais with instructions dated the 17th of August to +obtain a confession from Gloucester. On the 8th of September +the duke confessed that he had been guilty of treason, and his +death immediately followed this avowal. Unwilling to meet his +parliament so soon after his uncle’s death, Richard’s purpose was +doubtless to antedate this occurrence, and to foster the impression +that the duke had died from natural causes in August. When +parliament met in September he was declared guilty of treason +and his estates forfeited. Gloucester had one son, Humphrey +(<i>c.</i> 1381-1399), who died unmarried, and four daughters, the +most notable of whom was Anne (<i>c.</i> 1380-1438), who was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id="page131"></a>131</span> +successively the wife of Thomas, 3rd earl of Stafford, Edmund, 5th +earl of Stafford, and William Bourchier, count of Eu. Gloucester +is supposed to have written <i>L’Ordonnance d’Angleterre pour le +camp à l’outrance, ou gaige de bataille</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—See T. Walsingham, <i>Historia Anglicana</i>, edited +by H. T. Riley (London, 1863-1864); The Monk of Evesham, +<i>Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II.</i>, edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, +1729); <i>Chronique de la traison et mort de Richard II</i>, edited by B. +Williams (London, 1846); J. Froissart, <i>Chroniques</i>, edited by S. +Luce and G. Raynaud (Paris, 1869-1897); W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional +History</i>, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1896); J. Tait in <i>Owens College Historical +Essays</i> and S. Armitage-Smith, <i>John of Gaunt</i> (London, 1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLOUCESTER<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (abbreviated as pronounced <i>Glo’ster</i>), a city, +county of a city, municipal and parliamentary borough and port, +and the county town of Gloucestershire, England, on the left +(east) bank of the river Severn, 114 m. W.N.W. of London. Pop. +(1901) 47,955. It is served by the Great Western railway and +the west-and-north branch of the Midland railway; while the +Berkeley Ship Canal runs S.W. to Sharpness Docks in the Severn +estuary (16½ m.). Gloucester is situated on a gentle eminence +overlooking the Severn and sheltered by the Cotteswolds on the +east, while the Malverns and the hills of the Forest of Dean rise +prominently to the west and north-west.</p> + +<p>The cathedral, in the north of the city near the river, originates +in the foundation of an abbey of St Peter in 681, the foundations +of the present church having been laid by Abbot Serlo (1072-1104); +and Walter Froucester (d. 1412) its historian, became its +first mitred abbot in 1381. Until 1541, Gloucester lay in the see +of Worcester, but the separate see was then constituted, with +John Wakeman, last abbot of Tewkesbury, for its first bishop. +The diocese covers the greater part of Gloucestershire, with small +parts of Herefordshire and Wiltshire. The cathedral may be +succinctly described as consisting of a Norman nucleus, with +additions in every style of Gothic architecture. It is 420 ft. long, +and 144 ft. broad, with a beautiful central tower of the 15th +century rising to the height of 225 ft. and topped by four graceful +pinnacles. The nave is massive Norman with Early English +roof; the crypt also, under the choir, aisles and chapels, is +Norman, as is the chapter-house. The crypt is one of the four +apsidal cathedral crypts in England, the others being at Worcester, +Winchester and Canterbury. The south porch is Perpendicular, +with fan-tracery roof, as also is the north transept, the south +being transitional Decorated. The choir has Perpendicular +tracery over Norman work, with an apsidal chapel on each side. +The choir-vaulting is particularly rich, and the modern scheme +of colouring is judicious. The splendid late Decorated east +window is partly filled with ancient glass. Between the apsidal +chapels is a cross Lady chapel, and north of the nave are the +cloisters, with very early example of fan-tracery, the carols or +stalls for the monks’ study and writing lying to the south. The +finest monument is the canopied shrine of Edward II. who was +brought hither from Berkeley. By the visits of pilgrims to this +the building and sanctuary were enriched. In a side-chapel, too, +is a monument in coloured bog oak of Robert Curthose, a great +benefactor to the abbey, the eldest son of the Conqueror, who was +interred there; and those of Bishop Warburton and Dr Edward +Jenner are also worthy of special mention. A musical festival +(the Festival of the Three Choirs) is held annually in this cathedral +and those of Worcester and Hereford in turn. Between 1873 +and 1890 and in 1897 the cathedral was extensively restored, +principally by Sir Gilbert Scott. Attached to the deanery is the +Norman prior’s chapel. In St Mary’s Square outside the Abbey +gate, Bishop Hooper suffered martyrdom under Queen Mary in +1555.</p> + +<p>Quaint gabled and timbered houses preserve the ancient aspect +of the city. At the point of intersection of the four principal +streets stood the Tolsey or town hall, replaced by a modern +building in 1894. None of the old public buildings, in fact, is left, +but the New Inn in Northgate Street is a beautiful timbered +house, strong and massive, with external galleries and courtyards, +built in 1450 for the pilgrims to Edward II.’s shrine, by Abbot +Sebroke, a traditional subterranean passage leading thence to the +cathedral. The timber is principally chestnut. There are a large +number of churches and dissenting chapels, and it may have +been the old proverb, “as sure as God’s in Gloucester,” which +provoked Oliver Cromwell to declare that the city had “more +churches than godliness.” Of the churches four are of special +interest: St Mary de Lode, with a Norman tower and chancel, +and a monument of Bishop Hooper, on the site of a Roman +temple which became the first Christian church in Britain; St +Mary de Crypt, a cruciform structure of the 12th century, with +later additions and a beautiful and lofty tower; the church of +St Michael, said to have been connected with the ancient abbey of +St Peter; and St Nicholas church, originally of Norman erection, +and possessing a tower and other portions of later date. In the +neighbourhood of St Mary de Crypt are slight remains of Greyfriars +and Blackfriars monasteries, and also of the city wall. +Early vaulted cellars remain under the Fleece and Saracen’s +Head inns.</p> + +<p>There are three endowed schools: the College school, refounded +by Henry VIII. as part of the cathedral establishment; the +school of St Mary de Crypt, founded by Dame Joan Cooke in the +same reign; and Sir Thomas Rich’s Blue Coat hospital for 34 +boys (1666). At the Crypt school the famous preacher George +Whitefield (1714-1770) was educated, and he preached his first +sermon in the church. The first Sunday school was held in +Gloucester, being originated by Robert Raikes, in 1780.</p> + +<p>The noteworthy modern buildings include the museum and +school of art and science, the county gaol (on the site of a Saxon +and Norman castle), the Shire Hall and the Whitefield memorial +church. A park in the south of the city contains a spa, a chalybeate +spring having been discovered in 1814. West of this, +across the canal, are the remains (a gateway and some walls) of +Llanthony Priory, a cell of the mother abbey in the vale of +Ewyas, Monmouthshire, which in the reign of Edward IV. became +the secondary establishment.</p> + +<p>Gloucester possesses match works, foundries, marble and +slate works, saw-mills, chemical works, rope works, flour-mills, +manufactories of railway wagons, engines and agricultural +implements, and boat and ship-building yards. Gloucester +was declared a port in 1882. The Berkeley canal was opened in +1827. The Gloucester canal-harbour and that at Sharpness on +the Severn are managed by a board. Principal imports are +timber and grain; and exports, coal, salt, iron and bricks. +The salmon and lamprey fisheries in the Severn are valuable. +The tidal bore in the river attains its extreme height just below +the city, and sometimes surmounts the weir in the western +branch of the river, affecting the stream up to Tewkesbury lock. +The parliamentary borough returns one member. The city is +governed by a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area, +2315 acres.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The traditional existence of a British settlement +at Gloucester (Cær Glow, Gleawecastre, Gleucestre) is not +confirmed by any direct evidence, but Gloucester was the Roman +municipality or <i>colonia</i> of <i>Glevum</i>, founded by Nerva (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 96-98). +Parts of the walls can be traced, and many remains and coins +have been found, though inscriptions (as is frequently the case +in Britain) are somewhat scarce. Its situation on a navigable +river, and the foundation in 681 of the abbey of St Peter by +Æthelred favoured the growth of the town; and before the +Conquest Gloucester was a borough governed by a portreeve, +with a castle which was frequently a royal residence, and a mint. +The first overlord, Earl Godwine, was succeeded nearly a century +later by Robert, earl of Gloucester. Henry II. granted the first +charter in 1155 which gave the burgesses the same liberties +as the citizens of London and Winchester, and a second charter +of Henry II. gave them freedom of passage on the Severn. The +first charter was confirmed in 1194 by Richard I. The privileges +of the borough were greatly extended by the charter of John +(1200) which gave freedom from toll throughout the kingdom +and from pleading outside the borough. Subsequent charters +were numerous. Gloucester was incorporated by Richard III. +in 1483, the town being made a county in itself. This charter +was confirmed in 1489 and 1510, and other charters of incorporation +were received by Gloucester from Elizabeth in 1560, James I. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132"></a>132</span> +in 1604, Charles I. in 1626 and Charles II. in 1672. The +chartered port of Gloucester dates from 1580. Gloucester +returned two members to parliament from 1275 to 1885, since +when it has been represented by one member. A seven days’ +fair from the 24th of June was granted by Edward I. in 1302, +and James I. licensed fairs on the 25th of March and the 17th +of November, and fairs under these grants are still held on the +first Saturday in April and July and the last Saturday in +November. The fair now held on the 28th of September was +granted to the abbey of St Peter in 1227. A market on Wednesday +existed in the reign of John, was confirmed by charter in +1227 and is still held. The iron trade of Gloucester dates from +before the Conquest, tanning was carried on before the reign of +Richard III., pin-making and bell-founding were introduced +in the 16th, and the long-existing coal trade became important +in the 18th century. The cloth trade flourished from the 12th +to the 16th century. The sea-borne trade in corn and wine +existed before the reign of Richard I.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. H. Stevenson, <i>Records of the Corporation of Gloucester</i> +(Gloucester, 1893); <i>Victoria County History, Gloucestershire</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLOUCESTER,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a city and port of entry of Essex county, +Massachusetts, U.S.A., beautifully situated on Cape Ann. +Pop. (1890) 24,651; (1900) 26,121, of whom 8768 were foreign-born, +including 4388 English Canadians, 800 French Canadians, +665 Irish, 653 Finns and 594 Portuguese; (1910 census) +24,398. Area, 53.6 sq. m. It is served by the Boston & Maine +railway and by a steamboat line to Boston. The surface is +sterile, naked and rugged, with bold, rocky ledges, and a most +picturesque shore, the beauties of which have made it a favourite +summer resort, much frequented by artists. Included within +the city borders are several villages, of which the principal one, +also known as Gloucester, has a deep and commodious harbour. +Among the other villages, all summer resorts, are Annisquam, +Bay View and Magnolia (so called from the <i>Magnolia glauca</i>, +which grows wild there, this being probably its most northerly +habitat); near Magnolia are Rafe’s Chasm (60 ft. deep and 6-10 ft. +wide) and Norman’s Woe, the scene of the wreck of the “Hesperus” +(which has only tradition as a basis), celebrated in Longfellow’s +poem. There is some slight general commerce—in 1909 the +imports were valued at $130,098; the exports at $7853—but +the principal business is fishing, and has been since early +colonial days. The pursuit of cod, mackerel, herring and +halibut fills up, with a winter coasting trade, the round of +the year. In this industry Gloucester is the most important +place in the United States; and is, indeed, one of the greatest +fishing ports of the world. Most of the adult males are engaged +in it. The “catch” was valued in 1895 at $3,212,985 and in +1905 at $3,377,330. The organization of the industry has +undergone many transformations, but a notable feature is the +general practice—especially since modern methods have necessitated +larger vessels and more costly gear, and correspondingly +greater capital—of profit-sharing; all the crew entering on that +basis and not independently. There are some manufactures, +chiefly connected with the fisheries. The total factory product +in 1905 was valued at $6,920,984, of which the canning and +preserving of fish represented $4,068,571, and glue represented +$752,003. An industry of considerable importance is the +quarrying of the beautiful, dark Cape Ann granite that underlies +the city and all the environs.</p> + +<p>Gloucester harbour was probably noted by Champlain (as +La Beauport), and a temporary settlement was made by English +fishermen sent out by the Dorchester Company of “merchant +adventurers” in 1623-1625; some of these settlers returned +to England in 1625, and others, with Roger Conant, the governor, +removed to what is now Salem.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Permanent settlement ante-dated +1639 at least, and in 1642 the township was incorporated. +From Gosnold’s voyages onward the extraordinary abundance +of cod about Cape Ann was well known, and though the first +settlers characteristically enough tried to live by farming, they +speedily became perforce a sea-faring folk. The active pursuit of +fishing as an industry may be dated as beginning about 1700, +for then began voyages beyond Cape Sable. Voyages to the +Grand Banks began about 1741. Mackerel was a relatively +unimportant catch until about 1821, and since then has been +an important but unstable return; halibut fishing has been +vigorously pursued since about 1836 and herring since about +1856. At the opening of the War of Independence Gloucester, +whose fisheries then employed about 600 men, was second to +Marblehead as a fishing-port. The war destroyed the fisheries, +which steadily declined, reaching their lowest ebb from 1820 to +1840. Meanwhile foreign commerce had greatly expanded. +The cod take had supported in the 18th century an extensive +trade with Bilbao, Lisbon and the West Indies, and though +changed in nature with the decline of the Bank fisheries after +the War of Independence, it continued large through the first +quarter of the 19th century. Throughout more than half of +the same century also Gloucester carried on a varied and +valuable trade with Surinam, hake being the chief article of +export and molasses and sugar the principal imports. “India +Square” remains, a memento of a bygone day. About 1850 the +fisheries revived, especially after 1860, under the influence of +better prices, improved methods and the discovery of new +grounds, becoming again the chief economic interest; and since +that time the village of Gloucester has changed from a picturesque +hamlet to a fairly modern, though still quaint and somewhat +foreign, settlement. Gasoline boats were introduced in 1900. +Ship-building is another industry of the past. The first “schooner” +was launched at Gloucester in 1713. From 1830 to 1907, 776 +vessels and 5242 lives were lost in the fisheries; but the loss of +life has been greatly reduced by the use of better vessels and by +improved methods of fishing. Gloucester became a city in 1874.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gloucester life has been celebrated in many books; among others +in Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward’s <i>Singular Life</i> and <i>Old Maid’s +Paradise</i>, in Rudyard Kipling’s <i>Captains Courageous</i>, and in James +B. Connolly’s <i>Out of Gloucester</i> (1902), <i>The Deep Sea’s Toll</i> (1905), +and <i>The Crested Seas</i> (1907).</p> + +<p>See J. J. Babson, <i>History of the Town of Gloucester</i> (Gloucester, +1860; with <i>Notes and Additions</i>, on genealogy, 1876, 1891); and +J. R. Pringle, <i>History of the Town and City of Gloucester</i> (Gloucester, +1892).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> According to some authorities (<i>e.g.</i> Pringle) a few settlers +remained on the site of Gloucester, the permanent settlement thus +dating from 1623 to 1625; of this, however, there is no proof, and +the contrary opinion is the one generally held.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLOUCESTER CITY,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> a city of Camden county, New Jersey, +U.S.A., on the Delaware river, opposite Philadelphia. Pop. +(1890) 6564; (1900) 6840, of whom 1094 were foreign-born; +(1905) 8055; (1910) 9462. The city is served by the West +Jersey & Seashore and the Atlantic City railways, and by ferry +to Philadelphia, of which it is a residential suburb. Among +its manufactures are incandescent gas-burners, rugs, cotton +yarns, boats and drills. The municipality owns and operates +the water works. It was near the site of Gloucester City that +the Dutch in 1623 planted the short-lived colony of Fort Nassau, +the first European settlement on the Delaware river, but it was +not until after the arrival of English Quakers on the Delaware, +in 1677, that a permanent settlement, at first called Axwamus, +was established on the site of the present city. This was surveyed +and laid out as a town in 1689. During the War of Independence +the place was frequently occupied by troops, and a number of +skirmishes were fought in its vicinity. The most noted of these +was a successful attack upon a detachment of Hessians on the +25th of November 1777 by American troops under the command +of General Lafayette. In 1868 Gloucester City was chartered +as a city. In Camden county there is a township named +<span class="sc">Gloucester</span> (pop. in 1905, 2300), incorporated in 1798, and +originally including the present township of Clementon and parts +of the present townships of Waterford, Union and Winslow.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLOUCESTERSHIRE,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a county of the west midlands of +England, bounded N. by Worcestershire, N.E. by Warwickshire, +E. by Oxfordshire, S.E. by Berkshire and Wiltshire, S. by +Somerset, and W. by Monmouth and Herefordshire. Its area +is 1243-3 sq. m. The outline is very irregular, but three physical +divisions are well marked—the hills, the vale and the forest. +(1) The first (the eastern part of the county) lies among the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id="page133"></a>133</span> +uplands of the Cotteswold Hills (<i>q.v.</i>), whose westward face is +a line of heights of an average elevation of 700 ft., but exceeding +1000 ft. at some points. This line bisects the county from +S.W. to N.E. The watershed between the Thames and Severn +valleys lies close to it, so that Gloucestershire includes Thames +Head itself, in the south-east near Cirencester, and most of the +upper feeders of the Thames which join the main stream, from +narrow and picturesque valleys on the north. (2) The western +Cotteswold line overlooks a rich valley, that of the lower Severn, +usually spoken of as “The Vale,” or, in two divisions, as the +vale of Gloucester and the vale of Berkeley. This great river +receives three famous tributaries during its course through +Gloucestershire. Near Tewkesbury, on the northern border, +the Avon joins it on the left and forms the county boundary +for 4 m. This is the river known variously as the Upper, +Worcestershire, Warwickshire, Stratford or Shakespeare’s Avon, +which descends a lovely pastoral valley through the counties +named. It is to be distinguished from the Bristol Avon, which +rises as an eastward flowing stream of the Cotteswolds, in the +south-east of Gloucestershire, sweeps southward and westward +through Wiltshire, pierces the hills through a narrow valley +which becomes a wooded gorge where the Clifton suspension +bridge crosses it below Bristol, and enters the Severn estuary +at Avonmouth. For 17 m. from its mouth it forms the boundary +between Gloucestershire and Somersetshire, and for 8 m. it is +one of the most important commercial waterways in the kingdom, +connecting the port of Bristol with the sea. The third great +tributary of the Severn is the Wye. From its mouth in the +estuary, 8 m. N. of that of the Bristol Avon, it forms the county +boundary for 16 m. northward, and above this, over two short +reaches of its beautiful winding course, it is again the boundary. +(3) Between the Wye and the Severn lies a beautiful and historic +tract, the forest of Dean, which, unlike the majority of English +forests, maintains its ancient character. Gloucestershire has +thus a share in the courses of five of the most famous of English +rivers, and covers two of the most interesting physical districts +in the country. The minor rivers of the county are never long. +The vale is at no point within the county wider than 24 m., and +so does not permit the formation of any considerable tributary +to the Severn from the Dean Hills on the one hand or the +Cotteswolds on the other. The Leadon rises east of Hereford, +forms part of the north-western boundary, and joins the Severn +near Gloucester, watering the vale of Gloucester, the northern +part of the vale. In the southern part, the vale of Berkeley, +the Stroudwater traverses a narrow, picturesque and populous +valley, and the Little Avon flows past the town of Berkeley, +joining the Severn estuary on the left. The Frome runs southward +to the Bristol Avon at Bristol. The principal northern +feeders of the Thames are the Churn (regarded by some as +properly the headwater of the main river) rising in the Seven +Springs, in the hills above Cheltenham, and forming the southern +county boundary near its junction with the Thames at Cricklade; +the Coln, a noteworthy trout-stream, joining above Lechlade, +and the Lech (forming part of the eastern county boundary) +joining below the same town; while from the east of the county +there pass into Oxfordshire the Windrush and the Evenlode, +much larger streams, rising among the bare uplands of the +northern Cotteswolds.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>—No county in England has a greater variety of geological +formations. The pre-Cambrian is represented by the gneissic rocks +at the south end of the Malvern Hills and by grits at Huntley. +At Damory, Charfield and Woodford is a patch of greenstone, the +cause of the upheaval of the Upper Silurian basin of Tortworth, in +which are the oldest stratified rocks of the county. Of these the Upper +Llandovery is the dominant stratum, exposed near Damory mill, +Micklewood chase and Purton passage, wrapping round the base of +May and Huntley hills, and reappearing in the vale of Woolhope. +The Wenlock limestone is exposed at Falfield mill and Whitfield, +and quarried for burning at May hill. The Lower Ludlow shales or +mudstones are seen at Berkeley and Purton, where the upper part +is probably Aymestry limestone. The series of sandy shales and +sandstones which, as Downton sandstones and Ledbury shales, +form a transition to the Old Red Sandstone are quarried at Dymock. +The “Old Red” itself occurs at Berkeley, Tortworth Green, Thornbury, +and several places in the Bristol coal-field, in anticlinal folds +forming hills. It forms also the great basin extending from Ross to +Monmouth and from Dymock to Mitcheldean, Abenhall, Blakeney, +&c., within which is the Carboniferous basin of the forest. It is cut +through by the Wye from Monmouth to Woolaston. This formation +is over 8000 ft. thick in the forest of Dean. The Bristol and Forest +Carboniferous basins lie within the synclinal folds of the Old Red +Sandstone; and though the seams of coal have not yet been correlated, +they must have been once continuous, as further appears from +the existence of an intermediate basin, recently pierced, under the +Severn. The lower limestone shales are 500 ft. thick in the Bristol +area and only 165 in the forest, richly fossiliferous and famous for +their bone bed. The great marine series known as the Mountain +Limestone, forming the walls of the grand gorges of the Wye and +Avon, is over 2000 ft. thick in the latter district, but only 480 in the +former, where it yields the brown hematite in pockets so largely +worked for iron even from Roman times. It is much used too for +lime and road metal. Above this comes the Millstone Grit, well seen +at Brandon hill, where it is 1000 ft. in thickness, though but 455 +in the forest. On this rest the Coal Measures, consisting in the +Bristol field of two great series, the lower 2000 ft. thick with 36 +seams, the upper 3000 ft. with 22 seams, 9 of which reach 2 ft. in +thickness. These two series are separated by over 1700 ft. of hard +sandstone (Pennant Grit), containing only 5 coal-seams. In the +Forest coal-field the whole series is not 3000 ft. thick, with but 15 +seams. At Durdham Down a dolomitic conglomerate, of the age +known as Keuper or Upper Trias, rests unconformably on the edges +of the Palaeozoic rocks, and is evidently a shore deposit, yielding +dinosaurian remains. Above the Keuper clays come the Penarth +beds, of which classical sections occur at Westbury, Aust, &c. The +series consists of grey marls, black paper shales containing much +pyrites and a celebrated bone bed, the Cotham landscape marble, +and the White Lias limestone, yielding <i>Ostrea Liassica</i> and <i>Cardium +Rhaeticum</i>. The district of Over Severn is mainly of Keuper marls. +The whole vale of Gloucester is occupied by the next formation, the +Lias, a warm sea deposit of clays and clayey limestones, characterized +by ammonites, belemnites and gigantic saurians. At its base is +the insect-bearing limestone bed. The pastures producing Gloucester +cheese are on the clays of the Lower Lias. The more calcareous +Middle Lias or marlstone forms hillocks flanking the Oolite escarpment +of the Cotteswolds, as at Wotton-under-Edge and Churchdown. +The Cotteswolds consist of the great limestone series of the Lower +Oolite. At the base is a transition series of sands, 30 to 40 ft. thick, +well developed at Nailsworth and Frocester. Leckhampton hill is +a typical section of the Lower Oolite, where the sands are capped by +40 ft. of a remarkable pea grit. Above this are 147 ft. of freestone, +7 ft. of oolite marl, 34 ft. of upper freestone and 38 ft. of ragstone. +The Painswick stone belongs to lower freestone. Resting on the +Inferior Oolite, and dipping with it to S.E., is the “fuller’s earth,” +a rubbly limestone about 100 ft. thick, throwing out many of the +springs which form the head waters of the Thames. Next comes +the Great or Bath Oolite, at the base of which are the Stonesfield +“slate” beds, quarried for roofing, paling, &c., at Sevenhampton and +elsewhere. From the Great Oolite Minchinhampton stone is obtained, +and at its top is about 40 ft. of flaggy Oolite with bands of clay +known as the Forest Marble. Ripple marks are abundant on the +flags; in fact all the Oolites seem to have been near shore or in +shallow water, much of the limestone being merely comminuted +coral. The highest bed of the Lower Oolite is the Cornbrash, about +40 ft. of rubble, productive in corn, forming a narrow belt from +Siddington to Fairford. Near the latter town and Lechlade is a +small tract of blue Oxford Clay of the Middle Oolite. The county has +no higher Secondary or Tertiary rocks; but the Quaternary series +is represented by much northern drift gravel in the vale and Over +Severn, by accumulations of Oolitic detritus, including post-Glacial +extinct mammalian remains on the flanks of the Cotteswolds, and by +submerged forests extending from Sharpness to Gloucester.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—The climate is mild. Between three-quarters and +seven-eighths of the total area is under cultivation, and of this some +four-sevenths is in permanent pasture. Wheat is the chief grain +crop. In the vale the deep rich black and red loamy soil is well +adapted for pasturage, and a moist mild climate favours the growth +of grasses and root crops. The cattle, save on the frontier of Herefordshire, +are mostly shorthorns, of which many are fed for distant +markets, and many reared and kept for dairy purposes. The rich +grazing tract of the vale of Berkeley produces the famous “double +Gloucester” cheeses, and the vale in general has long been celebrated +for cheese and butter. The vale of Gloucester is the chief grain-growing +district. Turnips, &c., occupy about three-fourths of the +green crop acreage, potatoes occupying only about a twelfth. A +feature of the county is its apple and pear orchards, chiefly for the +manufacture of cider and perry, which are attached to nearly every +farm. The Cotteswold district is comparatively barren except in +the valleys, but it has been famous since the 15th century for the +breed of sheep named after it. Oats and barley are here the chief +crops.</p> + +<p><i>Other Industries.</i>—The manufacture of woollen cloth followed upon +the early success in sheep-farming among the Cotteswolds. This +industry is not confined to the hill country or even to Gloucestershire +itself in the west of England. The description of cloth principally +manufactured is broadcloth, dressed with teazles to produce a short +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page134" id="page134"></a>134</span> +close nap on the face, and made of all shades of colour, but chiefly +black, blue and scarlet. The principal centre of the industry lies +in and at the foot of the south-western Cotteswolds. Stroud is the +centre for a number of manufacturing villages, and south-west of +this are Wotton-under-Edge, North Nibley and others. Machinery +and tools, paper, furniture, pottery and glass are also produced. +Ironstone, clay, limestone and sandstone are worked, and the +coal-fields in the forest of Dean are important. Of less extent is the +field in the south of the county, N.E. of Bristol. Strontium sulphate +is dug from shallow pits in the red marl of Gloucestershire and +Somersetshire.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—Railway communications are provided principally +by the Great Western and Midland companies. Of the Great +Western lines, the main line serves Bristol from London. It divides +at Bristol, one section serving the south-western counties, another +South Wales, crossing beneath the Severn by the Severn Tunnel, +4<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> m. in length, a remarkable engineering work. A more direct +route, by this tunnel, between London and South Wales, is provided +by a line from Wootton Bassett on the main line, running north of +Bristol by Badminton and Chipping Sodbury. Other Great Western +lines are that from Swindon on the main line, by the Stroud valley +to Gloucester, crossing the Severn there, and continuing by the right +bank of the river into Wales, with branches north-west into Herefordshire; +the Oxford and Worcester trunk line, crossing the north-east +of the county, connected with Cheltenham and Gloucester by a +branch through the Cotteswolds from Chipping Norton junction; +and the line from Cheltenham by Broadway to Honeybourne. +The west-and-north line of the Midland railway follows the vale +from Bristol by Gloucester and Cheltenham with a branch into the +forest of Dean by Berkeley, crossing the Severn at Sharpness by a +great bridge 1387 yds. in length, with 22 arches. The coal-fields of +the forest of Dean are served by several branch lines. In the north, +Tewkesbury is served by a Midland branch from Ashchurch to +Malvern. The Midland and South-western Junction railway runs +east and south from Cheltenham by Cirencester, affording communication +with the south of England. The East Gloucester line +of the Great Western from Oxford terminates at Fairford. The +Thames and Severn canal, rising to a summit level in the tunnel +through the Cotteswolds at Sapperton, is continued from Wallbridge +(Stroud) by the Stroudwater canal, and gives communication between +the two great rivers. The Berkeley Ship Canal (16½ m.) connects +the port of Gloucester with its outport of Sharpness on Severn.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>—The area of the ancient county is +795,709 acres, with a population in 1891 of 599,947 and in 1901 of +634,729. The area of the administrative county is 805,482 acres. The +county contains 28 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are—Bristol, +a city and county borough (pop. 328,945); Cheltenham (49,439); +Gloucester, a city and county borough (47,955); Tewkesbury +(5419). The other urban districts are—Awre (1096), Charlton Kings +(3806), Circenester (7536), Coleford (2541), Kingswood, on the eastern +outskirts of Bristol (11,961), Nailsworth (3028), Newnham (1184), +Stow-on-the-Wold (1386), Stroud (9153), Tetbury (1989), Westbury-on-Severn +(1866). The number of small ancient market towns is +large, especially in the southern part of the vale, on the outskirts +of the forest, and among the foot hills of the wolds. Those in the +forest district are mostly connected with the coal trade, such as +Lydney (3559), besides Awre and Coleford; and, to the north, +besides Newnham, Cinderford and Mitcheldean. South from Stroud +there are Minchinhampton (3737) and Nailsworth; near the south-eastern +boundary Tetbury and Marshfield; Stonehouse (2183), +Dursley (2372), Wotton-under-Edge (2992) and Chipping Sodbury +along the western line of the hills; and between them and the +Severn, Berkeley and Thornbury (2594). Among the uplands of the +Cotteswolds there are no towns, and villages are few, but in the east of +the county, in the upper Thames basin, there are, besides Cirencester, +Fairford on the Coln and Lechlade, close to the head of the navigation +on the Thames itself. Far up in the Lech valley, remote from +railway communication, is Northleach, once a great posting station +on the Oxford and Cheltenham road. In the north-east are Stow-on-the-Wold, +standing high, and Moreton-in-the-Marsh near the headwaters +of the Evenlode. In a northern prolongation of the county, +almost detached, is Chipping Campden. Winchcomb (2699) lies +6 m. N.E. of Cheltenham. In the north-west, Newent (2485) is the +only considerable town. Gloucestershire is in the Oxford circuit, and +assizes are held at Gloucester. It has one court of quarter sessions, +and is divided into 24 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs +of Bristol, Gloucester and Tewkesbury have separate commissions +of the peace and courts of quarter sessions. There are 359 civil +parishes. Gloucestershire is principally in the diocese of Gloucester, +but part is in that of Bristol, and small parts in those of Worcester +and Oxford. There are 408 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly +or in part within the county. There are five parliamentary divisions, +namely, Tewkesbury or northern, Cirencester or eastern, Stroud or +mid, Thornbury or southern, and Forest of Dean, each returning +one member. The county also includes the boroughs of Gloucester +and Cheltenham, each returning one member; and the greater part +of the borough of Bristol, which returns four members.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The English conquest of the Severn valley began in +577 with the victory of Ceawlin at Deorham, followed by the +capture of Cirencester, Gloucester and Bath. The Hwiccas who +occupied the district were a West Saxon tribe, but their territory +had become a dependency of Mercia in the 7th century, and +was not brought under West Saxon dominion until the 9th +century. No important settlements were made by the Danes +in the district. Gloucestershire probably originated as a shire +in the 10th century, and is mentioned by name in the Anglo-Saxon +Chronicle in 1016. Towards the close of the 11th century +the boundaries were readjusted to include Winchcomb, hitherto +a county by itself, and at the same time the forest district between +the Wye and the Severn was added to Gloucestershire. The +divisions of the county for a long time remained very unsettled, +and the thirty-nine hundreds mentioned in the Domesday Survey +and the thirty-one hundreds of the Hundred Rolls of 1274 differ +very widely in name and extent both from each other and from +the twenty-eight hundreds of the present day.</p> + +<p>Gloucestershire formed part of Harold’s earldom at the time +of the Norman invasion, but it offered slight resistance to the +Conqueror. In the wars of Stephen’s reign the cause of the +empress Maud was supported by Robert of Gloucester who had +rebuilt the castle at Bristol, and the castles at Gloucester and +Cirencester were also garrisoned on her behalf. In the barons’ +war of the reign of Henry III. Gloucester was garrisoned for +Simon de Montfort, but was captured by Prince Edward in 1265, +in which year de Montfort was slain at Evesham. Bristol and +Gloucester actively supported the Yorkist cause during the Wars +of the Roses. In the religious struggles of the 16th century +Gloucester showed strong Protestant sympathy, and in the +reign of Mary Bishop Hooper was sent to Gloucester to be burnt +as a warning to the county, while the same Puritan leanings +induced the county to support the Parliamentary cause in the +civil war of the 17th century. In 1643 Bristol and Cirencester +were captured by the Royalists, but the latter was recovered +in the same year and Bristol in 1645. Gloucester was garrisoned +for the parliament throughout the struggle.</p> + +<p>On the subdivision of the Mercian diocese in 680 the greater +part of modern Gloucestershire was included in the diocese of +Worcester, and shortly after the Conquest constituted the archdeaconry +of Gloucester, which in 1290 comprised the deaneries +of Campden, Stow, Cirencester, Fairford, Winchcombe, Stonehouse, +Hawkesbury, Bitton, Bristol, Dursley and Gloucester. +The district west of the Severn, with the exception of a few +parishes in the deaneries of Ross and Staunton, constituted the +deanery of the forest within the archdeaconry and diocese of +Hereford. In 1535 the deanery of Bitton had been absorbed +in that of Hawkesbury. In 1541 the diocese of Gloucester was +created, its boundaries being identical with those of the county. +On the erection of Bristol to a see in 1542 the deanery of Bristol +was transferred from Gloucester to that diocese. In 1836 the +sees of Gloucester and Bristol were united; the archdeaconry of +Bristol was created out of the deaneries of Bristol, Cirencester, +Fairford and Hawkesbury; and the deanery of the forest was +transferred to the archdeaconry of Gloucester. In 1882 the +archdeaconry of Cirencester was constituted to include the +deaneries of Campden, Stow, Northleach north and south, +Fairford and Cirencester. In 1897 the diocese of Bristol was +recreated, and included the deaneries of Bristol, Stapleton and +Bitton.</p> + +<p>After the Conquest very extensive lands and privileges in the +county were acquired by the church, the abbey of Cirencester +alone holding seven hundreds at fee-farm, and the estates of the +principal lay-tenants were for the most part outlying parcels +of baronies having their “caput” in other counties. The large +estates held by William Fitz Osbern, earl of Hereford, escheated +to the crown on the rebellion of his son Earl Roger in 1074-1075. +The Berkeleys have held lands in Gloucestershire from +the time of the Domesday Survey, and the families of Basset, +Tracy, Clifton, Dennis and Poyntz have figured prominently +in the annals of the county. Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, +and Richard of Cornwall claimed extensive lands and privileges +in the shire in the 13th century, and Simon de Montfort owned +Minsterworth and Rodley.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page135" id="page135"></a>135</span></p> + +<p>Bristol was made a county in 1425, and in 1483 Richard III. +created Gloucester an independent county, adding to it the +hundreds of Dudston and King’s Barton. The latter were +reunited to Gloucestershire in 1673, but the cities of Bristol and +Gloucester continued to rank as independent counties, with +separate jurisdiction, county rate and assizes. The chief officer +of the forest of Dean was the warden, who was generally also +constable of St Briavel Castle. The first justice-seat for the +forest was held at Gloucester Castle in 1282, the last in 1635. +The hundred of the duchy of Lancaster is within the jurisdiction +of the duchy of Lancaster for certain purposes.</p> + +<p>The physical characteristics of the three natural divisions of +Gloucestershire have given rise in each to a special industry, +as already indicated. The forest district, until the development +of the Sussex mines in the 16th century, was the chief iron-producing +area of the kingdom, the mines having been worked +in Roman times, while the abundance of timber gave rise to +numerous tanneries and to an important ship-building trade. +The hill district, besides fostering agricultural pursuits, gradually +absorbed the woollen trade from the big towns, which now +devoted themselves almost entirely to foreign commerce. Silk-weaving +was introduced in the 17th century, and was especially +prosperous in the Stroud valley. The abundance of clay and +building-stone in the county gave rise to considerable manufactures +of brick, tiles and pottery. Numerous minor industries +sprang up in the 17th and 18th centuries, such as flax-growing +and the manufacture of pins, buttons, lace, stockings, rope and +sailcloth.</p> + +<p>Gloucestershire was first represented in parliament in 1290, +when it returned two members. Bristol and Gloucester acquired +representation in 1295, Cirencester in 1572 and Tewkesbury +in 1620. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned +four members in two divisions; Bristol, Gloucester, Cirencester, +Stroud and Tewkesbury returned two members each, and +Cheltenham returned one member. The act of 1868 reduced the +representation of Cirencester and Tewkesbury to one member each.</p> + +<p><i>Antiquities.</i>—The cathedrals of Gloucester and Bristol, the +magnificent abbey church of Tewkesbury, and the church of +Cirencester with its great Perpendicular porch, are described +under their separate headings. Of the abbey of Hayles near +Winchcomb, founded by Richard, earl of Cornwall, in 1246, +little more than the foundations are left, but these have been +excavated with great care, and interesting fragments have been +brought to light. Most of the old market towns have fine parish +churches. At Deerhurst near Tewkesbury, and Cleeve near +Cheltenham, there are churches of special interest on account +of the pre-Norman work they retain. The Perpendicular church +at Lechlade is unusually perfect; and that at Fairford was +built (<i>c.</i> 1500), according to tradition, to contain the remarkable +series of stained-glass windows which are said to have been +brought from the Netherlands. These are, however, adjudged +to be of English workmanship, and are one of the finest series +in the country. The great Decorated Calcot Barn is an interesting +relic of the monastery of Kingswood near Tetbury. The castle +at Berkeley is a splendid example of a feudal stronghold. Thornbury +Castle, in the same district, is a fine Tudor ruin, the pretensions +of which evoked the jealousy of Cardinal Wolsey against +its builder, Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, who was +beheaded in 1521. Near Cheltenham is the fine 15th-century +mansion of Southam de la Bere, of timber and stone. Memorials +of the de la Bere family appear in the church at Cleeve. The +mansion contains a tiled floor from Hayles Abbey. Near +Winchcomb is Sudeley Castle, dating from the 15th century, +but the inhabited portion is chiefly Elizabethan. The chapel is +the burial place of Queen Catherine Parr. At Great Badminton +is the mansion and vast domain of the Beauforts (formerly of +the Botelers and others), on the south-eastern boundary of the +county.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Gloucestershire</i>; Sir R. Atkyns, +<i>The Ancient and Present State of Gloucestershire</i> (London, 1712; 2nd +ed., London, 1768); Samuel Rudder, <i>A New History of Gloucestershire</i> +(Cirencester, 1779); Ralph Bigland, <i>Historical, Monumental and +Genealogical Collections relative to the County of Gloucester</i> (2 vols., +London, 1791); Thomas Rudge, <i>The History of the County of Gloucester</i> +(2 vols., Gloucester, 1803); T. D. Fosbroke <i>Abstract of Records and +Manuscripts respecting the County of Gloucestershire formed into a +History</i> (2 vols., Gloucester, 1807); <i>Legends, Tales and Songs in +the Dialect of the Peasantry of Gloucestershire</i> (London, 1876); J. D. +Robertson, <i>Glossary of Dialect and Archaic Words of Gloucester</i> +(London, 1890); W. Bazeley and F. A. Hyett, <i>Bibliographers’ +Manual of Gloucestershire</i> (3 vols., London, 1895-1897); W. H. +Hutton, <i>By Thames and Cotswold</i> (London, 1903). See also <i>Transactions +of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological Society</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLOVE<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>glof</i>, perhaps connected with Gothic <i>lofa</i>, the +palm of the hand), a covering for the hand, commonly with a +separate sheath for each finger.</p> + +<p>The use of gloves is of high antiquity, and apparently was +known even to the pre-historic cave dwellers. In Homer +Laërtes is described as wearing gloves (<span class="grk" title="cheiridas epi chersi">χειρῖδας ἐπὶ χερσί</span>) +while walking in his garden (<i>Od.</i> xxiv. 230). Herodotus (vi. +72) tells how Leotychides filled a glove (<span class="grk" title="cheiris">χειρίς</span>) with the money +he received as a bribe, and Xenophon (<i>Cyrop.</i> viii. 8. 17) records +that the Persians wore fur gloves having separate sheaths for +the fingers (<span class="grk" title="cheiridas daseias kai daktylêthras">χειρῖδας δασείας καὶ δακτυλήθρας</span>). Among the +Romans also there are occasional references to the use of gloves. +According to the younger Pliny (<i>Ep.</i> iii. 5. 15) the secretary +whom his uncle had with him when ascending Vesuvius wore +gloves (<i>manicae</i>) so that he might not be impeded in his work +by the cold, and Varro (<i>R.R.</i> i. 55. 1) remarks that olives gathered +with the bare fingers are better than those gathered with gloves +(<i>digitabula</i> or <i>digitalia</i>). In the northern countries the general +use of gloves would be more natural than in the south, and it +is not without significance that the most common medieval +Latin word for glove (<i>guantus</i> or <i>wantus</i>, Mod. Fr. <i>gant</i>) is of +Teutonic origin (O. H. Ger. <i>want</i>). Thus in the life of Columbanus +by Jonas, abbot of Bobbio (d. <i>c.</i> 665), gloves for protecting the +hands in doing manual labour are spoken of as <i>tegumenta manuum +quae Galli wantos vocant</i>. Among the Germans and Scandinavians, +in the 8th and 9th centuries, the use of gloves, fingerless +at first, would seem to have been all but universal; and in the +case of kings, prelates and nobles they were often elaborately +embroidered and bejewelled. This was more particularly the case +with the gloves which formed part of the pontifical vestments (see +below). In war and in the chase gloves of leather, or with the +backs armoured with articulated iron plates, were early worn; yet +in the Bayeux tapestry the warriors on either side fight ungloved. +The fact that gloves are not represented by contemporary artists +does not prove their non-existence, since this might easily be +an omission due to lack of observation or of skill; but, so far +as the records go, there is no evidence to prove that gloves were +in general use in England until the 13th century. It was in +this century that ladies began to wear gloves as ornaments; +they were of linen and sometimes reached to the elbow. It +was, however, not till the 16th century that they reached their +greatest elaboration, when Queen Elizabeth set the fashion for +wearing them richly embroidered and jewelled.</p> + +<p>The symbolic sense of the middle ages early gave to the use +of gloves a special significance. Their liturgical use by the +Church is dealt with below (<i>Pontifical gloves</i>); this was imitated +from the usage of civil life. Embroidered and jewelled gloves +formed part of the <i>insignia</i> of the emperors, and also, and that +quite early, of the kings of England. Thus Matthew of Paris, +in recording the burial of Henry II. in 1189, mentions that he +was buried in his coronation robes, with a golden crown on his +head and gloves on his hands. Gloves were also found on the +hands of King John when his tomb was opened in 1797, and on +those of King Edward I. when his tomb was opened in 1774.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. B. Redfern, <i>Royal and Historic Gloves and Shoes</i>, with +numerous examples.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Gages.</i>—Of the symbolical uses of the glove one of the most +widespread and important during the middle ages was the +practice of tendering a folded glove as a gage for waging one’s +law. The origin of this custom is probably not far to seek. The +promise to fulfil a judgment of a court of law, a promise secured +by the delivery of a <i>wed</i> or gage, is one of the oldest, if not the +very oldest, of all enforceable contracts. This gage was originally +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>136</span> +a chattel of value, which had to be deposited at once by the +defendant as security into his adversary’s hand; and that the +glove became the formal symbol of such deposit is doubtless +due to its being the most convenient loose object for the purpose. +The custom survived after the contract with the <i>vadium</i>, <i>wed</i> +or gage had been superseded by the contract with pledges (personal +sureties). In the rules of procedure of a baronial court +of the 14th century we find: “He shall wage his law with his +folded glove (<i>de son gaunt plyee</i>) and shall deliver it into the hand +of the other, and then take his glove back and find pledges for +his law.” The delivery of the glove had, in fact, become a mere +ceremony, because the defendant had his sureties close at hand.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>Associated with this custom was the use of the glove in the +wager of battle (<i>vadium in duello</i>). The glove here was thrown +down by the defendant in open court as security that he would +defend his cause in arms; the accuser by picking it up accepted +the challenge (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wager</a></span>). This form is still prescribed for the +challenge of the king’s champion at the coronation of English +sovereigns, and was actually followed at that of George IV. +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Champion</a></span>). The phrase “to throw down the gauntlet” +is still in common use of any challenge.</p> + +<p><i>Pledges of Service.</i>—The use of the glove as a pledge of fulfilment +is exemplified also by the not infrequent practice of enfeoffing +vassals by investing them with the glove; similarly the emperors +symbolized by the bestowal of a glove the concession of the right +to found a town or to establish markets, mints and the like; +the “hands” in the armorial bearings of certain German towns +are really gloves, reminiscent of this investiture. Conversely, +fiefs were held by the render of presenting gloves to the sovereign. +Thus the manor of Little Holland in Essex was held in Queen +Elizabeth’s time by the service of one knight’s fee and the rent of +a pair of gloves turned up with hare’s skin (Blount’s <i>Tenures</i>, +ed. Beckwith, p. 130). The most notable instance in England, +however, is the grand serjeanty of finding for the king a glove +for his right hand on coronation day, and supporting his right +arm as long as he holds the sceptre. The right to perform +this “honourable service” was originally granted by William the +Conqueror to Bertram de Verdun, together with the manor of +Fernham (Farnham Royal) in Buckinghamshire. The male +descendants of Bertram performed this serjeanty at the coronations +until the death of Theobald de Verdun in 1316, when the +right passed, with the manor of Farnham, to Thomas Lord +Furnival by his marriage with the heiress Joan. His son William +Lord Furnival performed the ceremony at the coronation of +Richard II. He died in 1383, and his daughter and heiress Jean +de Furnival having married Sir Thomas Nevill, Lord Furnival +in her right, the latter performed the ceremony at the coronation +of Henry IV. His heiress Maud married Sir John Talbot (1st +earl of Shrewsbury) who, as Lord Furnival, presented the glove +embroidered with the arms of Verdun at the coronation of +Henry V. When in 1541 Francis earl of Shrewsbury exchanged +the manor of Farnham with King Henry VIII. for the site and +precincts of the priory of Worksop in Nottinghamshire he +stipulated that the right to perform this serjeanty should be +reserved to him, and the king accordingly transferred the +obligation from Farnham to Worksop. On the 3rd of April +1838 the manor of Worksop was sold to the duke of Newcastle +and with it the right to perform the service, which had hitherto +always been carried out by a descendant of Bertram de Verdun. +At the coronation of King Edward VII. the earl of Shrewsbury +disputed the duke of Newcastle’s right, on the ground that the +serjeanty was attached not to the manor but to the priory lands +at Worksop, and that the latter had been subdivided by sale +so that no single person was entitled to perform the ceremony +and the right had therefore lapsed. His petition for a regrant +to himself as lineal heir of Bertram de Verdun, however, was +disallowed by the court of claims, and the serjeanty was declared +to be attached to the manor of Worksop (G. Woods Wollaston, +<i>Coronation Claims</i>, London, 1903, p. 133).</p> + +<p><i>Presentations.</i>—From the ceremonial and symbolic use of +gloves the transition was easy to the custom which grew up of +presenting them to persons of distinction on special occasions. +When Queen Elizabeth visited Cambridge in 1578 the vice-chancellor +offered her a “paire of gloves, perfumed and garnished +with embroiderie and goldsmithe’s wourke, price 60s.,” and at +the visit of James I. there in 1615 the mayor and corporation +of the town “delivered His Majesty a fair pair of perfumed +gloves with gold laces.” It was formerly the custom in England +for bishops at their consecrations to make presents of gloves to +those who came to their consecration dinners and others, but this +gift became such a burden to them that by an order in council +in 1678 It was commuted for the payment of a sum of £50 towards +the rebuilding of St Paul’s. Serjeants at law, on their appointment, +were given a pair of gloves containing a sum of money +which was termed “regards”; this custom is recorded as early +as 1495, when according to the <i>Black Book</i> of Lincoln’s Inn +each of the new Serjeants received £6, 13s. 4d. and a pair of +gloves costing 4d., and it persisted to a late period. At one time +it was the practice for a prisoner who pleaded the king’s pardon +on his discharge to present the judges with gloves by way of a +fee. Glove-silver, according to Jacob’s <i>Law Dictionary</i>, was a +name used of extraordinary rewards formerly given to officers of +courts, &c., or of money given by the sheriff of a county in which +no offenders were left for execution to the clerk of assize and +judge’s officers; the explanation of the term is that the glove +given as a perquisite or fee was in some cases lined with money +to increase its value, and thus came to stand for money ostensibly +given in lieu of gloves. It is still the custom in the United +Kingdom to present a pair of white gloves to a judge or magistrate +who when he takes his seat for criminal business at the +appointed time finds no cases for trial. By ancient custom +judges are not allowed to wear gloves while actually sitting on +the bench, and a witness taking the oath must remove the glove +from the hand that holds the book. (See J. W. Norton-Kyshe, +<i>The Law and Customs relating to Gloves</i>, London, 1901.)</p> + +<p><i>Pontifical gloves</i> (Lat. <i>chirothecae</i>) are liturgical ornaments +peculiar to the Western Church and proper only to the pope, the +cardinals and bishops, though the right to wear them is often +granted by the Holy See to abbots, cathedral dignitaries and +other prelates, as in the case of the other episcopal insignia. +According to the present use the gloves are of silk and of the +liturgical colour of the day, the edge of the opening ornamented +with a narrow band of embroidery or the like, and the middle of +the back with a cross. They may be worn only at the celebration +of mass (except masses for the dead). In vesting, the +gloves are put on the bishop immediately after the dalmatic, the +right hand one by the deacon, the other by the subdeacon. They +are worn only until the ablution before the canon of the mass, +after which they may not again be put on.</p> + +<p>At the consecration of a bishop the consecrating prelate puts +the gloves on the new bishop immediately after the mitre, with +a prayer that his hands may be kept pure, so that the sacrifice he +offers may be as acceptable as the gift of venison which Jacob, +his hands wrapped in the skin of kids, brought to Isaac. This +symbolism (as in the case of the other vestments) is, however, of +late growth. The liturgical use of gloves itself cannot, according +to Father Braun, be traced beyond the beginning of the 10th +century, and their introduction was due, perhaps to the simple +desire to keep the hands clean for the holy mysteries, but more +probably merely as part of the increasing pomp with which the +Carolingian bishops were surrounding themselves. From the +Frankish kingdom the custom spread to Rome, where liturgical +gloves are first heard of in the earlier half of the 11th century. +The earliest authentic instance of the right to wear them being +granted to a non-bishop is a bull of Alexander IV. in 1070, conceding +this to the abbot of S. Pietro in Cielo d’ Oro.</p> + +<p>During the middle ages the occasions on which pontifical gloves +(often <i>wanti</i>, <i>guanti</i>, and sometimes <i>manicae</i> in the inventories) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id="page137"></a>137</span> +were worn were not so carefully defined as now, the use varying in +different churches. Nor were the liturgical colours prescribed. +The most characteristic feature of the medieval pontifical glove +was the ornament (<i>tasellus</i>, <i>fibula</i>, <i>monile</i>, <i>paratura</i>) set in the +middle of the back of the glove. This was usually a small plaque +of metal, enamelled or jewelled, generally round, but sometimes +square or irregular in shape. Sometimes embroidery was substituted; +still more rarely the whole glove was covered, even to the +fingers, with elaborate needlework designs.</p> + +<p>Liturgical gloves have not been worn by Anglican bishops since +the Reformation, though they are occasionally represented as +wearing them on their effigies.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Braun, S.J., <i>Die liturgische Gewandung</i> (Freiburg im Breisgau, +1907), pp. 359-382, where many beautiful examples are illustrated.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Manufacture of Gloves.</i>—Three countries, according to an old +proverb, contribute to the making of a good glove—Spain +dressing the leather, France cutting it and England sewing it. +But the manufacture of gloves was not introduced into Great +Britain till the 10th or 11th century. The incorporation of +glovers of Perth was chartered in 1165, and in 1190 a glove-makers’ +gild was formed in France, with the object of regulating +the trade and ensuring good workmanship. The glovers of +London in 1349 framed their ordinances and had them approved +by the corporation, the city regulations at that time fixing the +price of a pair of common sheepskin gloves at 1d. In 1464, when +the gild received armorial bearings, they do not seem to have +been very strong, but apparently their position improved subsequently +and in 1638 they were incorporated as a new company. +In 1580 it is recorded that both French and Spanish gloves were +on sale in London shops, and in 1661 a company of glovers was +incorporated at Worcester, which still remains an important seat +of the English glove Industry. In America the manufacture of +gloves dates from about 1760, when Sir William Johnson brought +over several families of glove makers from Perth; these settled +in Fulton county, New York, which is now the largest seat of the +glove trade in the United States.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gloves may be divided into two distinct categories, according as +these are made of leather or are woven or knitted from fibres such as +silk, wool or cotton. The manufacture of the latter kinds is a branch +of the hosiery industry. For leather gloves skins of various animals +are employed—deer, calves, sheep and lambs, goats and kids, &c.—but +kids have had nothing to do with the production of many of +the “kid gloves” of commerce. The skins are prepared and dressed +by special processes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leather</a></span>) before going to the glove-maker +to be cut. Owing to the elastic character of the material the cutting +is a delicate operation, and long practice is required before a man +becomes expert at it. Formerly it was done by shears, the workmen +following an outline marked on the leather, but now steel dies are +universally employed not only for the bodies of the gloves but also +for the thumb-pieces and fourchettes or sides of the fingers. When +hand sewing is employed the pieces to be sewn together are placed +between a pair of jaws, the holding edges of which are serrated with +fine saw-teeth, and the sewer by passing the needle forwards and +backwards between each of these teeth secures neat uniform stitching. +But sewing machines are now widely employed on the work. The +labour of making a glove is much subdivided, different operators +sewing different pieces, and others again embroidering the back, +forming the button-holes, attaching the buttons, &c. After the gloves +are completed, they undergo the process of “laying off,” in which +they are drawn over metal forms, shaped like a hand and heated +internally by steam; in this way they are finally smoothed and +shaped before being wrapped in paper and packed in boxes.</p> + +<p>Gloves made of thin india-rubber or of white cotton are worn by +some surgeons while performing operations, on account of the ease +with which they can be thoroughly sterilized.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> F. W. Maitland and W. P. Baildon, <i>The Court Baron</i> (Selden +Society, London, 1891), p. 17. Maitland wrongly translates <i>gaunt +plyee</i> as “twisted” glove, adding “why it should be twisted I cannot +say.” An earlier instance of the delivery of a folded glove as gage +is quoted from the 13th-century Anglo-Norman poem known as <i>The +Song of Dermott and the Earl</i> (ed. G. H. Orpen, Oxford, 1892) in +J. H. Round’s <i>Commune of London</i>, p. 153.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLOVER, SIR JOHN HAWLEY<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1829-1885), captain in the +British navy, entered the service in 1841 and passed his examination +as lieutenant in 1849, but did not receive a commission till +May 1851. He served on various stations, and was wounded +severely in an action with the Burmese at Donabew (4th +February 1853). But his reputation was not gained at sea and +as a naval officer, but on shore and as an administrative official +in the colonies. During his years of service as lieutenant in the +navy he had had considerable experience of the coast of Africa, +and had taken part in the expedition of Dr W. B. Baikie (1824-1864) +up the Niger. On the 21st of April 1863 he was appointed +administrator of the government of Lagos, and in that capacity, +or as colonial secretary, he remained there till 1872. During this +period he had been much employed in repelling the marauding +incursions of the Ashantis. When the Ashanti war broke out +in 1873, Captain Glover undertook the hazardous and doubtful +task of organizing the native tribes, whom hatred of the Ashantis +might be expected to make favourable to the British authorities—to +the extent at least to which their fears would allow them to act. +His services were accepted, and in September of 1873 he landed at +Cape Coast, and, after forming a small trustworthy force of +Hausa, marched to Accra. His influence sufficed to gather a +numerous native force, but neither he nor anybody else could +overcome their abject terror of the ferocious Ashantis to the +extent of making them fight. In January 1874 Captain Glover +was able to render some assistance in the taking of Kumasi, +but it was at the head of a Hausa force. His services were +acknowledged by the thanks of parliament and by his creation +as G.C.M.G. In 1875 he was appointed governor of Newfoundland +and held the post till 1881, when he was transferred to the +Leeward Islands. He returned to Newfoundland in 1883, and +died in London on the 30th September 1885.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Lady Glover’s <i>Life</i> of her husband appeared in 1897.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLOVER, RICHARD<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1712-1785), English poet, son of Richard +Glover, a Hamburg merchant, was born in London in 1712. He +was educated at Cheam in Surrey. While there he wrote in his +sixteenth year a poem to the memory of Sir Isaac Newton, which +was prefixed by Dr Pemberton to his <i>View of Newton’s Philosophy</i>, +published in 1728. In 1737 he published an epic poem in praise +of liberty, <i>Leonidas</i>, which was thought to have a special reference +to the politics of the time; and being warmly commended by the +prince of Wales and his court, it soon passed through several +editions. In 1739 Glover published a poem entitled <i>London, or +the Progress of Commerce</i>; and in the same year, with a view to +exciting the nation against the Spaniards, he wrote a spirited +ballad, <i>Hosier’s Ghost</i>, very popular in its day. He was also the +author of two tragedies, <i>Boadicea</i> (1753) and <i>Medea</i> (1761), +written in close imitation of Greek models. The success of +Glover’s <i>Leonidas</i> led him to take considerable interest in politics, +and in 1761 he entered parliament as member for Weymouth. +He died on the 25th of November 1785. The <i>Athenaid</i>, an epic in +thirty books, was published in 1787, and his diary, entitled +<i>Memoirs of a distinguished literary and political Character from +1742 to 1757</i>, appeared in 1813. Glover was one of the reputed +authors of <i>Junius</i>; but his claims—which were advocated in an +<i>Inquiry concerning the author of the Letters of Junius</i> (1815), by +R. Duppa—rest on very slight grounds.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLOVERSVILLE,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> a city of Fulton county, New York, +U.S.A., at the foot-hills of the Adirondacks, about 55 m. N.W. +of Albany. Pop. (1890) 13,864; (1900) 18,349, of whom 2542 +were foreign-born; (1910 census) 20,642. It is served by +the Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville railway (connecting +at Fonda, about 9 m. distant, with the New York Central), +and by electric lines connecting with Johnstown, Amsterdam +and Schenectady. The city has a public library (26,000 +volumes in 1908), the Nathan Littauer memorial hospital, +a state armoury and a fine government building. Gloversville +is the principal glove-manufacturing centre in the United +States. In 1900 Fulton county produced more than 57%, +and Gloversville 38.8%, of all the leather gloves and mittens +made in the United States; in 1905 Gloversville produced 29.9% +of the leather gloves and mittens made in the United States, +its products being valued at $5,302,196. Gloversville has more +than a score of tanneries and leather-finishing factories, and +manufactures fur goods. In 1905 the city’s total factory product +was valued at $9,340,763. The extraordinary localization of the +glove-making industry in Gloversville, Johnstown and other +parts of Fulton county, is an incident of much interest in the +economic history of the United States. The industry seems to +have had its origin among a colony of Perthshire families, +including many glove-makers, who were settled in this region by +Sir William Johnson about 1760. For many years the entire +product seems to have been disposed of in the neighbourhood, +but about 1809 the goods began to find more distant markets, +and by 1825 the industry was firmly established on a prosperous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page138" id="page138"></a>138</span> +basis, the trade being handed down from father to son. An +interesting phase of the development is that, in addition to the +factory work, a large amount of the industry is in the hands of +“home workers” both in the town and country districts. +Gloversville, settled originally about 1770, was known for some +time as Stump City, its present name being adopted in 1832. +It was incorporated as a village in 1851 and was chartered as a +city in 1890.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLOW-WORM,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> the popular name of the wingless female of +the beetle <i>Lampyris noctiluca</i>, whose power of emitting light has +been familiar for many centuries. The luminous organs of the +glow-worm consist of cells similar to those of the fat-body, +grouped into paired masses in the ventral region of the hinder +abdominal segments. The light given out by the wingless +female insect is believed to serve as an attraction to the flying +male, whose luminous organs remain in a rudimentary condition. +The common glow-worm is a widespread European and Siberian +insect, generally distributed in England and ranging in Scotland +northwards to the Tay, but unknown in Ireland. Exotic species +of <i>Lampyris</i> are similarly luminous, and light-giving organs are +present in many genera of the family <i>Lampyridae</i> from various +parts of the world. Frequently—as in the south European <i>Luciola +italica</i>—both sexes of the beetle are provided with wings, and both +male and female emit light. These luminous, winged Lampyrids +are generally known as “fire-flies.” In correspondence with their +power of emitting light, the insects are nocturnal in habit.</p> + +<p>Elongate centipedes of the family <i>Geophilidae</i>, certain species +of which are luminous, are sometimes mistaken for the true +glow-worm.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLOXINIA,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> a charming decorative plant, botanically a species +of <i>Sinningia</i> (<i>S. speciosa</i>), a member of the natural order Gesneraceae +and a native of Brazil. The species has given rise under +cultivation to numerous forms showing a wonderful variety of +colour, and hybrid forms have also been obtained between these +and other species of <i>Sinningia</i>. A good strain of seed will +produce many superb and charmingly coloured varieties, and +if sown early in spring, in a temperature of 65° at night, they +may be shifted on into 6-in. pots, and in these may be flowered +during the summer. The bulbs are kept at rest through the +winter in dry sand, in a temperature of 50°, and to yield a succession +should be started at intervals, say at the end of February and +the beginning of April. To prolong the blooming season, use +weak manure water when the flower-buds show themselves.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLUCINUM,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> an alternative name for Beryllium (<i>q.v.</i>). When +L. N. Vauquelin in 1798 published in the <i>Annales de chimie</i> an +account of a new earth obtained by him from beryl he refrained +from giving the substance a name, but in a note to his paper +the editors suggested glucine, from <span class="grk" title="glykys">γλυκύς</span>, sweet, in reference +to the taste of its salts, whence the name Glucinum or Glucinium +(symbol Gl. or sometimes G). The name beryllium was given +to the metal by German chemists and was generally used until +recently, when the earlier name was adopted.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLUCK,</span><a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <span class="bold">CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (1714-1787), operatic +composer, German by his nationality, French by his place in art, +was born at Weidenwang, near Neumarkt, in the upper +Palatinate, on the 2nd of July 1714. He belonged to the lower +middle class, his father being gamekeeper to Prince Lobkowitz; +but the boy’s education was not neglected on that account. +From his twelfth to his eighteenth year he frequented the +Jesuit school of Kommotau in the neighbourhood of Prince +Lobkowitz’s estate in Bohemia, where he not only received a +good general education, but also had lessons in music. At the +age of eighteen Gluck went to Prague, where he continued his +musical studies under Czernohorsky, and maintained himself +by the exercise of his art, sometimes in the very humble capacity +of fiddler at village fairs and dances. Through the introductions +of Prince Lobkowitz, however, he soon gained access to the best +families of the Austrian nobility; and when in 1736 he proceeded +to Vienna he was hospitably received at his protector’s palace. +Here he met Prince Melzi, an ardent lover of music, whom he +accompanied to Milan, continuing his education under Giovanni +Battista San Martini, a great musical historian and contrapuntist, +who was also famous in his own day as a composer of +church and chamber music. We soon find Gluck producing +operas at the rapid rate necessitated by the omnivorous taste +of the Italian public in those days. Nine of these works were +produced at various Italian theatres between 1741 and 1745. +Although their artistic value was small, they were so favourably +received that in 1745 Gluck was invited to London to compose +for the Haymarket. The first opera produced there was called +<i>La Caduta dei giganti</i>; it was followed by a revised version of +one of his earlier operas. Gluck also appeared in London as a +performer on the musical glasses (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harmonica</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The success of his two operas, as well as that of a <i>pasticcio</i> +(<i>i.e.</i> a collection of favourite arias set to a new libretto) entitled +<i>Piramo e Tisbe</i>, was anything but brilliant, and he accordingly +left London. But his stay in England was not without important +consequences for his subsequent career. Gluck at this time was +rather less than an ordinary producer of Italian opera. Handel’s +well-known saying that Gluck “knew no more counterpoint +than his cook” must be taken in connexion with the less well-known +fact that that cook was an excellent bass singer who +performed in many of Handel’s own operas. But it indicates +the musical reason of Gluck’s failure, while Gluck himself learnt +the dramatic reason through his surprise at finding that arias +which in their original setting had been much applauded lost +all effect when adapted to new words in the <i>pasticcio</i>. Irrelevant +as Handel’s criticism appears, it was not without bearing on +Gluck’s difficulties. The use of counterpoint has very little +necessary connexion with contrapuntal display; its real and +final cause is a certain depth of harmonic expression which Gluck +attained only in his most dramatic moments, and for want of +which he, even in his finest works, sometimes moved very lamely. +And in later years his own mature view of the importance of +harmony, which he upheld in long arguments with Grétry, who +believed only in melody, shows that he knew that the dramatic +expression of music must strike below the surface. At this +early period he was simply producing Handelian opera in an +amateurish style, suggesting an unsuccessful imitation of Hasse; +but the failure of his <i>pasticcio</i> is as significant to us as it was to +him, since it shows that already the effect of his music depended +upon its characteristic treatment of dramatic situations. This +characterizing power was as yet not directly evident, and it +needed all the influence of the new instrumental resources of +the rising sonata-forms before music could pass out of what we +may call its architectural and decorative period and enter into +dramatic regions at all.</p> + +<p>It is highly probable that the chamber music of his master, +San Martini, had already indicated to Gluck a new direction +which was more or less incompatible with the older art; and +there is nothing discreditable either to Gluck or to his +contemporaries in the failure of his earlier works. Had the young +composer been successful in the ordinary <i>opera seria</i>, there is +reason to fear that the great dramatic reform, initiated by him, +might not have taken place. The critical temper of the London +public fortunately averted this calamity. It may also be assumed +that the musical atmosphere of the English capital, and especially +the great works of Handel, were not without beneficial influence +upon the young composer. But of still greater importance in +this respect was a short trip to Paris, where Gluck became for +the first time acquainted with the classic traditions and the +declamatory style of the French opera—a sphere of music in +which his own greatest triumphs were to be achieved. Of +these great issues little trace, however, is to be found in the works +produced by Gluck during the fifteen years after his return from +England. In this period Gluck, in a long course of works by +no means free from the futile old traditions, gained technical +experience and important patronage, though his success was +not uniform. His first opera written for Vienna, <i>La Semiramide +riconosciuta</i>, is again an ordinary <i>opera seria</i>, and little more +can be said of <i>Telemacco</i>, although thirty years later Gluck was +able to use most of its overture and an energetic duet in one of +his greatest works, <i>Armide</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id="page139"></a>139</span></p> + +<p>Gluck settled permanently at Vienna in 1756, having two +years previously been appointed court chapel-master, with a +salary of 2000 florins, by the empress Maria Theresa. He had +already received the order of knighthood from the pope in consequence +of the successful production of two of his works in Rome. +During the long interval from 1756 to 1762 Gluck seems to have +matured his plans for the reform of the opera; and, barring a +ballet named <i>Don Giovanni</i>, and some <i>airs nouveaux</i> to French +words with pianoforte accompaniment, no compositions of any +importance have to be recorded. Several later <i>pièces d’occasion</i>, +such as <i>Il Trionfo di Clelia</i> (1763), are still written in the old +manner, though already in 1762 <i>Orfeo ed Euridice</i> shows that the +composer had entered upon a new career. Gluck had for the +first time deserted Metastasio for Raniero Calzabigi, who, as +Vernon Lee suggests, was in all probability the immediate cause +of the formation of Gluck’s new ideas, as he was a hot-headed +dramatic theorist with a violent dislike for Metastasio, who had +hitherto dominated the whole sphere of operatic libretto.</p> + +<p>Quite apart from its significance in the history of dramatic +music, <i>Orpheus</i> is a work which, by its intrinsic beauty, commands +the highest admiration. Orpheus’s air, <i>Che faro</i>, is known to +every one; but still finer is the great scena in which the poet’s +song softens even the <i>ombre sdegnose</i> of Tartarus. The ascending +passion of the entries of the solo (<i>Deh! placatevi</i>; <i>Mille pene</i>; +<i>Men tiranne</i>), interrupted by the harsh but gradually softening +exclamations of the Furies, is of the highest dramatic effect. +These melodies, moreover, as well as every declamatory passage +assigned to Orpheus, are made subservient to the purposes of +dramatic characterization; that is, they could not possibly +be assigned to any other person in the drama, any more than +Hamlet’s monologue could be spoken by Polonius. It is in this +power of musically realizing a character—a power all but unknown +in the serious opera of his day—that Gluck’s genius +as a dramatic composer is chiefly shown. After a short relapse +into his earlier manner, Gluck followed up his <i>Orpheus</i> by a +second classical music-drama (1767) named <i>Alceste</i>. In his +dedication of the score to the grand-duke of Tuscany, he fully +expressed his aims, as well as the reasons for his total breach with +the old traditions. “I shall try,” he wrote, “to reduce music +to its real function, that of seconding poetry by intensifying +the expression of sentiments and the interest of situations +without interrupting the action by needless ornament. I have +accordingly taken care not to interrupt the singer in the heat of +the dialogue, to wait for a tedious <i>ritornel</i>, nor do I allow him to +stop on a sonorous vowel, in the middle of a phrase, in order to +show the nimbleness of a beautiful voice in a long <i>cadenza</i>.” +Such theories, and the stern consistency with which they were +carried out, were little to the taste of the pleasure-loving +Viennese; and the success of <i>Alceste</i>, as well as that of <i>Paris +and Helena</i>, which followed two years later, was not such as +Gluck had desired and expected. He therefore eagerly accepted +the chance of finding a home for his art in the centre of intellectual +and more especially dramatic life, Paris. Such a chance was +opened to him through the <i>bailli</i> Le Blanc du Roullet, attaché of +the French embassy at Vienna, and a musical amateur who +entered into Gluck’s ideas with enthusiasm. A classic opera +for the Paris stage was accordingly projected, and the friends +fixed upon Racine’s <i>Iphigénie en Aulide</i>. After some difficulties, +overcome chiefly by the intervention of Gluck’s former pupil +the dauphiness Marie Antoinette, the opera was at last accepted +and performed at the Académie de Musique, on the 19th of +April 1774.</p> + +<p>The great importance of the new work was at once perceived +by the musical amateurs of the French capital, and a hot controversy +on the merits of <i>Iphigénie</i> ensued, in which some of the +leading literary men of France took part. Amongst the opponents +of Gluck were not only the admirers of Italian vocalization and +sweetness, but also the adherents of the earlier French school, who +refused to see in the new composer the legitimate successor of +Lulli and Rameau. Marmontel, Laharpe and D’Alembert were +his opponents, the Abbé Arnaud and others his enthusiastic +friends. Rousseau took a peculiar position in the struggle. +In his early writings he is a violent partisan of Italian music, +but when Gluck himself appeared as the French champion +Rousseau acknowledged the great composer’s genius; although +he did not always understand it, as for example when he suggested +that in <i>Alceste</i>, “Divinités du Styx,” perhaps the most majestic +of all Gluck’s arias, ought to have been set as a rondo. Nevertheless +in a letter to Dr Burney, written shortly before his death, +Rousseau gives a close and appreciative analysis of <i>Alceste</i>, +the first Italian version of which Gluck had submitted to him +for suggestions; and when, on the first performance of the +piece not being received favourably by the Parisian audience, +the composer exclaimed, “<i>Alceste est tombée</i>,” Rousseau is said +to have comforted him with the flattering <i>bonmot</i>, “<i>Oui, mais +elle est tombée du ciel</i>.” The contest received a still more personal +character when Piccinni, a celebrated and by no means incapable +composer, came to Paris as the champion of the Italian party +at the invitation of Madame du Barry, who held a rival court to +that of the young princess (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Opera</a></span>). As a dramatic controversy +it suggests a parallel with the Wagnerian and anti-Wagnerian +warfare of a later age; but there is no such radical +difference between Gluck’s and Piccinni’s musical methods as +the comparison would suggest. Gluck was by far the better +musician, but his deficiencies in musical technique were of a +kind which contemporaries could perceive as easily as they could +perceive Piccinni’s. Both composers were remarkable inventors +of melody, and both had the gift of making incorrect music +sound agreeable. Gluck’s indisputable dramatic power might +be plausibly dismissed as irrelevant by upholders of music for +music’s sake, even if Piccinni himself had not chosen, as he +did, to assimilate every feature in Gluck’s style that he could +understand. The rivalry between the two composers was soon +developed into a quarrel by the skilful engineering of Gluck’s +enemies. In 1777 Piccinni was given a libretto by Marmontel +on the subject of <i>Roland</i>, to Gluck’s intense disgust, as he had +already begun an opera on that subject himself. This, and the +failure of an attempt to show his command of a lighter style by +furbishing up some earlier works at the instigation of Marie +Antoinette, inspired Gluck to produce his <i>Armide</i>, which appeared +four months before Piccinni’s <i>Roland</i> was ready, and raised a +storm of controversy, admiration and abuse. Gluck did not +anticipate Wagner more clearly in his dramatic reforms than in +his caustic temper; and, as in Gluck’s own estimation the +difference between <i>Armide</i> and <i>Alceste</i> is that “<i>l’un</i> (<i>Alceste</i>) +<i>doit faire pleurer et l’autre faire éprouver une voluptueuse sensation</i>,” +it was extremely annoying for him to be told by Laharpe that +he had made Armide a sorceress instead of an enchantress, and +that her part was “<i>une criaillerie monotone et fatiguante</i>.” He +replied to Laharpe in a long public letter worthy of Wagner in +its venomous sarcasm and its tremendous value as an advertisement +for its recipient.</p> + +<p>Gluck’s next work was <i>Iphigénie en Tauride</i>, the success +of which finally disposed of Piccinni, who produced a work +on the same subject at the same time and who is said to have +acknowledged Gluck’s superiority. Gluck’s next work was +<i>Écho et Narcisse</i>, the comparative failure of which greatly +disappointed him; and during the composition of another opera, +<i>Les Danaïdes</i>, an attack of apoplexy compelled him to give up +work. He left Paris for Vienna, where he lived for several +years in dignified leisure, disturbed only by his declining health. +He died on the 15th of November 1787.</p> +<div class="author">(F. H.; D. F. T.)</div> + +<p>The great interest of the dramatic aspect of Gluck’s reforms +is apt to overshadow his merit as a musician, and yet in some +ways to idealize it. One is tempted to regard him as condoning +for technical musical deficiencies by sheer dramatic power, +whereas unprejudiced study of his work shows that where his +dramatic power asserts itself there is no lack of musical technique. +Indeed only a great musician could so reform opera as to give it +scope for dramatic power at all. Where Gluck differs from the +greatest musicians is in his absolute dependence on literature +for his inspiration. Where his librettist failed him (as in his +last complete work, <i>Écho et Narcisse</i>), he could hardly write +tolerably good music; and, even in the finest works of his French +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140"></a>140</span> +period, the less emotional situations are sometimes set to music +which has little interest except as a document in the history of +the art. This must not be taken to mean merely that Gluck +could not, like Mozart and nearly all the great song-writers, +set good music to a bad text. Such inability would prove +Gluck’s superior literary taste without casting a slur on his +musicianship. But it points to a certain weakness as a musician +that Gluck could not be inspired except by the more thrilling +portions of his libretti. When he was inspired there was no +question that he was the first and greatest writer of dramatic +music before Mozart. To begin with, he could invent sublime +melodies; and his power of producing great musical effects by +the simplest means was nothing short of Handelian. Moreover, +in his peculiar sphere he deserves the title generally accorded +to Haydn of “father of modern orchestration.” It is misleading +to say that he was the first to use the timbre of instruments +with a sense of emotional effect, for Bach and Handel well knew +how to give a whole aria or whole chorus peculiar tone by means +of a definite scheme of instrumentation. But Gluck did not treat +instruments as part of a decorative design, any more than he so +treated musical forms. Just as his sense of musical form is that +of Philipp Emmanuel Bach and of Mozart, so is his treatment +of instrumental tone-colour a thing that changes with every +shade of feeling in the dramatic situation, and not in accordance +with any purely decorative scheme. To accompany an aria +with strings, oboes and flutes, was, for example, a perfectly +ordinary procedure; nor was there anything unusual in making +the wind instruments play in unison with the strings for the +first part of the aria, and writing a passage for one or more of +them in the middle section. But it was an unheard-of thing to +make this passage consist of long <i>appoggiaturas</i> once every two +bars in rising sequence on the first oboe, answered by deep +<i>pizzicato</i> bass notes, while Agamemnon in despair cries: +“<i>J’entends retentir dans mon sein le cri plaintif de la nature</i>.” +Some of Gluck’s most forcible effects are of great subtlety, as, +for instance, in <i>Iphigénie en Tauride</i>, where Orestes tries to +reassure himself by saying: “<i>Le calme rentre dans mon cœur</i>,” +while the intensely agitated accompaniment of the strings +belies him. Again, the sense of orchestral climax shown in the +oracle scene in <i>Alceste</i> was a thing inconceivable in older music, +and unsurpassed in artistic and dramatic spirit by any modern +composer. Its influence in Mozart’s <i>Idomeneo</i> is obvious at a +first glance.</p> + +<p>The capacity for broad melody always implies a true sense +of form, whether that be developed by skill or not; and thus +Gluck, in rejecting the convenient formalities of older styles +of opera, was not, like some reformers, without something +better to substitute for them. Moreover he, in consultation with +his librettist, achieved great skill in holding together entire +scenes, or even entire acts, by dramatically apposite repetitions +of short arias and choruses. And thus in large portions of his +finest works the music, in spite of frequent full closes, seems to +move <i>pari passu</i> with the drama in a manner which for naturalness +and continuity is surpassed only by the finales of Mozart +and the entire operas of Wagner. This is perhaps most noticeable +in the second act of <i>Orfeo</i>. In its original Italian version both +scenes, that in Hades and that in Elysium, are indivisible wholes, +and the division into single movements, though technically +obvious, is aesthetically only a natural means of articulating +the structure. The unity of the scene in Hades extends, in the +original version, even to the key-system. This was damaged +when Gluck had to transpose the part of Orpheus from an alto +to a tenor in the French version. And here, we have one of +many instances in which the improvements his French experience +enabled him to make in his great Italian works were not altogether +unmixed. Little harm, however, was done to <i>Orfeo</i> +which has not been easily remedied by transposing Orpheus’s +part back again; and in a suitable compromise between the +two versions <i>Orfeo</i> remains Gluck’s most perfect and inspired +work. The emotional power of the music is such that the +inevitable spoiling of the story by a happy ending has not the +aspect of mere conventionality which it had in cases where the +music produced no more than the normal effect upon 18th-century +audiences. Moreover Gluck’s genius was of too high +an order for him to be less successful in portraying a sufficiently +intense happiness than in portraying grief. He failed only in +what may be called the business capacities of artistic technique; +and there is less “business” in <i>Orfeo</i> than in almost any other +music-drama. It was Gluck’s first great inspiration, and his +theories had not had time to take action in paper warfare. +<i>Alceste</i> contains his grandest music and is also very free from +weak pages; but in its original Italian version the third act +did not give Gluck scope for an adequate climax. This difficulty +so accentuated itself in the French version that after continual +retouchings a part for Hercules was, in Gluck’s absence, added +by Gossec; and three pages of Gluck’s music, dealing with the +supreme crisis where Alceste is rescued from Hades (either by +Apollo or by Hercules) were no longer required in performance +and have been lost. The Italian version is so different from the +French that it cannot help us to restore this passage, in which +Gluck’s music now stops short just at the point where we realize +the full height of his power. The comparison between the +Italian and French <i>Alceste</i> is one of the most interesting that can +be made in the study of a musician’s development. It would have +been far easier for Gluck to write a new opera if he had not +been so justly attached to his second Italian masterpiece. So +radical are the differences that in retranslating the French +libretto into Italian for performance with the French music +not one line of Calzabigi’s original text can be retained.</p> + +<p>In <i>Iphigénie en Aulide</i> and <i>Iphigénie en Tauride</i>, Gluck +shows signs that the controversies aroused by his methods +began to interfere with his musical spontaneity. He had not, +in <i>Orfeo</i>, gone out of his way to avoid rondos, or we should have +had no “<i>Che faro senza Euridice</i>.” We read with a respectful +smile Gluck’s assurance to the bailli Le Blanc du Roullet that +“you would not believe <i>Armide</i> to be by the same composer” +as <i>Alceste</i>. But there is no question that <i>Armide</i> is a very great +work, full of melody, colour and dramatic point; and that Gluck +has availed himself of every suggestion that his libretto afforded +for orchestral and emotional effects of an entirely different type +from any that he had attempted before. And it is hardly +relevant to blame him for his inability to write erotic music. +In the first place, the libretto is not erotic, though the subject +would no doubt become so if treated by a modern poet. In the +second place a conflict of passions (as, for instance, where Armide +summons the demons of Hate to exorcise love from her heart, +and her courage fails her as soon as they begin) has never, even +in <i>Alceste</i>, been treated with more dramatic musical force. +The work as a whole is unequal, partly because there is a little +too much action in it to suit Gluck’s methods; but it shows, +as does no other opera until Mozart’s <i>Don Giovanni</i>, a sense of +the <i>development</i> of characters, as distinguished from the mere +presentation of them as already fixed.</p> + +<p>In <i>Iphigénie en Aulide</i> and <i>Iphigénie en Tauride</i>, the very +subtlety of the finest features indicates a certain self-consciousness +which, when inspiration is lacking, becomes mannerism. +Moreover, in both cases the libretti, though skilfully managed, +tell a rather more complicated story than those which Gluck +had hitherto so successfully treated; and, where inspiration +fails, the musical technique becomes curiously amateurish +without any corresponding naïveté. Still these works are +immortal, and their finest passages are equal to anything in +<i>Alceste</i> and <i>Orfeo</i>. <i>Écho et Narcisse</i> we must, like Gluck’s +contemporaries, regard as a failure. As in <i>Orfeo</i>, the pathetic +story is ruined by a violent happy ending, but here this artistic +disaster takes place before the pathos has had time to assert +itself. Gluck had no opportunities in this work for any higher +qualities, musical or dramatic, than prettiness; and with him +beauty, without visible emotion, was indeed skin-deep. It is +a pity that the plan of the great Pelletan-Damcke critical +<i>édition de luxe</i> of Gluck’s French operas forbids the inclusion +of his Italian <i>Paride e Elena</i>, his third opera to Calzabigi’s +libretto, which was never given in a French version; for there +can be no question that, whatever he owed to France, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page141" id="page141"></a>141</span> +period of his greatness began with his collaboration with +Calzabigi.</p> +<div class="author">(D. F. T.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Not, as frequently spelt, Glück.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLÜCKSBURG,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Schleswig-Holstein, romantically situated among pine woods +on the Flensburg Fjord off the Baltic, 6 m. N.E. from Flensburg +by rail. Pop. (1905) 1551. It has a Protestant church and some +small manufactures and is a favourite sea-bathing resort. The +castle, which occupies the site of a former Cistercian monastery, +was, from 1622 to 1779, the residence of the dukes of +Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, +passing then to the king of Denmark +and in 1866 to Prussia. King Frederick VII. of Denmark died +here on the 15th of November 1863.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLÜCKSTADT,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Schleswig-Holstein, on the right bank of the Elbe, at the +confluence of the small river Rhin, and 28 m. N.W. of Altona, +on the railway from Itzehoe to Elmshorn. Pop. (1905) 6586. +It has a Protestant and a Roman Catholic church, a handsome +town-hall (restored in 1873-1874), a gymnasium, a provincial +prison and a penitentiary. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged +in commerce and fishing; but the frequent losses from inundations +have greatly retarded the prosperity of the town. Glückstadt +was founded by Christian IV. of Denmark in 1617, and +fortified in 1620. It soon became an important trading centre. +In 1627-28 it was besieged for fifteen weeks by the imperialists +under Tilly, without success. In 1814 it was blockaded by the +allies and capitulated, whereupon its fortifications were demolished. +In 1830 it was made a free port. It came into the +possession of Prussia together with the rest of Schleswig-Holstein +in 1866.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lucht, <i>Glückstadt. Beiträge zur Geschichte dieser Stadt</i> (Kiel, +1854).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLUCOSE<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="glykys">γλυκύς</span>, sweet), a carbohydrate of the +formula C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">12</span>O<span class="su">6</span>; it may be regarded as the aldehyde of sorbite. +The name is applied in commerce to a complex mixture of +carbohydrates obtained by boiling starch with dilute mineral +acids; in chemistry, it denotes, with the prefixes d, l and +d + l (or i), the dextro-rotatory, laevo-rotatory and inactive +forms of the definite chemical compound defined above. The +d modification is of the commonest occurrence, the other forms +being only known as synthetic products; for this reason it is +usually termed glucose, simply; alternative names are dextrose, +grape sugar and diabetic sugar, in allusion to its right-handed +optical rotation, its occurrence in large quantity in grapes, and +in the urine of diabetic patients respectively. In the vegetable +kingdom glucose occurs, always in admixture with fructose, +in many fruits, especially grapes, cherries, bananas, &c.; and +in combination, generally with phenols and aldehydes belonging +to the aromatic series, it forms an extensive class of compounds +termed glucosides. It appears to be synthesized in the plant +tissues from carbon dioxide and water, formaldehyde being an +intermediate product; or it may be a hydrolytic product of a +glucoside or of a polysaccharose, such as cane sugar, starch, +cellulose, &c. In the plant it is freely converted into more +complex sugars, poly-saccharoses and also proteids. In the +animal kingdom, also, it is very widely distributed, being sometimes +a normal and sometimes a pathological constituent of +the fluids and tissues; in particular, it is present in large +amount in the urine of those suffering from diabetes, and +may be present in nearly all the body fluids. It also occurs in +honey, the white appearance of candied honey being due to +its separation.</p> + +<p>Pure <i>d</i>-glucose, which may be obtained synthetically (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sugar</a></span>) or by adding crystallized cane sugar to a mixture of +80% alcohol and <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">15</span> volume of fuming hydrochloric acid so +long as it dissolves on shaking, crystallizes from water or alcohol +at ordinary temperatures in nodular masses, composed of minute +six-sided plates, and containing one molecule of water of crystallization. +This product melts at 86° C., and becomes anhydrous +when heated to 110° C. The anhydrous compound can also be +prepared, as hard crusts melting at 146°, by crystallizing concentrated +aqueous solutions at 30° to 35°. It is very soluble +in water, but only slightly soluble in strong alcohol. Its taste +is somewhat sweet, its sweetening power being estimated at +from ½ to <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> that of cane sugar. When heated to above 200° it +turns brown and produces caramel, a substance possessing a +bitter taste, and used, in its aqueous solution or otherwise, +under various trade names, for colouring confectionery, spirits, +&c. The specific rotation of the plane of polarized light by +glucose solutions is characteristic. The specific rotation of a +freshly prepared solution is 105°, but this value gradually +diminishes to 52.5°, 24 hours sufficing for the transition in the +cold, and a few minutes when the solution is boiled. This +phenomenon has been called mutarotation by T. M. Lowry. +The specific rotation also varies with the concentration; this +is due to the dissociation of complex molecules into simpler +ones, a view confirmed by cryoscopic measurements.</p> + +<p>Glucose may be estimated by means of the polarimeter, <i>i.e.</i> +by determining the rotation of the plane of polarization of a +solution, or, chemically, by taking advantage of its property of +reducing alkaline copper solutions. If a glucose solution be +added to copper sulphate and much alkali added, a yellowish-red +precipitate of cuprous hydrate separates, slowly in the cold, +but immediately when the liquid is heated; this precipitate +rapidly turns red owing to the formation of cuprous oxide. In +1846 L. C. A. Barreswil found that a strongly alkaline solution +of copper sulphate and potassium sodium tartrate (Rochelle +salt) remained unchanged on boiling, but yielded an immediate +precipitate of red cuprous oxide when a solution of glucose was +added. He suggested that the method was applicable for quantitatively +estimating glucose, but its acceptance only followed +after H. von Fehling’s investigation. “Fehling’s solution” +is prepared by dissolving separately 34.639 grammes of copper +sulphate, 173 grammes of Rochelle salt, and 71 grammes of +caustic soda in water, mixing and making up to 1000 ccs.; +10 ccs. of this solution is completely reduced by 0.05 grammes of +hexose. Volumetric methods are used, but the uncertainty of +the end of the reaction has led to the suggestion of special +indicators, or of determining the amount of cuprous oxide +gravimetrically.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Chemistry.</i>—In its chemical properties glucose is a typical oxyaldehyde +or aldose. The aldehyde group reacts with hydrocyanic acid +to produce two stereo-isomeric cyanhydrins; this isomerism is due +to the conversion of an originally non-asymmetric carbon atom into +an asymmetric one. The cyanhydrin is hydrolysable to an acid, +the lactone of which may be reduced by sodium amalgam to a +glucoheptose, a non-fermentable sugar containing seven carbon +atoms. By repeating the process a non-fermentable gluco-octose +and a fermentable glucononose may be prepared. The aldehyde +group also reacts with phenyl hydrazine to form two phenylhydrazones; +under certain conditions a hydroxyl group adjacent to the +aldehyde group is oxidized and glucosazone is produced; this +glucosazone is decomposed by hydrochloric acid into phenyl +hydrazine and the keto-aldehyde glucosone. These transformations +are fully discussed in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sugar</a></span>. On reduction glucose +appears to yield the hexahydric alcohol <i>d</i>-sorbite, and on oxidation +<i>d</i>-gluconic and <i>d</i>-saccharic acids. Alkalis partially convert it into +<i>d</i>-mannose and <i>d</i>-fructose. Baryta and lime yield saccharates, +<i>e.g.</i> C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">12</span>O<span class="su">6</span>·BaO, precipitable by alcohol.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:235px; height:118px" src="images/img141.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The constitution of glucose was established by H. Kiliani in 1885-1887, +who showed it to be CH<span class="su">2</span>OH·(CH·OH)<span class="su">4</span>·CHO. The subject +was taken up by Emil Fischer, who succeeded in synthesizing +glucose, and also several of its stereo-isomers, there being 16 according +to the Le Bel-van’t Hoff theory (see Stereo-Isomerism and +Sugar). This open chain structure is challenged in the views put +forward by T. M. Lowry and E. F. Armstrong. In 1895 C. Tanret +showed that glucose existed in more than one form, and he isolated +α, β and γ varieties with specific rotations of 105°, 52.5° and 22°. +It is now agreed that the β variety is a mixture of the α and γ. +This discovery explained the mutarotation of glucose. In a fresh +solution α-glucose only exists, but on standing it is slowly transformed +into γ-glucose, equilibrium +being reached when the α and γ +forms are present in the ratio +0.368 : 0.632 (Tanret, Zeit. physikal. +Chem., 1905, 53, p. 692). It is +convenient to refer to these two +forms as α and β. Lowry and Armstrong +represent these compounds +by the following spatial formulae +which postulate a γ-oxidic structure, and 5 asymmetric carbon +atoms, <i>i.e.</i> one more than in the Fischer formulae. These formulae +are supported by many considerations, especially by the selective +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page142" id="page142"></a>142</span> +action of enzymes, which follows similar lines with the α- and +β-glucosides, <i>i.e.</i> the compounds formed by the interaction of +glucose with substances generally containing hydroxyl groups (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glucoside</a></span>).</p> + +<p><i>Fermentation of Glucose.</i>—Glucose is readily fermentable. Of +the greatest importance is the alcoholic fermentation brought about +by yeast cells (<i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae seu vini</i>); this follows the +equation C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">12</span>O<span class="su">6</span> = 2C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O + 2CO<span class="su">2</span>, Pasteur considering 94 to 95% of +the sugar to be so changed. This character is the base of the plan of +adding glucose to wine and beer wort before fermenting, the alcohol +content of the liquid after fermentation being increased. Some +fusel oil, glycerin and succinic acid appear to be formed simultaneously, +but in small amount. Glucose also undergoes fermentation +into lactic acid (<i>q.v.</i>) in the presence of the lactic acid bacillus, and +into butyric acid if the action of the preceding ferment be continued, +or by other bacilli. It also yields, by the so-called mucous fermentation, +a mucous, gummy mass, mixed with mannitol and lactic +acid.</p> + +<p>We may here notice the frequent production of glucose by the action +of enzymes upon other carbohydrates. Of especial note is the +transformation of maltose by maltase into glucose, and of cane sugar +by invertase into a mixture of glucose and fructose (invert sugar); +other instances are: lactose by lactase into galactose and glucose; +trehalose by trehalase into glucose; melibiose by melibiase into +galactose and glucose; and of melizitose by melizitase into touranose +and glucose, touranose yielding glucose also when acted upon by the +enzyme touranase.</p> + +<p><i>Commercial Glucose.</i>—The glucose of commerce, which may be +regarded as a mixture of grape sugar, maltose and dextrins, is prepared +by hydrolysing starch by boiling with a dilute mineral acid. +In Europe, potato starch is generally employed; in America, corn +starch. The acid employed may be hydrochloric, which gives the +best results, or sulphuric, which is used in Germany; sulphuric acid +is more readily separated from the product than hydrochloric, since +the addition of powdered chalk precipitates it as calcium sulphate, +which may be removed by a filter press. The processes of manufacture +have much in common, although varying in detail. The +following is an outline of the process when hydrochloric acid is used: +Starch (“green” starch in America) is made into a “milk” with +water, and the milk pumped into boiling dilute acid contained in +a closed “converter,” generally made of copper or cast iron; steam +is led in at the same time, and the pressure is kept up to about 25 ℔ +to the sq. in. When the converter is full the pressure is raised somewhat, +and the heating continued until the conversion is complete. +The liquid is now run into neutralizing tanks containing sodium +carbonate, and, after settling, the supernatant liquid, termed +“light liquor,” is run through bag filters and then on to bone-char +filters, which have been previously used for the “heavy liquor.” +The colourless or amber-coloured filtrate is concentrated to 27° to +28° B., when it forms the “heavy liquor,” just mentioned. This is +filtered through fresh bone-char filters, from which it is discharged +as a practically colourless liquid. This liquid is concentrated in +vacuum pans to a specific gravity of 40° to 44° B., a small quantity +of sodium bisulphite solution being added to bleach it, to prevent +fermentation, and to inhibit browning. “Syrup glucose” is the +commercial name of the product; by continuing the concentration +further solid glucose or grape sugar is obtained.</p> + +<p>Several brands are recognized: “Mixing glucose” is used by +syrup and molasses manufacturers, “jelly glucose” by makers of +jellies, “confectioners’ glucose” in confectionery, “brewers’ glucose” +in brewing, &c.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLUCOSIDE,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> in chemistry, the generic name of an extensive +group of substances characterized by the property of yielding +a sugar, more commonly glucose, when hydrolysed by purely +chemical means, or decomposed by a ferment or enzyme. The +name was originally given to vegetable products of this nature, +in which the other part of the molecule was, in the greater +number of cases, an aromatic aldehydic or phenolic compound +(exceptions are sinigrin and jalapin or scammonin). It has now +been extended to include synthetic ethers, such as those obtained +by acting on alcoholic glucose solutions with hydrochloric acid, +and also the polysaccharoses, <i>e.g.</i> cane sugar, which appear +to be ethers also. Although glucose is the commonest sugar +present in glucosides, many are known which yield rhamnose +or iso-dulcite; these may be termed pentosides. Much attention +has been given to the non-sugar parts of the molecules; the +constitutions of many have been determined, and the compounds +synthesized; and in some cases the preparation of the synthetic +glucoside effected.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:277px; height:140px" src="images/img142a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The simplest glucosides are the alkyl esters which E. Fischer +(<i>Ber.</i>, 28, pp. 1151, 3081) obtained by acting with hydrochloric +acid on alcoholic glucose solutions. A better method of preparation +is due to E. F. Armstrong and S. L. Courtauld (<i>Proc. +Phys. Soc.</i>, 1905, July 1), who dissolve solid anhydrous glucose +in methyl alcohol containing hydrochloric acid. A mixture +of α- and β-glucose result, which are then etherified, and if the +solution be neutralized before the β-form isomerizes and the +solvent removed, a mixture of the α- and β-methyl ethers is +obtained. These may be separated by the action of suitable +ferments. Fischer found that these ethers did not reduce +Fehling’s solution, neither did they combine with phenyl hydrazine +at 100°; they appear to be stereo-isomeric γ-oxidic compounds +of the formulae I., II.: The difference between the α- and +β-forms is best shown by the +selective action of enzymes. +Fischer found that maltase, +an enzyme occurring in yeast +cells, hydrolysed α-glucosides +but not the β; while emulsin, +an enzyme occurring in bitter +almonds, hydrolyses the β +but not the α. The ethers of non-fermentable sugars are themselves +non-fermentable. By acting with these enzymes on the +natural glucosides, it is found that the majority are of the +β-form; <i>e.g.</i> emulsin hydrolyses salicin, helicin, aesculin, coniferin, +syringin, &c.</p> + +<p>Classification of the glucosides is a matter of some difficulty. +One based on the chemical constitution of the non-glucose part +of the molecules has been proposed by Umney, who framed four +groups: (1) ethylene derivatives, (2) benzene derivatives, +(3) styrolene derivatives, (4) anthracene derivatives. A group +may also be made to include the cyanogenetic glucosides, <i>i.e.</i> +those containing prussic acid. J. J. L. van Rijn (<i>Die Glykoside</i>, +1900) follows a botanical classification, which has several +advantages; in particular, plants of allied genera contain similar +compounds. In this article the chemical classification will be +followed. Only the more important compounds will be noticed, +the reader being referred to van Rijn (<i>loc. cit.</i>) and to Beilstein’s +<i>Handbuch der organischen Chemie</i> for further details.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. <i>Ethylene Derivatives.</i>—These are generally mustard oils, and +are characterized by a burning taste; their principal occurrence is in +mustard and <i>Tropaeolum seeds</i>. Sinigrin or the potassium salt of +myronic acid, C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">16</span>NS<span class="su">2</span>KO<span class="su">9</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O, occurs in black pepper and in +horse-radish root. Hydrolysis with baryta, or decomposition by +the ferment myrosin, gives glucose, allyl mustard oil and potassium +bisulphate. Sinalbin, C<span class="su">30</span>H<span class="su">42</span>N<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">15</span>, occurs in white pepper; +it decomposes to the mustard oil HO·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>·NCS, glucose and +sinapin, a compound of choline and sinapinic acid. Jalapin or +scammonin, C<span class="su">34</span>H<span class="su">56</span>O<span class="su">16</span>, occurs in scammony; it hydrolyses to glucose +and jalapinolic acid. The formulae of sinigrin, sinalbin, sinapin and +jalapinolic acid are:—</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:515px; height:152px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img142b.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">2. <i>Benzene Derivatives.</i>—These are generally oxy and oxyaldehydic +compounds. Arbutin, C<span class="su">12</span>H<span class="su">16</span>O<span class="su">7</span>, which occurs in bearberry along +with methyl arbutin, hydrolyses to hydroquinone and glucose. +Pharmacologically it acts as a urinary antiseptic and diuretic; +the benzoyl derivative, cellotropin, has been used for tuberculosis. +Salicin, also termed “saligenin” and “glucose,” C<span class="su">13</span>H<span class="su">18</span>O<span class="su">7</span>, occurs in +the willow. The enzymes ptyalin and emulsin convert it into glucose +and saligenin, ortho-oxybenzylalcohol, HO·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>OH. Oxidation +gives the aldehyde helicin. Populin, C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">22</span>O<span class="su">8</span>, which occurs +in the leaves and bark of <i>Populus tremula</i>, is benzoyl salicin.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Styrolene Derivatives.</i>—This group contains a benzene and also +an ethylene group, being derived from styrolene C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·CH:CH<span class="su">2</span>. +Coniferin, C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">22</span>O<span class="su">8</span>, occurs in the cambium of coniferous woods. +Emulsin converts it into glucose and coniferyl alcohol, while oxidation +gives glycovanillin, which yields with emulsin glucose and +vanillin (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eugenol</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vanilla</a></span>). Syringin, which occurs in the +bark of <i>Syringa vulgaris</i>, is methoxyconiferin. Phloridzin, C<span class="su">21</span>H<span class="su">24</span>O<span class="su">10</span>, +occurs in the root-bark of various fruit trees; it hydrolyses to +glucose and phloretin, which is the phloroglucin ester of para-oxyhydratropic +acid. It is related to the pentosides naringin, +C<span class="su">21</span>H<span class="su">26</span>O<span class="su">11</span>, which hydrolyses to rhamnose and naringenin, the +phloroglucin ester of para-oxycinnamic acid, and hesperidin, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page143" id="page143"></a>143</span> +C<span class="su">50</span>H<span class="su">60</span>O<span class="su">22</span>(?), which hydrolyses to rhamnose and hesperetin, C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">14</span>O<span class="su">6</span>, +the phloroglucin ester of meta-oxy-para-methoxycinnamic acid or +isoferulic acid, C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">10</span>O<span class="su">4</span>. We may here include various coumarin +and benzo-γ-pyrone derivatives. Aesculin, C<span class="su">15</span>H<span class="su">16</span>O<span class="su">9</span>, occurring in +horse-chestnut, and daphnin, occurring in <i>Daphne alpina</i>, are isomeric; +the former hydrolyses to glucose and aesculetin (4·5-dioxycoumarin), +the latter to glucose and daphnetin (3·4-dioxycoumarin). +Fraxin, C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">18</span>O<span class="su">10</span>, occurring in <i>Fraxinus excelsior</i>, and with aesculin +in horse-chestnut, hydrolyses to glucose and fraxetin, the monomethyl +ester of a trioxycoumarin. Flavone or benzo-γ-pyrone +derivatives are very numerous; in many cases they (or the non-sugar +part of the molecule) are vegetable dyestuffs. <i>Quercitrin</i>, +C<span class="su">21</span>H<span class="su">22</span>O<span class="su">12</span>, is a yellow dyestuff found in <i>Quercus tinctoria</i>; it hydrolyses +to rhamnose and quercetin, a dioxy-β-phenyl-trioxybenzo-γ-pyrone. +Rhamnetin, a splitting product of the glucosides of +<i>Rhamnus</i>, is monomethyl quercetin; fisetin, from <i>Rhus cotinus</i>, +is monoxyquercetin; chrysin is phenyl-dioxybenzo-γ-pyrone. +Saponarin, a glucoside found in <i>Saponaria officinalis</i>, is a related +compound. Strophanthin is the name given to three different +compounds, two obtained from <i>Strophanthus Kombe</i> and one from +<i>S. hispidus</i>.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Anthracene Derivatives.</i>—These are generally substituted +anthraquinones; many have medicinal applications, being used +as purgatives, while one, ruberythric acid, yields the valuable dyestuff +madder, the base of which is alizarin (<i>q.v.</i>). Chrysophanic +acid, a dioxymethylanthraquinone, occurs in rhubarb, which also +contains emodin, a trioxymethylanthraquinone; this substance +occurs in combination with rhamnose in frangula bark.</p> + +<p>The most important cyanogenetic glucoside is amygdalin, which +occurs in bitter almonds. The enzyme maltase decomposes it into +glucose and mandelic nitrile glucoside; the latter is broken down +by emulsin into glucose, benzaldehyde and prussic acid. Emulsin +also decomposes amygdalin directly into these compounds without +the intermediate formation of mandelic nitrile glucoside. Several +other glucosides of this nature have been isolated. The saponins are +a group of substances characterized by forming a lather with water; +they occur in soap-bark (<i>q.v.</i>). Mention may also be made of indican, +the glucoside of the indigo plant; this is hydrolysed by the indigo +ferment, indimulsin, to indoxyl and indiglucin.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLUE<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (from the O. Fr. <i>glu</i>, bird-lime, from the Late Lat. +<i>glutem</i>, <i>glus</i>, glue), a valuable agglutinant, consisting of impure +gelatin and widely used as an adhesive medium for wood, leather, +paper and similar substances. Glues and gelatins merge into +one another by imperceptible degrees. The difference is conditioned +by the degree of purity: the more impure form is termed +glue and is only used as an adhesive, the purer forms, termed +gelatin, have other applications, especially in culinary operations +and confectionery. Referring to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gelatin</a></span> for a +general account of this substance, it is only necessary to state +here that gelatigenous or glue-forming tissues occur in the bones, +skins and intestines of all animals, and that by extraction with +hot water these agglutinating materials are removed, and the +solution on evaporating and cooling yields a jelly-like substance—gelatin +or glue.</p> + +<p>Glues may be most conveniently classified according to their +sources: bone glue, skin glue and fish glue; these may be +regarded severally as impure forms of bone gelatin, skin gelatin +and isinglass.</p> + +<p><i>Bone Glue.</i>—For the manufacture of glue the bones are supplied +fresh or after having been used for making soups; Indian and +South American bones are unsuitable, since, by reason of their +previous treatment with steam, both their fatty and glue-forming +constituents have been already removed (to a great extent). +On the average, fresh bones contain about 50% of mineral +matter, mainly calcium and magnesium phosphates, about +12% each of moisture and fat, the remainder being other +organic matter. The mineral matter reappears in commerce +chiefly as artificial manure; the fat is employed in the candle, +soap and glycerin industries, while the other organic matter +supplies glue.</p> + +<p>The separation of the fat, or “de-greasing of the bones” +is effected (1) by boiling the bones with water in open vessels; +(2) by treatment with steam under pressure; or (3) by means +of solvents. The last process is superseding the first two, which +give a poor return of fat—a valuable consideration—and also +involve the loss of a certain amount of glue. Many solvents +have been proposed; the greatest commercial success appears +to attend Scottish shale oil and natural petroleum (Russian or +American) boiling at about 100° C. The vessels in which the +extraction is carried out consist of upright cylindrical boilers, +provided with manholes for charging, a false bottom on which +the bones rest, and with two steam coils—one for heating only, +the other for leading in “live” steam. There is a pipe from +the top of the vessel leading to a condensing plant. The vessels +are arranged in batteries. In the actual operation the boiler +is charged with bones, solvent is run in, and the mixture gradually +heated by means of the dry coil; the spirit distils over, carrying +with it the water present in the bones; and after a time the +extracted fat is run off from discharge cocks in the bottom of the +extractor.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> A fresh charge of solvent is introduced, and the cycle +repeated; this is repeated a third and fourth time, after which +the bones contain only about 0.2% of fat, and a little of the +solvent, which is removed by blowing in live steam under 70 to +80 ℔ pressure. The de-greased bones are now cleansed from +all dirt and flesh by rotation in a horizontal cylindrical drum +covered with stout wire gauze. The attrition accompanying +this motion suffices to remove the loosely adherent matter, +which falls through the meshes of the gauze; this meal contains +a certain amount of glue-forming matter, and is generally +passed through a finer mesh, the residuum being worked up in +the glue-house, and the flour which passes through being sold +as a bone-meal, or used as a manure.</p> + +<p>The bones, which now contain 5 to 6% of glue-forming +nitrogen and about 60% of calcium phosphate, are next treated +for glue. The most economical process consists in steaming +the bones under pressure (15 ℔ to start with, afterwards 5 ℔) +in upright cylindrical boilers fitted with false bottoms. The +glue-liquors collect beneath the false bottoms, and when of a +strength equal to about 20% dry glue they are run off to the +clarifiers. The first runnings contain about 65 to 70% of the +total glue; a second steaming extracts another 25 to 30%. For +clarifying the solutions, ordinary alum is used, one part being +used for 200 parts of dry glue. The alum is added to the hot +liquors, and the temperature raised to 100°; it is then allowed +to settle, and the surface scum removed by filtering through +coarse calico or fine wire filters.</p> + +<p>The clear liquors are now concentrated to a strength of about +32% dry glue in winter and 35% in summer. This is invariably +effected in vacuum pans—open boiling yields a dark-coloured +and inferior product. Many types of vacuum plant are in use; +the Yaryan form, invented by H. T. Yaryan, is perhaps the best, +and the double effect system is the most efficient. After concentration +the liquors are bleached by blowing in sulphur +dioxide, manufactured by burning sulphur; by this means the +colour can be lightened to any desired degree. The liquors are +now run into galvanized sheet-iron troughs, 2 ft. long, 6 in. +wide and 5 in. deep, where they congeal to a firm jelly, which is +subsequently removed by cutting round the edges, or by warming +with hot water, and turning the cake out. The cake is sliced +to sheets of convenient thickness, generally by means of a wire +knife, <i>i.e.</i> a piece of wire placed in a frame. Mechanical slicers +acting on this principle are in use. Instead of allowing the +solution to congeal in troughs, it may be “cast” on sheets of +glass, the bottoms of which are cooled by running water. After +congealing, the tremulous jelly is dried; this is an operation +of great nicety: the desiccation must be slow and is generally +effected by circulating a rapid current of air about the cakes +supported on nets set in frames; it occupies from four to five +days, and the cake contains on the average from 10 to 13% of +water.</p> + +<p><i>Skin Glue.</i>—In the preparation of skin glue the materials +used are the parings and cuttings of hides from tan-yards, the +ears of oxen and sheep, the skins of rabbits, hares, cats, dogs +and other animals, the parings of tawed leather, parchment +and old gloves, and many other miscellaneous scraps of animal +matter. Much experience is needed in order to prepare a good +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" id="page144"></a>144</span> +glue from such heterogeneous materials; one blending may be +a success and another a failure. The raw material has been +divided into three great divisions: (1) sheep pieces and fleshings +(ears, &c.); (2) ox fleshings and trimmings; (3) ox hides and +pieces; the best glue is obtained from a mixture of the hide, +ear and face clippings of the ox and calf. The raw material +or “stock” is first steeped for from two to ten weeks, according +to its nature, in wooden vats or pits with lime water, and afterwards +carefully dried and stored. The object of the lime steeping +is to remove any blood and flesh which may be attached to the +skin, and to form a lime soap with the fatty matter present. +The “scrows” or glue pieces, which may be kept a long time +without undergoing change, are washed with a dilute hydrochloric +acid to remove all lime, and then very thoroughly with +water; they are now allowed to drain and dry. The skins +are then placed in hemp nets and introduced into an open boiler +which has a false bottom, and a tap by which liquid may be run +off. As the boiling proceeds test quantities of liquid are from +time to time examined, and when a sample is found on cooling +to form a stiff jelly, which happens when it contains about 32% +dry glue, it is ready to draw off. The solution is then run to a +clarifier, in which a temperature sufficient to keep it fluid is +maintained, and in this way any impurity is permitted to subside. +The glue solution is then run into wooden troughs or coolers in +which it sets to a firm jelly. The cakes are removed as in the +case of bone glue (see above), and, having been placed on nets, +are, in the Scottish practice, dried by exposure to open air. +This primitive method has many disadvantages: on a hot +day the cake may become unshapely, or melt and slip through +the net, or dry so rapidly as to crack; a frost may produce +fissures, while a fog or mist may precipitate moisture on the +surface and occasion a mouldy appearance. The surface of the +cake, which is generally dull after drying, is polished by washing +with water. The practice of boiling, clarification, cooling and +drying, which has been already described in the case of bone glue, +has been also applied to the separation of skin glue.</p> + +<p><i>Fish Glue.</i>—Whereas isinglass, a very pure gelatin, is yielded +by the sounds of a limited number of fish, it is found that all +fish offals yield a glue possessing considerable adhesive properties. +The manufacture consists in thoroughly washing the offal with +water, and then discharging it into extractors with live steam. +After digestion, the liquid is run off, allowed to stand, the +upper oily layer removed, and the lower gluey solution clarified +with alum. The liquid is then filtered, concentrated in open vats, +and bleached with sulphur dioxide.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Fish glue is a light-brown +viscous liquid which has a distinctly disagreeable odour and +an acrid taste; these disadvantages to its use are avoided if it +be boiled with a little water and 1% of sodium phosphate, and +0.025% of saccharine added.</p> + +<p><i>Properties of Glue.</i>—A good quality of glue should be free from +all specks and grit, have a uniform, light brownish-yellow, +transparent appearance, and should break with a glassy fracture. +Steeped for some time in cold water it softens and swells up +without dissolving, and when again dried it ought to resume its +original properties. Under the influence of heat it entirely +dissolves in water, forming a thin syrupy fluid with a not +disagreeable smell. The adhesiveness of different qualities of +glue varies considerably; the best adhesive is formed by steeping +the glue, broken in small pieces, in water until they are quite +soft, and then placing them with just sufficient water to effect +solution in the glue-pot. The hotter the glue, the better the +joint; remelted glue is not so strong as the freshly prepared; +and newly manufactured glue is inferior to that which has been +long in stock. It is therefore seen that many factors enter into +the determination of the cohesive power of glue; a well-prepared +joint may, under favourable conditions, withstand a pull of +about 700 ℔ per sq. in. The following table, after Kilmarsch, +shows the holding power of glued joints with various kinds of +woods.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Wood.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">℔ per sq. in.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">With grain.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Across grain.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Beech</td> <td class="tcc rb">852</td> <td class="tcc rb">434.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Maple</td> <td class="tcc rb">484</td> <td class="tcc rb">346  </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oak</td> <td class="tcc rb">704</td> <td class="tcc rb">302  </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Fir</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">605</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">132  </td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Special Kinds of Glues, Cements, &c.</i>—By virtue of the fact that +the word “glue” is frequently used to denote many adhesives, which +may or may not contain gelatin, there will now be given an account +of some special preparations. These may be conveniently divided +into: (1) liquid glues, mixtures containing gelatin which do not +jelly at ordinary temperatures but still possess adhesive properties; +(2) water-proof glues, including mixtures containing gelatin, and +also the “marine glues,” which contain no glue; (3) glues or cements +for special purposes, <i>e.g.</i> for cementing glass, pottery, leather, &c., +for cementing dissimilar materials, such as paper or leather to iron.</p> + +<p><i>Liquid Glues.</i>—The demand for liquid glues is mainly due to the +disadvantages—the necessity of dissolving and using while hot—of +ordinary glue. They are generally prepared by adding to a warm +glue solution some reagent which destroys the property of gelatinizing. +The reagents in common use are acetic acid; magnesium chloride, +used for a glue employed by printers; hydrochloric acid and zinc +sulphate; nitric acid and lead sulphate; and phosphoric acid and +ammonium carbonate.</p> + +<p><i>Water-proof Glues.</i>—Numerous recipes for water-proof glues have +been published; glue, having been swollen by soaking in water, +dissolved in four-fifths its weight of linseed oil, furnishes a good +water-proof adhesive; linseed oil varnish and litharge, added to +a glue solution, is also used; resin added to a hot glue solution +in water, and afterwards diluted with turpentine, is another +recipe; the best glue is said to be obtained by dissolving one +part of glue in one and a half parts of water, and then adding +one-fiftieth part of potassium bichromate. Alcoholic solutions of +various gums, and also tannic acid, confer the same property on +glue solutions. The “marine glues” are solutions of india-rubber, +shellac or asphaltum, or mixtures of these substances, in benzene or +naphtha. Jeffrey’s marine glue is formed by dissolving india-rubber +in four parts of benzene and adding two parts of shellac; it is +extensively used, being easily applied and drying rapidly and hard. +Another water-proof glue which contains no gelatin is obtained by +heating linseed oil with five parts of quicklime; when cold it forms +a hard mass, which melts on heating like ordinary glue.</p> + +<p><i>Special Glues.</i>—There are innumerable recipes for adhesives +specially applicable to certain substances and under certain conditions. +For repairing glass, ivory, &c. isinglass (<i>q.v.</i>), which may be +replaced by fine glue, yields valuable cements; bookbinders employ +an elastic glue obtained from an ordinary glue solution and glycerin, +the water being expelled by heating; an efficient cement for mounting +photographs is obtained by dissolving glue in ten parts of alcohol +and adding one part of glycerin; portable or mouth glue—so named +because it melts in the mouth—is prepared by dissolving one part of +sugar in a solution of four parts of glue. An india-rubber substitute +is obtained by adding sodium tungstate and hydrochloric acid to a +strong glue solution; this preparation may be rolled out when +heated to 60°.</p> + +<p>For further details see Thomas Lambert, <i>Glue, Gelatine and their +Allied Products</i> (London, 1905); R. L. Fernbach, <i>Glues and Gelatine</i> +(1907); H. C. Standage, <i>Agglutinants of all Kinds for all Purposes</i> +(1907).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This fat contains a small quantity of solvent, which is removed +by heating with steam, when the solvent distils off. Hot water is +then run in to melt the fat, which rises to the surface of the water +and is floated off. Another boiling with water, and again floating +off, frees the fat from dirt and mineral matter, and the product is +ready for casking.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The residue in the extractors is usually dried in steam-heated +vessels, and mixed with potassium and magnesium salts; the product +is then put on the market as fish-potash guano.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLUTARIC ACID,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Normal Pyrotaric Acid</span>, +HO<span class="su">2</span>C·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, an organic acid prepared by the +reduction of α-oxyglutaric acid with hydriodic acid, by reducing +glutaconic acid, HO<span class="su">2</span>C·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH:CH·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, with sodium amalgam, +by conversion of trimethylene bromide into the cyanide +and hydrolysis of this compound, or from acetoacetic ester, +which, in the form of its sodium derivative, condenses +with β-iodopropionic ester to form acetoglutaric ester, +CH<span class="su">3</span>·CO·CH(CO<span class="su">2</span>C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>, from which glutaric +acid is obtained by hydrolysis. It is also obtained when sebacic, +stearic and oleic acids are oxidized with nitric acid. It crystallizes +in large monoclinic prisms which melt at 97.5° C., and +distils between 302° and 304° C., practically without decomposition. +It is soluble in water, alcohol and ether. By long heating the +acid is converted into its anhydride, which, however, is obtained +more readily by heating the silver salt of the acid with acetyl +chloride. By distillation of the ammonium salt glutarimide, +CH<span class="su">2</span>(CH<span class="su">2</span>·<span class="correction" title="amended from CP">CO</span>)<span class="su">2</span>NH, is obtained; it forms small crystals melting +at 151° to 152° C. and sublimes unchanged.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>On the alkyl glutaric acids, see C. Hell (<i>Ber.</i>, 1889, 22, pp. 48, 60), +C. A. Bischoff (<i>Ber.</i>, 1891, 24, p. 1041), K. Auwers (<i>Ber.</i>, 1891, 24, +p. 1923) and W. H. Perkin, junr. (<i>Journ. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1896, 69, p. 268).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id="page145"></a>145</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLUTEN,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a tough, tenacious, ductile, somewhat elastic, +nearly tasteless and greyish-yellow albuminous substance, +obtained from the flour of wheat by washing in water, in which +it is insoluble. Gluten, when dried, loses about two-thirds of +its weight, becoming brittle and semi-transparent; when strongly +heated it crackles and swells, and burns like feather or horn. +It is soluble in strong acetic acid, and in caustic alkalis, which +latter may be used for the purification of starch in which it is +present. When treated with .1 to .2% solution of hydrochloric +acid it swells up, and at length forms a liquid resembling a +solution of albumin, and laevorotatory as regards polarized +light. Moistened with water and exposed to the air gluten +putrefies, and evolves carbon dioxide, hydrogen and sulphuretted +hydrogen, and in the end is almost entirely resolved into a liquid, +which contains leucin and ammonium phosphate and acetate. On +analysis gluten shows a composition of about 53% of carbon, 7% +of hydrogen, and nitrogen 15 to 18%, besides oxygen, and about +1% of sulphur, and a small quantity of inorganic matter. According +to H. Ritthausen it is a mixture of <i>glutencasein</i> (Liebig’s +vegetable fibrin), <i>glutenfibrin</i>, <i>gliadin</i> (Pflanzenleim), <i>glutin</i> or +vegetable gelatin, and <i>mucedin</i>, which are all closely allied to one +another in chemical composition. It is the gliadin which confers +upon gluten its capacity of cohering to form elastic masses, and +of separating readily from associated starch. In the so-called +gluten of the flour of barley, rye and maize, this body is absent +(H. Ritthausen and U. Kreusler). The gluten yielded by wheat +which has undergone fermentation or has begun to sprout is +devoid of toughness and elasticity. These qualities can be +restored to it by kneading with salt, lime-water or alum. Gluten +is employed in the manufacture of gluten bread and biscuits +for the diabetic, and of chocolate, and also in the adulteration +of tea and coffee. For making bread it must be used fresh, as +otherwise it decomposes, and does not knead well. Granulated +gluten is a kind of vermicelli, made in some starch manufactories +by mixing fresh gluten with twice its weight of flour, and granulating +by means of a cylinder and contained stirrer, each armed +with spikes, and revolving in opposite directions. The process +is completed by the drying and sifting of the granules.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLUTTON,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Wolverine</span> (<i>Gulo luscus</i>), a carnivorous +mammal belonging to the <i>Mustelidae</i>, or weasel family, and the +sole representative of its genus. The legs are short and stout, +with large feet, the toes of which terminate in strong, sharp +claws considerably curved. The mode of progression is semi-plantigrade. +In size and form the glutton is something like the +badger, measuring from 2 to 3 ft. in length, exclusive of the thick +bushy tail, which is about 8 in. long. The head is broad, the +eyes are small and the back arched. The fur consists of an undergrowth +of short woolly hair, mixed with long straight hairs, +to the abundance and length of which on the sides and tail +the creature owes its shaggy appearance. The colour of the fur +is blackish-brown, with a broad band of chestnut stretching +from the shoulders along each side of the body, the two meeting +near the root of the tail. Unlike the majority of arctic animals, +the fur of the glutton in winter grows darker. Like other +<i>Mustelidae</i>, the glutton is provided with anal glands, which +secrete a yellowish fluid possessing a highly foetid odour. It +is a boreal animal, inhabiting the northern regions of both +hemispheres, but most abundant in the circumpolar area of the +New World, where it occurs throughout the British provinces +and Alaska, being specially numerous in the neighbourhood +of the Mackenzie river, and extending southwards as far as New +York and the Rocky Mountains. The wolverine is a voracious +animal, and also one with an inquisitive disposition. It feeds +on grouse, the smaller rodents and foxes, which it digs from +their burrows during the breeding-season; but want of activity +renders it dependent for most of its food on dead carcases, which +it frequently obtains by methods that have made it peculiarly +obnoxious to the hunter and trapper. Should the hunter, +after succeeding in killing his game, leave the carcase insufficiently +protected for more than a single night, the glutton, whose fear +of snares is sufficient to prevent him from touching it during +the first night, will, if possible, get at and devour what he can +on the second, hiding the remainder beneath the snow. It +annoys the trapper by following up his lines of marten-traps, +often extending to a length of 40 to 50 m., each of which it enters +from behind, extracting the bait, pulling up the traps, and devouring +or concealing the entrapped martens. So persistent is the +glutton in this practice, when once it discovers a line of traps, +that its extermination along the trapper’s route is a necessary +preliminary to the success of his business. This is no easy task, +as the glutton is too cunning to be caught by the methods successfully +employed on the other members of the weasel family. +The trap generally used for this purpose is made to resemble +a cache, or hidden store of food, such as the Indians and hunters +are in the habit of forming, the discovery and rifling of which +is one of the glutton’s most congenial occupations—the bait, +instead of being paraded as in most traps, being carefully concealed, +to lull the knowing beast’s suspicions. One of the most +prominent characteristics of the wolverine is its propensity +to steal and hide things, not merely food which it might afterwards +need, or traps which it regards as enemies, but articles +which cannot possibly have any interest except that of curiosity. +The following instance of this is quoted by Dr E. Coues in his +work on the <i>Fur-bearing Animals of North America</i>: “A +hunter and his family having left their lodge unguarded during +their absence, on their return found it completely gutted—the +walls were there, but nothing else. Blankets, guns, kettles, +axes, cans, knives and all the other paraphernalia of a trapper’s +tent had vanished, and the tracks left by the beast showed +who had been the thief. The family set to work, and, by carefully +following up all his paths, recovered, with some trifling exceptions, +the whole of the lost property.” The cunning displayed by the +glutton in unravelling the snares set for it forms at once the +admiration and despair of every trapper, while its great strength +and ferocity render it a dangerous antagonist to animals larger +than itself, occasionally including man. The rutting-season +occurs in March, and the female, secure in her burrow, produces +her young—four or five at a birth—in June or July. In defence +of these, she is exceedingly bold, and the Indians, according to +Dr Coues, “have been heard to say that they would sooner +encounter a she-bear with her cubs than a carcajou (the Indian +name of the glutton) under the same circumstances.” On +catching sight of its enemy, man, the wolverine before finally +determining on flight, is said to sit on its haunches, and, in order +to get a clearer view of the danger, shade its eyes with one of +its fore-paws. When pressed for food it becomes fearless, and +has been known to come on board an ice-bound vessel, and in +presence of the crew seize a can of meat. The glutton is valuable +for its fur, which, when several skins are sewn together, forms +elegant hearth and carriage rugs.</p> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:437px; height:365px" src="images/img145.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">The Glutton, or Wolverine (<i>Gulo luscus</i>).</td></tr></table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLYCAS, MICHAEL,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> Byzantine historian (according to some +a Sicilian, according to others a Corfiote), flourished during the +12th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> His chief work is his <i>Chronicle</i> of events +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" id="page146"></a>146</span> +from the creation of the world to the death of Alexius I. +Comnenus(1118). It is extremely brief and written in a popular +style, but too much space is devoted to theological and scientific +matters. Glycas was also the author of a theological treatise +and a number of letters on theological questions. A poem of +some 600 “political” verses, written during his imprisonment +on a charge of slandering a neighbour and containing an appeal +to the emperor Manuel, is still extant. The exact nature of his +offence is not known, but the answer to his appeal was that he +was deprived of his eyesight by the emperor’s orders.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editions: “Chronicle and Letters,” in J. P. Migne, <i>Patrologia +Graeca</i>, clviii.; poem in E. Legrand, <i>Bibliothèque grecque vulgaire</i>, +i.; see also F. Hirsch, <i>Byzantinische Studien</i> (1876); C. Krumbacher +in <i>Sitzungsberichte bayer. Acad.</i>, 1894; C. F. Bähr in Ersch and +Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine Encyklopädie</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLYCERIN,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> <span class="sc">Glycerine</span> or <span class="sc">Glycerol</span> (in pharmacy <i>Glycerinum</i>) +(from Gr. <span class="grk" title="glykys">γλυκύς</span>, sweet), a trihydric alcohol, +trihydroxypropane, C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(OH)<span class="su">3</span>. It is obtainable from most +natural fatty bodies by the action of alkalis and similar reagents, +whereby the fats are decomposed, water being taken up, and +glycerin being formed together with the alkaline salt of some +particular acid (varying with the nature of the fat). Owing to +their possession of this common property, these natural fatty +bodies and various artificial derivatives of glycerin, which +behave in the same way when treated with alkalis, are known +as glycerides. In the ordinary process of soap-making the +glycerin remains dissolved in the aqueous liquors from which the +soap is separated.</p> + +<p>Glycerin was discovered in 1779 by K. W. Scheele and named +<i>Ölsüss</i> (<i>principe doux des huiles</i>—sweet principle of oils), and +more fully investigated subsequently by M. E. Chevreul, who +named it glycerin, M. P. E. Berthelot, and many other chemists, +from whose researches it results that glycerin is a trihydric +alcohol indicated by the formula C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(OH)<span class="su">3</span>, the natural fats +and oils, and the glycerides generally, being substances of the +nature of compound esters formed from glycerin by the replacement +of the hydrogen of the OH groups by the radicals of +certain acids, called for that reason “fatty acids.” The relationship +of these glycerides to glycerin is shown by the series of bodies +formed from glycerin by replacement of hydrogen by “stearyl” +(C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">35</span>O), the radical of stearic acid (C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">35</span>O·OH):—</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:527px; height:105px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img146.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">The process of saponification may be viewed as the gradual +progressive transformation of tristearin, or some analogously +constituted substance, into distearin, monostearin and glycerin, +or as the similar transformation of a substance analogous to +distearin or to monostearin into glycerin. If the reaction is +brought about in presence of an alkali, the acid set free becomes +transformed into the corresponding alkaline salt; but if the +decomposition is effected without the presence of an alkali +(<i>i.e.</i> by means of water alone or by an acid), the acid set free +and the glycerin are obtained together in a form which usually +admits of their ready separation. It is noticeable that with +few exceptions the fatty and oily matters occurring in nature +are substances analogous to tristearin, <i>i.e.</i> they are trebly +replaced glycerins. Amongst these glycerides may be mentioned +the following:</p> + +<div class="condensed list"> +<p><i>Tristearin</i>—C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(O·C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">35</span>O)<span class="su">3</span>. The chief constituent of hard +animal fats, such as beef and mutton tallow, &c.; also contained +in many vegetable fats in smaller quantity.</p> + +<p><i>Triolein</i>—C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(O·C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">33</span>O)<span class="su">3</span>. Largely present in olive oil and +other saponifiable vegetable oils and soft fats; also present +in animal fats, especially hog’s lard.</p> + +<p><i>Tripalmitin</i>—C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(O·C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">31</span>O)<span class="su">3</span>. The chief constituent of palm +oil; also contained in greater or less quantities in human +fat, olive oil, and other animal and vegetable fats.</p> + +<p><i>Triricinolein</i>—C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(O·C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">33</span>O<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">3</span>. The main constituent of castor +oil.</p> +</div> + +<p>Other analogous glycerides are apparently contained in +greater or smaller quantity in certain other oils. Thus in cows’ +butter, <i>tributyrin</i>, C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(O·C<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">7</span>O)<span class="su">3</span>, and the analogous glycerides +of other readily volatile acids closely resembling butyric acid, +are present in small quantity; the production of these acids +on saponification and distillation with dilute sulphuric acid is +utilized as a test of a purity of butter as sold. <i>Triacetin</i>, +C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(O·C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">3</span>O)<span class="su">3</span>, is apparently contained in cod-liver oil. Some +other glycerides isolated from natural sources are analogous +in composition to tristearin, but with this difference, that the +three radicals which replace hydrogen in glycerin are not all +identical; thus kephalin, myelin and lecithin are glycerides +in which two hydrogens are replaced by fatty acid radicals, +and the third by a complex phosphoric acid derivative.</p> + +<p>Glycerin is also a product of certain kinds of fermentation, +especially of the alcoholic fermentation of sugar; consequently +it is a constituent of many wines and other fermented liquors. +According to Louis Pasteur, about <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">30</span>th of the sugar transformed +under ordinary conditions in the fermentation of grape juice +and similar saccharine liquids into alcohol and other products +become converted into glycerin. In certain natural fatty +substances, <i>e.g.</i> palm oil, it exists in the free state, so that it can +be separated by washing with boiling water, which dissolves +the glycerin but not the fatty glycerides.</p> + +<p><i>Properties</i>.—Glycerin is a viscid, colourless liquid of sp. gr. +1.265 at 15° C., possessing a somewhat sweet taste; below 0° C. +it solidifies to a white crystalline mass, which melts at 17° C. +When heated alone it partially volatilizes, but the greater part +decomposes; under a pressure of 12 mm. of mercury it boils +at 170° C. In an atmosphere of steam it distils without decomposition +under ordinary barometric pressure. It dissolves +readily in water and alcohol in all proportions, but is insoluble +in ether. It possesses considerable solvent powers, whence it is +employed for numerous purposes in pharmacy and the arts. +Its viscid character, and its non-liability to dry and harden by +exposure to air, also fit it for various other uses, such as lubrication, +&c., whilst its peculiar physical characters, enabling it to +blend with either aqueous or oily matters under certain circumstances, +render it a useful ingredient in a large number of products +of varied kinds.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Manufacture</i>.—The simplest modes of preparing pure glycerin are +based on the saponification of fats, either by alkalis or by superheated +steam, and on the circumstance that, although glycerin cannot be +distilled by itself under the ordinary pressure without decomposition, +it can be readily volatilized in a current of superheated steam. +Commercial glycerin is mostly obtained from the “spent lyes” +of the soap-maker. In the van Ruymbeke process the spent lyes +are allowed to settle, and then treated with “persulphate of iron,” +the exact composition of which is a trade secret, but it is possibly a +mixture of ferric and ferrous sulphates. Ferric hydrate, iron soaps +and all insoluble impurities are precipitated. The liquid is filter-pressed, +and any excess of iron in the filtrate is precipitated by the +careful addition of caustic soda and then removed. The liquid is then +evaporated under a vacuum of 27 to 28 in. of mercury, and, when of +specific gravity 1.295 (corresponding to about 80% of glycerin), +it is distilled under a vacuum of 28 to 29 in. In the Glatz process the +lye is treated with a little milk of lime, the liquid then neutralized +with hydrochloric acid, and the liquid filtered. Evaporation and +subsequent distillation under a high vacuum gives crude glycerin. +The impure glycerin obtained as above is purified by redistillation +in steam and evaporation in vacuum pans.</p> + +<p><i>Technical Uses</i>.—Besides its use as a starting-point in the production +of “nitroglycerin” (<i>q.v.</i>) and other chemical products, glycerin +is largely employed for a number of purposes in the arts, its application +thereto being due to its peculiar physical properties. Thus its +non-liability to freeze (when not absolutely anhydrous, which it +practically never is when freely exposed to the air) and its non-volatility +at ordinary temperatures, combined with its power of +always keeping fluid and not drying up and hardening, render it +valuable as a lubricating agent for clockwork, watches, &c., as a +substitute for water in wet gas-meters, and as an ingredient in +cataplasms, plasters, modelling clay, pasty colouring matters, +dyeing materials, moist colours for artists, and numerous other +analogous substances which are required to be kept in a permanently +soft condition. Glycerin acts as a preservative against decomposition, +owing to its antiseptic qualities, which also led to its being employed +to preserve untanned leather (especially during transit when exported, +the hides being, moreover, kept soft and supple); to make +solutions of gelatin, albumen, gum, paste, cements, &c. which will +keep without decomposition; to preserve meat and other edibles; +to mount anatomical preparations; to preserve vaccine lymph unchanged; +and for many similar purposes. Its solvent power is also +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>147</span> +utilized in the production of various colouring fluids, where the +colouring matter would not dissolve in water alone; thus aniline +violet, the tinctorial constituents of madder, and various allied +colouring matters dissolve in glycerin, forming liquids which remain +coloured even when diluted with water, the colouring matters being +either retained in suspension or dissolved by the glycerin present +in the diluted fluid. Glycerin is also employed in the manufacture +of formic acid (<i>q.v.</i>). Certain kinds of copying inks are greatly +improved by the substitution of glycerin, in part or entirely, for the +sugar or honey usually added.</p> + +<p>In its medicinal use glycerin is an excellent solvent for such substances +as iodine, alkaloids, alkalis, &c., and is therefore used for +applying them to diseased surfaces, especially as it aids in their +absorption. It does not evaporate or turn rancid, whilst its marked +hygroscopic action ensures the moistness and softness of any surface +that it covers. Given by the mouth glycerin produces purging if +large doses are administered, and has the same action if only a small +quantity be introduced into the rectum. For this purpose it is +very largely used either as a suppository or in the fluid form (one +or two drachms). The result is prompt, safe and painless. Glycerin +is useless as a food and is not in any sense a substitute for cod-liver +oil. Very large doses in animals cause lethargy, collapse and death.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLYCOLS,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> in organic chemistry, the generic name given +to the aliphatic dihydric alcohols. These compounds may be +obtained by heating the alkylen iodides or bromides (<i>e.g.</i> ethylene +dibromide) with silver acetate or with potassium acetate and +alcohol, the esters so produced being then hydrolysed with +caustic alkalis, thus:</p> + +<p class="center">C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">4</span>Br<span class="su">2</span> + 2 C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">2</span>·Ag → C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">4</span>(O·C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">3</span>O)<span class="su">2</span> → C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">4</span>(OH)<span class="su">2</span> + 2 K·C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">2</span>;</p> + +<p class="noind">by the direct union of water with the alkylen oxides; by oxidation +of the olefines with cold potassium permanganate solution +(G. Wagner, <i>Ber.</i>, 1888, 21, p. 1231), or by the action of nitrous +acid on the diamines.</p> + +<p>Glycols may be classified as <i>primary</i>, containing two −CH<span class="su">2</span>OH +groups; <i>primary-secondary</i>, containing the grouping −CH(OH)·CH<span class="su">2</span>OH; +<i>secondary</i>, with the grouping −CH(OH)·CH(OH)−; and +<i>tertiary</i>, with the grouping >C(OH)·(OH)C<. The secondary +glycols are prepared by the action of alcoholic potash on aldehydes, +thus:</p> + +<p class="center">3(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>CH·CHO + KHO = (CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>CHCO<span class="su">2</span>K + + (CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>CH·CH(OH)·CH(OH)·CH(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>.</p> + +<p class="noind">The tertiary glycols are known as <i>pinacones</i> and are formed +on the reduction of ketones with sodium amalgam.</p> + +<p>The glycols are somewhat thick liquids, of high boiling point, +the pinacones only being crystalline solids; they are readily +soluble in water and alcohol, but are insoluble in ether. By the +action of dehydrating agents they are converted into aldehydes +or ketones. In their general behaviour towards oxidizing agents +the primary glycols behave very similarly to the ordinary +primary alcohols (<i>q.v.</i>), but the secondary and tertiary glycols +break down, yielding compounds with a smaller carbon content.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Ethylene glycol, C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">4</span>(OH)<span class="su">2</span>, was first prepared by A. Wurtz +(<i>Ann. chim.</i>, 1859 [3], 55, p. 400) from ethylene dibromide and +silver acetate. It is a somewhat pleasant smelling liquid, boiling +at 197° to 197.5° C. and having a specific gravity of 1.125 (0°). On +fusion with solid potash at 250° C. it completely decomposes, giving +potassium oxalate and hydrogen,</p> + +<p class="center">C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">2</span> + 2KHO = K<span class="su">2</span>C<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">4</span> + 4H<span class="su">2</span>.</p> + +<p>Two propylene glycols, C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">8</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, are known, viz. +α-propylene glycol, CH<span class="su">3</span>·CH(OH)·CH<span class="su">2</span>OH, a liquid boiling at 188° to 189°, and +obtained by heating glycerin with sodium hydroxide and distilling +the mixture; and trimethylene glycol, CH<span class="su">2</span>OH·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>OH, a +liquid boiling at 214° C. and prepared by boiling trimethylene bromide +with potash solution (A. Zander, <i>Ann.</i>, 1882, 214, p. 178).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLYCONIC<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (from Glycon, a Greek lyric poet), a form of verse, +best known in Catullus and Horace (usually in the catalectic +variety <img style="width:119px; height:14px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img147a.jpg" alt="" />), with three feet—a spondee and two dactyls; +or four—three trochees and a dactyl, or a dactyl and three +chorees. Sir R. Jebb pointed out that the last form might be +varied by placing the dactyl second or third, and according to its +place this verse was called a First, Second or Third Glyconic.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Cf. J. W. White, in <i>Classical Quarterly</i> (Oct. 1909).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLYPH<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="glyphein">γλύφειν</span>, to carve), in architecture, a vertical +channel in a frieze (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Triglyph</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLYPTODON<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (Greek for “fluted-tooth”), a name applied +by Sir R. Owen to the typical representative of a group of +gigantic, armadillo-like, South American, extinct Edentata, +characterized by having the carapace composed of a solid piece +(formed by the union of a multitude of bony dermal plates) +without any movable rings. The facial portion of the skull is +very short; a long process of the maxillary bone descends +from the anterior part of the zygomatic arch; and the ascending +ramus of the mandible is remarkably high. The teeth, <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in the +later species, are much alike, having two deep grooves or flutings +on each side, so as to divide them into three distinct lobes (fig.). +They are very tall and grew throughout +life. The vertebral column is almost +entirely welded into a solid tube, but +there is a complex joint at the base of the +neck, to allow the head being retracted +within the carapace. The limbs are very +strong, and the feet short and broad, resembling +externally those of an elephant +or tortoise.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:154px; height:507px" src="images/img147b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Two views of the +tooth of a <i>Glyptodon</i>; +the upper figure showing +one side, and the +lower the crown.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Glyptodonts constitute a family, the <i>Glyptodontidae</i>, +whose position is next to the +armadillos (<i>Dasypodidae</i>); the group being +represented by a number of generic types. +The Pleistocene forms, whose remains occur +abundantly in the silt of the Buenos Aires +pampas, are by far the largest, the skull and +tail-sheath in some instances having a length +of from 12 to 16 ft. In <i>Glyptodon</i> (with +which <i>Schistopleurum</i> is identical) the tail-sheath +consists of a series of coronet-like +rings, gradually diminishing in diameter from +base to tip. <i>Daedicurus</i>, in which the tail-sheath +is in the form of a huge solid club, is +the largest member of the family, in <i>Panochthus</i> +and <i>Sclerocalyptus</i> (<i>Hoplophorus</i>) the +tail-sheath consists basally of a small number +of smooth rings, and terminally of a tube. +In some specimens of these genera the horny +shields covering the bony scutes of the carapace +have been preserved, and since the +foramina, which often pierce the latter, stop +short of the former, it is evident that these +were for the passage of blood-vessels and +not receptacles for bristles. In the early +Pleistocene epoch, when South America +became connected with North America, some of the glyptodonts +found their way into the latter continent. Among these northern +forms some from Texas and Florida have been referred to +<i>Glyptodon</i>. One large species from Texas has, however, been +made the type of a separate genus, under the name of <i>Glyptotherium +texanum</i>. In some respects it shows affinity with <i>Panochthus</i>, +although in the simple structure of the tail-sheath it +recalls the undermentioned <i>Propalaeohoplophorus</i>. All the above +are of Pleistocene and perhaps Pliocene age, but in the Santa Cruz +beds of Patagonia there occur the two curious genera <i>Propalaeohoplophorus</i> +and <i>Peltephilus</i>, the former of which is a primitive and +generalized type of glyptodont, while the latter seems to come +nearer to the armadillos. Both are represented by species of comparatively +small size. In <i>Propalaeohoplophorus</i> the scutes of the +carapace, which are less deeply sculptured than in the larger glyptodonts, +are arranged in distinct transverse rows, in three of which +they partially overlap near the border of the carapace after the +fashion of the armadillos. The skull and limb-bones exhibit several +features met with in the latter, and the vertebrae of the back are not +welded into a continuous tube. There are eight pairs of teeth, the +first four of which are simpler than the rest, and may perhaps therefore +be regarded as premolars. More remarkable is <i>Peltephilus</i>, on +account of the fact that the teeth, which are simple, with a chevron-shaped +section, form a continuous series from the front of the jaw +backwards, the number of pairs being seven. Accordingly, a +modification of the character, even of the true Edentata, as given +in the earlier article, is rendered necessary. The head bears a pair +of horn-like scutes, and the scutes of the carapace and tail, which +are loosely opposed or slightly overlapping, form a number of transverse +rows.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—R. Lydekker, “The Extinct Edentates of Argentina,” +<i>An. Mus. La Plata</i>—<i>Pal. Argent.</i> vol. iii. p. 2 (1904); +H. F. Osborn, “‘Glyptotherium texanum,’ a Glyptodont from the +Lower Pleistocene of Texas,” <i>Bull. Amer. Mus.</i>, vol. xvii. p. 491 +(1903); W. B. Scott, “Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds—Edentata,” +<i>Rep. Princeton Exped. to Patagonia</i>, vol. v. (1903-1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">GLYPTOTHEK<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="glyptos">γλυπτός</span>, carved, and <span class="grk" title="thêkê">θήκη</span>, a place +of storage), an architectural term given to a gallery for the +exhibition of sculpture, and first employed at Munich, where it +was built to exhibit the sculptures from the temple of Aegina.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page148" id="page148"></a>148</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GMELIN,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> the name of several distinguished German scientists, +of a Tübingen family. Johann Georg Gmelin (1674-1728), +an apothecary in Tübingen, and an accomplished chemist for +the times in which he lived, had three sons. The first, Johann +Conrad (1702-1759), was an apothecary and surgeon in Tübingen. +The second, Johann Georg (1709-1755), was appointed professor +of chemistry and natural history in St Petersburg in 1731, and +from 1733 to 1743 was engaged in travelling through Siberia. +The fruits of his journey were <i>Flora Sibirica</i> (4 vols., 1749-1750) +and <i>Reisen durch Sibirien</i> (4 vols., 1753). He ended his +days as professor of medicine at Tübingen, a post to which he +was appointed in 1749. The third son, Philipp Friedrich (1721-1768), +was extraordinary professor of medicine at Tübingen +in 1750, and in 1755 became ordinary professor of botany and +chemistry. In the second generation Samuel Gottlieb (1743-1774), +the son of Johann Conrad, was appointed professor of +natural history at St Petersburg in 1766, and in the following +year started on a journey through south Russia and the regions +round the Caspian Sea. On his way back he was captured by +Usmey Khan, of the Kaitak tribe, and died from the ill-treatment +he suffered, on the 27th of July 1774. One of his nephews, +Ferdinand Gottlob von Gmelin (1782-1848), became professor of +medicine and natural history at Tübingen in 1805, and another, +Christian Gottlob (1792-1860), who in 1828 was one of the +first to devise a process for the artificial manufacture of ultramarine, +was professor of chemistry and pharmacy in the same +university. In the youngest branch of the family, Philipp +Friedrich had a son, Johann Friedrich (1748-1804), who was +appointed professor of medicine in Tübingen in 1772, and in +1775 accepted the chair of medicine and chemistry at Göttingen. +In 1788 he published the 13th edition of Linnaeus’ <i>Systema +Naturae</i> with many additions and alterations. His son Leopold +(1788-1853), was the best-known member of the family. He +studied medicine and chemistry at Göttingen, Tübingen and +Vienna, and in 1813 began to lecture on chemistry at Heidelberg, +where in 1814 he was appointed extraordinary, and in 1817 +ordinary, professor of chemistry and medicine. He was the +discoverer of potassium ferricyanide (1822), and wrote the +<i>Handbuch der Chemie</i> (1st ed. 1817-1819, 4th ed. 1843-1855), +an important work in its day, which was translated into English +for the Cavendish Society by H. Watts (1815-1884) in 1848-1859. +He resigned his chair in 1852, and died on the 13th of +April in the following year at Heidelberg.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GMÜND,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg,<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +in a charming and fruitful valley on the Rems, here spanned by +a beautiful bridge, 31 m. E.N.E. of Stuttgart on the railway +to Nördlingen. Pop. (1905) 18,699. It is surrounded by old +walls, flanked with towers, and has a considerable number of +ancient buildings, among which are the fine church of the Holy +Cross; St John’s church, which dates from the time of the +Hohenstaufen; and, situated on a height near the town, partly +hewn out of the rock, the pilgrimage church of the Saviour. +Among the modern buildings are the gymnasium, the drawing +and trade schools, the Roman Catholic seminary, the town +hall and the industrial art museum. Clocks and watches are +manufactured here and also other articles of silver, while the +town has a considerable trade in corn, hops and fruit. The +scenery in the neighbourhood is very beautiful, near the town +being the district called Little Switzerland.</p> + +<p>Gmünd was surrounded by walls in the beginning of the 12th +century by Duke Frederick of Swabia. It received town rights +from Frederick Barbarossa, and after the extinction of the +Hohenstaufen became a free imperial town. It retained its +independence till 1803, when it came into the possession of +Württemberg. Gmünd is the birth-place of the painter Hans +Baldung (1475-1545) and of the architect Heinrich Arler or Parler +(fl. 1350). In the middle ages the population was about 10,000.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Kaiser, <i>Gmünd und seine Umgebung</i> (1888).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> There are two places of this name in Austria. (1) Gmünd, +a town in Lower Austria, containing a palace belonging to the +imperial family, (2) a town in Carinthia, with a beautiful Gothic +church and some interesting ruins.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GMUNDEN,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> a town and summer resort of Austria, in Upper +Austria, 40 m. S.S.W. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 7126. It +is situated at the efflux of the Traun river from the lake of the +same name and is surrounded by high mountains, as the Traunstein +(5446 ft.), the Erlakogel (5150 ft.), the Wilde Kogel (6860 +ft.) and the Höllen Gebirge. It is much frequented as a health +and summer resort, and has a variety of lake, brine, vegetable +and pine-cone baths, a hydropathic establishment, inhalation +chambers, whey cure, &c. There are a great number of excursions +and points of interest round Gmunden, specially worth +mentioning being the Traun Fall, 10 m. N. of Gmunden. It is +also an important centre of the salt industry in Salzkammergut. +Gmunden was a town encircled with walls already in 1186. On +the 14th of November 1626, Pappenheim completely defeated +here the army of the rebellious peasants.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Krackowizer, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Gmunden in Oberösterreich</i> +(Gmunden, 1898-1901, 3 vols.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GNAT<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>gnæt</i>), the common English name for the +smaller dipterous flies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diptera</a></span>) of the family <i>Culicidae</i>, +which are now included among “mosquitoes” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mosquito</a></span>). +The distinctive term has no zoological significance, but in +England the “mosquito” has commonly been distinguished +from the “gnat” as a variety of larger size and more poisonous +bite.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GNATHOPODA,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> a term in zoological classification, suggested +as an alternative name for the group Arthropoda (<i>q.v.</i>). The +word, which means “jaw-footed,” refers to the fact that in the +members of the group, some of the lateral appendages or “feet” +in the region of the mouth act as jaws.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GNATIA<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (also <span class="sc">Egnatia</span> or <span class="sc">Ignatia</span>, mod. <i>Anazzo</i>, near +Fasano), an ancient city of the Peucetii, and their frontier town +towards the Sallentini (<i>i.e.</i> of Apulia towards Calabria), in +Roman times of importance for its trade, lying as it did on the +sea, at the point where the Via Traiana joined the coast road,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +38 m. S.E. of Barium. The ancient city walls have been almost +entirely destroyed in recent times to provide building material,<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +and the place is famous for the discoveries made in its tombs. +A considerable collection of antiquities from Gnatia is preserved +at Fasano, though the best are in the museum at Bari. Gnatia +was the scene of the prodigy at which Horace mocks (<i>Sat.</i> i. +5. 97). Near Fasano are two small subterranean chapels with +paintings of the 11th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> (E. Bertaux, <i>L’Art dans +l’Italie méridionale</i>, Paris, 1904, 135).</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> There is no authority for calling the latter Via Egnatia.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> H. Swinburne, <i>Travels in the Two Sicilies</i> (London, 1790), ii. 15, +mentions the walls as being 8 yds. thick and 16 courses high.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GNEISENAU, AUGUST WILHELM ANTON,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count Neithardt +von</span> (1760-1831), Prussian field marshal, was the son +of a Saxon officer named Neithardt. Born in 1760 at Schildau, +near Torgau, he was brought up in great poverty there, and +subsequently at Würzburg and Erfurt. In 1777 he entered +Erfurt university; but two years later joined an Austrian +regiment there quartered. In 1782 taking the additional name +of Gneisenau from some lost estates of his family in Austria, +he entered as an officer the service of the margrave of Baireuth-Anspach. +With one of that prince’s mercenary regiments in +English pay he saw active service and gained valuable experience +in the War of American Independence, and returning +in 1786, applied for Prussian service. Frederick the Great gave +him a commission as first lieutenant in the infantry. Made +<i>Stabskapitän</i> in 1790, Gneisenau served in Poland, 1793-1794, +and, subsequently to this, ten years of quiet garrison life in +Jauer enabled him to undertake a wide range of military studies. +In 1796 he married Caroline von Kottwitz. In 1806 he was +one of Hohenlohe’s staff-officers, fought at Jena, and a little +later commanded a provisional infantry brigade which fought +under Lestocq in the Lithuanian campaign. Early in 1807 +Major von Gneisenau was sent as commandant to Colberg, which, +small and ill-protected as it was, succeeded in holding out until +the peace of Tilsit. The commandant received the much-prized +order “pour le mérite,” and was promoted lieutenant-colonel.</p> + +<p>A wider sphere of work was now opened to him. As chief of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149"></a>149</span> +engineers, and a member of the reorganizing committee, he +played a great part, along with Scharnhorst, in the work of reconstructing +the Prussian army. A colonel in 1809, he soon drew +upon himself, by his energy, the suspicion of the dominant French, +and Stein’s fall was soon followed by Gneisenau’s retirement. +But, after visiting Russia, Sweden and England, he returned +to Berlin and resumed his place as a leader of the patriotic +party. In open military work and secret machinations his +energy and patriotism were equally tested, and with the outbreak +of the War of Liberation, Major-General Gneisenau +became Blücher’s quartermaster-general. Thus began the +connexion between these two soldiers which has furnished +military history with its best example of the harmonious co-operation +between the general and his chief-of-staff. With +Blücher, Gneisenau served to the capture of Paris; his military +character was the exact complement of Blücher’s, and under +this happy guidance the young troops of Prussia, often defeated +but never discouraged, fought their way into the heart of France. +The plan of the march on Paris, which led directly to the fall +of Napoleon, was specifically the work of the chief-of-staff. +In reward for his distinguished service he was in 1814, along +with York, Kleist and Bülow, made count at the same time as +Blücher became prince of Wahlstatt; an annuity was also +assigned to him.</p> + +<p>In 1815, once more chief of Blücher’s staff, Gneisenau played +a very conspicuous part in the Waterloo campaign (<i>q.v.</i>). Senior +generals, such as York and Kleist, had been set aside in order +that the chief-of-staff should have the command in case of need, +and when on the field of Ligny the old field marshal was disabled, +Gneisenau at once assumed the control of the Prussian army. +Even in the light of the evidence that many years’ research +has collected, the precise part taken by Gneisenau in the events +which followed is much debated. It is known that Gneisenau +had the deepest distrust of the British commander, who, he +considered, had left the Prussians in the lurch at Ligny, and that +to the hour of victory he had grave doubts as to whether he ought +not to fall back on the Rhine. Blücher, however, soon recovered +from his injuries, and, with Grolmann, the quartermaster-general, +he managed to convince Gneisenau. The relations of +the two may be illustrated by Brigadier-General Hardinge’s +report. Blücher burst into Hardinge’s room at Wavre, saying +“<i>Gneisenau has given way</i>, and we are to march at once to your +chief.”</p> + +<p>On the field of Waterloo, however, Gneisenau was quick to +realize the magnitude of the victory, and he carried out the +pursuit with a relentless vigour which has few parallels in +history. His reward was further promotion and the insignia +of the “Black Eagle” which had been taken in Napoleon’s +coach. In 1816 he was appointed to command the VIIIth +Prussian Corps, but soon retired from the service, both because +of ill-health and for political reasons. For two years he lived in +retirement on his estate, Erdmannsdorf in Silesia, but in 1818 +he was made governor of Berlin in succession to Kalkreuth, and +member of the <i>Staatsrath</i>. In 1825 he became general field +marshal. In 1831 he was appointed to the command of the +Army of Observation on the Polish frontier, with Clausewitz +as his chief-of-staff. At Posen he was struck down by +cholera and died on the 24th of August 1831, soon followed +by his chief-of staff, who fell a victim to the same disease in +November.</p> + +<p>As a soldier, Gneisenau was the greatest Prussian general +since Frederick; as a man, his noble character and virtuous life +secured him the affection and reverence, not only of his superiors +and subordinates in the service, but of the whole Prussian +nation. A statue by Rauch was erected in Berlin in 1855, and +in memory of the siege of 1807 the Colberg grenadiers received +his name in 1889. One of his sons led a brigade of the VIIIth +Army Corps in the war of 1870.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. H. Pertz, <i>Das Leben des Feldmarschalls Grafen Neithardt +von Gneisenau</i>, vols. 1-3 (Berlin, 1864-1869); vols. 4 and 5, +G. Delbrück (<i>ib.</i> 1879, 1880), with numerous documents and letters; +H. Delbrück, <i>Das Leben des G. F. M. Grafen von Gneisenau</i> (2 vols., +2nd ed., Berlin, 1894), based on Pertz’s work, but containing much +new material; Frau von Beguelin, <i>Denkwürdigkeiten</i> (Berlin, 1892); +Hormayr, <i>Lebensbilder aus den Befreiungskriegen</i> (Jena, 1841); +Pick, <i>Aus dem brieflichen Nachlass Gneisenaus</i>; also the histories of +the campaigns of 1807 and 1813-15.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GNEISS,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a term long used by the miners of the Harz Mountains +to designate the country rock in which the mineral veins occur; +it is believed to be a word of Slavonic origin meaning “rotted” +or “decomposed.” It has gradually passed into acceptance as a +generic term signifying a large and varied series of metamorphic +rocks, which mostly consist of quartz and felspar (orthoclase +and plagioclase) with muscovite and biotite, hornblende or +augite, iron oxides, zircon and apatite. There is also a long +list of accessory minerals which are present in gneisses with more +or less frequency, but not invariably, as garnet, sillimanite, +cordierite, graphite and graphitoid, epidote, calcite, orthite, +tourmaline and andalusite. The gneisses all possess a more +or less marked parallel structure or foliation, which is the main +feature by which many of them are separated from the granites, +a group of rocks having nearly the same mineralogical composition +and closely allied to many gneisses.</p> + +<p>The felspars of the gneisses are predominantly orthoclase +(often perthitic), but microcline is common in the more acid +types and oligoclase occurs also very frequently, especially in +certain sedimentary gneisses, while more basic varieties of +plagioclase are rare. Quartz is very seldom absent and may be +blue or milky and opalescent. Muscovite and biotite may both +occur in the same rock; in other cases only one of them is present. +The commonest and most important types of gneiss are the mica-gneisses. +Hornblende is green, rarely brownish; augite pale +green or nearly colourless; enstatite appears in some granulite-gneisses. +Epidote, often with enclosures of orthite, is by no +means rare in gneisses from many different parts of the world. +Sillimanite and andalusite are not infrequent ingredients of +gneiss, and their presence has been accounted for in more than +one way. Cordierite-gneisses are a special group of great interest +and possessing many peculiarities; they are partly, if not +entirely, foliated contact-altered sedimentary rocks. Kyanite +and staurolite may also be mentioned as occasionally occurring.</p> + +<p>Many varieties of gneiss have received specific names according +to the minerals they consist of and the structural peculiarities +they exhibit. Muscovite-gneiss, biotite-gneiss and muscovite-biotite-gneiss, +more common perhaps than all the others taken +together, are grey or pinkish rocks according to the colour of +their prevalent felspar, not unlike granites, but on the whole +more often fine-grained (though coarse-grained types occur) and +possessing a gneissose or foliated structure. The latter consists +in the arrangement of the flakes of mica in such a way that +their faces are parallel, and hence the rock has the property of +splitting more readily in the direction in which the mica plates +are disposed. This fissility, though usually marked, is not so +great as in the schists or slates, and the split faces are not so +smooth as in these latter rocks. The films of mica may be +continuous and are usually not flat, but irregularly curved. +In some gneisses the parallel flakes of mica are scattered through +the quartz and felspar; in others these minerals form discrete +bands, the quartz and felspar being grouped into lenticles +separated by thin films of mica. When large felspars, of rounded +or elliptical form, are visible in the gneiss, it is said to have +augen structure (Ger. <i>Augen</i> = eyes). It should also be remarked +that the essential component minerals of the rocks of this family +are practically always determinable by naked eye inspection or +with the aid of a simple lens. If the rock is too fine grained +for this it is generally relegated to the schists. When the +bands of folia are very fine and tortuous the structure is called +helizitic.</p> + +<p>In mica-gneisses sillimanite, kyanite, andalusite and garnet +may occur. The significance of these minerals is variously +interpreted; they may indicate that the gneiss consists wholly +or in part of sedimentary material which has been contact-altered, +but they have also been regarded as having been +developed by metamorphic action out of biotite or other primary +ingredients of the rock.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150"></a>150</span></p> + +<p>Hornblende-gneisses are usually darker in colour and less +fissile than mica-gneisses; they contain more plagioclase, less +orthoclase and microcline, and more sphene and epidote. Many +of them are rich in hornblende and thus form transitions to +amphibolites. Pyroxene-gneisses are less frequent but occur +in many parts of both hemispheres. The “charnockite” series +are very closely allied to the pyroxene-gneisses. Hypersthene +and scapolite both may occur in these rocks and they are sometimes +garnetiferous.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In every country where the lowest and oldest rocks have come to +the surface and been exposed by the long continued action of denudation +in stripping away the overlying formations, gneisses are found in +great abundance and of many different kinds. They are in fact the +typical rocks of the Archean (Lewisian, Laurentian, &c.) series. +In the Alps, Harz, Scotland, Norway and Sweden, Canada, South +America, Peninsular India, Himalayas (to mention only a few +localities) they occupy wide areas and exhibit a rich diversity of +types. From this it has been inferred that they are of great geological +age, and in fact this can be definitely proved in many cases, for the +oldest known fossiliferous formations may be seen to rest unconformably +on these gneisses and are made up of their débris. It was +for a long time believed that they represented the primitive crust of +the earth, and while this is no longer generally taught there are +still geologists who hold that these gneisses are necessarily of pre-Cambrian +age. Others, while admitting the general truth of this +hypothesis, consider that there are localities in which typical gneisses +can be shown to penetrate into rocks which may be as recent as the +Tertiary period, or to pass into these rocks so gradually and in such +a way as to make it certain that the gneisses are merely altered +states of comparatively recent sedimentary or igneous rocks. Much +controversy has arisen on these points; but this is certain, that +gneisses are far the most common among Archean rocks, and where +their age is not known the presumption is strong that they are at +least pre-Cambrian.</p> + +<p>Many gneisses are undoubtedly sedimentary rocks that have been +brought to their present state by such agents of metamorphism as +heat, movement, crushing and recrystallization. This may be +demonstrated partly by their mode of occurrence: they accompany +limestones, graphitic schists, quartzites and other rocks of sedimentary +type; some of them where least altered may even show remains of +bedding or of original pebbly character (conglomerate gneisses). +More conclusive, however, is the chemical composition of these rocks, +which often is such as no igneous masses possess, but resembles that +of many impure argillaceous sediments. These sedimentary gneisses +(or paragneisses, as they are often called) are often rich in biotite +and garnet and may contain kyanite and sillimanite, or less frequently +calcite. Some of them, however, are rich in felspar and quartz, with +muscovite and biotite; others may even contain hornblende and +augite, and all these may bear so close a resemblance to gneisses of +igneous origin that by no single character, chemical or mineralogical, +can their original nature be definitely established. In these cases, +however, a careful study of the relations of the rock in the field and +of the different types which occur together will generally lead to some +positive conclusion.</p> + +<p>Other gneisses are igneous (orthogneisses). These have very much +the same composition as acid igneous rocks such as granite, aplite, +hornblende granite, or intermediate rocks such as syenite and quartz +diorite. Many of these orthogneisses are not equally well foliated +throughout, but are massive or granitoid in places. They are sometimes +subdivided into granite gneiss, diorite gneiss, syenite gneiss +and so on. The sedimentary schists into which these rocks have +been intruded may show contact alteration by the development of +such minerals as cordierite, andalusite and sillimanite. In many +of these orthogneisses the foliation is primitive, being an original +character of the rock which was produced either by fluxion movements +in a highly viscous, semi-solid mass injected at great pressure +into the surrounding strata, or by folding stresses acting immediately +after consolidation. That the foliation in other orthogneisses is +subsequent or superinduced, having been occasioned by pressure +and deformation of the solid mass long after it had consolidated and +cooled, admits of no doubt, but it is very difficult to establish criteria +by which these types may be differentiated. Those gneisses in which +the minerals have been crushed and broken by fluxion or injection +movements have been called protoclastic, while those which have +attained their gneissose state by crushing long after consolidation +are distinguished as cataclastic. There are also many examples of +gneisses of mixed or synthetic origin. They may be metamorphosed +sediments (granulites and schists) into which tongues and thin +veins of granitic character have been intruded, following the more +or less parallel foliation planes already present in the country rock. +These veinlets produce that alternation in mineral composition and +banded structure which are essential in gneisses. This intermixture +of igneous and sedimentary material may take place on the finest scale +and in the most intricate manner. Often there has been resorption +of the older rocks, whether sedimentary or igneous, by those which +have invaded them, and movement has gone on both during injection +and at a later period, so that the whole complex becomes amalgamated +and its elements are so completely confused that the geologist can +no longer disentangle them.</p> + +<p>When we remember that in the earlier stages of the earth’s history, +to which most gneisses belong, and in the relatively deep parts of +the earth’s crust, where they usually occur, there has been most +igneous injection and greatest frequency of earth movements, it +is not difficult to understand the geological distribution of gneissose +rocks. All the factors which are required for their production, heat, +movement, plutonic intrusions, contact alteration, interstitial +moisture at high temperatures, are found at great depths and have +acted most frequently and with greatest power on the older rock +masses. But locally, where the conditions were favourable, the +same processes may have gone on in comparatively recent times. +Hence, though most gneisses are Archean, all gneisses are not +necessarily so.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GNEIST, HEINRICH RUDOLF HERMANN FRIEDRICH +VON<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1816-1895), German jurist and politician, was born at +Berlin on the 13th of August 1816, the son of a judge attached +to the “Kammergericht” (court of appeal) in that city. After +receiving his school education at the gymnasium at Eisleben +in Prussian Saxony, he entered the university of Berlin in 1833 +as a student of jurisprudence, and became a pupil of the famous +Roman law teacher von Savigny. Proceeding to the degree +of <i>doctor juris</i> in 1838, young Gneist immediately established +himself as a <i>Privatdozent</i> in the faculty of law. He had, however, +already chosen the judicial branch of the legal profession as a +career, and having while yet a student acted as <i>Auscultator</i>, +was admitted <i>Assessor</i> in 1841. He soon found leisure and +opportunity to fulfil a much-cherished wish, and spent the +next few years on a lengthened tour in Italy, France and +England. He utilized his <i>Wanderjahre</i> for the purposes of +comparative study, and on his return in 1844 was appointed +extraordinary professor of Roman law in Berlin university, +and thus began a professorial connexion which ended only with +his death. The first-fruits of his activity as a teacher were +seen in his brilliant work, <i>Die formellen Verträge des heutigen +römischen Obligationen-Rechtes</i> (Berlin, 1845). <i>Pari passu</i> +with his academic labours he continued his judicial career, +and became in due course successively assistant judge of the +superior court and of the supreme tribunal. But to a mind +constituted such as his, the want of elasticity in the procedure +of the courts was galling. “Brought up,” he tells, in the preface +to his <i>Englische Verfassungsgeschichte</i>, “in the laborious and +rigid school of Prussian judges, at a time when the duty of +formulating the matter in litigation was entailed upon the judge +who personally conducted the pleadings, I became acquainted +both with the advantages possessed by the Prussian bureau +system as also with its weak points.” Feeling the necessity +for fundamental reforms in legal procedure, he published, in +1849, his <i>Trial by Jury</i>, in which, after pointing out that the +origin of that institution was common to both Germany and +England, and showing in a masterly way the benefits which had +accrued to the latter country through its more extended application, +he pleaded for its freer admission in the tribunals of his +own country.</p> + +<p>The period of “storm and stress” in 1848 afforded Gneist an +opportunity for which he had yearned, and he threw himself +with ardour into the constitutional struggles of Prussia. Although +his candidature for election to the National Assembly +of that year was unsuccessful, he felt that “the die was cast,” +and deciding for a political career, retired in 1850 from his judicial +position. Entering the ranks of the National Liberal party, +he began both in writing and speeches actively to champion +their cause, now busying himself pre-eminently with the study +of constitutional law and history. In 1853 appeared his <i>Adel +und Ritterschaft in England</i>, and in 1857 the <i>Geschichte und +heutige Gestalt der Ämter in England</i>, a pamphlet primarily +written to combat the Prussian abuses of administration, but +for which the author also claimed that it had not been without +its effect in modifying certain views that had until then ruled +in England itself. In 1858 Gneist was appointed ordinary +professor of Roman law, and in the same year commenced his +parliamentary career by his election for Stettin to the +Abgeordnetenhaus (House of Deputies) of the Prussian Landtag, in which +assembly he sat thenceforward uninterruptedly until 1893. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>151</span> +Joining the Left, he at once became one of its leading spokesmen. +His chief oratorical triumphs are associated with the early period +of his membership of the House; two noteworthy occasions +being his violent attack (September 1862) upon the government +budget in connexion with the reorganization of the Prussian +army, and his defence (1864) of the Polish chiefs of the (then) +grand-duchy of Posen, who were accused of high treason. In +1857-1863 was published <i>Das heutige englische Verfassungsund +Verwaltungsrecht</i>, a work which, contrasting English and +German constitutional law and administration, aimed at exercising +political pressure upon the government of the day. In +1868 Gneist became a member of the North German parliament, +and acted as a member of the commission for organizing the +federal army, and also of that for the settlement of ecclesiastical +controversial questions. On the establishment of German +unity his mandate was renewed for the Reichstag, and in this +he sat, an active and prominent member of the National Liberal +party, until 1884. In the Kulturkampf he sided with the +government against the attacks of the Clericals, whom he bitterly +denounced, and whose implacable enemy he ever showed himself. +In 1879, together with his colleague, von Hänel, he violently +attacked the motion for the prosecution of certain Socialist +members, which as a result of the vigour of his opposition was +almost unanimously rejected. He was parliamentary reporter +for the committees on all great financial and administrative +questions, and his profound acquaintance with constitutional +law caused his advice to be frequently sought, not only in his +own but also in other countries. In Prussia he largely influenced +legislation, the reform of the judicial and penal systems and the +new constitution of the Evangelical Church being largely his +work. He was also consulted by the Japanese government when +a constitution was being introduced into that country. In +1875 he was appointed a member of the supreme administrative +court (<i>Oberverwaltungsgericht</i>) of Prussia, but only held office +for two years. In 1882 was published his <i>Englische Verfassungsgeschichte</i> +(trans. <i>History of the English Constitution</i>, London, +1886), which may perhaps be described as his <i>magnum opus</i>. +It placed the author at once on the level of such writers +on English constitutional history as Hallam and Stubbs, and +supplied English literature with a text-book almost unrivalled +in point of historical research. In 1888 one of the first acts +of the ill-fated emperor Frederick III., who had always, as +crown prince, shown great admiration for him, was to ennoble +Gneist, and attach him as instructor in constitutional law to his +son, the emperor William II., a charge of which he worthily +acquitted himself. The last years of his life were full of energy, +and, in the possession of all his faculties, he continued his wonted +academic labours until a short time before his death, which +occurred at Berlin on the 22nd of July 1895.</p> + +<p>As a politician, Gneist’s career cannot perhaps be said to have +been entirely successful. In a country where parliamentary +institutions are the living exponents of the popular will he might +have risen to a foremost position in the state; as it was, the +party to which he allied himself could never hope to become +more than what it remained, a parliamentary faction, and the +influence it for a time wielded in the counsels of the state waned +as soon as the Social-Democratic party grew to be a force to be +reckoned with. It is as a writer and a teacher that Gneist is +best known to fame. He was a jurist of a special type. To him +law was not mere theory, but living force; and this conception +of its power animates all his schemes of practical reform. As +a teacher he exercised a magnetic influence, not only by reason +of the clearness and cogency of his exposition, but also because +of the success with which he developed the talents and guided +the aspirations of his pupils. He was a man of noble bearing, +religious, and imbued with a stern sense of duty. He was proud +of being a “Preussischer Junker” (a member of the Prussian +squirearchy), and throughout his writings, despite their liberal +tendencies, may be perceived the loyalty and affection with which +he clung to monarchical institutions. A great admirer and a true +friend of England, to which country he was attached by many +personal ties, he surpassed all other Germans in his efforts to +make her free institutions, in which he found his ideal, the +common heritage of the two great nations of the Teutonic race.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gneist was a prolific writer, especially on the subject he had made +peculiarly his own, that of constitutional law and history, and among +his works, other than those above named, may be mentioned the +following: <i>Budget und Gesetz nach dem constitutionellen Staatsrecht +Englands</i> (Berlin, 1867); <i>Freie Advocatur</i> (<i>ib.</i>, 1867); <i>Der Rechtsstaat</i> +(<i>ib.</i>, 1872, and 2nd edition, 1879); <i>Zur Verwaltungsreform +in Preussen</i> (Leipzig, 1880); <i>Das englische Parlament</i> (Berlin, 1886); +in English translation, <i>The English Parliament</i> (London, 1886; 3rd +edition, 1889); <i>Die Militär-Vorlage von 1892 und der preussische +Verfassungsconflikt von 1862 bis 1866</i> (Berlin, 1893); <i>Die nationale +Rechtsidee von den Ständen und das preussische Dreiklassenwahlsystem</i> +(<i>ib.</i>, 1895); <i>Die verfassungsmässige Stellung des preussischen +Gesamtministeriums</i> (<i>ib.</i>, 1895). See O. Gierke, <i>Rudolph von +Gneist, Gedächtnisrede</i> (Berlin, 1895), an In Memoriam address +delivered in Berlin.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. A. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GNESEN<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (Polish, <i>Gniezno</i>), a town of Germany, in the Prussian +province of Posen, in an undulating and fertile country, on the +Wrzesnia, 30 m. E.N.E. of Posen by the railway to Thorn. +Pop. (1905) 23,727. Besides the cathedral, a handsome Gothic +edifice with twin towers, which contains the remains of St +Adalbert, there are eight Roman Catholic churches, a Protestant +church, a synagogue, a clerical seminary and a convent of the +Franciscan nuns. Among the industries are cloth and linen +weaving, brewing and distilling. A great horse and cattle +market is held here annually. Gnesen is one of the oldest towns +in the former kingdom of Poland. Its name, <i>Gniezno</i>, signifies +“nest,” and points to early Polish traditions. The cathedral is +believed to have been founded towards the close of the 9th +century, and, having received the bones of St Adalbert, it was +visited in 1000 by the emperor Otto III., who made it the seat +of an archbishop. Here, until 1320, the kings of Poland were +crowned; and the archbishop, since 1416 primate of Poland, +acted as protector pending the appointment of a new king. +In 1821 the see of Posen was founded and the archbishop +removed his residence thither, though its cathedral chapter +still remains at Gnesen. After a long period of decay the town +revived after 1815, when it came under the rule of Prussia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See S. Karwowski, <i>Gniezno</i> (Posen, 1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GNOME,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> <span class="sc">and</span> <b>GNOMIC POETRY.</b> Sententious maxims, put +into verse for the better aid of the memory, were known by the +Greeks as gnomes, <span class="grk" title="gnômai">γνῶμαι</span>, from <span class="grk" title="gnôme">γνώμη</span>, an opinion. A gnome +is defined by the Elizabethan critic Henry Peacham (1576?-1643?) +as “a saying pertaining to the manners and common +practices of men, which declareth, with an apt brevity, what +in this our life ought to be done, or not done.” The Gnomic +Poets of Greece, who flourished in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, were +those who arranged series of sententious maxims in verse. +These were collected in the 4th century, by Lobon of Argos, +an orator, but his collection has disappeared. The chief gnomic +poets were Theognis, Solon, Phocylides, Simonides of Amorgos, +Demodocus, Xenophanes and Euenus. With the exception of +Theognis, whose gnomes were fortunately preserved by some +schoolmaster about 300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, only fragments of the Gnomic +Poets have come down to us. The moral poem attributed to +Phocylides, long supposed to be a masterpiece of the school, +is now known to have been written by a Jew in Alexandria. +Of the gnomic movement typified by the moral works of the +poets named above, Prof. Gilbert Murray has remarked that +it receives its special expression in the conception of the Seven +Wise Men, to whom such proverbs as “Know thyself” and +“Nothing too much” were popularly attributed, and whose +names differed in different lists. These gnomes or maxims +were extended and put into literary shape by the poets. +Fragments of Solon, Euenus and Mimnermus have been preserved, +in a very confused state, from having been written, +for purposes of comparison, on the margins of the MSS. of +Theognis, whence they have often slipped into the text of that +poet. Theognis enshrines his moral precepts in his elegies, and +this was probably the custom of the rest; it is improbable +that there ever existed a species of poetry made up entirely of +successive gnomes. But the title “gnomic” came to be given +to all poetry which dealt in a sententious way with questions +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id="page152"></a>152</span> +of ethics. It was, unquestionably, the source from which moral +philosophy was directly developed, and theorists upon life and +infinity, such as Pythagoras and Xenophanes, seem to have +begun their career as gnomic poets. By the very nature of +things, gnomes, in their literary sense, belong exclusively to the +dawn of literature; their naïveté and their simplicity in moralizing +betray it. But it has been observed that many of the ethical +reflections of the great dramatists, and in particular of Sophocles +and Euripides, are gnomic distiches expanded. It would be an +error to suppose that the ancient Greek gnomes are all of a +solemn character; some are voluptuous and some chivalrous; +those of Demodocus of Leros had the reputation of being droll. +In modern times, the gnomic spirit has occasionally been displayed +by poets of a homely philosophy, such as Francis Quarles +(1592-1644) in England and Gui de Pibrac (1529-1584) in +France. The once-celebrated <i>Quatrains</i> of the latter, published +in 1574, enjoyed an immense success throughout Europe; they +were composed in deliberate imitation of the Greek gnomic +writers of the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> These modern effusions are +rarely literature and perhaps never poetry. With the gnomic +writings of Pibrac it was long customary to bind up those of +Antoine Favre (or Faber) (1557-1624) and of Pierre Mathieu +(1563-1621). Gnomes are frequently to be found in the ancient +literatures of Arabia, Persia and India, and in the Icelandic +staves. The <i>priamel</i>, a brief, sententious kind of poem, which +was in favour in Germany from the 12th to the 16th century, +belonged to the true gnomic class, and was cultivated with +particular success by Hans Rosenblut, the lyrical goldsmith +of Nuremberg, in the 15th century.</p> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GNOMES<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (Fr. <i>gnomes</i>, Ger. <i>Gnomen</i>), in folk-lore, the name +now commonly given to the earth and mountain spirits who are +supposed to watch over veins of precious metals and other +hidden treasures. They are usually pictured as bearded dwarfs +clad in brown close-fitting garments with hoods. The word +“gnome” as applied to these is of comparatively modern +and somewhat uncertain origin. By some it is said to have +been coined by Paracelsus (so Hatzfeld and Darmesteter, +<i>Dictionnaire</i>), who uses <i>Gnomi</i> as a synonym of <i>Pygmaei</i>, from +the Greek <span class="grk" title="gnômê">γνώμη</span>, intelligence. The <i>New English Dictionary</i>, +however, suggests a derivation from <i>genomus</i>, <i>i.e.</i> a Greek type +<span class="grk" title="gênomos">γηνόμος</span>, “earth-dweller,” on the analogy of <span class="grk" title="thalassonomos">θαλασσονόμος</span>, +“dwelling in the sea,” adding, however, that though there is +no evidence that the term was not used before Paracelsus, +it is possibly “a mere arbitrary invention, like so many others +found in Paracelsus” (<i>N.E.D.</i> s.v.).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:170px; height:115px" src="images/img152.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="bold">GNOMON,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> the Greek word for the style of a sundial, or any +object, commonly a vertical column, the shadow of which was +observed in former times in order to learn +the altitude of the sun, especially when on +the meridian. The art of constructing a +sundial is sometimes termed <i>gnomonics</i>. +In geometry, a gnomon is a plane figure +formed by removing a parallelogram from +a corner of a larger parallelogram; in the +figure ABCDEFA is a gnomon. Gnomonic projection is a projection +of a sphere in which the centre of sight is the centre of +the sphere.</p> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">GNOSTICISM<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="gnôsis">γνῶσις</span>, knowledge), the name generally +applied to that spiritual movement existing side by side with +genuine Christianity, as it gradually crystallized into the old +Catholic Church, which may roughly be defined as a distinct religious +syncretism bearing the strong impress of Christian influences.</p> + +<p>I. The term “Gnosis” first appears in a technical sense in +1 Tim. vi. 20 (<span class="grk" title="hê pseudônymos gnôsis">ἡ ψευδώνυμος γνῶσις</span>). It seems to have at first +been applied exclusively, or at any rate principally, to a particular +tendency within the movement as a whole, <i>i.e.</i> to those sections of +(the Syrian) Gnostics otherwise generally known as Ophites or +Naasseni (see Hippolytus, <i>Philosophumena</i>, v. 2: <span class="grk" title="Naassênoi +... hoi heautous Gnôstikous apokalountes">Ναασσηνοὶ ... οἱ ἑαυτοὺς Γνωστικοὺς ἀποκαλοῦντες</span>; Irenaeus i. 11. 1; +Epiphanius, <i>Haeres.</i> xxvi. Cf. also the self-assumed name of the +Carpocratiani, Iren. i. 25. 6). But in Irenaeus the term has +already come to designate the whole movement. This first came +into prominence in the opening decades of the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, +but is certainly older; it reached its height in the second third of +the same century, and began to wane about the 3rd century, and +from the second half of the 3rd century onwards was replaced by +the closely-related and more powerful Manichaean movement. +Offshoots of it, however, continued on into the 4th and 5th +centuries. Epiphanius still had the opportunity of making +personal acquaintance with Gnostic sects.</p> + +<p>II. Of the actual writings of the Gnostics, which were extraordinarily +numerous,<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> very little has survived; they were +sacrificed to the destructive zeal of their ecclesiastical opponents. +Numerous fragments and extracts from Gnostic writings are to be +found in the works of the Fathers who attacked Gnosticism. +Most valuable of all are the long extracts in the 5th and 6th books +of the <i>Philosophumena</i> of Hippolytus. The most accessible and +best critical edition of the fragments which have been preserved +word for word is to be found in Hilgenfeld’s <i>Ketzergeschichte des +Urchristentums</i>. One of the most important of these fragments is +the letter of Ptolemaeus to Flora, preserved in Epiphanius, <i>Haeres</i>. +xxxiii. 3-7 (see on this point Harnack in the <i>Sitzungsberichte der +Berliner Akademie</i>, 1902, pp. 507-545). Gnostic fragments are +certainly also preserved for us in the <i>Acts of Thomas</i>. Here we +should especially mention the beautiful and much-discussed +<i>Song of the Pearl</i>, or <i>Song of the Soul</i>, which is generally, though +without absolute clear proof, attributed to the Gnostic Bardesanes +(till lately it was known only in the Syrian text; edited and +translated by Bevan, <i>Texts and Studies</i>,<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a> v. 3, 1897; Hofmann, +<i>Zeitschrift für neutestamentliche Wissenschaft</i>, iv.; for the +newly-found Greek text see <i>Acta apostolorum</i>, ed. Bonnet, ii. 2, +c. 108, p. 219). Generally also much Gnostic matter is contained +in the apocryphal histories of the Apostles. To the school of +Bardesanes belongs the “Book of the Laws of the Lands,” which +does not, however, contribute much to our knowledge of Gnosticism. +Finally, we should mention in this connexion the text on +which are based the pseudo-Clementine <i>Homilies</i> and <i>Recognitiones</i> +(beginning of the 3rd century). It is, of course, already +permeated with the Catholic spirit, but has drawn so largely upon +sources of a Judaeo-Christian Gnostic character that it comes to +a great extent within the category of sources for Gnosticism. +Complete original Gnostic works have unfortunately survived to +us only from the period of the decadence of Gnosticism. Of +these we should mention the comprehensive work called the +<i>Pistis-Sophia</i>, probably belonging to the second half of the 3rd +century.<a name="fa3h" id="fa3h" href="#ft3h"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Further, the Coptic-Gnostic texts of the <i>Codex +Brucianus</i>; both the books of Ieu, and an anonymous third +work (edited and translated by C. Schmidt, <i>Texte und Untersuchungen</i>, +vol. viii., 1892; and a new translation by the same in +<i>Koptische-gnostische Schriften</i>, i.) which, contrary to the opinion +of their editor and translator, the present writer believes to +represent, in their existing form, a still later period and a +still more advanced stage in the decadence of Gnosticism. +For other and older Coptic-Gnostic texts, in one of which is contained +the source of Irenaeus’s treatises on the Barbelognostics, +but which have unfortunately not yet been made completely +accessible, see C. Schmidt in <i>Sitzungsberichte der Berl. Akad.</i> +(1896), p. 839 seq., and “Philotesia,” dedicated to Paul Kleinert +(1907); p. 315 seq.</p> + +<p>On the whole, then, for an exposition of Gnosticism we are +thrown back upon the polemical writings of the Fathers in their +controversy with heresy. The most ancient of these is Justin, +who according to his <i>Apol.</i> i. 26 wrote a <i>Syntagma</i> against all +heresies (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 150), and also, probably, a special polemic against +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>153</span> +Marcion (fragment in Irenaeus iv. 6. 2). Both these writings are +lost. He was followed by Irenaeus, who, especially in the first +book of his treatise <i>Adversus haereses</i> (<span class="grk" title="elegchou kai anatropês +tês pseudônymou gnôseôs biblia pente">ἐλέγχου καὶ ἀνατροπῆς τῆς ψευδωνύμου γνώσεως βιβλία πέντε</span>, <i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 180), gives a +detailed account of the Gnostic heresies. He founds his work +upon that of his master Justin, but adds from his own knowledge +among many other things, notably the detailed account of +Valentinianism at the beginning of the book. On Irenaeus, and +probably also on Justin, Hippolytus drew for his <i>Syntagma</i> +(beginning of the 3rd century), a work which is also lost, but can, +with great certainty, be reconstructed from three recensions of it: +in the <i>Panarion</i> of Epiphanius (after 374), in Philaster of Brescia, +<i>Adversus haereses</i>, and the Pseudo-Tertullian, <i>Liber adversus +omnes haereses</i>. A second work of Hippolytus <span class="grk" title="Katà pasôn +haipeseôv elegchos">Κατὰ πασῶν αἱρέσεων ἔλεγχος</span> is preserved in the so-called <i>Philosophumena</i> +which survives under the name of Origen. Here Hippolytus +gave a second exposition supplemented by fresh Gnostic original +sources with which he had become acquainted in the meanwhile. +These sources quoted in Hippolytus have lately met with very +unfavourable criticisms. The opinion has been advanced that +Hippolytus has here fallen a victim to the mystification of a +forger. The truth of the matter must be that Hippolytus +probably made use of a collection of Gnostic texts, put together +by a Gnostic, in which were already represented various secondary +developments of the genuine Gnostic schools. It is also possible +that the compiler has himself attempted here and there to +harmonize to a certain extent the various Gnostic doctrines, yet +in no case is this collection of sources given by Hippolytus to be +passed over; it should rather be considered as important evidence +for the beginnings of the decay of Gnosticism. Very noteworthy +references to Gnosticism are also to be found scattered up and +down the <i>Stromateis</i> of Clement of Alexandria. Especially +important are the <i>Excerpta ex Theodoto</i>, the author of which is +certainly Clement, which are verbally extracted from Gnostic +writings, and have almost the value of original sources. The +writings of Origen also contain a wealth of material. In the +first place should be mentioned the treatise <i>Contra Celsum</i>, in +which the expositions of Gnosticism by both Origen and Celsus +are of interest (see especially v. 61 seq. and vi. 25 seq.). Of +Tertullian’s works should be mentioned: <i>De praescriptione +haereticorum</i>, especially <i>Adversus Marcionem</i>, <i>Adversus Hermogenem</i>, +and finally <i>Adversus Valentinianos</i> (entirely founded on +Irenaeus). Here must also be mentioned the dialogue of Adamantius +with the Gnostics, <i>De recta in deum fide</i> (beginning of 4th +century). Among the followers of Hippolytus, Epiphanius in his +<i>Panarion</i> gives much independent and valuable information +from his own knowledge of contemporary Gnosticism. But +Theodoret of Cyrus (d. 455) is already entirely dependent on +previous works and has nothing new to add. With the 4th +century both Gnosticism and the polemical literature directed +against it die out.<a name="fa4h" id="fa4h" href="#ft4h"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>III. If we wish to grasp the peculiar character of the great +Gnostic movement, we must take care not to be led astray by +the catchword “Gnosis.” It is a mistake to regard the Gnostics +as pre-eminently the representatives of intellect among Christians, +and Gnosticism as an intellectual tendency chiefly concerned +with philosophical speculation, the reconciliation of religion +with philosophy and theology. It is true that when Gnosticism +was at its height it numbered amongst its followers both theologians +and men of science, but that is not its main characteristic. +Among the majority of the followers of the movement “Gnosis” +was understood not as meaning “knowledge” or “understanding,” +in our sense of the word, but “revelation.” These little +Gnostic sects and groups all lived in the conviction that they +possessed a secret and mysterious knowledge, in no way accessible +to those outside, which was not to be proved or propagated, +but believed in by the initiated, and anxiously guarded as a +secret. This knowledge of theirs was not based on reflection, +on scientific inquiry and proof, but on revelation. It was +derived directly from the times of primitive Christianity; from +the Saviour himself and his disciples and friends, with whom +they claimed to be connected by a secret tradition, or else from +later prophets, of whom many sects boasted. It was laid down +in wonderful mystic writings, which were in the possession of the +various circles (Liechtenhahn, <i>Die Offenbarung im Gnosticismus</i>, +1901).</p> + +<p>In short, Gnosticism, in all its various sections, its form and +its character, falls under the great category of mystic religions, +which were so characteristic of the religious life of decadent +antiquity. In Gnosticism as in the other mystic religions we +find the same contrast of the initiated and the uninitiated, the +same loose organization, the same kind of petty sectarianism +and mystery-mongering. All alike boast a mystic revelation +and a deeply-veiled wisdom. As in many mystical religions, +so in Gnosticism, the ultimate object is individual salvation, +the assurance of a fortunate destiny for the soul after death. +As in the others, so in this the central object of worship is a +redeemer-deity who has already trodden the difficult way which +the faithful have to follow. And finally, as in all mystical +religions, so here too, holy rites and formulas, acts of initiation +and consecration, all those things which we call sacraments, +play a very prominent part. The Gnostic religion is full of such +sacraments. In the accounts of the Fathers we find less about +them; yet here Irenaeus’ account of the Marcosians is of the +highest significance (i. 21 seq.). Much more material is to be +found in the original Gnostic writings, especially in the <i>Pistis-Sophia</i> +and the two books of Ieu, and again in the <i>Excerpta ex +Theodoto</i>, the <i>Acts of Thomas</i>, and here and there also in the +pseudo-Clementine writings. Above all we can see from the +original sources of the Mandaean religion, which also represents +a branch of Gnosticism, how great a part the sacraments played +in the Gnostic sects (Brandt, <i>Mandäische Religion</i>, p. 96 seq.). +Everywhere we are met with the most varied forms of holy rites—the +various baptisms, by water, by fire, by the spirit, the +baptism for protection against demons, anointing with oil, +sealing and stigmatizing, piercing the ears, leading into the +bridal chamber, partaking of holy food and drink. Finally, +sacred formulas, names and symbols are of the highest importance +among the Gnostic sects. We constantly meet with the +idea that the soul, on leaving the body, finds its path to the +highest heaven opposed by the deities and demons of the lower +realms of heaven, and only when it is in possession of the names +of these demons, and can repeat the proper holy formula, or is +prepared with the right symbol, or has been anointed with the +holy oil, finds its way unhindered to the heavenly home. Hence +the Gnostic must above all things learn the names of the demons, +and equip himself with the sacred formulas and symbols, in +order to be certain of a good destiny after death. The exposition +of the system of the Ophites given by Celsus (in Origen vi. 25 seq.), +and, in connexion with Celsus, by Origen, is particularly instructive +on this point. The two “Coptic Ieu” books unfold an +immense system of names and symbols. This system again was +simplified, and as the supreme secret was taught in a single +name or a single formula, by means of which the happy possessor +was able to penetrate through all the spaces of heaven (cf. the +name “Caulacau” among the Basilidians; Irenaeus, <i>Adv. haer.</i> +i. 24. 5, and among other sects). It was taught that even the +redeemer-god, when he once descended on to this earth, to rise +from it again, availed himself of these names and formulas on his +descent and ascent through the world of demons. Traces of +ideas of this kind are to be met with almost everywhere. They +have been most carefully collected by Anz (<i>Ursprung des Gnosticismus, +Texte und Untersuchungen</i> xv. 4 <i>passim</i>) who would see +in them the central doctrine of Gnosticism.</p> + +<p>IV. All these investigations point clearly to the fact that +Gnosticism belongs to the group of mystical religions. We must +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>154</span> +now proceed to define more exactly the peculiar and distinctive +character of the Gnostic system. The basis of the Gnostic +religion and world-philosophy lies in a decided Oriental dualism. +In sharp contrast are opposed the two worlds of the good and of +the evil, the divine world and the material world <span class="grk" title="hulê">ὔλη</span>, the +worlds of light and of darkness. In many systems there seems +to be no attempt to derive the one world from the other. The +true Basilides (<i>q.v.</i>), perhaps also Satornil, Marcion and a part +of his disciples, Bardesanes and others, were frankly dualists. +In the case of other systems, owing to the inexactness of our +information, we are unable to decide; the later systems of +Mandaeism and Manichaeanism, so closely related to Gnosticism, +are also based upon a decided dualism. And even when there +is an attempt at reconciliation, it is still quite clear how strong +was the original dualism which has to be overcome. Thus the +Gnostic systems make great use of the idea of a fall of the Deity +himself; by the fall of the Godhead into the world of matter, +this matter, previously insensible, is animated into life and +activity, and then arise the powers, both partly and wholly +hostile, who hold sway over this world. Such figures of fallen +divinities, sinking down into the world of matter are those of +Sophia (<i>i.e.</i> Ahamoth) among the Gnostics (Ophites) in +the narrower sense of the word, the Simoniani (the figure of +Helena), the Barbelognostics, and in the system of the <i>Pistis-Sophia</i> +or the Primal Man, among the Naasseni and the sect, +related to them, as described by Hippolytus.<a name="fa5h" id="fa5h" href="#ft5h"><span class="sp">5</span></a> A further weakening +of the dualism is indicated when, in the systems of the +Valentinian school, the fall of Sophia takes place within the +godhead, and Sophia, inflamed with love, plunges into the Bythos, +the highest divinity, and when the attempt is thus made genetically +to derive the lower world from the sufferings and passions +of fallen divinity. Another attempt at reconciliation is set +forth in the so-called “system of emanations” in which it is +assumed that from the supreme divinity emanated a somewhat +lesser world, from this world a second, and so on, until the +divine element (of life) became so far weakened and attenuated, +that the genesis of a partly, or even wholly, evil world appears +both possible and comprehensible. A system of emanations +of this kind, in its purest form, is set forth in the expositions +coming from the school of Basilides, which are handed down by +Irenaeus, while the propositions which are set forth in the +<i>Philosophumena</i> of Hippolytus as being doctrines of Basilides +represent a still closer approach to a monistic philosophy. +Occasionally, too, there is an attempt to establish at any rate a +threefold division of the world, and to assume between the +worlds of light and darkness a middle world connecting the two; +this is clearest among the Sethiani mentioned by Hippolytus +(and cf. the Gnostics in Irenaeus i. 30. 1). Quite peculiar in +this connexion are the accounts in Books xix. and xx. of the +Clementine <i>Homilies</i>. After a preliminary examination of all +possible different attempts at a solution of the problem of evil, +the attempt is here made to represent the devil as an instrument +of God. Christ and the devil are the two hands of God, Christ +the right hand, and the devil the left, the devil having power +over this world-epoch and Christ over the next. The devil here +assumes very much the characteristics of the punishing and just +God of the Old Testament, and the prospect is even held out of +his ultimate pardon. All these efforts at reconciliation show +how clearly the problem of evil was realized in these Gnostic +and half-Gnostic sects, and how deeply they meditated on the +subject; it was not altogether without reason that in the ranks +of its opponents Gnosticism was judged to have arisen out of the +question, <span class="grk" title="pothen to kakon">πόθεν τὸ κακόν</span>.</p> + +<p>This dualism had not its origin in Hellenic soil, neither is it +related to that dualism which to a certain extent existed also in +late Greek religion. For the lower and imperfect world, which +in that system too is conceived and assumed, is the nebulous +world of the non-existent and the formless, which is the +necessary accompaniment of that which exists, as shadow is of +light.</p> + +<p>In Gnosticism, on the contrary, the world of evil is full of +active energy and hostile powers. It is an Oriental (Iranian) +dualism which here finds expression, though in one point, it is +true, the mark of Greek influence is quite clear. When Gnosticism +recognizes in this corporeal and material world the true seat of +evil, consistently treating the bodily existence of mankind as +essentially evil and the separation of the spiritual from the +corporeal being as the object of salvation, this is an outcome +of the contrast in Greek dualism between spirit and matter, soul +and body. For in Oriental (Persian) dualism it is within this +material world that the good and evil powers are at war, and this +world beneath the stars is by no means conceived as entirely +subject to the influence of evil. Gnosticism has combined the +two, the Greek opposition between spirit and matter, and the +sharp Zoroastrian dualism, which, where the Greek mind conceived +of a higher and a lower world, saw instead two hostile +worlds, standing in contrast to each other like light and darkness. +And out of the combination of these two dualisms arose the +teaching of Gnosticism, with its thoroughgoing pessimism and +fundamental asceticism.</p> + +<p>Another characteristic feature of the Gnostic conception of +the universe is the rôle played in almost all Gnostic systems +by the seven world-creating powers. There are indeed certain +exceptions; for instance, in the systems of the Valentinian schools +there is the figure of the one Demiurge who takes the place of +the Seven. But how widespread was the idea of seven powers, +who created this lower material world and rule over it, has +been clearly proved, especially by the systematic examination +of the subject by Anz (<i>Ursprung des Gnosticismus</i>). These +Seven, then, are in most systems half-evil, half-hostile powers; +they are frequently characterized as “angels,” and are reckoned +as the last and lowest emanations of the Godhead; below them—and +frequently considered as derived from them—comes the +world of the actually devilish powers. On the other hand, among +the speculations of the Mandaeans, we find a different and perhaps +more primitive conception of the Seven, according to which +they, together with their mother Namrus (Rūhā) and their +father (Ur), belong entirely to the world of darkness. They +and their family are looked upon as captives of the god of light +(Mandā-d’hayyē, Hibil-Zīvā), who pardons them, sets them on +chariots of light, and appoints them as rulers of the world +(cf. chiefly Genza, in <i>Tractat</i>. 6 and 8; W. Brandt, <i>Mandäische +Schriften</i>, 125 seq. and 137 seq.; <i>Mandäische Religion</i>, 34 seq., +&c.). In the Manichaean system it is related how the helper of +the Primal Man, the spirit of life, captured the evil <i>archontes</i>, and +fastened them to the firmament, or according to another account, +flayed them, and formed the firmament from their skin (F. C. +Baur, <i>Das manichäische Religionssystem</i>, v. 65), and this conception +is closely related to the other, though in this tradition the number +(seven) of the <i>archontes</i> is lost. Similarly, the last book of the +<i>Pistis-Sophia</i> contains the myth of the capture of the rebellious +<i>archontes</i>, whose leaders here appear as five in number (Schmidt, +<i>Koptisch-gnostische Schriften</i>, p. 234 seq.).<a name="fa6h" id="fa6h" href="#ft6h"><span class="sp">6</span></a> There can scarcely +be any doubt as to the origin of these seven (five) powers; they +are the seven planetary divinities, the sun, moon and five planets.</p> + +<p>In the Mandaean speculations the Seven are introduced with +the Babylonian names of the planets. The connexion of the +Seven with the planets is also clearly established by the expositions +of Celsus and Origen (<i>Contra Celsum</i>, vi. 22 seq.) and similarly +by the above-quoted passage in the <i>Pistis-Sophia</i>, where the +<i>archontes</i>, who are here mentioned as five, are identified with +the five planets (excluding the sun and moon). This collective +grouping of the seven (five) planetary divinities is derived from +the late Babylonian religion, which can definitely be indicated +as the home of these ideas (Zimmern, <i>Keilinschriften in dem +alten Testament</i>, ii. p. 620 seq.; cf. particularly Diodorus ii. 30). +And if in the old sources it is only the first beginnings of this +development that can be traced, we must assume that at a later +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155"></a>155</span> +period the Babylonian religion centred in the adoration of the +seven planetary deities. Very instructive in this connexion +is the later (Arabian) account of the religion of the Mesopotamian +Sabaeans. The religion of the Sabaeans, evidently a later +offshoot from the stock of the old Babylonian religion, actually +consists in the cult of the seven planets (cf. the great work of +Daniel Chwolsohn, <i>Die Ssabier u. der Ssabismus</i>). But this +reference to Babylonian religion does not solve the problem +which is here in question. For in the Babylonian religion the +planetary constellations are reckoned as the supreme deities. +And here the question arises, how it came about that in the +Gnostic systems the Seven appear as subordinate, half-daemonic +powers, or even completely as powers of darkness. This can +only be explained on the assumption that some religion hostile +to, and stronger than the Babylonian, has superimposed itself +upon this, and has degraded its principal deities into daemons. +Which religion can this have been? We are at first inclined to +think of Christianity itself, but it is certainly most improbable +that at the time of the rise of Christianity the Babylonian teaching +about the seven planet-deities governing the world should have +played so great a part throughout all Syria, Asia Minor and +Egypt, that the most varying sections of syncretic Christianity +should over and over again adopt this doctrine and work it up +into their system. It is far more probable that the combination +which we meet with in Gnosticism is older than Christianity, +and was found already in existence by Christianity and its sects. +We must also reject the theory that this degradation of the +planetary deities into daemons is due to the influence of Hebrew +monotheism, for almost all the Gnostic sects take up a definitely +hostile attitude towards the Jewish religion, and almost always +the highest divinity among the Seven is actually the creator-God +of the Old Testament. There remains, then, only one religion +which can be used as an explanation, namely the Persian, which +in fact fulfils all the necessary conditions. The Persian religion +was at an early period brought into contact with the Babylonian, +through the triumphant progress of Persian culture towards +the West; at the time of Alexander the Great it was already the +prevailing religion in the Babylonian plain (cf. F. Cumont, +<i>Textes et monuments rel. aux mystères de Mithra</i>, i. 5, 8-10, 14, +223 seq., 233). It was characterized by a main belief, tending +towards monotheism, in the Light-deity Ahuramazda and his +satellites, who appeared in contrast with him as powers of the +nature of angels.</p> + +<p>A combination of the Babylonian with the Persian religion +could only be effected by the degradation of the Babylonian +deities into half-divine, half-daemonic beings, infinitely remote +from the supreme God of light and of heaven, or even into +powers of darkness. Even the characteristic dualism of Gnosticism +has already proved to be in part of Iranian origin; and now +it becomes clear how from that mingling of late Greek and +Persian dualism the idea could arise that these seven half-daemonic +powers are the creators or rulers of this material +world, which is separated infinitely from the light-world of the +good God. Definite confirmation of this conjecture is afforded +us by later sources of the Iranian religion, in which we likewise +meet with the characteristic fundamental doctrine of Gnosticism. +Thus the <i>Bundahish</i> (iii. 25, v. 1) is able to inform us that in the +primeval strife of Satan against the light-world, seven hostile +powers were captured and set as constellations in the heavens, +where they are guarded by good star-powers and prevented +from doing harm. Five of the evil powers are the planets, +while here the sun and moon are of course not reckoned among +the evil powers—for the obvious reason that in the Persian +official religion they invariably appear as good divinities (cf. +similar ideas in the Arabic treatise on Persian religion <i>Ulema-i-Islam</i>, +Vullers, <i>Fragmente über die Religion Zoroasters</i>, p. 49, +and in other later sources for Persian religion, put together +in Spiegel, <i>Eranische Altertumskunde</i>, Bd. ii. p. 180). These +Persian fancies can hardly be borrowed from the Christian +Gnostic systems, their definiteness and much more strongly +dualistic character recalling the exposition of the Mandaean +(and Manichaean) system, are proofs to the contrary. They are +derived from the same period in which the underlying idea +of the Gnostic systems also originated, namely, the time at which +the ideas of the Persian and Babylonian religions came into +contact, the remarkable results of which have thus partly found +their way into the official documents of Parsiism.</p> + +<p>With this fundamental doctrine of Gnosticism is connected, +as Anz has shown in his book which we have so often quoted, +a side of their religious practices to which we have already +alluded. Gnosticism is to a great extent dominated by the idea +that it is above all and in the highest degree important for the +Gnostic’s soul to be enabled to find its way back through the +lower worlds and spheres of heaven ruled by the Seven to the +kingdom of light of the supreme deity of heaven. Hence, a +principal item in their religious practice consisted in communications +about the being, nature and names of the Seven (or of +any other hostile daemons barring the way to heaven), the +formulas with which they must be addressed, and the symbols +which must be shown to them. But names, symbols and +formulas are not efficacious by themselves: the Gnostic must +lead a life having no part in the lower world ruled by these +spirits, and by his knowledge he must raise himself above +them to the God of the world of light. Throughout this mystic +religious world it was above all the influence of the late Greek +religion, derived from Plato, that also continued to operate; +it is filled with the echo of the song, the first note of which was +sounded by the Platonists, about the heavenly home of the +soul and the homeward journey of the wise to the higher world +of light.</p> + +<p>But the form in which the whole is set forth is Oriental, and +it must be carefully noted that the Mithras mysteries, so closely +connected with the Persian religion, are acquainted with this +doctrine of the ascent of the soul through the planetary spheres +(Origen, <i>Contra Celsum</i>, vi. 22).</p> + +<p>V. We cannot here undertake to set forth and explain in detail +all the complex varieties of the Gnostic systems; but it will +be useful to take a nearer view of certain principal figures which +have had an influence upon at least one series of Gnostic systems, +and to examine their origins in the history of religion. In +almost all systems an important part is played by the Great +Mother (<span class="grk" title="mêtêr">μήτηρ</span>) who appears under the most varied forms (cf. +<span class="sc">Great Mother of the Gods</span>). At an early period, and notably +in the older systems of the Ophites (a fairly exact account of +which has been preserved for us by Epiphanius and Hippolytus), +among the Gnostics in the narrower sense of the word, the Archontici, +the Sethites (there are also traces among the Naasseni, +cf. the <i>Philosophumena</i> of Hippolytus), the <span class="grk" title="mêtêr">μήτηρ</span> is the most +prominent figure in the light-world, elevated above the <span class="grk" title="hebdomas">ἑβδομάς</span>, +and the great mother of the faithful. The sect of the Barbelognostics +takes its name from the female figure of the Barbelo +(perhaps a corruption of <span class="grk" title="Parthenos">Παρθένος</span>; cf. the form <span class="grk" title="Barthenos">Βαρθενώς</span> for +“virgin” in Epiphanius, <i>Haer.</i> xxvi. 1). But Gnostic speculation +gives various accounts of the descent or fall of this goddess of +heaven. Thus the “Helena” of the Simoniani descends to this +world in order by means of her beauty to provoke to sensual +passion and mutual strife the angels who rule the world, and +thus again to deprive them of the powers of light, stolen from +heaven, by means of which they rule over the world. She is +then held captive by them in extreme degradation. Similar +ideas are to be found among the “Gnostics” of Epiphanius. +The kindred idea of the light-maiden, who, by exciting the sensual +passions of the rulers (<span class="grk" title="archontes">ἄρχοντες</span>), takes from them those powers +of light which still remain to them, has also a central place +in the Manichaean scheme of salvation (F. C. Baur, <i>Das manichäische +Religionssystem</i>, pp. 219, 315, 321). The light-maiden +also plays a prominent part in the <i>Pistis-Sophia</i> (cf. the index +to the translation by C. Schmidt). With this figure of the mother-goddess +who descends into the lower world seems to be closely +connected the idea of the fallen Sophia, which is so widespread +among the Gnostic systems. This Sophia then is certainly +no longer the dominating figure of the light-world, she is a lower +aeon at the extreme limit of the world of light, who sinks down +into matter (Barbelognostics, the anonymous Gnostic of Irenaeus, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>156</span> +Bardesanes, <i>Pistis-Sophia</i>), or turns in presumptuous love towards +the supreme God (<span class="grk" title="Buthos">Βυθός</span>), and thus brings the Fall into +the world of the <i>aeons</i> (Valentinians). This Sophia then appears +as the mother of the “seven” gods (see above).</p> + +<p>The origin of this figure is not far to seek. It is certainly +not derived from the Persian religious system, to the spirit of +which it is entirely opposed. Neither would it be correct to +identify her entirely with the great goddess Ishtar of the old +Babylonian religion. But there can hardly be any doubt that +the figure of the great mother-goddess or goddess of heaven, +who was worshipped throughout Asia under various forms and +names (Astarte, Beltis, Atargatis, Cybele, the Syrian Aphrodite), +was the prototype of the <span class="grk" title="mêtêr">μήτηρ</span> of the Gnostics (cf. <span class="sc">Great +Mother of the Gods</span>). The character of the great goddess of +heaven is still in many places fairly exactly preserved in the +Gnostic speculations. Hence we are able to understand how the +Gnostic <span class="grk" title="mêtêr">μήτηρ</span>, the Sophia, appears as the mother of the Hebdomas +(<span class="grk" title="hebdomas">ἑβδομάς</span>). The great goddess of heaven is the mother of +the stars. Particularly instructive in this connexion is the fact +that in those very sects, in the systems of which the figure of the +<span class="grk" title="mêtêr">μήτηρ</span> plays a special part, unbridled prostitution appears as a +distinct and essential part of the cult (cf. the accounts of particular +branches of the Gnostics, Nicolaitans, Philionites, Borborites, +&c. in Epiphanius, <i>Haer.</i> xxv., xxvi.). The meaning of +this cult is, of course, reinterpreted in the Gnostic sense: by this +unbridled prostitution the Gnostic sects desired to prevent the +sexual propagation of mankind, the origin of all evil. But the +connexion is clear, and hence it also explained the curious Gnostic +myth mentioned above, namely that the <span class="grk" title="mêtêr">μήτηρ</span> (the light-maiden) +by appearing to the archontes (<span class="grk" title="archontes">ἄρχοντες</span>), the lower powers of +this world, inflames them to sexual lusts, in order to take from +them that share of light which they have stolen from the upper +world. This is a Gnostic interpretation of the various myths of +the great mother-goddess’s many loves and love-adventures with +other gods and heroes. And when the pagan legend of the Syrian +Astarte tells how she lived for ten years in Tyre as a prostitute, +this directly recalls the Gnostic myth of how Simon found +Helena in a brothel in Tyre (Epiphanius, <i>Ancoratus</i>, c. 104). +From the same group of myths must be derived the idea of the +goddess who descends to the under-world, and is there taken +prisoner against her will by the lower powers; the direct prototype +of this myth is to be found, <i>e.g.</i> in Ishtar’s journey to hell. +And finally, just as the mother-goddess of south-western Asia +stands in particularly intimate connexion with the youthful +god of spring (Tammuz, Adonis, Attis), so we ought perhaps to +compare here as a parallel the relation of Sophia with the Soter +in certain Gnostic systems (see below).</p> + +<p>Another characteristic figure of Gnosticism is that of the +Primal Man (<span class="grk" title="prôtos anthrôpos">πρῶτος ἄνθρωπος</span>). In many systems, certainly, +it has already been forced quite into the background. But on +closer examination we can clearly see that it has a wide influence +on Gnosticism. Thus in the system of the Naasseni (see Hippolytus, +<i>Philosophumena</i>), and in certain related sects there +enumerated, the Primal Man has a central and predominant +position. Again, in the text on which are based the pseudo-Clementine +writings (<i>Recognitions</i>, i. 16, 32, 45-47, 52, ii. 47; and +<i>Homilies</i>, iii. 17 seq. xviii. 14), as in the closely related system +of the Ebionites in Epiphanius (<i>Haer.</i> xxx. 3-16; cf. liii. 1), we +meet with the man who existed before the world, the prophet +who goes through the world in various forms, and finally reveals +himself in Christ. Among the Barbelognostics (Irenaeus i. +29. 3), the Primal Man (Adamas, <i>homo perfectus et verus</i>) and +Gnosis appear as a pair of aeons, occupying a prominent place +in the whole series. In the Valentinian systems the pair of +aeons, Anthropos and Ekklesia, occupy the third or fourth +place within the <i>Oydoás</i>, but incidentally we learn that with +some representatives of this school the Anthropos took a still +more prominent place (first or second; Hilgenfeld, <i>Ketzergeschichte</i>, +p. 294 seq.). And even in the <i>Pistis-Sophia</i> the +Primal Man “Ieu” is frequently alluded to as the King of the +Luminaries (cf. index to C. Schmidt’s translation). We also +meet with speculations of this kind about man in the circles +of non-Christian Gnosis. Thus in the <i>Poimandres</i> of Hermes +man is the most prominent figure in the speculation; numerous +pagan and half-pagan parallels (the “Gnostics” of Plotinus, +Zosimus, Bitys) have been collected by Reitzenstein in his +work <i>Poimandres</i> (pp. 81-116). Reitzenstein has shown (p. +81 seq.) that very probably the system of the Naasseni described +by Hippolytus was originally derived from purely pagan circles, +which are probably connected in some way with the mysteries +of the Attis cult. The figure in the Mandaean system most +closely corresponding to the Primal Man, though this figure +also actually occurs in another part of the system (cf. the figure +of Adakas Mana; Brandt, <i>Mandäische Religion</i>, p. 36 seq.) is +that of Mandā d’hayyē (<span class="grk" title="gnôsis tês zôês">γνῶσις τῆς ζωῆς</span>; cf. the pair of aeons, +Adamas and Gnosis, among the Barbelognostics, in Irenaeus +i. 29. 3). Finally, in the Manichaean system, as is well known, +the Primal Man again assumes the predominant place (<i>Baur, +Manich. Religionssystem</i>, 49 seq.).</p> + +<p>This figure of the Primal Man can particularly be compared +with that of the Gnostic Sophia. Wherever this figure has not +become quite obscure, it represents that divine power which, +whether simply owing to a fall, or as the hero who makes war +on, and is partly vanquished by darkness, descends into the +darkness of the material world, and with whose descent begins +the great drama of the world’s development. From this power +are derived those portions of light existing and held prisoner +in this lower world. And as he has raised himself again out of +the material world, or has been set free by higher powers, so +shall also the members of the Primal Man, the portions of +light still imprisoned in matter, be set free.</p> + +<p>The question of the derivation of the myth of the Primal +Man is still one of the unsolved problems of religious history. +It is worthy of notice that according to the old Persian myth +also, the development of the world begins with the slaying of +the primal man Gayomart by Angra-Mainyu (Ahriman); +further, that the Primal Man (“son of man” = man) also +plays a part in Jewish apocalyptic literature (Daniel, Enoch, +iv. Ezra), whence this figure passes into the Gospels; and again, +that the dogma of Christ’s descent into hell is directly connected +with this myth. But these parallels do not carry us much further. +Even the Persian myth is entirely obscure, and has hitherto +defied interpretation. It is certainly true that in some way +an essential part in the formation of the myth has been played +by the sun-god, who daily descends into darkness, to rise from +it again victoriously. But how to explain the combination of +the figure of the sun-god with that of the Primal Man is an +unsolved riddle. The meaning of this figure in the Gnostic +speculations is, however, clear. It answers the question: how +did the portions of light to be found in this lower world, among +which certainly belong the souls of the Gnostics, enter into it?</p> + +<p>A parallel myth to that of the Primal Man are the accounts +to be found in most of the Gnostic systems of the creation of +the first man. In all these accounts the idea is expressed that +so far as his body is concerned man is the work of the angels +who created the world. So <i>e.g.</i> Satornil relates (Irenaeus i. +24. 1) that a brilliant vision appeared from above to the world-creating +angels; they were unable to hold it fast, but formed +man after its image. And as the man thus formed was unable +to move, but could only crawl like a worm, the supreme Power +put into him a spark of life, and man came into existence. +Imaginations of the same sort are also to be found, <i>e.g.</i> in the +genuine fragments of Valentinus (Hilgenfeld, <i>Ketzergeschichte</i>, +p. 293), the Gnostics of Irenaeus i. 30. 6, the Mandaeans +(Brandt, <i>Religion der Mandäer</i>, p. 36), and the Manichaeans +(Baur, <i>Religionssystem</i>, p. 118 seq.). The Naasseni (Hippolytus, +<i>Philosophumena</i>, v. 7) expressly characterize the myth as +Chaldean (cf. the passage from Zosimus, in Reitzenstein’s +<i>Poimandres</i>, p. 104). Clearly then the question which the myth +of the Primal Man is intended to answer in relation to the +whole universe is answered in relation to the nature of man by +this account of the coming into being of the first man, which +may, moreover, have been influenced by the account in the Old +Testament. That question is: how does it happen that in this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id="page157"></a>157</span> +inferior body of man, fallen a prey to corruption, there dwells +a higher spark of the divine Being, or in other words, how are +we to explain the double nature of man?</p> + +<p>VI. Of all the fundamental ideas of Gnosticism of which we +have so far treated, it can with some certainty be assumed that +they were in existence before the rise of Christianity and the +influence of Christian ideas on the development of Gnosticism. +The main question with which we have now to deal is that of +whether the dominant figure of the Saviour (<span class="grk" title="Sôtêr">Σωτήρ</span>) in Gnosticism +is of specifically Christian derivation, or whether this can also +be explained apart from the assumption of Christian influence. +And here it must be premised that, intimately as the conception +of salvation is bound up with the Gnostic religion, the idea of +salvation accomplished in a definite historical moment to a +certain extent remained foreign to it. Indeed, nearly all the +Christian Gnostic systems clearly exhibit the great difficulty +with which they had to contend in order to reconcile the idea +of an historical redeemer, actually occurring in the form of a +definite person, with their conceptions of salvation. In Gnosticism +salvation always lies at the root of all existence and all history. +The fundamental conception varies greatly. At one time the +Primal Man, who sank down into matter, has freed himself +and risen out of it again, and like him his members will rise out +of darkness into the light (<i>Poimandres</i>); at another time the +Primal Man who was conquered by the powers of darkness +has been saved by the powers of light, and thus too all his race +will be saved (Manichaeism); at another time the fallen Sophia +is purified by her passions and sorrows and has found her <i>Syzygos</i>, +the Soter, and wedded him, and thus all the souls of the Gnostics +who still languish in matter will become the brides of the angels +of the <i>Soter</i> (Valentinus). In fact salvation, as conceived in +Gnosticism, is always a myth, a history of bygone events, an +allegory or figure, but not an historical event. And this decision +is not affected by the fact that in certain Gnostic sects figured +historical personages such as Simon Magus and Menander. +The Gnostic ideas of salvation were in the later schools and sects +transferred to these persons whom we must consider as rather +obscure charlatans and miracle-mongers, just as in other cases +they were transferred to the person of Christ. The “Helena” +of the Simonian system was certainly not an historical but a +mythical figure. This explains the laborious and artificial way +in which the person of Jesus is connected in many Gnostic systems +with the original Gnostic conception of redemption. In this +patchwork the joins are everywhere still clearly to be recognized. +Thus, <i>e.g.</i> in the Valentinian system, the myth of the fallen +Sophia and the Soter, of their ultimate union, their marriage +and their 70 sons (Irenaeus i. 4. 5; Hippolytus, <i>Philos.</i> vi. +34), has absolutely nothing to do with the Christian conceptions +of salvation. The subject is here that of a high goddess of heaven +(she has 70 sons) whose friend and lover finds her in the misery +of deepest degradation, frees her, and bears her home as his +bride. To this myth the idea of salvation through the earthly +Christ can only be attached with difficulty. And it was openly +maintained that the Soter only existed for the Gnostic, the +Saviour Jesus who appeared on earth only for the “Psychicus” +(Irenaeus i. 6. 1).</p> + +<p>VII. Thus the essential part of most of the conceptions of +what we call Gnosticism was already in existence and fully +developed before the rise of Christianity. But the fundamental +ideas of Gnosticism and of early Christianity had a kind of +magnetic attraction for each other. What drew these two +forces together was the energy exerted by the universal idea of +salvation in both systems. Christian Gnosticism actually +introduced only one new figure into the already existing Gnostic +theories, namely that of the historical Saviour Jesus Christ. +This figure afforded, as it were, a new point of crystallization +for the existing Gnostic ideas, which now grouped themselves +round this point in all their manifold diversity. Thus there +came into the fluctuating mass a strong movement and formative +impulse, and the individual systems and sects sprang up like +mushrooms from this soil.</p> + +<p>It must now be our task to make plain the position of Gnosticism +within the Christian religion, and its significance for the +development of the latter. Above all the Gnostics represented +and developed the distinctly anti-Jewish tendency in Christianity. +Paul was the apostle whom they reverenced, and his spiritual +influence on them is quite unmistakable. The Gnostic Marcion +has been rightly characterized as a direct disciple of Paul. +Paul’s battle against the law and the narrow national conception +of Christianity found a willing following in a movement, the +syncretic origin of which directed it towards a universal religion. +St Paul’s ideas were here developed to their extremest consequences, +and in an entirely one-sided fashion such as was far +from being in his intention. In nearly all the Gnostic systems +the doctrine of the seven world-creating spirits is given an +anti-Jewish tendency, the god of the Jews and of the Old +Testament appearing as the highest of the seven. The demiurge +of the Valentinians always clearly bears the features of the Old +Testament creator-God.</p> + +<p>The Old Testament was absolutely rejected by most +of the Gnostics. Even the so-called Judaeo-Christian Gnostics +(Cerinthus), the Ebionite (Essenian) sect of the Pseudo-Clementine +writings (the Elkesaites), take up an inconsistent +attitude towards Jewish antiquity and the Old Testament. +In this <span class="correction" title="amended from repect">respect</span> the opposition to Gnosticism led to a reactionary +movement. If the growing Christian Church, in quite a different +fashion from Paul, laid stress on the literal authority of the Old +Testament, interpreted, it is true, allegorically; if it took up a +much more friendly and definite attitude towards the Old +Testament, and gave wider scope to the legal conception of +religion, this must be in part ascribed to the involuntary reaction +upon it of Gnosticism.</p> + +<p>The attitude of Gnosticism to the Old Testament and to the +creator-God proclaimed in it had its deeper roots, as we have +already seen, in the dualism by which it was dominated. With +this dualism and the recognition of the worthlessness and +absolutely vicious nature of the material world is combined a +decided spiritualism. The conception of a resurrection of the +body, of a further existence for the body after death, was unattainable +by almost all of the Gnostics, with the possible exception of +a few Gnostic sects dominated by Judaeo-Christian tendencies. +With the dualistic philosophy is further connected an attitude +of absolute indifference towards this lower and material world, +and the practice of asceticism. Marriage and sexual propagation +are considered either as absolute Evil or as altogether worthless, +and carnal pleasure is frequently looked upon as forbidden. +Then again asceticism sometimes changes into wild libertinism. +Here again Gnosticism has exercised an influence on the development +of the Church by way of contrast and opposition. If here +a return was made to the old material view of the resurrection +(the apostolic <span class="grk" title="anastasis tês sarkos">ἀνάστασις τῆς σαρκός</span>), entirely abandoning the +more spiritual conception which had been arrived at as a compromise +by Paul, this is probably the result of a reaction from +the views of Gnosticism. It was just at this point, too, that +Gnosticism started a development which was followed later by +the Catholic Church. In spite of the rejection of the ascetic +attitude of the Gnostics, as a blasphemy against the Creator, +a part of this ascetic principle became at a later date dominant +throughout all Christendom. And it is interesting to observe +how, <i>e.g.</i>, St Augustine, though desperately combating the +dualism of the Manichaeans, yet afterwards introduced a number +of dualistic ideas into Christianity, which are distinguishable +from those of Manichaeism only by a very keen eye, and even +then with difficulty.</p> + +<p>The Gnostic religion also anticipated other tendencies. As +we have seen, it is above all things a religion of sacraments and +mysteries. Through its syncretic origin Gnosticism introduced +for the first time into Christianity a whole mass of sacramental, +mystical ideas, which had hitherto existed in it only in its +earliest phases. But in the long run even genuine Christianity +has been unable to free itself from the magic of the sacraments; +and the Eastern Church especially has taken the same direction +as Gnosticism. Gnosticism was also the pioneer of the Christian +Church in the strong emphasis laid on the idea of salvation in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page158" id="page158"></a>158</span> +religion. And since the Gnostics were compelled to draw the +figure of the Saviour into a world of quite alien myths, their +Christology became so complicated in character that it frequently +recalls the Christology of the later dogmatic of the Greek Fathers.</p> + +<p>Finally, it was Gnosticism which gave the most decided +impulse to the consolidation of the Christian Church as a church. +Gnosticism itself is a free, naturally-growing religion, the religion +of isolated minds, of separate little circles and minute sects. +The homogeneity of wide circles, the sense of responsibility +engendered by it, and continuity with the past are almost +entirely lacking in it. It is based upon revelation, which even +at the present time is imparted to the individual, upon the more +or less convincing force of the religious imagination and speculations +of a few leaders, upon the voluntary and unstable grouping +of the schools round the master. Its adherents feel themselves +to be the isolated, the few, the free and the enlightened, as +opposed to the sluggish and inert masses of mankind degraded +into matter, or the initiated as opposed to the uninitiated, the +Gnostics as opposed to the “Hylici” (<span class="grk" title="hulikoi">ὑλικοί</span>); at most in the +later and more moderate schools a middle place was given to +the adherents of the Church as Psychici (<span class="grk" title="psychikoi">ψυχικοί</span>).</p> + +<p>This freely-growing Gnostic religiosity aroused in the Church +an increasingly strong movement towards unity and a firm +and inelastic organization, towards authority and tradition. An +organized hierarchy, a definitive canon of the Holy Scriptures, +a confession of faith and rule of faith, and unbending doctrinal +discipline, these were the means employed. A part was also +played in this movement by a free theology which arose within +the Church, itself a kind of Gnosticism which aimed at holding +fast whatever was good in the Gnostic movement, and obtaining +its recognition within the limits of the Church (Clement of +Alexandria, Origen). But the mightiest forces, to which in the +end this theology too had absolutely to give way, were outward +organization and tradition.</p> + +<p>It must be considered as an unqualified advantage for the +further development of Christianity, as a universal religion, that +at its very outset it prevailed against the great movement of +Gnosticism. In spite of the fact that in a few of its later representatives +Gnosticism assumed a more refined and spiritual +aspect, and even produced blossoms of a true and beautiful piety, +it is fundamentally and essentially an unstable religious syncretism, +a religion in which the determining forces were a fantastic +oriental imagination and a sacramentalism which degenerated +into the wildest superstitions, a weak dualism fluctuating +unsteadily between asceticism and libertinism. Indirectly, however, +Gnosticism was certainly one of the most powerful factors +in the development of Christianity in the 1st century.</p> + +<p>VIII. This sketch may be completed by a short review of the +various separate sects and their probable connexion with each +other. As a point of departure for the history of the development +of Gnosticism may be taken the numerous little sects +which were apparently first included under the name of “Gnostics” +in the narrower sense. Among these probably belong the +Ophites of Celsus (in Origen), the many little sects included by +Epiphanius under the name of Nicolaitans and Gnostics (<i>Haer.</i> +25, 26); the Archontici (Epiphanius, <i>Haer.</i> xl.), Sethites (Cainites) +should also here be mentioned, and finally the Carpocratians. +Common to all these is the dominant position assumed by the +“Seven” (headed by Ialdabaoth); the heavenly world lying +above the spheres of the Seven is occupied by comparatively +few figures, among which the most important part is played by +the <span class="grk" title="mêtêr">μήτηρ</span>, who is sometimes enthroned as the supreme +goddess in heaven, but in a few systems has already descended +from there into matter, been taken prisoner, &c. Numerous +little groups are distinguished from the mass, sometimes by one +peculiarity, sometimes by another. On the one hand we have +sects with a strongly ascetic tendency, on the other we find some +characterized by unbridled libertinism; in some the most +abandoned prostitution has come to be the most sacred mystery; +in others again appears the worship of serpents, which here +appears to be connected in various and often very loose ways +with the other ideas of these Gnostics—hence the names of the +“Ophites,” “Naasseni.” To this class also fundamentally +belong the Simoniani, who have included the probably historical +figure of Simon Magus in a system which seems to be closely +connected with those we have mentioned, especially if we look +upon the “Helena” of this system as a mythical figure. A +particular branch of the “Gnostic” sects is represented by those +systems in which the figure of Sophia sinking down into matter +already appears. To these belong the Barbelognostics (in the +description given by Irenaeus the figure of the Spirit takes the +place of that of Sophia), and the Gnostics whom Irenaeus (i. 30) +describes (cf. Epiphanius, <i>Haer.</i> xxvi.). And here may best be +included Bardesanes, a famous leader of a Gnostic school of +the end of the 2nd century. Most scholars, it is true, following +an old tradition, reckon Bardesanes among the Valentinians. +But from the little we know of Bardesanes, his system bears no +trace of relationship with the complicated Valentinian system, +but is rather completely derived from the ordinary Gnosticism, +and is distinguished from it apparently only by its more strongly +dualistic character. The systems of Valentinus and his disciples +must be considered as a further development of what we have +just characterized as the popular Gnosticism, and especially of +that branch of it to which the figure of Sophia is already known. +In them above all the world of the higher aeons is further extended +and filled with a throng of varied figures. They also +exhibit a variation from the characteristic dualism of Gnosticism +into monism, in their conception of the fall of Sophia and their +derivation of matter from the passions of the fallen Sophia. The +figures of the Seven have here entirely disappeared, the remembrance +of them being merely preserved in the name of the +<span class="grk" title="Dêmiourgos (hebdomas)">ἑβδομάς</span>. In general, Valentinianism displays a +particular resemblance to the dominant ideas of the Church, +both in its complicated Christology, its triple division of mankind +into <span class="grk" title="pneumatikoi, psychikoi">πνευματικοί, ψυχικοί</span> and <span class="grk" title="hulikoi">ὑλικοί</span>, and its far-fetched +interpretation of texts.<a name="fa7h" id="fa7h" href="#ft7h"><span class="sp">7</span></a> A quite different position from those +mentioned above is taken by Basilides (<i>q.v.</i>). From what little +we know of him he was an uncompromising dualist. Both the +systems which are handed down under his name by Irenaeus and +Hippolytus, that of emanations and the monistic-evolutionary +system, represent further developments of his ideas with a +tendency away from dualism towards monism. Characteristically, +in these Basilidian systems the figure of the “Mother” or +of Sophia does not appear. This peculiarity the Basilidian +system shares with that of Satornil of Antioch, which has only +come down to us in a very fragmentary state, and in other +respects recalls in many ways the popular Gnosticism. By +itself, on the other hand, stands the system preserved for us by +Hippolytus in the <i>Philosophumena</i> under the name of the +Naasseni, with its central figure of “the Man,” which, as we +have seen, is very closely related with certain specifically pagan +Gnostic speculations which have come down to us (in the <i>Poimandres</i>, +in Zosimus and Plotinus, <i>Ennead</i> ii. 9). With the +Naasseni, moreover, are related also the other sects of which +Hippolytus alone gives us a notice in his <i>Philosophumena</i> +(Docetae, Perates, Sethiani, the adherents of Justin, the Gnostic +of Monoimos). Finally, apart from all other Gnostics stands +Marcion. With him, as far as we are able to conclude from the +scanty notices of him, the manifold Gnostic speculations are +reduced essentially to the one problem of the good and the just +God, the God of the Christians and the God of the Old Testament. +Between these two powers Marcion affirms a sharp and, as it +appears, originally irreconcilable dualism which with him rests +moreover on a speculative basis. Thanks to the noble simplicity +and specifically religious character of his ideas, Marcion was +able to found not only schools, but a community, a church of +his own, which gave trouble to the Church longer than any +other Gnostic sect. Among his disciples the speculative and +fantastic element of Gnosticism again became more apparent. +As we have already intimated, Gnosticism had such a power +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id="page159"></a>159</span> +of attraction that it now drew within its limits even Judaeo-Christian +sects. Among these we must mention the Judaeo-Christian +Gnostic Cerinthus, also the Gnostic Ebionites, of +whom Epiphanius (<i>Haer.</i>) gives us an account, and whose writings +are to be found in a recension in the collected works of the +Pseudo-Clementine <i>Recognitions and Homilies</i>; to the same class +belong the Elkesaites with their mystical scripture, the <i>Elxai</i>, +extracts of which are given by Hippolytus in the <i>Philos.</i> (ix. 13). +Later evidence of the decadence of Gnosticism occurs in the +<i>Pistis-Sophia</i> and the Coptic Gnostic writings discovered and +edited by Schmidt. In these confused records of human imagination +gone mad, we possess a veritable herbarium of all possible +Gnostic ideas, which were once active and now rest peacefully +side by side. None the less, the stream of the Gnostic religion +is not yet dried up, but continues on its way; and it is beyond +a doubt that the later Mandaeanism and the great religious +movement of Mani are most closely connected with Gnosticism. +These manifestations are all the more characteristic since in +them we meet with a Gnosticism which remained essentially +more untouched by Christian influences than the Gnostic +systems of the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Thus these systems throw an +important light on the past, and a true perception of the nature +and purpose of Gnosticism is not to be obtained without taking +them into consideration.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—A. Neander, <i>Genetische Entwicklung d. vornehmsten +gnostischen Systeme</i> (Berlin, 1818); F. Chr. Baur, <i>Die christl. +Gnosis in ihrer geschichtl. Entwicklung</i> (Tübingen, 1835); E. W. +Möller, <i>Gesch. der Kosmologie in der griechischen Kirche bis Origenes</i> +(Halle, 1860); R. A. Lipsius, <i>Der Gnosticismus</i> (Leipzig, 1860; +originally in Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Encyclopädie</i>); H. L. Mansel, +<i>The Gnostic Heresies of the 1st and 2nd Centuries</i> (London, 1875); +K. Kepler, <i>Über Gnosis und altbabylonische Religion</i>, a lecture +delivered at the Congress of Orientalists (Berlin, 1881); A. Hilgenfeld, +<i>Ketzergeschichte des Urchristentums</i> (Leipzig, 1884); and in +<i>Ztschr. für wissenschaftl. Theol.</i> 1890, i. “Der Gnosticismus”; +A. Harnack, <i>Dogmengeschichte</i>, i. 271 seq. (cf. the corresponding +sections of the <i>Dogmengeschichten</i> of Loofs and Seeberg); W. Anz, +“Zur Frage nach dem Ursprung des Gnosticismus,” <i>Texte u. Untersuchungen</i>, +xv. 4 (Leipzig, 1897); R. Liechtenhahn, <i>Die Offenbarung +im Gnosticismus</i> (Göttingen, 1901); C. Schmidt, “Plotins Stellung +zum Gnosticismus u. kirchl. Christentum” <i>Texte u. Untersuch.</i> +xx. 4 (1902); E. de Faye, <i>Introduction à l’étude du Gnosticisme</i> (Paris, +1903); R. Reitzenstein, <i>Poimandres</i> (Leipzig, 1904); G. Krüger, +article “Gnosticismus” in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd +ed.) vi. 728 ff.; Bousset, “Hauptprobleme der Gnosis,” <i>Forschungen +z. Relig. u. Lit. d. alten u. neuen Testaments</i>, 10 (1907); T. Wendland, +<i>Hellenistisch-römische Kultur in ihren Beziehungen zu Judentum +und Christentum</i> (1907), p. 161 seq. See further among important +monographs on the individual Gnostic systems, R. A. Lipsius, +“Die ophitischen Systeme,” <i>Ztschr. f. wissensch. Theologie</i> (1863); +G. Heinrici, <i>Die valentinianische Gnosis u. d. Heilige Schrift</i> (Berlin, +1871); A. Merx, <i>Bardesanes von Edessa</i> (Halle, 1863); A. Hilgenfeld, +<i>Bardesanes, der letzte Gnostiker</i> (Leipzig, 1864); A. Harnack, “Über +das gnostische Buch Pistis-Sophia,” <i>Texte u. Untersuch.</i> vii. 2; +C. Schmidt, “Gnostische Schriften,” <i>Texte u. Untersuch.</i> viii. 1, 2; +and also the works mentioned under § II. of this article.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. Bo.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See the list of their titles in A. Harnack, <i>Geschichte der altchristlichen +Literatur</i>, Teil I. v. 171; <i>ib.</i> Teil II. <i>Chronologie der altchristl. +Literatur</i>, i. 533 seq.; also Liechtenhahn, <i>Die Offenbarung im +Gnosticismus</i> (1901).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> For the text see A. Merx, <i>Bardesanes von Edessa</i> (1863), and A. +Hilgenfeld, <i>Bardesanes der letzte Gnostiker</i> (1864).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3h" id="ft3h" href="#fa3h"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Ed. Petermann-Schwartze; newly translated by C. Schmidt, +<i>Koptisch-gnostische Schriften</i>, i. (1905), in the series <i>Die griechischen +christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei Jahrhunderte</i>; see also +A. Harnack, <i>Texte und Untersuchungen</i>, Bd. vii. Heft 2 (1891), and +<i>Chronologie der altchristlichen Literatur</i>, ii. 193-195.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4h" id="ft4h" href="#fa4h"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See R. A. Lipsius, <i>Die Quellen der ältesten Ketzergeschichte</i> (1875); +A. Harnack, <i>Zur Quellenkritik der Geschichte des Gnosticismus</i> (1873); +A. Hilgenfeld, <i>Ketzergeschichte</i>, pp. 1-83; Harnack, <i>Geschichte der +altchristlich. Literatur</i>, i. 171 seq., ii. 533 seq., 712 seq.; J. Kunze, +<i>De historiae Gnostic. fontibus</i> (1894). On the <i>Philosophumena</i> of +Hippolytus see G. Salmon, the cross-references in the Philosophumena, +<i>Hermathena</i>, vol. xi. (1885) p. 5389 seq.; H. Staehelin, +<i>Die gnostischen Quellen Hippolyts</i>, <i>Texte und Unters.</i> Bd. vi. Hft. +3 (1890).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5h" id="ft5h" href="#fa5h"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Cf. the same idea of the fall of mankind in the pagan Gnosticism +of “Poimandres”; see Reitzenstein, <i>Poimandres</i> (1904); and the +position of the Primal Man (<i>Urmensch</i>) among the Manichaeans is +similar.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6h" id="ft6h" href="#fa6h"><span class="fn">6</span></a> These ideas may possibly be traced still further back, and perhaps +even underlie St Paul’s exposition in Col. ii. 15.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7h" id="ft7h" href="#fa7h"><span class="fn">7</span></a> For the disciples of Valentinus, especially Marcus, after whom +was named a separate sect, the Marcosians, with their Pythagorean +theories of numbers and their strong tincture of the mystical, magic, +and sacramental, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Valentinus and Valentinians</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GNU,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> the Hottentot name for the large white-tailed South +African antelope (<i>q.v.</i>), now nearly extinct, know to the Boers +as the black wildebeest, and to naturalists as Connochaetes (or +Catoblepas) gnu. A second and larger species is the brindled +gnu or blue wildebeest (<i>C. taurinus</i> or <i>Catoblepas gorgon</i>), also +known by the Bechuana name <i>kokon</i> or <i>kokoon</i>; and there are +several East African forms more or less closely related to the +latter which have received distinct names.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:451px; height:418px" src="images/img159.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">White-tailed Gnu, or Black Wildebeest (<i>Connochaetes gnu</i>).</td></tr></table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GO,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Go-bang</span> (Jap. <i>Go-ban</i>, board for playing <i>Go</i>), a popular +table game. It is of great antiquity, having been invented in +Japan, according to tradition, by the emperor Yao, 2350 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +but it is probably of Chinese origin. According to Falkener the +first historical mention of it was made about the year 300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +but there is abundant evidence that it was a popular game +long before that period. The original Japanese Go is played on +a board divided into squares by 19 horizontal and 19 vertical +lines, making 361 intersections, upon which the flat round men, +181 white and 181 black, are placed one by one as the game +proceeds. The men are placed by the two players on any intersections +(<i>me</i>) that may seem advantageous, the object being to +surround with one’s men as many unoccupied intersections as +possible, the player enclosing the greater number of vacant +points being the winner. Completely surrounded men are +captured and removed from the board. This game is played in +England upon a board divided into 361 squares, the men being +placed upon these instead of upon the intersections.</p> + +<p>A much simpler variety of Go, mostly played by foreigners, +has for its object to get five men into line. This may have been +the earliest form of the game, as the word <i>go</i> means five. Except +in Japan it is often played on an ordinary draughts-board, and +the winner is he who first gets five men into line, either vertically, +horizontally or diagonally.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Go-Bang</i>, by A. Howard Cady, in Spalding’s Home Library +(New York, 1896); <i>Games Ancient and Oriental</i>, by Edward Falkener +(London, 1892); <i>Das japan.-chinesische Spiel Go</i>, by O. Korschelt +(Yokohama, 1881); <i>Das Nationalspiel der Japanesen</i>, by G. Schurig +(Leipzig, 1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOA,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> the name of the past and present capitals of Portuguese +India, and of the surrounding territory more exactly described +as Goa settlement, which is situated on the western coast of +India, between 15° 44’ and 14° 53′ N., and between 73° 45′ and +74° 26′ E. Pop. (1900) 475,513, area 1301 sq. m.</p> + +<p><i>Goa Settlement.</i>—With Damaun (<i>q.v.</i>) and Diu (<i>q.v.</i>) Goa +settlement forms a single administrative province ruled by a +governor-general, and a single ecclesiastical province subject +to the archbishop of Goa; for judicial purposes the province +includes Macao in China, and Timor in the Malay Archipelago. +It is bounded on the N. by the river Terakhul or Araundem, +which divides it from the Sawantwari state, E. by the Western +Ghats, S. by Kanara district, and W. by the Arabian Sea. It +comprises the three districts of Ilhas, Bardez and Salsette, +conquered early in the 16th century and therefore known as the +Velhas Conquistas (Old Conquests), seven districts acquired +later and known as the Novas Conquistas, and the island of +Anjidiv or Anjadiva. The settlement, which has a coast-line +of 62 m., is a hilly region, especially the Novas Conquistas; its +distinguishing features are the Western Ghats, though the highest +summits nowhere reach an altitude of 4000 ft., and the island +of Goa. Numerous short but navigable rivers water the lowlands +skirting the coast. The two largest rivers are the Mandavi and +the Juari, which together encircle the island of Goa (Ilhas), +being connected on the landward side by a creek. The island +(native name Tisvādī, Tissuvaddy, Tissuary) is a triangular +territory, the apex of which, called the <i>cabo</i> or cape, is a rocky +headland separating the harbour of Goa into two anchorages—Agoada +or Aguada at the mouth of the Mandavi, on the north, +and Mormugão or Marmagão at the mouth of the Juari, on the +south. The northern haven is exposed to the full force of the +south-west monsoon, and is liable to silt up during the rains. +The southern, sheltered by the promontory of Salsette, is always +open, but is less used, owing to its greater distance from the city +of Goa, which is built on the island. A railway connects Mormagão, +south of the Juari estuary, with Castle Rock on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>160</span> +Western Ghats. Goa imports textiles and foodstuffs, and exports +coco-nuts, areca-nuts, spices, fish, poultry and timber. Its +trade is carried on almost entirely with Bombay, Madras, +Kathiawar and Portugal. Manganese is mined in large quantities, +some iron is obtained, and other products are salt, palm-spirit, +betel and bananas.</p> + +<p><i>Cities of Goa.</i>—1. The ancient Hindu city of Goa, of which +hardly a fragment survives, was built at the southernmost point +of the island, and was famous in early Hindu legend and history +for its learning, wealth and beauty. In the Puranas and certain +inscriptions its name appears as Gove, Govāpurī, Gomant, &c.; +the medieval Arabian geographers knew it as Sindābur or Sandābur, +and the Portuguese as Goa Velha. It was ruled by the +Kadamba dynasty from the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> to 1312, and by +Mahommedan invaders of the Deccan from 1312 until about +1370, during which period it was visited and described by Ibn +Batuta. It was then annexed to the Hindu kingdom of +Vijayanagar, of which, according to Ferishta, it still formed part +in 1469, when it was conquered by the Bahmani sultan of the +Deccan; but two of the best Portuguese chroniclers state that +it became independent in 1440, when the second city (Old Goa) +was founded.</p> + +<p>2. Old Goa is, for the most part, a city of ruins without +inhabitants other than ecclesiastics and their dependents. The +chief surviving buildings are the cathedral, founded by Albuquerque +in 1511 to commemorate his entry into Goa on St +Catherine’s day 1510, and rebuilt in 1623, and still used for +public worship; the convent of St Francis (1517), a converted +mosque rebuilt in 1661, with a portal of carved black stone, +which is the only relic of Portuguese architecture in India dating +from the first quarter of the 16th century; the chapel of St +Catherine (1551); the church of Bom Jesus (1594-1603), a +superb example of Renaissance architecture as developed by the +Jesuits, containing the magnificent shrine and tomb of St +Francis Xavier (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Xavier, Francisco de</a></span>); and the 17th-century +convents of St Monica and St Cajetan. The college of St Paul +(see below) is in ruins.</p> + +<p>3. Panjim, Pangim or New Goa, originally a suburb of Old +Goa, is, like the parent city, built on the left bank of the Mandavi +estuary, in 15° 30′ N. and 73° 33′ E. Pop. (1901) 9500. It is +a modern port with few pretensions to architectural beauty. +Ships of the largest size can anchor in the river, but only small +vessels can load or discharge at the quay. Panjim became the +residence of the viceroy in 1759 and the capital of Portuguese +India in 1843. It possesses a lyceum, a school for teachers, a +seminary, a technical school and an experimental agricultural +station.</p> + +<p><i>Political History.</i>—With the subdivision of the Bahmani +kingdom, after 1482, Goa passed into the power of Yusuf Adil +Shah, king of Bijapur, who was its ruler when the Portuguese +first reached India. At this time Goa was important as the +starting-point of pilgrims from India to Mecca, as a mart with +no rival except Calicut on the west coast, and especially as the +centre of the import trade in horses (Gulf Arabs) from Hormuz, +the control of which was a vital matter to the kingdoms warring +in the Deccan. It was easily defensible by any power with +command of the sea, as the encircling rivers could only be forded +at one spot, and had been deliberately stocked with crocodiles. +It was attacked on the 10th of February 1510 by the Portuguese +under Albuquerque. As a Hindu ascetic had foretold its downfall +and the garrison of Ottoman mercenaries was outnumbered, +the city surrendered without a struggle, and Albuquerque entered +it in triumph, while the Hindu townsfolk strewed filagree flowers +of gold and silver before his feet. Three months later Yusuf +Adil Shah returned with 60,000 troops, forced the passage of the +ford, and blockaded the Portuguese in their ships from May to +August, when the cessation of the monsoon enabled them to put +to sea. In November Albuquerque returned with a larger force, +and after overcoming a desperate resistance, recaptured the city, +permitted his soldiers to plunder it for three days, and massacred +the entire Mahommedan population.</p> + +<p>Goa was the first territorial possession of the Portuguese in +Asia. Albuquerque intended it to be a colony and a naval base, +as distinct from the fortified factories which had been established +in certain Indian seaports. He encouraged his men to marry +native women, and to settle in Goa as farmers, retail traders or +artisans. These married men soon became a privileged caste, +and Goa acquired a large Eurasian population. Albuquerque +and his successors left almost untouched the customs and constitutions +of the 30 village communities on the island, only +abolishing the rite of suttee. A register of these customs (<i>Foral +de usos e costumes</i>) was published in 1526, and is an historical +document of much value; an abstract of it is given in R. S. +Whiteway’s <i>Rise of the Portuguese Empire in India</i> (London, +1898).</p> + +<p>Goa became the capital of the whole Portuguese empire in the +East. It was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon. Its +senate or municipal chamber maintained direct communications +with the king and paid a special representative to attend to its +interests at court. In 1563 the governor even proposed to make +Goa the seat of a parliament, in which all parts of the Portuguese +east were to be represented; this was vetoed by the king.</p> + +<p>In 1542 St Francis Xavier mentions the architectural splendour +of the city; but it reached the climax of its prosperity between +1575 and 1625. <i>Goa Dourada</i>, or Golden Goa, was then the +wonder of all travellers, and there was a Portuguese proverb, +“He who has seen Goa need not see Lisbon.” Merchandise from +all parts of the East was displayed in its bazaar, and separate +streets were set aside for the sale of different classes of goods—Bahrein +pearls and coral, Chinese porcelain and silk, Portuguese +velvet and piece-goods, drugs and spices from the Malay Archipelago. +In the main street slaves were sold by auction. The +houses of the rich were surrounded by gardens and palm groves; +they were built of stone and painted red or white. Instead of +glass, their balconied windows had thin polished oyster-shells set +in lattice-work.</p> + +<p>The social life of Goa was brilliant, as befitted the headquarters +of the viceregal court, the army and navy, and the church; but +the luxury and ostentation of all classes had become a byword +before the end of the 16th century. Almost all manual labour was +done by slaves; common soldiers assumed high-sounding titles, +and it was even customary for the poor noblemen who congregated +together in boarding-houses to subscribe for a few silken cloaks, a +silken umbrella and a common man-servant, so that each could +take his turn to promenade the streets, fashionably attired and +with a proper escort. There were huge gambling saloons, +licensed by the municipality, where determined players lodged +for weeks together; and every form of vice, except drunkenness, +was practised by both sexes, although European women were +forced to lead a kind of zenana life, and never ventured unveiled +into the streets; they even attended at church in their palanquins, +so as to avoid observation.</p> + +<p>The appearance of the Dutch in Indian waters was followed by +the gradual ruin of Goa. In 1603 and 1639 the city was blockaded +by Dutch fleets, though never captured, and in 1635 it was +ravaged by an epidemic. Its trade was gradually monopolized +by the Jesuits. Thevenot in 1666, Baldaeus in 1672, Fryer in +1675 describe its ever-increasing poverty and decay. In 1683 only +the timely appearance of a Mogul army saved it from capture by +a horde of Mahratta raiders, and in 1739 the whole territory was +attacked by the same enemies, and only saved by the unexpected +arrival of a new viceroy with a fleet. This peril was always +imminent until 1759, when a peace with the Mahrattas was concluded. +In the same year the proposal to remove the seat of +government to Panjim was carried out; it had been discussed as +early as 1684. Between 1695 and 1775 the population dwindled +from 20,000 to 1600, and in 1835 Goa was only inhabited by a few +priests, monks and nuns.</p> + +<p><i>Ecclesiastical History.</i>—Some Dominican friars came out to +Goa in 1510, but no large missionary enterprise was undertaken +before the arrival of the Franciscans in 1517. From their headquarters +in Goa the Franciscan preachers visited many parts of +western India, and even journeyed to Ceylon, Pegu and the +Malay Archipelago. For nearly twenty-five years they carried on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page161" id="page161"></a>161</span> +the work of evangelization almost alone, with such success that in +1534 Pope Paul III. made Goa a bishopric, with spiritual jurisdiction +over all Portuguese possessions between China and the Cape +of Good Hope, though itself suffragan to the archbishopric of +Funchal in Madeira. A Franciscan friar, João de Albuquerque, +came to Goa as its first bishop in 1538. In 1542 St Francis +Xavier came to Goa, and took over the Franciscan college of +Santa Fé, for the training of native missionaries; this was renamed +the College of St Paul, and became the headquarters of all +Jesuit missions in the East, where the Jesuits were commonly +styled <i>Paulistas</i>. By a Bull dated the 4th of February 1557 +Goa was made an archbishopric, with jurisdiction over the sees of +Malacca and Cochin, to which were added Macao (1575), Japan +(1588), Angamale or Cranganore (1600), Meliapur (Mylapur) +(1606), Peking and Nanking (1610), together with the bishopric of +Mozambique, which included the entire coast of East Africa. In +1606 the archbishop received the title of Primate of the East, and +the king of Portugal was named Patron of the Catholic Missions +in the East; his right of patronage was limited by the Concordat +of 1857 to Goa, Malacca, Macao and certain parts of British India. +The Inquisition was introduced into Goa in 1560: a vivid +account of its proceedings is given by C. Dellon, <i>Relation de +l’inquisition de Goa</i> (1688). Five ecclesiastical councils, which +dealt with matters of discipline, were held at Goa—in 1567, +1575, 1585, 1592 and 1606; the archbishop of Goa also presided +over the more important synod of Diamper (Udayamperur, +about 12 m. S.E. of Cochin), which in 1599 condemned as +heretical the tenets and liturgy of the Indian Nestorians, or +Christians of St Thomas (<i>q.v.</i>). In 1675 Fryer described Goa as +“a Rome in India, both for absoluteness and fabrics,” and +Hamilton states that early in the 18th century the number of +ecclesiastics in the settlement had reached the extraordinary +total of 30,000. But the Jesuits were expelled in 1759, and by +1800 Goa had lost much even of its ecclesiastical importance. +The Inquisition was abolished in 1814 and the religious orders +were secularized in 1835.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—J. N. da Fonseca, <i>An Historical and Archaeological +Sketch of Goa</i> (Bombay, 1878) is a minute study of the city +from the earliest times, illustrated. For the early history of Portuguese +rule the chief authorities are <i>The Commentaries ... of +Dalboquerque</i> (Hakluyt Society’s translation, London, 1877), the +<i>Cartas</i> of Albuquerque (Lisbon, 1884), the <i>Historia ... da India</i> +of F. L. de Castanheda (Lisbon, 1833, written before 1552), the +<i>Lendas da India of G. Correa</i> (Lisbon, 1860, written 1514-1566), +and the <i>Decadas da India</i> of João de Barros and D. do Couto (Lisbon, +1778-1788, written about 1530-1616). Couto’s <i>Soldado pratico</i> +(Lisbon, 1790) and S. Botelho’s <i>Cartas and Tombo</i>, written 1547-1554, +published in “Subsidios” of the Lisbon Academy (1868), are valuable +studies of military life and administration. The <i>Archivo Portuguez +oriental</i> (6 parts, New Goa, 1857-1877) is a most useful collection +of documents dating from 1515; part 2 contains the privileges, &c. +of the city of Goa, and part 4 contains the minutes of the ecclesiastical +councils and of the synod of Diamper. The social life of Goa has +been graphically described by many writers; see especially the +travels of Varthema (<i>c.</i> 1505), Linschoten (<i>c.</i> 1580), Pyrard (1608) +in the Hakluyt Society’s translations; J. Mocquet, <i>Voyages</i> (Paris, +1830, written 1608-1610); P. Baldaeus, in <i>Churchill’s Voyages</i>, +vol. 3 (London, 1732); J. Fryer, <i>A New Account of East India +and Persia</i> (London, 1698); A. de Mandelslo, <i>Voyages</i> (London, +1669); <i>Les Voyages de M. de Thevenot aux Indes Orientales</i> (Amsterdam, +1779), and A. Hamilton, <i>A New Account of the East Indies</i> +(London, 1774). For Goa in the 20th century see <i>The Imperial +Gazetteer of India</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(K. G. J.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOAL,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> originally an object set up as the place where a race +ends, the winning-post, and so used figuratively of the end to +which any effort is directed. It is thus used to translate the +Lat. <i>meta</i>, the boundary pillar, set one at each end of the circus +to mark the turning-point. The word was quite early used in +various games for the two posts, with or without a cross-bar, +through or over which the ball has to be driven to score a point +towards winning the game. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> quotes +the use in Richard Stanyhurst’s <i>Description of Ireland</i> (1577); +but the word <i>gōl</i> in the sense of a boundary appears as early as the +beginning of the 14th century in the religious poems of William de +Shoreham (<i>c.</i> 1315). The origin of the word is obscure. It is +usually taken to be derived from a French word <i>gaule</i>, meaning a +pole or stick, but this meaning does not appear in the English +usage, nor does the usual English meaning appear in the French. +There is an O. Eng. <i>gaélan</i>, to hinder, which may point to a lost +<i>gál</i>, barrier, but there is no evidence in other Teutonic languages +for such a word.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOALPARA,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the +Brahmaputra valley division of eastern Bengal and Assam. +The town (pop. 6287) overlooks the Brahmaputra. It was the +frontier outpost of the Mahommedan power, and has long been a +flourishing seat of river trade. The civil station is built on the +summit of a small hill commanding a magnificent view of the +valley of the Brahmaputra, bounded on the north by the snowy +ranges of the Himalayas and on the south by the Garo hills. +The native town is built on the western slope of the hill, and the +lower portion is subject to inundation from the marshy land +which extends in every direction. It has declined in importance +since the district headquarters were removed to Dhubri in 1879, +and it suffered severely from the earthquake of the 12th of June +1897.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District</span> comprises an area of 3961 sq. m. It is situated +along the Brahmaputra, at the corner where the river takes its +southerly course from Assam into Bengal. The scenery is +striking. Along the banks of the river grow clumps of cane and +reed; farther back stretch fields of rice cultivation, broken only +by the fruit trees surrounding the villages, and in the background +rise the forest-clad hills overtopped by the white peaks of the +Himalayas. The soil of the hills is of a red ochreous earth, +with blocks of granite and sandstone interspersed; that of the +plains is of alluvial formation. Earthquakes are common and +occasionally severe shocks have been experienced. The Brahmaputra +annually inundates vast tracts of country. Numerous +extensive forests yield valuable timber. Wild animals of all +kinds are found. In 1901 the population was 462,083, showing +an increase of 2% in the decade. Rice forms the staple crop. +Mustard and jute are also largely grown. The manufactures +consist of the making of brass and iron utensils and of gold and +silver ornaments, weaving of silk cloth, basket-work and pottery. +The cultivation of tea has been introduced but does not flourish +anywhere in the district. Local trade is in the hands of Marwari +merchants, and is carried on at the <i>bazars</i>, weekly <i>hats</i> or markets +and periodical fairs. The chief exports are mustard-seed, jute, +cotton, timber, lac, silk cloth, india-rubber and tea; the imports, +Bengal rice, European piece goods, salt, hardware, oil and +tobacco.</p> + +<p>Dhubri (pop. 3737), the administrative headquarters of the +district, stands on the Brahmaputra where that river takes its +great bend south. It is the termination of the emigration road +from North Bengal and of the river steamers that connect with +the North Bengal railway. It is also served by the eastern +Bengal State railway.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOAT<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. <i>gát</i>, Goth. <i>gaits</i>, Mod. +Ger. <i>Geiss</i>, cognate with Lat. <i>haedus</i>, a kid), properly the name of +the well-known domesticated European ruminant (<i>Capra hircus</i>), +which has for all time been regarded as the emblem of everything +that is evil, in contradistinction to the sheep, which is the symbol +of excellence and purity. Although the more typical goats are +markedly distinct from sheep, there is, both as regards wild and +domesticated forms, an almost complete gradation from goats +to sheep, so that it is exceedingly difficult to define either group. +The position of the genus <i>Capra</i> (to all the members of which, +as well as some allied species, the name “goat” in its wider sense +is applicable) in the family <i>Bovidae</i> is indicated in the article +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bovidae</a></span>, and some of the distinctions between goats and sheep +are mentioned in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sheep</a></span>. Here then it will suffice +to mention that goats are characterized by the strong and offensive +odour of the males, which are furnished with a beard on +the chin; while as a general rule glands are present between the +middle toes of the fore feet only.</p> + +<p>Goats, in the wild state, are an exclusively old-world group, +of which the more typical forms are confined to Europe and +south-western and central Asia, although there are two outlying +species in northern Africa. The wild goat, or pasang, is represented +in Europe in the Cyclades and Crete by rather small races. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id="page162"></a>162</span> +more or less mingled with domesticated breeds, the Cretan +animal being distinguished as <i>Capra hircus creticus</i>; but the +large typical race <i>C. h. aegagrus</i> is met with in the mountains of +Asia Minor and Persia, whence it extends to Sind, where it is +represented by a somewhat different race known as <i>C. h. blythi</i>. +The horns of the old bucks are of great length and beauty, and +characterized by their bold scimitar-like backward sweep and +sharp front edge, interrupted at irregular intervals by knots or +bosses. Domesticated goats have run wild in many islands, +such as the Hebrides, Shetland, Canaries, Azores, Ascension and +Juan Fernandez. Some of these reverted breeds have developed +horns of considerable size, although not showing that regularity +of curve distinctive of the wild race. In the Azores the horns are +remarkably upright and straight, whence the name of “antelope-goat” +which has been given to these animals. The concretions +known as <i>bezoar-stones</i>, formerly much used in medicine and as +antidotes of poison, are obtained from the stomach of the wild +goat.</p> + +<p>Although there have in all probability been more or less +important local crosses with other wild species, there can be +no doubt that domesticated goats generally are descended from +the wild goat. It is true that many tame goats show spirally +twisted horns recalling those of the under-mentioned Asiatic +markhor; but in nearly all such instances it will be found that +the spiral twists in the opposite direction. Among the domesticated +breeds the following are some of the more important.</p> + +<p>Firstly, we have the common or European goats, of which +there are several more or less well-marked breeds, differing +from each other in length of hair, in colour and slightly in the +configuration of the horns. The ears are more or less upright, +sometimes horizontal, but never actually pendent, as in some +Asiatic breeds. The horns are rather flat at the base and not +unfrequently corrugated; they rise vertically from the head, +curving to the rear, and are more or less laterally inclined. +The colour varies from dirty white to dark-brown, but when +pure-bred is never black, which indicates eastern blood. Most +European countries possess more than one description of the +common goat. In the British Isles there are two distinct types, +one short and the other long haired. In the former the hair is +thick and close, with frequently an under-coat resembling wool. +The horns are large in the male, and of moderate size in the female, +flat at the base and inclining outwards. The head is short and +tapering, the forehead flat and wide, and the nose small; while +the legs are strong, thick and well covered with hair. The colour +varies from white or grey to black, but is frequently fawn, with +a dark line down the spine and another across the shoulders. +The other variety has a shaggy coat, generally reddish-black, +though sometimes grey or pied and occasionally white. The head +is long, heavy and ugly, the nose coarse and prominent, with the +horns situated close together, often continuing parallel almost +to the extremities, being also large, corrugated and pointed. +The legs are long and the sides flat, the animal itself being generally +gaunt and thin. This breed is peculiar to Ireland, the +Welsh being of a similar type, but more often white. The short-haired +goat is the English goat proper. Both British breeds, +as well as those from abroad, are frequently ornamented with +two tassel-like appendages, hanging near together under the +throat. It has been supposed by many that these are traceable +to foreign blood; but although there are foreign breeds that +possess them, they appear to pertain quite as much to the English +native breeds as to those of distant countries, the peculiarity +being mentioned in very old works on the goats of the British +Islands. The milk-produce in the common goat as well as other +kinds varies greatly with individuals. Irish goats often yield a +quantity of milk, but the quality is poor. The goats of France +are similar to those of Britain, varying in length of hair, colour +and character of horns. The Norway breed is frequently white +with long hair; it is rather small in size, with small bones, a +short rounded body, head small with a prominent forehead, and +short, straight, corrugated horns. The facial line is concave. +The horns of the males are very large, and curve round after the +manner of the wild goat, with a tuft of hair between and in front.</p> + +<p>The Maltese goat has the ears long, wide and hanging down +below the jaw. The hair is long and cream-coloured. The breed +is usually hornless.</p> + +<p>The Syrian goat is met with in various parts of the East, in +Lower Egypt, on the shores of the Indian Ocean and in Madagascar. +The hair and ears are excessively long, the latter so +much so that they are sometimes clipped to prevent their being +torn by stones or thorny shrubs. The horns are somewhat erect +and spiral, with an outward bend.</p> + +<p>The Angora goat is often confounded with the Kashmir, but +is in reality quite distinct. The principal feature of this breed, +of which there are two or three varieties, is the length and +quantity of the hair, which has a particularly soft and silky +texture, covering the whole body and a great part of the legs +with close matted ringlets. The horns of the male differ from +those of the female, being directed vertically and in shape spiral, +whilst in the female they have a horizontal tendency, somewhat +like those of a ram. The coat is composed of two kinds of hair, +the one short and coarse and of the character of hair, which lies +close to the skin, the other long and curly and of the nature of +wool, forming the outer covering. Both are used by the manufacturer, +but the exterior portion, which makes up by far the +greater bulk, is much the more valuable. The process of shearing +takes place in early spring, the average amount of wool yielded +by each animal being about 2½ ℔. The best quality comes +from castrated males, females producing the next best.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:301px" src="images/img162.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Male Angora Goat.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The breed was introduced at the Cape about 1864. The +Angora is a bad milker and an indifferent mother, but its flesh +is better than that of any other breed, and in its native country +is preferred to mutton. The kids are born small, but grow fast, +and arrive early at maturity. The Kashmir, or rather Tibet, +goat has a delicate head, with semi-pendulous ears, which are +both long and wide. The hair varies in length, and is coarse +and of different colours according to the individual. The horns +are very erect, and sometimes slightly spiral, inclining inwards +and to such an extent in some cases as to cross. The coat is +composed, as in the Angora, of two materials; but in this +breed it is the under-coat that partakes of the nature of wool and +is valued as an article of commerce. This under-coat, or <i>pushm</i>, +which is of a uniform greyish-white tint, whatever the colour +of the hair may be, is beautifully soft and silky, and of a fluffy +description resembling down. It makes its appearance in the +autumn, and continues to grow until the following spring, when, +if not removed, it falls off naturally; its collection then +commences, occupying from eight to ten days. The animal +undergoes during that time a process of combing by which all +the wool and a portion of the hair, which of necessity comes +with it, is removed. The latter is afterwards carefully separated, +when the fleece in a good specimen weighs about half a pound. +This is the material of which the far-famed and costly shawls +are made, which at one time had such a demand that, it is stated, +16,000 looms were kept in constant work at Kashmir in their +manufacture. Those goats having a short, neat head, long, thin, +ears, a delicate skin, small bones, and a long heavy coat, are +for this purpose deemed the best. There are several varieties +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" id="page163"></a>163</span> +possessing this valuable quality, but those of Kashmir, Tibet +and Mongolia are the most esteemed.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:374px; height:409px" src="images/img163a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Nubian Goat.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Nubian goat, which is met with in Nubia, Upper Egypt +and Abyssinia, differs greatly in appearance from those previously +described. The coat of the female is extremely short, almost +like that of a race-horse, and the legs are long. This breed +therefore stands considerably higher than the common goat. +One of its peculiarities is the convex profile of the face, the +forehead being prominent and the nostrils sunk in, the nose itself +extremely small, and the lower lip projecting from the upper. +The ears are long, broad and thin, and hang down by the side +of the head like a lop-eared rabbit. The horns are black, slightly +twisted and very short, flat at the base, pointed at the tips, +and recumbent on the head. Among goats met with in England +a good many show signs of a more or less remote cross with this +breed, derived probably from specimens brought from the East +on board ships for supplying milk during the voyage.</p> + +<p>The Theban goat, of the Sudan, which is hornless, displays +the characteristic features of the last in an exaggerated degree, +and in the form of the head and skull is very sheep-like.</p> + +<p>The Nepal goat appears to be a variety of the Nubian breed, +having the same arched facial line, pendulous ears and long +legs. The horns, however, are more spiral. The colour of the +hair, which is longer than in the Nubian, is black, grey or white, +with black blotches.</p> + +<p>Lastly the Guinea goat is a dwarf breed originally from the +coast whence its name is derived. There are three varieties. +Besides the commonest <i>Capra recurva</i>, there is a rarer breed, +<i>Capra depressa</i>, inhabiting the Mauritius and the islands of +Bourbon and Madagascar. The other variety is met with along +the White Nile, in Lower Egypt, and at various points on the +African coast of the Mediterranean.</p> + +<p>As regards wild goats other than the representatives of <i>Capra +hircus</i>, the members of the ibex-group are noticed under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ibex</a></span>, +while another distinctive type receives mention under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Markhor</a></span>. +The ibex are connected with the wild goat by means of <i>Capra +nubiana</i>, in which the front edge of the horns is thinner than in +either the European <i>C. ibex</i> or the Asiatic <i>C. sibirica</i>; while +the Spanish <i>C. pyrenaica</i> shows how the ibex-type of horn may +pass into the spirally twisted one distinctive of the markhor, +<i>C. falconeri</i>. In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ibex</a></span> mention is made of the Caucasus +ibex, or tur, <i>C. caucasica</i>, as an aberrant member of that group, +but beside this animal the Caucasus is the home of another very +remarkable goat, or tur, known as <i>C. pallasi</i>. In this ruminant, +which is of a dark-brown colour, the relatively smooth black +horns diverge outwards in a manner resembling those of the +bharal among the sheep rather than in goat-fashion; and, in +fact, this tur, which has only a very short beard, is so bharal-like +that it is commonly called by sportsmen the Caucasian bharal. +It is one of the species which render it so difficult to give a precise +definition of either sheep or goats.</p> + +<p>The short-horned Asiatic goats of the genus <i>Hemitragus</i> +receive mention in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tahr</a></span>; but it may be added that +fossil species of the same genus are known from the Lower +Pliocene formations of India, which have also yielded remains +of a goat allied to the markhor of the Himalayas. The Rocky +Mountain goat (<i>q.v.</i>) of America has no claim to be regarded as a +member of the goat-group.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For full descriptions of the various wild species, see R. Lydekker, +<i>Wild Oxen, Sheep, and Goats</i> (London, 1898).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOATSUCKER,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> a bird from very ancient times absurdly +believed to have the habit implied by the common name it bears +in many European tongues besides English—as testified by +the Gr.<span class="grk" title="aigothêlas">αἰγοθήλας</span>, the Lat. <i>caprimulgus</i>, Ital. <i>succiacapre</i>, +Span. <i>chotacabras</i>, Fr. <i>tettechèvre</i>, and Ger. <i>Ziegenmelker</i>. +The common goatsucker (<i>Caprimulgus europaeus</i>, Linn.), is +admittedly the type of a very peculiar and distinct family, +<i>Caprimulgidae</i>, a group remarkable for the flat head, enormously +wide mouth, large eyes, and soft, pencilled plumage of its members, +which vary in size from a lark to a crow. Its position has been +variously assigned by systematists. Though now judiciously +removed from the <i>Passeres</i>, in which Linnaeus placed all the +species known to him, Huxley considered it to form, with two +other families—the swifts (<i>Cypselidae</i>) and humming-birds +(<i>Trochilidae</i>)—the division <i>Cypselomorphae</i> of his larger group +Aegithognathae, which is equivalent in the main to the Linnaean +<i>Passeres</i>. There are two ways of regarding the <i>Caprimulgidae</i>—one +including the genus <i>Podargus</i> and its allies, the other recognizing +them as a distinct family, <i>Podargidae</i>. As a matter of +convenience we shall here comprehend these last in the <i>Caprimulgidae</i>, +which will then contain two subfamilies, <i>Caprimulginae</i> +and <i>Podarginae</i>; for what, according to older authors, constitutes +a third, though represented only by <i>Steatornis</i>, the singular +oil-bird, or guacharo, certainly seems to require separation as an +independent family (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guachero</a></span>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:338px" src="images/img163b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Common Goatsucker.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Some of the differences between the <i>Caprimulginae</i> and +<i>Podarginae</i> have been pointed out by Sclater (<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, +1866, p. 123), and are very obvious. In the former, the outer toes +have <i>four</i> phalanges only, thus presenting a very uncommon +character among birds, and the middle claws are pectinated; +while in the latter the normal number of five phalanges is found, +and the claws are smooth, and other distinctions more recondite +have also been indicated by him (<i>tom. cit.</i> p. 582). The Caprimulginae +may be further divided into those having the gape +thickly beset by strong bristles, and those in which there are few +such bristles or none—the former containing the genera <i>Caprimulgus</i>, +<i>Antrostomus</i>, <i>Nyctidromus</i> and others, and the latter +<i>Podargus</i>, <i>Chordiles</i>, <i>Lyncornis</i> and a few more.</p> + +<p>The common goatsucker of Europe (<i>C. europaeus</i>) arrives +late in spring from its winter-retreat in Africa, and its presence +is soon made known by its habit of chasing its prey, consisting +chiefly of moths and cockchafers, in the evening-twilight. As +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page164" id="page164"></a>164</span> +the season advances the song of the cock, from its singularity, +attracts attention amid all rural sounds. This song seems to be +always uttered when the bird is at rest, though the contrary has +been asserted, and is the continuous repetition of a single burring +note, as of a thin lath fixed at one end and in a state of vibration +at the other, and loud enough to reach in still weather a distance +of half-a-mile or more. On the wing, while toying with its mate, +or performing its rapid evolutions round the trees where it +finds its food, it has the habit of occasionally producing another +and equally extraordinary sound, sudden and short, but somewhat +resembling that made by swinging a thong in the air, +though whether this noise proceeds from its mouth is not ascertained. +In general its flight is silent, but at times when disturbed +from its repose, its wings may be heard to smite together. The +goatsucker, or, to use perhaps its commoner English name, +nightjar,<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> passes the day in slumber, crouching on the ground +or perching on a tree—in the latter case sitting not across the +branch but lengthways, with its head lower than its body. In +hot weather, however, its song may sometimes be heard by day +and even at noontide, but it is then uttered, as it were, drowsily, +and without the vigour that characterizes its crepuscular or +nocturnal performance. Towards evening the bird becomes +active, and it seems to pursue its prey throughout the night +uninterruptedly, or only occasionally pausing for a few seconds +to alight on a bare spot—a pathway or road—and then resuming +its career. It is one of the few birds that absolutely make no +nest, but lays its pair of beautifully-marbled eggs on the ground, +generally where the herbage is short, and often actually on the +soil. So light is it that the act of brooding, even where there is +some vegetable growth, produces no visible depression of the +grass, moss or lichens on which the eggs rest, and the finest +sand equally fails to exhibit a trace of the parental act. Yet +scarcely any bird shows greater local attachment, and the +precise site chosen one year is almost certain to be occupied +the next. The young, covered when hatched with dark-spotted +down, are not easily found, nor are they more easily discovered +on becoming fledged, for their plumage almost entirely resembles +that of the adults, being a mixture of reddish-brown, grey and +black, blended and mottled in a manner that passes description. +They soon attain their full size and power of flight, and then take +to the same manner of life as their parents. In autumn all +leave their summer haunts for the south, but the exact time of +their departure has hardly been ascertained. The habits of the +nightjar, as thus described, seem to be more or less essentially +those of the whole subfamily—the differences observable being +apparently less than are found in other groups of birds of similar +extent.</p> + +<p>A second species of goatsucker (<i>C. ruficollis</i>), which is somewhat +larger, and has the neck distinctly marked with rufous, +is a summer visitant to the south-western parts of Europe, and +especially to Spain and Portugal. The occurrence of a single +example of this bird at Killingworth, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, +in October 1856, has been recorded by Mr Hancock (<i>Ibis</i>, 1862, +p. 39); but the season of its appearance argues the probability of +its being but a casual straggler from its proper home. Many other +species of <i>Caprimulgus</i> inhabit Africa, Asia and their islands, +while one (<i>C. macrurus</i>) is found in Australia. Very nearly allied +to this genus is <i>Antrostomus</i>, an American group containing +many species, of which the chuck-will’s-widow (<i>A. carolinensis</i>) +and the whip-poor-will (<i>A. vociferus</i>) of the eastern United States +(the latter also reaching Canada) are familiar examples. Both +these birds take their common name from the cry they utter, +and their habits seem to be almost identical, with those of the +old world goatsuckers. Passing over some other forms which +need not here be mentioned, the genus <i>Nyctidromus</i>, though +consisting of only one species (<i>N. albicollis</i>) which inhabits +Central and part of South America, requires remark, since it has +tarsi of sufficient length to enable it to run swiftly on the ground, +while the legs of most birds of the family are so short that they can +make but a shuffling progress. <i>Heleothreptes</i>, with the unique +form of wing possessed by the male, needs mention. Notice +must also be taken of two African species, referred by some +ornithologists to as many genera (<i>Macrodipteryx</i> and <i>Cosmetornis</i>), +though probably one genus would suffice for both. +The males of each of them are characterized by the wonderful +development of the ninth primary in either wing, which reaches +in fully adult specimens the extraordinary length of 17 in. or +more. The former of these birds, the <i>Caprimulgus macrodipterus</i> +of Adam Afzelius, is considered to belong to the west coast of +Africa, and the shaft of the elongated remiges is bare for the +greater part of its length, retaining the web, in a spatulate form, +only near the tip. The latter, to which the specific name of +<i>vexillarius</i> was given by John Gould, has been found on the +east coast of that continent, and is reported to have occurred in +Madagascar and Socotra. In this the remigial streamers do +not lose their barbs, and as a few of the next quills are also to +some extent elongated, the bird, when flying, is said to look as +though it had four wings. Specimens of both are rare in collections, +and no traveller seems to have had the opportunity of +studying the habits of either so as to suggest a reason for this +marvellous sexual development.</p> + +<p>The second group of <i>Caprimulginae</i>, those which are but +poorly or not at all furnished with rictal bristles, contains about +five genera, of which we may particularize <i>Lyncornis</i> of the old +world and <i>Chordiles</i> of the new. The species of the former are +remarkable for the tuft of feathers which springs from each side +of the head, above and behind the ears, so as to give the bird an +appearance like some of the “horned” owls—those of the genus +<i>Scops</i>, for example; and remarkable as it is to find certain forms +of two families, so distinct as are the <i>Strigidae</i> and the <i>Caprimulgidae</i>, +resembling each other in this singular external feature, +it is yet more remarkable to note that in some groups of the +latter, as in some of the former, a very curious kind of dimorphism +takes place. In either case this has been frequently asserted +to be sexual, but on that point doubt may fairly be entertained. +Certain it is that in some groups of goatsuckers, as in some groups +of owls, individuals of the same species are found in plumage of +two entirely different hues—rufous and grey. The only explanation +as yet offered of this fact is that the difference is sexual, +but evidence to that effect is conflicting. It must not, however, +be supposed that this common feature, any more than that of +the existence of tufted forms in each group, indicates any close +relationship between them. The resemblances may be due to +the same causes, concerning which future observers may possibly +enlighten us, but at present we must regard them as analogies, +not homologies. The species of <i>Lyncornis</i> inhabit the Malay +Archipelago, one, however, occurring also in China. Of <i>Chordiles</i> +the best-known species is the night-hawk of North America +(<i>C. virginianus</i> or <i>C. popetue</i>), which has a wide range from +Canada to Brazil. Others are found in the Antilles and in South +America. The general habits of all these birds agree with those +of the typical goatsuckers.</p> + +<p>We have next to consider the birds forming the genus <i>Podargus</i> +and those allied to it, whether they be regarded as a distinct +family, or as a subfamily of <i>Caprimulgidae</i>. As above stated, +they have feet constructed as those of birds normally are, and +their sternum seems to present the constant though comparatively +trivial difference of having its posterior margin elongated +into two pairs of processes, while only one pair is found in the +true goatsuckers. <i>Podargus</i> includes the bird (<i>P. cuvieri</i>) known +from its cry as morepork to the Tasmanians,<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and several other +species, the number of which is doubtful, from Australia and +New Guinea. They have comparatively powerful bills, and it +would seem feed to some extent on fruits and berries, though they +mainly subsist on insects, chiefly <i>Cicadae</i> and <i>Phasmidae</i>. They +also differ from the true goatsuckers in having the outer toes +partially reversible, and they build a flat nest on the horizontal +branch of a tree for the reception of their eggs, which are of a +spotless white. Apparently allied to <i>Podargus</i>, but differing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id="page165"></a>165</span> +among other respects in its mode of nidification, is <i>Aegotheles</i>, +which belongs also to the Australian sub-region; and farther +to the northward, extending throughout the Malay Archipelago +and into India, comes <i>Batrachostomus</i>, wherein we again meet +with species having aural tufts somewhat like <i>Lyncornis</i>. The +<i>Podarginae</i> are thought by some to be represented in the new +world by the genus <i>Nyctibius</i>, of which several species occur +from the Antilles and Central America to Brazil. Finally, it may +be stated that none of the <i>Caprimulgidae</i> seem to occur in +Polynesia or in New Zealand, though there is scarcely any other +part of the world suited to their habits in which members of the +family are not found.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Other English names of the bird are evejar, fern-owl, churn-owl +and wheel-bird—the last from the bird’s song resembling the noise +made by a spinning-wheel in motion.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> In New Zealand, however, this name is given to an owl (<i>Sceloglaux +novae-zelandiae</i>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOBAT, SAMUEL<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1799-1879), bishop of Jerusalem, was born +at Crémine, Bern, Switzerland, on the 26th of January 1799. +After serving in the mission house at Basel from 1823 to 1826, +he went to Paris and London, whence, having acquired some +knowledge of Arabic and Ethiopic, he went out to Abyssinia +under the auspices of the Church Missionary Society. The +unsettled state of the country and his own ill health prevented +his making much headway; he returned to Europe in 1835 and +from 1839 to 1842 lived in Malta, where he supervised an Arabic +translation of the Bible. In 1846 he was consecrated Protestant +bishop of Jerusalem, under the agreement between the British +and Prussian governments (1841) for the establishment of a +joint bishopric for Lutherans and Anglicans in the Holy Land. +He carried on a vigorous mission as bishop for over thirty years, +his diocesan school and orphanage on Mount Zion being specially +noteworthy. He died on the 11th of May 1879.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A record of his life, largely autobiographical, was published at +Basel in 1884, and an English translation at London in the same year.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOBEL, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1727-1794), French +ecclesiastic and politician, was born at Thann, in Alsace, on the +1st of September 1727. He studied theology in the German +College at Rome, and then became successively a member of +the chapter of Porrentruy, bishop <i>in partibus</i> of Lydda, and +finally suffragan of Basel for that part of the diocese situated +in French territory. His political life began when he was elected +deputy to the states-general of 1789 by the clergy of the <i>bailliage</i> +of Huningue. The turning-point of his life was his action in +taking the oath of the civil constitution of the clergy (Jan. 3rd, +1791); in favour of which he had declared himself since the 5th +of May 1790. The civil constitution of the clergy gave the +appointment of priests to the electoral assemblies, and since +taking the oath Gobel had become so popular that he was elected +bishop in several dioceses. He chose Paris, and in spite of the +difficulties which he had to encounter before he could enter into +possession, was consecrated on the 27th of March 1791 by eight +bishops, including Talleyrand. On the 8th of November 1792, +Gobel was appointed administrator of Paris. He was careful +to flatter the politicians by professing anti-clerical opinions, +declaring himself, among other things, opposed to the celibacy +of the clergy; and on the 17th Brumaire in the year II. (7th +November 1793), he came before the bar of the Convention, and, +in a famous scene, resigned his episcopal functions, proclaiming +that he did so for love of the people, and through respect for +their wishes. The followers of Hébert, who were then pursuing +their anti-Christian policy, claimed Gobel as one of themselves; +while, on the other hand, Robespierre looked upon him as an +atheist, though apostasy cannot strictly speaking be laid to the +charge of the ex-bishop, nor did he ever make any actual profession +of atheism. Robespierre, however, found him an obstacle +to his religious schemes, and involved him in the fate of the +Hébertists. Gobel was condemned to death, with Chaumette, +Hébert and Anacharsis Cloots, and was guillotined on the 12th +of April 1794.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Charavay, <i>Assemblée électorale de Paris</i> (Paris, 1890); +H. Monin, <i>La Chanson et l’Église sous la Révolution</i> (Paris, 1892); +A. Aulard, “La Culte de la raison” in the review, <i>La Révolution +Française</i> (1891). For a bibliography of documents relating to +his episcopate see “Épiscopat de Gobel” in vol. iii. (1900) of +M. Tourneux’s <i>Bibliographie de l’histoire de Paris pendant la Rév. Fr.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOBELIN,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> the name of a family of dyers, who in all probability +came originally from Reims, and who in the middle of the 15th +century established themselves in the Faubourg Saint Marcel, +Paris, on the banks of the Bièvre. The first head of the firm +was named Jehan (d. 1476). He discovered a peculiar kind of +scarlet dyestuff, and he expended so much money on his +establishment that it was named by the common people <i>la folie +Gobelin</i>. To the dye-works there was added in the 16th century +a manufactory of tapestry (<i>q.v.</i>). So rapidly did the wealth +of the family increase, that in the third or fourth generation +some of them forsook their trade and purchased titles of nobility. +More than one of their number held offices of state, among +others Balthasar, who became successively treasurer general of +artillery, treasurer extraordinary of war, councillor secretary of +the king, chancellor of the exchequer, councillor of state and +president of the chamber of accounts, and who in 1601 received +from Henry IV. the lands and lordship of Briecomte-Robert. +He died in 1603. The name of the Gobelins as dyers cannot be +found later than the end of the 17th century. In 1662 the works +in the Faubourg Saint Marcel, with the adjoining grounds, were +purchased by Colbert on behalf of Louis XIV., and transformed +into a general upholstery manufactory, in which designs both +in tapestry and in all kinds of furniture were executed under the +superintendence of the royal painter, Le Brun. On account of +the pecuniary embarrassments of Louis XIV., the establishment +was closed in 1694, but it was reopened in 1697 for the manufacture +of tapestry, chiefly for royal use and for presentation. +During the Revolution and the reign of Napoleon the manufacture +was suspended, but it was revived by the Bourbons, and in 1826 +the manufacture of carpets was added to that of tapestry. In +1871 the building was partly burned by the Communists. The +manufacture is still carried on under the state.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lacordaire, <i>Notice historique sur les manufactures impériales +de tapisserie des Gobelin et de tapis de la Savonnerie, précédée du catalogue +des tapisseries qui y sont exposés</i> (Paris, 1853); Genspach, +<i>Répertoire détaillé des tapisseries exécutées aux Gobelins, 1662-1892</i> +(Paris, 1893); Guiffrey, <i>Histoire de la tapisserie en France</i> (Paris, +1878-1885). The two last-named authors were directors of the +manufactory.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOBI<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (for which alternative Chinese names are <span class="sc">Sha-mo</span>, +“sand desert,” and <span class="sc">Han-hai</span>, “dry sea”), a term which in its +widest significance means the long stretch of desert country that +extends from the foot of the Pamirs, in about 77° E., eastward +to the Great Khingan Mountains, in 116°-118° E., on the border +of Manchuria, and from the foothills of the Altai, the Sayan +and the Yablonoi Mountains on the N. to the Astin-tagh or +Altyn-tagh and the Nan-shan, the northernmost constituent +ranges of the Kuen-lun Mountains, on the south. By conventional +usage a relatively small area on the east side of the Great +Khingan, between the upper waters of the Sungari and the upper +waters of the Liao-ho, is also reckoned to belong to the Gobi. +On the other hand, geographers and Asiatic explorers prefer to +regard the W. extremity of the Gobi region (as defined above), +namely, the basin of the Tarim in E. Turkestan, as forming a +separate and independent desert, to which they have given the +name of Takla-makan. The latter restriction governs the present +article, which accordingly excludes the Takla-makan, leaving it +for separate treatment. The desert of Gobi as a whole is only +very imperfectly known, information being confined to the +observations which individual travellers have made from their +respective itineraries across the desert. Amongst the explorers +to whom we owe such knowledge as we possess about the Gobi, +the most important have been Marco Polo (1273-1275), Gerbillon +(1688-1698), Ijsbrand Ides (1692-1694), Lange (1727-1728 and +1736), Fuss and Bunge (1830-1831), Fritsche (1868-1873), +Pavlinov and Matusovski (1870), Ney Elias (1872-1873), N. M. +Przhevalsky (1870-1872 and 1876-1877), Zosnovsky (1875), +M. V. Pjevtsov (1878), G. N. Potanin (1877 and 1884-1886), +Count Széchenyi and L. von Loczy (1879-1880), the brothers +Grum-Grzhimailo (1889-1890), P. K. Kozlov (1893-1894 and +1899-1900), V. I. Roborovsky (1894), V. A. Obruchev (1894-1896), +Futterer and Holderer (1896); C. E. Bonin (1896 and 1899), +Sven Hedin (1897 and 1900-1901), K. Bogdanovich (1898), +Ladyghin (1899-1900) and Katsnakov (1899-1900).</p> + +<p>Geographically the Gobi (a Mongol word meaning “desert”) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page166" id="page166"></a>166</span> +is the deeper part of the gigantic depression which fills the +interior of the lower terrace of the vast Mongolian plateau, and +measures over 1000 m. from S.W. to N.E. and 450 to 600 m. +from N. to S., being widest in the west, along the line joining +the Baghrash-kol and the Lop-nor (87°-89° E.). Owing to the +immense area covered, and the piecemeal character of the +information, no general description can be made applicable to +the whole of the Gobi. It will be more convenient, therefore, to +describe its principal distinctive sections <i>seriatim</i>, beginning in +the west.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Ghashiun-Gobi and Kuruk-tagh.</i>—The Yulduz valley or valley of +the Khaïdyk-gol (83°-86° E., 43° N.) is enclosed by two prominent +members of the Tian-shan system, namely the Chol-tagh and the +Kuruk-tagh, running parallel and close to one another. As they proceed +eastward they diverge, sweeping back on N. and S. respectively +so as to leave room for the Baghrash-kol. These two ranges mark +the northern and the southern edges respectively of a great swelling, +which extends eastward for nearly twenty degrees of longitude. On +its northern side the Chol-tagh descends steeply, and its foot is fringed +by a string of deep depressions, ranging from Lukchun (425 ft. <i>below</i> +the level of the sea) to Hami (2800 ft. above sea-level). To the south +of the Kuruk-tagh lie the desert of Lop, the desert of Kum-tagh, and +the valley of the Bulunzir-gol. To this great swelling, which arches +up between the two border-ranges of the Chol-tagh and Kuruk-tagh, +the Mongols give the name of Ghashiun-Gobi or Salt Desert. It is +some 80 to 100 m. across from N. to S., and is traversed by a number +of minor parallel ranges, ridges and chains of hills, and down its +middle runs a broad stony valley, 25 to 50 m. wide, at an elevation of +3000 to 4500 ft. The Chol-tagh, which reaches an average altitude +of 6000 ft., is absolutely sterile, and its northern foot rests upon a +narrow belt of barren sand, which leads down to the depressions +mentioned above.</p> + +<p>The Kuruk-tagh is the greatly disintegrated, denuded and wasted +relic of a mountain range which formerly was of incomparably +greater magnitude. In the west, between Baghrash-kol and the +Tarim, it consists of two, possibly of three, principal ranges, which, +although broken in continuity, run generally parallel to one another, +and embrace between them numerous minor chains of heights. +These minor ranges, together with the principal ranges, divide the +region into a series of long, narrow valleys, mostly parallel to one +another and to the enclosing mountain chains, which descend like +terraced steps, on the one side towards the depression of Lukchun +and on the other towards the desert of Lop. In many cases these +latitudinal valleys are barred transversely by ridges or spurs, +generally elevations <i>en masse</i> of the bottom of the valley. Where +such elevations exist, there is generally found, on the E. side of the +transverse ridge, a cauldron-shaped depression, which some time +or other has been the bottom of a former lake, but is now nearly a +dry salt-basin. The surface configuration is in fact markedly +similar to that which occurs in the inter-mont latitudinal valleys of +the Kuen-lun. The hydrography of the Ghashiun-Gobi and the +Kuruk-tagh is determined by these chequered arrangements of the +latitudinal valleys. Most of the principal streams, instead of flowing +straight down these valleys, cross them diagonally and only turn +west after they have cut their way through one or more of the transverse +barrier ranges.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> To the highest range on the great swelling +Grum-Grzhimailo gives the name of Tuge-tau, its altitude being +9000 ft. above the level of the sea and some 4000 ft. above the crown +of the swelling itself. This range he considers to belong to the Chol-tagh +system, whereas Sven Hedin would assign it to the Kuruk-tagh. +This last, which is pretty certainly identical with the range of Khara-teken-ula +(also known as the Kyzyl-sanghir, Sinir, and Singher +Mountains), that overlooks the southern shore of the Baghrash-kol, +though parted from it by the drift-sand desert of Ak-bel-kum (White +Pass Sands), has at first a W.N.W. to E.S.E. strike, but it gradually +curves round like a scimitar towards the E.N.E. and at the same +time gradually decreases in elevation. In 91° E., while the principal +range of the Kuruk-tagh system wheels to the E.N.E., four of its +subsidiary ranges terminate, or rather die away somewhat suddenly, +on the brink of a long narrow depression (in which Sven Hedin sees +a N.E. bay of the former great Central Asian lake of Lop-nor), having +over against them the écheloned terminals of similar subordinate +ranges of the Pe-shan (Bey-san) system (see below). The Kuruk-tagh +is throughout a relatively low, but almost completely barren range, +being entirely destitute of animal life, save for hares, antelopes and +wild camels, which frequent its few small, widely scattered oases. +The vegetation, which is confined to these same relatively favoured +spots, is of the scantiest and is mainly confined to bushes of saxaul +(<i>Anabasis Ammodendron</i>), reeds (<i>kamish</i>), tamarisks, poplars, +<i>Kalidium</i> and <i>Ephedra</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Desert of Lop.</i>—This section of the Gobi extends south-eastward +from the foot of the Kuruk-tagh as far as the present terminal basin +of the Tarim, namely Kara-koshun (Przhevalsky’s Lop-nor), and is an +almost perfectly horizontal expanse, for, while the Baghrash-kol +in the N. lies at an altitude of 2940 ft., the Kara-koshun, over 200 m. +to the S., is only 300 ft. lower. The characteristic features of this +almost dead level or but slightly undulating region are: (i.) broad, +unbroken expanses of clay intermingled with sand, the clay (<i>shor</i>) +being indurated and saliferous and often arranged in terraces; (ii.) +hard, level, clay expanses, more or less thickly sprinkled with fine +gravel (<i>say</i>), the clay being mostly of a yellow or yellow-grey colour; +(iii.) benches, flattened ridges and tabular masses of consolidated +clay (<i>jardangs</i>), arranged in distinctly defined <i>laminae</i>, three stories +being sometimes superimposed one upon the other, and their vertical +faces being abraded, and often undercut, by the wind, while the +formations themselves are separated by parallel gullies or wind-furrows, +6 to 20 ft. deep, all sculptured in the direction of the prevailing +wind, that is, from N.E. to S.W.; and (iv.) the absence of +drift-sand and sand-dunes, except in the south, towards the outlying +foothills of the Astin-tagh. Perhaps the most striking characteristic, +after the jardangs or clay terraces, is the fact that the whole +of this region is not only swept bare of sand by the terrific sandstorms +(<i>burans</i>) of the spring months, the particles of sand with +which the wind is laden acting like a sand-blast, but the actual +substantive materials of the desert itself are abraded, filed, eroded +and carried bodily away into the network of lakes in which the Tarim +loses itself, or are even blown across the lower, constantly shifting +watercourses of that river and deposited on or among the gigantic +dunes which choke the eastern end of the desert of Takla-makan. +Numerous indications, such as salt-stained depressions of a lacustrine +appearance, traces of former lacustrine shore-lines, more or less +parallel and concentric, the presence in places of vast quantities of +fresh-water mollusc shells (species of <i>Limnaea</i> and <i>Planorbis</i>), the +existence of belts of dead poplars, patches of dead tamarisks and +extensive beds of withered reeds, all these always on top of the +jardangs, never in the wind-etched furrows, together with a few +scrubby poplars and <i>Elaeagnus</i>, still struggling hard not to die, the +presence of ripple marks of aqueous origin on the leeward sides of the +clay terraces and in other wind-sheltered situations, all testify to +the former existence in this region of more or less extensive freshwater +lakes, now of course completely desiccated. During the +prevalence of the spring storms the atmosphere that overhangs +the immediate surface of the desert is so heavily charged with dust +as to be a veritable pall of desolation. Except for the wild camel +which frequents the reed oases on the N. edge of the desert, animal +life is even less abundant than in the Ghashiun-Gobi, and the same +is true as regards the vegetation.</p> + +<p><i>Desert of Kum-tagh.</i>—This section lies E.S.E. of the desert of Lop, +on the other side of the Kara-koshun and its more or less temporary +continuations, and reaches north-eastwards as far as the vicinity of +the town of Sa-chow and the lake of Kara-nor or Kala-chi. Its +southern rim is marked by a labyrinth of hills, dotted in groups and +irregular clusters, but evidently survivals of two parallel ranges +which are now worn down as it were to mere fragments of their +former skeletal structure. Between these and the Astin-tagh intervenes +a broad latitudinal valley, seamed with watercourses which +come down from the foothills of the Astin-tagh and beside which +scrubby desert plants of the usual character maintain a precarious +existence, water reaching them in some instances at intervals of years +only. This part of the desert has a general slope N.W. towards the +relative depression of the Kara-koshun. A noticeable feature of the +Kum-tagh is the presence of large accumulations of drift-sand, +especially along the foot of the crumbling desert ranges, where it +rises into dunes sometimes as much as 250 ft. in height and climbs +half-way up the flanks of ranges themselves. The prevailing winds +in this region would appear to blow from the W. and N.W. during +the summer, winter and autumn, though in spring, when they certainly +are more violent, they no doubt come from the N.E., as in the desert +of Lop. Anyway, the arrangement of the sand here “agrees perfectly +with the law laid down by Potanin, that in the basins of Central +Asia the sand is heaped up in greater mass on the south, all along +the bordering mountain ranges where the floor of the depressions +lies at the highest level.”<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The country to the north of the desert +ranges is thus summarily described by Sven Hedin:<a name="fa3j" id="fa3j" href="#ft3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> “The first zone +of drift-sand is succeeded by a region which exhibits proofs of wind-modelling +on an extraordinarily energetic and well developed scale, +the results corresponding to the jardangs and the wind-eroded +gullies of the desert of Lop. Both sets of phenomena lie parallel +to one another; from this we may infer that the winds which prevail +in the two deserts are the same. Next comes, sharply demarcated +from the zone just described, a more or less thin kamish steppe +growing on level ground; and this in turn is followed by another very +narrow belt of sand, immediately south of Achik-kuduk.... +Finally in the extreme north we have the characteristic and sharply +defined belt of kamish steppe, stretching from E.N.E. to W.S.W. +and bounded on N. and S. by high, sharp-cut clay terraces.... +At the points where we measured them the northern terrace was +113 ft. high and the southern 85¼ ft.... Both terraces belong to +the same level, and would appear to correspond to the shore lines of a +big bay of the last surviving remnant of the Central Asian Mediterranean. +At the point where I crossed it the depression was 6 to 7 m. +wide, and thus resembled a flat valley or immense river-bed.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page167" id="page167"></a>167</span></p> + +<p><i>Desert of Hami and the Pe-shan Mountains.</i>—This section occupies +the space between the Tian-shan system on the N. and the Nan-shan +Mountains on the S., and is connected on the W. with the desert of +Lop. The classic account is that of Przhevalsky, who crossed the +desert from Hami (or Khami) to Su-chow (not Sa-chow) in the summer +of 1879. In the middle this desert rises into a vast swelling, 80 m. +across, which reaches an average elevation of 5000 ft. and a maximum +elevation of 5500 ft. On its northern and southern borders it is +overtopped by two divisions of the Bey-san (= Pe-shan) Mountains, +neither of which attains any great relative altitude. Between the +northern division and the Karlyk-tagh range or E. Tian-shan +intervenes a somewhat undulating barren plain, 3900 ft. in altitude +and 40 m. from N. to S., sloping downwards from both N. and S. +towards the middle, where lies the oasis of Hami (2800 ft.). Similarly +from the southern division of the Bey-san a second plain slopes down +for 1000 ft. to the valley of the river Bulunzir or Su-lai-ho, which +comes out of China, from the south side of the Great Wall, and finally +empties itself into the lake of Kala-chi or Kara-nor. From the +Bulunzir the same plain continues southwards at a level of 3700 ft. +to the foot of the Nan-shan Mountains. The total breadth of the +desert from N. to S. is here 200 m. Its general character is that of an +undulating plain, dotted over with occasional elevations of clay, +which present the appearance of walls, table-topped mounds and +broken towers (<i>jardangs</i>), the surface of the plain being strewn with +gravel and absolutely destitute of vegetation. Generally speaking, +the Bey-san ranges consist of isolated hills or groups of hills, of low +relative elevation (100 to 300 ft.), scattered without any regard to +order over the arch of the swelling. They nowhere rise into well-defined +peaks. Their axis runs from W.S.W. to E.N.E. But whereas +Przhevalsky and Sven Hedin consider them to be a continuation of +the Kuruk-tagh, though the latter regards them as separated from +the Kuruk-tagh by a well-marked bay of the former Central Asian +Mediterranean (Lop-nor), Futterer declares they are a continuation +of the Chol-tagh. The swelling or undulating plain between these +two ranges of the Bey-san measures about 70 m. across and is +traversed by several stretches of high ground having generally an +east-west direction.<a name="fa4j" id="fa4j" href="#ft4j"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Futterer, who crossed the same desert twenty +years after Przhevalsky, agrees generally in his description of it, +but supplements the account of the latter explorer with several +particulars. He observes that the ranges in this part of the Gobi +are much worn down and wasted, like the Kuruk-tagh farther west +and the tablelands of S.E. Mongolia farther east, through the effects +of century-long insolation, wind erosion, great and sudden changes +of temperature, chemical action and occasional water erosion. +Vast areas towards the N. consist of expanses of gently sloping (at +a mean slope of 3°) clay, intermingled with gravel. He points out +also that the greatest accumulations of sand and other products of +aerial denudation do not occur in the deepest parts of the depressions +but at the outlets of the valleys and glens, and along the foot of the +ranges which flank the depressions on the S. Wherever water has +been, desert scrub is found, such as tamarisks, <i>Dodartia orientalis</i>, +<i>Agriophyllum gobicum</i>, <i>Calligonium sinnex</i>, and <i>Lycium ruthenicum</i>, +but all with their roots elevated on little mounds in the same way +as the tamarisks grow in the Takla-makan and desert of Lop.</p> + +<p>Farther east, towards central Mongolia, the relations, says Futterer, +are the same as along the Hami-Su-chow route, except that the ranges +have lower and broader crests, and the detached hills are more +denuded and more disintegrated. Between the ranges occur broad, +flat, cauldron-shaped valleys and basins, almost destitute of life +except for a few hares and a few birds, such as the crow and the +pheasant, and with scanty vegetation, but no great accumulations +of drift-sand. The rocks are severely weathered on the surface, a +thick layer of the coarser products of denudation covers the flat parts +and climbs a good way up the flanks of the mountain ranges, but all +the finer material, sand and clay has been blown away partly S.E. into +Ordos, partly into the Chinese provinces of Shen-si and Shan-si, where +it is deposited as loess, and partly W., where it chokes all the southern +parts of the basin of the Tarim. In these central parts of the Gobi, +as indeed in all other parts except the desert of Lop and Ordos, the +prevailing winds blow from the W. and N.W. These winds are warm +in summer, and it is they which in the desert of Hami bring the fierce +sandstorms or burans. The wind does blow also from the N.E., but +it is then cold and often brings snow, though it speedily clears the +air of the everlasting dust haze. In summer great heat is encountered +here on the relatively low (3000-4600 ft.), gravelly expanses (<i>say</i>) +on the N. and on those of the S. (4000-5000 ft.); but on the higher +swelling between, which in the Pe-shan ranges ascends to 7550 ft., +there is great cold even in summer, and a wide daily range of temperature. +Above the broad and deep accumulations of the products of +denudation which have been brought down by the rivers from the +Tian-shan ranges (<i>e.g.</i> the Karlyk-tagh) on the N. and from the Nan-shan +on the S., and have filled up the cauldron-shaped valleys, there +rises a broad swelling, built up of granitic rocks, crystalline schists +and metamorphosed sedimentary rocks of both Archaic and Palaeozoic +age, all greatly folded and tilted up, and shot through with +numerous irruptions of volcanic rocks, predominantly porphyritic +and dioritic. On this swelling rise four more or less parallel mountain +ranges of the Pe-shan system, together with a fifth chain of hills +farther S., all having a strike from W.N.W. to E.N.E. The range +farthest N. rises to 1000 ft. above the desert and 7550 ft. above +sea-level, the next two ranges reach 1300 ft. above the general level +of the desert, and the range farthest south 1475 ft. or an absolute +altitude of 7200 ft., while the fifth chain of hills does not exceed +650 ft. in relative elevation. All these ranges decrease in altitude +from W. to E. In the depressions which border the Pe-shan swelling +on N. and S. are found the sedimentary deposits of the Tertiary +sea of the Han-hai; but no traces of those deposits have been found +on the swelling itself at altitudes of 5600 to 5700 ft. Hence, Futterer +infers, in recent geological times no large sea has occupied the central +part of the Gobi. Beyond an occasional visit from a band of nomad +Mongols, this region of the Pe-shan swelling is entirely uninhabited.<a name="fa5j" id="fa5j" href="#ft5j"><span class="sp">5</span></a> +And yet it was from this very region, avers G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, +that the Yue-chi, a nomad race akin to the Tibetans, proceeded +when, towards the middle of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, they moved +westwards and settled near Lake Issyk-kul; and from here proceeded +also the Shanshani, or people who some two thousand years ago +founded the state of Shanshan or Loû-lan, ruins of the chief town of +which Sven Hedin discovered in the desert of Lop in 1901. Here, +says the Russian explorer, the Huns gathered strength, as also did +the Tukiu (Turks) in the 6th century, and the Uighur tribes and the +rulers of the Tangut kingdom. But after Jenghiz Khan in the 12th +century drew away the peoples of this region, and no others came +to take their place, the country went out of cultivation and eventually +became the barren desert it now is.<a name="fa6j" id="fa6j" href="#ft6j"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p> + +<p><i>Ala-shan.</i>—This division of the great desert, known also as the +Hsi-tau and the Little Gobi, fills the space between the great N. +loop of the Hwang-ho or Yellow river on the E., the Edzin-gol on +the W., and the Nan-shan Mountains on the S.W., where it is separated +from the Chinese province of Kan-suh by the narrow rocky chain +of Lung-shan (Ala-shan), 10,500 to 11,600 ft. in altitude. It belongs +to the middle basin of the three great depressions into which Potanin +divides the Gobi as a whole. “Topographically,” says Przhevalsky, +“it is a perfectly level plain, which in all probability once formed the +bed of a huge lake or inland sea.” The data upon which he bases this +conclusion are the level area of the region as a whole, the hard saline +clay and the sand-strewn surface, and lastly the salt lakes which +occupy its lowest parts. For hundreds of miles there is nothing to be +seen but bare sands; in some places they continue so far without +a break that the Mongols call them Tyngheri (<i>i.e.</i> sky). These vast +expanses are absolutely waterless, nor do any oases relieve the unbroken +stretches of yellow sand which alternate with equally vast +areas of saline clay or, nearer the foot of the mountains, with barren +shingle. Although on the whole a level country with a general +altitude of 3300 to 5000 ft., this section, like most other parts of the +Gobi, is crowned by a chequered network of hills and broken ranges +going up 1000 ft. higher. The vegetation is confined to a few +varieties of bushes and a dozen kinds of grasses, the most conspicuous +being saxaul and <i>Agriophyllum gobicum</i><a name="fa7j" id="fa7j" href="#ft7j"><span class="sp">7</span></a> (a grass). The others +include prickly convolvulus, field wormwood, acacia, <i>Inula ammophila</i>, +<i>Sophora flavescens</i>, <i>Convolvulus Ammani</i>, <i>Peganum</i> and +<i>Astragalus</i>, but all dwarfed, deformed and starved. The fauna +consists of little else except antelopes, the wolf, fox, hare, hedgehog, +marten, numerous lizards and a few birds, <i>e.g.</i> the sand-grouse, +lark, stonechat, sparrow, crane, <i>Podoces Hendersoni</i>, <i>Otocorys +albigula</i> and <i>Galerita cristata</i>.<a name="fa8j" id="fa8j" href="#ft8j"><span class="sp">8</span></a> The only human inhabitants of +Ala-shan are the Torgod Mongols.</p> + +<p><i>Ordos.</i>—East of the desert of Ala-shan, and only separated from +it by the Hwang-ho, is the desert of Ordos or Ho-tau, “a level +steppe, partly bordered by low hills. The soil is altogether sandy +or a mixture of clay and sand, ill adapted for agriculture. The +absolute height of this country is between 3000 and 3500 ft., so that +Ordos forms an intermediate step in the descent to China from the +Gobi, separated from the latter by the mountain ranges lying on +the N. and E. of the Hwang-ho or Yellow river.”<a name="fa9j" id="fa9j" href="#ft9j"><span class="sp">9</span></a> Towards the +south Ordos rises to an altitude of over 5000 ft., and in the W., along +the right bank of the Hwang-ho, the Arbus or Arbiso Mountains, +which overtop the steppe by some 3000 ft., serve to link the Ala-shan +Mountains with the In-shan. The northern part of the great loop +of the river is filled with the sands of Kuzupchi, a succession of dunes, +40 to 50 ft. high. Amongst them in scattered patches grow the shrub +<i>Hedysarum</i> and the trees <i>Calligonium Tragopyrum</i> and <i>Pugionium +cornutum</i>. In some places these sand-dunes approach close to the +great river, in others they are parted from it by a belt of sand, +intermingled with clay, which terminates in a steep escarpment, +50 ft. and in some localities 100 ft. above the river. This belt is +studded with little mounds (7 to 10 ft. high), mostly overgrown with +wormwood (<i>Artemisia campestris</i>) and the Siberian pea-tree (<i>Caragana</i>); +and here too grows one of the most characteristic plants +of Ordos, the liquorice root (<i>Glycyrrhiza uralensis</i>). Eventually +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page168" id="page168"></a>168</span> +the sand-dunes cross over to the left bank of the Hwang-ho, and +are threaded by the beds of dry watercourses, while the level spaces +amongst them are studded with little mounds (3 to 6 ft. high), +on which grow stunted <i>Nitraria Scoberi</i> and <i>Zygophyllum</i>. Ordos, +which was anciently known as Ho-nan (“the country south of the +river”) and still farther back in time as Ho-tau, was occupied by the +Hiong-nu in the 1st and 2nd centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, but was almost depopulated +during and after the Dungan revolt of 1869. North of the +big loop of the Hwang-ho Ordos is separated from the central Gobi +by a succession of mountain chains, the Kara-naryn-ula, the Sheiten-ula, +and the In-shan Mountains, which link on to the south end of the +Great Khingan Mountains. The In-shan Mountains, which stretch +from 108° to 112° E., have a wild Alpine character and are distinguished +from other mountains in the S.E. of Mongolia by an +abundance of both water and vegetation. In one of their constituent +ranges, the bold Munni-ula, 70 m. long and nearly 20 m. wide, they +attain elevations of 7500 to 8500 ft., and have steep flanks, slashed +with rugged gorges and narrow glens. Forests begin on them at +5300 ft. and wild flowers grow in great profusion and variety in +summer, though with a striking lack of brilliancy in colouring. +In this same border range there is also a much greater abundance +and variety of animal life, especially amongst the avifauna.</p> + +<p><i>Eastern Gobi.</i>—Here the surface is extremely diversified, although +there are no great differences in vertical elevation. Between Urga +(48° N. and 107° E.) and the little lake of Iren-dubasu-nor (111° 50′ E. +and 43° 45′ N.) the surface is greatly eroded, and consists of broad +flat depressions and basins separated by groups of flat-topped +mountains of relatively low elevation (500 to 600 ft.), through +which archaic rocks crop out as crags and isolated rugged masses. +The floors of the depressions lie mostly between 2900 and 3200 ft. +above sea-level. Farther south, between Iren-dubasu-nor and the +Hwang-ho comes a region of broad tablelands alternating with +flat plains, the latter ranging at altitudes of 3300 to 3600 ft. and +the former at 3500 to 4000 ft. The slopes of the plateaus are more +or less steep, and are sometimes penetrated by “bays” of the lowlands. +As the border-range of the Khingan is approached the +country steadily rises up to 4500 ft. and then to 5350 ft. Here +small lakes frequently fill the depressions, though the water in them +is generally salt or brackish. And both here, and for 200 m. south +of Urga, streams are frequent, and grass grows more or less abundantly. +There is, however, through all the central parts, until the bordering +mountains are reached, an utter absence of trees and shrubs. Clay +and sand are the predominant formations, the watercourses, especially +in the north, being frequently excavated 6 to 8 ft. deep, and in +many places in the flat, dry valleys or depressions farther south +beds of loess, 15 to 20 ft. thick, are exposed. West of the route +from Urga to Kalgan the country presents approximately the same +general features, except that the mountains are not so irregularly +scattered in groups but have more strongly defined strikes, mostly +E. to W., W.N.W. to E.S.E., and W.S.W. to E.N.E. The altitudes +too are higher, those of the lowlands ranging from 3300 to 5600 ft., +and those of the ranges from 650 to 1650 ft. higher, though in a few +cases they reach altitudes of 8000 ft. above sea-level. The elevations +do not, however, as a rule form continuous chains, but make up a +congeries of short ridges and groups rising from a common base and +intersected by a labyrinth of ravines, gullies, glens and basins. +But the tablelands, built up of the horizontal red deposits of the +Han-hai (Obruchev’s Gobi formation) which are characteristic of +the southern parts of eastern Mongolia, are absent here or occur +only in one locality, near the Shara-muren river, and are then greatly +intersected by gullies or dry watercourses.<a name="fa10j" id="fa10j" href="#ft10j"><span class="sp">10</span></a> Here there is, however, +a great dearth of water, no streams, no lakes, no wells, and precipitation +falls but seldom. The prevailing winds blow from the W. and +N.W. and the pall of dust overhangs the country as in the Takla-makan +and the desert of Lop. Characteristic of the flora are wild +garlic, <i>Kalidium gracile</i>, wormwood, saxaul, <i>Nitraria Scoberi</i>, +<i>Caragana</i>, <i>Ephedra</i>, saltwort and <i>dirisun</i> (<i>Lasiagrostis splendens</i>).</p> + +<p>This great desert country of Gobi is crossed by several trade routes, +some of which have been in use for thousands of years. Among the +most important are those from Kalgan on the frontier of China to +Urga (600 m.), from Su-chow (in Kan-suh) to Hami (420 m.) from +Hami to Peking (1300 m.), from Kwei-hwa-cheng (or Kuku-khoto) +to Hami and Barkul, and from Lanchow (in Kan-suh) to Hami.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—The climate of the Gobi is one of great extremes, combined +with rapid changes of temperature, not only at all seasons of +the year but even within 24 hours (as much as 58° F.). For instance, +at Urga (3770 ft.) the annual mean is 27.5° F., the January mean +−15.7°, and the July mean 63.5°, the extremes being 100.5° and +−44.5°; while at Sivantse (3905 ft.) the annual mean is 37°, the +January mean 2.3°, and the July mean 66.3°, the range being from +a recorded maximum of 93° to a recorded minimum of −53°. Even +in southern Mongolia the thermometer goes down as low as −27°, +and in Ala-shan it rises day after day in July as high as 99°. Although +the south-east monsoons reach the S.E. parts of the Gobi, the air +generally throughout this region is characterized by extreme dryness, +especially during the winter. Hence the icy sandstorms and snowstorms +of spring and early summer. The rainfall at Urga for the year +amounts to only 9.7 in.</p> + +<p><i>Sands of the Gobi Deserts.</i>—With regard to the origin of the masses +of sand out of which the dunes and chains of dunes (<i>barkhans</i>) are +built up in the several deserts of the Gobi, opinions differ. While +some explorers consider them to be the product of marine, or at any +rate lacustrine, denudation (the Central Asian Mediterranean), +others—and this is not only the more reasonable view, but it is the +view which is gaining most ground—consider that they are the products +of the aerial denudation of the border ranges (<i>e.g.</i> Nan-shan, +Karlyk-tagh, &c.), and more especially of the terribly wasted ranges +and chains of hills, which, like the gaunt fragments of montane +skeletal remains, lie littered all over the swelling uplands and +tablelands of the Gobi, and that they have been transported by the +prevailing winds to the localities in which they are now accumulated, +the winds obeying similar transportation laws to the rivers and +streams which carry down sediment in moister parts of the world. +Potanin points out<a name="fa11j" id="fa11j" href="#ft11j"><span class="sp">11</span></a> that “there is a certain amount of regularity +observable in the distribution of the sandy deserts over the vast +uplands of central Asia. Two agencies are represented in the distribution +of the sands, though what they really are is not quite clear; +and of these two agencies one prevails in the north-west, the other +in the south-east, so that the whole of Central Asia may be divided +into two regions, the dividing line between them being drawn from +north-east to south-west, from Urga via the eastern end of the +Tian-shan to the city of Kashgar. North-west of this line the sandy +masses are broken up into detached and disconnected areas, and are +almost without exception heaped up around the lakes, and consequently +in the lowest parts of the several districts in which they +exist. Moreover, we find also that these sandy tracts always occur +on the western or south-western shores of the lakes; this is the case +with the lakes of Balkash, Ala-kul, Ebi-nor, Ayar-nor (or Telli-nor), +Orku-nor, Zaisan-nor, Ulungur-nor, Ubsa-nor, Durga-nor and +Kara-nor lying E. of Kirghiz-nor. South-east of the line the arrangement +of the sand is quite different. In that part of Asia we have +three gigantic but disconnected basins. The first, lying farthest east, +is embraced on the one side by the ramifications of the Kentei and +Khangai Mountains and on the other by the In-shan Mountains. +The second or middle division is contained between the Altai of the +Gobi and the Ala-shan. The third basin, in the west, lies between +the Tian-shan and the border ranges of western Tibet.... The +deepest parts of each of these three depressions occur near their +northern borders; towards their southern boundaries they are all +alike very much higher.... However, the sandy deserts are not +found in the low-lying tracts but occur on the higher uplands which +foot the southern mountain ranges, the In-shan and the Nan-shan. +Our maps show an immense expanse of sand south of the Tarim +in the western basin; beginning in the neighbourhood of the city +of Yarkent (Yarkand), it extends eastwards past the towns of Khotan, +Keriya and Cherchen to Sa-chow. Along this stretch there is only +one locality which forms an exception to the rule we have indicated, +namely, the region round the lake of Lop-nor. In the middle basin the +widest expanse of sand occurs between the Edzin-gol and the range +of Ala-shan. On the south it extends nearly as far as a line drawn +through the towns of Lian-chow, Kan-chow and Kao-tai at the foot +of the Nan-shan; but on the south it does not approach anything +like so far as the latitude (42° N.) of the lake of Ghashiun-nor. Still +farther east come the sandy deserts of Ordos, extending south-eastward +as far as the mountain range which separates Ordos +from the (Chinese) provinces of Shan-si and Shen-si. In the eastern +basin drift-sand is encountered between the district of Ude in the +north (44° 30′ N.) and the foot of the In-shan in the south.” In +two regions, if not in three, the sands have overwhelmed large +tracts of once cultivated country, and even buried the cities in +which men formerly dwelt. These regions are the southern parts +of the desert of Takla-makan (where Sven Hedin and M. A. Stein<a name="fa12j" id="fa12j" href="#ft12j"><span class="sp">12</span></a> +have discovered the ruins under the desert sands), along the N. +foot of the Nan-shan, and probably in part (other agencies having +helped) in the north of the desert of Lop, where Sven Hedin +discovered the ruins of Loū-lan and of other towns or villages. +For these vast accumulations of sand are constantly in movement; +though the movement is slow, it has nevertheless been calculated +that in the south of the Takla-makan the sand-dunes travel +bodily at the rate of roughly something like 160 ft. in the course of a +year. The shape and arrangement of the individual sand-dunes, +and of the barkhans, generally indicate from which direction the +predominant winds blow. On the windward side of the dune the +slope is long and gentle, while the leeward side is steep and in outline +concave like a horse-shoe. The dunes vary in height from 30 up to +300 ft., and in some places mount as it were upon one another’s +shoulders, and in some localities it is even said that a third tier is +sometimes superimposed.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—See N. M. Przhevalsky, <i>Mongolia, the Tangut +Country, &c.</i> (Eng. trans., ed. by Sir H. Yule, London, 1876), and +<i>From Kulja across the Tian Shan to Lob Nor</i> (Eng. trans, by Delmar +Morgan, London, 1879); G. N. Potanin, <i>Tangutsko-Tibetskaya +Okraina Kitaya i Centralnaya Mongoliya, 1884-1886</i> (1893, &c.); +M. V. Pjevtsov, <i>Sketch of a Journey to Mongolia</i> (in Russian, Omsk, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169"></a>169</span> +1883); G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, <i>Opisanie Puteshestviya v Sapadniy +Kitai</i> (1898-1899); V. A. Obruchev, <i>Centralnaya Asiya, Severniy +Kitai i Nan-schan, 1892-1894</i> (1900-1901); V. I. Roborovsky and +P. K. Kozlov, <i>Trudy Ekspeditsiy Imp. Russ. Geog. Obshchestva Po +Centralnoy Asiy, 1893-1895</i> (1900, &c.); Roborovsky, <i>Trudy +Tibetskoi Ekspeditsiy, 1889-1890</i>; Sven Hedin, <i>Scientific Results +of a Journey in Central Asia, 1899-1902</i> (6 vols., 1905-1907); +Futterer, <i>Durch Asien</i> (1901, &c.); K. Bogdanovich, <i>Geologicheskiya +Isledovaniya v Vostochnom Turkestane</i> and <i>Trudiy Tibetskoy Ekspeditsiy, +1889-1890</i>; L. von Loczy, <i>Die wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse +der Reise des Grafen Széchenyi in Ostasien, 1877-1880</i> (1883); Ney +Elias, in <i>Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc.</i> (1873); C. W. Campbell’s “Journeys +in Mongolia,” in <i>Geographical Journal</i> (Nov. 1903); Pozdnievym, +<i>Mongolia and the Mongols</i> (in Russian, St Petersburg, 1897 &c.); +Deniker’s summary of Kozlov’s latest journeys in <i>La Géographie</i> +(1901, &c.); F. von Richthofen, <i>China</i> (1877).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. T. Be.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Cf. G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, <i>Opisaniye Puteshestviya</i>, i. 381-417.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Quoted in Sven Hedin, <i>Scientific Results</i>, ii. 499.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> ii. 499-500.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4j" id="ft4j" href="#fa4j"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Przhevalsky, <i>Iz Zayana cherez Hami v Tibet na Vershovya +Shaltoy Reki</i>, pp. 84-91.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5j" id="ft5j" href="#fa5j"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Futterer, <i>Durch Asien</i>, i. pp. 206-211.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6j" id="ft6j" href="#fa6j"><span class="fn">6</span></a> G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, <i>Opisanie Puteshestviya v Sapadniy +Kitai</i>, ii. p. 127.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7j" id="ft7j" href="#fa7j"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Its seeds are pounded by the Mongols to flour and mixed with +their tea.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8j" id="ft8j" href="#fa8j"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Przhevalsky, <i>Mongolia</i> (Eng. trans. ed. by Sir H. Yule).</p> + +<p><a name="ft9j" id="ft9j" href="#fa9j"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Przhevalsky, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 183.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10j" id="ft10j" href="#fa10j"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Obruchev. in <i>Izvestia</i> of Russ. Geogr. Soc. (1895).</p> + +<p><a name="ft11j" id="ft11j" href="#fa11j"><span class="fn">11</span></a> In <i>Tangutsko-Tibetskaya Okraina Kitaya i Centralnaya Mongoliya</i>, +i. pp. 96, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12j" id="ft12j" href="#fa12j"><span class="fn">12</span></a> See <i>Sand-buried Cities of Khotan</i> (London, 1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOBLET, RENÉ<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1828-1905), French politician, was born at +Aire-sur-la-Lys, in the Pas de Calais, on the 26th of November +1828, and was educated for the law. Under the Second Empire, +he helped to found a Liberal journal, <i>Le Progrès de la Somme</i>, +and in July 1871 was sent by the department of the Somme to +the National Assembly, where he took his place on the extreme +left. He failed to secure election in 1876, but next year was +returned for Amiens. He held a minor government office in +1879, and in 1882 became minister of the interior in the Freycinet +cabinet. He was minister of education, fine arts and religion in +Henri Brisson’s first cabinet in 1885, and again under Freycinet +in 1886, when he greatly increased his reputation by an able +defence of the government’s education proposals. Meanwhile +his extreme independence and excessive candour had alienated +him from many of his party, and all through his life he was +frequently in conflict with his political associates, from Gambetta +downwards. On the fall of the Freycinet cabinet in December +he formed a cabinet in which he reserved for himself the portfolios +of the interior and of religion. The Goblet cabinet was unpopular +from the outset, and it was with difficulty that anybody could +be found to accept the ministry of foreign affairs, which was +finally given to M. Flourens. Then came what is known as the +Schnaebele incident, the arrest on the German frontier of a +French official named Schnaebele, which caused immense excitement +in France. For some days Goblet took no definite decision, +but left Flourens, who stood for peace, to fight it out with +General Boulanger, then minister of war, who was for the +despatch of an ultimatum. Although he finally intervened on +the side of Flourens, and peace was preserved, his weakness in +face of the Boulangist propaganda became a national danger. +Defeated on the budget in May 1887, his government resigned; +but he returned to office next year as foreign minister in the +radical administration of Charles Floquet. He was defeated at +the polls by a Boulangist candidate in 1889, and sat in the senate +from 1891 to 1893, when he returned to the popular chamber. +In association with MM. E. Lockroy, Ferdinand Sarrien and +P. L. Peytral he drew up a republican programme which they +put forward in the <i>Petite République française</i>. At the elections +of 1898 he was defeated, and thenceforward took little part in +public affairs. He died in Paris on the 13th of September +1905.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOBLET,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> a large type of drinking-vessel, particularly one +shaped like a cup, without handles, and mounted on a shank +with a foot. The word is derived from the O. Fr. <i>gobelet</i>, diminutive +of <i>gobel</i>, <i>gobeau</i>, which Skeat takes to be formed from Low +Lat. <i>cupellus</i>, cup, diminutive of <i>cupa</i>, tub, cask (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drinking-Vessels</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOBY.<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> The gobies (<i>Gobius</i>) are small fishes readily recognized +by their ventrals (the fins on the lower surface of the chest) being +united into one fin, forming a suctorial disk, by which these fishes +are enabled to attach themselves in every possible position to a +rock or other firm substances. They are essentially coast-fishes, +inhabiting nearly all seas, but disappearing towards the Arctic +and Antarctic Oceans. Many enter, or live exclusively in, such +fresh waters as are at no great distance from the sea. Nearly 500 +different kinds are known. The largest British species, <i>Gobius +capito</i>, occurring in the rock-pools of Cornwall, measures 10 +in. <i>Gobius alcocki</i>, from brackish and fresh waters of Lower +Bengal, is one of the very smallest of fishes, not measuring over +16 millimetres (= 7 lines). The males are usually more brilliantly +coloured than the females, and guard the eggs, which are often +placed in a sort of nest made of the shell of some bivalve or of the +carapace of a crab, with the convexity turned upwards and +covered with sand, the eggs being stuck to the inner surface of +this roof.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:525px; height:150px" src="images/img169a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—<i>Gobius lentiginosus</i>.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—United<br /> +Ventrals of Goby.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:410px; height:178px" src="images/img169b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—<i>Periophthalmus koelreuteri</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Close allies of the gobies are the walking fish or jumping fish +(<i>Periophthalmus</i>), of which various species are found in great +numbers on the mud flats at the mouths of rivers in the tropics, +skipping about by means of the muscular, scaly base of their +pectoral fins, with the head raised and bearing a pair of strongly +projecting versatile eyes close together.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOCH,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on +the Niers, 8 m. S. of Cleves at the junction of the railways Cologne-Zevenaar +and Boxtel-Wesel. Pop. (1905) 10,232. It has a +Protestant and a Roman Catholic church and manufactures of +brushes, plush goods, cigars and margarine. In the middle ages +it was the seat of a large trade in linen. Goch became a town in +1231 and belonged to the dukes of Gelderland and later to the +dukes of Cleves.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOD,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> the common Teutonic word for a personal object of +religious worship. It is thus, like the Gr. <span class="grk" title="theos">θεός</span> and Lat. <i>deus</i>, +applied to all those superhuman beings of the heathen mythologies +who exercise power over nature and man and are often identified +with some particular sphere of activity; and also to the visible +material objects, whether an image of the supernatural being or a +tree, pillar, &c. used as a symbol, an idol. The word “god,” on +the conversion of the Teutonic races to Christianity, was +adopted as the name of the one Supreme Being, the Creator of the +universe, and of the Persons of the Trinity. The <i>New English +Dictionary</i> points out that whereas the old Teutonic type of the +word is neuter, corresponding to the Latin <i>numen</i>, in the Christian +applications it becomes masculine, and that even where the +earlier neuter form is still kept, as in Gothic and Old Norwegian, +the construction is masculine. Popular etymology has connected +the word with “good”; this is exemplified by the corruption of +“God be with you” into “good-bye.” “God” is a word +common to all Teutonic languages. In Gothic it is <i>Guth</i>; Dutch +has the same form as English; Danish and Swedish have <i>Gud</i>, +German <i>Gott</i>. According to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, the +original may be found in two Aryan roots, both of the form <i>gheu</i>, +one of which means “to invoke,” the other “to pour” (cf. Gr. +<span class="grk" title="cheein">χέειν</span>); the last is used of sacrificial offerings. The word would +thus mean the object either of religious invocation or of religious +worship by sacrifice. It has been also suggested that the word +might mean a “molten image” from the sense of “pour.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Religion</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew Religion</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theism</a></span>, &c.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODALMING,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> a market-town and municipal borough in the +Guildford parliamentary division of Surrey, England, 34 m. S.W. +of London by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) +8748. It is beautifully situated on the right bank of the Wey, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page170" id="page170"></a>170</span> +which is navigable thence to the Thames, and on the high road +between London and Portsmouth. Steep hills, finely wooded, +enclose the valley. The chief public buildings are the church of +SS. Peter and Paul, a cruciform building of mixed architecture, +but principally Early English and Perpendicular; the town-hall, +Victoria hall, and market-house, and a technical institute and +school of science and art. Charterhouse School, one of the +principal English public schools, originally founded in 1611, was +transferred from Charterhouse Square, London, to Godalming in +1872. It stands within grounds 92 acres in extent, half a mile +north of Godalming, and consists of spacious buildings in Gothic +style, with a chapel, library and hall, besides boarding-houses, +masters’ houses and sanatoria. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charterhouse</a></span>.) Godalming +has manufactures of paper, leather, parchment and hosiery, and +some trade in corn, malt, bark, hoops and timber; and the +Bargate stone, of which the parish church is built, is still quarried. +The borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. +Area, 812 acres.</p> + +<p>Godalming (Godelminge) belonged to King Alfred, and was a +royal manor at the time of Domesday. The manor belonged to +the see of Salisbury in the middle ages, but reverted to the crown +in the time of Henry VIII. Godalming was incorporated by +Elizabeth in 1574, when the borough originated. The charter +was confirmed by James I. in 1620, and a fresh charter was +granted by Charles II. in 1666. The borough was never represented +in parliament. The bishop of Salisbury in 1300 received the +grant of a weekly market to be held on Mondays: the day was +altered to Wednesday by Elizabeth’s charter. The bishop’s +grant included a fair at the feast of St Peter and St Paul (29th of +June). Another fair at Candlemas (2nd of February) was granted +by Elizabeth. The market is still held. The making of cloth, +particularly Hampshire kerseys, was the staple industry of +Godalming in the middle ages, but it began to decay early in the +17th century and by 1850 was practically extinct. As in other +cases, dyeing was subsidiary to the cloth industry. Tanning, +introduced in the 15th century, survives. The present manufacture +of fleecy hosiery dates from the end of the 18th century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODARD, BENJAMIN LOUIS PAUL<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1849-1895); French +composer, was born in Paris, on the 18th of August 1849. He +studied at the Conservatoire, and competed for the Prix de +Rome without success in 1866 and 1867. He began by publishing +a number of songs, many of which are charming, such as “Je +ne veux pas d’autres choses,” “Ninon,” “Chanson de Florian,” +also a quantity of piano pieces, some chamber music, including +several violin sonatas, a trio for piano and strings, a quartet for +strings, a violin concerto and a second work of the same kind +entitled “Concerto Romantique.” Godard’s chance arrived in +the year 1878, when with his dramatic cantata, <i>Le Tasse</i>, he shared +with M. Théodore Dubois the honour of winning the musical +competition instituted by the city of Paris. From that time +until his death Godard composed a surprisingly large number of +works, including four operas, <i>Pedro de Zalamea</i>, produced at +Antwerp in 1884; <i>Jocelyn</i>, given in Paris at the Théâtre du +Château d’Eau, in 1888; <i>Dante</i>, played at the Opéra Comique +two years later; and <i>La Vivandière</i>, left unfinished and partly +scored by another hand. This last work was heard at the Opéra +Comique in 1895, and has been played in England by the Carl +Rosa Opera Company. His other works include the “Symphonie +légendaire,” “Symphonie gothique,” “Diane” and various +orchestral works. Godard’s productivity was enormous, and his +compositions are, for this reason only, decidedly unequal. He +was at his best in works of smaller dimensions, and has left many +exquisite songs. Among his more ambitious works the “Symphonie +légendaire” may be singled out as being one of the most +distinctive. He had a decided individuality, and his premature +death at Cannes on the 10th of January 1895 was a loss to +French art.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODAVARI,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> a river of central and western India. It flows +across the Deccan from the Western to the Eastern Ghats; its +total length is 900 m., the estimated area of its drainage basin, +112,200 sq. m. Its traditional source is on the side of a hill +behind the village of Trimbak in Nasik district, Bombay, where +the water runs into a reservoir from the lips of an image. But +according to popular legend it proceeds from the same ultimate +source as the Ganges, though underground. Its course is generally +south-easterly. After passing through Nasik district, it +crosses into the dominions of the nizam of Hyderabad. When +it again strikes British territory it is joined by the Pranhita, +with its tributaries the Wardha, the Penganga and Wainganga. +For some distance it flows between the nizam’s dominions and +the Upper Godavari district, and receives the Indravati, the Tal +and the Sabari. The stream has here a channel varying from +1 to 2 m. in breadth, occasionally broken by alluvial islands. +Parallel to the river stretch long ranges of hills. Below the +junction of the Sabari the channel begins to contract. The +flanking hills gradually close in on both sides, and the result is +a magnificent gorge only 200 yds. wide through which the water +flows into the plain of the delta, about 60 m. from the sea. The +head of the delta is at the village of Dowlaishweram, where the +main stream is crossed by the irrigation anicut. The river has +seven mouths, the largest being the Gautami Godavari. The +Godavari is regarded as peculiarly sacred, and once every twelve +years the great bathing festival called <i>Pushkaram</i> is held on its +banks at Rajahmundry.</p> + +<p>The upper waters of the Godavari are scarcely utilized for +irrigation, but the entire delta has been turned into a garden of +perennial crops by means of the anicut at Dowlaishweram, +constructed by Sir Arthur Cotton, from which three main canals +are drawn off. The river channel here is 3½ m. wide. The anicut +is a substantial mass of stone, bedded in lime cement, about +2¼ m. long, 130 ft. broad at the base, and 12 ft. high. The +stream is thus pent back so as to supply a volume of 3000 cubic ft. +of water per second during its low season, and 12,000 cubic ft. +at time of flood. The main canals have a total length of 493 m., +irrigating 662,000 acres, and all navigable; and there are 1929 m. +of distributary channels. In 1864 water-communication was +opened between the deltas of the Godavari and Kistna. Rocky +barriers and rapids obstruct navigation in the upper portion of +the Godavari. Attempts have been made to construct canals +round these barriers with little success, and the undertaking has +been abandoned.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODAVARI,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a district of British India, in the north-east +of the Madras presidency. It was remodelled in 1907-1908, +when part of it was transferred to Kistna district. Its present +area is 5634 sq. m. Its territory now lies mainly east of +the Godavari river, including the entire delta, with a long +narrow strip extending up its valley. The apex of the delta +is at Dowlaishweram, where a great dam renders the waters +available for irrigation. Between this point and the coast +there is a vast extent of rice fields. Farther inland, and +enclosing the valley of the great river, are low hills, steep and +forest-clad. The north-eastern part, known as the Agency +tract, is occupied by spurs of the Eastern Ghats. The coast is +low, sandy and swampy, the sea very shallow, so that vessels +must lie nearly 5 m. from Cocanada, the chief port. The Sabari +is the principal tributary of the Godavari within the district. +The Godavari often rises in destructive floods. The population +of the present area in 1901 was 1,445,961. In the old district +the increase during the last decade was 11%. The chief towns +are Cocanada and Rajahmundry. The forests are of great value; +coal is known, and graphite is worked. The population is +principally occupied in agriculture, the principal crops being +rice, oil-seeds, tobacco and sugar. The cigars known in England +as Lunkas are partly made from tobacco grown on <i>lankas</i> or +islands in the river Godavari. Sugar (from the juice of the +palmyra palm) and rum are made by European processes at +Samalkot. The administrative headquarters are now at Cocanada, +the chief seaport; but Rajahmundry, at the head of the +delta, is the old capital. A large but decreasing trade is conducted +at Cocanada, rice being shipped to Mauritius and Ceylon, and +cotton and oil-seeds to Europe. Rice-cleaning mills have been +established here and at other places. The district is traversed +by the main line of the East Coast railway, with a branch to +Cocanada; the iron girder bridge of forty-two spans over the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171"></a>171</span> +Godavari river near Rajahmundry was opened in 1900. There +is a government college at Rajahmundry, with a training college +attached, and an aided college at Cocanada.</p> + +<p>The Godavari district formed part of the Andhra division of +Dravida, the north-west portion being subject to the Orissa +kings, and the south-western belonging to the Vengi kingdom. +For centuries it was the battlefield on which various chiefs +fought for independence with varying success till the beginning +of the 16th century, when the whole country may be said to have +passed under Mahommedan power. At the conclusion of the +struggle with the French in the Carnatic, Godavari with the +Northern Circars was conquered by the English, and finally +ceded by imperial <i>sanad</i> in 1765. The district was constituted +in 1859, by the redistribution of the territory comprising the +former districts of Guntur, Rajahmundry and Masulipatam, +into what are now the Kistna and Godavari districts.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Morris, <i>District Manual</i> (1878); <i>District Gazetteer</i> (1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODEFROY<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Gothofredus</span>), a French noble family, which +numbered among its members several distinguished jurists and +historians. The family claimed descent from Symon Godefroy, +who was born at Mons about 1320 and was lord of Sapigneulx +near Berry-au-bac, now in the department of Aisne.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Denis Godefroy</span> (Dionysius Gothofredus) (1549-1622), +jurist, son of Léon Godefroy, lord of Guignecourt, was born in +Paris on the 17th of October 1549. He was educated at the +Collège de Navarre, and studied law at Louvain, Cologne and +Heidelberg, returning to Paris in 1573. He embraced the +reformed religion, and in 1579 left Paris, where his abilities and +connexions promised a brilliant career, to establish himself at +Geneva. He became professor of law there, received the freedom +of the city in 1580; and in 1587 became a member of the Council +of the Two Hundred. Henry IV. induced him to return to France +by making him <i>grand bailli</i> of Gex, but no sooner had he installed +himself than the town was sacked and his library burnt by the +troops of the duke of Savoy. In 1591 he became professor of +Roman law at Strassburg, where he remained until April 1600, +when in response to an invitation from Frederick IV., elector +palatine, he removed to Heidelberg. The difficulties of his +position led to his return to Strassburg for a short time, but in +November 1604 he definitely settled at Heidelberg. He was +made head of the faculty of law in the university, and was from +time to time employed on missions to the French court. His +repeated refusal of offers of advancement in his own country +was due to his Calvinism. He died at Strassburg on the 7th of +September 1622, having left Heidelberg before the city was +sacked by the imperial troops in 1621. His most important work +was the <i>Corpus juris civilis</i>, originally published at Geneva in +1583, which went through some twenty editions, the most +valuable of them being that printed by the Elzevirs at Amsterdam +in 1633 and the Leipzig edition of 1740.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Lists of his other learned works may be found in Senebier’s <i>Hist. +litt. de Genève</i>, vol. ii., and in Nicéron’s <i>Mémoires</i>, vol. xvii. Some of +his correspondence with his learned friends, with his kinsman +President de Thou, Isaac Casaubon, Jean Jacques Grynaeus and +others, is preserved in the libraries of the British Museum, of Basel +and Paris.</p> +</div> + +<p>His eldest son, <span class="sc">Theodore Godefroy</span> (1580-1649), was born +at Geneva on the 14th of July 1580. He abjured Calvinism, +and was called to the bar in Paris. He became historiographer +of France in 1613, and was employed from time to time on +diplomatic missions. He was employed at the congress of +Münster, where he remained after the signing of peace in 1648 +as chargé d’affaires until his death on the 5th of October of the +next year. His most important work is <i>Le Cérémonial de France ...</i> (1619), +a work which became a classic on the subject of +royal ceremonial, and was re-edited by his son in an enlarged +edition in 1649.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides his printed works he made vast collections of historical +material which remains in MS. and fills the greater part of the +Godefroy collection of over five hundred portfolios in the Library +of the Institute in Paris. These were catalogued by Ludovic +Lalanne in the <i>Annuaire Bulletin</i> (1865-1866 and 1892) of the +<i>Société de l’histoire de France</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>The second son of Denis, <span class="sc">Jacques Godefroy</span> (1587-1652), +jurist, was born at Geneva on the 13th of September 1587. He +was sent to France in 1611, and studied law and history at +Bourges and Paris. He remained faithful to the Calvinist +persuasion, and soon returned to Geneva, where he became active +in public affairs. He was secretary of state from 1632 to 1636, +and syndic or chief magistrate in 1637, 1641, 1645 and 1649. +He died on the 23rd of June 1652. In addition to his civic and +political work he lectured on law, and produced, after thirty +years of labour, his edition of the <i>Codex Theodosianus</i>. This +code formed the principal, though not the only, source of the +legal systems of the countries formed from the Western Empire. +Godefroy’s edition was enriched with a multitude of important +notes and historical comments, and became a standard authority +on the decadent period of the Western Empire. It was only +printed thirteen years after his death under the care of his +friend Antoine Marville at Lyons (4 vols. 1665), and was reprinted +at Leipzig (6 vols.) in 1736-1745. Of his numerous other works +the most important was the reconstruction of the twelve tables +of early Roman law.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also the dictionary of Moreri, Nicéron’s <i>Mémoires</i> (vol. 17) +and a notice in the <i>Bibliothèque universelle de Genève</i> (Dec. 1837).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Denis Godefroy</span> (1615-1681), eldest son of Théodore, +succeeded his father as historiographer of France, and re-edited +various chronicles which had been published by him. He was +entrusted by Colbert with the care and investigation of the +records concerning the Low Countries preserved at Lille, where +great part of his life was spent. He was also the historian of +the reigns of Charles VII. and Charles VIII.</p> + +<p>Other members of the family who attained distinction in the +same branch of learning were the two sons of Denis <span class="correction" title="amended from Godefroi">Godefroy</span>—Denis +(1653-1719), also an historian, and Jean, sieur d’Aumont +(1656-1732), who edited the letters of Louis XII., the memoirs +of Marguerite de Valois, of Castelnau and Pierre de l’Estoile, +and left some useful material for the history of the Low Countries; +Jean Baptiste Achille Godefroy, sieur de Maillart (1697-1759), +and Denis Joseph Godefroy, sieur de Maillart (1740-1819), son +and grandson of Jean Godefroy, who were both officials at +Lille, and left valuable historical documents which have remained +in MS.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further details see <i>Les Savants Godefroy</i> (Paris, 1873) by the +marquis de Godefroy-Ménilglaise, son of Denis Joseph Godefroy.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODESBERG,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> a spa of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, +on the left bank of the Rhine, almost opposite Königswinter, +and 4 m. S. of Bonn, on the railway to Coblenz. It is a fashionable +summer resort, and contains numerous pretty villas, the +residences of merchants from Cologne, Elberfeld, Crefeld and +other Rhenish manufacturing centres. It has an Evangelical +and three Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue and several +educational establishments. Its chalybeate springs annually +attract a large number of visitors, and the pump-room, baths +and public grounds are arranged on a sumptuous scale. On a +conical basalt hill, close by, are the ruins, surmounted by a +picturesque round tower, of Godesberg castle. Built by Archbishop +Dietrich I. of Cologne in the 13th century, it was destroyed +by the Bavarians in 1583.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Dennert, <i>Godesberg, eine Perle des Rheins</i> (Godesberg, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODET, FRÉDÉRIC LOUIS<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1812-1900), Swiss Protestant +theologian, was born at Neuchâtel on the 25th of October 1812. +After studying theology at Neuchâtel, Bonn and Berlin, he was +in 1850 appointed professor of theology at Neuchâtel. From +1851 to 1866 he also held a pastorate. In 1873 he became one +of the founders of the free Evangelical Church of Neuchâtel, and +professor in its theological faculty. He died there on the 29th of +October 1900. A conservative scholar, Godet was the author +of some of the most noteworthy French commentaries published +in recent times.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His commentaries are on the Gospel of St John (2 vols., 1863-1865; +3rd ed., 1881-1888; Eng. trans. 1886, &c.); St Luke (2 vols., 1871; +3rd ed., 1888; Eng. trans. 1875, &c.); the Epistle to the Romans (2 +vols., 1879-1880; 2nd ed., 1883-1890; Eng. trans., 1880, &c.); +Corinthians (2 vols., 1886-1887; Eng. trans. 1886, &c.). His other +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>172</span> +works include <i>Études bibliques</i> (2 vols., 1873-1874; 4th ed., 1889; +Eng. trans. 1875 f.), and <i>Introduction au Nouveau Testament</i> (1893 f.; +Eng. trans., 1894, &c.); <i>Lectures in Defence of the Christian Faith</i> +(Eng. trans. 4th ed., 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODFREY, SIR EDMUND BERRY<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1621-1678), English +magistrate and politician, younger son of Thomas Godfrey +(1586-1664), a member of an old Kentish family, was born on +the 23rd of December 1621. He was educated at Westminster +school and at Christ Church, Oxford, and after entering Gray’s +Inn became a dealer in wood. His business prospered. He was +made a justice of the peace for the city of Westminster, and in +September 1666 was knighted as a reward for his services as +magistrate and citizen during the great plague in London; but +in 1669 he was imprisoned for a few days for instituting the +arrest of the king’s physician, Sir Alexander Fraizer (d. 1681), +who owed him money. The tragic events in Godfrey’s life began +in September 1678 when Titus Oates and two other men appeared +before him with written information about the <i>Popish Plot</i>, and +swore to the truth of their statements. During the intense +excitement which followed the magistrate expressed a fear that +his life was in danger, but took no extra precautions for safety. +On the 12th of October he did not return home as usual, and on +the 17th his body was found on Primrose Hill, Hampstead. +Medical and other evidence made it certain that he had been +murdered, and the excited populace regarded the deed as the +work of the Roman Catholics. Two committees investigated +the occurrence without definite result, but in December 1678 +a certain Miles Prance, who had been arrested for conspiracy, +confessed that he had shared in the murder. According to +Prance the deed was instigated by some Roman Catholic priests, +three of whom witnessed the murder, and was committed in the +courtyard of Somerset House, where Godfrey was strangled by +Robert Green, Lawrence Hill and Henry Berry, the body being +afterwards taken to Hampstead. The three men were promptly +arrested; the evidence of the informer William Bedloe, although +contradictory, was similar on a few points to that of Prance, and +in February 1679 they were hanged. Soon afterwards, however, +some doubt was cast upon this story; a war of words ensued +between Prance and others, and it was freely asserted that +Godfrey had committed suicide. Later the falsehood of Prance’s +confession was proved and Prance pleaded guilty to perjury; +but the fact remains that Godfrey was murdered. Godfrey +was an excellent magistrate, and was very charitable both in +public and in private life. Mr John Pollock, in the <i>Popish Plot</i> +(London, 1903), confirms the view that the three men, Green, +Hill and Berry, were wrongfully executed, and thinks the +murder was committed by some Jesuits aided by Prance. +Godfrey was feared by the Jesuits because he knew, through +Oates, that on the 24th of April 1678 a Jesuit congregation had +met at the residence of the duke of York to concert plans for the +king’s murder. He concludes thus: “The success of Godfrey’s +murder as a political move is indubitable. The duke of York +was the pivot of the Roman Catholic scheme in England, and +Godfrey’s death saved both from utter ruin.” On the other hand +Mr Alfred Marks in his <i>Who killed Sir E. B. Godfrey?</i> (1905) +maintains that suicide was the cause of Godfrey’s death.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oates, Titus</a></span>, also R. Tuke, <i>Memoirs of the Life +and Death of Sir Edmondbury Godfrey</i> (London, 1682); and G. +Burnet, <i>History of my Own Time; The Reign of Charles II.</i>, edited by +O. Airy (Oxford, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODFREY OF BOUILLON<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1060-1100), a leader in the First +Crusade, was the second son of Eustace II., count of Boulogne, +by his marriage with Ida, daughter of Duke Godfrey II. of +Lower Lorraine. He was designated by Duke Godfrey as his +successor; but the emperor Henry IV. gave him only the mark +of Antwerp, in which the lordship of Bouillon was included +(1076). He fought for Henry, however, both on the Elster and +in the siege of Rome; and he was invested in 1082 with the duchy +of Lower Lorraine. Lorraine had been penetrated by Cluniac +influences, and Godfrey would seem to have been a man of +notable piety. Accordingly, though he had himself served as +an imperialist, and though the Germans in general had little +sympathy with the Crusaders (<i>subsannabant ... quasi delirantes</i>), +Godfrey, nevertheless, when the call came “to follow Christ,” +almost literally sold all that he had, and followed. Along with +his brothers Eustace and Baldwin (the future Baldwin I. of +Jerusalem) he led a German contingent, some 40,000 strong, +along “Charlemagne’s road,” through Hungary to Constantinople, +starting in August 1096, and arriving at Constantinople, after +some difficulties in Hungary, in November. He was the first +of the crusading princes to arrive, and on him fell the duty of +deciding what the relations of the princes to the eastern emperor +Alexius were to be. Eventually, after several disputes and +some fighting, he did homage to Alexius in January 1097; and +his example was followed by the other princes. From this time +until the beginning of 1099 Godfrey appears as one of the +minor princes, plodding onwards, and steadily fighting, while +men like Bohemund and Raymund, Baldwin and Tancred were +determining the course of events.</p> + +<p>In 1099 he came once more to the front. The mass of the +crusaders became weary of the political factions which divided +some of their leaders; and Godfrey, who was more of a pilgrim +than a politician, becomes the natural representative of this +feeling. He was thus able to force the reluctant Raymund to +march southward to Jerusalem; and he took a prominent +part in the siege, his division being the first to enter when the +city was captured. It was natural therefore that, when Raymund +of Provence refused the offered dignity, Godfrey should be elected +ruler of Jerusalem (July 22, 1099). He assumed the title not of +king, but of “advocate”<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of the Holy Sepulchre. The new +dignity proved still more onerous than honourable; and during +his short reign of a year Godfrey had to combat the Arabs of +Egypt, and the opposition of Raymund and the patriarch +Dagobert. He was successful In repelling the Egyptian attack +at the battle of Ascalon (August 1099); but he failed, owing to +Raymund’s obstinacy and greed, to acquire the town of Ascalon +after the battle. Left alone, at the end of the autumn, with an +army of some 2000 men, Godfrey was yet able, in the spring of +1100, probably with the aid of new pilgrims, to exact tribute +from towns like Acre, Ascalon, Arsuf and Caesarea. But already, +at the end of 1099 Dagobert, archbishop of Pisa, had been +substituted as patriarch for Arnulf (who had been acting as vicar) +by the influence of Bohemund; and Dagobert, whose vassal +Godfrey had at once piously acknowledged himself, seems to +have forced him to an agreement in April 1100, by which he +promised Jerusalem and Jaffa to the patriarch, in case he should +acquire in their place Cairo or some other town, or should die +without issue. Thus were the foundations of a theocracy laid +in Jerusalem; and when Godfrey died (July 1100) he left the +question to be decided, whether a theocracy or a monarchy +should be the government of the Holy Land.</p> + +<p>Because he had been the first ruler in Jerusalem Godfrey +was idolized in later saga. He was depicted as the leader of +the crusades, the king of Jerusalem, the legislator who laid +down the assizes of Jerusalem. He was none of these things. +Bohemund was the leader of the crusades; Baldwin was first +king; the assizes were the result of a gradual development. +In still other ways was the figure of Godfrey idealized by the +grateful tradition of later days; but in reality he would seem to +have been a quiet, pious, hard-fighting knight, who was chosen +to rule in Jerusalem because he had no dangerous qualities, +and no obvious defects.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—The narrative of Albert of Aix may be regarded +as presenting the Lotharingian point of view, as the <i>Gesta</i> presents +the Norman, and Raymund of Agiles the Provençal. The career +of Godfrey has been discussed in modern times by R. Röhricht, +<i>Die Deutschen im heiligen Lande</i>, Band ii., and <i>Geschichte des ersten +Kreuzzuges, passim</i> (Innsbruck, 1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Br.)</div> + +<p><i>Romances.</i>—Godfrey was the principal hero of two French +<i>chansons de geste</i> dealing with the Crusade, the <i>Chanson d’Antioche</i> +(ed. P. Paris, 2 vols., 1848) and the <i>Chanson de Jérusalem</i> (ed. +C. Hippeau, 1868), and other poems, containing less historical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id="page173"></a>173</span> +material, were subsequently added. In addition the parentage +and early exploits of Godfrey were made the subject of legend. +His grandfather was said to be Helias, knight of the Swan, one +of the brothers whose adventures are well known, though with +some variation, in the familiar fairy tale of “The Seven Swans.” +Helias, drawn by the swan, one day disembarked at Nijmwegen, +and reconquered her territory for the duchess of Bouillon. +Marrying her daughter he exacted a promise that his wife should +not inquire into his origin. The tale, which is almost identical +with the Lohengrin legend, belongs to the class of the Cupid and +Psyche narratives. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lohengrin</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also C. Hippeau, <i>Le Chevalier au cygne</i> (Paris, 2 vols., 1874-1877); +H. Pigeonneau, <i>Le Cycle de la croisade et de la famille de +Bouillon</i> (1877); W. Golther, “Lohengrin,” in <i>Roman. Forsch.</i> (vol. v., +1889); <i>Hist. litt. de la France</i>, vol. xxii. pp. 350-402; the English +romance of <i>Helyas, Knyghte of the Swanne</i> was printed by W. Copland +about 1550.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> An “advocate” was a layman who had been invested with part +of an ecclesiastic estate, on condition that he defended the rest, and +exercised the blood-ban in lieu of the ecclesiastical owner (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Advocate</a></span>, sec. <i>Advocatus ecclesiae</i>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODFREY OF VITERBO<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1120-<i>c.</i> 1196), chronicler, was +probably an Italian by birth, although some authorities assert +that he was a Saxon. He evidently passed some of his early life +at Viterbo, where also he spent his concluding days, but he was +educated at Bamberg, gaining a good knowledge of Latin. +About 1140 he became chaplain to the German king, Conrad III.; +but the greater part of his life was spent as secretary (<i>notarius</i>) +in the service of the emperor Frederick I., who appears to have +thoroughly trusted him, and who employed him on many +diplomatic errands. Incessantly occupied, he visited Sicily, +France and Spain, in addition to many of the German cities, in +the emperor’s interests, and was by his side during several of +the Italian campaigns. Both before and after Frederick’s death +in 1190 he enjoyed the favour of his son, the emperor Henry VI., +for whom he wrote his <i>Speculum regum</i>, a work of very little +value. Godfrey also wrote <i>Memoria seculorum</i>, or <i>Liber memorialis</i>, +a chronicle dedicated to Henry VI., which professes to +record the history of the world from the creation until 1185. +It is written partly in prose and partly in verse. A revision of +this work was drawn up by Godfrey himself as <i>Pantheon</i>, or +<i>Universitatis libri qui chronici appellantur</i>. The author borrowed +from Otto of Freising, but the earlier part of his chronicle is full +of imaginary occurrences. <i>Pantheon</i> was first printed in 1559, +and extracts from it are published by L. A. Muratori in the +<i>Rerum Italicarum scriptores</i>, tome vii. (Milan, 1725). The only +part of Godfrey’s work which is valuable is the <i>Gesta Friderici I.</i>, +verses relating events in the emperor’s career from 1155 to 1180. +Concerned mainly with affairs in Italy, the poem tells of the sieges +of Milan, of Frederick’s flight to Pavia in 1167, of the treaty with +Pope Alexander III. at Venice, and of other stirring episodes +with which the author was intimately acquainted, and many of +which he had witnessed. Attached to the <i>Gesta Friderici</i> is the +<i>Gesta Heinrici VI.</i>, a shorter poem which is often attributed to +Godfrey, although W. Wattenbach and other authorities think +it was not written by him. The <i>Memoria seculorum</i> was very +popular during the middle ages, and has been continued by +several writers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Godfrey’s works are found in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>, +Band xxii. (Hanover, 1872). The <i>Gesta Friderici I. et Heinrici VI.</i> +is published separately with an introduction by G. Waitz (Hanover, +1872). See also H. Ulmann, <i>Gotfried von Viterbo</i> (Göttingen, 1863), +and W. Wattenbach, <i>Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen</i>, Band ii. +(Berlin, 1894).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODHRA,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> a town of British India, administrative headquarters +of the Panch Mahals district of Bombay, and also of +the Rewa Kantha political agency; situated 52 m. N.E. of +Baroda on the railway from Anand to Ratlam. Pop. (1901) +20,915. It has a trade in timber from the neighbouring forests.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODIN, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRÉ<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1817-1888), French +socialist, was born on the 26th of January 1817 at Esquehéries +(Aisne). The son of an artisan, he entered an iron-works at an +early age, and at seventeen made a tour of France as journeyman. +Returning to Esquehéries in 1837, he started a small factory for +the manufacture of castings for heating-stoves. The business +increased rapidly, and for the purpose of railway facilities was +transferred to Guise in 1846. At the time of Godin’s death in +1888 the annual output was over four millions of francs (£160,000), +and in 1908 the employees numbered over 2000 and the output +was over £280,000. An ardent disciple of Fourier, he advanced +a considerable sum of money towards the disastrous Fourierist +experiment of V. P. Considérant (<i>q.v.</i>) in Texas. He profited, +however, by its failure, and in 1859 started the <i>familistère</i> or +community settlement of Guise on more carefully laid plans. +It comprises, in addition to the workshops, three large buildings, +four storeys high, capable of housing all the work-people, each +family having two or three rooms. Attached to each building +is a vast central court, covered with a glass roof, under which the +children can play in all weathers. There are also crèches, +nurseries, hospital, refreshment rooms and recreation rooms of +various kinds, stores for the purchase of groceries, drapery and +every necessity, and a large theatre for concerts and dramatic +entertainments. In 1880 the whole was turned into a co-operative +society, with provision by which it eventually became the +property of the workers. In 1871 Godin was elected deputy for +Aisne, but retired in 1876 to devote himself to the management +of the <i>familistère</i>. In 1882 he was created a knight of the legion +of honour.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Godin was the author of <i>Solutions sociales</i> (1871); <i>Les Socialistes +et les droits du travail</i> (1874); <i>Mutualité sociale</i> (1880); <i>La République +du travail et la réforme parlementaire</i> (1889). See Bernardot, +<i>Le Familistère de Guise et son fondateur</i> (Paris, 1887); Fischer, +<i>Die Familistère Godin’s</i> (Berlin, 1890); Lestelle, <i>Étude sur le familistère +de Guise</i> (Paris, 1904); D. F. P., <i>Le Familistère illustré, résultats +de vingt ans d’association</i>, 1880-1900 (Eng. trans., <i>Twenty-eight years +of co-partnership at Guise</i>, by A. Williams, 1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODIVA,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> a Saxon lady, who, according to the legend, rode +naked through the streets of Coventry to gain from her husband +a remission of the oppressive toll imposed on his tenants. The +story is that she was the beautiful wife of Leofric, earl of Mercia +and lord of Coventry. The people of that city suffering grievously +under the earl’s oppressive taxation, Lady Godiva appealed +again and again to her husband, who obstinately refused to remit +the tolls. At last, weary of her entreaties, he said he would grant +her request if she would ride naked through the streets of the +town. Lady Godiva took him at his word, and after issuing a +proclamation that all persons should keep within doors or shut +their windows, she rode through, clothed only in her long hair. +One person disobeyed her proclamation, a tailor, ever afterwards +known as Peeping Tom. He bored a hole in his shutters that he +might see Godiva pass, and is said to have been struck blind. +Her husband kept his word and abolished the obnoxious taxes.</p> + +<p>The oldest form of the legend makes Godiva pass through +Coventry market from one end to the other when the people +were assembled, attended only by two soldiers, her long hair +down so that none saw her, “apparentibus cruribus tamen +candidissimis.” This version is given in <i>Flores historiarum</i> by +Roger of Wendover, who quoted from an earlier writer. The +later story, with its episode of Peeping Tom, has been evolved +by later chroniclers. Whether the lady Godiva of this story is +the Godiva or Godgifu of history is undecided. That a lady of +this name existed in the early part of the 11th century is certain, +as evidenced by several ancient documents, such as the Stow +charter, the Spalding charter and the Domesday survey, though +the spelling of the name varies considerably. It would appear +from <i>Liber Eliensis</i> (end of 12th century) that she was a widow +when Leofric married her in 1040. In or about that year she +aided in the founding of a monastery at Stow, Lincolnshire. +In 1043 she persuaded her husband to build and endow a Benedictine +monastery at Coventry. Her mark, “<img style="width:16px; height:16px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img173.jpg" alt="" /> Ego Godiva +Comitissa diu istud desideravi,” was found on the charter given +by her brother, Thorold of Bucknall—sheriff of Lincolnshire—to +the Benedictine monastery of Spalding in 1051; and she is +commemorated as benefactress of other monasteries at Leominster, +Chester, Wenlock, Worcester and Evesham. She +probably died a few years before the Domesday survey (1085-1086), +and was buried in one of the porches of the abbey church. +Dugdale (1656) says that a window, with representations of +Leofric and Godiva, was placed in Trinity Church, Coventry, +about the time of Richard II. The Godiva procession, a commemoration +of the legendary ride instituted on the 31st of May +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page174" id="page174"></a>174</span> +1678 as part of Coventry fair, was celebrated at intervals until +1826. From 1848 to 1887 it was revived, and recently further +attempts have been made to popularize the pageant. The +wooden effigy of Peeping Tom which, since 1812, has looked +out on the world from a house at the north-west corner of +Hertford Street, Coventry, represents a man in armour, and +was probably an image of St George. It was removed from +another part of the town to its present position.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1831-1902), American +publicist, was born in Moyne, county Wicklow, Ireland, on the +2nd of October 1831. His father, James Godkin, was a Presbyterian +minister and a journalist, and the son, after graduating +in 1851 at Queen’s College, Belfast, and studying law in London, +was in 1853-1855 war correspondent for the London <i>Daily News</i> +in Turkey and Russia, being present at the capture of Sevastopol, +and late in 1856 went to America and wrote letters to the same +journal, giving his impressions of a tour of the southern states of +the American Union. He studied law in New York City, was +admitted to the bar in 1859, travelled in Europe in 1860-1862, +wrote for the London <i>News</i> and the New York <i>Times</i> in 1862-1865, +and in 1865 founded in New York City the <i>Nation</i>, a +weekly projected by him long before, for which Charles Eliot +Norton gained friends in Boston and James Miller McKim (1810-1874) +in Philadelphia, and which Godkin edited until the end of +the year 1899. In 1881 he sold the <i>Nation</i> to the New York +<i>Evening Post</i>, and became an associate editor of the <i>Post</i>, of +which he was editor-in-chief in 1883-1899, succeeding Carl +Schurz. In the ’eighties he engaged in a controversy with +Goldwin Smith over the Irish question. Under his leadership the +<i>Post</i> broke with the Republican party in the presidential campaign +of 1884, when Godkin’s opposition to Blaine did much to +create the so-called Mugwump party (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mugwump</a></span>), and his +organ became thoroughly independent, as was seen when it +attacked the Venezuelan policy of President Cleveland, who had +in so many ways approximated the ideal of the <i>Post</i> and <i>Nation</i>. +He consistently advocated currency reform, the gold basis, a tariff +for revenue only, and civil service reform, rendering the greatest +aid to the last cause. His attacks on Tammany Hall were +so frequent and so virulent that in 1894 he was sued for libel +because of biographical sketches of certain leaders in that +organization—cases which never came up for trial. His opposition +to the war with Spain and to imperialism was able and +forcible. He retired from his editorial duties on the 30th of +December 1899, and sketched his career in the <i>Evening Post</i> +of that date. Although he recovered from a severe apoplectic +stroke early in 1900, his health was shattered, and he died in +Greenway, Devonshire, England, on the 21st of May 1902. +Godkin shaped the lofty and independent policy of the <i>Post</i> +and the <i>Nation</i>, which had a small but influential and intellectual +class of readers. But as editor he had none of the personal +magnetism of Greeley, for instance, and his superiority to the +influence of popular feeling made Charles Dudley Warner style +the Nation the “weekly judgment day.” He was an economist +of the school of Mill, urged the necessity of the abstraction +called “economic man,” and insisted that socialism put in +practice would not improve social and economic conditions +in general. In politics he was an enemy of sentimentalism and +loose theories in government. He published <i>A History of +Hungary, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 300-1850</i> (1856), <i>Government</i> (1871, in the +American Science Series), <i>Reflections and Comments</i> (1895), +<i>Problems of Modern Democracy</i> (1896) and <i>Unforeseen Tendencies +of Democracy</i> (1898).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life and Letters of E. L. Godkin</i>, edited by Rollo Ogden (2 vols., +New York, 1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODMANCHESTER,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> a municipal borough in the southern, +parliamentary division of Huntingdonshire, England, on the +right bank of the Ouse, 1 m. S.S.E. of Huntingdon, on a branch +of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2017. It has a +beautiful Perpendicular church (St Mary’s) and an agricultural +trade, with flour mills. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 +aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 4907 acres.</p> + +<p>A Romano-British village occupied the site of Godmanchester. +The town (<i>Gumencestre, Gomecestre</i>) belonged to the king before +the Conquest and at the time of the Domesday survey. In 1213 +King John granted the manor to the men of the town at a fee-farm +of £120 yearly, and confirmation charters were granted +by several succeeding kings, Richard II. in 1391-1392 adding +exemption from toll, pannage, &c. James I. granted an incorporation +charter in 1605 under the title of bailiffs, assistants +and commonalty, but under the Municipal Reform Act of 1835 +the corporation was changed to a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 +councillors. Godmanchester was formerly included for parliamentary +purposes in the borough of Huntingdon, which has +ceased to be separately represented since 1885. The incorporation +charter of 1605 recites that the burgesses are chiefly engaged +in agriculture, and grants them a fair, which still continues +every year on Tuesday in Easter week.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Huntingdon</i>; Robert Fox, <i>The +History of Godmanchester</i> (1831).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÖDÖLLÖ<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span>, a market town of Hungary, in the county of Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kiskun, +23 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) +5875. Gödöllö is the summer residence of the Hungarian royal +family, and the royal castle, built in the second half of the 18th +century by Prince Anton Grassalkovich, was, with the beautiful +domain, presented by the Hungarian nation to King Francis +Joseph I. after the coronation in 1867. In its park there are a +great number of stags and wild boars. Gödöllö is a favourite +summer resort of the inhabitants of Budapest. In its vicinity +is the famous place of pilgrimage Mária-Besnyö, with a fine +Franciscan monastery, which contains the tombs of the Grassalkovich +family.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODOLPHIN, SIDNEY GODOLPHIN<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Earl of</span> (<i>c.</i> 1645-1712), +was a cadet of an ancient family of Cornwall. At the +Restoration he was introduced into the royal household by +Charles II., with whom he had previously become a favourite, +and he also at the same period entered the House of Commons as +member for Helston. Although he very seldom addressed the +House, and, when he did so, only in the briefest manner, he +gradually acquired a reputation as its chief if not its only financial +authority. In March 1679 he was appointed a member of the +privy council, and in the September following he was promoted, +along with Viscount Hyde (afterwards earl of Rochester) and +the earl of Sunderland, to the chief management of affairs. +Though he voted for the Exclusion Bill in 1680, he was continued +in office after the dismissal of Sunderland, and in September +1684 he was created Baron Godolphin of Rialton, and succeeded +Rochester as first lord of the treasury. After the accession of +James II. he was made chamberlain to the queen, and, along +with Rochester and Sunderland, enjoyed the king’s special +confidence. In 1687 he was named commissioner of the treasury. +He was one of the council of five appointed by King James to +represent him in London, when he went to join the army after +the landing of William, prince of Orange, in England, and, along +with Halifax and Nottingham, he was afterwards appointed a +commissioner to treat with the prince. On the accession of +William, though he only obtained the third seat at the treasury +board, he had virtually the chief control of affairs. He retired +in March 1690, but was recalled on the November following +and appointed first lord. While holding this office he for several +years continued, in conjunction with Marlborough, a treacherous +intercourse with James II., and is said even to have anticipated +Marlborough in disclosing to James intelligence regarding the +intended expedition against Brest. Godolphin was not only a +Tory by inheritance, but had a romantic admiration for the wife +of James II. He also wished to be safe whatever happened, +and his treachery in this case was mostly due to caution. After +Fenwick’s confession in 1696 regarding the attempted assassination +of William III., Godolphin, who was compromised, was induced +to tender his resignation; but when the Tories came into +power in 1700, he was again appointed lord treasurer and +retained office for about a year. Though not a favourite with +Queen Anne, he was, after her accession, appointed to his old +office, on the strong recommendation of Marlborough. He also +in 1704 received the honour of knighthood, and in December +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" id="page175"></a>175</span> +1706 he was created Viscount Rialton and earl of Godolphin. +Though a Tory he had an active share in the intrigues which +gradually led to the predominance of the Whigs in alliance +with Marlborough. The influence of the Marlboroughs with the +queen was, however, gradually supplanted by that of Mrs +Masham and Harley, earl of Oxford, and with the fortunes of +the Marlboroughs those of Godolphin were indissolubly united. +The services of both were so appreciated by the nation that +they were able for a time to regard the loss of the queen’s favour +with indifference, and even in 1708 to procure the expulsion of +Harley from office; but after the Tory reaction which followed +the impeachment of Dr Sacheverel, who abused Godolphin under +the name of Volpone, the queen made use of the opportunity +to take the initiatory step towards delivering herself from +the irksome thraldom of Marlborough by abruptly dismissing +Godolphin from office on the 7th of August 1710. He died on +the 15th of September 1712.</p> + +<p>Godolphin owed his rise to power and his continuance in it +under four sovereigns chiefly to his exceptional mastery of financial +matters; for if latterly he was in some degree indebted for his +promotion to the support of Marlborough, he received that +support mainly because Marlborough recognized that for the +prosecution of England’s foreign wars his financial abilities were +an indispensable necessity. He was cool, reserved and cautious, +but his prudence was less associated with high sagacity than +traceable to the weakness of his personal antipathies and prejudices, +and his freedom from political predilections. Perhaps +it was his unlikeness to Marlborough in that moral characteristic +which so tainted Marlborough’s greatness that rendered possible +between them a friendship so intimate and undisturbed: he +was, it would appear, exceptionally devoid of the passion of +avarice; and so little advantage did he take of his opportunities +of aggrandizement that, though his style of living was unostentatious,—and +in connexion with his favourite pastimes +of horse-racing, card-playing and cock-fighting he gained +perhaps more than he lost,—all that he left behind him did not, +according to the duchess of Marlborough, amount to more than +£12,000.</p> + +<p>Godolphin married Margaret Blagge, the pious lady whose +life was written by Evelyn, on the 16th of May 1675, and married +again after her death in 1678. His son and successor, Francis +(1678-1766), held various offices at court, and was lord privy +seal from 1735 to 1740. He married Henrietta Churchill (d. +1733), daughter of the duke of Marlborough, who in 1722 became +in her own right duchess of Marlborough. He died without male +issue in January 1766, when the earldom became extinct, and +the estates passed to Thomas Osborne, 4th duke of Leeds, the +husband of the earl’s daughter Mary, whose descendant is the +present representative of the Godolphins.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A life of Godolphin was published in 1888 in London by the Hon. +H. Elliot.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODOY, ALVAREZ DE FARIA, RIOS SANCHEZ Y ZARZOSA, +MANUEL DE<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1767-1851), duke of El Alcudia and prince of the +Peace, Spanish royal favourite and minister, was born at Badajoz +on the 12th of May 1767. His father, Don José de Godoy, was +the head of a very ancient but impoverished family of nobles +in Estremadura. His mother, whose maiden name was Maria +Antonia Alvarez de Faria, belonged to a Portuguese noble family. +Manuel boasts in his memoirs that he had the best masters, but +it is certain that he received only the very slight education +usually given at that time to the sons of provincial nobles. +In 1784 he entered the Guardia de Corps, a body of gentlemen +who acted as the immediate body-guard of the king. His well-built +and stalwart person, his handsome foolish face, together +with a certain geniality of character which he must have +possessed, earned him the favour of Maria Luisa of Parma, the +princess of Asturias, a coarse, passionate woman who was much +neglected by her husband, who on his part cared for nothing but +hunting.</p> + +<p>When King Charles III. died in 1788, Godoy’s fortune was +soon made. The princess of Asturias, now queen, understood +how to manage her husband Charles IV. Godoy says in his +memoirs that the king, who had been carefully kept apart from +affairs during his father’s life, and who disliked his father’s +favourite minister Floridablanca, wished to have a creature of +his own. This statement is no doubt true as far as it goes. But +it requires to be completed by the further detail that the queen +put her lover in her husband’s way, and that the king was guided +by them, when he thought he was ruling for himself through +a subservient minister. In some respects King Charles was +obstinate, and Godoy is probably right in saying that he never +was an absolute “viceroy,” and that he could not always secure +the removal of colleagues whom he knew to be his enemies. +He could only rule by obeying. Godoy adopted without scruple +this method of pushing his fortunes. When the king was set on a +particular course, he followed it; the execution was left to him +and the queen. His pliability endeared him to his master, +whose lasting affection he earned. In practice he commonly +succeeded in inspiring the wishes which he then proceeded to +gratify. From the very beginning of the new reign he was +promoted in the army with scandalous rapidity, made duke of +El Alcudia, and in 1792 minister under the premiership of +Aranda, whom he succeeded in displacing by the close of the +year.</p> + +<p>His official life is fairly divided by himself into three periods. +From 1792 to 1798 he was premier. In the latter year his unpopularity +and the intrigues of the French government, which +had taken a dislike to him, led to his temporary retirement, +without, however, any diminution of the king’s personal favour. +He asserts that he had no wish to return to office, but letters +sent by him to the queen show that he begged for employment. +They are written in a very unpleasant mixture of gush and +vulgar familiarity. In 1801 he returned to office, and until +1807 he was the executant of the disastrous policy of the court. +The third period of his public life is the last year, 1807-1808, +when he was desperately striving for his place between the +aggressive intervention of Napoleon on the one hand, and the +growing hatred of the nation, organized behind, and about, the +prince of Asturias, Ferdinand. On the 17th of March 1808 a +popular outbreak at Aranjuez drove him into hiding. When +driven out by hunger and thirst he was recognized and arrested. +By Ferdinand’s order he was kept in prison, till Napoleon +demanded that he should be sent to Bayonne. Here he rejoined +his master and mistress. He remained with them till Charles IV. +died at Rome in 1819, having survived his queen. The rest of +Godoy’s life was spent in poverty and obscurity. After the +death of Ferdinand VII., in 1833, he returned to Madrid, and +endeavoured to secure the restoration of his property confiscated +in 1808. Part of it was the estate of the Soto de Roma, granted +by the cortes to the duke of Wellington. He failed, and during +his last years lived on a small pension granted him by Louis +Philippe. He died in Paris on the 4th of October 1851.</p> + +<p>As a favourite Godoy is remarkable for the length of his +hold on the affection of his sovereigns, and for its completeness. +Latterly he was supported rather by the husband than by the +wife. He got rid of Aranda by adopting, in order to please the +king, a policy which tended to bring on war with France. When +the war proved disastrous, he made the peace of Basel, and was +created prince of the Peace for his services. Then he helped to +make war with England, and the disasters which followed only +made him dearer to the king. Indeed it became a main object +with Charles IV. to protect “Manuelito” from popular hatred, +and if possible secure him a principality. The queen endured +his infidelities to her, which were flagrant. The king arranged +a marriage for him with Doña Teresa de Bourbon, daughter of the +infante Don Luis by a morganatic marriage, though he was +probably already married to Doña Josefa Tudó, and certainly +continued to live with her. Godoy, in his memoirs, lays claim +to have done much for Spanish agriculture and industry, but +he did little more than issue proclamations and appoint officers. +His intentions may have been good, but the policy of his government +was financially ruinous. In his private life he was not +only profligate and profuse, but childishly ostentatious. The +best that can be said for him is that he was good-natured, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" id="page176"></a>176</span> +did his best to restrain the Inquisition and the purely reactionary +parties.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Godoy’s <i>Memoirs</i> were published in Spanish, +English and French in 1836. A general account of his career will +be found in the <i>Mémoires sur la Révolution d’Espagne</i>, by the Abbé +de Pradt (1816).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODROON,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gadroon</span> (Fr. <i>godron</i>, of unknown etymology), +in architecture, a convex decoration (said to be derived from +raised work on linen) applied in France to varieties of the bead +and reel, in which the bead is often carved with ornament. +In England the term is constantly used by auctioneers to describe +the raised convex decorations under the bowl of stone or terra-cotta +vases. The godroons radiate from the vertical support +of the vase and rise half-way up the bowl.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODWIN, FRANCIS<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1562-1633), English divine, son of +Thomas Godwin, bishop of Bath and Wells, was born at Hannington, +Northamptonshire, in 1562. He was elected student of +Christ Church, Oxford, in 1578, took his bachelor’s degree in +1580, and that of master in 1583. After holding two Somersetshire +livings he was in 1587 appointed subdean of Exeter. In +1590 he accompanied William Camden on an antiquarian tour +through Wales. He was created bachelor of divinity in 1593, and +doctor in 1595. In 1601 he published his <i>Catalogue of the Bishops +of England since the first planting of the Christian Religion in this +Island</i>, a work which procured him in the same year the bishopric +of Llandaff. A second edition appeared in 1615, and in 1616 he +published an edition in Latin with a dedication to King James, +who in the following year conferred upon him the bishopric of +Hereford. The work was republished, with a continuation by +William Richardson, in 1743. In 1616 Godwin published <i>Rerum +Anglicarum, Henrico VIII., Edwardo VI. et Maria regnantibus, +Annales</i>, which was afterwards translated and published by his +son Morgan under the title <i>Annales of England</i> (1630). He is also +the author of a somewhat remarkable story, published posthumously +in 1638, and entitled <i>The Man in the Moone, or a Discourse +of a Voyage thither, by Domingo Gonsales</i>, written apparently +some time between the years 1599 and 1603. In this production +Godwin not only declares himself a believer in the Copernican +system, but adopts so far the principles of the law of gravitation +as to suppose that the earth’s attraction diminishes with the +distance. The work, which displays considerable fancy and wit, +was translated into French, and was imitated in several important +particulars by Cyrano de Bergerac, from whom (if not from +Godwin direct) Swift obtained valuable hints in writing of +Gulliver’s voyage to Laputa. Another work of Godwin’s, <i>Nuncius +inanimatus Utopiae</i>, originally published in 1629 and again in +1657, seems to have been the prototype of John Wilkins’s +<i>Mercury, or the Secret and Swift Messenger</i>, which appeared in +1641. He died, after a lingering illness, in April 1633.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1759-1797), English +miscellaneous writer, was born at Hoxton, on the 27th of April +1759. Her family was of Irish extraction, and Mary’s grandfather, +who was a respectable manufacturer in Spitalfields, +realized the property which his son squandered. Her mother, +Elizabeth Dixon, was Irish, and of good family. Her father, +Edward John Wollstonecraft, after dissipating the greater part of +his patrimony, tried to earn a living by farming, which only +plunged him into deeper difficulties, and he led a wandering, +shifty life. The family roamed from Hoxton to Edmonton, to +Essex, to Beverley in Yorkshire, to Laugharne, Pembrokeshire, +and back to London again.</p> + +<p>After Mrs Wollstonecraft’s death in 1780, soon followed by her +husband’s second marriage, the three daughters, Mary, Everina +and Eliza, sought to earn their own livelihood. The sisters +were all clever women—Mary and Eliza far above the average—but +their opportunities of culture had been few. Mary, +the eldest, went in the first instance to live with her friend +Fanny Blood, a girl of her own age, whose father, like +Wollstonecraft, was addicted to drink and dissipation. As long +as she lived with the Bloods, Mary helped Mrs Blood to earn +money by taking in needlework, while Fanny painted in watercolours. +Everina went to live with her brother Edward, and +Eliza made a hasty and, as it proved, unhappy marriage with a +Mr Bishop. A legal separation was afterwards obtained, and the +sisters, together with Fanny Blood, took a house, first at Islington, +afterwards at Newington Green, and opened a school, which was +carried on with indifferent success for nearly two years. During +their residence at Newington Green, Mary was introduced to Dr +Johnson, who, as Godwin tells us, “treated her with particular +kindness and attention.”</p> + +<p>In 1785 Fanny Blood married Hugh Skeys, a merchant, and went +with him to Lisbon, where she died in childbed after sending for +Mary to nurse her. “The loss of Fanny,” as she said in a letter to +Mrs Skeys’s brother, George Blood, “was sufficient of itself to have +cast a cloud over my brightest days.... I have lost all relish for +pleasure, and life seems a burden almost too heavy to be endured.” +Her first novel, <i>Mary, a Fiction</i> (1788), was intended to commemorate +her friendship with Fanny. After closing the school at +Newington Green, Mary became governess in the family of Lord +Kingsborough, in Ireland. Her pupils were much attached to her, +especially Margaret King, afterwards Lady Mountcashel; and +indeed, Lady Kingsborough gave the reason for dismissing her +after one year’s service that the children loved their governess +better than their mother. Mary now resolved to devote herself +to literary work, and she was encouraged by Johnson, the +publisher in St Paul’s churchyard, for whom she acted as literary +adviser. She also undertook translations, chiefly from the French. +<i>The Elements of Morality</i> (1790) from the German of Salzmann, +illustrated by Blake, an old-fashioned book for children, and +Lavater’s <i>Physiognomy</i> were among her translations. Her +<i>Original Stories from Real Life</i> were published in 1791, and, with +illustrations by Blake, in 1796. In 1792 appeared <i>A Vindication +of the Rights of Woman</i>, the work with which her name is always +associated.</p> + +<p>It is not among the least oddities of this book that it is dedicated +to M. Talleyrand Périgord, late bishop of Autun. Mary Wollstonecraft +still believed him to be sincere, and working in the same +direction as herself. In the dedication she states the “main +argument” of the work, “built on this simple principle that, if +woman be not prepared by education to become the companion +of man, she will stop the progress of knowledge, for truth must +be common to all, or it will be inefficacious with respect to its +influence or general practice.” In carrying out this argument she +used great plainness of speech, and it was this that caused all, or +nearly all, the outcry. For she did not attack the institution of +marriage, nor assail orthodox religion; her book was really a plea +for equality of education, passing into one for state education and +for the joint education of the sexes. It was a protest against the +assumption that woman was only the plaything of man, and she +asserted that intellectual companionship was the chief, as it is +the lasting, happiness of marriage. She thus directly opposed the +teaching of Rousseau, of whom she was in other respects an +ardent disciple.</p> + +<p>Mrs Wollstonecraft, as she now styled herself, desired to watch +the progress of the Revolution in France, and went to Paris in +1792. Godwin, in his memoir of his wife, considers that the +change of residence may have been prompted by the discovery +that she was becoming attached to Henry Fuseli, but there is +little to confirm this surmise; indeed, it was first proposed that +she should go to Paris in company with him and his wife, nor +was there any subsequent breach in their friendship. She remained +in Paris during the Reign of Terror, when communication +with England was difficult or almost impossible. Some time in +the spring or summer of 1793 Captain Gilbert Imlay, an American, +became acquainted with Mary—an acquaintance which ended in +a more intimate connexion. There was no legal ceremony of +marriage, and it is doubtful whether such a marriage would have +been valid at the time; but she passed as Imlay’s wife, and +Imlay himself terms her in a legal document, “Mary Imlay, my +best friend and wife.” In August 1793 Imlay was called to Havre +on business, and was absent for some months, during which +time most of the letters published after her death by Godwin +were written. Towards the end of the year she joined Imlay at +Havre, and there in the spring of 1794 she gave birth to a girl, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page177" id="page177"></a>177</span> +who received the name of Fanny, in memory of the dear friend of +her youth. In this year she published the first volume of a never +completed <i>Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution</i>. +Imlay became involved in a multitude of speculations, and his +affection for Mary and their child was already waning. He left +Mary for some months at Havre. In June 1795, after joining +him in England, Mary left for Norway on business for Imlay. +Her letters from Norway, divested of all personal details, were +afterwards published. She returned to England late in 1795, +and found letters awaiting her from Imlay, intimating his intention +to separate from her, and offering to settle an annuity on her +and her child. For herself she rejected this offer with scorn: +“From you,” she wrote, “I will not receive anything more. I +am not sufficiently humbled to depend on your beneficence.” +They met again, and for a short time lived together, until the +discovery that he was carrying on an intrigue under her own +roof drove her to despair, and she attempted to drown herself +by leaping from Putney bridge, but was rescued by watermen. +Imlay now completely deserted her, although she continued to +bear his name.</p> + +<p>In 1796, when Mary Wollstonecraft was living in London, +supporting herself and her child by working, as before, for Mr +Johnson, she met William Godwin. A friendship sprang up +between them,—a friendship, as he himself says, which “melted +into love.” Godwin states that “ideas which he is now willing +to denominate prejudices made him by no means willing to +conform to the ceremony of marriage”; but these prejudices +were overcome, and they were married at St Pancras church on +the 29th of March 1797. And now Mary had a season of real +calm in her stormy existence. Godwin, for once only in his life, +was stirred by passion, and his admiration for his wife equalled +his affection. But their happiness was of short duration. The +birth of her daughter Mary, afterwards the wife of Percy Bysshe +Shelley, on the 30th of August 1797, proved fatal, and Mrs +Godwin died on the 10th of September following. She was +buried in the churchyard of Old St Pancras, but her remains +were afterwards removed by Sir Percy Shelley to the churchyard +of St Peter’s, Bournemouth.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Her principal published works are as follows:—<i>Thoughts on the +Education of Daughters, ...</i> (1787); <i>The Female Reader</i> (selections) +(1789); <i>Original Stories from Real Life</i> (1791); <i>An Historical and +Moral View of the Origin and Progress of the French Revolution, and +the effects it has produced in Europe</i>, vol. i. (no more published) +(1790); <i>Vindication of the Rights of Woman</i> (1792); <i>Vindication +of the Rights of Man</i> (1793); <i>Mary, a Fiction</i> (1788); <i>Letters written +during a Short Residence in Sweden, Norway and Denmark</i> (1796); +<i>Posthumous Works</i> (4 vols., 1798). It is impossible to trace the many +articles contributed by her to periodical literature.</p> + +<p>A memoir of her life was published by Godwin in 1798. A large +portion of C. Kegan Paul’s work, <i>William Godwin, his Friends and +Contemporaries</i>, was devoted to her, and an edition of the <i>Letters to +Imlay</i> (1879), of which the first edition was published by Godwin, +is prefaced by a somewhat fuller memoir. See also E. Dowden, +<i>The French Revolution and English Literature</i> (1897) pp. 82 et seq.; +E. R. Pennell, <i>Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin</i> (1885), in the Eminent +Women Series; E. R. Clough, <i>A Study of Mary Wollstonecraft and +the Rights of Woman</i> (1898); an edition of her <i>Original Stories</i> (1906), +with William Blake’s illustrations and an introduction by E. V. +Lucas; and the <i>Love Letters of Mary Wollstonecraft to Gilbert Imlay</i> +(1908), with an introduction by Roger Ingpen.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODWIN, WILLIAM,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1756-1836), English political and +miscellaneous writer, son of a Nonconformist minister, was born +on the 3rd of March 1756, at Wisbeach in Cambridgeshire. His +family came on both sides of middle-class people, and it was +probably only as a joke that Godwin, a stern political reformer +and philosophical radical, attempted to trace his pedigree to a +time before the Norman conquest and the great earl Godwine. +Both parents were strict Calvinists. The father died young, and +never inspired love or much regret in his son; but in spite of +wide differences of opinion, tender affection always subsisted +between William Godwin and his mother, until her death at an +advanced age.</p> + +<p>William Godwin was educated for his father’s profession at +Hoxton Academy, where he was under Andrew Kippis the +biographer and Dr Abraham Rees of the <i>Cyclopaedia</i>, and was +at first more Calvinistic than his teachers, becoming a Sandemanian, +or follower of John Glas (<i>q.v.</i>), whom he describes as +“a celebrated north-country apostle who, after Calvin had +damned ninety-nine in a hundred of mankind, has contrived a +scheme for damning ninety-nine in a hundred of the followers +of Calvin.” He then acted as a minister at Ware, Stowmarket +and Beaconsfield. At Stowmarket the teachings of the French +philosophers were brought before him by a friend, Joseph Fawcet, +who held strong republican opinions. He came to London in +1782, still nominally a minister, to regenerate society with his +pen—a real enthusiast, who shrank theoretically from no conclusions +from the premises which he laid down. He adopted +the principles of the Encyclopaedists, and his own aim was the +complete overthrow of all existing institutions, political, social +and religious. He believed, however, that calm discussion was +the only thing needful to carry every change, and from the +beginning to the end of his career he deprecated every approach +to violence. He was a philosophic radical in the strictest sense +of the term.</p> + +<p>His first published work was an anonymous <i>Life of Lord +Chatham</i> (1783). Under the inappropriate title <i>Sketches of +History</i> (1784) he published under his own name six sermons +on the characters of Aaron, Hazael and Jesus, in which, though +writing in the character of an orthodox Calvinist, he enunciates +the proposition “God Himself has no right to be a tyrant.” +Introduced by Andrew Kippis, he began to write in 1785 for the +<i>Annual Register</i> and other periodicals, producing also three +novels now forgotten. The “Sketches of English History” +written for the <i>Annual Register</i> from 1785 onward still deserve +study. He joined a club called the “Revolutionists,” and +associated much with Lord Stanhope, Horne Tooke and Holcroft. +His clerical character was now completely dropped.</p> + +<p>In 1793 Godwin published his great work on political science, +<i>The Inquiry concerning Political Justice, and its Influence on +General Virtue and Happiness</i>. Although this work is little +known and less read now, it marks a phase in English thought. +Godwin could never have been himself a worker on the active +stage of life. But he was none the less a power behind the +workers, and for its political effect, <i>Political Justice</i> takes its +place with Milton’s <i>Areopagitica</i>, with Locke’s <i>Essay on Education</i> +and with Rousseau’s <i>Émile</i>. By the words “political +justice” the author meant “the adoption of any principle of +morality and truth into the practice of a community,” and the +work was therefore an inquiry into the principles of society, of +government and of morals. For many years Godwin had been +“satisfied that monarchy was a species of government unavoidably +corrupt,” and from desiring a government of the simplest +construction, he gradually came to consider that “government +by its very nature counteracts the improvement of original +mind.” Believing in the perfectibility of the race, that there are +no innate principles, and therefore no original propensity to evil, +he considered that “our virtues and our vices may be traced +to the incidents which make the history of our lives, and if these +incidents could be divested of every improper tendency, vice +would be extirpated from the world.” All control of man by man +was more or less intolerable, and the day would come when each +man, doing what seems right in his own eyes, would also be +doing what is in fact best for the community, because all will be +guided by principles of pure reason. But all was to be done by +discussion, and matured change resulting from discussion. +Hence, while Godwin thoroughly approved of the philosophic +schemes of the precursors of the Revolution, he was as far +removed as Burke himself from agreeing with the way in which +they were carried out. So logical and uncompromising a thinker +as Godwin could not go far in the discussion of abstract questions +without exciting the most lively opposition in matters of detailed +opinion. An affectionate son, and ever ready to give of his +hard-earned income to more than one ne’er-do-well brother, he +maintained that natural relationship had no claim on man, nor +was gratitude to parents or benefactors any part of justice or +virtue. In a day when the penal code was still extremely severe, +he argued gravely against all punishments, not only that of +death. Property was to belong to him who most wanted it; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id="page178"></a>178</span> +accumulated property was a monstrous injustice. Hence +marriage, which is law, is the worst of all laws, and as property +the worst of all properties. A man so passionless as Godwin +could venture thus to argue without suspicion that he did so only +to gratify his wayward desires. Portions of this treatise, and +only portions, found ready acceptance in those minds which were +prepared to receive them. Perhaps no one received the whole +teaching of the book. But it gave cohesion and voice to philosophic +radicalism; it was the manifesto of a school without +which liberalism of the present day had not been. Godwin +himself in after days modified his communistic views, but his +strong feeling for individualism, his hatred of all restrictions on +liberty, his trust in man, his faith in the power of reason remained; +it was a manifesto which enunciated principles modifying action, +even when not wholly ruling it.</p> + +<p>In May 1794 Godwin published the novel of <i>Caleb Williams, +or Things as they are</i>, a book of which the political object is +overlooked by many readers in the strong interest of the story. +The book was dramatized by the younger Colman as <i>The Iron +Chest</i>. It is one of the few novels of that time which may be said +still to live.<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> A theorist who lived mainly in his study, Godwin +yet came forward boldly to stand by prisoners arraigned of high +treason in that same year—1794. The danger to persons so +charged was then great, and he deliberately put himself into +this same danger for his friends. But when his own trial was +discussed in the privy council, Pitt sensibly held that <i>Political +Justice</i>, the work on which the charge could best have been +founded, was priced at three guineas, and could never do much +harm among those who had not three shillings to spare.</p> + +<p>From this time Godwin became a notable figure in London +society, and there was scarcely an important person in politics, +on the Liberal side, in literature, art or science, who does not +appear familiarly in the pages of Godwin’s singular diary. For +forty-eight years, beginning in 1788, and continuing to the very +end of his life, Godwin kept a record of every day, of the work +he did, the books he read, the friends he saw. Condensed in the +highest degree, the diary is yet easy to read when the style is +once mastered, and it is a great help to the understanding of his +cold, methodical, unimpassioned character. He carried his +method into every detail of life, and lived on his earnings with +extreme frugality. Until he made a large sum by the publication +of <i>Political Justice</i>, he lived on an average of £120 a year.</p> + +<p>In 1797, the intervening years having been spent in strenuous +literary labour, Godwin married Mary Wollstonecraft (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Godwin, Mary Wollstonecraft</a></span>). Since both held the same +views regarding the slavery of marriage, and since they only +married at all for the sake of possible offspring, the marriage +was concealed for some time, and the happiness of the avowed +married life was very brief; his wife’s death on the 10th of +September left Godwin prostrated by affliction, and with a +charge for which he was wholly unfit—his infant daughter Mary, +and her stepsister, Fanny Imlay, who from that time bore the +name of Godwin. His unfitness for the cares of a family, far +more than love, led him to contract a second marriage with +Mary Jane Clairmont in 1801. She was a widow with two +children, one of whom, Clara Mary Jane Clairmont, became the +mistress of Lord Byron. The second Mrs Godwin was energetic +and painstaking, but a harsh stepmother; and it may be +doubted whether the children were not worse off under her care +than they would have been under Godwin’s neglect.</p> + +<p>The second novel which proceeded from Godwin’s pen was +called <i>St Leon</i>, and published in 1799. It is chiefly remarkable +for the beautiful portrait of Marguerite, the heroine, drawn from +the character of his own wife. His opinions underwent a change +in the direction of theism, influenced, he says, by his acquaintance +with Coleridge. He also became known to Wordsworth and +Lamb. Study of the Elizabethan dramatists led to the production +in 1800 of the <i>Tragedy of Antonio</i>. Kemble brought it out +at Drury Lane, but the failure of this attempt made him refuse +<i>Abbas, King of Persia</i>, which Godwin offered him in the next +year. He was more successful with his <i>Life of Chaucer</i>, for which +he received £600.</p> + +<p>The events of Godwin’s life were few. Under the advice of +the second Mrs Godwin, and with her active co-operation, he +carried on business as a bookseller under the pseudonym of +Edward Baldwin, publishing several useful school books and +books for children, among them Charles and Mary Lamb’s <i>Tales +from Shakespeare</i>. But the speculation was unsuccessful, and +for many years Godwin struggled with constant pecuniary +difficulties, for which more than one subscription was raised +by the leaders of the Liberal party and by literary men. He +became bankrupt in 1822, but during the following years he +accomplished one of his best pieces of work, <i>The History of the +Commonwealth</i>, founded on pamphlets and original documents, +which still retains considerable value. In 1833 the government +of Earl Grey conferred upon him the office known as yeoman +usher of the exchequer, to which were attached apartments in +Palace Yard, where he died on the 7th of April 1836.</p> + +<p>In his own time, by his writings and by his conversation, +Godwin had a great power of influencing men, and especially +young men. Though his character would seem, from much +which is found in his writings, and from anecdotes told by those +who still remember him, to have been unsympathetic, it was not +so understood by enthusiastic young people, who hung on his +words as those of a prophet. The most remarkable of these was +Percy Bysshe Shelley, who in the glowing dawn of his genius +turned to Godwin as his teacher and guide. The last of the long +series of young men who sat at Godwin’s feet was Edward Lytton +Bulwer, afterwards Lord Lytton, whose early romances were +formed after those of Godwin, and who, in <i>Eugene Aram</i>, succeeded +to the story as arranged, and the plan to a considerable +extent sketched out, by Godwin, whose age and failing health +prevented him from completing it. Godwin’s character appears +in the worst light in connexion with Shelley. His early correspondence +with Shelley, which began in 1811, is remarkable for +its genuine good sense and kindness; but when Shelley carried +out the principles of the author of <i>Political Justice</i> in eloping +with Mary Godwin, Godwin assumed a hostile attitude that +would have been unjustifiable in a man of ordinary views, and +was ridiculous in the light of his professions. He was not, moreover, +too proud to accept £1000 from his son-in-law, and after +the reconciliation following on Shelley’s marriage in 1816, he +continued to demand money until Shelley’s death. His character +had no doubt suffered under his long embarrassments and his +unhappy marriage.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Godwin’s more important works are—<i>The Inquiry concerning +Political Justice, and its Influence on General Virtue and Happiness</i> +(1793); <i>Things as they are, or the Adventures of Caleb Williams</i> +(1794); <i>The Inquirer, a series of Essays</i> (1797); <i>Memoirs of the +Author of the Rights of Woman</i> (1798); <i>St Leon, a Tale of the Sixteenth +Century</i> (1799); <i>Antonio, a Tragedy</i> (1800); <i>The Life of Chaucer</i> +(1803); <i>Fleetwood, a Novel</i> (1805); <i>Faulkner, a Tragedy</i> (1807); +<i>Essay on Sepulchres</i> (1809); <i>Lives of Edward and John Philips, the +Nephews of Milton</i> (1815); <i>Mandeville, a Tale of the Times of Cromwell</i> +(1817); <i>Of Population, an answer to Malthus</i> (1820); <i>History +of the Commonwealth</i> (1824-1828); <i>Cloudesley, a Novel</i> (1830); +<i>Thoughts on Man, a series of Essays</i> (1831); <i>Lives of the Necromancers</i> +(1834). A volume of essays was also collected from his papers and +published in 1873, as left for publication by his daughter Mrs Shelley. +Many other short and anonymous works proceeded from his ever +busy pen, but many are irrecoverable, and all are forgotten. Godwin’s +life was published in 1876 in two volumes, under the title <i>William +Godwin, his Friends and Contemporaries</i>, by C. Kegan Paul. The +best estimate of his literary position is that given by Sir Leslie +Stephen in his <i>English Thought in the 18th Century</i> (ii. 264-281; ed., +1902). See also the article on William Godwin in W. Hazlitt’s +<i>The Spirit of the Age</i> (1825), and “Godwin and Shelley” in Sir L. +Stephen’s <i>Hours in a Library</i> (vol. iii., ed. 1892).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For an analysis of <i>Caleb Williams</i> see the chapter on “Theorists +of Revolution” in Professor E. Dowden’s <i>The French Revolution +and English Literature</i> (1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODWIN-AUSTEN, ROBERT ALFRED CLOYNE<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (1808-1884), +English geologist, the eldest son of Sir Henry E. Austen, was +born on the 17th of March 1808. He was educated at Oriel +College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow in 1830. He +afterwards entered Lincoln’s Inn. In 1833 he married the only +daughter and heiress of General Sir Henry T. Godwin, K.C.B., +and he took the additional name of Godwin by Royal licence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page179" id="page179"></a>179</span> +in 1854. At Oxford as a pupil of William Buckland he became +deeply interested in geology, and soon afterwards becoming +acquainted with De la Beche, he was inspired by that great +master, and assisted him by making a geological map of the +neighbourhood of Newton Abbot, which was embodied in the +Geological Survey map. He also published an elaborate memoir +“On the Geology of the South-East of Devonshire” (<i>Trans. +Geol. Soc.</i> ser. 2, vol. viii.). His attention was next directed to +the Cretaceous rocks of Surrey, his home-county, his estates +being situated at Chilworth and Shalford near Guildford. Later +he dealt with the superficial accumulations bordering the English +Channel, and with the erratic boulders of Selsea. In 1855 he +brought before the Geological Society of London his celebrated +paper “On the possible Extension of the Coal-Measures beneath +the South-Eastern part of England,” in which he pointed out +on well-considered theoretical grounds the likelihood of coal-measures +being some day reached in that area. In this article +he also advocated the freshwater origin of the Old Red Sandstone, +and discussed the relations of that formation, and of the +Devonian, to the Silurian and Carboniferous. He was elected +F.R.S. in 1849, and in 1862 he was awarded the Wollaston medal +by the Geological Society of London, on which occasion he was +styled by Sir R. I. Murchison “pre-eminently the physical +geographer of bygone periods.” He died at Shalford House +near Guildford on the 25th of November 1884.</p> + +<p>His son, Lieut-Colonel <span class="sc">Henry Haversham Godwin-Austen</span> +(b. 1834), entered the army in 1851, and served for many years +on the Trigonometrical Survey of India, retiring in 1877. He +gave much attention to geology, but is more especially distinguished +for his researches on the natural history of India +and as the author of <i>The Land and Freshwater Mollusca of India</i> +(1882-1887).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODWINE<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (d. 1053), son of Wulfnoth, earl of the West-Saxons, +the leading Englishman in the first half of the 11th +century. His birth and origin are utterly uncertain; but he +rose to power early in Canute’s reign and was an earl in 1018. +He received in marriage Gytha, a connexion of the king’s, and +in 1020 became earl of the West-Saxons. On the death of Canute +in 1035 he joined with Queen Emma in supporting the claim +of Hardicanute, the son of Canute and Emma, to the crown of +his father, in opposition to Leofric and the northern party who +supported Harold Harefoot (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hardicanute</a></span>). While together +they held Wessex for Hardicanute, the ætheling Ælfred, son of +Emma by her former husband Æthelred II., landed in England +in the hope of winning back his father’s crown; but falling into +the hands of Godwine, he and his followers were cruelly done to +death. On the death of Hardicanute in 1042 Godwine was +foremost in promoting the election of Edward (the Confessor) +to the vacant throne. He was now the first man in the kingdom, +though his power was still balanced by that of the other great +earls, Leofric of Mercia and Siward of Northumberland. His +sons Sweyn and Harold were promoted to earldoms; and his +daughter Eadgyth was married to the king (1045). His policy +was strongly national in opposition to the marked Normanizing +tendencies of the king. Between him and Edward’s foreign +favourites, particularly Robert of Jumièges, there was deadly +feud. The appointment of Robert to the archbishopric of Canterbury +in 1051 marks the decline of Godwine’s power; and in the +same year a series of outrages committed by one of the king’s +foreign favourites led to a breach between the king and the earl, +which culminated in the exile of the latter with all his family (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Edward the Confessor</a></span>). But next year Godwine returned in +triumph; and at a great meeting held outside London he and +his family were restored to all their offices and possessions, +and the archbishop and many other Normans were banished. +In the following year Godwine was smitten with a fit at the +king’s table, and died three days later on the 15th of April 1053.</p> + +<p>Godwine appears to have had seven sons, three of whom—King Harold, +Gyrth and Leofwine—were killed at Hastings; +two others, Wulfnoth and Ælfgar, are of little importance; +another was Earl Tostig (<i>q.v.</i>). The eldest son was Sweyn, or +Swegen (d. 1052), who was outlawed for seducing Eadgifu +abbess of Leominster. After fighting for the king of Denmark +he returned to England in 1049, when his murder of his cousin +Beorn compelled him to leave England for the second time. +In 1050, however, he regained his earldom, and in 1051 he shared +his father’s exile. To atone for the murder of Beorn, Sweyn +went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and on the return journey +he died on the 29th of September 1052, meeting his death, +according to one account, at the hands of the Saracens.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GODWIT,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a word of unknown origin, the name commonly +applied to a marsh-bird in great repute, when fattened, for the +table, and formerly abundant in the fens of Norfolk, the Isle +of Ely and Lincolnshire. In Turner’s days (1544) it was worth +three times as much as a snipe, and at the same <span class="correction" title="amended from peroid">period</span> Belon +said of it—“C’est vn Oyseau es delices des Françoys.” Casaubon, +who Latinized its name “<i>Dei ingenium</i>” (<i>Ephemerides</i>, 19th +September 1611), was told by the “<i>ornithotrophaeus</i>” he visited +at Wisbech that in London it fetched twenty pence. Its fame +as a delicacy is perpetuated by many later writers, Ben Jonson +among them, and Pennant says that in his time (1766) it sold for +half-a-crown or five shillings. Under the name godwit two +perfectly distinct species of British birds were included, but that +which seems to have been especially prized is known to modern +ornithologists as the black-tailed godwit, <i>Limosa aegocephala</i>, +formerly called, from its loud cry, a yarwhelp,<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> shrieker or +barker, in the districts it inhabited. The practice of netting +this bird in large numbers during the spring and summer, coupled +with the gradual reclamation of the fens, to which it resorted, +has now rendered it but a visitor in England; and it probably +ceased from breeding regularly in England in 1824 or thereabouts, +though under favourable conditions it may have occasionally +laid its eggs for some thirty years later or more (Stevenson, +<i>Birds of Norfolk</i>, ii. 250). This godwit is a species of wide +range, reaching Iceland, where it is called <i>Jardraeka</i> (= earth-raker), +in summer, and occurring numerously in India in winter. +Its chief breeding-quarters seem to extend from Holland eastwards +to the south of Russia. The second British species is that +which is known as the bar-tailed godwit, <i>L. lapponica</i>, and this +seems to have never been more than a bird of double passage +in the United Kingdom, arriving in large flocks on the south +coast about the 12th of May, and, after staying a few days, +proceeding to the north-eastward. It is known to breed in +Lapland, but its eggs are of great rarity. Towards autumn +the young visit the English coasts, and a few of them remain, +together with some of the other species, in favourable situations +throughout the winter. One of the local names by which the +bar-tailed godwit is known to the Norfolk gunners is scamell, +a word which, in the mouth of Caliban (<i>Tempest</i>, II. ii.), has been +the cause of much perplexity to Shakespearian critics.</p> + +<p>The godwits belong to the group <i>Limicolae</i>, and are about as +big as a tame pigeon, but possess long legs, and a long bill with +a slight upward turn. It is believed that in the genus <i>Limosa</i> +the female is larger than the male. While the winter plumage +is of a sober greyish-brown, the breeding-dress is marked by a +predominance of bright bay or chestnut, rendering the wearer +a very beautiful object. The black-tailed godwit, though varying +a good deal in size, is constantly larger than the bar-tailed, and +especially longer in the legs. The species may be further distinguished +by the former having the proximal third of the tail-quills +pure white, and the distal two-thirds black, with a narrow white +margin, while the latter has the same feathers barred with +black and white alternately for nearly their whole length.</p> + +<p>America possesses two species of the genus, the very large +marbled godwit or marlin, <i>L. fedoa</i>, easily recognized by its size +and the buff colour of its axillaries, and the smaller Hudsonian +godwit, <i>L. hudsonica</i>, which has its axillaries of a deep black. +This last, though less numerous than its congener, seems to +range over the whole of the continent, breeding in the extreme +north, while it has been obtained also in the Strait of Magellan +and the Falkland Islands. The first seems not to go farther +southward than the Antilles and the Isthmus of Panama.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180"></a>180</span></p> + +<p>From Asia, or at least its eastern part, two species have +been described. One of them, <i>L. melanuroides</i>, differs only +from <i>L. aegocephala</i> in its smaller size, and is believed to breed +in Amurland, wintering in the islands of the Pacific, New +Zealand and Australia. The other, <i>L. uropygialis</i>, is closely +allied to and often mistaken for <i>L. lapponica</i>, from which it +chiefly differs by having the rump barred like the tail. This +was found breeding in the extreme north of Siberia by Dr von +Middendorff, and ranges to Australia, whence it was, like the +last, first described by Gould.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This name seems to have survived in Whelp Moor, near Brandon, +in Suffolk.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOEBEN, AUGUST KARL VON<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1816-1880), Prussian +general of infantry, came of old Hanoverian stock. Born at +Stade on the 10th of December 1816, he aspired from his earliest +years to the Prussian service rather than that of his own country, +and at the age of seventeen obtained a commission in the 24th +regiment of Prussian infantry. But there was little scope there +for the activities of a young and energetic subaltern, and, leaving +the service in 1836, he entered the Carlist army campaigning in +Spain. In the five campaigns which he made in the service of +Don Carlos he had many and various vicissitudes of fortune. +He had not fought for two months when he fell, severely wounded, +into the hands of the Spanish Royal troops. After eight months’ +detention he escaped, but it was not long before he was captured +again. This time his imprisonment was long and painful, and +on two occasions he was compelled to draw lots for his life with +his fellow-captives. When released, he served till 1840 with +distinction. In that year he made his way back, a beggar +without means or clothing, to Prussia. The Carlist lieutenant-colonel +was glad to be re-admitted into the Prussian service as a +second lieutenant, but he was still young, and few subalterns +could at the age of twenty-four claim five years’ meritorious +war service. In a few years we find him serving as captain on the +Great General Staff, and in 1848 he had the good fortune to be +transferred to the staff of the IV. army corps, his immediate +superior being Major von Moltke. The two “coming men” +became fast friends, and their mutual esteem was never disturbed. +In the Baden insurrection Goeben served with distinction on the +staff of Prince William, the future emperor. Staff and regimental +duty (as usual in the Prussian service) alternated for some years +after this, till in 1863 he became major-general commanding the +26th infantry brigade. In 1860, it should be mentioned, he +was present with the Spanish troops in Morocco, and took part +in the battle of Tetuan.</p> + +<p>In the first of Prussia’s great wars (1864) he distinguished +himself at the head of his brigade at Rackebüll and Sonderburg. +In the war of 1866 Lieutenant-General von Goeben commanded +the 13th division, of which his old brigade formed part, and, +in this higher sphere, once more displayed the qualities of a born +leader and skilful tactician. He held almost independent +command with conspicuous success in the actions of Dermbach, +Laufach, Kissingen, Aschaffenburg, Gerchsheim, Tauber-Bischofsheim +and Würzburg. The mobilization of 1870 placed +him at the head of the VIII. (Rhineland) army corps, forming +part of the First Army under Steinmetz. It was his resolute and +energetic leading that contributed mainly to the victory of +Spicheren (6th August), and won the only laurels gained on the +Prussian right wing at Gravelotte (18th August). Under Manteuffel +the VIII. corps took part in the operations about Amiens and +Bapaume, and on the 8th of January 1871 Goeben succeeded +that general in the command of the First Army, with which he +had served throughout the campaign as a corps commander. +A fortnight later he had brought the war in northern France +to a brilliant conclusion, by the decisive victory of St Quentin +(18th and 19th January 1871). The close of the Franco-German +War left Goeben one of the most distinguished men in the +victorious army. He was colonel of the 28th infantry, and had +the grand cross of the Iron Cross. He commanded the VIII. +corps at Coblenz until his death in 1880.</p> + +<p>General von Goeben left many writings. His memoirs are to +be found in his works <i>Vier Jahre in Spanien</i> (Hanover, 1841), +<i>Reise- und Lagerbriefe aus Spanien und vom spanischen Heere in +Marokko</i> (Hanover, 1863) and in the Darmstadt <i>Allgemeine +Militärzeitung</i>. The former French port (Queuleu) at Metz was +renamed Goeben after him, and the 28th infantry bears his name. +A statue of Goeben by Schaper was erected at Coblenz in 1884.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Zernin, <i>Das Leben des Generals August von Goeben</i> (2 vols., +Berlin, 1895-1897); H. Barth, <i>A. von Goeben</i> (Berlin, 1906); and, for +his share in the war of 1870-71; H. Kunz, <i>Der Feldzug im N. und +N.W. Frankreichs 1870-1871</i> (Berlin, 1889), and the 14th Monograph +of the Great General Staff (1891).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (1836-1909), Dutch orientalist, +was born in Friesland in 1836. He devoted himself at an early +age to the study of oriental languages and became especially +proficient in Arabic, under the guidance of Dozy and Juynboll, +to whom he was afterwards an intimate friend and colleague. +He took his degree of doctor at Leiden in 1860, and then studied +for a year in Oxford, where he examined and collated the Bodleian +MSS. of Idrīsī (part being published in 1866, in collaboration +with R. P. Dozy, as <i>Description de l’Afrique et de l’Espagne</i>). +About the same time he wrote <i>Mémoires de l’histoire et de la +géographie orientales</i>, and edited <i>Expugnatio regionum</i>. In +1883, on the death of Dozy, he became Arabic professor at Leiden, +retiring in 1906. He died on the 17th of May 1909. Though +perhaps not a teacher of the first order, he wielded a great +influence during his long professoriate not only over his pupils, +but over theologians and eastern administrators who attended +his lectures, and his many editions of Arabic texts have been of +the highest value to scholars, the most important being his great +edition of Ṭabarī. Though entirely averse from politics, he took +a keen interest in the municipal affairs of Leiden and made a +special study of elementary education. He took the leading part +in the International Congress of Orientalists at Algiers in 1905. +He was a member of the Institut de France, was awarded the +German Order of Merit, and received an honorary doctorate of +Cambridge University. At his death he was president of the +newly formed International Association of Academies of Science. +Among his chief works are <i>Fragmenta historicorum Arabicorum</i> +(1869-1871); <i>Diwan of Moslim ibn al-Wālid</i> (1875); <i>Bibliotheca +geographorum Arabicorum</i> (1870-1894); <i>Annals of Ṭabari</i> +(1879-1901); edition of Ibn Qutaiba’s biographies (1904); +of the travels of Ibn Jubaye (1907, 5th vol. of Gibb Memorial). +He was also the chief editor of the <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam</i> (vols. +i.-iii.), and contributed many articles to periodicals. He wrote +for the 9th and the present edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia +Britannica</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOES, DAMIÃO DE<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1502-1574), Portuguese humanist, was +born of a patrician family at Alemquer, in February 1502. +Under King John III. he was employed abroad for many years +from 1523 on diplomatic and commercial missions, and he +travelled over the greater part of Europe. He was intimate +with the leading scholars of the time, was acquainted with Luther +and other Protestant divines, and in 1532 became the pupil and +friend of Erasmus. Goes took his degree at Padua in 1538 after +a four years’ course. In 1537, at the instance of his friend Cardinal +Sadoleto, he undertook to mediate between the Church and the +Lutherans, but failed through the attitude of the Protestants. +He married in Flanders a rich and noble Dutch lady, D. Joanna +de Hargen, and settled at Louvain, then the literary centre of +the Low Countries, where he was living in 1542 when the French +besieged the town. He was given the command of the defending +forces, and saved Louvain, but was taken prisoner and confined +for nine months in France, till he obtained his freedom by a +heavy ransom. He was rewarded, however, by a grant of arms +from Charles V. He finally returned to Portugal in 1545, with +a view of becoming tutor to the king’s son, but he failed to +obtain this post, owing to the denunciations of Father Simon +Rodriguez, provincial of the Jesuits, who accused Goes of +favouring the Lutheran doctrines and of being a disciple of +Erasmus. Nevertheless in 1548 he was appointed chief keeper +of the archives and royal chronicler, and at once introduced +some much-needed reforms into the administration of his office.</p> + +<p>In 1558 he was given a commission to write a history of the +reign of King Manoel, a task previously confided to João de +Barros, but relinquished by him. It was an onerous undertaking +for a conscientious historian, since it was necessary to expose +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id="page181"></a>181</span> +the miseries as well as relate the glories of the period, and so to +offend some of the most powerful families. Goes had already +written a <i>Chronicle</i> of Prince John (afterwards John II.), and +when, after more than eight years’ labour, he produced the First +Part of his <i>Chronicle</i> of King Manoel (1566), a chorus of attacks +greeted it, the edition was destroyed, and he was compelled to +issue a revised version. He brought out the three other parts +in 1566-1567, though chapters 23 to 27 of the Third Part were +so mutilated by the censorship that the printed text differs +largely from the MS. Hitherto Goes, notwithstanding his Liberalism, +had escaped the Inquisition, though in 1540 his <i>Fides, +religio, moresque Aethiopum</i> had been prohibited by the chief +inquisitor, Cardinal D. Henrique; but the denunciation of +Father Rodriguez in 1545, which had been vainly renewed in +1550, was now brought into action, and in 1571 he was arrested +to stand his trial. There seems to be no doubt that the Inquisition +made itself on this occasion, as on others, the instrument of +private enmity; for eighteen months Goes lay ill in prison, and +then he was condemned, though he had lived for thirty years as +a faithful Catholic, and the worst that could be proved against +him was that in his youth he had spoken against Indulgences, +disbelieved in auricular confession, and consorted with heretics. +He was sentenced to a term of reclusion, and his property was +confiscated to the crown. After he had abjured his errors in +private, he was sent at the end of 1572 to do penance at the +monastery of Batalha. Later he was allowed to return home +to Alemquer, where he died on the 30th of January 1574. He +was buried in the church of Nossa Senhora da Varzea.</p> + +<p>Damião de Goes was a man of wide culture and genial and +courtly manners, a skilled musician and a good linguist. He +wrote both Portuguese and Latin with classic strength and +simplicity, and his style is free from affectation and rhetorical +ornaments. His portrait by Albrecht Dürer shows an open, +intelligent face, and the record of his life proves him to have +been upright and fearless. His prosperity doubtless excited +ill-will, but above all, his ideas, advanced for Portugal, his foreign +ways, outspokenness and honesty contributed to the tragedy +of his end, at a time when the forces of ignorant reaction held +the ascendant. He had, it may be presumed, given some umbrage +to the court by condemning, in the <i>Chronicle of King +Manoel</i>, the royal ingratitude to distinguished public servants, +though he received a pension and other rewards for that work, +and he had certainly offended the nobility by his administration +of the archive office and by exposing false genealogical claims +in his <i>Nobiliario</i>. He paid the penalty for telling the truth, as +he knew it, in an age when an historian had to choose between +flattery of the great and silence. The <i>Chronicle of King Manoel</i> +was the first official history of a Portuguese reign to be written +in a critical spirit, and Damião de Goes has the honour of having +been the first Portuguese royal chronicler to deserve the name +of an historian.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His Portuguese works include <i>Chronica do felicissimo rei Dom +Emanuel</i> (parts i. and ii., Lisbon, 1566, parts iii. and iv., <i>ib.</i> +1567). Other editions appeared in Lisbon in 1619 and 1749 and in +Coimbra in 1790. <i>Chronica do principe Dom Joam</i> (Lisbon, 1558), +with subsequent editions in 1567 and 1724 in Lisbon and in 1790 in +Coimbra. <i>Livro de Marco Tullio Ciceram chamado Catam Mayor</i> +(Venice, 1538). This is a translation of Cicero’s <i>De senectute</i>. His +Latin works, published separately, comprise: (1) <i>Legatio magni imperatoris +Presbiteri Joannis, &c.</i> (Antwerp, 1532); (2) <i>Legatio Davidis +Ethiopiae regis, &c.</i> (Bologna, 1533); (3) <i>Commentarii rerum gestarum +in India</i> (Louvain, 1539); (4) <i>Fides, religio, moresque Aethiopum</i> +(Louvain, 1540), incorporating Nos. (1) and (2); (5) <i>Hispania</i> (Louvain, +1542); (6) <i>Aliquot epistolae Sadoleti Bembi et aliorum clarissimorum +virorum, &c.</i> (Louvain, 1544); (7) <i>Damiani a Goes equitis Lusitani +aliquot opuscula</i> (Louvain, 1544); (8) <i>Urbis Lovaniensis obsidia</i> (Lisbon, +1546); (9) <i>De bello Cambaico ultimo</i> (Louvain, 1549); (10) <i>Urbis Olisiponensis +descriptio</i> (Evora, 1554); (11) <i>Epistola ad Hieronymum Cardosum</i> +(Lisbon, 1556). Most of the above went through several editions, +and many were afterwards included with new works in such collections +as No. (7), and seven sets of <i>Opuscula</i> appeared, all incomplete. +Nos. (3), (4) and (5) suffered mutilation in subsequent editions, +at the hands of the censors, because they offended against religious +orthodoxy or family pride.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—(A) Joaquim de Vasconcellos, <i>Goesiana</i> (5 vols.), +with the following sub-titles: (1) <i>O Retrato de Albrecht Dürer</i> +(Porto, 1879); (2) <i>Bibliographia</i> (Porto, 1879), which describes 67 +numbers of books by Goes; (3) As Variantes das Chronicus Portuguezas +(Porto, 1881); (4) <i>Damião de Goes: Novos Estudos</i> (Porto, +1897); (5) <i>As Cartas Latinas</i>—in the press (1906). Snr. Vasconcellos +only printed a very limited number of copies of these studies for +distribution among friends, so that they are rare. (B) Guilherme +J. C. Henriques, <i>Ineditos Goesianos</i>, vol. i. (Lisbon, 1896), vol. ii. +(containing the proceedings at the trial by the Inquisition) (Lisbon, +1898). (C) A. P. Lopes de Mendonça, <i>Damião de Goes e a Inquisição +de Portugal</i> (Lisbon, 1859). (D) Dr Sousa Viterbo, <i>Damião de Goes +e D. Antonio Pinheiro</i> (Coimbra, 1895). (E) Dr Theophilo Braga, +<i>Historia da Universidade de Coimbra</i> (Lisbon, 1892), i. 374-380. +(F) Menendez y Pelayo, <i>Historia de los Heter. Españoles</i>, ii. +129-143.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Pr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOES, HUGO VAN DER<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (d. 1482), a painter of considerable +celebrity at Ghent, was known to Vasari, as he is known to +us, by a single picture in a Florentine monastery. At a period +when the family of the Medici had not yet risen from the rank +of a great mercantile firm to that of a reigning dynasty, it employed +as an agent at the port of Bruges Tommaso Portinari, a +lineal descendant, it was said, of Folco, the father of Dante’s +Beatrix. Tommaso, at that time patron of a chapel in the hospital +of Santa Maria Nuova at Florence, ordered an altar-piece of +Hugo van der Goes, and commanded him to illustrate the sacred +theme of “Quem genuit adoravit.” In the centre of a vast +triptych, comprising numerous figures of life size, Hugo represented +the Virgin kneeling in adoration before the new-born +Christ attended by Shepherds and Angels. On the wings he +portrayed Tommaso and his two sons in prayer under the protection +of Saint Anthony and St Matthew, and Tommaso’s +wife and two daughters supported by St Margaret and St Mary +Magdalen. The triptych, which has suffered much from decay +and restoring, was for over 400 years at Santa Maria Nuova, +and is now in the Uffizi Gallery. Imposing because composed +of figures of unusual size, the altar-piece is more remarkable +for portrait character than for charms of ideal beauty.</p> + +<p>There are also small pieces in public galleries which claim to +have been executed by Van der Goes. One of these pictures in +the National Gallery in London is more nearly allied to the school +of Memling than to the triptych of Santa Maria Nuova; another, +a small and very beautiful “John the Baptist,” at the Pinakothek +of Munich, is really by Memling; whilst numerous fragments +of an altar-piece in the Belvedere at Vienna, though +assigned to Hugo, are by his more gifted countryman of Bruges. +Van der Goes, however, was not habitually a painter of easel +pieces. He made his reputation at Bruges by producing coloured +hangings in distemper. After he settled at Ghent, and became a +master of his gild in 1465, he designed cartoons for glass windows. +He also made decorations for the wedding of Charles the Bold and +Margaret of York in 1468, for the festivals of the Rhetoricians and +papal jubilees on repeated occasions, for the solemn entry of +Charles the Bold into Ghent in 1470-1471, and for the funeral of +Philip the Good in 1474. The labour which he expended on +these occasions might well add to his fame without being the +less ephemeral. About the year 1475 he retired to the monastery +of Rouge Cloître near Ghent, where he took the cowl. There, +though he still clung to his profession, he seems to have +taken to drinking, and at one time to have shown decided +symptoms of insanity. But his superiors gradually cured him +of his intemperance, and he died in the odour of sanctity in +1482.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOES,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> a town in the province of Zeeland, Holland, on the island +of South Beveland, 11½ m. by rail E. of Middelburg. Pop. (1900) +6919. It is connected by a short canal with the East Scheldt, +and has a good harbour (1819) defended by a fort. The principal +buildings are the interesting Gothic church (1423) and the +picturesque old town hall (restored 1771). There are various +educational and charitable institutions. Goes has preserved +for centuries its prosperous position as the market-town of the +island. The chief industries are boat-building, brewing, book-binding +and cigar-making. The town had its origin in the +castle of Oostende, built here by the noble family of Borssele. +It received a charter early in the 15th century from the +countess Jacoba of Holland, who frequently stayed at the +castle.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page182" id="page182"></a>182</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1749-1832), German +poet, dramatist and philosopher, was born at Frankfort-on-Main +on the 28th of August 1749. He came, on his father’s side, of +Thuringian stock, his great-grandfather, Hans Christian Goethe, +having been a farrier at Artern-on-the-Unstrut, about the +middle of the 17th century. Hans Christian’s son, Friedrich +Georg, was brought up to the trade of a tailor, and in this +capacity settled in Frankfort in 1686. A second marriage, +however, brought him into possession of the Frankfort inn, +“Zum Weidenhof,” and he ended his days as a well-to-do innkeeper. +His son, Johann Kaspar, the poet’s father (1710-1782), +studied law at Leipzig, and, after going through the prescribed +courses of practical training at Wetzlar, travelled in Italy. +He hoped, on his return to Frankfort, to obtain an official +position in the government of the free city, but his personal +influence with the authorities was not sufficiently strong. In +his disappointment he resolved never again to offer his services +to his native town, and retired into private life, a course which +his ample means facilitated. In 1742 he acquired, as a consolation +for the public career he had missed, the title of <i>kaiserlicher +Rat</i>, and in 1748 married Katharina Elisabeth (1731-1808), +daughter of the <i>Schultheiss</i> or <i>Bürgermeister</i> of Frankfort, +Johann Wolfgang Textor. The poet was the eldest son of this +union. Of the later children only one, Cornelia, born in 1750, +survived the years of childhood; she died as the wife of Goethe’s +friend, J. G. Schlosser, in 1777. The best elements in Goethe’s +genius came from his mother’s side; of a lively, impulsive +disposition, and gifted with remarkable imaginative power, +Frau Rat was the ideal mother of a poet; moreover, being +hardly eighteen at the time of her son’s birth, she was herself +able to be the companion of his childhood. From his father, +whose stern, somewhat pedantic nature repelled warmer feelings +on the part of the children, Goethe Inherited that “holy earnestness” +and stability of character which brought him unscathed +through temptations and passions, and held the balance to his +all too powerful imagination.</p> + +<p>Unforgettable is the picture which the poet subsequently +drew of his childhood spent in the large house with its many +nooks and crannies, in the Grosse Hirschgraben at Frankfort. +Books, pictures, objects of art, antiquities, reminiscences of +Rat Goethe’s visit to Italy, above all a marionette theatre, +kindled the child’s quick intellect and imagination. His training +was conducted in its early stages by his father, and was later +supplemented by tutors. Meanwhile the varied and picturesque +life of Frankfort was in itself an education. In 1759, during the +Seven Years’ War, the French, as Maria Theresa’s allies, occupied +the town, and, much to the irritation of Goethe’s father, who +was a stanch partisan of Frederick the Great, a French lieutenant, +Count Thoranc, was quartered on the Goethe household. +The foreign occupation also led to the establishment of a French +troupe of actors, and to their performances the boy, through his +grandfather’s influence, had free access. Goethe has also recorded +his memories of another picturesque event, the coronation of the +emperor Joseph II. in the Frankfort Römer or town hall in 1764; +but these memories were darkened by being associated in his +mind with the tragic dénouement of his first love affair. The +object of this passion was a certain Gretchen, who seems to have +taken advantage of the boy’s interest in her to further the +dishonest ends of one of her friends. The discovery of the affair +and the investigation that followed cooled Goethe’s ardour and +caused him to turn his attention seriously to the studies which +were to prepare him for the university. Meanwhile the literary +instinct had begun to show itself; we hear of a novel in letters—a +kind of linguistic exercise, in which the characters carried on +the correspondence in different languages—of a prose epic on +the subject of Joseph, and various religious poems of which one, +<i>Die Höllenfahrt Christi</i>, found its way in a revised form into the +poet’s complete works.</p> + +<p>In October 1765, Goethe, then a little over sixteen, left Frankfort +for Leipzig, where a wider and, in many respects, less +provincial life awaited him. He entered upon his university +studies with zeal, but his own education in Frankfort had not +been the best preparation for the scholastic methods which still +dominated the German universities; of his professors, only +Gellert seems to have won his interest, and that interest was soon +exhausted. The literary beginnings he had made in Frankfort +now seemed to him amateurish and trivial; he felt that he had +to turn over a new leaf, and, under the guidance of E. W. Behrisch, +a genial, original comrade, he learned the art of writing those +light Anacreontic lyrics which harmonized with the tone of polite +Leipzig society. Artificial as this poetry is, Goethe was, nevertheless, +inspired by a real passion in Leipzig, namely, for Anna +Katharina Schönkopf, the daughter of a wine-merchant at whose +house he dined. She is the “Annette” after whom the recently +discovered collection of lyrics was named, although it must be +added that neither these lyrics nor the <i>Neue Lieder</i>, published in +1770, express very directly Goethe’s feelings for Käthchen +Schönkopf. To his Leipzig student-days belong also two small +plays in Alexandrines, <i>Die Laune des Verliebten</i>, a pastoral +comedy in one act, which reflects the lighter side of the poet’s +love affair, and <i>Die Mitschuldigen</i> (published in a revised form, +1769), a more sombre picture, in which comedy is incongruously +mingled with tragedy. In Leipzig Goethe also had time for what +remained one of the abiding interests of his life, for art; he regarded +A. F. Oeser (1717-1799), the director of the academy of +painting in the Pleissenburg, who had given him lessons in drawing, +as the teacher who in Leipzig had influenced him most. His art +studies were also furthered by a short visit to Dresden. His stay +in Leipzig came, however, to an abrupt conclusion; the distractions +of student life proved too much for his strength; a +sudden haemorrhage supervened, and he lay long ill, first in +Leipzig, and, after it was possible to remove him, at home in +Frankfort. These months of slow recovery were a time of serious +introspection for Goethe. He still corresponded with his Leipzig +friends, but the tone of his letters changed; life had become +graver and more earnest for him. He pored over books on occult +philosophy; he busied himself with alchemy and astrology. A +friend of his mother’s, Susanne Katharina von Klettenberg, who +belonged to pietist circles in Frankfort, turned the boy’s thoughts +to religious mysticism. On his recovery his father resolved that +he should complete his legal studies at Strassburg, a city which, +although then outside the German empire, was, in respect of +language and culture, wholly German. From the first moment +Goethe set foot in the narrow streets of the Alsatian capital, in +April 1770, the whole current of his thought seemed to change. +The Gothic architecture of the Strassburg minster became to +him the symbol of a national and German ideal, directly antagonistic +to the French tastes and the classical and rationalistic +atmosphere that prevailed in Leipzig. The second moment of +importance in Goethe’s Strassburg period was his meeting with +Herder, who spent some weeks in Strassburg undergoing an operation +of the eye. In this thinker, who was his senior by five years, +Goethe found the master he sought; Herder taught him the +significance of Gothic architecture, revealed to him the charm +of nature’s simplicity, and inspired him with enthusiasm for +Shakespeare and the <i>Volkslied</i>. Meanwhile Goethe’s legal studies +were not neglected, and he found time to add to knowledge of +other subjects, notably that of medicine. Another factor of +importance in Goethe’s Strassburg life was his love for Friederike +Brion, the daughter of an Alsatian village pastor in Sesenheim. +Even more than Herder’s precept and example, this passion showed +Goethe how trivial and artificial had been the Anacreontic and +pastoral poetry with which he had occupied himself in Leipzig; +and the lyrics inspired by Friederike, such as <i>Kleine Blumen, +kleine Blätter</i> and <i>Wie herrlich leuchtet mir die Natur!</i> mark the +beginning of a new epoch in German lyric poetry. The idyll of +Sesenheim, as described in <i>Dichtung und Wahrheit</i>, is one of the +most beautiful love-stories in the literature of the world. From +the first, however, it was clear that Friederike Brion could never +become the wife of the Frankfort patrician’s son; an unhappy +ending to the romance was unavoidable, and, as is to be seen in +passionate outpourings like the <i>Wanderers Sturmlied</i>, and in the +bitter self-accusations of <i>Clavigo</i>, it left deep wounds on the poet’s +sensitive soul.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page183" id="page183"></a>183</span></p> + +<p>To Strassburg we owe Goethe’s first important drama, <i>Götz +von Berlichingen</i>, or, as it was called in its earliest form, +<i>Geschichte Gottfriedens von Berlichingen dramatisiert</i> (not published +until 1831). Revised under the now familiar title, it appeared in +1773, after Goethe’s return to Frankfort. In estimating this +drama we must bear in mind Goethe’s own Strassburg life, and +the turbulent spirit of his own age, rather than the historical facts, +which the poet found in the autobiography of his hero published +in 1731. The latter supplied only the rough materials; the Götz +von Berlichingen whom Goethe drew, with his lofty ideals of +right and wrong, and his enthusiasm for freedom, is a very +different personage from the unscrupulous robber-knight of the +16th century, the rough friend of Franz von Sickingen and of the +revolting peasants. Still less historical justification is to be found +for the vacillating Weisslingen in whom Goethe executed poetic +justice on himself as the lover of Friederike, or in the women of +the play, the gentle Maria, the heartless Adelheid. But there is +genial, creative power in the very subjectivity of these characters, +and a vigorous dramatic life, which is irresistible in its appeal. +With <i>Götz von Berlichingen</i>, Shakespeare’s art first triumphed on +the German stage, and the literary movement known as <i>Sturm +und Drang</i> was inaugurated.</p> + +<p>Having received his degree in Strassburg, Goethe returned +home in August 1771, and began his initiation into the routine of +an advocate’s profession. In the following year, in order to gain +insight into another side of his calling, he spent four months at +Wetzlar, where the imperial law-courts were established. But +Goethe’s professional duties had only a small share in the eventful +years which lay between his return from Strassburg and that visit +to Weimar at the end of 1775, which turned the whole course of +his career, and resulted in his permanent attachment to the +Weimar court. Goethe’s life in Frankfort was a round of stimulating +literary intercourse; in J. H. Merck (1741-1791), an army +official in the neighbouring town of Darmstadt, he found a friend +and mentor, whose irony and common-sense served as a corrective +to his own exuberance of spirits. Wetzlar brought new friends +and another passion, that for Charlotte Buff, the daughter of the +<i>Amtmann</i> there—a love-story which has been immortalized in +<i>Werthers Leiden</i>—and again the young poet’s nature was obsessed +by a love which was this time strong enough to bring him to +the brink of that suicide with which the novel ends. A visit to +the Rhine, where new interests and the attractions of Maximiliane +von Laroche, a daughter of Wieland’s friend, the novelist Sophie +von Laroche, brought partial healing; his intense preoccupation +with literary work on his return to Frankfort did the rest. In +1775 Goethe was attracted by still another type of woman, Lili +Schönemann, whose mother was the widow of a wealthy Frankfort +banker. A formal betrothal took place, and the beauty of the +lyrics which Lili inspired leaves no room for doubt that here was +a passion no less genuine than that for Friederike or Charlotte. +But Goethe—more worldly wise than on former occasions—felt +instinctively that the gay, social world in which Lili moved was +not really congenial to him. A visit to Switzerland in the +summer of 1775 may not have weakened his interest in her, but it +at least allowed him to regard her objectively; and, without tragic +consequences on either side, the passion was ultimately allowed to +yield to the dictates of common-sense. Goethe’s departure for +Weimar in November made the final break less difficult.</p> + +<p>The period from 1771 to 1775 was, in literary respects, the +most productive of the poet’s life. It had been inaugurated +with <i>Götz von Berlichingen</i>, and a few months later this tragedy +was followed by another, <i>Clavigo</i>, hardly less convincing in its +character-drawing, and reflecting even more faithfully than the +former the experiences Goethe had gone through in Strassburg. +Again poetic justice is effected on the unfortunate hero who +has chosen his own personal advancement in preference to his +duty to the woman he loves; more pointedly than in <i>Götz</i> is +the moral enforced by Clavigo’s worldly friend Carlos, that the +ground of Clavigo’s tragic end lies not so much in the defiance +of a moral law as in the hero’s vacillation and want of character. +With <i>Die Leiden des jungen Werthers</i> (1774), the literary +precipitate of the author’s own experiences in Wetzlar, Goethe +succeeded in attracting, as no German had done before him, +the attention of Europe. Once more it was the gospel that the +world belongs to the strong, which lay beneath the surface of +this romance. This, however, was not the lesson which was +drawn from it by Goethe’s contemporaries; they shed tears +of sympathy over the lovelorn youth whose burden becomes +too great for him to bear. While <i>Götz</i> inaugurated the manlier +side of the <i>Sturm und Drang</i> literature, <i>Werther</i> was responsible +for its sentimental excesses. And to the sentimental rather +than to the heroic side belongs also <i>Stella</i>, “a drama for lovers,” +in which the poet again reproduced, if with less fidelity than in +<i>Werther</i>, certain aspects of his own love troubles. A lighter +vein is to be observed in various dramatic satires written at this +time, such as <i>Götter</i>, <i>Helden und Wieland</i> (1774), <i>Hanswursts +Hochzeit</i>, <i>Fastnachtsspiel vom Pater Brey</i>, <i>Satyros</i>, and in the +<i>Singspiele</i>, <i>Erwin und Elmire</i> (1775) and <i>Claudine von Villa +Bella</i> (1776); while in the <i>rankfurter Gelehrte Anzeiger</i> (1772-1773), +Goethe drove home the principles of the new movement +of <i>Sturm und Drang</i> in terse and pointed criticism. The exuberance +of the young poet’s genius is also to be seen in the many +unfinished fragments of this period; at one time we find him +occupied with dramas on <i>Caesar</i> and <i>Mahomet</i>, at another with +an epic on <i>Der ewige Jude</i>, and again with a tragedy on <i>Prometheus</i>, +of which a magnificent fragment has passed into his works. +Greatest of all the torsos of this period, however, was the dramatization +of <i>Faust</i>. Thanks to a manuscript copy of the play in +its earliest form—discovered as recently as 1887—we are now +able to distinguish how much of this tragedy was the immediate +product of the <i>Sturm und Drang</i>, and to understand the intentions +with which the young poet began his masterpiece. Goethe’s +hero changed with the author’s riper experience and with his new +conceptions of man’s place and duties in the world, but the +Gretchen tragedy was taken over into the finished poem, practically +unaltered, from the earliest <i>Faust</i> of the <i>Sturm und Drang</i>. +With these wonderful scenes, the most intensely tragic in all +German literature, Goethe’s poetry in this period reaches its +climax. Still another important work, however, was conceived, +and in large measure written at this time, the drama of <i>Egmont</i>, +which was not published until 1788. This work may, to some +extent, be regarded as supplementary to <i>Faust</i>; it presents the +lighter, more cheerful and optimistic side of Goethe’s philosophy +in these years; Graf Egmont, the most winning and fascinating +of the poet’s heroes, is endowed with that “demonic” power +over the sympathies of men and women, which Goethe himself +possessed in so high a degree. But <i>Egmont</i> depends for its +interest almost solely on two characters, Egmont himself and +Klärchen, Gretchen’s counterpart; regarded as a drama, it +demonstrates the futility of that defiance of convention and +rules with which the <i>Sturm und Drang</i> set out. It remained for +Goethe, in the next period of his life, to construct on classic +models a new vehicle for German dramatic poetry.</p> + +<p>In December 1774 the young “hereditary prince” of Weimar, +Charles Augustus, passing through Frankfort on his way to Paris, +came into personal touch with Goethe, and invited the poet to +visit Weimar when, in the following year, he took up the reins +of government. In October 1775 the invitation was repeated, +and on the 7th of November of that year Goethe arrived in the +little Saxon capital which was to remain his home for the rest of +his life. During the first few months in Weimar the poet gave +himself up to the pleasures of the moment as unreservedly as +his patron; indeed, the Weimar court even looked upon him for +a time as a tempter who led the young duke astray. But the +latter, although himself a mere stripling, had implicit faith in +Goethe, and a firm conviction that his genius could be utilized +in other fields besides literature. Goethe was not long in Weimar +before he was entrusted with responsible state duties, and events +soon justified the duke’s confidence. Goethe proved the soul +of the Weimar government, and a minister of state of energy +and foresight. He interested himself in agriculture, horticulture +and mining, which were of paramount importance to the welfare +of the duchy, and out of these interests sprang his own love for +the natural sciences, which took up so much of his time in later +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page184" id="page184"></a>184</span> +years. The inevitable love-interest was also not wanting. As +Friederike had fitted into the background of Goethe’s Strassburg +life, Lotte into that of Wetzlar, and Lili into the gaieties of +Frankfort, so now Charlotte von Stein, the wife of a Weimar +official, was the personification of the more aristocratic ideals of +Weimar society. We possess only the poet’s share of his correspondence +with Frau von Stein, but it is possible to infer from +it that, of all Goethe’s loves, this was intellectually the most +worthy of him. Frau von Stein was a woman of refined literary +taste and culture, seven years older than he and the mother of +seven children. There was something more spiritual, something +that partook rather of the passionate friendships of the 18th +century than of love in Goethe’s relations with her. Frau von +Stein dominated the poet’s life for twelve years, until his journey +to Italy in 1786-1788. Of other events of this period the most +notable were two winter journeys, the first in 1777, to the Harz +Mountains, the second, two years later, to Switzerland—journeys +which gave Goethe scope for that introspection and reflection +for which his Weimar life left him little time. On the second of +these journeys he revisited Friederike in Sesenheim, saw Lili, +who had married and settled in Strassburg, and made the +personal acquaintance of Lavater in Zürich.</p> + +<p>The literary results of these years cannot be compared with +those of the preceding period; they are virtually limited to a +few wonderful lyrics, such as <i>Wanderers Nachtlied</i>, <i>An den Mond</i>, +<i>Gesang der Geister über den Wassern</i>, or ballads, such as <i>Der +Erlkönig</i>, a charming little drama, <i>Die Geschwister</i> (1776), in +which the poet’s relations to both Lili and Frau von Stein seem +to be reflected, a dramatic satire, <i>Der Triumph der Empfindsamkeit</i> +(1778), and a number of <i>Singspiele</i>, <i>Lila</i> (1777), <i>Die Fischerin</i>, +<i>Scherz, List und Rache</i>, and <i>Jery und Bätely</i> (1780). But greater +works were in preparation. A religious epic, <i>Die Geheimnisse</i>, and +a tragedy <i>Elpenor</i>, did not, it is true, advance much further +than plans; but in 1777, under the influence of the theatrical +experiments at the Weimar court, Goethe conceived and in great +measure wrote a novel of the theatre, which was to have borne +the title <i>Wilhelm Meisters theatralische Sendung</i>; and in 1779 +himself took part in a representation before the court at Ettersburg, +of his drama <i>Iphigenie auf Tauris</i>. This <i>Iphigenie</i> was, +however, in prose; in the following year Goethe remoulded it +in iambics, but it was not until he went to Rome that the drama +finally received the form in which we know it.</p> + +<p>In September, 1786 Goethe set out from Karlsbad—secretly +and stealthily, his plan known only to his servant—on that +memorable journey to Italy, to which he had looked forward +with such intense longing; he could not cross the Alps quickly +enough, so impatient was he to set foot in Italy. He travelled +by way of Munich, the Brenner and Lago di Garda to Verona +and Venice, and from thence to Rome, where he arrived on the +29th of October 1786. Here he gave himself up unreservedly +to the new impressions which crowded on him, and he was soon +at home among the German artists in Rome, who welcomed him +warmly. In the spring of 1787 he extended his journey as far +as Naples and Sicily, returning to Rome in June 1787, where he +remained until his final departure for Germany on the 2nd of +April 1788. It is difficult to exaggerate the importance of +Goethe’s Italian journey. He himself regarded it as a kind of +climax to his life; never before had he attained such complete +understanding of his genius and mission in the world; it afforded +him a vantage-ground from which he could renew the past and +make plans for the future. In Weimar he had felt that he was no +longer in sympathy with the <i>Sturm und Drang</i>, but it was Italy +which first taught him clearly what might take the place of that +movement in German poetry. To the modern reader, who +may well be impressed by Goethe’s extraordinary receptivity, +it may seem strange that his interests in Italy were so limited; +for, after all, he saw comparatively little of the art treasures of +Italy. He went to Rome in Winckelmann’s footsteps; it was +the antique he sought, and his interest in the artists of the +Renaissance was virtually restricted to their imitation of classic +models. This search for the classic ideal is reflected in the works +he completed or wrote under the Italian sky. The calm beauty +of Greek tragedy is seen in the new iambic version of <i>Iphigenie +auf Tauris</i> (1787); the classicism of the Renaissance gives the +ground-tone to the wonderful drama of <i>Torquato Tasso</i> (1790), +in which the conflict of poetic genius with the prosaic world is +transmuted into imperishable poetry. Classic, too, in this +sense, were the plans of a drama on <i>Iphigenie auf Delphos</i> and +of an epic, <i>Nausikaa</i>. Most interesting of all, however, is the +reflection of the classic spirit in works already begun in earlier +days, such as <i>Egmont</i> and <i>Faust</i>. The former drama was finished +in Italy and appeared in 1788, the latter was brought a step +further forward, part of it being published as a <i>Fragment</i> in 1790.</p> + +<p>Disappointment in more senses than one awaited Goethe on +his return to Weimar. He came back from Italy with a new +philosophy of life, a philosophy at once classic and pagan, and +with very definite ideas of what constituted literary excellence. +But Germany had not advanced; in 1788 his countrymen were +still under the influence of that <i>Sturm und Drang</i> from which +the poet had fled. The times seemed to him more out of joint +than ever, and he withdrew into himself. Even his relations to +the old friends were changed. Frau von Stein had not known +of his flight to Italy until she received a letter from Rome; but +he looked forward to her welcome on his return. The months +of absence, however, the change he had undergone, and doubtless +those lighter loves of which the <i>Römische Elegien</i> bear evidence, +weakened the Weimar memories; if he left Weimar as Frau von +Stein’s lover he returned only as her friend; and she naturally +resented the change. Goethe, meanwhile, satisfied to continue +the freer customs to which he had adapted himself in Rome, +found a new mistress in Christiane Vulpius (1765-1816), the +least interesting of all the women who attracted him. But +Christiane gradually filled up a gap in the poet’s life; she gave +him, quietly, unobtrusively, without making demands on him, +the comforts of a home. She was not accepted by court society; +it did not matter to her that even Goethe’s intimate friends +ignored her; and she, who had suited the poet’s whim when he +desired to shut himself off from all that might dim the recollection +of Italy, became with the years an indispensable helpmate to +him. On the birth in 1789 of his son, Goethe had some thought +of legalizing his relations with Christiane, but this intention was +not realized until 1806, when the invasion of Weimar by the +French made him fear for both life and property.</p> + +<p>The period of Goethe’s life which succeeded his return from +Italy was restless and unsettled; relieved of his state duties, +he returned in 1790 to Venice, only to be disenchanted with the +Italy he had loved so intensely a year or two before. A journey +with the duke of Weimar to Breslau followed, and in 1792 he +accompanied his master on that campaign against France which +ended so ingloriously for the German arms at Valmy. In later +years Goethe published his account both of this <i>Campagne in +Frankreich</i> and of the <i>Belagerung von Mainz</i>, at which he was +also present in 1793. His literary work naturally suffered under +these distractions. <i>Tasso</i>, and the edition of the <i>Schriften</i> in +which it was to appear, had still to be completed on his return +from Italy; the <i>Römische Elegien</i>, perhaps the most Latin of all +his works, were published in 1795, and the <i>Venetianische Epigramme</i>, +the result of the second visit to Italy, in 1796. The +French Revolution, in which all Europe was engrossed, was in +Goethe’s eyes only another proof that the passing of the old +régime meant the abrogation of all law and order, and he gave +voice to his antagonism to the new democratic principles in the +dramas <i>Der Grosskophta</i> (1792), <i>Der Bürgergeneral</i> (1793), and +in the unfinished fragments <i>Die Aufgeregten</i> and <i>Das Mädchen +von Oberkirch</i>. The spirited translation of the epic of <i>Reinecke +Fuchs</i> (1794) he took up as a relief and an antidote to the social +disruption of the time. Two new interests, however, strengthened +the ties between Goethe and Weimar,—ties which the Italian +journey had threatened to sever: his appointment in 1791 as +director of the ducal theatre, a post which he occupied for +twenty-two years, and his absorption in scientific studies. In +1790 he published his important <i>Versuch, die Metamorphose der +Pflanzen zu erklären</i>, which was an even more fundamental +achievement for the new science of comparative morphology +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>185</span> +than his discovery some six years earlier of the existence of a +formation in the human jaw-bone analogous to the intermaxillary +bone in apes; and in 1791 and 1792 appeared two parts of his +<i>Beiträge zur Optik</i>.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, however, Goethe had again taken up the novel +of the theatre which he had begun years before, with a view to +finishing it and including it in the edition of his <i>Neue Schriften</i> +(1792-1800). <i>Wilhelm Meisters theatralische Sendung</i> became +<i>Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre</i>; the novel of purely theatrical +interests was widened out to embrace the history of a young +man’s apprenticeship to life. The change of plan explains, +although it may not exculpate, the formlessness and loose +construction of the work, its extremes of realistic detail and +poetic allegory. A hero, who was probably originally intended +to demonstrate the failure of the vacillating temperament when +brought face to face with the problems of art, proved ill-adapted +to demonstrate those precepts for the guidance of life with which +the <i>Lehrjahre</i> closes; unstable of purpose, Wilhelm Meister is +not so much an illustration of the author’s life-philosophy as a +lay-figure on which he demonstrates his views. <i>Wilhelm Meister</i> +is a work of extraordinary variety, ranging from the commonplace +realism of the troupe of strolling players to the poetic romanticism +of Mignon and the harper; its flashes of intuitive criticism and +its weighty apothegms add to its value as a <i>Bildungsroman</i> in +the best sense of that word. Of all Goethe’s works, this exerted +the most immediate and lasting influence on German literature; +it served as a model for the best fiction of the next thirty years.</p> + +<p>In completing <i>Wilhelm Meister</i>, Goethe found a sympathetic +and encouraging critic in Schiller, to whom he owed in great +measure his renewed interest in poetry. After years of tentative +approaches on Schiller’s part, years in which that poet concealed +even from himself his desire for a friendly understanding with +Goethe, the favourable moment arrived; it was in June 1794, +when Schiller was seeking collaborators for his new periodical +<i>Die Horen</i>; and his invitation addressed to Goethe was the +beginning of a friendship which continued unbroken until the +younger poet’s death. The friendship of Goethe and Schiller, +of which their correspondence is a priceless record, had its +limitations; it was purely intellectual in character, a certain +barrier of personal reserve being maintained to the last. But +for the literary life of both poets the gain was incommensurable. +As far as actual work was concerned, Goethe went his own way +as he had always been accustomed to do; but the mere fact that +he devoted himself with increasing interest to literature was due +to Schiller’s stimulus. It was Schiller, too, who induced him to +undertake those studies on the nature of epic and dramatic +poetry which resulted in the epic of <i>Hermann und Dorothea</i> +and the fragment of the <i>Achilleis</i>; without the friendship there +would have been no <i>Xenien</i> and no ballads, and it was his younger +friend’s encouragement which induced Goethe to betake himself +once more to the “misty path” of <i>Faust</i>, and bring the first +part of that drama to a conclusion.</p> + +<p>Goethe’s share in the <i>Xenien</i> (1796) may be briefly dismissed. +This collection of distichs, written in collaboration with Schiller, +was prompted by the indifference and animosity of contemporary +criticism, and its disregard for what the two poets regarded as +the higher interests of German poetry. The <i>Xenien</i> succeeded +as a retaliation on the critics, but the masterpieces which followed +them proved in the long run much more effective weapons +against the prevailing mediocrity. Prose works like the <i>Unterhaltungen +deutscher Ausgewanderten</i> (1795) were unworthy of +the poet’s genius, and the translation of Benvenuto Cellini’s +<i>Life</i> (1796-1797) was only a translation. But in 1798 appeared +<i>Hermann und Dorothea</i>, one of Goethe’s most perfect poems. +It is indeed remarkable—when we consider by how much reflection +and theoretic discussion the composition of the poem +was preceded and accompanied—that it should make upon the +reader so simple and “naïve” an impression; in this respect +it is the triumph of an art that conceals art. Goethe has here +taken a simple story of village life, mirrored in it the most +pregnant ideas of his time, and presented it with a skill which +may well be called Homeric; but he has discriminated with +the insight of genius between the Homeric method of reproducing +the heroic life of primitive Greece and the same method +as adapted to the commonplace happenings of 18th-century +Germany. In this respect he was undoubtedly guided by a +forerunner who has more right than he to the attribute “naïve,” +by J. H. Voss, the author of <i>Luise</i>. Hardly less imposing in +their calm, placid perfection are the poems with which, in +friendly rivalry, Goethe seconded the more popular ballads +of his friend; <i>Der Zauberlehrling</i>, <i>Der Gott und die Bayadere</i>, +<i>Die Braut von Korinth</i>, <i>Alexis und Dora</i>, <i>Der neue Pausias</i> and +<i>Die schöne Müllerin</i>—a cycle of poems in the style of the <i>Volkslied</i>—are +among the masterpieces of Goethe’s poetry. On the other +hand, even the friendship with Schiller did not help him +to add to his reputation as a dramatist. <i>Die natürliche Tochter</i> +(1803), in which he began to embody his ideas of the Revolution +on a wide canvas, proved impossible on the stage, and the +remaining dramas, which were to have formed a trilogy, were +never written. Goethe’s classic principles, when applied to +the swift, direct art of the theatre, were doomed to failure, and +<i>Die natürliche Tochter</i>, notwithstanding its good theoretic intention, +remains the most lifeless and shadowy of all his dramas. +Even less in touch with the living present were the various +prologues and <i>Festspiele</i>, such as <i>Paläophron und Neoterpe</i> (1800), +<i>Was wir bringen</i> (1802), which in these years he composed for +the Weimar theatre.</p> + +<p>Goethe’s classicism brought him into inevitable antagonism +with the new Romantic movement which had been inaugurated +in 1798 by the <i>Athenaeum</i>, edited by the brothers Schlegel. +The sharpness of the conflict was, however, blunted by the fact +that, without exception, the young Romantic writers looked +up to Goethe as its master; they modelled their fiction on +<i>Wilhelm Meister</i>; they regarded his lyrics as the high-water +mark of German poetry; Goethe, Novalis declared, was the +“Statthalter of poetry on earth.” With regard to painting and +sculpture, however, Goethe felt that a protest was necessary, +if the insidious ideas propounded in works like Wackenroder’s +<i>Herzensergiessungen</i> were not to do irreparable harm, by bringing +back the confusion of the <i>Sturm und Drang</i>; and, as a rejoinder +to the Romantic theories, Goethe, in conjunction with his friend +Heinrich Meyer (1760-1832), published from 1798 to 1800 an +art review, <i>Die Propyläen</i>. Again, in <i>Winckelmann und seine +Zeit</i> (1805) Goethe vigorously defended the classical ideals of +which Winckelmann had been the founder. But in the end he +proved himself the greatest enemy to the strict classic doctrine by +the publication in 1808 of the completed first part of <i>Faust</i>, a +work which was accepted by contemporaries as a triumph of +Romantic art. <i>Faust</i> is a patchwork of many colours. With the +aid of the vast body of <i>Faust</i> literature which has sprung up in +recent years, and the many new documents bearing on its history—above +all, the so-called <i>Urfaust</i>, to which reference has already +been made—we are able now to ascribe to their various periods +the component parts of the work; it is possible to discriminate +between the <i>Sturm und Drang</i> hero of the opening scenes and +of the Gretchen tragedy—the contemporary of Götz and Clavigo—and +the superimposed Faust of calmer moral and intellectual +ideals—a Faust who corresponds to Hermann and Wilhelm +Meister. In its original form the poem was the dramatization +of a specific and individualized story; in the years of Goethe’s +friendship with Schiller it was extended to embody the higher +strivings of 18th-century humanism; ultimately, as we shall see, +it became, in the second part, a vast allegory of human life and +activity. Thus the elements of which <i>Faust</i> is composed were +even more difficult to blend than were those of <i>Wilhelm Meister</i>; +but the very want of uniformity is one source of the perennial +fascination of the tragedy, and has made it in a peculiar degree +the national poem of the German people, the mirror which +reflects the national life and poetry from the outburst of <i>Sturm +und Drang</i> to the well-weighed and tranquil classicism of Goethe’s +old age.</p> + +<p>The third and final period of Goethe’s long life may be said +to have begun after Schiller’s death. He never again lost touch +with literature as he had done in the years which preceded his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>186</span> +friendship with Schiller; but he stood in no active or immediate +connexion with the literary movement of his day. His life +moved on comparatively uneventfully. Even the Napoleonic +régime of 1806-1813 disturbed but little his equanimity. Goethe, +the cosmopolitan <i>Weltbürger</i> of the 18th century, had himself no +very intense feelings of patriotism, and, having seen Germany +flourish as a group of small states under enlightened despotisms, +he had little confidence in the dreamers of 1813 who hoped +to see the glories of Barbarossa’s empire revived. Napoleon, +moreover, he regarded not as the scourge of Europe, but as the +defender of civilization against the barbarism of the Slavs; +and in the famous interview between the two men at Erfurt the +poet’s admiration was reciprocated by the French conqueror. +Thus Goethe had no great sympathy for the war of liberation +which kindled young hearts from one end of Germany to the +other; and when the national enthusiasm rose to its highest +pitch he buried himself in those optical and morphological +studies, which, with increasing years, occupied more and more +of his time and interest.</p> + +<p>The works and events of the last twenty-five years of Goethe’s +life may be briefly summarized. In 1805, as we have seen, he +suffered an irreparable loss in the death of Schiller; in 1806, +Christiane became his legal wife, and to the same year belongs +the magnificent tribute to his dead friend, the <i>Epilog zu Schillers +Glocke</i>. Two new friendships about this time kindled in the +poet something of the juvenile fire and passion of younger days. +Bettina von Arnim came into personal touch with Goethe in +1807, and her <i>Briefwechsel Goethes mit einem Kinde</i> (published +in 1835) is, in its mingling of truth and fiction, one of the most +delightful products of the Romantic mind; but the episode was +of less importance for Goethe’s life than Bettina would have us +believe. On the other hand, his interest in Minna Herzlieb, +foster-daughter of the publisher Frommann in Jena, was of a +warmer nature, and has left its traces on his sonnets.</p> + +<p>In 1808, as we have seen, appeared the first part of <i>Faust</i>, and +in 1809 it was followed by <i>Die Wahlverwandtschaften</i>. The novel, +hardly less than the drama, effected a change in the public +attitude towards the poet. Since the beginning of the century +the conviction had been gaining ground that Goethe’s mission +was accomplished, that the day of his leadership was over; +but here were two works which not merely re-established his +ascendancy, but proved that the old poet was in sympathy with +the movement of letters, and keenly alive to the change of ideas +which the new century had brought in its train. The intimate +psychological study of four minds, which forms the subject of +the <i>Wahlverwandtschaften</i>, was an essay in a new type of fiction, +and pointed out the way for developments of the German novel +after the stimulus of <i>Wilhelm Meister</i> had exhausted itself. +Less important than <i>Die Wahlverwandtschaften</i> was <i>Pandora</i> +(1810), the final product of Goethe’s classicism, and the most +uncompromisingly classical and allegorical of all his works. +And in 1810, too, appeared his treatise on <i>Farbenlehre</i>. In the +following year the first volume of his autobiography was published +under the title <i>Aus meinem Leben, Dichtung und Wahrheit</i>. +The second and third volumes of this work followed in 1812 and +1814; the fourth, bringing the story of his life up to the close +of the Frankfort period in 1833, after his death. Goethe felt, +even late in life, too intimately bound up with Weimar to discuss +in detail his early life there, and he shrank from carrying his +biography beyond the year 1775. But a number of other +publications—descriptions of travel, such as the <i>Italienische +Reise</i> (1816-1817), the materials for a continuation of <i>Dichtung +und Wahrheit</i> collected in <i>Tag- und Jahreshefte</i> (1830)—have also +to be numbered among the writings which Goethe has left us as +documents of his life. Meanwhile no less valuable biographical +materials were accumulating in his diaries, his voluminous +correspondence and his conversations, as recorded by J. P. +Eckermann, the chancellor Müller and F. Soret. Several +periodical publications, <i>Über Kunst und Altertum</i> (1816-1832), +<i>Zur Naturwissenschaft überhaupt</i> (1817-1824). <i>Zur Morphologie</i> +(1817-1824), bear witness to the extraordinary breadth of +Goethe’s interests in these years. Art, science, literature—little +escaped his ken—and that not merely in Germany: English +writers, Byron, Scott and Carlyle, Italians like Manzoni, French +scientists and poets, could all depend on friendly words of +appreciation and encouragement from Weimar.</p> + +<p>In <i>West-östlicher Diwan</i> (1819), a collection of lyrics—matchless +in form and even more concentrated in expression than those +of earlier days—which were suggested by a German translation +of Hafiz, Goethe had another surprise in store for his contemporaries. +And, again, it was an actual passion—that for Marianne +von Willemer, whom he met in 1814 and 1815—which rekindled +in him the lyric fire. Meanwhile the years were thinning the +ranks of Weimar society: Wieland, the last of Goethe’s greater +literary contemporaries, died in 1813, his wife in 1816, Charlotte +von Stein in 1827 and Duke Charles Augustus in 1828. Goethe’s +retirement from the direction of the theatre in 1817 meant for +him a break with the literary life of the day. In 1822 a passion +for a young girl, Ulrike von Levetzow, whom he met at Marienbad, +inspired the fine <i>Trilogie der Leidenschaft</i>, and between +1821 and 1829 appeared the long-expected and long-promised +continuation of <i>Wilhelm Meister, Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre</i>. +The latter work, however, was a disappointment: perhaps it +could not have been otherwise. Goethe had lost the thread of +his romance and it was difficult for him to resume it. Problems +of the relation of the individual to society and industrial questions +were to have formed the theme of the <i>Wanderjahre</i>; but since +the French Revolution these problems had themselves entered +on a new phase and demanded a method of treatment which it +was not easy for the old poet to learn. Thus his intentions were +only partially carried out, and the volumes were filled out by +irrelevant stories, which had been written at widely different +periods.</p> + +<p>But the crowning achievement of Goethe’s literary life was +the completion of <i>Faust</i>. The poem had accompanied him from +early manhood to the end and was the repository for the fullest +“confession” of his life; it is the poetic epitome of his experience. +The second part is, in form, far removed from the impressive +realism of the <i>Urfaust</i>. It is a phantasmagory; a drama the +actors in which are not creatures of flesh and blood, but the +shadows of an unreal world of allegory. The lover of Gretchen +had, as far as poetic continuity is concerned, disappeared with +the close of the first part. In the second part it is virtually a new +Faust who, at the hands of a new Mephistopheles, goes out into +a world that is not ours. Yet behind these unconvincing shadows +of an imperial court with its financial difficulties, of the classical +<i>Walpurgisnacht</i>, of the fantastic creation of the Homunculus, +the noble Helena episode and the impressive mystery-scene +of the close, where the centenarian Faust finally triumphs over +the powers of evil, there lies a philosophy of life, a ripe wisdom +born of experience, such as no European poet had given to the +world since the Renaissance. <i>Faust</i> has been well called the +“divine comedy” of 18th-century humanism.</p> + +<p>The second part of <i>Faust</i> forms a worthy close to the life of +Germany’s greatest man of letters, who died in Weimar on the +22nd of March 1832. He was the last of those universal minds +which have been able to compass all domains of human activity +and knowledge; for he stood on the brink of an era of rapidly +expanding knowledge which has made for ever impossible the +universality of interest and sympathy which distinguished him. +As a poet, his fame has undergone many vicissitudes since his +death, ranging from the indifference of the “Young German” +school to the enthusiastic admiration of the closing decades of +the 19th century—an enthusiasm to which we owe the Weimar +<i>Goethe-Gesellschaft</i> (founded in 1885) and a vast literature dealing +with the poet’s life and work; but the fact of his being Germany’s +greatest poet and the master of her classical literature has never +been seriously put in question. The intrinsic value of his poetic +work, regarded apart from his personality, is smaller in proportion +to its bulk than is the case with many lesser German poets +and with the greatest poets of other literatures. But Goethe +was a type of literary man hitherto unrepresented among the +leading writers of the world’s literature; he was a poet whose +supreme greatness lay in his subjectivity. Only a small fraction +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187"></a>187</span> +of Goethe’s work was written in an impersonal and objective +spirit, and sprang from what might be called a conscious artistic +impulse; by far the larger—and the better—part is the immediate +reflex of his feelings and experiences.</p> + +<p>It is as a lyric poet that Goethe’s supremacy is least likely +to be challenged; he has given his nation, whose highest literary +expression has in all ages been essentially lyric, its greatest songs. +No other German poet has succeeded in attuning feeling, sentiment +and thought so perfectly to the music of words as he; none +has expressed so fully that spirituality in which the quintessence +of German lyrism lies. Goethe’s dramas, on the other hand, +have not, in the eyes of his nation, succeeded in holding their +own beside Schiller’s; but the reason is rather because Goethe, +from what might be called a wilful obstinacy, refused to be +bound by the conventions of the theatre, than because he was +deficient in the cunning of the dramatist. For, as an interpreter +of human character in the drama, Goethe is without a rival +among modern poets, and there is not one of his plays that does +not contain a few scenes or characters which bear indisputable +testimony to his mastery. <i>Faust</i> is Germany’s most national +drama, and it remains perhaps for the theatre of the future to +prove itself capable of popularizing psychological masterpieces +like <i>Tasso</i> and <i>Iphigenie</i>. It is as a novelist that Goethe has +suffered most by the lapse of time. The <i>Sorrows of Werther</i> no +longer moves us to tears, and even <i>Wilhelm Meister</i> and <i>Die +Wahlverwandtschaften</i> require more understanding for the +conditions under which they were written than do <i>Faust</i> or +<i>Egmont</i>. Goethe could fill his prose with rich wisdom, but he +was only the perfect artist in verse.</p> + +<p>Little attention is nowadays paid to Goethe’s work in other +fields, work which he himself in some cases prized more highly +than his poetry. It is only as an illustration of his many-sidedness +and his manifold activity that we now turn to his work as a +statesman, as a theatre-director, as a practical political economist. +His art-criticism is symptomatic of a phase of European taste +which tried in vain to check the growing individualism of +Romanticism. His scientific studies and discoveries awaken +only an historical interest. We marvel at the obstinacy with +which he, with inadequate mathematical knowledge, opposed +the Newtonian theory of light and colour; and at his championship +of “Neptunism,” the theory of aqueous origin, as opposed +to “Vulcanism,” that of igneous origin of the earth’s crust. +Of far-reaching importance was, on the other hand, his foreshadowing +of the Darwinian theory in his works on the metamorphosis +of plants and on animal morphology. Indeed, the +deduction to be drawn from Goethe’s contributions to botany +and anatomy is that he, as no other of his contemporaries, +possessed that type of scientific mind which, in the 19th century, +has made for progress; he was Darwin’s predecessor by virtue +of his enunciation of what has now become one of the commonplaces +of natural science—organic evolution. Modern, too, was +the outlook of the aging poet on the changing social conditions +of the age, wonderfully sympathetic his attitude towards modern +industry, which steam was just beginning to establish on a new +basis, and towards modern democracy. The Europe of his later +years was very different from the idyllic and enlightened +autocracy of the 18th century, in which he had spent his best +years and to which he had devoted his energies; yet Goethe +was at home in it.</p> + +<p>From the philosophic movement, in which Schiller and the +Romanticists were so deeply involved, Goethe stood apart. +Comparatively early in life he had found in Spinoza the philosopher +who responded to his needs; Spinoza taught him to see +in nature the “living garment of God,” and more he did not seek +or need to know. As a convinced realist he took his standpoint +on nature and experience, and could afford to look on objectively +at the controversies of the metaphysicians. Kant he by no +means ignored, and under Schiller’s guidance he learned much +from him; but of the younger thinkers, only Schelling, whose +mystic nature-philosophy was a development of Spinoza’s +ideas, touched a sympathetic chord in his nature. As a moralist +and a guide to the conduct of life—an aspect of Goethe’s work +which Carlyle, viewing him through the coloured glasses of +Fichtean idealism, emphasized and interpreted not always +justly—Goethe was a powerful force on German life in years of +political and intellectual depression. It is difficult even still +to get beyond the maxims of practical wisdom he scattered so +liberally through his writings, the lessons to be learned from +<i>Meister</i> and <i>Faust</i>, or even that calm, optimistic fatalism which +never deserted Goethe, and was so completely justified by the +tenor of his life. If the philosophy of Spinoza provided the poet +with a religion which made individual creeds and dogmas +unnecessary and impossible, so Leibnitz’s doctrine of predestinism +supplied the foundations for his faith in the divine +mission of human life.</p> + +<p>This many-sided activity is a tribute to the greatness of +Goethe’s mind and personality; we may regard him merely as +the embodiment of his particular age, or as a poet “for all +time”; but with one opinion all who have felt the power of +Goethe’s genius are in agreement—the opinion which was condensed +in Napoleon’s often cited words, uttered after the meeting +at Erfurt: <i>Voilà un homme!</i> Of all modern men, Goethe is +the most universal type of genius. It is the full, rich humanity +of his life and personality—not the art behind which the artist +disappears, or the definite pronouncements of the thinker or the +teacher—that constitutes his claim to a place in the front rank +of men of letters. His life was his greatest work.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—(<i>a</i>) <i>Collected Works, Diaries, Correspondence, +Conversations</i>. The following authorized editions of Goethe’s +writings appeared in the poet’s lifetime: <i>Schriften</i> (8 vols., Leipzig, +1787-1790); <i>Neue Schriften</i> (7 vols., Berlin, 1792-1800); <i>Werke</i> +(13 vols., Stuttgart, 1806-1810); <i>Werke</i> (20 vols., Stuttgart, 1815-1819); +to which six volumes were added in 1820-1822; Werke +(Vollständige Ausgabe letzter Hand) (40 vols., Stuttgart, 1827-1830). +Goethe’s <i>Nachgelassene Werke</i> appeared as a continuation of this +edition in 15 volumes (Stuttgart, 1832-1834), to which five volumes +were added in 1842. These were followed by several editions of +Goethe’s <i>Sämtliche Werke</i>, mostly in forty volumes, published by +Cotta of Stuttgart. The first critical edition with notes was published +by Hempel, Berlin, in thirty-six volumes, 1868-1879; that in +Kürschner’s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i>, vols. 82-117 (1882-1897) is +also important. In 1887 the monumental Weimar edition, which +is now approaching completion, began to appear; it is divided +into four sections: I. <i>Werke</i> (<i>c.</i> 56 vols.); II. <i>Naturwissenschaftliche +Werke</i> (12 vols.); III. <i>Tagebücher</i> (13 vols.); IV. <i>Briefe</i> (<i>c.</i> 45 vols.). +Of other recent editions the most noteworthy are: Sämtliche Werke +(Jubiläums-Ausgabe), edited by E. von der Hellen (40 vols., Stuttgart, +1902 ff.); <i>Werke</i>, edited by K. Heinemann (30 vols., Leipzig, +1900 ff.), and the cheap edition of the <i>Sämtliche Werke</i>, edited by +L. Geiger (44 vols., Leipzig, 1901). There are also innumerable +editions of selected works; reference need only be made here to the +useful collection of the early writings and letters published by S. +Hirzel with an introduction by M. Bernays, <i>Der junge Goethe</i> (3 vols., +Leipzig, 1875, 2nd ed., 1887). A French translation of Goethe’s +<i>Œuvres complètes</i>, by J. Porchat, appeared in 9 vols., at Paris, in +1860-1863. There is, as yet, no uniform English edition, but Goethe’s +chief works have all been frequently translated and a number of +them will be found in Bohn’s standard library.</p> + +<p>The definitive edition of Goethe’s diaries and letters is that forming +Sections III. and IV. of the Weimar edition. Collections of selected +letters based on the Weimar edition have been published by E. von +der Hellen (6 vols., 1901 ff.), and by P. Stein (8 vols., 1902 ff.). Of +the many separate collections of Goethe’s correspondence mention +may be made of the <i>Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Goethe</i>, edited +by Goethe himself (1828-1829; 4th ed., 1881; also several cheap +reprints. English translation by L. D. Schmitz, 1877-1879); +<i>Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Zelter</i> (6 vols., 1833-1834; reprint +in Reclam’s <i>Universalbibliothek</i>, 1904; English translation by +A. D. Coleridge, 1887); <i>Bettina von Arnim, Goethes Briefwechsel +mit einem Kinde</i> (1835; 4th ed., 1890; English translation, 1838); +<i>Briefe von und an Goethe</i>, edited by F. W. Riemer (1846); <i>Goethes +Briefe an Frau von Stein</i>, edited by A. Schöll (1848-1851; 3rd ed. +by J. Wahle, 1899-1900); <i>Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und K. F. von +Reinhard</i> (1850); <i>Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Knebel</i> (2 vols., +1851); <i>Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Staatsrat Schultz</i> (1853); +<i>Briefwechsel des Herzogs Karl August mit Goethe</i> (2 vols., 1863); +<i>Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Kaspar Graf von Sternberg</i> (1866); +<i>Goethes naturwissenschaftliche Korrespondenz</i>, and <i>Goethes Briefwechsel +mit den Gebrüdern von Humboldt</i>, edited by F. T. Bratranek +(1874-1876); <i>Goethes und Carlyles Briefwechsel</i> (1887), also in +English; <i>Goethe und die Romantik</i>, edited by C. Schüddekopf and +O. Walzel (2 vols., 1898-1899); <i>Goethe und Lavater</i>, edited by H. +Funck (1901); <i>Goethe und Österreich</i>, edited by A. Sauer (2 vols., +1902-1903). Besides the correspondence with Schiller and Zelter, +Bonn’s library contains a translation of <i>Early and Miscellaneous</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188"></a>188</span> +<i>Letters</i>, by E. Bell (1884). The chief collections of Goethe’s conversations +are: J. P. Eckermann, <i>Gespräche mit Goethe</i> (1836; +vol. iii., also containing conversations with Soret, 1848; 7th ed. by +H. Düntzer, 1899; also new edition by L. Geiger, 1902; English +translation by J. Oxenford, 1850). The complete conversations +with Soret have been published in German translation by C. A. H. +Burkhardt (1905); <i>Goethes Unterhaltungen mit dem Kanzler F. von +Müller</i> (1870). Goethe’s collected <i>Gespräche</i> were published by +W. von Biedermann in 10 vols. (1889-1896).</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Biography.</i>—Goethe’s autobiography, <i>Aus meinem Leben: +Dichtung und Wahrheit</i>, appeared in three parts between 1811 and +1814, a fourth part, bringing the history of his life as far as his +departure for Weimar in 1775, in 1833 (English translation by +J. Oxenford, 1846); it is supplemented by other biographical writings, +as the <i>Italienische Reise, Aus einer Reise in die Schweiz im Jahre +1797</i>; <i>Aus einer Reise am Rhein, Main und Neckar in den Jahren +1814 und 1815, Tag- und Jahreshefte</i>, &c., and especially by his +diaries and correspondence. The following are the more important +biographies: H. Döring, <i>Goethes Leben</i> (1828; subsequent editions, +1833, 1849, 1856); H. Viehoff, <i>Goethes Leben</i> (4 vols., 1847-1854; +5th ed., 1887); J. W. Schäfer, <i>Goethes Leben</i> (2 vols., 1851; 3rd ed., +1877); G. H. Lewes, <i>The Life and Works of Goethe</i> (2 vols., 1855; +2nd ed., 1864; 3rd ed., 1875; cheap reprint, 1906; the German +translation by J. Frese is in its 18th edition, 1900; a shorter biography +was published by Lewes in 1873 under the title <i>The Story of Goethe’s +Life)</i>; W. Mézières, <i>W. Goethe, les œuvres expliquées par la vie</i> +(1872-1873); A. Bossert, <i>Goethe</i> (1872-1873); K. Goedeke, <i>Goethes +Leben und Schriften</i> (1874; 2nd ed., 1877); H. Grimm, <i>Goethe: +Vorlesungen</i> (1876; 8th ed., 1903; English translation, 1880); +A. Hayward, <i>Goethe</i> (1878); H. H. Boyesen, <i>Goethe and Schiller, +their Lives and Works</i> (1879); H. Düntzer, <i>Goethes Leben</i> (1880; +2nd ed., 1883; English translation, 1883); A. Baumgartner, <i>Goethe, +sein Leben und seine Werke</i> (1885); J. Sime, <i>Life of Goethe</i> (1888); +K. Heinemann, <i>Goethes Leben und Werke</i> (1889; 3rd ed., 1903); +R. M. Meyer, <i>Goethe</i> (1894; 3rd ed., 1904); A. Bielschowsky, +<i>Goethe, sein Leben und seine Werke</i> (vol. i., 1895; 5th ed., 1904; +vol. ii., 1903; English translation by W. A. Cooper, 1905 ff.); +G. Witkowsky, Goethe (1899); H. G. Atkins, <i>J. W. Goethe</i> (1904); +P. Hansen and R. Meyer, <i>Goethe, hans Liv og Vaerker</i> (1906).</p> + +<p>Of writings on special periods and aspects of Goethe’s life the +more important are as follows (the titles are arranged as far as +possible in the chronological sequence of the poet’s life): H. Düntzer, +<i>Goethes Stammbaum</i> (1894); K. Heinemann, <i>Goethes Mutter</i> (1891; +6th ed., 1900); P. Bastier, <i>La Mère de Goethe</i> (1902); <i>Briefe der +Frau Rat</i> (2 vols., 2nd ed., 1905); F. Ewart, <i>Goethes Vater</i> (1899); +G. Witkowski, <i>Cornelia die Schwester Goethes</i> (1903); P. Besson, +<i>Goethe, sa sœur et ses amies</i> (1898); H. Düntzer, <i>Frauenbilder aus +Goethes Jugendzeit</i> (1852); W. von Biedermann, <i>Goethe und Leipzig</i> +(1865); P. F. Lucius, <i>Friederike Brion</i> (1878; 3rd ed., 1904); +A. Bielschowsky, <i>Friederike Brion</i> (1880); F. E. von Durckheim, +<i>Lili’s Bild geschichtlich entworfen</i> (1879; 2nd ed., 1894); W. Herbst, +<i>Goethe in Wetzlar</i> (1881); A. Diezmann, <i>Goethe und die lustige Zeit +in Weimar</i> (1857; 2nd ed., 1901); H. Düntzer, <i>Goethe und Karl +August</i> (1859-1864; 2nd ed., 1888); also, by the same author, +<i>Aus Goethes Freundeskreise</i> (1868) and <i>Charlotte von Stein</i> (2 vols., +1874); J. Haarhuus, <i>Auf Goethes Spuren in Italien</i> (1896-1898); +O. Harnack, <i>Zur Nachgeschichte der italienischen Reise</i> (1890); H. +Grimm, <i>Schiller und Goethe</i> (<i>Essays</i>, 1858; 3rd ed., 1884); G. +Berlit, <i>Goethe und Schiller im persönlichen Verkehre, nach brieflichen +Mitteilungen von H. Voss</i> (1895); E. Pasqué, <i>Goethes Theaterleitung +in Weimar</i> (2 vols., 1863); C. A. H. Burkhards, <i>Das Repertoire des +weimarischen Theaters unter Goethes Leitung</i> (1891); J. Wahle, +<i>Das Weimarer Hoftheater unter Goethes Leitung</i> (1892); O. Harnack, +<i>Goethe in der Epoche seiner Vollendung</i> (2nd ed., 1901); J. Barbey +d’Aurevilly, <i>Goethe et Diderot</i> (1880); A Fischer, <i>Goethe und Napoleon</i> +(1899; 2nd ed., 1900); R. Steig, <i>Goethe und die Gebrüder Grimm</i> +(1892).</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>Criticism.</i>—H. G. Graef, <i>Goethe über seine Dichtungen</i> (1901 ff.); +J. W. Braun, <i>Goethe im Urteile seiner Zeitgenossen</i> (3 vols., 1883-1885); +T. Carlyle, <i>Essays on Goethe</i> (1828-1832); X. Marmier, +<i>Études sur Goethe</i> (1835); W. von Biedermann, <i>Goethe-Forschungen</i> +(1879, 1886); J. Minor and A. Sauer, <i>Studien zur Goethe-Philologie</i> +(1880); H. Düntzer, <i>Abhandlungen zu Goethes Leben und Werken</i> +(1881); A. Schöll, <i>Goethe in Hauptzügen seines Lebens und Wirkens</i> +(1882); V. Hehn, <i>Gedanken über Goethe</i> (1884; 4th ed., 1900); +W. Scherer, <i>Aufsätze über Goethe</i> (1886); J. R. Seeley, <i>Goethe +reviewed after Sixty Years</i> (1894); E. Dowden, <i>New Studies +in Literature</i> (1895); É. Rod, <i>Essai sur Goethe</i> (1898); A. Luther, +<i>Goethe, sechs Vorträge</i> (1905); R. Saitschik, <i>Goethes Charakter</i> +(1898); W. Bode, <i>Goethes Lebenskunst</i> (1900; 2nd ed., 1902); by +the same, <i>Goethes Ästhetik</i> (1901); T. Vollbehr, <i>Goethe und die +bildende Kunst</i> (1895); E. Lichtenberger, <i>Études sur les poésies +lyriques de Goethe</i> (1878); T. Achelis, <i>Grundzüge der Lyrik Goethes</i> +(1900); B. Litzmann, <i>Goethes Lyrik</i> (1903); R. Riemann, <i>Goethes +Romantechnik</i> (1901); R. Virchow, <i>Goethe als Naturforscher</i> (1861); +E. Caro, <i>La Philosophie de Goethe</i> (1866; 2nd ed., 1870); R. Steiner, +<i>Goethes Weltanschauung</i> (1897); F. Siebeck, <i>Goethe als Denker</i> (1902); +F. Baldensperger, Goethe en France (1904); S. Waetzoldt, <i>Goethe +und die Romantik</i> (1888).</p> + +<p>More special treatises dealing with individual works are the +following: W. Scherer, <i>Aus Goethes Frühzeit</i> (1879); R. Weissenfels, +<i>Goethe in Sturm und Drang</i>, vol. i. (1894); W. Wilmanns, +<i>Quellenstudien zu Goethes Götz von Berlichingen</i> (1874); J. Baechtold, +<i>Goethes Götz von Berlichingen in dreifacher Gestalt</i> (1882); J. W. +Appell, <i>Werther und seine Zeit</i> (1855; 4th ed., 1896); E. Schmidt, +<i>Richardson, Rousseau und Goethe</i> (1875); M. Herrmann, <i>Das Jahrmarktsfest +zu Plundersweilen</i> (1900); E. Schmidt, Goethes Faust +in ursprünglicher Gestalt (1887; 5th ed., 1901); J. Collin, <i>Goethes +Faust in seiner ältesten Gestalt</i> (1896); H. Hettner, <i>Goethes Iphigenie +in ihrem Verhältnis zur Bildungsgeschichte des Dichters</i> (1861; in +<i>Kleine Schriften</i>, 1884); K. Fischer, <i>Goethes Iphigenie</i> (1888); +F. T. Bratranek, <i>Goethes Egmont und Schillers Wallenstein</i> (1862); +C. Schuchardt, <i>Goethes italienische Reise</i> (1862); H. Düntzer, +<i>Iphigenie auf Tauris; die drei ältesten Bearbeitungen</i> (1854); F. +Kern, <i>Goethes Tasso</i> (1890); J. Schubart, <i>Die philosophischen +Grundgedanken in Goethes Wilhelm Meister</i> (1896); E. Boas, <i>Schiller +und Goethe in Xenienkampf</i> (1851); E. Schmidt and B. Suphan, +<i>Xenien 1796, nach den Handschriften</i> (1893); W. von Humboldt, +<i>Ästhetische Versuche: Hermann und Dorothea</i> (1799); V. Hehn, +<i>Über Goethes Hermann und Dorothea</i> (1893); A. Fries, <i>Quellen und +Komposition der Achilleis</i> (1901); K. Alt, <i>Studien zur Entstehungsgeschichte +von Dichtung und Wahrheit</i> (1898); A. Jung, <i>Goethes +Wanderjahre und die wichtigsten Fragen des 19. Jahrhunderts</i> (1854); +F. Kreyssig, <i>Vorlesungen über Goethes Faust</i> (1866); the editions of +<i>Faust</i> by G. von Loeper (2 vols., 1879), and K. J. Schröer (2 vols., +3rd and 4th ed., 1898-1903); K. Fischer, <i>Goethes Faust</i> (3 vols., +1893, 1902, 1903); O. Pniower, <i>Goethes Faust, Zeugnisse und Excurse +zu seiner Entstehungsgeschichte</i> (1899); J. Minor, <i>Goethes Faust, +Entstehungsgeschichte und Erklärung</i> (2 vols., 1901).</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) <i>Bibliographical Works, Goethe-Societies, &c.</i>—L. Unflad, <i>Die +Goethe-Literatur in Deutschland</i> (1878); S. Hirzel, <i>Verzeichnis einer +Goethe-Bibliothek</i> (1884), to which G. von Loeper and W. von Biedermann +have supplied supplements. F. Strehlke, <i>Goethes Briefe: +Verzeichnis unter Angabe der Quelle</i> (1882-1884); <i>British Museum +Catalogue of Printed Books: Goethe</i> (1888); Goedeke’s <i>Grundriss +zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung</i> (2nd ed., vol. iv. 1891); and +the bibliographies in the <i>Goethe-Jahrbuch</i> (since 1880). Also K. +Hoyer, <i>Zur Einführung in die Goethe-Literatur</i> (1904). On Goethe in +England see E. Oswald, <i>Goethe in England and America</i> (1899; +2nd ed., 1909); W. Heinemann, <i>A Bibliographical List of the English +Translations and Annotated Editions of Goethe’s Faust</i> (1886). +Reference may also be made here to F. Zarncke’s <i>Verzeichnis der +Originalaufnahmen von Goethes Bildnissen</i> (1888).</p> + +<p><i>A Goethe-Gesellschaft</i> was founded at Weimar in 1885, and numbers +over 2800 members; its publications include the annual <i>Goethe-Jahrbuch</i> +(since 1880), and a series of <i>Goethe-Schriften</i>. A <i>Goethe-Verein</i> +has existed in Vienna since 1887, and an English Goethe +society, which has also issued several volumes of publications, since +1886.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. G. R.)</div> + +<p><i>Goethe’s Descendants.</i>—Goethe’s only son, <span class="sc">August</span>, born on +the 25th of December 1789 at Weimar, married in 1817 Ottilie +von Pogwisch (1796-1872), who had come as a child to Weimar +with her mother (<i>née</i> Countess Henckel von Donnersmarck). +The marriage was a very unhappy one, the husband having no +qualities that could appeal to a woman who, whatever the +censorious might say of her moral character, was distinguished +to the last by a lively intellect and a singular charm. August +von Goethe, whose sole distinction was his birth and his position +as grand-ducal chamberlain, died in Italy, on the 27th of October +1830, leaving three children; <span class="sc">Walther Wolfgang</span>, born on +April 9, 1818, died on April 15, 1885; <span class="sc">Wolfgang Maximilian</span>, +born on September 18, 1820, died on January 20, 1883; <span class="sc">Alma</span>, +born on October 22, 1827, died on September 29, 1844.</p> + +<p>Of Walther von Goethe little need be said. In youth he had +musical ambitions, studied under Mendelssohn and Weinlig +at Leipzig, under Loewe at Stettin, and afterwards at Vienna. +He published a few songs of no great merit, and had at his +death no more than the reputation among his friends of a kindly +and accomplished man.</p> + +<p>Wolfgang or, as he was familiarly called, Wolf von Goethe, +was by far the more gifted of the two brothers, and his gloomy +destiny by so much the more tragic. A sensitive and highly +imaginative boy, he was the favourite of his grandfather, who +made him his constant companion. This fact, instead of being +to the boy’s advantage, was to prove his bane. The exalted +atmosphere of the great man’s ideas was too rarefied for the +child’s intellectual health, and a brain well fitted to do excellent +work in the world was ruined by the effort to live up to an +impossible ideal. To maintain himself on the same height as +his grandfather, and to make the name of Goethe illustrious in +his descendants also, became Wolfgang’s ambition; and his +incapacity to realize this, very soon borne in upon him, paralyzed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>189</span> +his efforts and plunged him at last into bitter revolt against his +fate and gloomy isolation from a world that seemed to have no +use for him but as a curiosity. From the first, too, he was +hampered by wretched health; at the age of sixteen he was +subjected to one of those terrible attacks of neuralgia which +were to torment him to the last; physically and mentally alike +he stood in tragic contrast with his grandfather, in whose +gigantic personality the vigour of his race seems to have been +exhausted.</p> + +<p>From 1839 to 1845 Wolfgang studied law at Bonn, Jena, +Heidelberg and Berlin, taking his degree of <i>doctor juris</i> at Heidelberg +in 1845. During this period he had made his first literary +efforts. His <i>Studenten-Briefe</i> (Jena, 1842), a medley of letters +and lyrics, are wholly conventional. This was followed by <i>Der +Mensch und die elementarische Natur</i> (Stuttgart and Tübingen, +1845), in three parts (<i>Beiträge</i>): (1) an historical and philosophical +dissertation on the relations of mankind and the “soul of nature,” +largely influenced by Schelling, (2) a dissertation on the juridical +side of the question, <i>De fragmento Vegoiae</i>, being the thesis +presented for his degree, (3) a lyrical drama, <i>Erlinde</i>. In this +last, as in his other poetic attempts, Wolfgang showed a considerable +measure of inherited or acquired ability, in his wealth of +language and his easy mastery of the difficulties of rhythm and +rhyme. But this was all. The work was characteristic of his +self-centred isolation: ultra-romantic at a time when Romanticism +was already an outworn fashion, remote alike from the +spirit of the age and from that of Goethe. The cold reception +it met with shattered at a blow the dream of Wolfgang’s life; +henceforth he realized that to the world he was interesting +mainly as “Goethe’s grandson,” that anything he might achieve +would be measured by that terrible standard, and he hated the +legacy of his name.</p> + +<p>The next five years he spent in Italy and at Vienna, tormented +by facial neuralgia. Returning to Weimar in 1850, he was made a +chamberlain by the grand-duke, and in 1852, his health being +now somewhat restored, he entered the Prussian diplomatic +service and went as attaché to Rome. The fruit of his long +years of illness was a slender volume of lyrics, <i>Gedichte</i> (Stuttgart +and Tübingen, 1851), good in form, but seldom inspired, and +showing occasionally the influence of a morbid sensuality. In +1854 he was appointed secretary of legation; but the aggressive +ultramontanism of the Curia became increasingly intolerable +to his overwrought nature, and in 1856 he was transferred, at his +own request, as secretary of legation to Dresden. This post he +resigned in 1859, in which year he was raised to the rank of +<i>Freiherr</i> (baron). In 1866 he received the title of councillor +of legation; but he never again occupied any diplomatic post.</p> + +<p>The rest of his life he devoted to historical research, ultimately +selecting as his special subject the Italian libraries up to the year +1500. The outcome of all his labours was, however, only the +first part of <i>Studies and Researches in the Times and Life of +Cardinal Bessarion</i>, embracing the period of the council of +Florence (privately printed at Jena, 1871), a catalogue of the +MSS. in the monastery of Sancta Justina at Padua (Jena, +1873), and a mass of undigested material, which he ultimately +bequeathed to the university of Jena.</p> + +<p>In 1870 Ottilie von Goethe, who had resided mainly at Vienna, +returned to Weimar and took up her residence with her two sons +in the Goethehaus. So long as she lived, her small salon in the +attic storey of the great house was a centre of attraction for +many of the most illustrious personages in Europe. But after +her death in 1872 the two brothers lived in almost complete +isolation. The few old friends, including the grand-duke Charles +Alexander, who continued regularly to visit the house, were +entertained with kindly hospitality by Baron Walther; Wolfgang +refused to be drawn from his isolation even by the advent +of royalty. “Tell the empress,” he cried on one occasion, +“that I am not a wild beast to be stared at!” In 1879, his +increasing illness necessitating the constant presence of an +attendant, he went to live at Leipzig, where he died.</p> + +<p>Goethe’s grandsons have been so repeatedly accused of having +displayed a dog-in-the-manger temper in closing the Goethehaus +to the public and the Goethe archives to research, that the +charge has almost universally come to be regarded as proven. +It is true that the house was closed and access to the archives only +very sparingly allowed until Baron Walther’s death in 1885. +But the reason for this was not, as Herr Max Hecker rather +absurdly suggests, Wolfgang’s jealousy of his grandfather’s +oppressive fame, but one far more simple and natural. From +one cause or another, principally Ottilie von Goethe’s extravagance, +the family was in very straitened circumstances; and the +brothers, being thoroughly unbusinesslike, believed themselves +to be poorer than they really were.<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> They closed the Goethehaus +and the archives, because to have opened them would have +needed an army of attendants.<a name="fa2o" id="fa2o" href="#ft2o"><span class="sp">2</span></a> If they deserve any blame it +is for the pride, natural to their rank and their generation, which +prevented them from charging an entrance fee, an expedient +which would not only have made it possible for them to give +access to the house and collections, but would have enabled +them to save the fabric from falling into the lamentable state +of disrepair in which it was found after their death. In any case, +the accusation is ungenerous. With an almost exaggerated +<i>Pietät</i> Goethe’s descendants preserved his house untouched, +at great inconvenience to themselves, and left it, with all its +treasures intact, to the nation. Had they been the selfish +misers they are sometimes painted, they could have realized a +fortune by selling its contents.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Wolf Goethe</i> (Weimar, 1889) is a sympathetic appreciation by Otto +Mejer, formerly president of the Lutheran consistory in Hanover. +See also Jenny v. Gerstenbergk, <i>Ottilie von Goethe und ihre Söhne +Walther und Wolf</i> (Stuttgart, 1901), and the article on Maximilian +Wolfgang von Goethe by Max F. Hecker in <i>Allgem. deutsche Biographie</i>, +Bd. 49, <i>Nachträge</i> (Leipzig, 1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> After Walther’s death upwards of £10,000 in bonds, &c., were +discovered put away and forgotten in escritoires and odd corners.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2o" id="ft2o" href="#fa2o"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This was the reason given by Baron Walther himself to the +writer’s mother, an old friend of Frau von Goethe, who lived with +her family in the Goethehaus for some years after 1871.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOETZ, HERMANN<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1840-1876), German musical composer, +was born at Königsberg in Prussia, on the 17th of December 1840, +and began his regular musical studies at the comparatively +advanced age of seventeen. He entered the music-school of +Professor Stern at Berlin, and studied composition chiefly under +Ulrich and Hans von Bülow. In 1863 he was appointed organist +at Winterthur in Switzerland, where he lived in obscurity for +a number of years, occupying himself with composition during +his leisure hours. One of his works was an opera, <i>The Taming +of the Shrew</i>, the libretto skilfully adapted from Shakespeare’s +play. After much delay it was produced at Mannheim (in +October 1874), and its success was as instantaneous as it has up to +the present proved lasting. It rapidly made the round of the +great German theatres, and spread its composer’s fame over all +the land. But Goetz did not live to enjoy this happy result +for long. In December 1876 he died at Zürich from overwork. +A second opera, <i>Francesco da Rimini</i>, on which he was engaged, +remained a fragment; but it was finished according to his +directions, and was performed for the first time at Mannheim +a few months after the composer’s death on the 4th of December +1876. Besides his dramatic work, Goetz also wrote various +compositions for chamber-music, of which a trio (Op. 1) and +a quintet (Op. 16) have been given with great success at the +London Monday Popular Concerts. Still more important is the +<i>Symphony in F</i>. As a composer of comic opera Goetz lacks the +sprightliness and artistic <i>savoir faire</i> so rarely found amongst +Germanic nations. His was essentially a serious nature, and +passion and pathos were to him more congenial than humour. +The more serious sides of the subject are therefore insisted upon +more successfully than Katherine’s ravings and Petruchio’s +eccentricities. There are, however, very graceful passages, <i>e.g.</i> +the singing lesson Bianca receives from her disguised lover. +Goetz’s style, although influenced by Wagner and other masters, +shows signs of a distinct individuality. The design of his music +is essentially of a polyphonic character, and the working out and +interweaving of his themes betray the musician of high scholarship. +But breadth and beautiful flow of melody also were his, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190"></a>190</span> +as is seen in the symphony, and perhaps still more in the quintet +for pianoforte and strings above referred to. The most important +of Goetz’s posthumous works are a setting of the 137th Psalm +for soprano solo, chorus and orchestra, a “Spring” overture +(Op. 15), and a pianoforte sonata for four hands (Op. 17).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOFFE<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Gough</span>), <b>WILLIAM</b> (fl. 1642-1660), English +parliamentarian, son of Stephen Goffe, puritan rector of Stanmer +in Essex, began life as an apprentice to a London salter, a zealous +parliamentarian, but on the outbreak of the civil war he joined +the army and became captain in Colonel Harley’s regiment of the +new model in 1645. He was imprisoned in 1642 for his share in +the petition to give the control of the militia to the parliament. +By his marriage with Frances, daughter of General Edward +Whalley, he became connected with Oliver Cromwell’s family +and one of his most faithful followers. He was a member of +the deputation which on the 6th of July 1647 brought up the +charge against the eleven members. He was active in bringing +the king to trial and signed the death warrant. In 1649 he +received the honorary degree of M.A. at Oxford. He distinguished +himself at Dunbar, commanding a regiment there and at +Worcester. He assisted in the expulsion of Barebone’s parliament +in 1653, took an active part in the suppression of Penruddock’s +rising in July 1654, and in October 1655 was appointed +major-general for Berkshire, Sussex and Hampshire. Meanwhile +he had been elected member for Yarmouth in the parliament of +1654 and for Hampshire in that of 1656. He supported the +proposal to bestow a royal title upon Cromwell, who greatly +esteemed him, was included in the newly-constituted House of +Lords, obtained Lambert’s place as major-general of the Foot, +and was even thought of as a fit successor to Cromwell. As a +member of the committee of nine appointed in June 1658 on +public affairs, he was witness to the protector’s appointment +of Richard Cromwell as his successor. He supported the latter +during his brief tenure of power and his fall involved his own loss +of influence. In November 1659 he took part in the futile mission +sent by the army to Monk in Scotland, and at the Restoration +escaped with his father-in-law General Edward Whalley to +Massachusetts. Goffe’s political aims appear not to have gone +much beyond fighting “to pull down Charles and set up Oliver”; +and he was no doubt a man of deep religious feeling, who acted +throughout according to a strict sense of duty as he conceived it. +He was destined to pass the rest of his life in exile, separated +from his wife and children, dying, it is supposed, about 1679.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOFFER,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> to give a fluted or crimped appearance to anything, +particularly to linen or lace frills or trimmings by means of +heated irons of a special shape, called goffering-irons or tongs. +“Goffering,” or the French term <i>gaufrage</i>, is also used of the +wavey or crimped edging in certain forms of porcelain, and also +of the stamped or embossed decorations on the edges of the +binding of books. The French word <i>gaufre</i>, from which the +English form is adapted, means a thin cake marked with a +pattern like a honeycomb, a “wafer,” which is etymologically +the same word. <i>Waufre</i> appears in the phrase <i>un fer à waufres</i>, +an iron for baking cakes on (quotation of 1433 in J. B. Roquefort’s +<i>Glossaire de la langue romane</i>). The word is Teutonic, +cf. Dutch <i>wafel</i>, Ger. <i>Waffel</i>, a form seen in “waffle,” the name +given to the well-known batter-cakes of America. The “wafer” +was so called from its likeness to a honeycomb, <i>Wabe</i>, ultimately +derived from the root <i>wab</i>-, to weave, the cells of the comb +appearing to be woven together.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOG<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (possibly connected with the Gentilic <i>Gagaya</i>, “of the +land of Gag,” used in Amarna Letters i. 38, as a synonym for +“barbarian,” or with Ass. <i>Gagu</i>, a ruler of the land of <i>Sahi</i>, +N. of Assyria, or with <i>Gyges</i>, Ass. <i>Gugu</i>, a king of Lydia), a +Hebrew name found in Ezek. xxxviii.-xxxix. and in Rev. xx., +and denoting an antitheocratic power that is to manifest itself +in the world immediately before the final dispensation. In the +later passage, Gog and Magog are spoken of as co-ordinate; in +the earlier, Gog is given as the name of the person or people and +Magog as that of the land of origin. Magog is perhaps a +contracted form of Mat-gog, <i>mat</i> being the common Assyrian +word for “land.” The passages are, however, intimately related +and both depend upon Gen. x. 2, though here Magog alone is +mentioned. He is the second “son” of Japhet, and the order +of the names here and in Ezekiel xxxviii. 2, indicates a locality +between Cappadocia and Media, <i>i.e.</i> in Armenia. According +to Josephus, who is followed by Jerome, the Scythians were +primarily intended by this designation; and this plausible +opinion has been generally followed. The name <span class="grk" title="Skythai">Σκύθαι</span>, it is +to be observed, however, is often but a vague word for any or all +of the numerous and but partially known tribes of the north; +and any attempt to assign a more definite locality to Magog can +only be very hesitatingly made. According to some, the Maiotes +about the Palus Maeotis are meant; according to others, the +Massagetae; according to Kiepert, the inhabitants of the +northern and eastern parts of Armenia. The imagery employed +in Ezekiel’s prophetic description was no doubt suggested by the +Scythian invasion which about the time of Josiah, 630 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +had devastated Asia (Herodotus i. 104-106; Jer. iv. 3-vi. 30). +Following on this description, Gog figures largely in Jewish and +Mahommedan as well as in Christian eschatology. In the +district of Astrakhan a legend is still to be met with, to the effect +that Gog and Magog were two great races, which Alexander the +Great subdued and banished to the inmost recesses of the +Caucasus, where they are meanwhile kept in by the terror of +twelve trumpets blown by the winds, but whence they are +destined ultimately to make their escape and destroy the world.</p> + +<p>The legends that attach themselves to the gigantic effigies +(dating from 1708 and replacing those destroyed in the Great +Fire) of Gog and Magog in Guildhall, London, are connected +only remotely, if at all, with the biblical notices. According to +the <i>Recuyell des histoires de Troye</i>, Gog and Magog were the +survivors of a race of giants descended from the thirty-three +wicked daughters of Diocletian; after their brethren had been +slain by Brute and his companions, Gog and Magog were brought +to London (Troy-novant) and compelled to officiate as porters +at the gate of the royal palace. It is known that effigies similar +to the present existed in London as early as the time of Henry V.; +but when this legend began to attach to them is uncertain. They +may be compared with the giant images formerly kept at Antwerp +(Antigomes) and Douai (Gayant). According to Geoffrey of +Monmouth (<i>Chronicles</i>, i. 16), Goëmot or Goëmagot (either +corrupted from or corrupted into “Gog and Magog”) was a +giant who, along with his brother Corineus, tyrannized in the +western horn of England until slain by foreign invaders.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOGO<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Gogha</span>, a town of British India in Ahmedabad +district, Bombay, 193 m. N.W. of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 4798. +About ¾ m. east of the town is an excellent anchorage, in some +measure sheltered by the island of Piram, which lies still farther +east. The natives of this place are reckoned the best sailors in +India; and ships touching here may procure water and supplies, +or repair damages. The anchorage is a safe refuge during the +south-west monsoon, the bottom being a bed of mud and the +water always smooth. Gogo has lost its commercial importance +and has steadily declined in population and trade since the time +of the American Civil War, when it was an important cotton-mart.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOGOL, NIKOLAI VASILIEVICH<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1809-1852), Russian +novelist, was born in the province of Poltava, in South Russia, +on the 31st of March 1809. Educated at the Niezhin gymnasium, +he there started a manuscript periodical, “The Star,” and wrote +several pieces including a tragedy, <i>The Brigands</i>. Having +completed his course at Niezhin, he went in 1829 to St Petersburg, +where he tried the stage but failed. Next year he obtained a +clerkship in the department of appanages, but he soon gave it up. +In literature, however, he found his true vocation. In 1829 he +published anonymously a poem called <i>Italy</i>, and, under the +pseudonym of V. Alof, an idyll, <i>Hans Kuchel Garten</i>, which he +had written while still at Niezhin. The idyll was so ridiculed by +a reviewer that its author bought up all the copies he could +secure, and burnt them in a room which he hired for the purpose +at an inn. Gogol then fell back upon South Russian popular +literature, and especially the tales of Cossackdom on which his +boyish fancy had been nursed, his father having occupied the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>191</span> +post of “regimental secretary,” one of the honorary officials in +the Zaporogian Cossack forces.</p> + +<p>In 1830 he published in a periodical the first of the stories +which appeared next year under the title of <i>Evenings in a Farm +near Dikanka: by Rudy Panko</i>. This work, containing a series +of attractive pictures of that Little-Russian life which lends +itself to romance more readily than does the monotony of +“Great-Russian” existence, immediately obtained a great +success—its light and colour, its freshness and originality being +hailed with enthusiasm by the principal writers of the day in +Russia. Whereupon Gogol planned, not only a history of Little-Russia, +but also one of the middle ages, to be completed in eight +or nine volumes. This plan he did not carry out, though it led +to his being appointed to a professorship in the university of +St Petersburg, a post in which he met with small success and +which he resigned in 1835. Meanwhile he had published his +<i>Arabesques</i>, a collection of essays and stories; his <i>Taras Bulba</i>, +the chief of the <i>Cossack Tales</i> translated into English by George +Tolstoy; and a number of novelettes, which mark his transition +from the romantic to the realistic school of fiction, such as the +admirable sketch of the tranquil life led in a quiet country +house by two kindly specimens of <i>Old-world Gentlefolks</i>, or the +description of the petty miseries endured by an ill-paid clerk +in a government office, the great object of whose life is to secure +the “cloak” from which his story takes its name. To the same +period belongs his celebrated comedy, the <i>Revizor</i>, or government +inspector. His aim in writing it was to drag into light “all that +was bad in Russia,” and to hold it up to contempt. And he +succeeded in rendering contemptible and ludicrous the official +life of Russia, the corruption universally prevailing throughout +the civil service, the alternate arrogance and servility of men +in office. The plot of the comedy is very simple. A traveller +who arrives with an empty purse at a provincial town is taken +for an inspector whose arrival is awaited with fear, and he +receives all the attentions and bribes which are meant to propitiate +the dreaded investigator of abuses. The play appeared +on the stage in the spring of 1836, and achieved a full success, +in spite of the opposition attempted by the official classes whose +malpractices it exposed. The aim which Gogol had in view +when writing the <i>Revizor</i> he afterwards fully attained in his +great novel, <i>Mertvuiya Dushi</i>, or Dead Souls, the first part of +which appeared in 1842. The hero of the story is an adventurer +who goes about Russia making fictitious purchases of “dead +souls,” <i>i.e.</i> of serfs who have died since the last census, with the +view of pledging his imaginary property to the government. +But his adventures are merely an excuse for drawing a series +of pictures, of an unfavourable kind, of Russian provincial life, +and of introducing on the scene a number of types of Russian +society. Of the force and truth with which these delineations +are executed the universal consent of Russian critics in their +favour may be taken as a measure. From the French version +of the story a general idea of its merits may be formed, and some +knowledge of its plot and its principal characters may be gathered +from the English adaptation published in 1854, as an original +work, under the title of <i>Home Life in Russia</i>. But no one can +fully appreciate Gogol’s merits as a humorist who is not intimate +with the language in which he wrote as well as with the society +which he depicted.</p> + +<p>In 1836 Gogol for the first time went abroad. Subsequently +he spent a considerable amount of time out of Russia, chiefly +in Italy, where much of his <i>Dead Souls</i> was written. His +residence there, especially at Rome, made a deep impression on +his mind, which, during his later years, turned towards mysticism. +The last works which he published, his <i>Confession</i> and <i>Correspondence +with Friends</i>, offer a painful contrast to the light, bright, +vigorous, realistic, humorous writings which had gained and have +retained for him his immense popularity in his native land. +Asceticism and mystical exaltation had told upon his nervous +system, and its feeble condition showed itself in his literary +compositions. In 1848 he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and +on his return settled down at Moscow, where he died on the 3rd +of March 1852.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Materials for the Biography of Gogol</i> (in Russian) (1897), by +Shenrok; “Illness and Death of Gogol,” by N. Bazhenov, <i>Russkaya +Muisl</i>, January 1902.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. R. S.-R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOGRA<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Ghagra</span>, a river of northern India. It is an +important tributary of the Ganges, bringing down to the plains +more water than the Ganges itself. It rises in Tibet near Lake +Manasarowar, not far from the sources of the Brahmaputra +and the Sutlej, passes through Nepal where it is known as the +Kauriala, and after entering British territory becomes the most +important waterway in the United Provinces. It joins the Ganges +at Chapra after a course of 600 m. Its tributary, the Rapti, +also has considerable commercial importance. The Gogra has +the alternative name of Sarju, and in its lower course is also +known as the Deoha.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOHIER, LOUIS JÉRÔME<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1746-1830), French politician, +was born at Semblançay (Indre-et-Loire) on the 27th of February +1746, the son of a notary. He was called to the bar at Rennes, +and practised there until he was sent to represent the town in +the states-general. In the Legislative Assembly he represented +Ille-et-Vilaine. He took a prominent part in the deliberations; +he protested against the exaction of a new oath from priests +(Nov. 22, 1791), and demanded the sequestration of the emigrants’ +property (Feb. 7, 1792). He was minister of justice from March +1793 to April 1794, and in June 1799 he succeeded Treilhard +in the Directory, where he represented the republican interest. +His wife was intimate with Josephine Bonaparte, and when +Bonaparte suddenly returned from Egypt in October 1799 he +repeatedly protested his friendship for Gohier, who was then +president of the Directory, and tried in vain to gain him over. +After the <i>coup d’état</i> of the 18th Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799), he +refused to abdicate his functions, and sought out Bonaparte +at the Tuileries “to save the republic,” as he boldly expressed +it. He was escorted to the Luxembourg, and on his release +he retired to his estate at Eaubonne. In 1802 Napoleon made +him consul-general at Amsterdam, and on the union of the +Netherlands with France he was offered a similar post in the +United States. His health did not permit of his taking up a new +appointment, and he died at Eaubonne on the 29th of May 1830.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Mémoires d’un vétéran irréprochable de la Révolution</i> was +published in 1824, his report on the papers of the civil list preparatory +to the trial of Louis XVI. is printed in Le <i>Procès de Louis XVI</i> +(Paris, an III) and elsewhere, while others appear in the <i>Moniteur</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÖHRDE<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span>, a forest of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Hanover, immediately W. of the Elbe, between Wittenberg and +Lüneburg. It has an area of about 85 sq. m. and is famous for its +oaks, beeches and game preserves. It is memorable for the +victory gained here, on the 16th of September 1813, by the allies, +under Wallmoden, over the French forces commanded by Pecheur. +The hunting-box situated in the forest was built in 1689 and was +restored by Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover. It is known to +history on account of the constitution of Göhrde, promulgated +here in 1719.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOITO<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span>, a village of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Mantua, +from which it is 11 m. N.W., on the road to Brescia. Pop. +(village) 737; (commune) 5712. It is situated on the right bank +of the Mincio near the bridge. Its position has given it a certain +military importance in various campaigns and it has been +repeatedly fortified as a bridge-head. The Piedmontese forces +won two actions (8th of April and 30th of May 1848) over the +Austrians here.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOITRE<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>guttur</i>, the throat; synonyms, Bronchocele, +Derbyshire Neck), a term applied to a swelling in the front of the +neck caused by enlargement of the thyroid gland. This structure, +which lies between the skin and the anterior surface of the windpipe, +and in health is not large enough to give rise to any external +prominence (except in the pictures of certain artists), is liable to +variations in size, more especially in females, a temporary +enlargement of the gland being not uncommon at the catamenial +periods, as well as during pregnancy. In goitre the swelling is +conspicuous and is not only unsightly but may occasion much +discomfort from its pressure upon the windpipe and other +important parts of the neck. J. L. Alibert recorded cases of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>192</span> +goitre where the tumour hung down over the breast, or reached +as low as the middle of the thigh.</p> + +<p>Goitre usually appears in early life, often from the eighth to the +twelfth year; its growth is at first slow, but after several years of +comparative quiescence a sudden increase is apt to occur. In the +earlier stages the condition of the gland is simply an enlargement +of its constituent parts, which retain their normal soft consistence; +but in the course of time other changes supervene, and it may +become cystic, or acquire hardness from increase of fibrous tissue +or from calcareous deposits. Occasionally the enlargement is +uniform, but more commonly one of the lobes, generally the right, +is the larger. In rare instances the disease is limited to the +isthmus which connects the two lobes of the gland. The growth +is unattended with pain, and is not inconsistent with good health.</p> + +<p>Goitre is a marked example of an endemic disease. There are +few parts of the world where it is not found prevailing in certain +localities, these being for the most part valleys and elevated plains +in mountainous districts (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cretinism</a></span>). The malady is generally +ascribed to the use of drinking water impregnated with the salts of +lime and magnesia, in which ingredients the water of goitrous +districts abounds. But in localities not far removed from those in +which goitre prevails, and where the water is of the same chemical +composition, the disease may be entirely unknown. The disease +may be the result of a combination of causes, among which local +telluric or malarial influences concur with those of the drinking +water. Goitre is sometimes cured by removal of the individual +from the district where it prevails, and it is apt to be acquired +by previously healthy persons who settle in goitrous localities; +and it is only in such places that the disease exhibits hereditary +tendencies.</p> + +<p>In the early stages, change of air, especially to the seaside, is +desirable, and small doses of iron and of iodine should be given; +if this fails small doses of thyroid extract should be tried. If +palliative measures prove unsuccessful, operation must be undertaken +for the removal of one lateral lobe and the isthmus of the +tumour. This may be done under chloroform or after the subcutaneous +injection of cocaine. If chloroform is used, it must be +given very sparingly, as the breathing is apt to become seriously +embarrassed during the operation. After the successful performance +of the operation great improvement takes place, the +remaining part of the gland slowly decreasing in size. The whole +of the gland must not be removed during the operation, lest the +strange disease known as Myxoedema should be produced (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metabolic Diseases</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In <i>exophthalmic goitre</i> the bronchocele is but one of three +phenomena, which together constitute the disease, viz. palpitation +of the heart, <span class="correction" title="amended from elargement">enlargement</span> of the thyroid gland, and protrusion of +the eyeballs. This group of symptoms is known by the name of +“Graves’s disease” or “Von Basedow’s disease”—the physicians +by whom the malady was originally described. Although +occasionally observed in men, this affection occurs chiefly in +females, and in comparatively early life. It is generally preceded +by impoverishment of blood, and by nervous or hysterical +disorders, and it is occasionally seen in cases of organic heart +disease. It has been suddenly developed as the effect of fright or +of violent emotion. The first symptom is usually the palpitation +of the heart, which is aggravated by slight exertion, and may be +so severe as not only to shake the whole frame but even to be +audible at some distance. A throbbing is felt throughout the +body, and many of the larger blood-vessels are, like the heart, +seen to pulsate strongly. The enlargement of the thyroid is +gradual, and rarely increases to any great size, thus differing +from the commoner form of goitre. The enlarged gland is of soft +consistence, and communicates a thrill to the touch from its +dilated and pulsating blood-vessels. Accompanying the goitre a +remarkable change is observed in the eyes, which attract attention +by their prominence, and by the startled expression thus given to +the countenance. In extreme cases the eyes protrude from their +sockets to such a degree that the eyelids cannot be closed, and +injury may thus arise to the constantly exposed eyeballs. Apart +from such risk, however, the vision is rarely affected. It occasionally +happens that in undoubted cases of the disease one or other of +the three above-named phenomena is absent, generally either the +goitre or the exophthalmos. The palpitation of the heart is the +most constant symptom. Sleeplessness, irritability, disorders of +digestion, diarrhoea and uterine derangements, are frequent +accompaniments. It is a serious disease and, if unchecked, may +end fatally. Some cases are improved by general hygienic +measures, others by electric treatment, or by the administration +of animal extracts or of sera. Some cases, on the other hand, may +be considered suitable for operative treatment.</p> +<div class="author">(E. O.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOKAK<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span>, a town of British India, in the Belgaum district of +Bombay, 8 m. from a station on the Southern Mahratta railway. +Pop. (1901) 9860. It contains old temples with inscriptions, +and is known for a special industry of modelled toys. About +4 m. N.W. are the Gokak Falls, where the Ghatprabha throws +itself over a precipice 170 ft. high. Close by, the water has been +impounded for a large reservoir, which supplies not only irrigation +but also motive power for a cotton-mill employing 2000 hands.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOKCHA<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span>, (<span class="sc">Gök-Chai</span>; Armenian <i>Sevanga</i>; ancient <i>Haosravagha</i>), +the largest lake of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government +of Erivan, in 40° 9′ to 40° 38′ N. and 45° 1′ to 45° 40′ E. +Its altitude is 6345 ft., it is of triangular shape, and measures +from north-west to south-east 45 m., its greatest width being +25 m., and its maximum depth 67 fathoms. Its area is 540 sq. m. +It is surrounded by barren mountains of volcanic origin, 12,000 +ft. high. Its outflow is the Zanga, a left bank tributary of the +Aras (<i>Araxes</i>); it never freezes, and its level undergoes periodical +oscillations. It contains four species of <i>Salmonidae</i>, and two +of <i>Cyprinidae</i>, which are only met with in the drainage area +of this lake. A lava island in the middle is crowned by an +Armenian monastery.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLCONDA<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span>, a fortress and ruined city of India, in the Nizām’s +Dominions, 5 m. W. of Hyderabad city. In former times +Golconda was the capital of a large and powerful kingdom of +the Deccan, ruled by the Kutb Shahi dynasty which was founded +in 1512 by a Turkoman adventurer on the downfall of the +Bahmani dynasty, but the city was subdued by Aurangzeb in +1687, and annexed to the Delhi empire. The fortress of Golconda, +situated on a rocky ridge of granite, is extensive, and contains +many enclosures. It is strong and in good repair, but is commanded +by the summits of the enormous and massive mausolea +of the ancient kings about 600 yds. distant. These buildings, +which are now the chief characteristics of the place, form a vast +group, situated in an arid, rocky desert. They have suffered +considerably from the ravages of time, but more from the hand +of man, and nothing but the great solidity of their walls has +preserved them from utter ruin. These tombs were erected at a +great expense, some of them being said to have cost as much +as £150,000. Golconda fort is now used as the Nizām’s treasury, +and also as the state prison. Golconda has given its name in +English literature to the diamonds which were found in other +parts of the dominions of the Kutb Shahi dynasty, not near +Golconda itself.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLD<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1), 197.2(O = 16)], +a metallic chemical element, valued from the earliest ages on +account of the permanency of its colour and lustre. Gold +ornaments of great variety and elaborate workmanship have +been discovered on sites belonging to the earliest known civilizations, +Minoan, Egyptian, Assyrian, Etruscan (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jewelry</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plate</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegean Civilization</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>), +and in ancient literature gold is the universal symbol of the +highest purity and value (cf. passages in the Old Testament, +<i>e.g.</i> Ps. xix. 10 “More to be desired are they than gold, yea, than +much fine gold”). With regard to the history of the metallurgy +of gold, it may be mentioned that, according to Pliny, mercury +was employed in his time both as a means of separating the +precious metals and for the purposes of gilding. Vitruvius also +gives a detailed account of the means of recovering gold, by +amalgamation, from cloth into which it had been woven.</p> + +<p><i>Physical Properties</i>.—Gold has a characteristic yellow colour, +which is, however, notably affected by small quantities of other +metals; thus the tint is sensibly lowered by small quantities +of silver, and heightened by copper. When the gold is finely +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193"></a>193</span> +divided, as in “purple of Cassius,” or when it is precipitated +from solutions, the colour is ruby-red, while in very thin leaves +it transmits a greenish light. It is nearly as soft as lead and +softer than silver. When pure, it is the most malleable of all +metals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Goldbeating</a></span>). It is also extremely ductile; a +single grain may be drawn into a wire 500 ft. in length, and an +ounce of gold covering a silver wire is capable of being extended +more than 1300 m. The presence of minute quantities of +cadmium, lead, bismuth, antimony, arsenic, tin, tellurium and +zinc renders gold brittle, <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">2000</span>th part of one of the three metals +first named being sufficient to produce that quality. Gold can +be readily welded cold; the finely divided metal, in the state +in which it is precipitated from solution, may be compressed +between dies into disks or medals. The specific gravity of gold +obtained by precipitation from solution by ferrous sulphate +is from 19.55 to 20.72. The specific gravity of cast gold varies +from 18.29 to 19.37, and by compression between dies the +specific gravity may be raised from 19.37 to 19.41; by annealing, +however, the previous density is to some extent recovered, as +it is then found to be 19.40. The melting-point has been +variously given, the early values ranging from 1425° C. to 1035° C. +Using improved methods, C. T. Heycock and F. H. Neville +determined it to be 1061.7° C.; Daniel Berthelot gives 1064° C., +while Jaquerod and Perrot give 1066.1-1067.4° C. At still +higher temperatures it volatilizes, forming a reddish vapour. +Macquer and Lavoisier showed that when gold is strongly heated, +fumes arise which gild a piece of silver held in them. Its volatility +has also been studied by L. Eisner, and, in the presence of +other metals, by Napier and others. The volatility is barely +appreciable at 1075°; at 1250° it is four times as much as at +1100°. Copper and zinc increase the volatility far more than +lead, while the greatest volatility is induced, according to T. +Kirke Rose, by tellurium. It has also been shown that gold +volatilizes when a gold-amalgam is distilled. Gold is dissipated +by sending a powerful charge of electricity through it when in the +form of leaf or thin wire. The electric conductivity is given by +A. Matthiessen as 73 at 0° C., pure silver being 100; the value +of this coefficient depends greatly on the purity of the metal, +the presence of a few thousandths of silver lowering it by 10%. +Its conductivity for heat has been variously given as 103 (C. M. +Despretz), 98 (F. Crace-Calvert and R. Johnson), and 60 (G. H. +Wiedemann and R. Franz), pure silver being 100. Its specific +heat is between 0.0298 (Dulong and Petit) and 0.03244 (Regnault). +Its coefficient of expansion for each degree between +0° and 100° C. is 0.000014661, or for gold which has been +annealed 0.000015136 (Laplace and Lavoisier). The spark +spectrum of gold has been mapped by A. Kirchhoff, R. Thalén, +Sir William Huggins and H. Krüss; the brightest lines are 6277, +5960, 5955 and 5836 in the orange and yellow, and 5230 and +4792 in the green and blue.</p> + +<p><i>Chemical Properties</i>.—Gold is permanent in both dry and +moist air at ordinary or high temperatures. It is insoluble in +hydrochloric, nitric and sulphuric acids, but dissolves in <i>aqua +regia</i>—a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids—and when +very finely divided in a heated mixture of strong sulphuric +acid and a little nitric acid; dilution with water, however, +precipitates the metal as a violet or brown powder from this +solution. The metal is soluble in solutions of chlorine, bromine, +thiosulphates and cyanides; and also in solutions which +generate chlorine, such as mixtures of hydrochloric acid with +nitric acid, chromic acid, antimonious acid, peroxides and +nitrates, and of nitric acid with a chloride. Gold is also attacked +when strong sulphuric acid is submitted to electrolysis with a +gold positive pole. W. Skey showed that in substances which +contain small quantities of gold the precious metal may be +removed by the solvent action of iodine or bromine in water. +Filter paper soaked with the clear, solution is burnt, and the +presence of gold is indicated by the purple colour of the ash. In +solution minute quantities of gold may be detected by the +formation of “purple of Cassius,” a bluish-purple precipitate +thrown down by a mixture of ferric and stannous chlorides.</p> + +<p>The atomic weight of gold was first determined with accuracy +by Berzelius, who deduced the value 195.7 (H = 1) from the +amount of mercury necessary to precipitate it from the chloride, +and 195.2 from the ratio between gold and potassium chloride +in potassium aurichloride, KAuCl<span class="su">4</span>. Later determinations +were made by Sir T. E. Thorpe and A. P. Laurie, Krüss and +J. W. Mallet. Thorpe and Laurie converted potassium auribromide +into a mixture of metallic gold and potassium bromide +by careful heating. The relation of the gold to the potassium +bromide, as well as the amounts of silver and silver bromide +which are equivalent to the potassium bromide, were determined. +The mean value thus adduced was 195.86. Krüss worked with +the same salt, and obtained the value 195.65; while Mallet, +by analyses of gold chloride and bromide, and potassium auribromide, +obtained the value 195.77.</p> + +<p><i>Occlusion of Gas by Gold.</i>—T. Graham showed that gold is +capable of occluding by volume 0.48% of hydrogen, 0.20% +of nitrogen, 0.29% of carbon monoxide, and 0.16% of carbon +dioxide. Varrentrapp pointed out that “cornets” from the +assay of gold may retain gas if they are not strongly heated.</p> + +<p><i>Occurrence and Distribution</i>.—Gold is found in nature chiefly +in the metallic state, <i>i.e.</i> as “native gold,” and less frequently +in combination with tellurium, lead and silver. These are the +only certain examples of natural combinations of the metal, +the minute, though economically valuable, quantity often +found in pyrites and other sulphides being probably only present +in mechanical suspension. The native metal crystallizes in the +cubic system, the octahedron being the commonest form, but +other and complex combinations have been observed. Owing +to the softness of the metal, large crystals are rarely well defined, +the points being commonly rounded. In the irregular crystalline +aggregates branching and moss-like forms are most common, +and in Transylvania thin plates or sheets with diagonal structures +are found. More characteristic, however, than the crystallized +are the irregular forms, which, when large, are known as “nuggets” +or “pepites,” and when in pieces below ¼ to ½ oz. weight as gold +dust, the larger sizes being distinguished as coarse or nuggety +gold, and the smaller as gold dust proper. Except in the larger +nuggets, which may be more or less angular, or at times even +masses of crystals, with or without associated quartz or other +rock, gold is generally found bean-shaped or in some other +flattened form, the smallest particles being scales of scarcely +appreciable thickness, which, from their small bulk as compared +with their surface, subside very slowly when suspended in water, +and are therefore readily carried away by a rapid current. These +form the “float gold” of the miner. The physical properties of +native gold are generally similar to that of the melted metal.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Of the minerals containing gold the most important are sylvanite or +graphic tellurium (Ag, Au) Te<span class="su">2</span>, with 24 to 26%; calaverite, AuTe<span class="su">2</span>, +with 42%; nagyagite or foliate tellurium (Pb, Au)<span class="su">16</span> Sb<span class="su">3</span>(S, Te)<span class="su">24</span>, +with 5 to 9% of gold; petzite, (Ag, Au)<span class="su">2</span>Te, and white tellurium. +These are confined to a few localities, the oldest and best known +being those of Nagyag and Offenbanya in Transylvania; they have +also been found at Red Cloud, Colorado, in Calaveras county, California, +and at Perth and Boulder, West Australia. The minerals +of the second class, usually spoken of as “auriferous,” are comparatively +numerous. Prominent among these are galena and iron pyrites, +the former being almost invariably gold-bearing. Iron pyrites, +however, is of greater practical importance, being in some districts +exceedingly rich, and, next to the native metal, is the most prolific +source of gold. Magnetic pyrites, copper pyrites, zinc blende and +arsenical pyrites are other and less important examples, the last +constituting the gold ore formerly worked in Silesia. A native gold +amalgam is found as a rarity in California, and bismuth from +South America is sometimes rich in gold. Native arsenic and +antimony are also very frequently found to contain gold and silver.</p> + +<p>The association and distribution of gold may be considered under +two different heads, namely, as it occurs in mineral veins—“reef +gold,” and in alluvial or other superficial deposits which are derived +from the waste of the former—“alluvial gold.” Four distinct +types of reef gold deposits may be distinguished: (1) Gold may +occur disseminated through metalliferous veins, generally with +sulphides and more particularly with pyrites. These deposits seem +to be the primary sources of native gold. (2) More common are the +auriferous quartz-reefs—veins or masses of quartz containing gold +in flakes visible to the naked eye, or so finely divided as to be invisible. +(3) The “banket” formation, which characterizes the goldfields of +South Africa, consists of a quartzite conglomerate throughout +which gold is very finely disseminated. (4) The siliceous sinter at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>194</span> +Mount Morgan, Queensland, which is obviously associated with +hydrothermal action, is also gold-bearing. The genesis of the last +three types of deposit is generally assigned to the simultaneous +percolation of solutions of gold and silica, the auriferous solution +being formed during the disintegration of the gold-bearing metalliferous +veins. But there is much uncertainty as to the mechanism +of the process; some authors hold that the soluble chloride is first +formed, while others postulate the intervention of a soluble aurate.</p> + +<p>In the alluvial deposits the associated minerals are chiefly those +of great density and hardness, such as platinum, osmiridium and +other metals of the platinum group, tinstone, chromic, magnetic +and brown iron ores, diamond, ruby and sapphire, zircon, topaz, +garnet, &c. which represent the more durable original constituents of +the rocks whose distintegration has furnished the detritus.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Statistics of Gold Production</i>.—The supply of gold, and also +its relation to the supply of silver, has, among civilized nations, +always been of paramount importance in the economic questions +concerning money (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Money</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bimetallism</a></span>); in this +article a summary of the modern gold-producing areas will be +given, and for further details reference should be made to the +articles on the localities named. The chief sources of the +European supply during the middle ages were the mines of +Saxony and Austria, while Spain also contributed. The supplies +from Mexico and Brazil were important during the 16th and 17th +centuries. Russia became prominent in 1823, and for fourteen +years contributed the bulk of the supply. The United States +(California) after 1848, and Australia after 1851, were responsible +for enormous increases in the total production, which has been +subsequently enhanced by discoveries in Canada, South Africa, +India, China and other countries.</p> + +<p class="center pt1 sc">Table I.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Period.</td> <td class="tcc rb2 tb bb">Oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb tb bb">Period.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Oz.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1801-1810</td> <td class="tcr rb2">590,750</td> <td class="tcc rb">1856-1860</td> <td class="tcc rb">6,350,180</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1811-1820</td> <td class="tcr rb2">380,300</td> <td class="tcc rb">1861-1865</td> <td class="tcc rb">5,951,770</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1821-1830</td> <td class="tcr rb2">472,400</td> <td class="tcc rb">1866-1870</td> <td class="tcc rb">6,169,660</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1831-1840</td> <td class="tcr rb2">674,200</td> <td class="tcc rb">1871-1875</td> <td class="tcc rb">5,487,400</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1841-1850</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1,819,600</td> <td class="tcc rb">1876-1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">5,729,300</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1851-1855</td> <td class="tcr rb2 bb">6,350,180</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">—</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">—</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The average annual world’s production for certain periods +from 1801 to 1880 in ounces is given in Table I. The average +production of the five years 1881-1885 was the smallest since the +Australian and Californian mines began to be worked in 1848-1849; +the minimum 4,614,588 oz., occurred in 1882. It was +not until after 1885 that the annual output of the world began +to expand. Of the total production in 1876, 5,016,488 oz., +almost the whole was derived from the United States, Australasia +and Russia. Since then the proportion furnished by these +countries has been greatly lowered by the supplies from South +Africa, Canada, India and China. The increase of production +has not been uniform, the greater part having occurred most +notably since 1895. Among the regions not previously important +as gold-producers which now contribute to the annual output, +the most remarkable are the goldfields of South Africa (Transvaal +and Rhodesia, the former of which were discovered in 1885). +India likewise has been added to the list, its active production +having begun at about the same time as that of South Africa. +The average annual product of India for the period 1886 to 1899 +inclusive was £698,208, and its present annual product averages +about 550,000 oz., or about £2,200,000, obtained almost wholly +from the free-milling quartz veins of the Colar goldfields in +Mysore, southern India. In 1900 the output was valued at +£1,891,804, in 1905 at £2,450,536, and in 1908 at £2,270,000. +Canada, too, assumed an important rank, having contributed +in 1900 £5,583,300; but the output has since steadily declined +to £1,973,000 in 1908. The great increase during the few years +preceding 1899 was due to the development of the goldfields +of the North-Western Territory, especially British Columbia. +From the district of Yukon (Klondike, &c.) £2,800,000 was +obtained in 1899, wholly from alluvial workings, but the progress +made since has been slower than was expected by sanguine +people. It is, however, probable that the North-Western +Territory will continue to yield gold in important quantities +for some time to come.</p> + +<p>The output of the United States increased from £7,050,000 +in 1881 to £16,085,567 in 1900, £17,916,000 in 1905, and to +£20,065,000 in 1908. This increase was chiefly due to the +exploitation of new goldfields. The fall in the price of silver +stimulated the discovery and development of gold deposits, +and many states formerly regarded as characteristically silver +districts have become important as gold producers. Colorado is +a case in point, its output having increased from about £600,000 +in 1880 to £6,065,000 in 1900; it was £5,139,800 in 1905. Somewhat +more than one-half of the Colorado gold is obtained from +the Cripple Creek district. Other states also showed a largely +augmented product. On the other hand, the output of California, +which was producing over £3,000,000 per annum in 1876, has +fallen off, the average annual output from 1876 to 1900 +being £2,800,000; in 1905 the yield was £3,839,000. This +decrease was largely caused by the practical suspension for +many years of the hydraulic mining operations, in preparation +for which millions of dollars had been expended in deep tunnels, +flumes, &c., and the active continuance of which might have been +expected to yield some £2,000,000 of gold annually. This interruption, +due to the practical prohibition of the industry by the +United States courts, on the ground that it was injuring, through +the deposit of tailings, agricultural lands and navigable streams, +was lessened, though not entirely removed, by compromises and +regulations which permit, under certain restrictions, the renewed +exploitation of the ancient river-beds by the hydraulic method. +On the other hand, the progressive reduction of mining and +metallurgical costs effected by improved transportation and +machinery, and the use of high explosives, compressed air, +electric-power transmission, &c., resulted in California (as +elsewhere) in a notable revival of deep mining. This was +especially the case on the “Mother Lode,” where highly promising +results were obtained. Not only is vein-material formerly +regarded as unremunerative now extracted at a profit, but in +many instances increased gold-values have been encountered +below zones of relative barrenness, and operators have been +encouraged to make costly preparations for really deep mining—more +than 3000 ft. below the surface. The gold product of +California, therefore, may be fairly expected to maintain itself, +and, indeed, to show an advance. Alaska appeared in the list +of gold-producing countries in 1886, and gradually increased its +annual output until 1897, when the country attracted much attention +with a production valued at over £500,000; the opening up +of new workings has increased this figure immensely, from about +£1,400,000 in 1901 to £3,006,500 in 1905. The Alaska gold +was derived almost wholly from the large low-grade quartz mines +of Douglas Island prior to 1899, but in that year an important +district was discovered at Cape Nome, on the north-western +coast. The result of a few months’ working during that year +was more than £500,000 of gold, and a very much larger annual +output may reasonably be anticipated in the future; in 1905 it +was about £900,000. The gold occurs in alluvial deposits +designated as gulch-, bar-, beach-, tundra- and bench-placers. +The tundra is a coastal plain, swampy and covered with undergrowth +and underlaid by gravel. The most interesting and, thus +far, the most productive are the beach deposits, similar to those +on the coast of Northern California. These occur in a strip of +comparatively fine gravel and sand, 150 yds. wide, extending +along the shore. The gold is found in stratified layers, with +“ruby” and black sand. The “ruby” sand consists chiefly of +fine garnets and magnetites, with a few rose-quartz grains. +Further exploration of the interior will probably result in the +discovery of additional gold districts.</p> + +<p>Mexico, from a gold production of £200,000 in 1891, advanced +to about £1,881,800 in 1900 and to about £3,221,000 in 1905. Of +this increase, a considerable part was derived from gold-quartz +mining, though much was also obtained as a by-product in the +working of the ores of other metals. The product of Colombia, +Venezuela, the Guianas, Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, +Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador amounted in 1900 to £2,481,000 and +to £2,046,000 in 1905.</p> + +<p>In 1876 Australasia produced £7,364,000, of which Victoria +contributed £3,084,000. The annual output of Victoria declined +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id="page195"></a>195</span> +until the year 1892, when it began to increase rapidly, but not to +its former level, the values for 1900 and 1905 being £3,142,000 +and £3,138,000. There has been an important increase in +Queensland, which advanced from £1,696,000 in 1876 to +£2,843,000 in 1900, and subsequently declined to £2,489,000 +in 1905. There has been no increase, and, indeed, no large +fluctuation until quite recently in the output of New Zealand, +which averaged £1,054,000 per +annum from 1876 to 1898, but +the production of the two years +1900 and 1905 rose to £1,425,459 +and £2,070,407 respectively. By +far the most important addition +to the Australasian product has +come from West Australia, which +began its production in 1887—about +the time of the inception +of mining at Witwatersrand +(“the Rand”) in South +Africa—and by continuous increase, +which assumed large +proportions towards the close of +the 19th century, was £6,426,000 +in 1899, £6,179,000 in 1900, and +£8,212,000 in 1905. The total +Australasian production in 1908 +was valued at £14,708,000.</p> + +<p>Undoubtedly the greatest of +the gold discoveries made in the +latter half of the 19th century +was that of the Witwatersrand +district in the Transvaal. By +reason of its unusual geological +character and great economic +importance this district deserves +a more extended description. The gold occurs in conglomerate +beds, locally known as “banket.” There are several series of +parallel beds, interstratified with quartzite and schist, the most +important being the “main reef” series. The gold in this conglomerate +reef is partly of detrital origin and partly of the genetic +character of ordinary vein-gold. The formation is noted for its +regularity as regards both the thickness and the gold-tenor of +the ore-bearing reefs, in which respect it is unparalleled in the +geology of the auriferous formations. The gold carries, on an +average, £2 per ton, and is worked by ordinary methods of gold-mining, +stamp-milling and cyaniding. In 1899, 5762 stamps +were in operation, crushing 7,331,446 tons of ore, and yielding +£15,134,000, equivalent to 25.5% of the world’s production. +Of this, 80% came from within 12 m. of Johannesburg. After +September 1899 operations were suspended, almost entirely +owing to the Boer War, but on the 2nd of May 1901 they were +started again. In 1905 the yield was valued at £20,802,074, +and in 1909 at £30,925,788. So certain is the ore-bearing +formation that engineers in estimating its auriferous contents +feel justified in assuming, as a factor in their calculations, a +vertical extension limited only by the lowest depths at which +mining is feasible. On such a basis they arrived at more than +£600,000,000 as the available gold contained in the Witwatersrand +conglomerates. This was a conservative estimate, and was +made before the full extent of the reefs was known; in 1904 +Lionel Phillips stated that the main reef series had been +proved for 61 m., and he estimated the gold remaining to be +mined to be worth £2,500,000,000. Deposits similar to the +Witwatersrand banket occur in Zululand, and also on the +Gold Coast of Africa. In Rhodesia, the country lying north +of the Transvaal, where gold occurs in well-defined quartz-veins, +there is unquestionable evidence of extensive ancient +workings. The economic importance of the region generally +has been fully proved. Rhodesia produced £386,148 in 1900 +and £722,656 in 1901, in spite of the South African War; the +product for 1905 was valued at £1,480,449, and for 1908 at +£2,526,000.</p> + +<p>The gold production of Russia has been remarkably constant, +averaging £4,899,262 per annum; the gold is derived chiefly +from placer workings in Siberia.</p> + +<p>The gold production of China was estimated for 1899 at +£1,328,238 and for 1900 at £860,000; it increased in 1901 to +about £1,700,000, to fall to £340,000 in 1905; in 1906 and 1907 +it recovered to about £1,000,000.</p> + +<p class="center pt1"><span class="sc">Table II.</span>—<i>Gold Production of Certain Countries, 1881-1908</i> (<i>in oz.</i>).</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Australasia.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Africa.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Canada.</td> <td class="tccm allb">India.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Mexico.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Russia.</td> <td class="tccm allb">United<br />States.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Totals.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1881</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,475,161</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,483</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">41,545</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,181,853</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,678,612</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,976,980</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1882</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,438,067</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">45,289</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,154,613</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,572,187</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,825,794</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1883</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,333,849</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,150</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,229</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,132,219</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,451,250</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,614,588</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1884</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,352,761</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">57,227</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,055,642</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,489,950</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,902,889</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1885</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,309,804</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">53,987</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,941</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,225,738</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,538,325</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,002,584</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1886</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,257,670</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,061</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,702</td> <td class="tcr rb">922,226</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,693,125</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,044,363</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1887</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,290,202</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,754</td> <td class="tcr rb">59,884</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,403</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,861</td> <td class="tcr rb">971,656</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,596,375</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,061,490</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1888</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,344,002</td> <td class="tcr rb">240,266</td> <td class="tcr rb">53,150</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,034</td> <td class="tcr rb">47,117</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,030,151</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,604,841</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,175,623</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1889</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,540,607</td> <td class="tcr rb">366,023</td> <td class="tcr rb">62,658</td> <td class="tcr rb">78,649</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,862</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,154,076</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,587,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,611,245</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,453,172</td> <td class="tcr rb">497,817</td> <td class="tcr rb">55,625</td> <td class="tcr rb">107,273</td> <td class="tcr rb">37,104</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,134,590</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,588,880</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,726,966</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,518,690</td> <td class="tcr rb">729,268</td> <td class="tcr rb">45,022</td> <td class="tcr rb">131,776</td> <td class="tcr rb">48,375</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,168,764</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,604,840</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,287,591</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1892</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,638,238</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,210,869</td> <td class="tcr rb">43,905</td> <td class="tcr rb">164,141</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,625</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,199,809</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,597,098</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,102,172</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1893</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,711,892</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,478,477</td> <td class="tcr rb">44,853</td> <td class="tcr rb">207,152</td> <td class="tcr rb">63,144</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,345,224</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,739,323</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,772,585</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1894</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,020,180</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,024,164</td> <td class="tcr rb">50,411</td> <td class="tcr rb">210,412</td> <td class="tcr rb">217,688</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,167,455</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,910,813</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,813,848</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,170,505</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,277,640</td> <td class="tcr rb">92,440</td> <td class="tcr rb">257,830</td> <td class="tcr rb">290,250</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,397,767</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,254,760</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,814,505</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,185,872</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,280,892</td> <td class="tcr rb">136,274</td> <td class="tcr rb">323,501</td> <td class="tcr rb">314,437</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,041,794</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,568,132</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,950,861</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897 </td> <td class="tcc rb">2,547,704</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,832,776</td> <td class="tcr rb">294,582</td> <td class="tcr rb">350,585</td> <td class="tcr rb">362,812</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,124,511</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,774,935</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,420,068</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,137,644</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,876,216</td> <td class="tcr rb">669,445</td> <td class="tcr rb">376,431</td> <td class="tcr rb">411,187</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,231,791</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,118,398</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,877,806</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,837,181</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,532,488</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,031,563</td> <td class="tcr rb">418,869</td> <td class="tcr rb">411,187</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,072,333</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,437,210</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,837,775</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,555,506</td> <td class="tcr rb">419,503</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,348,720</td> <td class="tcr rb">456,444</td> <td class="tcr rb">435,375</td> <td class="tcr rb">974,537</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,829,897</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,315,135</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,719,080</td> <td class="tcr rb">439,704</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,167,216</td> <td class="tcr rb">454,527</td> <td class="tcr rb">497,527</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,105,412</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,805,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,698,089</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,946,374</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,887,773</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,003,355</td> <td class="tcr rb">463,824</td> <td class="tcr rb">491,156</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,090,053</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,870,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,313,660</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">4,315,538</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,289,409</td> <td class="tcr rb">911,118</td> <td class="tcr rb">552,873</td> <td class="tcr rb">516,524</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,191,582</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,560,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,852,620</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">4,245,744</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,156,084</td> <td class="tcr rb">793,350</td> <td class="tcr rb">556,097</td> <td class="tcr rb">609,781</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,199,857</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,892,480</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,790,351</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb">4,159,220</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,477,841</td> <td class="tcr rb">700,863</td> <td class="tcr rb">576,889</td> <td class="tcr rb">779,181</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,063,883</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,265,742</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,360,945</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1906</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,984,538</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,449,749</td> <td class="tcr rb">581,709</td> <td class="tcr rb">525,527</td> <td class="tcr rb">896,615</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,087,056</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,565,333</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,620,272</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1907</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,659,693</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,270,464</td> <td class="tcr rb">399,844</td> <td class="tcr rb">495,965</td> <td class="tcr rb">903,672</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,282,635</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,374,827</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,988,144</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1908</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3,557,705</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7,983,348</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">462,467</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">504,309</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,182,445</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,497,076</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4,659,360</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">21,529,300</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Alloys.</i>—Gold forms alloys with most metals, and of these many +are of great importance in the arts. The alloy with mercury—gold +amalgam—is so readily formed that mercury is one of the most +powerful agents for extracting the precious metal. With 10% of +gold present the amalgam is fluid, and with 12.5% pasty, while with +13% it consists of yellowish-white crystals. Gold readily alloys with +silver and copper to form substances in use from remote times for +money, jewelry and plate. Other metals which find application in +the metallurgy of gold by virtue of their property of extracting the +gold as an alloy are lead, which combines very readily when molten, +and which can afterwards be separated by cupellation, and copper, +which is separated from the gold by solution in acids or by electrolysis; +molten lead also extracts gold from the copper-gold alloys. +The relative amount of gold in an alloy is expressed in two ways: +(1) as “fineness,” <i>i.e.</i> the amount of gold in 1000 parts of alloy; +(2) as “carats,” <i>i.e.</i> the amount of gold in 24 parts of alloy. Thus, +pure gold is 1000 “fine” or 24 carat. In England the following +standards are used for plate and jewelry: 375, 500, 625, 750 and +916.6, corresponding to 9, 12, 15, 18 and 22 carats, the alloying +metals being silver and copper in varying proportions. In France +three alloys of the following standards are used for jewelry, 920, +840 and 750. A greenish alloy used by goldsmiths contains 70% of +silver and 30% of gold. “Blue gold” is stated to contain 75% +of gold and 25% of iron. The Japanese use for ornament an alloy +of gold and silver, the standard of which varies from 350 to 500, +the colour of the precious metal being developed by “pickling” in +a mixture of plum-juice, vinegar and copper sulphate. They may +be said to possess a series of bronzes, in which gold and silver replace +tin and zinc, all these alloys being characterized by patina having +a wonderful range of tint. The common alloy, Shi-ya-ku-Do, contains +70% of copper and 30% of gold; when exposed to air it +becomes coated with a fine black patina, and is much used in Japan +for sword ornaments. Gold wire may be drawn of any quality, but it +is usual to add 5 to 9 dwts. of copper to the pound. The “solders” +used for red gold contain 1 part of copper and 5 of gold; for light +gold, 1 part of copper, 1 of silver and 4 of gold.</p> + +<p><i>Gold and Silver.</i>—Electrum is a natural alloy of gold and silver. +Matthiessen observed that the density of alloys, the composition of +which varies from AuAg<span class="su">6</span> to Au<span class="su">6</span>Ag, is greater than that calculated +from the densities of the constituent metals. These alloys are +harder, more fusible and more sonorous than pure gold. The alloys +of the formulae AuAg, AuAg<span class="su">2</span>, AuAg<span class="su">4</span> and AuAg<span class="su">20</span> are perfectly +homogeneous, and have been studied by Levol. Molten alloys containing +more than 80% of silver deposit on cooling the alloy AuAg<span class="su">9</span>, +little gold remaining in the mother liquor.</p> + +<p><i>Gold and Zinc.</i>—When present in small quantities zinc renders gold +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id="page196"></a>196</span> +brittle, but it may be added to gold in larger quantities without +destroying the ductility of the precious metal; Péligot proved that a +triple alloy of gold, copper and zinc, which contains 5.8% of the last-named, +is perfectly ductile. The alloy of 11 parts gold and 1 part of +zinc is, however, stated to be brittle.</p> + +<p><i>Gold and Tin.</i>—Alchorne showed that gold alloyed with <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">37</span>th part +of tin is sufficiently ductile to be rolled and stamped into coin, provided +the metal is not annealed at a high temperature. The alloys +of tin and gold are hard and brittle, and the combination of the metals +is attended with contraction; thus the alloy SnAu has a density +14.243, instead of 14.828 indicated by calculation. Matthiessen and +Bose obtained large crystals of the alloy Au<span class="su">2</span>Sn<span class="su">5</span>, having the colour +of tin, which changed to a bronze tint by oxidation.</p> + +<p><i>Gold and Iron.</i>—Hatchett found that the alloy of 11 parts gold +and 1 part of iron is easily rolled without annealing. In these proportions +the density of the alloy is less than the mean of its constituent +metals.</p> + +<p><i>Gold and Palladium.</i>—These metals are stated to alloy in all proportions. +According to Chenevix, the alloy composed of equal parts +of the two metals is grey, is less ductile than its constituent metals +and has the specific gravity 11.08. The alloy of 4 parts of gold and 1 +part of palladium is white, hard and ductile. Graham showed that a +wire of palladium alloyed with from 24 to 25 parts of gold does not +exhibit the remarkable retraction which, in pure palladium, attends +its loss of occluded hydrogen.</p> + +<p><i>Gold and Platinum.</i>—Clarke states that the alloy of equal parts +of the two metals is ductile, and has almost the colour of gold.</p> + +<p><i>Gold and Rhodium.</i>—Gold alloyed with ¼th or <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>th of rhodium is, +according to Wollaston, very ductile, infusible and of the colour of gold.</p> + +<p><i>Gold and Iridium.</i>—Small quantities of iridium do not destroy the +ductility of gold, but this is probably because the metal is only disseminated +through the mass, and not alloyed, as it falls to the bottom +of the crucible in which the gold is fused.</p> + +<p><i>Gold and Nickel.</i>—Eleven parts of gold and 1 of nickel yield an +alloy resembling brass.</p> + +<p><i>Gold and Cobalt.</i>—Eleven parts of gold and 1 of cobalt form a +brittle alloy of a dull yellow colour.</p> + +<p><i>Compounds.</i>—Aurous oxide, Au<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained by cautiously +adding potash to a solution of aurous bromide, or by boiling +mixed solutions of auric chloride and mercurous nitrate. It forms +a dark-violet precipitate which dries to a greyish-violet powder. +When freshly prepared it dissolves in cold water to form an indigo-coloured +solution with a brownish fluorescence of colloidal aurous +oxide; it is insoluble in hot water. This oxide is slightly basic. +Auric oxide, Au<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, is a brown powder, decomposed into its elements +when heated to about 250° or on exposure to light. When a concentrated +solution of auric chloride is treated with caustic potash, +a brown precipitate of auric hydrate, Au(OH)<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained, which, +on heating, loses water to form auryl hydrate, AuO(OH), and +auric oxide, Au<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>. It functions chiefly as an acidic oxide, being +less basic than aluminium oxide, and forming no stable oxy-salts. +It dissolves in alkalis to form well-defined crystalline salts; potassium +aurate, KAuO<span class="su">2</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O, is very soluble in water, and is used in electro-gilding. +With concentrated ammonia auric oxide forms a black, +highly explosive compound of the composition AuN<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">3</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O, +named “fulminating gold”; this substance is generally considered +to be Au(NH<span class="su">2</span>)NH·3H<span class="su">2</span>O, but it may be an ammine of the formula +[Au(NH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>(OH)<span class="su">2</span>]OH. Other oxides, <i>e.g.</i> Au<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, have been described.</p> + +<p>Aurous chloride, AuCl, is obtained as a lemon-yellow, amorphous +powder, insoluble in water, by heating auric chloride to 185°. It +begins to decompose into gold and chlorine at 185°, the decomposition +being complete at 230°; water decomposes it into gold and auric +chloride. Auric chloride, or gold trichloride, AuCl<span class="su">3</span>, is a dark ruby-red +or reddish-brown, crystalline, deliquescent powder obtained by +dissolving the metal in aqua regia. It is also obtained by carefully +evaporating a solution of the metal in chlorine water. The gold +chloride of commerce, which is used in photography, is really a +hydrochloride, chlorauric or aurichloric acid, HAuCl<span class="su">4</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O, and +is obtained in long yellow needles by crystallizing the acid solution. +Corresponding to this acid, a series of salts, named chloraurates or +aurichlorides, are known. The potassium salt is obtained by crystallizing +equivalent quantities of potassium and auric chlorides. +Light-yellow monoclinic needles of 2KAuCl<span class="su">4</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O are deposited from +warm, strongly acid solutions, and transparent rhombic tables of +KAuCl<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O from neutral solutions. By crystallizing an aqueous +solution, red crystals of AuCl<span class="su">3</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O are obtained. Auric chloride +combines with the hydrochlorides of many organic bases—amines, +alkaloids, &c.—to form characteristic compounds. Gold dichloride, +probably Au<span class="su">2</span>Cl<span class="su">4</span>, = Au·AuCl<span class="su">4</span>, aurous chloraurate, is said to be +obtained as a dark-red mass by heating finely divided gold to 140°-170° +in chlorine. Water decomposes it into gold and auric chloride. +The bromides and iodides resemble the chlorides. Aurous bromide, +AuBr, is a yellowish-green powder obtained by heating the tribromide +to 140°; auric bromide, AuBr<span class="su">3</span>, forms reddish-black or +scarlet-red leafy crystals, which dissolve in water to form a reddish-brown +solution, and combines with bromides to form bromaurates corresponding +to the chloraurates. Aurous iodide, AuI, is a light-yellow, +sparingly soluble powder obtained, together with free iodine, by +adding potassium iodide to auric chloride; auric iodide, AuI<span class="su">3</span>, +is formed as a dark-green powder at the same time, but it readily +decomposes to aurous iodide and iodine. Aurous iodide is also +obtained as a green solid by acting upon gold with iodine. The +iodaurates correspond to the chlor- and bromaurates; the potassium +salt, KAuI<span class="su">4</span>, forms highly lustrous, intensely black, four-sided prisms.</p> + +<p>Aurous cyanide, AuCN, forms yellow, microscopic, hexagonal +tables, insoluble in water, and is obtained by the addition of hydrochloric +acid to a solution of potassium aurocyanide, KAu(CN)<span class="su">2</span>. +This salt is prepared by precipitating a solution of gold in <i>aqua regia</i> +by ammonia, and then introducing the well-washed precipitate into +a boiling solution of potassium cyanide. The solution is filtered +and allowed to cool, when colourless rhombic pyramids of the +aurocyanide separate. It is also obtained in the action of potassium +cyanide on gold in the presence of air, a reaction utilized in the +MacArthur-Forrest process of gold extraction (see below). Auric +cyanide, Au(CN)<span class="su">3</span>, is not certainly known; its double salts, however, +have been frequently described. Potassium auricyanide, +2KAu(CN)<span class="su">4</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained as large, colourless, efflorescent +tablets by crystallizing concentrated solutions of auric chloride +and potassium cyanide. The acid, auricyanic acid, 2HAu(CN)<span class="su">4</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O, +is obtained by treating the silver salt (obtained by precipitating +the potassium salt with silver nitrate) with hydrochloric acid; it +forms tabular crystals, readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether.</p> + +<p>Gold forms three sulphides corresponding to the oxides; they +readily decompose on heating. Aurous sulphide, Au<span class="su">2</span>S, is a brownish-black +powder formed by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a +solution of potassium aurocyanide and then acidifying. Sodium +aurosulphide, NaAuS·4H<span class="su">2</span>O, is prepared by fusing gold with sodium +sulphide and sulphur, the melt being extracted with water, filtered +in an atmosphere of nitrogen, and evaporated in a vacuum over +sulphuric acid. It forms colourless, monoclinic prisms, which turn +brown on exposure to air. This method of bringing gold into +solution is mentioned by Stahl in his <i>Observationes Chymico-Physico-Medicae</i>; +he there remarks that Moses probably destroyed +the golden calf by burning it with sulphur and alkali (Ex. xxxii. 20). +Auric sulphide, Au<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span>, is an amorphous powder formed when lithium +aurichloride is treated with dry sulphuretted hydrogen at -10°. +It is very unstable, decomposing into gold and sulphur at 200°.</p> + +<p>Oxy-salts of gold are almost unknown, but the sulphite and thiosulphate +form double salts. Thus by adding acid sodium sulphite +to, or by passing sulphur dioxide at 50° into, a solution of sodium +aurate, the salt, 3Na<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">3</span>·Au<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">3</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O is obtained, which, when +precipitated from its aqueous solution by alcohol, forms a purple +powder, appearing yellow or green by reflected light. Sodium +aurothiosulphate, 3Na<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·Au<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O, forms colourless needles; +it is obtained in the direct action of sodium thiosulphate on gold in the +presence of an oxidizing agent, or by the addition of a dilute solution +of auric chloride to a sodium thiosulphate solution.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Mining and Metallurgy.</i></p> + +<p>The various deposits of gold may be divided into two classes—“veins” +and “placers.” The vein mining of gold does not +greatly differ from that of similar deposits of metals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mineral +Deposits</a></span>). In the placer or alluvial deposits, the precious metal +is found usually in a water-worn condition imbedded in earthy +matter, and the method of working all such deposits is based on +the disintegration of the earthy matter by the action of a stream +of water, which washes away the lighter portions and leaves the +denser gold. In alluvial deposits the richest ground is usually +found in contact with the “bed rock”; and, when the overlying +cover of gravel is very thick, or, as sometimes happens, when the +older gravel is covered with a flow of basalt, regular mining by +shafts and levels, as in what are known as tunnel-claims, may be +required to reach the auriferous ground.</p> + +<p>The extraction of gold may be effected by several methods; +we may distinguish the following leading types:</p> + +<p>1. By simple washing, <i>i.e.</i> dressing auriferous sands, gravels, &c.;</p> + +<p>2. By amalgamation, <i>i.e.</i> forming a gold amalgam, afterwards +removing the mercury by distillation;</p> + +<p>3. By chlorination, <i>i.e.</i> forming the soluble gold chloride and +then precipitating the metal;</p> + +<p>4. By the cyanide process, <i>i.e.</i> dissolving the gold in potassium +cyanide solution, and then precipitating the metal;</p> + +<p>5. Electrolytically, generally applied to the solutions obtained +in processes (3) and (4).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. <i>Extraction of Gold by Washing.</i>—In the early days of gold-washing +in California and Australia, when rich alluvial deposits +were common at the surface, the most simple appliances sufficed. +The most characteristic is the “pan,” a circular dish of sheet-iron +or “tin,” with sloping sides about 13 or 14 in. in diameter. +The pan, about two-thirds filled with the “pay dirt” to be washed, +is held in the stream or in a hole filled with water. The larger +stones having been removed by hand, gyratory motion is given +to the pan by a combination of shaking and twisting movements +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page197" id="page197"></a>197</span> +so as to keep its contents suspended in the stream of water, which +carries away the bulk of the lighter material, leaving the heavy +minerals, together with any gold which may have been present. The +washing is repeated until enough of the enriched sand is collected, +when the gold is finally recovered by careful washing or “panning +out” in a smaller pan. In Mexico and South America, instead of the +pan, a wooden dish or trough, known as “batea,” is used.</p> + +<p>The “cradle” is a simple appliance for treating somewhat larger +quantities, and consists essentially of a box, mounted on rockers, +and provided with a perforated bottom of sheet iron in which the +“pay dirt” is placed. Water is poured on the dirt, and the rocking +motion imparted to the cradle causes the finer particles to pass through +the perforated bottom on to a canvas screen, and thence to the base +of the cradle, where the auriferous particles accumulate on transverse +bars of wood, called “riffles.”</p> + +<p>The “tom” is a sort of cradle with an extended sluice placed on +an incline of about 1 in 12. The upper end contains a perforated +riddle plate which is placed directly over the riffle box, and under +certain circumstances mercury may be placed behind the riffles. +Copper plates amalgamated with mercury are also used when the +gold is very fine, and in some instances amalgamated silver coins have +been used for the same purpose. Sometimes the stuff is disintegrated +with water in a “puddling machine,” which was used, especially in +Australia, when the earthy matters are tenacious and water scarce. +The machine frequently resembles a brickmaker’s wash-mill, and is +worked by horse or steam power.</p> + +<p>In workings on a larger scale, where the supply of water is abundant, +as in California, sluices were generally employed. They are shallow +troughs about 12 ft. long, about 16 to 20 in. wide and 1 ft. in depth. +The troughs taper slightly so that they can be joined in series, the +total length often reaching several hundred feet. The incline of the +sluice varies with the conformation of the ground and the tenacity of +the stuff to be washed, from 1 in 16 to 1 in 8. A rectangular trough +of boards, whose dimensions depend chiefly on the size of the planks +available, is set up on the higher part of the ground at one side of the +claim to be worked, upon trestles or piers of rough stone-work, at such +an inclination that the stream may carry off all but the largest stones, +which are kept back by a grating of boards about 2 in. apart. The +gravel is dug by hand and thrown in at the upper end, the stones +kept back being removed at intervals by two men with four-pronged +steel forks. The floor of the sluice is laid with riffles made of strips +of wood 2 in. square laid parallel to the direction of the current, and +at other points with boards having transverse notches filled with +mercury. These were known originally as Hungarian riffles.</p> + +<p>In larger plant the upper ends of the sluices are often cut in rock +or lined with stone blocks, the grating stopping the larger stones +being known as a “grizzly.” In order to save very fine and especially +rusty particles of gold, so-called “under-current sluices” are used; +these are shallow wooden tanks, 50 sq. yds. and upwards in area, +which are placed somewhat below the main sluice, and communicate +with it above and below, the entry being protected by a grating so +that only the finer material is admitted. These are paved with stone +blocks or lined with mercury riffles, so that from the greatly reduced +velocity of flow, due to the sudden increase of surface, the finer +particles of gold may collect. In order to save finely divided gold, +amalgamated copper plates are sometimes placed in a nearly level +position, at a considerable distance from the head of the sluice, the +gold which is retained in it being removed from time to time. Sluices +are often made double, and they are usually cleaned up—that is, +the deposit rich in gold is removed from them—once a week.</p> + +<p>The “pan” is now only used by prospectors, while the “cradle” +and “tom” are practically confined to the Chinese; the sluice is +considered to be the best contrivance for washing gold gravels.</p> +</div> + +<p>2. <i>The Amalgamation Process.</i>—This method is employed to +extract gold from both alluvial and reef deposits: in the first +case it is combined with “hydraulic mining,” <i>i.e.</i> disintegrating +auriferous gravels by powerful jets of water, and the sluice +system described above; in the second case the vein stuff is +prepared by crushing and the amalgamation is carried out in +mills.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hydraulic mining has for the most part been confined to the country +of its invention, California, and the western territories of America, +where the conditions favourable for its use are more fully developed +than elsewhere—notably the presence of thick banks of gravel that +cannot be utilized by other methods, and abundance of water, even +though considerable work may be required at times to make it available. +The general conditions to be observed in such workings +may be briefly stated as follows: (1) The whole of the auriferous +gravel, down to the “bed rock,” must be removed,—that is, no +selection of rich or poor parts is possible; (2) this must be accomplished +by the aid of water alone, or at times by water supplemented +by blasting; (3) the conglomerate must be mechanically disintegrated +without interrupting the whole system; (4) the gold must be saved +without interrupting the continuous flow of water; and (5) arrangements +must be made for disposing of the vast masses of impoverished +gravel.</p> + +<p>The water is brought from a ditch on the high ground, and through +a line of pipes to the distributing box, whence the branch pipes +supplying the jets diverge. The stream issues through a nozzle, +termed a “monitor” or “giant,” which is fitted with a ball and +socket joint, so that the direction of the jet may be varied through +considerable angles by simply moving a handle. The material of +the bank being loosened by blasting and the cutting action of the +water, crumbles into holes, and the superincumbent mass, often +with large trees and stones, falls into the lower ground. The +stream, laden with stones and gravel, passes into the sluices, where +the gold is recovered in the manner already described. Under the +most advantageous conditions the loss of gold may be estimated at +15 or 20%, the amount recovered representing a value of about +two shillings per ton of gravel treated. The loss of mercury is +about the same, from 5 to 6 cwt. being in constant use per mile of +sluice.</p> + +<p>In working auriferous river-beds, dredges have been used with +considerable success in certain parts of New Zealand and on the +Pacific slope in America. The dredges used in California are almost +exclusively of the endless-chain bucket or steam-shovel pattern. +Some dredges have a capacity under favourable conditions of over +2000 cub. yds. of gravel daily. The gravel is excavated as in the +ordinary form of endless-chain bucket dredge and dumped on to the +deck of the dredge. It then passes through screens and grizzlies +to retain the coarse gravel, the finer material passing on to sluice +boxes provided with riffles, supplied with mercury. There are +belt conveyers for discharging the gravel and tailings at the end of the +vessel remote from the buckets. The water necessary to the process +is pumped from the river; as much as 2000 gallons per minute is +used on the larger dredges.</p> + +<p>The dressing or mechanical preparation of vein stuff containing gold +is generally similar to that of other ores (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ore-dressing</a></span>), except +that the precious metal should be removed from the waste substances +as quickly as possible, even although other minerals of value that are +subsequently recovered may be present. In all cases the quartz +or other vein stuff must be reduced to a very fine powder as a preliminary +to further operations. This may be done in several ways, +<i>e.g.</i> either (1) by the Mexican crusher or <i>arrastra</i>, in which the grinding +is effected upon a bed of stone, over which heavy blocks of stone +attached to cross arms are dragged by the rotation of the arms about +a central spindle, or (2) by the Chilean mill or <i>trapiche</i>, also known +as the edge-runner, where the grinding stones roll upon the floor, +at the same time turning about a central upright—contrivances +which are mainly used for the preparation of silver ores; but +by far the largest proportion of the gold quartz of California, +Australia and Africa is reduced by (3) the stamp mill, which is similar +in principle to that used in Europe for the preparation of tin and other +ores.</p> + +<p>The stamp mill was first used in California, and its use has since +spread over the whole world. In the mills of the Californian type the +stamp is a cylindrical iron pestle faced with a chilled cast iron shoe, +removable so that it can be renewed when necessary, attached to +a round iron rod or lifter, the whole weighing from 600 to 900 ℔; +stamps weighing 1320 ℔ are in use in the Transvaal. The lift is +effected by cams acting on the under surface of tappets, and formed +by cylindrical boxes keyed on to the stems of the lifter about one-fourth +of their length from the top. As, however, the cams, unlike +those of European stamp mills, are placed to one side of the stamp, the +latter is not only lifted but turned partly round on its own axis, whereby +the shoes are worn down uniformly. The height of lift may be +between 4 and 18 in., and the number of blows from 30 to over 100 +per minute. The stamps are usually arranged in batteries of five; +the order of working is usually 1, 4, 2, 5, 3, but other arrangements, +<i>e.g.</i> 1, 3, 5, 2, 4, and 1, 5, 2, 4, 3, are common. The stuff, previously +broken to about 2-in. lumps in a rock-breaker, is fed in through an +aperture at the back of the “battery box,” a constant supply of +water is admitted from above, and mercury in a finely divided state +is added at frequent intervals. The discharge of the comminuted +material takes place through an aperture, which is covered by a +thin steel plate perforated with numerous slits about <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">50</span>th in. broad +and ½ in. long, a certain volume being discharged at every blow +and carried forward by the flushing water over an apron or table +in front, covered by copper plates filled with mercury. Similar +plates are often used to catch any particles of gold that may be thrown +back, while the main operation is so conducted that the bulk of the +gold may be reduced to the state of amalgam by bringing the two +metals into intimate contact under the stamp head, and remain in the +battery. The tables in front are laid at an incline of about 8° and are +about 13 ft. long; they collect from 10 to 15% of the whole gold; +a further quantity is recovered by leading the sands through a gutter +about 16 in. broad and 120 ft. long, also lined with amalgamated +copper plates, after the pyritic and other heavy minerals have been +separated by depositing in catch pits and other similar contrivances.</p> + +<p>When the ore does not contain any considerable amount of free gold +mercury is not, as a rule, used during the crushing, but the amalgamation +is carried out in a separate plant. Contrivances of the most +diverse constructions have been employed. The most primitive is +the rubbing together of the concentrated crushings with mercury in +iron mortars. Barrel amalgamation, <i>i.e.</i> mixing the crushings +with mercury in rotating barrels, is rarely used, the process being +wasteful, since the mercury is specially apt to be “floured” (see +below).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id="page198"></a>198</span></p> + +<p>At Schemnitz, Kerpenyes, Kreuzberg and other localities in +Hungary, quartz vein stuff containing a little gold, partly free and +partly associated with pyrites and galena, is, after stamping in mills, +similar to those described above, but without rotating stamps, +passed through the so-called “Hungarian gold mill” or “quick-mill.” +This consists of a cast-iron pan having a shallow cylindrical bottom +holding mercury, in which a wooden muller, nearly of the same +shape as the inside of the pan, and armed below with several projecting +blades, is made to revolve by gearing wheels. The stuff +from the stamps is conveyed to the middle of the muller, and is +distributed over the mercury, when the gold subsides, while the +quartz and lighter materials are guided by the blades to the circumference +and are discharged, usually into a second similar mill, +and subsequently pass over blanket tables, <i>i.e.</i> boards covered +with canvas or sacking, the gold and heavier particles becoming entangled +in the fibres. The action of this mill is really more nearly +analogous to that of a centrifugal pump, as no grinding action takes +place in it. The amalgam is cleaned out periodically—fortnightly or +monthly—and after filtering through linen bags to remove the excess +of mercury, it is transferred to retorts for distillation (see below).</p> + +<p>Many other forms of pan-amalgamators have been devised. The +Laszlo is an improved Hungarian mill, while the Piccard is of the +same type. In the Knox and Boss mills, which are also employed +for the amalgamation of silver ores, the grinding is effected between +flat horizontal surfaces instead of conical or curved surfaces as in the +previously described forms.</p> + +<p>One of the greatest difficulties in the treatment of gold by amalgamation, +and more particularly in the treatment of pyrites, arises from +the so-called “sickening” or “flouring” of the mercury; that is, the +particles, losing their bright metallic surfaces, are no longer capable +of coalescing with or taking up other metals. Of the numerous +remedies proposed the most efficacious is perhaps sodium amalgam. +It appears that amalgamation is often impeded by the tarnish +found on the surface of the gold when it is associated with sulphur, +arsenic, bismuth, antimony or tellurium. Henry Wurtz in America +(1864) and Sir William Crookes in England (1865) made independently +the discovery that, by the addition of a small quantity of sodium to +the mercury, the operation is much facilitated. It is also stated that +sodium prevents both the “sickening” and the “flouring” of the +mercury which is produced by certain associated minerals. The +addition of potassium cyanide has been suggested to assist the +amalgamation and to prevent “flouring,” but Skey has shown that +its use is attended with loss of gold.</p> + +<p><i>Separation of Gold from the Amalgam.</i>—The amalgam is first +pressed in wetted canvas or buckskin in order to remove excess of +mercury. Lumps of the solid amalgam, about 2 in. in diameter, +are introduced into an iron vessel provided with an iron tube that +leads into a condenser containing water. The distillation is then +effected by heating to dull redness. The amalgam yields about +30 to 40% of gold. Horizontal cylindrical retorts, holding from +200 to 1200 ℔ of amalgam, are used in the larger Californian mills, +pot retorts being used in the smaller mills. The bullion left in the +retorts is then melted in black-lead crucibles, with the addition of +small quantities of suitable fluxes, <i>e.g.</i> nitre, sodium carbonate, &c.</p> + +<p>The extraction of gold from auriferous minerals by fusion, except as +an incident in their treatment for other metals, is very rarely practised. +It was at one time proposed to treat the concentrated black iron +obtained in the Ural gold washings, which consists chiefly of magnetite, +as an iron ore, by smelting it with charcoal for auriferous pig-iron, +the latter metal possessing the property of dissolving gold in +considerable quantity. By subsequent treatment with sulphuric acid +the gold could be recovered. Experiments on this point were made +by Anossow in 1835, but they have never been followed in practice.</p> + +<p>Gold in galena or other lead ores is invariably recovered in the +refining or treatment of the lead and silver obtained. Pyritic ores +containing copper are treated by methods analogous to those of +the copper smelter. In Colorado the pyritic ores containing gold +and silver in association with copper are smelted in reverberatory +furnaces for regulus, which, when desilverized by Ziervogel’s method, +leaves a residue containing 20 or 30 oz. of gold per ton. This is +smelted with rich gold ores, notably those containing tellurium, for +white metal or regulus; and by a following process of partial reduction +analogous to that of selecting in copper smelting, “bottoms” +of impure copper are obtained in which practically all the gold is +concentrated. By continuing the treatment of these in the ordinary +way of refining, poling and granulating, all the foreign matters +other than gold, copper and silver are removed, and, by exposing the +granulated metal to a high oxidizing heat for a considerable time the +copper may be completely oxidized while the precious metals are +unaltered. Subsequent treatment with sulphuric acid renders the +copper soluble in water as sulphate, and the final residue contains +only gold and silver, which is parted or refined in the ordinary way. +This method of separating gold from copper, by converting the latter +into oxide and sulphate, is also used at Oker in the Harz.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Extraction by Means of Aqueous Solutions.</i>—Many processes +have been suggested in which the gold of auriferous deposits is +converted into products soluble in water, from which solutions +the gold may be precipitated. Of these processes, two only are +of special importance, viz. the chlorination or Plattner process, in +which the metal is converted into the chloride, and the cyanide or +MacArthur-Forrest process, in which it is converted into potassium +aurocyanide.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>(3) <i>Chlorination or Plattner Process.</i>—In this process moistened gold +ores are treated with chlorine gas, the resulting gold chloride dissolved +out with water, and the gold precipitated with ferrous sulphate, +charcoal, sulphuretted hydrogen or otherwise. The process originated +in 1848 with C. F. Plattner, who suggested that the residues from +certain mines at Reichenstein, in Silesia, should be treated with +chlorine after the arsenical products had been extracted by roasting. +It must be noticed, however, that Percy independently made the +same discovery, and stated his results at the meeting of the British +Association (at Swansea) in 1849, but the Report was not published +until 1852. The process was introduced in 1858 by Deetken at Grass +Valley, California, where the waste minerals, principally pyrites from +tailings, had been worked for a considerable time by amalgamation. +The process is rarely applied to ores direct; free-milling ores are +generally amalgamated, and the tailings and slimes, after concentration, +operated upon. Three stages in the process are to be distinguished: +(i) calcination, to convert all the metals, except gold +and silver, into oxides, which are unacted upon by chlorine; (ii.) +chlorinating the gold and lixiviating the product; (iii.) precipitating +the gold.</p> + +<p>The calcination, or roasting, is conducted at a low temperature in +some form of reverberatory furnace. Salt is added in the roasting +to convert any lime, magnesia or lead which may be present, into +the corresponding chlorides. The auric chloride is, however, decomposed +at the elevated temperature into finely divided metallic +gold, which is then readily attacked by the chlorine gas. The high +volatility of gold in the presence of certain metals must also be +considered. According to Egleston the loss may be from 40 to 90% +of the total gold present in cupriferous ores according to the temperature +and duration of calcination. The roasted mineral, slightly +moistened, is introduced into a vat made of stoneware or pitched +planks, and furnished with a double bottom. Chlorine, generally +prepared by the interaction of pyrolusite, salt and sulphuric acid, +is led from a suitable generator beneath the false bottom, and rises +through the moistened ore, which rests on a bed of broken quartz; +the gold is thus converted into a soluble chloride, which is afterwards +removed by washing with water. Both fixed and rotating vats are +employed, the chlorination proceeding more rapidly in the latter +case; rotating barrels are sometimes used. There have also been +introduced processes in which the chlorine is generated in the +chloridizing vat, the reagents used being dilute solutions of bleaching +powder and an acid. Munktell’s process is of this type. In the +Thies process, used in many districts in the United States, the vats +are rotating barrels made, in the later forms, of iron lined with lead, +and provided with a filter formed of a finely perforated leaden +grating running from one end of the barrel to the other, and rigidly +held in place by wooden frames. Chlorine is generated within the +barrel from sulphuric acid and chloride of lime. After charging, +the barrel is rotated, and when the chlorination is complete the +contents are emptied on a filter of quartz or some similar material, +and the filtrate led to settling tanks.</p> + +<p>After settling the solution is run into the precipitating tanks. The +precipitants in use are: ferrous sulphate, charcoal and sulphuretted +hydrogen, either alone or mixed with sulphur dioxide; the use of +copper and iron sulphides has been suggested, but apparently these +substances have achieved no success.</p> + +<p>In the case of ferrous sulphate, prepared by dissolving iron in +dilute sulphuric acid, the reaction follows the equation AuCl<span class="su">3</span> + 3FeSO<span class="su">4</span> += FeCl<span class="su">3</span> + Fe<span class="su">2</span>(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span> + Au. At the same time any lead, calcium, +barium and strontium present are precipitated as sulphates; it is +therefore advantageous to remove these metals by the preliminary +addition of sulphuric acid, which also serves to keep any basic iron +salts in solution. The precipitation is carried out in tanks or vats +made with wooden sides and a cement bottom. The solutions are +well mixed by stirring with wooden poles, and the gold allowed to +settle, the time allowed varying from 12 to 72 hours. The supernatant +liquid is led into settling tanks, where a further amount +of gold is deposited, and is then filtered through sawdust or +sand, the sawdust being afterwards burnt and the gold separated +from the ashes and the sand treated in the chloridizing vat. The +precipitated gold is washed, treated with salt and sulphuric acid +to remove iron salts, roughly dried by pressing in cloths or on filter +paper, and then melted with salt, borax and nitre in graphite +crucibles. Thus prepared it has a fineness of 800-960, the chief +impurities usually being iron and lead.</p> + +<p>Charcoal is used as the precipitant at Mount Morgan, Australia. +Its use was proposed as early as 1818 and 1819 by Hare and Henry; +Percy advocated it in 1869, and Davis adopted it on the large scale +at a works in Carolina in 1880. The action is not properly understood; +it may be due to the reducing gases (hydrogen, hydrocarbons, +&c.) which are invariably present in wood charcoal. The process +consists essentially in running the solution over layers of charcoal, +the charcoal being afterwards burned. It has been found that the +reaction proceeds faster when the solution is heated.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>199</span></p> + +<p>Precipitation with sulphur dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen +proceeds much more rapidly, and has been adopted at many works. +Sulphur dioxide, generated by burning sulphur, is forced into the +solution under pressure, where it interacts with any free chlorine +present to form hydrochloric and sulphuric acids. Sulphuretted +hydrogen, obtained by treating iron sulphide or a coarse matte +with dilute sulphuric acid, is forced in similarly. The gold is +precipitated as the sulphide, together with any arsenic, antimony, +copper, silver and lead which may be present. The precipitate +is collected in a filter-press, and then roasted in muffle furnaces +with nitre, borax and sodium carbonate. The fineness of the gold so +obtained is 900 to 950.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Cyanide Process.</i>—This process depends upon the solubility +of gold in a dilute solution of potassium cyanide in the presence +of air (or some other oxidizing agent), and the subsequent precipitation +of the gold by metallic zinc or by electrolysis. The solubility +of gold in cyanide solutions was known to K. W. Scheele in 1782; +and M. Faraday applied it to the preparation of extremely thin +films of the metal. L. Eisner recognized, in 1846, the part played +by the atmosphere, and in 1879 Dixon showed that bleaching powder, +manganese dioxide, and other oxidizing agents, facilitated the solution. +S. B. Christy (<i>Trans. A.I.M.E.</i>, 1896, vol. 26) has shown that the +solution is hastened by many oxidizing agents, especially sodium and +manganese dioxides and potassium ferricyanide. According to +G. Bodländer (<i>Zeit. f. angew. Chem.</i>, 1896, vol. 19) the rate of solution +in potassium cyanide depends upon the subdivision of the gold—the +finer the subdivision the quicker the solution,—and on the +concentration of the solution—the rate increasing until the solution +contains 0.25% of cyanide, and remaining fairly stationary with +increasing concentration. The action proceeds in two stages; in +the first hydrogen peroxide and potassium aurocyanide are formed, +and in the second the hydrogen peroxide oxidizes a further quantity +of gold and potassium cyanide to aurocyanide, thus (1) +2Au + 4KCN + O<span class="su">2</span> + 2H<span class="su">2</span>O = 2KAu(CN)<span class="su">2</span> + 4KOH + H<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">2</span>; (2) 2Au + 4KCN + 2H<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">2</span> = 2KAu(CN)<span class="su">2</span> + 4KOH. +The end reaction may be written +4Au + 8KCN + 2H<span class="su">2</span>O + O<span class="su">2</span> = 4KAu(CN)<span class="su">2</span> + 4KOH.</p> + +<p>The commercial process was patented in 1890 by MacArthur and +Forrest, and is now in use all over the world. It is best adapted for +free-milling ores, especially after the bulk of the gold has been removed +by amalgamation. It has been especially successful in the +Transvaal. In the Witwatersrand the ore, which contains about +9 dwts. of gold to the metric ton (2000 ℔), is stamped and amalgamated, +and the slimes and tailings, containing about 3½ dwts. per ton, +are cyanided, about 2 dwts. more being thus extracted. The total +cost per ton of ore treated is about 6s., of which the cyaniding costs +from 2s. to 4s.</p> + +<p>The process embraces three operations: (1) Solution of the gold; +(2) precipitation of the gold; (3) treatment of the precipitate.</p> + +<p>The ores, having been broken and ground, generally in tube mills, +until they pass a 150 to 200-mesh sieve, are transferred to the leaching +vats, which are constructed of wood, iron or masonry; steel vats, +coated inside and out with pitch, of circular section and holding up to +1000 tons, have come into use. The diameter is generally 26 ft., but +may be greater; the best depth is considered to be a quarter of the +diameter. The vats are fitted with filters made of coco-nut matting +and jute cloth supported on wooden frames. The leaching is generally +carried out with a strong, medium, and with a weak liquor, in the +order given; sometimes there is a preliminary leaching with a weak +liquor. The strengths employed depend also upon the mode of +precipitation adopted, stronger solutions (up to 0.25% KCN) being +used when zinc is the precipitant. For electrolytic precipitation the +solution may contain up to 0.1% KCN. The liquors are run off +from the vats to the electrolysing baths or precipitating tanks, and the +leached ores are removed by means of doors in the sides of the vats +into wagons. In the Transvaal the operation occupies 3½ to 4 days +for fine sands, and up to 14 days for coarse sands; the quantity of +cyanide per ton of tailings varies from 0.26 to 0.28 ℔, for electrolytic +precipitation, and 0.5 ℔ for zinc precipitation.</p> + +<p>The precipitation is effected by zinc in the form of bright turnings, +or coated with lead, or by electrolysis. According to Christy, the +precipitation with zinc follows equations 1 or 2 according as potassium +cyanide is present or not:</p> + +<p class="noind">(1) 4KAu(CN)<span class="su">2</span> + 4Zn + 2H<span class="su">2</span>O = 2Zn(CN)<span class="su">2</span> + + K<span class="su">2</span>Zn(CN)<span class="su">4</span> + Zn(OK)<span class="su">2</span> + 4H + 4Au;</p> + +<p class="noind">(2) 2KAu(CN)<span class="su">2</span> + 3Zn + 4KCN + 2H<span class="su">2</span>O = + 2K<span class="su">2</span>Zn(CN)<span class="su">4</span> + Zn(OK)<span class="su">2</span> + 4H + 2Au;</p> + +<p class="noind">one part of zinc precipitating 3.1 parts of gold in the first case, and +2.06 in the second. It may be noticed that the potassium zinc +cyanide is useless in gold extraction, for it neither dissolves gold nor +can potassium cyanide be regenerated from it.</p> + +<p>The precipitating boxes, generally made of wood but sometimes of +steel, and set on an incline, are divided by partitions into alternately +wide and narrow compartments, so that the liquor travels upwards +in its passage through the wide divisions and downwards through the +narrow divisions. In the wider compartments are placed sieves +having sixteen holes to the square inch and bearing zinc turnings. +The gold and other metals are precipitated on the under surfaces of +the turnings and fall to the bottom of the compartment as a black +slime. The slime is cleaned out fortnightly or monthly, the zinc +turnings being cleaned by rubbing and the supernatant liquor +allowed to settle in the precipitating boxes or in separate vessels. +The slime so obtained consists of finely divided gold and silver +(5-50%), zinc (30-60%), lead (10%), carbon (10%), together with +tin, copper, antimony, arsenic and other impurities of the zinc and +ores. After well washing with water, the slimes are roughly dried in +bag-filters or filter-presses, and then treated with dilute sulphuric +acid, the solution being heated by steam. This dissolves out the +zinc. Lime is added to bring down the gold, and the sediment, after +washing and drying, is fused in graphite crucibles.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Electrolytic Processes.</i>—The electrolytic separation of the gold +from cyanide solutions was first practised in the Transvaal. The +process, as elaborated by Messrs. Siemens and Halske, essentially +consists in the electrolysis of weak solutions with iron or steel plate +anodes, and lead cathodes, the latter, when coated with gold, being +fused and cupelled. Its advantages over the zinc process are that the +deposited gold is purer and more readily extracted, and that weaker +solutions can be employed, thereby effecting an economy in cyanide.</p> + +<p>In the process employed at the Worcester Works in the Transvaal, +the liquors, containing about 150 grains of gold per ton and from +0.08 to 0.01% of cyanide, are treated in rectangular vats in which is +placed a series of iron and leaden plates at intervals of 1 in. The +cathodes, which are sheets of thin lead foil weighing 1½ ℔ to the +sq. yd., are removed monthly, their gold content being from 0.5 to +10%, and after folding are melted in reverberatory furnaces to +ingots containing 2 to 4% of gold. Cupellation brings up the gold to +about 900 fine. Many variations of the electrolytic process as above +outlined have been suggested. S. Cowper Coles has suggested +aluminium cathodes; Andreoli has recommended cathodes of iron +and anodes of lead coated with lead peroxide, the gold being removed +from the iron cathodes by a brief immersion in molten lead; in the +Pelatan-Cerici process the gold is amalgamated at a mercury cathode +(see also below).</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Refining or Parting of Gold.</i>—Gold is almost always silver-bearing, +and it may be also noticed that silver generally contains +some gold. Consequently the separation of these two metals Is +one of the most important metallurgical processes. In addition +to the separation of the silver the operation extends to the +elimination of the last traces of lead, tin, arsenic, &c. which +have resisted the preceding cupellation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The “parting” of gold and silver is of considerable antiquity. +Thus Strabo states that in his time a process was employed for refining +and purifying gold in large quantities by cementing or burning +it with an aluminous earth, which, by destroying the silver, left the +gold in a state of purity. Pliny shows that for this purpose the gold +was placed on the fire in an earthen vessel with treble its weight of +salt, and that it was afterwards again exposed to the fire with two +parts of salt and one of argillaceous rock, which, in the presence of +moisture, effected the decomposition of the salt; by this means the +silver became converted into chloride.</p> + +<p>The methods of parting can be classified into “dry,” “wet” and +electrolytic methods. In the “dry” methods the silver is converted +into sulphide or chloride, the gold remaining unaltered; in the +“wet” methods the silver is dissolved by nitric acid or boiling +sulphuric acid; and in the electrolytic processes advantage is taken +of the fact that under certain current densities and other circumstances +silver passes from an anode composed of a gold-silver alloy +to the cathode more readily than gold. Of the dry methods only +F. B. Miller’s chlorine process is of any importance, this method, and +the wet process of refining by sulphuric acid, together with the +electrolytic process, being the only ones now practised.</p> + +<p>The conversion of silver into the sulphide may be effected by +heating with antimony sulphide, litharge and sulphur, pyrites, or with +sulphur alone. The antimony, or <i>Guss und Fluss</i>, method was +practised up till 1846 at the Dresden mint; it is only applicable to +alloys containing more than 50% of gold. The fusion results in the +formation of a gold-antimony alloy, from which the antimony is +removed by an oxidizing fusion with nitre. The sulphur and +litharge, or <i>Pfannenschmied</i>, process was used to concentrate the +gold in an alloy in order to make it amenable to “quartation,” or +parting with nitric acid. Fusion with sulphur was used for the same +purpose as the Pfannenschmied process. It was employed in 1797 +at the St Petersburg mint.</p> + +<p>The conversion of the silver into the chloride may be effected by +means of salt—the “cementation” process—or other chlorides, or +by free chlorine—Miller’s process. The first process consists essentially +in heating the alloy with salt and brickdust; the latter absorbs +the chloride formed, while the gold is recovered by washing. It is no +longer employed. The second process depends upon the fact that, if +chlorine be led into the molten alloy, the base metals and the silver +are converted into chlorides. It was proposed in 1838 by Lewis +Thompson, but it was only applied commercially after Miller’s improvements +in 1867, when it was adopted at the Sydney mint. Sir +W. C. Roberts-Austen introduced it at the London mint; and it has +also been used at Pretoria. It is especially suitable to gold containing +little silver and base metals—a character of Australian gold—but it +yields to the sulphuric acid and electrolytic methods in point of +economy.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page200" id="page200"></a>200</span></p> + +<p>The separation of gold from silver in the wet way may be effected +by nitric acid, sulphuric acid or by a mixture of sulphuric acid and +<i>aqua regia</i>.</p> + +<p>Parting by nitric acid is of considerable antiquity, being mentioned +by Albertus Magnus (13th cent.), Biringuccio (1540) and Agricola +(1556). It is now rarely practised, although in some refineries both +the nitric acid and the sulphuric acid processes are combined, the +alloy being first treated with nitric acid. It used to be called “quartation” +or “inquartation,” from the fact that the alloy best suited +for the operation of refining contained 3 parts of silver to 1 of gold. +The operation may be conducted in vessels of glass or platinum, and +each pound of granulated metal is treated with a pound and a quarter +of nitric acid of specific gravity 1.32. The method is sometimes +employed in the assay of gold.</p> + +<p>Refining by sulphuric acid, the process usually adopted for +separating gold from silver, was first employed on the large scale by +d’Arcet in Paris in 1802, and was introduced into the Mint refinery, +London, by Mathison in 1829. It is based upon the facts that concentrated +hot sulphuric acid converts silver and copper into soluble +sulphates without attacking the gold, the silver sulphate being +subsequently reduced to the metallic state by copper plates with the +formation of copper sulphate. It is applicable to any alloy, and is +the best method for parting gold with the exception of the electrolytic +method.</p> + +<p>The process embraces four operations: (1) the preparation of an +alloy suitable for parting; (2) the treatment with sulphuric acid; +(3) the treatment of the residue for gold; (4) the treatment of the +solution for silver.</p> + +<p>It is necessary to remove as completely as possible any lead, tin, +bismuth, antimony, arsenic and tellurium, impurities which impair +the properties of gold and silver, by an oxidizing fusion, <i>e.g.</i> with +nitre. Over 10% of copper makes the parting difficult; consequently +in such alloys the percentage of copper is diminished by the +addition of silver free from copper, or else the copper is removed by a +chemical process. Other undesirable impurities are the platinum +metals, special treatment being necessary when these substances are +present. The alloy, after the preliminary refining, is granulated by +being poured, while molten, in a thin stream into cold water which is +kept well agitated.</p> + +<p>The acid treatment is generally carried out in cast iron pots; +platinum vessels used to be employed, while porcelain vessels are only +used for small operations, <i>e.g.</i> for charges of 190 to 225 oz. as at Oker +in the Harz. The pots, which are usually cylindrical with a hemispherical +bottom, may hold as much as 13,000 to 16,000 oz. of alloy. +They are provided with lids, made either of lead or of wood lined with +lead, which have openings to serve for the introduction of the alloy +and acid, and a vent tube to lead off the vapours evolved during the +operation. The bullion with about twice its weight of sulphuric acid +of 66° Bé is placed in the pot, and the whole gradually heated. +Since the action is sometimes very violent, especially when the +bullion is treated in the granulated form (it is steadier when thin +plates are operated upon), it is found expedient to add the acid in +several portions. The heating is continued for 4 to 12 hours according +to the amount of silver present; the end of the reaction is known +by the absence of any hissing. Generally the reaction mixture is +allowed to cool, and the residue, which settles to the bottom of the +pot, consists of gold together with copper, lead and iron sulphates, +which are insoluble in strong sulphuric acid; silver sulphate may +also separate if present in sufficient quantity and the solution be +sufficiently cooled. The solution is removed by ladles or by siphons, +and the residue is leached out with boiling water; this removes the +sulphates. A certain amount of silver is still present and, according +to M. Pettenkofer, it is impossible to remove all the silver by means +of sulphuric acid. Several methods are in use for removing the +silver. Fusion with an alkaline bisulphate converts the silver into the +sulphate, which may be extracted by boiling with sulphuric acid and +then with water. Another process consists in treating a mixture of +the residue with one-quarter of its weight of calcined sodium sulphate +with sulphuric acid, the residue being finally boiled with a large +quantity of acid. Or the alloy is dissolved in <i>aqua regia</i>, the solution +filtered from the insoluble silver chloride, and the gold precipitated +by ferrous chloride.</p> + +<p>The silver present in the solution obtained in the sulphuric acid +boiling is recovered by a variety of processes. The solution may be +directly precipitated with copper, the copper passing into solution +as copper sulphate, and the silver separating as a mud, termed +“cement silver.” Or the silver sulphate may be separated from the +solution by cooling and dilution, and then mixed with iron clippings, +the interaction being accompanied with a considerable evolution of +heat. Or Gutzkow’s method of precipitating the metal with ferrous +sulphate may be employed.</p> + +<p>The electrolytic parting of gold and silver has been shown to be +more economical and free from the objections—such as the poisonous +fumes—of the sulphuric acid process. One process depends upon the +fact that, with a suitable current density, if a very dilute solution of +silver nitrate be electrolysed between an auriferous silver anode and a +silver cathode, the silver of the anode is dissolved out and deposited +at the cathode, the gold remaining at the anode. The silver is quite +free from gold, and the gold after boiling with nitric acid has a fineness +of over 999.</p> + +<p>Gold is left in the anode slime when copper or silver are refined by +the usual processes, but if the gold preponderate in the anode these +processes are inapplicable. A cyanide bath, as used in electroplating, +would dissolve the gold, but is not suitable for refining, because other +metals (silver, copper, &c.) passing with gold into the solution would +deposit with it. Bock, however, in 1880 (<i>Berg- und hüttenmännische +Zeitung</i>, 1880, p. 411) described a process used at the North German +Refinery in Hamburg for the refining of gold containing platinum +with a small proportion of silver, lead or bismuth, and a subsequent +patent specification (1896) and a paper by Wohlwill (<i>Zeits. f. Elektrochem.</i>, +1898, pp. 379, 402, 421) have thrown more light upon +the process. The electrolyte is gold chloride (2.5-3 parts of pure gold +per 100 of solution) mixed with from 2 to 6% of the strongest +hydrochloric acid to render the gold anodes readily soluble, which +they are not in the neutral chloride solution. The bath is used at +65° to 70° C. (150° to 158° F.), and if free chlorine be evolved, which +is known at once by its pungent smell, the temperature is raised, or +more acid is added, to promote the solubility of the gold. The bath +is used with a current-density of 100 ampères per sq. ft. at 1 volt +(or higher), with electrodes about 1.2 in. apart. In this process all +the anode metals pass into solution except iridium and other refractory +metals of that group, which remain as metals, and silver, +which is converted into insoluble chloride; lead and bismuth form +chloride and oxychloride respectively, and these dissolve until the +bath is saturated with them, and then precipitate with the silver in +the tank. But if the gold-strength of the bath be maintained, only +gold is deposited at the cathode—in a loose powdery condition from +pure solutions, but in a smooth detachable deposit from impure +liquors. Under good conditions the gold should contain 99.98% of +the pure metal. The tank is of porcelain or glazed earthenware, the +electrodes for impure solutions are ½ in. apart (or more with pure +solutions), and are on the multiple system, and the potential difference +at the terminals of the bath is 1 volt. A high current-density +being employed, the turn-over of gold is rapid—an essential factor +of success when the costliness of the metal is taken into account. +Platinum and palladium dissolved from the anode accumulate in the +solution, and are removed at intervals of, say, a few months by +chemical precipitation. It is essential that the bath should not +contain more than 5% of palladium, or some of this metal will +deposit with the gold. The slimes are treated chemically for the +separation of the metals contained in them.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Standard works on the metallurgy of gold are the +treatises of T. Kirke Rose and of M. Eissler. The cyanide process +is especially treated by M. Eissler, <i>Cyanide Process for the Extraction +of Gold</i>, which pays particular attention to the Witwatersrand +methods; Alfred James, <i>Cyanide Practice</i>; H. Forbes Julian and +Edgar Smart, <i>Cyaniding Gold and Silver Ores</i>. Gold milling is treated +by Henry Louis, <i>A Handbook of Gold Milling</i>; C. G. Warnford Lock, +<i>Gold Milling</i>; T. A. Rickard, <i>Stamp Milling of Gold Ores</i>. Gold +dredging is treated by Captain C. C. Longridge in <i>Gold Dredging</i>, and +hydraulic mining is discussed by the same author in his <i>Hydraulic +Mining</i>. For operations in special districts see J. M. Maclaren, <i>Gold</i> +(1908); J. H. Curle, <i>Gold Mines of the World</i>; Africa: F. H. Hatch +and J. A. Chalmers, <i>Gold Mines of the Rand</i>; S. J. Truscott, <i>Witwatersrand +Goldfields Banket and Mining Practice</i>; Australasia: D. Clark, +<i>Australian Mining and Metallurgy</i>; Karl Schmeisser, <i>Goldfields of +Australasia</i>; A. G. Charleton, <i>Gold Mining and Milling in Western +Australia</i>; India: F. H. Hatch, <i>The Kolar Gold-Field</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLD AND SILVER THREAD.<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> Under this heading some +general account may be given of gold and silver strips, threads +and gimp used in connexion with varieties of weaving, embroidery +and twisting and plaiting or lace work. To this day, in many +oriental centres where it seems that early traditions of the +knowledge and the use of fabrics wholly or partly woven, ornamented, +and embroidered with gold and silver have been maintained, +the passion for such brilliant and costly textiles is still +strong and prevalent. One of the earliest mentions of the use +of gold in a woven fabric occurs in the description of the ephod +made for Aaron (Exod. xxxix. 2, 3), “And he made the ephod +of gold, blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen. +And they did beat the gold into thin plates, and cut it into wires +(strips), to work it in the blue, and in the purple, and in the +scarlet, and in the fine linen, with cunning work.” This is +suggestive of early Syrian or Arabic in-darning or weaving with +gold strips or tinsel. In both the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> allusion +is frequently made to inwoven and embroidered golden textiles. +Assyrian sculpture gives an elaborately designed ornament upon +the robe of King Assur-nasir-pal (884 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) which was probably +an interweaving of gold and coloured threads, and testifies +to the consummate skill of Assyrian or Babylonian workers +at that date. From Assyrian and Babylonian weavers the +conquering Persians of the time of Darius derived their celebrity +as weavers and users of splendid stuffs. Herodotus describes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>201</span> +the corselet given by Amasis king of Egypt to the Minerva of +Lindus and how it was inwoven or embroidered with gold. Darius, +we are told, wore a war mantle on which were figured (probably +inwoven) two golden hawks as if pecking at each other. Alexander +the Great is said to have found Eastern kings and princes +arrayed in robes of gold and purple. More than two hundred +years later than Alexander the Great was the king of Pergamos +(the third bearing the name Attalus) who gave much attention +to working in metals and is mentioned by Pliny as having +invented weaving with gold, hence the historic Attalic cloths. +There are several references in Roman writings to costumes +and stuffs woven and embroidered with gold threads and the +Graeco-Roman <i>chryso-phrygium</i> and the Roman <i>auri-phrygium</i> +are evidences not only of Roman work with gold threads but +also of its indebtedness to Phrygian sources. The famous +tunics of Agrippina and those of Heliogabalus are said to have +been of tissues made entirely with gold threads, whereas the +robes which Marcus Aurelius found in the treasury of Hadrian, +as well as the costumes sold at the dispersal of the wardrobe +of Commodus, were different in character, being of fine linen +and possibly even of silken stuffs inwoven or embroidered with +gold threads. The same description is perhaps correct of the +reputedly splendid hangings with which King Dagobert decorated +the early medieval oratory of St Denis. Reference to these +and many such stuffs is made by the respectively contemporary +or almost contemporary writers; and a very full and interesting +work by Monsieur Francisque Michel (Paris, 1852) is still a +standard book for consultation in respect of the history of silk, +gold and silver stuffs.</p> + +<p>From indications such as these, as well as those of later date, +one sees broadly that the art of weaving and embroidering with +gold and silver threads passed from one great city to another, +travelling as a rule westward. Babylon, Tarsus, Bagdad, +Damascus, the islands of Cyprus and Sicily, Constantinople, +Venice and southern Spain appear successively in the process +of time as famous centres of these much-prized manufactures. +During the middle ages European royal personages and high +ecclesiastical dignitaries used cloth and tissues of gold and silver +for their state and ceremonial robes, as well as for costly hangings +and decoration; and various names—ciclatoun, tartarium, +naques or nac, baudekin or baldachin (Bagdad) and tissue—were +applied to textiles in the making of which gold threads were +almost always introduced in combination with others. The +thin flimsy paper known as tissue paper is so called because it +originally was placed between the folds of gold “tissue” (or +weaving) to prevent the contiguous surfaces from fraying each +other. Under the articles dealing with carpets, embroidery, +lace and tapestry will be found notices of the occasional use in +such productions of gold and silver threads. Of early date in +the history of European weaving are rich stuffs produced in +Southern Spain by Moors, as well as by Saracenic and Byzantine +weavers at Palermo and Constantinople in the 12th century, +in which metallic threads were freely used. Equally esteemed +at about the same period were corresponding stuffs made in +Cyprus, whilst for centuries later the merchants in such fabrics +eagerly sought for and traded in Cyprus gold and silver threads. +Later the actual manufacture of them was not confined to Cyprus, +but was also carried on by Italian thread and trimming makers +from the 14th century onwards. For the most part the gold +threads referred to were of silver gilt. In rare instances of +middle-age Moorish or Arabian fabrics the gold threads are +made with strips of parchment or paper gilt and still rarer are +instances of the use of real gold wire.</p> + +<p>In India the preparation of varieties of gold and silver threads +is an ancient and important art. The “gold wire” of the +manufacturer has been and is as a rule silver wire gilt, the silver +wire being, of course, composed of pure silver. The wire is +drawn by means of simple draw-plates, with rude and simple +appliances, from rounded bars of silver, or gold-plated silver, as +the case may be. The wire is flattened into strip, tinsel +or ribbon-like form, by passing fourteen or fifteen strands +simultaneously, over a fine, smooth, round-topped anvil and +beating each as it passes with a heavy hammer having a slightly +convex surface. Such strips or tinsel of wire so flattened are +woven into Indian <i>soniri</i>, tissue or cloth of gold, the web or warp +being composed entirely of golden strips, and <i>ruperi</i>, similar tissue +of silver. Other gold and silver threads suitable for use in +embroidery, pillow and needlepoint lace making, &c., consist of +fine strips of flattened wire wound round cores of orange (in the +case of silver, white) silk thread so as to completely cover them. +Wires flattened or partially flattened are also twisted into +exceedingly fine spirals and much used for heavy embroideries. +Spangles for embroideries, &c., are made from spirals of comparatively +stout wire, by cutting them down ring by ring, laying each +C-like ring on an anvil, and by a smart blow with a hammer +flattening it out into a thin round disk with a slit extending +from the centre to one edge. The demand for many kinds of +loom-woven and embroidered gold and silver work in India is +immense, and the variety of textiles so ornamented is also very +great, chief amongst which are the golden or silvery tinsel +fabrics known as kincobs.</p> + +<p>Amongst Western communities the demand for gold and +silver embroideries and braid lace now exists chiefly in connexion +with naval, military and other uniforms, masonic insignia, +court costumes, public and private liveries, ecclesiastical robes +and draperies, theatrical dresses, &c.</p> + +<p>The proportions of gold and silver in the gold thread for the +woven braid lace or ribbon trade varies, but in all cases the +proportion of gold is exceedingly small. An ordinary gold braid +wire is drawn from a bar containing 90 parts of silver and 7 +of copper, and plated with 3 of gold. On an average each ounce +troy of a bar so plated is drawn into 1500 yds. of wire; and therefore +about 16 grains of gold cover 1 m. of wire.</p> +<div class="author">(A. S. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDAST AB HAIMINSFELD, MELCHIOR<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1576-1635), +Swiss writer, an industrious though uncritical collector of +documents relating to the medieval history and Constitution of +Germany, was born on the 6th of January 1576 (some say 1578), +of poor Protestant parents, near Bischofszell, in the Swiss Canton +of Thurgau. His university career, first at Ingolstadt (1585-1586), +then at Altdorf near Nuremberg (1597-1598), was cut short +by his poverty, from which he suffered all his life, and which +was the main cause of his wanderings. In 1598 he found a rich +protector in the person of Bartholomaeus Schobinger, of St +Gall, by whose liberality he was enabled to study at St Gall +(where he first became interested in medieval documents, which +abound in the conventual library) and elsewhere in Switzerland. +Before his patron’s death (1604) he became (1603) secretary to +Henry, duke of Bouillon, with whom he went to Heidelberg and +Frankfort. But in 1604 he entered the service of the Baron von +Hohensax, then the possessor of the precious MS. volume of old +German poems, returned from Paris to Heidelberg in 1888, and, +partially published by Goldast. Soon he was back in Switzerland, +and by 1606 in Frankfort, earning his living by preparing and +correcting books for the press. In 1611 he was appointed +councillor at the court of Saxe-Weimar, and in 1615 he entered +the service of the count of Schaumburg at Bückeburg. In 1624 +he was forced by the war to retire to Bremen; there in 1625 he +deposited his library in that of the town (his books were bought +by the town in 1646, but many of his MSS. passed to Queen +Christina of Sweden, and hence are now in the Vatican library), +he himself returning to Frankfort. In 1627 he became councillor +to the emperor and to the archbishop-elector of Trèves, and in +1633 passed to the service of the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt. +He died at Giessen early in 1635.</p> + +<p>His immense industry is shown by the fact that his biographer, +Senckenburg, gives a list of 65 works published or written by +him, some extending to several substantial volumes. Among the +more important are his <i>Paraeneticorum veterum pars i.</i> (1604), +which contained the old German tales of <i>Kunig Tyrol von Schotten</i>, +the <i>Winsbeke</i> and the <i>Winsbekin; Suevicarum rerum scriptores</i> +(Frankfort, 1605, new edition, 1727); <i>Rerum Alamannicarum +scriptores</i> (Frankfort, 1606, new edition by Senckenburg, 1730); +<i>Constitutiones imperiales</i> (Frankfort, 1607-1613, 4 vols.); <i>Monarchia +s. Romani imperii</i> (Hanover and Frankfort, 1612-1614, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202"></a>202</span> +3 vols.); <i>Commentarii de regni Bohemiae juribus</i> (Frankfort, +1627, new edition by Schmink, 1719). He also edited De Thou’s +<i>History</i> (1609-1610) and Willibald Pirckheimer’s works (1610). +In 1688 a volume of letters addressed to him by his learned +friends was published.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Life</i> by Senckenburg, prefixed to his 1730 work. See also R. von +Raumer’s <i>Geschichte d. germanischen Philologie</i> (Munich, 1870).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDBEATING.<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span>—The art of goldbeating is of great antiquity, +being referred to by Homer; and Pliny (<i>N.H.</i> 33. 19) states +that 1 oz. of gold was extended to 750 leaves, each leaf being +four fingers (about 3 in.) square; such a leaf is three times +as thick as the ordinary leaf gold of the present time. In all +probability the art originated among the Eastern nations, where +the working of gold and the use of gold ornaments have been +distinguishing characteristics from the most remote periods. +On Egyptian mummy cases specimens of original leaf-gilding +are met with, where the gold is so thin that it resembles modern +gilding (<i>q.v.</i>). The minimum thickness to which gold can be +beaten is not known with certainty. According to Mersenne +(1621) 1 oz. was spread out over 105 sq. ft.; Réaumur (1711) +obtained 146½ sq. ft.; other values are 189 sq. ft. and 300 sq. ft. +Its malleability is greatly diminished by the presence of other +metals, even in very minute quantity. In practice the average +degree of tenuity to which the gold is reduced is not nearly so +great as the last example quoted above. A “book of gold” +containing 25 leaves measuring each 3¼ in., equal to an area of +264 sq. in., generally weighs from 4 to 5 grains.</p> + +<p>The gold used by the goldbeater is variously alloyed, according +to the colour required. Fine gold is commonly supposed to be +incapable of being reduced to thin leaves. This, however, is +not the case, although its use for ordinary purposes is undesirable +on account of its greater cost. It also adheres on one part of a +leaf touching another, thus causing a waste of labour by the +leaves being spoiled; but for work exposed to the weather it is +much preferable, as it is more durable, and does not tarnish or +change colour. The external gilding on many public buildings, +<i>e.g.</i> the Albert Memorial in Kensington Gardens, London, is done +with pure gold. The following is a list of the principal classes of +leaf recognized and ordinarily prepared by British beaters, with +the proportions of alloy per oz. they contain.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Name of leaf.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Proportion<br />of gold.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Proportion<br />of Silver.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Proportion<br />of Copper.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Grains.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Grains.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Grains.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Red</td> <td class="tcc rb">456-460</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">20-24</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pale red</td> <td class="tcc rb">464</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">16</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Extra deep</td> <td class="tcc rb">456</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 12</td> <td class="tcc rb">12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Deep</td> <td class="tcc rb">444</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 24</td> <td class="tcc rb">12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Citron</td> <td class="tcc rb">440</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 30</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Yellow</td> <td class="tcc rb">408</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 72</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pale yellow</td> <td class="tcc rb">384</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 96</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lemon</td> <td class="tcc rb">360</td> <td class="tcc rb">120</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Green or pale</td> <td class="tcc rb">312</td> <td class="tcc rb">168</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">White</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">240</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">240</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The process of goldbeating is as follows: The gold, having been +alloyed according to the colour desired, is melted in a crucible at a +higher temperature than is simply necessary to fuse it, as its malleability +is improved by exposure to a greater heat; sudden cooling +does not interfere with its malleability, gold differing in this respect +from some other metals. It is then cast into an ingot, and flattened, +by rolling between a pair of powerful smooth steel rollers, into a +ribbon of 1½ in. wide and 10 ft. in length to the oz. After being +flattened it is annealed and cut into pieces of about 6½ grs. each, or +about 75 per oz., and placed between the leaves of a “cutch,” which +is about ½ in. thick and 3½ in. square, containing about 180 leaves of +a tough paper. Formerly fine vellum was used for this purpose, and +generally still it is interleaved in the proportion of about one of +vellum to six of paper. The cutch is beaten on for about 20 minutes +with a 17-℔ hammer, which rebounds by the elasticity of the skin, +and saves the labour of lifting, by which the gold is spread to the +size of the cutch; each leaf is then taken out, and cut into four +pieces, and put between the skins of a “shoder,” 4½ in. square and +¾ in. thick, containing about 720 skins, which have been worn out +in the finishing or “mould” process. The shoder requires about +two hours’ beating upon with a 9-℔ hammer. As the gold will +spread unequally, the shoder is beaten upon after the larger leaves +have reached the edges. The effect of this is that the margins of +larger leaves come out of the edges in a state of dust. This allows +time for the smaller leaves to reach the full size of the shoder, thus +producing a general evenness of size in the leaves. Each leaf is again +cut into four pieces, and placed between the leaves of a “mould,” +composed of about 950 of the finest gold-beaters’ skins, 5 in. square +and ¾ in. thick, the contents of one shoder filling three moulds. +The material has now reached the last and most difficult stage of the +process; and on the fineness of the skin and judgment of the workman +the perfection and thinness of the leaf of gold depend. During +the first hour the hammer is allowed to fall principally upon the centre +of the mould. This causes gaping cracks upon the edges of the +leaves, the sides of which readily coalesce and unite without leaving +any trace of the union after being beaten upon. At the second hour, +when the gold is about the 150,000th part of an inch in thickness, it +for the first time permits the transmission of the rays of light. Pure +gold, or gold but slightly alloyed, transmits green rays; gold highly +alloyed with silver transmits pale violet rays. The mould requires +in all about four hours’ beating with a 7-℔ hammer, when the +ordinary thinness for the gold leaf of commerce will be reached. A +single ounce of gold will at this stage be extended to 75 × 4 × 4 = 1200 +leaves, which will trim to squares of about 3¼ in. each. The finished +leaf is then taken out of the mould, and the rough edges are trimmed +off by slips of the ratan fixed in parallel grooves of an instrument +called a waggon, the leaf being laid upon a leathern cushion. The +leaves thus prepared are placed into “books” capable of holding +25 leaves each, which have been rubbed over with red ochre to +prevent the gold clinging to the paper. Dentist gold is gold leaf +carried no farther than the cutch stage, and should be perfectly pure +gold.</p> + +<p>By the above process also silver is beaten, but not so thin, the +inferior value of the metal not rendering it commercially desirable to +bestow so much labour upon it. Copper, tin, zinc, palladium, lead, +cadmium, platinum and aluminium can be beaten into thin leaves, +but not to the same extent as gold or silver.</p> +</div> + +<p>The fine membrane called goldbeater’s skin, used for making +up the shoder and mould, is the outer coat of the caecum or blind +gut of the ox. It is stripped off in lengths about 25 or 30 in., +and freed from fat by dipping in a solution of caustic alkali and +scraping with a blunt knife. It is afterwards stretched on a +frame; two membranes are glued together, treated with a +solution of aromatic substances or camphor in isinglass, and +subsequently coated with white of egg. Finally they are cut +into squares of 5 or 5½ in.; and to make up a mould of 950 pieces +the gut of about 380 oxen is required, about 2½ skins being got +from each animal. A skin will endure about 200 beatings in +the mould, after which it is fit for use in the shoder alone.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The dryness of the cutch, shoder and mould is a matter of extreme +delicacy. They require to be hot-pressed every time they are used, +although they may be used daily, to remove the moisture which they +acquire from the atmosphere, except in extremely frosty weather, +when they acquire so little moisture that a difficulty arises from their +over-dryness, whereby the brilliancy of the gold is diminished, and +it spreads very slowly under the hammer. On the contrary, if the +cutch or shoder be damp, the gold will become pierced with innumerable +microscopic holes; and in the moulds in its more attenuated +state it will become reduced to a pulverulent state. This condition +is more readily produced in alloyed golds than in fine gold. It is +necessary that each skin of the mould should be rubbed over with +calcined gypsum each time the mould may be used, in order to prevent +the adhesion of the gold to the surface of the skin in beating.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDBERG,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Silesia,<a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> 14 m. by rail S.W. of Liegnitz, on the Katzbach, an +affluent of the Oder. Pop. (1905) 6804. The principal buildings +are an old church dating from the beginning of the 13th century, +the Schwabe-Priesemuth institution, completed in 1876, for the +board and education of orphans, and the classical school or +gymnasium (founded in 1524 by Duke Frederick II. of Liegnitz), +which in the 17th century enjoyed great prosperity, and numbered +Wallenstein among its pupils. The chief manufactures are +woollen cloth, flannel, gloves, stockings, leather and beer, and +there is a considerable trade in corn and fruit. Goldberg +owes its origin and name to a gold mine in the neighbourhood, +which, however, has been wholly abandoned since the time of +the Hussite wars. The town obtained civic rights in 1211. It +suffered heavily from the Tatars in 1241, from the plague in 1334, +from the Hussites in 1428, and from the Saxon, Imperial and +Swedish forces during the Thirty Years’ War. On the 27th of +May 1813 a battle took place near it between the French and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>203</span> +Russians; and on the 23rd and the 27th of August of the same +year fights between the allies and the French.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sturm, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Goldberg in Schlesien</i> (1887).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Goldberg is also the name of a small town in the grand-duchy of +Mecklenburg-Schwerin.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLD COAST,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> that portion of the Guinea Coast (West Africa) +which extends from Assini upon the west to the river Volta on +the east. It derives its name from the quantities of grains of +gold mixed with the sand of the rivers traversing the district. +The term Gold Coast is now generally identified with the British +Gold Coast colony. This extends from 3° 7′ W. to 1° 14′ E., the +length of the coast-line being about 370 m. It is bounded W. by +the Ivory Coast colony (French), E. by Togoland (German). On +the north the British possessions, including Ashanti (<i>q.v.</i>) and the +Northern Territories, extend to the 11th degree of north latitude. +The frontier separating the colony from Ashanti (fixed by order +in council, 22nd of October 1906) is in general 130 m. from the +coast, but in the central portion of the colony the southern limits +of Ashanti project wedge-like to the confluence of the rivers Ofin +and Prah, which point is but 60 m. from the sea at Cape Coast. +The combined area of the Gold Coast, Ashanti and the Northern +Territories, is about 80,000 sq. m., with a total population +officially estimated in 1908 at 2,700,000; the Gold Coast colony +alone has an area of 24,200 sq. m., with a population of over a +million, of whom about 2000 are Europeans.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:513px; height:760px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img203.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2"><i>Physical features</i>.—Though the lagoons common to the West +African coast are found both at the western and eastern extremities +of the colony (Assini in the west and Kwitta in the east) the greater +part of the coast-line is of a different character. Cape Three Points +(4° 44′ 40″ N. 2° 5′ 45″ W.) juts boldly into the sea, forming the most +southerly point of the colony. Thence the coast trends E. by N., and +is but slightly indented. The usually low sandy beach is, however, +diversified by bold, rocky headlands. The flat belt of country does +not extend inland any considerable distance, the spurs of the great +plateau which forms the major part of West Africa advancing in the +east, in the Akwapim district, near to the coast. Here the hills reach +an altitude of over 2000 ft. Out of the level plain rise many isolated +peaks, generally of conical formation. Numerous rivers descend +from the hills, but bars of sand block their mouths, and the Gold +Coast possesses no harbours. Great Atlantic rollers break unceasingly +upon the shore. The chief rivers are the Volta (<i>q.v.</i>), the +Ankobra and the Prah. The Ankobra or Snake river traverses +auriferous country, and reaches the sea some 20 m. west of Cape +Three Points. It has a course of about 150 m., and is navigable in +steam launches for about 80 m. The Prah (“Busum Prah,” sacred +river) is regarded as a fetish stream by the Fanti and Ashanti. One +of its sub-tributaries has its rise near Kumasi. The Prah rises in the +N.E. of the colony and flows S.W. Some 60 m. from its mouth it is +joined by the Ofin, which comes from the north-west. The united +stream flows S. and reaches the sea in 1° 35′ W. As a waterway the +river, which has a course of 400 m., is almost useless, owing to the +many cataracts in its course. Another river is the Tano, which for +some distance in its lower course forms the boundary between the +colony and the Ivory Coast.</p> + +<p><i>Geology</i>.—Cretaceous rocks occur at intervals along the coast belt, +but are mostly hidden under an extensive development of superficial +deposits. Basalt occurs at Axim. Inland is a broad belt of sandstone +and marl with an occasional band of auriferous conglomerate, +best known and most extensively worked for gold in the Wasaw +district. Though the conglomerates bear some resemblance to the +“Banket” of South Africa they are most probably of more recent +date. The alluvial silts and gravels also carry gold.</p> + +<p><i>Climate</i>.—The climate on the coast is hot, moist and unhealthy, +especially for Europeans. The mean temperature in the shade in the +coast towns is 78° to 80° F. Fevers and dysentery are the diseases +most to be dreaded by the European. The native inhabitants, +although they enjoy tolerable health and live to an average age, are +subject in the rainy season to numerous chest complaints. There are +two wet seasons. From April to August are the greater rains, whilst +in October and November occur the “smalls” or second rains. +From the end of December to March the dry harmattan wind blows +from the Sahara. In consequence of the prevalence of the sea-breeze +from the south-west the western portion of the colony, up to +the mouth of the Sekum river (a small stream to the west of Accra), +is called the windward district, the eastward portion being known +as the leeward. The rainfall at Accra, in the leeward district, +averages 27 in. in the year, but at places in the windward district is +much greater, averaging 79 in. at Axim.</p> + +<p><i>Flora</i>.—The greater part (probably three-fourths) of the colony is +covered with primeval forest. Here the vegetation is so luxuriant +that for great distances the sky is shut out from view. As a result of +the struggle to reach the sunlight the forest growths are almost +entirely vertical. The chief trees are silk cottons, especially the +bombax, and gigantic hard-wood trees, such as the African mahogany, +ebony, odum and camwood. The bombax rises for over 100 ft., a +straight column-like shaft, 25 to 30 ft. in circumference, and then +throws out horizontally a large number of branches. The lowest +growth in the forest consists of ferns and herbaceous plants. Of +the ferns some are climbers reaching 30 to 40 ft. up the stems of the +trees they entwine. Flowering plants are comparatively rare; they +include orchids and a beautiful white lily. The “bush” or intermediate +growth is made up of smaller trees, the rubber vine and +other creepers, some as thick as hawsers, bamboos and sensitive +mimosa, and has a height of from 30 to 60 ft. The creepers are found +not only in the bush, but on the ground and hanging from the branches +of the highest trees. West of the Prah the forest comes down to the +edge of the Atlantic. East of that river the coast land is covered +with bushes 5 to 12 ft. high, occasional large trees and groves of +oil palms. Still farther east, by Accra, are numerous arborescent +Euphorbias, and immediately west of the lower Volta forests of oil +palms and grassy plains with fan palms. Behind all these eastern +regions is a belt of thin forest country before the denser forest is +reached. In the north-east are stretches of orchard-like country +with wild plum, shea-butter and kola trees, baobabs, dwarf date +and fan palms. The cotton and tobacco plants grow wild. At the +mouths of the rivers and along the lagoons the mangrove is the +characteristic tree. There are numerous coco-nut palms along the +coast. The fruit trees and plants also include the orange, pine-apple, +mango, papaw, banana and avocado or alligator pear.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna</i>.—The fauna includes leopards, panthers, hyenas, Potto +lemurs, jackals, antelopes, buffaloes, wild-hogs and many kinds of +monkey, including the chimpanzee and the <i>Colobus vellerosus</i>, whose +skin, with long black silky hair, is much prized in Europe. The +elephant has been almost exterminated by ivory hunters. The +snakes include pythons, cobras, horned and puff adders and the +venomous water snake. Among the lesser denizens of the forest are +the squirrel and porcupine. Crocodiles and in fewer numbers +manatees and otters frequent the rivers and lagoons and hippopotami +are found in the Volta. Lizards of brilliant hue, tortoises and great +snails are common. Birds, which are not very numerous, include +parrots and hornbills, kingfishers, ospreys, herons, crossbills, curlews, +woodpeckers, doves, pigeons, storks, pelicans, swallows, vultures and +the spur plover (the last-named rare). Shoals of herrings frequent +the coast, and the other fish include mackerel, sole, skate, mullet, +bonito, flying fish, fighting fish and shynose. Sharks abound at the +mouths of all the rivers, edible turtle are fairly common, as are the +sword fish, dolphin and sting ray (with poisonous caudal spine). +Oysters are numerous on rocks running into the sea and on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>204</span> +exposed roots of mangrove trees. Insect life is multitudinous; beetles, +spiders, ants, fireflies, butterflies and jiggers abound. The earthworm +is rare. The mosquitos include the <i>Culex</i> or ordinary kind, +the <i>Anopheles</i>, which carry malarial fever, and the <i>Stegomyia</i>, a +striped white and black mosquito which carries yellow-fever.</p> + +<p><i>Inhabitants</i>.—The natives are all of the Negro race. The most +important tribe is the Fanti (<i>q.v.</i>), and the Fanti language is generally +understood throughout the colony. The Fanti and Ashanti are +believed to have a common origin. It is certain that the Fanti came +originally from the north and conquered many of the coast tribes, +who anciently had owned the rule of the king of Benin. The districts +in general are named after the tribes inhabiting them. Those in the +western part of the colony are mainly of Fanti stock; the Accra and +allied tribes inhabit the eastern portion and are believed to be the +aboriginal inhabitants. The Akim (Akem), who occupy the north-east +portion of the colony, have engaged in gold-digging from time +immemorial. The capital of their country is Kibbi. The Akwapim +(Aquapem), southern neighbours of the Akim, are extensively engaged +in agriculture and in trade. The Accra, a clever race, are to be +found in all the towns of the West African coast as artisans and +sailors. They are employed by the interior tribes as middlemen and +interpreters. On the right bank of the Volta occupying the low +marshy land near the sea are the Adangme. The Krobos live in +little villages in the midst of the palm tree woods which grow round +about the Kroboberg, an eminence about 1000 ft. high. Their +country lies between that of the Akim and the Adangme. In the +west of the colony is the Ahanta country, formerly an independent +kingdom. The inhabitants were noted for their skill in war. They +are one of the finest and most intelligent of the tribes of Accra stock. +The Apollonia, a kindred race, occupy the coast region nearest the +Ivory Coast.</p> + +<p>The Tshi, Tchwi or Chi language,<a name="fa1q" id="fa1q" href="#ft1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a> which is that spoken on the +Gold Coast, belongs to the great prefix-pronominal group. It comprises +many dialects, which may, however, be reduced +to two classes or types. Akan dialects are spoken in +<span class="sidenote">Native Languages.</span> +Assini, Amanahia (Apollonia), Awini, Ahanta, Wasaw, +Tshuforo (Juffer or Tufel), and Denkyera in the west, +and in Asen, Akim, and Akwapim in the east, as well as in the +different parts of Ashanti. Fanti dialects are spoken, not only in +Fanti proper, but in Afutu or the country round Cape Coast, in +Abora, Agymako, Akomfi, Gomoa and Agona. The difference +between the two types is not very great; a Fanti, for example, can +converse without much difficulty with a native of Akwapim or +Ashanti, his language being in fact a deteriorated form of the same +original. Akim is considered the finest and purest of all the Akan +dialects. The Akwapim, which is based on the Akim but has imbibed +Fanti influences, has been made the book-language by the +Basel missionaries. They had reduced it to writing before 1850. +About a million people in all, it is estimated, speak dialects of the +Tshi.</p> + +<p>The south-eastern corner of the Gold Coast is occupied by another +language known as the Ga or Accra, which comprises the Ga proper +and the Adangme and Krobo dialects. Ga proper is spoken by about +40,000 people, including the inhabitants of Ga and Kinka (<i>i.e.</i> Accra, +in Tshi, Nkran and Kankan), Osu (<i>i.e.</i> Christiansborg), La, Tessi, +Ningua and numerous inland villages. It has been reduced to writing +by the missionaries. The Adangme and Krobo dialects are spoken +by about 80,000 people. They differ very considerably from Ga +proper, but books printed in Ga can be used by both the Krobo and +Adangme natives. Another language known as Guan is used in parts +of Akwapim and in Anum beyond the Volta; but not much is known +either about it or the Obutu tongue spoken in a few towns in Agona, +Gomoa and Akomfi.</p> + +<p>Fetishism (<i>q.v.</i>) is the prevailing religion of all the tribes. Belief +in a God is universal, as also is a belief in a future state. Christianity +and Mahommedanism are both making progress. +The natives professing Christianity number about 40,000. +<span class="sidenote">Religion and education.</span> +A Moravian mission was started at Christiansborg +about 1736; the Basel mission (Evangelical) was begun +in 1828, the missionaries combining manual training and farm +labour with purely religious work; the Wesleyans started a +mission among the Fanti in 1835, and the Anglican and Roman +Catholic Churches are also represented, as well as the Bremen +Missionary Society. Elementary education is chiefly in the hands of +the Wesleyan, Basel, Bremen and Roman Catholic missions, who +have schools at many towns along the coast and in the interior. +There are also government and Mahommedan schools. The natives +generally are extremely intelligent. They obtain easily the means of +subsistence, and are disinclined to unaccustomed labour, such as +working in mines. They are keen traders. The native custom of +burying the dead under the floors of the houses prevailed until 1874, +when it was prohibited by the British authorities.</p> + +<p><i>Towns</i>.—Unlike the other British possessions on the west coast of +Africa, the colony has many towns along the shore, this being due to +the multiplicity of traders of rival nations who went thither in quest +of gold. Beginning at the west, Newtown, on the Assini or Eyi +lagoon, is just within the British frontier. The first place of importance +reached is Axim (pop., 1901, 2189), the site of an old Dutch +fort built near the mouth of the Axim river, and in the pre-railway +days the port of the gold region. Rounding Cape Three Points, +whose vicinity is marked by a line of breakers nearly 2½ m. long, +Dixcove is reached. Twenty miles farther east is Sekondi (<i>q.v.</i>), +(pop. about 5000), the starting-point of the railway to the goldfields +and Kumasi. Elmina (<i>q.v.</i>), formerly one of the most important +posts of European settlement, is reached some distance after passing +the mouth of the Prah. Eight miles east of Elmina is Cape Coast +(<i>q.v.</i>), pop. (1901) 28,948. Anamabo is 9 m. farther east. Here, in +1807, a handful of English soldiers made a heroic and successful +defence of its fort against the whole Ashanti host. Saltpond, towards +the end of the 19th century, diverted to itself the trade formerly done +by Anamabo, from which it is distant 9 m. Saltpond is a well-built, +flourishing town, and is singular in possessing no ancient fort. +Between Anamabo and Saltpond is Kormantine (Cormantyne), noted +as the place whence the English first exported slaves from this coast. +Hence the general name Coromantynes given in the West Indies to +slaves from the Gold Coast. Eighty miles from Cape Coast is Accra +(<i>q.v.</i>) (pop. 17,892), capital of the colony. (Winnebah is passed +30 m. before Accra is reached. It is an old town noted for the manufacture +of canoes.) There is no station of much importance in the +60 m. between Accra and the Volta, on the right bank of which river, +near its mouth, is the town of Addah (pop. 13,240). Kwitta (pop. +3018) lies beyond the Volta not far from the German frontier. Of +the inland towns Akropong, the residence of the king of Akwapim, is +one of the best known. It is 39 m. N.E. of Accra, stands on a ridge +1400 ft. above sea-level, and is a healthy place for European residents. +At Akropong are the headquarters of the Basel Missionary Society. +Akuse is a large town on the banks of the Volta. Tarkwa is the +centre of the gold mining industry in the Wasaw district. Its importance +dates from the beginning of the 20th century. Accra, Cape +Coast and Sekondi possess municipal government.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture and Trade</i>.—The soil is everywhere very fertile and the +needs of the people being few there is little incentive to work. The +forests alone supply an inexhaustible source of wealth, notably in the +oil palm. Among vegetable products cultivated are cocoa, cotton, +Indian corn, yams, cassava, peas, peppers, onions, tomatoes, groundnuts +(<i>Arachis hypogaea</i>), Guinea corn (<i>Sorghum vulgare</i>) and Guinea +grains (<i>Amomum grana-paradisi</i>). The most common article of +cultivation is, however, the kola nut (<i>Sterculia acuminata</i>), the +favourite substitute in West Africa for the betel nut. In 1890 efforts +were made by the establishment of a government botanical station at +Aburi in the Accra district to induce the natives to improve their +methods of cultivation and to enlarge the number of their crops. +This resulted in the formation of hundreds of cocoa plantations, +chiefly in the district immediately north of Accra. Subsequently the +cultivation of the plant extended to every district of the colony. +The industry had been founded in 1879 by a native of Accra, but it +was not until 1901, as the result of the government’s fostering care, +that the export became of importance. In that year the quantity +exported slightly exceeded 2,000,000 ℔ and fetched £42,000. In +1907 the quantity exported was nearly 21,000,000 ℔ and in value +exceeded £515,000. In 1904 efforts were begun by the government +and the British Cotton Growing Association in co-operation to foster +the growing of cotton for export and by 1907 the cotton industry +had become firmly established. Tobacco and coffee are grown at +some of the Basel missionary stations.</p> + +<p>The chief exports are gold, palm oil and palm kernels, cocoa, +rubber, timber (including mahogany) and kola nuts. Of these +articles the gold and rubber are shipped chiefly to England, whilst +Germany, France and America, take the palm products and groundnuts. +The rubber comes chiefly from Ashanti. The imports consist +of cotton goods, rum, gin and other spirits, rice, sugar, tobacco, beads, +machinery, building materials and European goods generally.</p> + +<p>The value of the trade increased from £1,628,309 in 1896 to +£4,055,351 in 1906. In the last named year the imports were valued +at £2,058,839 and the exports at £1,996,412. While the value of +imports had remained nearly stationary since 1902 the value of +exports had nearly trebled in that period. In the five years 1903-1907 +the total trade increased from £3,063,486 to £5,007,869. Great +Britain and British colonies take 66% of the exports and supply +over 60% of the imports. In both import and export trade Germany +is second, followed by France and the United States. Specie is included +in these totals, over a quarter of a million being imported in +1904.</p> + +<p>Fishing is carried on extensively along the coast, and salted and +sun-dried fish from Addah and Kwitta districts find a ready sale +inland. Cloths are woven by the natives from home-grown and +imported yarn; the making of canoes, from the silk-cotton trees, +is a flourishing industry, and salt from the lagoons near Addah is +roughly prepared. There are also native artificers in gold and other +metals, the workmanship in some cases being of conspicuous merit. +Odum wood is largely used in building and for cabinet work.</p> + +<p><i>Gold Mining</i>.—Gold is found in almost every part of the colony, +but only in a few districts in paying quantities. Although since the +discovery of the coast gold had been continuously exported to +Europe from its ports, it was not until the last twenty years of the +19th century that efforts were made to extract gold according to +modern methods. The richness of the Tarkwa main reef was first +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>205</span> +discovered by a French trader, M. J. Bennat, about 1880. During +the period 1880 to 1900 the value of the gold exported varied from +a minimum of £32,000 to a maximum (1889) of £103,000. The +increased interest shown in the industry led to the construction of a +railway (see below) to the chief goldfields, whereby the difficulties of +transport were largely overcome. Consequent upon the taking up of +a number of concessions, a concessions ordinance was issued in +August 1900. This was followed in 1901 by the grant of 2825 concessions, +and a “boom” in the West African market on the London +stock exchange. Many concessions were speedily abandoned, and in +1901 the export of gold dropped to its lowest point, 6162 oz., worth +£22,186, but in 1902 a large company began crushing ore and the +output of gold rose to 26,911 oz., valued at £96,880. In 1907 the +export was 292,125 oz., <span class="correction" title="amended from wotht">worth</span> £1,164,676. It should be noted that one +of the principal gold mines is not in the colony proper, but at Obuassi +in Ashanti. Underground labour is performed mainly by Basas and +Krumen from Liberia. Of native tribes the Apollonia have proved +the best for underground work, as they have mining traditions dating +from Portuguese times. A good deal of alluvial gold is obtained by +dredging apparatus. The use of dredging apparatus is modern, but +the natives have worked the alluvial soil and the sand of the seashore +for generations to get the gold they contain.</p> + +<p><i>Communications</i>.—The colony possesses a railway, built and +owned by the government, which serves the gold mines, and has its +sea terminus at Sekondi. Work was begun in August 1898, but +owing to the disturbance caused by the Ashanti rising of 1900 the +rails only reached Tarkwa (39 m.) in May 1901. Thence the line is +carried to Kumasi, the distance to Obuassi (124 m.) being completed +by December 1902, whilst the first train entered the Ashanti capital +on the 1st of October 1903. The total length of the line is 168 m. +The cost of construction was £1,820,000. The line has a gauge +3 ft. 6 in. There is a branch line, 20 m. long, from Tarkwa N.W. to +Prestea on the Ankobra river. Another railway, built 1907-10, +35 m. in length, runs from Accra to Mangoase, in the centre of the +chief cocoa plantations. An extension to Kumasi has been surveyed.</p> + +<p>Tortuous bush tracks are the usual means of internal communication. +These are kept in fair order in the neighbourhood of government +stations. There is a well-constructed road 141 m. long from +Cape Coast to Kumasi, and roads connecting neighbouring towns are +maintained by the government. Systematic attempts to make use +of the upper Volta as a means of conveying goods to the interior were +first tried in 1900. The rapids about 60 m. from the mouth of the +river effectually prevent boats of large size passing up the stream. +Where railways or canoes are not available goods are generally +carried on the heads of porters, 60 ℔ being a full load. Telegraphs, +introduced in 1882, connect all the important towns in the colony, +and a line starting at Cape Coast stretches far inland, via Kumasi to +Wa in the Northern Territories. Accra and Sekondi are in telegraphic +communication with Europe, the Ivory Coast, Lagos and the Cape of +Good Hope. There is regular and frequent steamship communication +with Europe by British, Belgian and German lines.</p> + +<p><i>Administration, Revenue, &c.</i>—The country is governed as a crown +colony, the governor being assisted by a legislative council composed +of officials and nominated unofficial members. Laws, called ordinances, +are enacted by the governor with the advice and consent of +this council. The law of the colony is the common law and statutes +of general application in force in England in 1874, modified by local +ordinances passed since that date. The governor is also governor of +Ashanti and the Northern Territories, but in those dependencies the +legislative council has no authority.</p> + +<p>Native laws and customs—which are extremely elaborate and +complicated—are not interfered with “except when repugnant to +natural justice.” Those relating to land tenure and succession may +be thus summarized. Individual tenure is not unknown, but most +land is held by the tribe or by the family in common, each member +having the right to select a part of the common land for his own use. +Permanent alienation can only take place with the unanimous +consent of the family and is uncommon, but long leases are granted. +Succession is through the female, <i>i.e.</i> when a man dies his property +goes to his sister’s children. The government of the tribes is by their +own kings and chiefs under the supervision of district commissioners. +Slavery has been abolished in the colony. In the Northern Territories +the dealing in slaves is unlawful, neither can any person be +put in pawn for debt; nor will any court give effect to the relations +between master and slave except in so far as those relations may be +in accordance with the English laws relating to master and servant.</p> + +<p>For administrative purposes the colony is divided into three +provinces under provincial commissioners, and each province is subdivided +into districts presided over by commissioners, who exercise +judicial as well as executive functions. The supreme court consists +of a chief justice and three puisne judges. The defence of the colony +is entrusted to the Gold Coast regiment of the West African Frontier +Force, a force of natives controlled by the Colonial Office but officered +from the British army. There is also a corps of volunteers (formed +1892).</p> + +<p>The chief source of revenue is the customs and (since 1902) railway +receipts, whilst the heaviest items of expenditure are transport (including +railways) and mine surveys, medical and sanitary services, +and maintenance of the military force. The revenue, which in the +period 1894-1898 averaged £244,559 yearly, rose in 1898-1903 to an +average of £556,316 a year. For the five years 1903-1907 the +average annual revenue was £647,557 and the average annual +expenditure £615,696. Save for municipal purposes there is no +direct taxation in the colony and no poor-houses exist. There is a +public debt of (December 1907) £2,206,964. It should be noted that +the expenditure on Ashanti and the Northern Territories is included +in the Gold Coast budget.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History</i>.—It is a debated question whether the Gold Coast was +discovered by French or by Portuguese sailors. The evidence +available is insufficient to prove the assertion, of which there is +no contemporary record, that a company of Norman merchants +established themselves about 1364 at a place they named La +Mina (Elmina), and that they traded with the natives for nearly +fifty years, when the enterprise was abandoned. It is well established +that a Portuguese expedition under Diogo d’Azambuja, +accompanied probably by Christopher Columbus, took possession +of (or founded) Elmina in 1481-1482. By the Portuguese it was +called variously São Jorge da Mina or Ora del Mina—the mouth +of the (gold) mines. That besides alluvial washings they also +worked the gold mines was proved by discoveries in the latter +part of the 19th century. The Portuguese remained undisturbed +in their trade until the Reformation, when the papal bull which +had given the country, with many others, to Portugal ceased to +have a binding power. English ships in 1553 brought back from +Guinea gold to the weight of 150 ℔. The fame of the Gold Coast +thereafter attracted to it adventurers from almost every European +nation. The English were followed by French, Danes, Brandenburgers, +Dutch and Swedes. The most aggressive were the +Dutch, who from the end of the 16th century sought to oust the +Portuguese from the Gold Coast, and in whose favour the Portuguese +did finally withdraw in 1642, in return for the withdrawal +on the part of the Dutch of their claims to Brazil. The Dutch +henceforth made Elmina their headquarters on the coast. Traces +of the Portuguese occupation, which lasted 160 years, are still to +be found, notably in the language of the natives. Such familiar +words as palaver, fetish, caboceer and dash (<i>i.e.</i> a gift) have all a +Portuguese origin.</p> + +<p>An English company built a fort at Kormantine previously to +1651, and some ten years later Cape Coast Castle was built. The +settlements made by the English provoked the hostility +of the Dutch and led to war between England and +<span class="sidenote">Appearance of the English.</span> +Holland, during which Admiral de Ruyter destroyed +(1664-1665) all the English forts save Cape Coast +castle. The treaty of Breda in 1667 confirmed the Dutch in the +possession of their conquests, but the English speedily opened +other trading stations. Charles II. in 1672 granted a charter to +the Royal African Company, which built forts at Dixcove, +Sekondi, Accra, Whydah and other places, besides repairing Cape +Coast Castle. At this time the trade both in slaves and gold was +very great, and at the beginning of the 18th century the value of +the gold exported annually was estimated by Willem Bosman, the +chief Dutch factor at Elmina, to be over £200,000. The various +European traders were constantly quarrelling among themselves +and exercised scarcely any control over the natives. Piracy was rife +along the coast, and was not indeed finally stamped out until the +middle of the 19th century. The Royal African Company, which +lost its monopoly of trade with England in 1700, was succeeded +by another, the African Company of Merchants, which was constituted +in 1750 by act of parliament and received an annual +subsidy from government. The slave trade was then at its +height and some 10,000 negroes were exported yearly. Many +of the slaves were prisoners of war sold to the merchants by +the Ashanti, who had become the chief native power. The abolition +of the slave trade (1807) crippled the company, which was +dissolved in 1821, when the crown took possession of the forts.</p> + +<p>Since the beginning of the 19th century the British had begun +to exercise territorial rights in the towns where they held forts, +and in 1817 the right of the British to control the natives living in +the coast towns was recognized by Ashanti. In 1824 the first +step towards the extension of British authority beyond the coast +region was taken by Governor Sir Charles M’Carthy, who incited +the Fanti to rise against their oppressors, the Ashanti. (The +Fanti’s country had been conquered by the Ashanti in 1807.) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id="page206"></a>206</span> +Sir Charles and the Fanti army were defeated, the governor losing +his life, but in 1826 the English gained a victory over the Ashanti +at Dodowah. At this period, however, the home government, +disgusted with the Gold Coast by reason of the perpetual disturbances +in the protectorate and the trouble it occasioned, +determined to abandon the settlements, and sent instructions for +the forts to be destroyed and the Europeans brought home. The +merchants, backed by Major Rickets, 2nd West India regiments, +the administrator, protested, and as a compromise the forts were +handed over to a committee of merchants (Sept. 1828), who were +given a subsidy of £4000 a year. The merchants secured (1830) +as their administrator Mr George Maclean—a gentleman with +military experience on the Gold Coast and not engaged in trade. +To Maclean is due the consolidation of British interests in the +interior. He concluded, 1831, a treaty with the Ashanti advantageous +to the Fanti, whilst with very inadequate means he contrived +to extend British influence over the whole region of the present +colony. In the words of a Fanti trader Maclean understood the +people, “he settled things quietly with them and the people also +loved him.”<a name="fa2q" id="fa2q" href="#ft2q"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Complaints that Maclean encouraged slavery +reached England, but these were completely disproved, the +governor being highly commended on his administration by the +House of Commons Committee. It was decided, nevertheless, +that the Colonial Office should resume direct control of the forts, +which was done in 1843, Maclean continuing to direct native +affairs until his death in 1847. The jurisdiction of England on +the Gold Coast was defined by the bond of the 6th of March 1844, +<span class="sidenote">Danish and Dutch forts purchased.</span> +an agreement with the native chiefs by which the +crown received the right of trying criminals, repressing +human sacrifice, &c. The limits of the protectorate +inland were not defined. The purchase of the Danish +forts in 1850, and of the Dutch forts and territory in +1871, led to the consolidation of the British power along the +coast; and the Ashanti war of 1873-74 resulted in the extension +of the area of British influence. Since that time the colony has +been chiefly engaged in the development of its material resources, +a development accompanied by a slow but substantial advance +in civilization among the native population. (For further +historical information see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ashanti</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>For a time the Gold Coast formed officially a limb of the +“West African Settlements” and was virtually a dependency of +Sierra Leone. In 1874 the settlements on the Gold Coast and +Lagos were created a separate crown colony, this arrangement +lasting until 1886 when Lagos was cut off from the Gold Coast +administration.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Northern Territories.</i></p> + +<p>The Northern Territories of the Gold Coast form a British +protectorate to the north of Ashanti. They are bounded W. and +N.—where 11° N. is the frontier line except at the eastern +extremity—by the French colonies of the Ivory Coast and Upper +Senegal and Niger, E. by the German colony of Togoland. The +southern frontier, separating the protectorate from Ashanti, is +the Black Volta to a point a little above its junction with the +White Volta. Thence the frontier turns south and afterwards +east so as to include the Brumasi district in the protectorate, +the frontier gaining the main Volta below Yeji. The Territories +include nearly all the country from the meridian of Greenwich +to 3° W. and between 8° and 11° N., and cover an area of about +33,000 sq. m.</p> + +<p>Lying north of the great belt of primeval forest which extends +parallel to the Guinea coast, the greater part of the protectorate +consists of open country, well timbered, and much of it presenting +a park-like appearance. There are also large stretches of grassy +plains, and in the south-east an area of treeless steppe. The flora +and fauna resemble those of Ashanti. The country is well +watered, the Black Volta forming the west and southern frontier +for some distance, while the White Volta traverses its central +regions. Both rivers, and also the united stream, contain rapids +which impede but do not prevent navigation (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Volta</a></span>). The +climate is much healthier than that of the coast districts, and the +fever experienced is of a milder type. The rainfall is less than on +the coast; the dry season lasts from November (when the +harmattan begins to blow) to March. The mean temperature at +Gambaga is 80° F., the mean annual rainfall 43 in. The inhabitants +were officially estimated in 1907 to number “at least +1,000,000.” The Dagomba, Dagarti, Grunshi, Kangarga, Moshi +and Zebarima, Negro or Negroid tribes, constitute the bulk of the +people, and Fula, Hausa and Yoruba have settled as traders or +cattle raisers. A large number of the natives are Moslems, the +rest are fetish worshippers. The tribal organization is maintained +by the British authorities, who found comparatively little +difficulty in putting an end to slave-raiding and gaining the +confidence of the chiefs. Trained by British officers, the natives +make excellent soldiers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Agriculture and Trade</i>.—The chief crops are maize, guinea-corn, +millet, yams, rice, beans, groundnuts, tobacco and cotton. Cotton is +grown in most parts of the protectorate, the soil and climate in many +districts being very suitable for its cultivation. Rubber is found in +the north-western regions. When the protectorate was assumed by +Great Britain the Territories were singularly destitute of fruit trees. +The British have introduced the orange, citron, lime, guava, mango +and soursop, and among plants the banana, pine-apple and papaw. +A large number of vegetables and flowers have also been introduced +by the administration.</p> + +<p>Stock-raising is carried on extensively, and besides oxen and sheep +there are large numbers of horses and donkeys in the Territories. +The chief exports are cattle, <i>dawa-dawa</i> (a favourite flavouring +matter for soup among the Ashanti and other tribes) and shea-butter—the +latter used in cooking and as an illuminant. The +principal imports are kola-nuts, salt and cotton goods. A large +proportion of the European goods imported is German and comes +through Togoland. The administration levies a tax on traders’ +caravans, and in return ensures the safety of the roads. This tax is +the chief local source of revenue. The revenue and expenditure of the +Territories, as well as statistics of trade, are included in those of the +Gold Coast.</p> + +<p>Gold exists in quartz formation, chiefly in the valley of the Black +Volta, and is found equally on the British and French sides of the +frontier.</p> + +<p><i>Towns.</i>—The headquarters of the administration are at Tamale +(or Tamari), a town in the centre of the Dagomba country east of the +White Volta and 200 m. N.E. of Kumasi. Its inhabitants are keen +traders, and it forms a distributing centre for the whole protectorate. +Gambaga, an important commercial centre and from 1897 to 1907 +the seat of government, is in Mamprusi, the north-east corner of the +protectorate and is 85 m. N.N.E. of Tamale. A hundred and forty +miles due south of Gambaga is Salaga. This town is situated on the +caravan route from the Hausa states to Ashanti, and has a considerable +trade in kola-nuts, shea-butter and salt. On the White Volta, +midway between Gambaga and Salaga, is the thriving town of +Daboya. On the western frontier are Bole (Baule) and Wa. They +carry on an extensive trade with Bontuku, the capital of Jaman, and +other places in the Ivory Coast colony. In all the towns the population +largely consists of aliens—Hausa, Ashanti, Mandingos, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Communications</i>.—Lack of easy communication with the sea +hinders the development of the country. The ancient caravan routes +have been, however, supplemented by roads built by the British, +who have further organized a service of boats on the Volta. Large +cargo boats, chiefly laden with salt, ascend that river from Addah to +Yeji and Daboya. From Yeji, the port of Salaga, a good road, 150 +m. long, has been made to Gambaga. There is also a river service +from Yeji to Longoro on the Black Volta, the port of Kintampo, in +northern Ashanti. There is a complete telegraphic system connecting +the towns of the protectorate with Kumasi and the Gold Coast +ports.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History</i>.—It was not until the last quarter of the 19th century +that the country immediately north of Ashanti became known +to Europeans. The first step forward was made by Monsieur +M. J. Bonnat (one of the Kumasi captives, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ashanti</a></span>) who, +ascending the Volta, reached Salaga (1875-1876). In 1882 +Captain R. La Trobe Lonsdale, an officer in British colonial +service, went farther, visiting Yendi in the north and Bontuku +in the west. Two years later Captain Brandon Kirby made his +way to Kintampo. In 1887-1889 Captain L. G. Binger, a French +officer, traversed the country from north to south. Thereafter +the whole region was visited by British, French and German +political missions. Prominent among the British agents was +Mr George E. Ferguson, a native of West Africa, who had +previously explored northern Ashanti. Between 1892 and 1897 +Ferguson concluded several treaties guarding British interests. +In 1897 Lieutenant Henderson and Ferguson occupied Wa, where +they were attacked by the <i>sofas</i> of Samory (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Senegal</a></span>, § 3). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>207</span> +Henderson, who had gone to the <i>sofa</i> camp to parley, was +held prisoner for some time, while Ferguson was killed. Meantime +negotiations were opened in Europe to settle the spheres +of influence of the respective countries. (The Anglo-French +agreement of 1889 had fixed the boundaries of the hinterlands +of the French colony of the Ivory Coast and the British colony +of the Gold Coast as far as 9° N. only.) A period of considerable +tension, arising from the proximity of British and French troops +in the disputed territory, was ended by the signature of a convention +in Paris (14th of June 1898), in which the western and +northern boundaries were defined. The British abandoned +their claim to the important town and district of Wagadugu +in the north. In the following year (14th of November 1899) +an agreement defining the eastern frontier was concluded with +Germany. Previously a square block of territory to the north +of 8° N. had been regarded as neutral, both by Britain and +Germany. This was in virtue of an arrangement made in 1888. +By the 1899 convention the neutral zone was parcelled out +between the two powers. The delimitation of the frontiers +agreed upon took place during 1900-1904.</p> + +<p>In 1897 the Northern Territories were constituted a separate +district of the Gold Coast hinterland, and were placed in charge +of a chief commissioner. Colonel H. P. Northcott (killed in the +Boer War, 1899-1902) was the first commissioner and commandant +of the troops. He was succeeded by Col. A. H. Morris. +In 1901 the Territories were made a distinct administration, +under the jurisdiction of the governor of the Gold Coast colony. +The government was at first of a semi-military character, but in +1907 a civilian staff was appointed to carry on the administration, +and a force of armed constabulary replaced the troops which +had been stationed in the protectorate and which were then +disbanded. The prosperity of the country under British administration +has been marked.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—A good summary of the condition and history of +the colony to the close of the 19th century will be found in vol. 3, +“West Africa,” of the <i>Historical Geography of the British Empire</i> by +C. P. Lucas (2nd ed., Oxford, 1900). For current information see +the <i>Gold Coast Civil Service List</i> (London, yearly), the annual Blue +Books published in the colony, and the annual <i>Report</i> issued by the +Colonial Office, London. For fuller information consult the <i>Report +from the Select Committee on Africa</i> (<i>Western Coast</i>) (London, 1865), +a mine of valuable information; <i>The Gold Coast, Past and Present</i>, +by G. Macdonald (London, 1898); <i>History of the Gold Coast and +Ashanti</i>, by C. C. Reindorf, a native pastor (Basel, 1895); <i>A History +of the Gold Coast</i>, by Col. A. B. Ellis (London, 1893); <i>Wanderings in +West Africa</i> (London, 1863) and <i>To the Gold Coast for Gold</i> (London, +1883), both by Sir Richard Burton. Of the earlier books the most +notable are <i>The Golden Coast or a Description of Guinney together with +a relation of such persons as got wonderful estates by their trade thither</i> +(London, 1665), and <i>A New and Accurate Description of the Coast of +Guinea</i> written (in Dutch) by Willem Bosman, chief factor for the +Dutch at Elmina (Eng. trans., 2nd ed., 1721). For a complete survey +of the Gold Coast under Dutch control see “Die Niederländisch +West-Indische Compagnie an der Gold-Küste” by J. G. Doorman +in <i>Tijds Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenk</i>, vol. 40 (1898). For +ethnography, religion, law, &c., consult <i>The Land of Fetish</i> (London, +1883) and <i>The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the West Coast of Africa</i> +(London, 1887), both by Col. A. B. Ellis; <i>Fanti Customary Law</i> (2nd +ed., London, 1904) and <i>Fanti Law Report</i> (London, 1904), both by +J. M. Sarbah. The <i>Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa</i> by Sir Alfred +Moloney (London, 1887) contains a comprehensive list of economic +plants. See also <i>Report on Economic Agriculture on the Gold Coast</i> +(Colonial Office Reports, No. 110, 1890), and <i>Papers relating to the +Construction of Railways in ... the Gold Coast</i> (London, 1904). +The best map is that of Major F. G. Guggisberg, over 70 sheets, +scale 1 : 125,000 (London, 1907-1909). There is a War Office map on +the scale 1 : 1,000,000 in one sheet. See also the works quoted under +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ashanti</a></span>.</p> + +<p>For the Northern Territories see L. G. Binger, <i>Du Niger au Golfe +de Guinée</i> (Paris, 1892), a standard authority; H. P. Northcott, +<i>Report on the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast</i> (War Office, +London, 1899), a valuable compilation summarizing the then available +information. Annual <i>Reports</i> on the protectorate are issued by +the British Colonial Office. A map on the scale of 1 : 1,000,000 is +issued by the War Office.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. R. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1q" id="ft1q" href="#fa1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This name appears in a great variety of forms—Kwi, Ekwi, +Okwi, Oji, Odschi, Otsui, Tyi, Twi, Tschi, Chwee or Chee.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2q" id="ft2q" href="#fa2q"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Blue Book on <i>Africa</i> (<i>Western Coast</i>) (1865), p. 233.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDEN,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county, +Colorado, U.S.A., on Clear Creek (formerly called the Vasquez +fork of the South Platte), about 14 m. W. by N. of Denver. +Pop. (1900) 2152; (1910) 2477. Golden is a residential suburb +of Denver, served by the Colorado & Southern, the Denver & +Intermountain (electric), and the Denver & North-Western +Electric railways. It is about 5700 ft. above sea-level. About +600 ft. above the city is Castle Rock, with an amusement park, +and W. of Golden is Lookout Mountain, a natural park of 3400 +acres. About 1 m. S. of the city is a state industrial school for +boys, and in Golden is the Colorado State School of Mines +(opened 1874), which offers courses in mining engineering and +metallurgical engineering. The Independent Pyritic Smelter +is at Golden, and among the city’s manufactures are pottery, +firebrick and tile, made from clays found near by, and flour. +There are deposits of coal, copper and gold in the vicinity. +Truck-farming and the growing of fruit are important industries +in the neighbourhood. The first settlement here was a gold +mining camp, established in 1859, and named in honour of +Tom Golden, one of the pioneer prospectors. The village was +laid out in 1860, and Golden was incorporated as a town in 1865 +and was chartered as a city in 1870. Golden was made the +capital of Colorado Territory in 1862, and several sessions (or +parts of sessions) of the Assembly were held here between 1864 +and 1868, when the seat of government was formally established +at Denver; the territorial offices of Colorado, however, were +at Golden only in 1866-1867.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDEN BULL<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Bulla Aurea</i>), the general designation +of any charter decorated with a golden seal or <i>bulla</i>, either owing +to the intrinsic importance of its contents, or to the rank and +dignity of the bestower or the recipient. The custom of thus +giving distinction to certain documents is said to be of Byzantine +origin, though if this be the case it is somewhat strange that the +word employed as an equivalent for golden bull in Byzantine +Greek should be the hybrid <span class="grk" title="chrysoboullon">χρυσόβουλλον</span> (cf. Codinus Curopalates, +<span class="grk" title="ho megas logothetês diatattei ta para tou basileôs +apostellomena prostagmata kai chrysoboulla pros te Hrêgas, +Soultanas, kai toparchous">ὁ μέγας λογοθέτης διατάττει τὰ παρὰ τοῦ βασιλέως +ἀποστελλόμενα προστάγματα καὶ χρυσόβουλλα πρός τε Ῥήγας, +Σούλτανας, καὶ τοπάρχους</span>; and Anna Comnena, Alexiad, lib. iii. <span class="grk" title="dia +Xpusobouliou logou">διὰ χρυσοβουλίου λόγου</span>; lib. viii., <span class="grk" title="chrysoboulon logon">χρυσόβουλον λόγον</span>). In Germany +a Golden Bull is mentioned under the reign of Henry I. the Fowler +in Chronica Cassin. ii. 31, and the oldest German example, if it +be genuine, dates from 983. At first the golden seal was formed +after the type of a solid coin, but at a later date, while the golden +surface presented to the eye was greatly increased, the seal was +really composed of two thin metal plates filled in with wax. +The number of golden bulls issued by the imperial chancery +must have been very large; the city of Frankfort, for example, +preserves no fewer than eight.</p> + +<p>The name, however, has become practically restricted to a few +documents of unusual political importance, the golden bull of +the Empire, the golden bull of Brabant, the golden bull of +Hungary and the golden bull of Milan—and of these the first +is undoubtedly <i>the</i> Golden Bull <i>par excellence</i>. The main object +of the Golden Bull was to provide a set of rules for the election +of the German kings, or kings of the Romans, as they are called +in this document. Since the informal establishment of the +electoral college about a century before (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Electors</a></span>), various +disputes had taken place about the right of certain princes to +vote at the elections, these and other difficulties having arisen +owing to the absence of any authoritative ruling. The spiritual +electors, it is true, had exercised their votes without challenge, +but far different was the case of the temporal electors. The +families ruling in Saxony and in Bavaria had been divided into +two main branches and, as the German states had not yet +accepted the principles of primogeniture, it was uncertain which +member of the divided family should vote. Thus, both the +prince ruling in Saxe-Lauenburg and the prince ruling in Saxe-Wittenberg +claimed the vote, and the two branches of the +family of Wittelsbach, one settled in Bavaria and the other in +the Rhenish palatinate, were similarly at variance, while the +duke of Bavaria also claimed the vote at the expense of the +king of Bohemia. Moreover, there had been several disputed +and double elections to the German crown during the past +century. In more than one instance a prince, chosen by a +minority of the electors, had claimed to exercise the functions +of king, and as often civil war had been the result. Under these +circumstances the emperor Charles IV. determined by an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208"></a>208</span> +authoritative pronouncement to make such proceedings impossible +in the future, and at the same time to add to his own power +and prestige, especially in his capacity as king of Bohemia.</p> + +<p>Having arranged various disputes in Germany, and having in +April 1355 secured his coronation in Rome, Charles gave instructions +for the bull to be drawn up. It is uncertain who is responsible +for its actual composition. The honour has been assigned +to Bartolo of Sassoferrato, professor of law at Pisa and Perugia, +to the imperial secretary, Rudolph of Friedberg, and even to +the emperor himself, but there is no valid authority for giving +it to any one of the three in preference to the others. In its +first form the bull was promulgated at the diet of Nuremberg +on the 10th of January 1356, but it was not accepted by the +princes until some modifications had been introduced, and in +its final form it was issued at the diet of Metz on the 25th of +December following.</p> + +<p>The text of the Golden Bull consists of a prologue and of +thirty-one chapters. Some lines of verse invoking the aid of +Almighty God are followed by a rhetorical statement of the +evils which arise from discord and division, illustrations being +taken from Adam, who was divided from obedience and thus fell, +and from Helen of Troy who was divided from her husband. +The early chapters are mainly concerned with details of the +elaborate ceremonies which are to be observed on the occasion +of an election. The number of electors is fixed at seven, the duke +of Saxe-Wittenberg, not the duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, receiving +the Saxon vote, and the count palatine, not the duke of Bavaria, +obtaining the vote of the Wittelsbachs. The electors were arranged +in order of precedence thus: the archbishops of Mainz, +of Trier and of Cologne, the king of Bohemia, <i>qui inter electores +laicos ex regiae dignitatis fastigio jure et merito obtinet primatiam</i>, +the count palatine of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony and the +margrave of Brandenburg. The three archbishops were respectively +arch-chancellors of the three principal divisions of the +Empire, Germany, Arles and Italy, and the four secular electors +each held an office in the imperial household, the functions of +which they were expected to discharge on great occasions. +The king of Bohemia was the arch-cupbearer, the count palatine +was the arch-steward (<i>dapifer</i>), the duke of Saxony was arch-marshal, +and the margrave of Brandenburg was arch-chamberlain. +The work of summoning the electors and of presiding over +their deliberations fell to the archbishop of Mainz, but if he +failed to discharge this duty the electors were to assemble without +summons within three months of the death of a king. Elections +were to be held at Frankfort; they were to be decided by a +majority of votes, and the subsequent coronation at Aix-la-Chapelle +was to be performed by the archbishop of Cologne. +During a vacancy in the Empire the work of administering the +greater part of Germany was entrusted to the count palatine +of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony being responsible, however, +for the government of Saxony, or rather for the districts <i>ubi +Saxonica jura servantur</i>.</p> + +<p>The chief result of the bull was to add greatly to the power of +the electors; for, to quote Bryce (<i>Holy Roman Empire</i>), it +“confessed and legalized the independence of the electors and +the powerlessness of the crown.” To these princes were given +sovereign rights in their dominions, which were declared indivisible +and were to pass according to the rule of primogeniture. +Except in extreme cases, there was to be no appeal from the +sentences of their tribunals, and they were confirmed in the right +of coining money, of taking tolls, and in other privileges, while +conspirators against their lives were to suffer the penalties of +treason. One clause gave special rights and immunities to the +king of Bohemia, who, it must be remembered, at this time was +Charles himself, and others enjoined the observance of the public +peace. Provision was made for an annual meeting of the electors, +to be held at Metz four weeks after Easter, when matters <i>pro +bono et salute communi</i> were to be discussed. This arrangement, +however, was not carried out, although the electors met occasionally. +Another clause forbade the cities to receive <i>Pfahlbürger</i>, +<i>i.e.</i> forbade them to take men dwelling outside their walls under +their protection. It may be noted that there is no admission +whatever that the election of a king needs confirmation from +the pope.</p> + +<p>The Golden Bull was thus a great victory for the electors, but +it weakened the position of the German king and was a distinct +humiliation for the other princes and for the cities. The status +of those rulers who did not obtain the electoral privilege was +lowered by this very fact, and the regulations about the <i>Pfahlbürger</i>, +together with the prohibition of new leagues and associations, +struck a severe blow at the cities. The German kings were +elected according to the conditions laid down in the bull until +the dissolution of the Empire in 1806. At first the document +was known simply as the Lex Carolina; but gradually the name +of the Book with the Golden Bull came into use, and the present +elliptical title was sufficiently established by 1417 to be officially +employed in a charter by King Sigismund. The original autograph +was committed to the care of the elector of Mainz, and it +was preserved in the archives at Mainz till 1789. Official transcripts +were probably furnished to each of the seven electors at +the time of the promulgation, and before long many of the other +members of the Empire secured copies for themselves. The +transcript which belonged to the elector of Trier is preserved in +the state archives at Stuttgart, that of the elector of Cologne in +the court library at Darmstadt, and that of the king of Bohemia +in the imperial archives at Vienna. Berlin, Munich and Dresden +also boast the possession of an electoral transcript; and the +town of Kitzingen has a contemporary copy in its municipal +archives. There appears, however, to be good reason to doubt +the genuineness of most of these so-called original transcripts. +But perhaps the best known example is that of Frankfort-on-Main, +which was procured from the imperial chancery in 1366, +and is adorned with a golden seal like the original. Not only +was it regularly quoted as the indubitable authority in regard +to the election of the emperors in Frankfort itself, but it +was from time to time officially consulted by members of the +Empire.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The manuscript consists of 43 leaves of parchment of medium +quality, each measuring about 10<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. in height by 7<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in breadth. +The seal is of the plate and wax type. On the obverse appears a +figure of the emperor seated on his throne, with the sceptre in his +right hand and the globe in his left; a shield, with the crowned +imperial eagle, occupies the space on the one side of the throne, and +a corresponding shield, with the crowned Bohemian lion with two +tails, occupies the space on the other side; and round the margin +runs the legend, <i>Karolus quartus divina favente clementia, Romanorum +imperator semper Augustus et Boëmiae rex</i>. On the reverse is a castle, +with the words <i>Aurea Roma</i> on the gate, and the circumscription +reads, <i>Roma caput mundi regit orbis frena rotundi</i>. The original Latin +text of the bull was printed at Nuremberg by Friedrich Creussner in +1474, and a second edition by Anthonius Koburger (d. 1532) appeared +at the same place in 1477. Since that time it has been frequently +reprinted from various manuscripts and collections. M. Goldast gave +the Palatine text, compared with those of Bohemia and Frankfort, +in his <i>Collectio constitutionum et legum imperialium</i> (Frankfort, 1613). +Another is to be found in <i>De comitiis imperii</i> of O. Panvinius, and a +third, of unknown history, is prefixed to the <i>Codex recessuum +Imperii</i> (Mainz, 1599, and again 1615). The Frankfort text appeared +in 1742 as <i>Aurea Bulla secundum exemplar originale Frankfurtense</i>, +edited by W. C. Multz, and the text is also found in J. J. Schmauss, +Corpus juris publici, edited by R. von Hommel (Leipzig, 1794), and +in the <i>Ausgewählte Urkunden zur Erläuterung der Verfassungsgeschichte +Deutschlands im Mittelalter</i>, edited by W. Altmann and +E. Bernheim (Berlin, 1891, and again 1895). German translations, +none of which, however, had any official authority, were published +at Nuremberg about 1474, at Venice in 1476, and at Strassburg in +1485. Among the earlier commentators on the document are +H. Canisius and J. Limnaeus who wrote <i>In Auream Bullam</i> (Strassburg, +1662). The student will find a good account of the older literature +on the subject in C. G. Biener’s <i>Commentarii de origine et progressu +legum juriumque Germaniae</i> (1787-1795). See also J. D. von +Olenschläger, <i>Neue Erläuterungen der Guldenen Bulle</i> (Frankfort and +Leipzig, 1766); H. G. von Thulemeyer, <i>De Bulla Aurea, Argentea</i>, &c. +(Heidelberg, 1682); J. St Pütter, <i>Historische Entwickelung der +heutigen Staatsverfassung des teutschen Reichs</i> (Göttingen, 1786-1787), +and O. Stobbe, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Rechtsquellen</i> (Brunswick, +1860-1864). Among the more modern works may be +mentioned: E. Nerger, <i>Die Goldne Bulle nach ihrem Ursprung</i> +(Göttingen, 1877), O. Hahn, <i>Ursprung und Bedeutung der Goldnen +Bulle</i> (Breslau, 1903); and M. G. Schmidt, <i>Die staatsrechtliche +Anwendung der Goldnen Bulle</i> (Halle, 1894). There is a valuable +contribution to the subject in the <i>Quellensammlung zur Geschichte der +deutschen Reichsverfassung</i>, edited by K. Zeumer (Leipzig, 1904), and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>209</span> +another by O. Harnack in his <i>Das Kurfürsten Kollegium bis zur +Mitte des 14ten Jahrhunderts</i> (Giessen, 1883). There is an English translation +of the bull in E. F. Henderson’s <i>Select Historical Documents of +the Middle Ages</i> (London, 1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDEN-EYE,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> a name indiscriminately given in many parts +of Britain to two very distinct species of ducks, from the rich +yellow colour of their irides. The commonest of them—the +<i>Anas fuligula</i> of Linnaeus and <i>Fuligula cristata</i> of most modern +ornithologists—is, however, usually called by English writers +the tufted duck, while “golden-eye” is reserved in books for +the <i>A. clangula</i> and <i>A. glaucion</i> of Linnaeus, who did not know +that the birds he so named were but examples of the same +species, differing only in age or sex; and to this day many fowlers +perpetuate a like mistake, deeming the “Morillon,” which is the +female or young male, distinct from the “Golden-eye” or +“Rattle-wings” (as from its noisy flight they oftener call it), +which is the adult male. This species belongs to the group known +as diving ducks, and is the type of the very well-marked genus +<i>Clangula</i> of later systematists, which, among other differences, +has the posterior end of the sternum prolonged so as to extend +considerably over, and, we may not unreasonably suppose, +protect the belly—a character possessed in a still greater degree +by the mergansers (<i>Merginae</i>), while the males also exhibit in +the extraordinarily developed bony labyrinth of their trachea +and its midway enlargement another resemblance to the members +of the same subfamily. The golden-eye, <i>C. glaucion</i> of modern +writers, has its home in the northern parts of both hemispheres, +whence in winter it migrates southward; but as it is one of the +ducks that constantly resorts to hollow trees for the purpose +of breeding it hardly transcends the limit of the Arctic forests +on either continent. So well known is this habit to the people +of the northern districts of Scandinavia, that they very commonly +devise artificial nest-boxes for its accommodation and their own +profit. Hollow logs of wood are prepared, the top and bottom +closed, and a hole cut in the side. These are affixed to the trunks +of living trees in suitable places, at a convenient distance from +the ground, and, being readily occupied by the birds in the breeding +season, are regularly robbed, first of the numerous eggs, and +finally of the down they contain, by those who have set them up.</p> + +<p>The adult male golden-eye is a very beautiful bird, mostly +black above, but with the head, which is slightly crested, reflecting +rich green lights, a large oval white patch under each eye +and elongated white scapulars; the lower parts are wholly +white and the feet bright orange, except the webs, which are +dusky. In the female and young male, dark brown replaces the +black, the cheek-spots are indistinct and the elongated white +scapulars wanting. The golden-eye of North America has been +by some authors deemed to differ, and has been named <i>C. +americana</i>, but apparently on insufficient grounds. North +America, however, has, in common with Iceland, a very distinct +species, <i>C. islandica</i>, often called Barrow’s duck, which is but +a rare straggler to the continent of Europe, and never, so far +as known, to Britain. In Iceland and Greenland it is the only +habitual representative of the genus, and it occurs from thence +to the Rocky Mountains. In breeding-habits it differs from the +commoner species, not placing its eggs in tree-holes; but how +far this difference is voluntary may be doubted, for in the +countries it frequents trees are wanting. It is a larger and +stouter bird, and in the male the white cheek-patches take a more +crescentic form, while the head is glossed with purple rather +than green, and the white scapulars are not elongated. The New +World also possesses a third and still more beautiful species of +the genus in <i>C. albeola</i>, known in books as the buffel-headed duck, +and to American fowlers as the “spirit-duck” and “butter-ball”—the +former name being applied from its rapidity in diving, and +the latter from its exceeding fatness in autumn. This is of small +size, but the lustre of the feathers in the male is most brilliant, +exhibiting a deep plum-coloured gloss on the head. It breeds +in trees, and is supposed to have occurred more than once in +Britain.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDEN FLEECE,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the fleece of the +ram on which Phrixus and Helle escaped, for which see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Argonauts</a></span>. For the modern order of the Golden Fleece, see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Knighthood and Chivalry</a></span>, section <i>Orders of Knighthood</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDEN HORDE,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> the name of a body of Tatars who in the +middle of the 13th century overran a great portion of eastern +Europe and founded in Russia the Tatar empire of khanate +known as the Empire of the Golden Horde or Western Kipchaks. +They invaded Europe about 1237 under the leadership of Bātū +Khan, a younger son of Juji, eldest son of Jenghiz Khan, passed +over Russia with slaughter and destruction, and penetrated +into Silesia, Poland and Hungary, finally defeating Henry II., +duke of Silesia, at Liegnitz in the battle known as the Wahlstatt +on the 9th of April 1241. So costly was this victory, however, +that Bātū, finding he could not reduce Neustadt, retraced his +steps and established himself in his magnificent tent (whence +the name “golden”) on the Volga. The new settlement was +known as <i>Sir Orda</i> (“Golden Camp,” whence “Golden <i>Horde</i>”). +Very rapidly the powers of Bātū extended over the Russian +princes, and so long as the khanate remained in the direct +descent from Bātū nothing occurred to check the growth of the +empire. The names of Bātū’s successors are Sartak (1256), +Bereke (Baraka) (1256-1266), Mangū-Timūr (1266-1280), Tūda +Mangū (1280-1287). (?) Tūla Bughā (1287-1290), Tōktū (1290-1312), +Ūzbeg (1312-1340), Tīn-Beg (1340), Jānī-Beg (1340-1357). +The death of Jānī-Beg, however, threw the empire into +confusion. Birdī-Beg (Berdi-Beg) only reigned for two years, +after which two rulers, calling themselves sons of Jānī-Beg +occupied the throne during one year. From that time (1359) +till 1378 no single ruler held the whole empire under control, +various members of the other branches of the old house of Jūjī +assuming the title. At last in 1378 Tōkṭāmish, of the Eastern +Kipchaks, succeeded in ousting all rivals, and establishing +himself as ruler of eastern and western Kipchak. For a short +time the glory of the Golden Horde was renewed, until it was +finally crushed by Timur in 1395.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mongols</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Russia</a></span>; Sir Henry Howorth’s <i>History +of the Mongols</i>; S. Lane-Poole’s <i>Mohammadan Dynasties</i> (1894), +pp. 222-231; for the relations of the various descendants of Jenghiz, +see Stockvis, <i>Manuel d’histoire</i>, vol. i. chap. ix. table 7.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDEN ROD,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> in botany, the popular name for <i>Solidago +virgaurea</i> (natural order Compositae), a native of Britain and +widely distributed in the north temperate region. It is an old-fashioned +border-plant flowering from July to September, with +an erect, sparingly-branched stem and small bright-yellow +clustered heads of flowers. It grows well in common soil and is +readily propagated by division in the spring or autumn.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDEN ROSE<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (<i>rosa aurea</i>), an ornament made of wrought +gold and set with gems, generally sapphires, which is blessed +by the pope on the fourth (<i>Laetare</i>) Sunday of Lent, and usually +afterwards sent as a mark of special favour to some distinguished +individual, to a church, or a civil community. Formerly it +was a single rose of wrought gold, coloured red, but the form +finally adopted is a thorny branch with leaves and flowers, the +petals of which are decked with gems, surmounted by one +principal rose. The origin of the custom is obscure. From very +early times popes have given away a rose on the fourth Sunday +of Lent, whence the name Dominica Rosa, sometimes given to +this feast. The practice of blessing and sending some such +symbol (<i>e.g.</i> <i>eulogiae</i>) goes back to the earliest Christian antiquity, +but the use of the rose itself does not seem to go farther back than +the 11th century. According to some authorities it was used +by Leo IX. (1049-1054), but in any case Pope Urban II. sent one +to Fulk of Anjou during the preparations for the first crusade. +Pope Urban V., who sent a golden rose to Joanna of Naples in +1366, is alleged to have been the first to determine that one +should be consecrated annually. Beginning with the 16th +century there went regularly with the rose a letter relating the +reasons why it was sent, and reciting the merits and virtues +of the receiver. When the change was made from the form +of the simple rose to the branch is uncertain. The rose sent +by Innocent IV. in 1244 to Count Raymond Berengar IV. of +Provence was a simple flower without any accessory ornamentation, +while the one given by Benedict XI. in 1303 or 1304 to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>210</span> +church of St Stephen at Perugia consisted of a branch garnished +with five open and two closed roses enriched with a sapphire, +the whole having a value of seventy ducats. The value of the +gift varied according to the character or rank of the recipient. +John XXII. gave away some weighing 12 oz., and worth +from £250 to £325. Among the recipients of this honour have +been Henry VI. of England, 1446; James III. of Scotland, on +whom the rose (made by Jacopo Magnolio) was conferred by +Innocent VIII., James IV. of Scotland; Frederick the Wise, +elector of Saxony, who received a rose from Leo X. in 1518; +Henry VIII. of England, who received three, the last from Clement +VII. in 1524 (each had nine branches, and rested on different +forms of feet, one on oxen, the second on acorns, and the third on +lions); Queen Mary, who received one in 1555 from Julius III.; +the republic of Lucca, so favoured by Pius IV., in 1564; the +Lateran Basilica by Pius V. three years later; the sanctuary +of Loreto by Gregory XIII. in 1584; Maria Theresa, queen of +France, who received it from Clement IX. in 1668; Mary +Casimir, queen of Poland, from Innocent XI. in 1684 in recognition +of the deliverance of Vienna by her husband, John Sobieski; +Benedict XIII. (1726) presented one to the cathedral of Capua, +and in 1833 it was sent by Gregory XVI. to the church of St +Mark’s, Venice. In more recent times it was sent to Napoleon III. +of France, the empress Eugénie, and the queens Isabella II., +Christina (1886) and Victoria (1906) of Spain. The gift of the +golden rose used almost invariably to accompany the coronation +of the king of the Romans. If in any particular year no one is +considered worthy of the rose, it is laid up in the Vatican.</p> + +<p>Some of the most famous Italian goldsmiths have been +employed in making the earlier roses; and such intrinsically +valuable objects have, in common with other priceless historical +examples of the goldsmiths’ art, found their way to the melting-pot. +It is, therefore, not surprising that the number of existing +historic specimens is very small. These include one of the 14th +century in the Cluny Museum, Paris, believed to have been sent +by Clement V. to the prince-bishop of Basel; another conferred +in 1458 on his native city of Siena by Pope Pius II.; and the +rose bestowed upon Siena by Alexander VII., a son of that city, +which is depicted in a procession in a fresco in the Palazzo +Pubblico at Siena. The surviving roses of more recent date +include that presented by Benedict XIII. to Capua cathedral; +the rose conferred on the empress Caroline by Pius VII., 1819, +at Vienna; one of 1833 (Gregory XVI.) at St Mark’s, Venice; +and Pope Leo XIII.’s rose sent to Queen Christina of Spain, +which is at Madrid.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Angelo Rocca, <i>Aurea Rosa</i>, &c. (1719); Busenelli, +<i>De Rosa Aurea. Epistola</i> (1759); Girbal, <i>La Rosa de oro</i> (Madrid, +1820); C. Joret, <i>La Rose d’or dans l’antiquité et au moyen âge</i> (Paris, +1892), pp. 432-435; Eugène Muntz in <i>Revue d’art chrétien</i> (1901), +series v. vol. 12 pp. 1-11; De F. Mely, <i>Le Trésor de Chartres</i> +(1886); Marquis de Mac Swiney Mashanaglass, <i>Le Portugal et le +Saint Siège: Les Roses d’or envoyées par les Papes aux rois de +Portugal au XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1904); Sir C. Young, <i>Ornaments and Gift +consecrated by the Roman Pontiffs: the Golden Rose, the Cap and +Swords presented to Sovereigns of England and Scotland</i> (1864).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. T. S.*; E. A. J.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDEN RULE,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> the term applied in all European languages +to the rule of conduct laid down in the New Testament (Matthew +vii. 12 and Luke vi. 31). “whatsoever ye would that men should +do to you, do ye even so to them, for this is the law and the +prophets.” This principle has often been stated as the fundamental +precept of social morality. It is sometimes put negatively +or passively, “do not that to another which thou wouldst not +have done to thyself” (cf. Hobbes, <i>Leviathan</i>, xv. 79, xvii. 85), +but it should be observed that in this form it implies merely +abstention from evil doing. In either form the precept in ordinary +application is part of a hedonistic system of ethics, the criterion +of action being strictly utilitarian in character.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Sidgwick, <i>History of Ethics</i> (5th ed., 1902), p. 167; James +Seth, <i>Ethical Principles</i>, p. 97 foll.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDFIELD,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> a town and the county-seat of Esmeralda +county, Nevada, U.S.A., about 170 m. S.E. of Carson City. +Pop. (1910, U.S. census) 4838. It is served by the Tonopah +& Groldfield, Las Vegas & Tonopah, and Tonopah & Tidewater +railways. The town lies in the midst of a desert abounding in +high-grade gold ores, and is essentially a mining camp. The +discovery of gold at Tonopah, about 28 m. N. of Goldfield, in +1900 was followed by its discovery at Goldfield in 1902 and 1903; +in 1904 the Goldfield district produced about 800 tons of ore, +which yielded $2,300,000 worth of gold, or 30% of that of the +State. This remarkable production caused Goldfield to grow +rapidly, and it soon became the largest town in the state. In +addition to the mines, there are large reduction works. In 1907 +Goldfield became the county-seat. The gold output in 1907 was +$8,408,396; in 1908, $4,880,251. Soon after mining on an extensive +scale began, the miners organized themselves as a local +branch of the Western Federation of Miners, and in this branch +were included many labourers in Goldfield other than miners. +Between this branch and the mine-owners there arose a series of +more or less serious differences, and there were several set strikes—in +December 1906 and January 1907, for higher wages; in +March and April 1907, because the mine-owners refused to +discharge carpenters who were members of the American Federation +of Labour, but did not belong to the Western Federation of +Miners or to the Industrial Workers of the World affiliated with +it, this last organization being, as a result of the strike, forced +out of Goldfield; in August and September 1907, because a +rule was introduced at some of the mines requiring miners to +change their clothing before entering and after leaving the +mines,—a rule made necessary, according to the operators, by +the wholesale stealing (in miners’ parlance, “high-grading”) +of the very valuable ore (some of it valued at as high as $20 a +pound); and in November and December 1907, because some +of the mine-owners, avowedly on account of the hard times, +adopted a system of paying in cashier’s checks. Excepting +occasional attacks upon non-union workmen, or upon persons +supposed not to be in sympathy with the miners’ union, there +had been no serious disturbance in Goldfield; but in December +1907, Governor Sparks, at the instance of the mine-owners, +appealed to President Roosevelt to send Federal troops to +Goldfield, on the ground that the situation there was ominous, +that destruction of life and property seemed probable, and that +the state had no militia and would be powerless to maintain order. +President Roosevelt thereupon (December 4th) ordered General +Frederick Funston, commanding the Division of California, at +San Francisco, to proceed with 300 Federal troops to Goldfield. +The troops arrived in Goldfield on the 6th of December, and +immediately afterwards the mine-owners reduced wages and +announced that no members of the Western Federation of Miners +would thereafter be employed in the mines. President Roosevelt, +becoming convinced that conditions had not warranted Governor +Sparks’s appeal for Federal assistance, but that the immediate +withdrawal of the troops might nevertheless lead to serious +disorders, consented that they should remain for a short time +on condition that the state should immediately organize an +adequate militia or police force. Accordingly, a special meeting +of the legislature was immediately called, a state police force +was organized, and on the 7th of March 1908 the troops were +withdrawn. Thereafter work was gradually resumed in the +mines, the contest having been won by the mine-owners.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDFINCH<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Goldfink</i><a name="fa1r" id="fa1r" href="#ft1r"><span class="sp">1</span></a>), the <i>Fringilla carduelis</i> of +Linnaeus and the <i>Carduelis elegans</i> of later authors, an extremely +well-known bird found over the greater parts of Europe and +North Africa, and eastwards to Persia and Turkestan. Its gay +plumage is matched by its sprightly nature; and together they +make it one of the most favourite cage-birds among all classes. +As a songster it is indeed surpassed by many other species, +but its docility and ready attachment to its master or mistress +make up for any defect in its vocal powers. In some parts of +England the trade in goldfinches is very considerable. In 1860 +Mr Hussey reported (<i>Zool.</i>, p. 7144) the average annual captures +near Worthing to exceed 11,000 dozens—nearly all being cock-birds; +and a witness before a committee of the House of +Commons in 1873 stated that, when a boy, he could take forty +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>211</span> +dozens in a morning near Brighton. In these districts and others +the number has become much reduced, owing doubtless in part +to the fatal practice of catching the birds just before or during +the breeding-season; but perhaps the strongest cause of their +growing scarcity is the constant breaking-up of waste lands, and +the extirpation of weeds (particularly of the order <i>Compositae</i>) +essential to the improved system of agriculture; for in many +parts of Scotland, East Lothian for instance, where goldfinches +were once as plentiful as sparrows, they are now only rare +stragglers, and yet there they have not been thinned by netting. +Though goldfinches may occasionally be observed in the coldest +weather, incomparably the largest number leave Britain in +autumn, returning in spring, and resorting to gardens and +orchards to breed, when the lively song of the cock, and the +bright yellow wings of both sexes, quickly attract notice. The +nest is a beautifully neat structure, often placed at no great +height from the ground, but generally so well hidden by the +leafy bough on which it is built as not to be easily found, until, +the young being hatched, the constant visits of the parents reveal +its site. When the broods leave the nest they move into the +more open country, and frequenting pastures, commons, heaths +and downs, assemble in large flocks towards the end of summer. +Eastward of the range of the present species its place is taken by +its congener <i>C. caniceps</i>, which is easily recognized by wanting +the black hood and white ear-coverts of the British bird. Its +home seems to be in Central Asia, but it moves southward in +winter, being common at that season in Cashmere, and is not +unfrequently brought for sale to Calcutta. The position of the +genus <i>Carduelis</i> in the family <i>Fringillidae</i> is not very clear. +Structurally it would seem to have some relation to the siskins +(<i>Chrysomitris</i>), though the members of the two groups have very +different habits, and perhaps its nearest kinship lies with the +hawfinches (<i>Coccothraustes</i>). See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Finch</a></span>.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1r" id="ft1r" href="#fa1r"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The more common German name, however, is <i>Distelfink</i> (Thistle-Finch) +or <i>Stieglitz</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDFISH<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (<i>Cyprinus</i> or <i>Carassius auratus</i>), a small fish +belonging to the Cyprinid family, a native of China but naturalized +in other countries. In the wild state its colours do not +differ from those of a Crucian carp, and like that fish it is tenacious +of life and easily domesticated. Albinos seem to be rather +common; and as in other fishes (for instance, the tench, carp, +eel, flounder), the colour of most of these albinos is a bright +orange or golden yellow; occasionally even this shade of colour +is lost, the fish being more or less pure white or silvery. The +Chinese have domesticated these albinos for a long time, and +by careful selection have succeeded in propagating all those +strange varieties, and even monstrosities, which appear in every +domestic animal. In some individuals the dorsal fin is only +half its normal length, in others entirely absent; in others the +anal fin has a double spine; in others all the fins are of nearly +double the usual length. The snout is frequently malformed, +giving the head of the fish an appearance similar to that of a +bull-dog. The variety most highly prized has an extremely +short snout, eyes which almost wholly project beyond the orbit, +no dorsal fin, and a very long three- or four-lobed caudal fin +(Telescope-fish).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:435px; height:322px" src="images/img211.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Telescope-fish.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The domestication of the goldfish by the Chinese dates back +from the highest antiquity, and they were introduced into Japan +at the beginning of the 16th century; but the date of their +importation into Europe is still uncertain. The great German +ichthyologist, M. E. Bloch, thought he could trace it back in +England to the reign of James I., whilst other authors fix the +date at 1691. It appears certain that they were brought to +France, only much later, as a present to Mme de Pompadour, +although the de Goncourts, the historians of the mistresses of +Louis XV., have failed to trace any records of this event. The +fish has since spread over a considerable part of Europe, and in +many places it has reverted to its wild condition. In many parts +of south-eastern Asia, in Mauritius, in North and South Africa, +in Madagascar, in the Azores, it has become thoroughly acclimatized, +and successfully competes with the indigenous fresh-water +fishes. It will not thrive in rivers; in large ponds it readily +reverts to the coloration of the original wild stock. It flourishes +best in small tanks and ponds, in which the water is constantly +changing and does not freeze; in such localities, and with a full +supply of food, which consists of weeds, crumbs of bread, bran, +worms, small crustaceans and insects, it attains to a length of +from 6 to 12 in., breeding readily, sometimes at different times +of the same year.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDFUSS, GEORG AUGUST<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (1782-1848), German palaeontologist, +born at Thurnau near Bayreuth on the 18th of April +1782, was educated at Erlangen, where he graduated Ph.D. in +1804 and became professor of zoology in 1818. He was subsequently +appointed professor of zoology and mineralogy in the +university of Bonn. Aided by Count G. Münster he issued the +important <i>Petrefacta Germaniae</i> (1826-1844), a work which was +intended to illustrate the invertebrate fossils of Germany, but it +was left incomplete after the sponges, corals, crinoids, echinids +and part of the mollusca had been figured. Goldfuss died at Bonn +on the 2nd of October 1848.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE DASHWOOD TAUBMAN<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1846-  ), +English administrator, the founder of Nigeria, was born on the +20th of May 1846 at the Nunnery in the Isle of Man, being the +youngest son of Lieut.-Colonel John Taubman Goldie-Taubman, +speaker of the House of Keys, by his second wife Caroline, +daughter of John E. Hoveden of Hemingford, Cambridgeshire. +Sir George resumed his paternal name, Goldie, by royal licence in +1887. He was educated at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, +and for about two years held a commission in the Royal +Engineers. He travelled in all parts of Africa, gaining an extensive +knowledge of the continent, and first visited the country +of the Niger in 1877. He conceived the idea of adding to the +British empire the then little known regions of the lower and +middle Niger, and for over twenty years his efforts were devoted +to the realization of this conception. The method by which he +determined to work was the revival of government by chartered +companies within the empire—a method supposed to be buried +with the East India Company. The first step was to combine all +British commercial interests in the Niger, and this he accomplished +in 1879 when the United African Company was formed. In 1881 +Goldie sought a charter from the imperial government (the 2nd +Gladstone ministry). Objections of various kinds were raised. +To meet them the capital of the company (renamed the National +African Company) was increased from £125,000 to £1,000,000, and +great energy was displayed in founding stations on the Niger. +At this time French traders, encouraged by Gambetta, established +themselves on the lower river, thus rendering it difficult for the +company to obtain territorial rights; but the Frenchmen were +bought out in 1884, so that at the Berlin conference on West +Africa in 1885 Mr Goldie, present as an expert on matters relating +to the river, was able to announce that on the lower Niger the +British flag alone flew. Meantime the Niger coast line had been +placed under British protection. Through Joseph Thomson, +David Mclntosh, D. W. Sargent, J. Flint, William Wallace, +E. Dangerfield and numerous other agents, over 400 political +treaties—drawn up by Goldie—were made with the chiefs of the +lower Niger and the Hausa states. The scruples of the British +government being overcome, a charter was at length granted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>212</span> +(July 1886), the National African Company becoming the Royal +Niger Company, with Lord Aberdare as governor and Goldie as +vice-governor. In 1895, on Lord Aberdare’s death, Goldie +became governor of the company, whose destinies he had guided +throughout.</p> + +<p>The building up of Nigeria as a British state had to be carried +on in face of further difficulties raised by French travellers with +political missions, and also in face of German opposition. From +1884 to 1890, Prince Bismarck was a persistent antagonist, and +the strenuous efforts he made to secure for Germany the basin of +the lower Niger and Lake Chad were even more dangerous +to Goldie’s schemes of empire than the ambitions of France. +Herr E. R. Flegel, who had travelled in Nigeria during 1882-1884 +under the auspices of the British company, was sent out in 1885 +by the newly-formed German Colonial Society to secure treaties +for Germany, which had established itself at Cameroon. After +Flegel’s death in 1886 his work was continued by his companion +Dr Staudinger, while Herr Hoenigsberg was despatched to stir +up trouble in the occupied portions of the Company’s territory,—or, +as he expressed it, “to burst up the charter.” He was finally +arrested at Onitsha, and, after trial by the company’s supreme +court at Asaba, was expelled the country. Prince Bismarck then +sent out his nephew, Herr von Puttkamer, as German consul-general +to Nigeria, with orders to report on this affair, and when +this report was published in a White Book, Bismarck demanded +heavy damages from the company. Meanwhile Bismarck maintained +constant pressure on the British government to compel the +Royal Niger Company to a division of spheres of influence, whereby +Great Britain would have lost a third, and the most valuable +part, of the company’s territory. But he fell from power in +March 1890, and in July following Lord Salisbury concluded the +famous “Heligoland” agreement with Germany. After this +event the aggressive action of Germany in Nigeria entirely ceased, +and the door was opened for a final settlement of the Nigeria-Cameroon +frontiers. These negotiations, which resulted in an +agreement in 1893, were initiated by Goldie as a means of arresting +the advance of France into Nigeria from the direction of the Congo. +By conceding to Germany a long but narrow strip of territory +between Adamawa and Lake Chad, to which she had no treaty +claims, a barrier was raised against French expeditions, semi-military +and semi-exploratory, which sought to enter Nigeria +from the east. Later French efforts at aggression were made +from the western or Dahomeyan side, despite an agreement +concluded with France in 1890 respecting the northern frontier.</p> + +<p>The hostility of certain Fula princes led the company to +despatch, in 1897, an expedition against the Mahommedan states +of Nupé and Illorin. This expedition was organized and personally +directed by Goldie and was completely successful. Internal peace +was thus secured, but in the following year the differences with +France in regard to the frontier line became acute, and compelled +the intervention of the British government. In the negotiations +which ensued Goldie was instrumental in preserving for Great +Britain the whole of the navigable stretch of the lower Niger. It +was, however, evidently impossible for a chartered company to +hold its own against the state-supported protectorates of France +and Germany, and in consequence, on the 1st of January 1900, +the Royal Niger Company transferred its territories to the British +government for the sum of £865,000. The ceded territory +together with the small Niger Coast Protectorate, already under +imperial control, was formed into the two protectorates of +northern and southern Nigeria (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nigeria</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In 1903-1904, at the request of the Chartered Company of +South Africa, Goldie visited Rhodesia and examined the situation +in connexion with the agitation for self-government by the +Rhodesians. In 1902-1903 he was one of the royal commissioners +who inquired into the military preparations for the war in South +Africa (1899-1902) and into the operations up to the occupation +of Pretoria, and in 1905-1906 was a member of the royal commission +which investigated the methods of disposal of war stores +after peace had been made. In 1905 he was elected president +of the Royal Geographical Society and held that office for three +years. In 1908 he was chosen an alderman of the London County +Council. Goldie was created K.C.M.G. in 1887, and a privy +councillor in 1898. He became an F.R.S., honorary D.C.L. of +Oxford University (1897) and honorary LL.D. of Cambridge +(1897). He married in 1870 Matilda Catherine (d. 1898), daughter +of John William Elliott of Wakefield.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDING, ARTHUR<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1536-<i>c.</i> 1605), English translator, son +of John Golding of Belchamp St Paul and Halsted, Essex, one of +the auditors of the exchequer, was born probably in London +about 1536. His half-sister, Margaret, married John de Vere, +16th earl of Oxford. In 1549 he was already in the service of +Protector Somerset, and the statement that he was educated at +Queen’s College, Cambridge, lacks corroboration. He seems to +have resided for some time in the house of Sir William Cecil, in +the Strand, with his nephew, the poet, the 17th earl of Oxford, +whose receiver he was, for two of his dedications are dated from +Cecil House. His chief work is his translation of Ovid. <i>The +Fyrst Fower Bookes of P. Ovidius Nasos worke, entitled Metamorphosis, +translated oute of Latin into Englishe meter</i> (1565), +was supplemented in 1567 by a translation of the fifteen books. +Strangely enough the translator of Ovid was a man of strong +Puritan sympathies, and he translated many of the works of +Calvin. To his version of the <i>Metamorphoses</i> he prefixed a long +metrical explanation of his reasons for considering it a work +of edification. He sets forth the moral which he supposes to +underlie certain of the stories, and shows how the pagan +machinery may be brought into line with Christian thought. +It was from Golding’s pages that many of the Elizabethans drew +their knowledge of classical mythology, and there is little doubt +that Shakespeare was well acquainted with the book. Golding +translated also the <i>Commentaries</i> of Caesar (1565), Calvin’s +commentaries on the Psalms (1571), his sermons on the Galatians +and Ephesians, on Deuteronomy and the book of Job, Theodore +Beza’s <i>Tragedie of Abrahams Sacrifice</i> (1577) and the <i>De Beneficiis</i> +of Seneca (1578). He completed a translation begun by Sidney +from Philippe de Mornay, <i>A Worke concerning the Trewnesse of +the Christian Religion</i> (1604). His only original work is a prose +<i>Discourse</i> on the earthquake of 1580, in which he saw a judgment +of God on the wickedness of his time. He inherited three considerable +estates in Essex, the greater part of which he sold in +1595. The last trace we have of Golding is contained in an order +dated the 25th of July 1605, giving him licence to print certain +of his works.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDINGEN<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (Lettish, <i>Kuldiga</i>), a town of Russia, in the +government of Courland, 55 m. by rail N.E. of Libau, and on +Windau river, in 56° 58′ N. and 22° E. Pop. (1897) 9733. It +has woollen mills, needle and match factories, breweries and +distilleries, a college for teachers, and ruins of a castle of the +Teutonic Knights, built in 1248 and used in the 17th century as +the residence of the dukes of Courland.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDMARK, KARL<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1832-  ), Hungarian composer, was +born at Keszthely-am-Plattensee, in Hungary, on the 18th of +May 1832. His father, a poor cantor in the local Jewish synagogue, +was unable to assist to any extent financially in the +development of his son’s talents. Yet in the household much +music was made, and on a cheap violin and home-made flute, +constructed by Goldmark himself from reeds cut from the riverbank, +the future composer gave rein to his musical ideas. His +talent was fostered by the village schoolmaster, by whose aid +he was able to enter the music-school of the Oedenburger Verein. +Here he remained but a short time, his success at a school concert +finally determining his parents to allow him to devote himself +entirely to music. In 1844, then, he went to Vienna, where +Jansa took up his cause and eventually obtained for him admission +to the conservatorium. For two years Goldmark worked +under Jansa at the violin, and on the outbreak of the revolution, +after studying all the orchestral instruments he obtained an +engagement in the orchestra at Raab. There, on the capitulation +of Raab, he was to have been shot for a spy, and was only saved +at the eleventh hour by the happy arrival of a former colleague. +In 1850 Goldmark left Raab for Vienna, where from his friend +Mittrich he obtained his first real knowledge of the classics. +There, too, he devoted himself to composition. In 1857 Goldmark, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page213" id="page213"></a>213</span> +who was then engaged in the Karl-theater band, gave a +concert of his own works with such success that his first quartet +attracted very general attention. Then followed the “Sakuntala” +and “Penthesilea” overtures, which show how Wagner’s +influence had supervened upon his previous domination by +Mendelssohn, and the delightful “Ländliche Hochzeit” symphony, +which carried his fame abroad. Goldmark’s reputation +was now made, and very largely increased by the production +at Vienna in 1875 of his first and best opera, <i>Die Königin von +Saba</i>. Over this opera he spent seven years. Its popularity +is still almost as great as ever. It was followed in November +1886, also at Vienna, by <i>Merlin</i>, much of which has been rewritten +since then. A third opera, a version of Dickens’s <i>Cricket +on the Hearth</i>, was given by the Royal Carl Rosa Company +in London in 1900. Goldmark’s chamber music has not made +much lasting impression, but the overtures “Im Frühling,” +“Prometheus Bound,” and “Sapho” are fairly well known. +A “programme” seems essential to him. In opera he is most +certainly at his best, and as an orchestral colourist he ranks +among the very highest.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDONI, CARLO<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1707-1793), Italian dramatist, the real +founder of modern Italian comedy, was born at Venice, on the +25th of February 1707, in a fine house near St Thomas’s church. +His father Giulio was a native of Modena. The first playthings +of the future writer were puppets which he made dance; the +first books he read were plays,—among others, the comedies of +the Florentine Cicognini. Later he received a still stronger +impression from the <i>Mandragora</i> of Machiavelli. At eight years +old he had tried to sketch a play. His father, meanwhile, had +taken his degree in medicine at Rome and fixed himself at +Perugia, where he made his son join him; but, having soon +quarrelled with his colleagues in medicine, he departed for +Chioggia, leaving his son to the care of a philosopher, Professor +Caldini of Rimini. The young Goldoni soon grew tired of his +life at Rimini, and ran away with a Venetian company of players. +He began to study law at Venice, then went to continue the +same pursuit at Pavia, but at that time he was studying the +Greek and Latin comic poets much more and much better than +books about law. “I have read over again,” he writes in his +own <i>Memoirs</i>, “the Greek and Latin poets, and I have told to +myself that I should like to imitate them in their style, their +plots, their precision; but I would not be satisfied unless I +succeeded in giving more interest to my works, happier issues +to my plots, better drawn characters and more genuine comedy.” +For a satire entitled <i>Il Colosso</i>, which attacked the honour of +several families of Pavia, he was driven from that town, and +went first to study with the jurisconsult Morelli at Udine, then +to take his degree in law at Modena. After having worked +some time as clerk in the chanceries of Chioggia and Feltre, +his father being dead, he went to Venice, to exercise there his +profession as a lawyer. But the wish to write for the stage +was always strong in him, and he tried to do so; he made, +however, a mistake in his choice, and began with a tragedy, +<i>Amalasunta</i>, which was represented at Milan and proved a failure. +In 1734 he wrote another tragedy, <i>Belisario</i>, which, though not +much better, chanced nevertheless to please the public. This +first success encouraged him to write other tragedies, some of +which were well received; but the author himself saw clearly +that he had not yet found his proper sphere, and that a radical +dramatic reform was absolutely necessary for the stage. He +wished to create a characteristic comedy in Italy, to follow the +example of Molière, and to delineate the realities of social life +in as natural a manner as possible. His first essay of this kind +was <i>Momolo Cortesan</i> (Momolo the Courtier), written in the +Venetian dialect, and based on his own experience. Other +plays followed—some interesting from their subject, others +from the characters; the best of that period are—<i>Le Trentadue +Disgrazie d’ Arlecchino</i>, <i>La Notte critica</i>, <i>La Bancarotta</i>, <i>La +Donna di Garbo</i>. Having, while consul of Genoa at Venice, +been cheated by a captain of Ragusa, he founded on this his +play <i>L’Impostore</i>. At Leghorn he made the acquaintance of the +comedian Medebac, and followed him to Venice, with his company, +for which he began to write his best plays. Once he promised +to write sixteen comedies in a year, and kept his word; among +the sixteen are some of his very best, such as <i>Il Caffè</i>, <i>Il Bugiardo</i>, +<i>La Pamela</i>. When he left the company of Medebac, he passed +over to that maintained by the patrician Vendramin, continuing +to write with the greatest facility. In 1761 he was called to +Paris, and before leaving Venice he wrote <i>Una delle ultime sere +di Carnevale</i> (One of the Last Nights of Carnival), an allegorical +comedy in which he said good-bye to his country. At the end +of the representation of this play, the theatre resounded with +applause, and with shouts expressive of good wishes. Goldoni, +at this proof of public sympathy, wept as a child. At Paris, +during two years, he wrote comedies for the Italian actors; then +he taught Italian to the royal princesses; and for the wedding +of Louis XVI. and of Marie Antoinette he wrote in French one +of his best comedies, <i>Le Bourru bienfaisant</i>, which was a great +success. When he retired from Paris to Versailles, the king +made him a gift of 6000 francs, and fixed on him an annual +pension of 1200 francs. It was at Versailles he wrote his <i>Memoirs</i>, +which occupied him till he reached his eightieth year. The +Revolution deprived him all at once of his modest pension, and +reduced him to extreme misery; he dragged on his unfortunate +existence till 1793, and died on the 6th of February. The day +after, on the proposal of André Chénier, the Convention agreed +to give the pension back to the poet; and as he had already +died, a reduced allowance was granted to his widow.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best comedies of Goldoni are: <i>La Donna di Garbo</i>, <i>La Bottega +di Caffè</i>, <i>Pamela nubile</i>, <i>Le Baruffe chiozzotte</i>, <i>I Rusteghi</i>, <i>Todero +Brontolon</i>, <i>Gli Innamorati</i>, <i>Il Ventaglio</i>, <i>Il Bugiardo</i>, <i>La Casa nova</i>, +<i>Il Burbero benefico</i>, <i>La Locandiera</i>. A collected edition (Venice, +1788) was republished at Florence in 1827. See P. G. Molmenti, +<i>Carlo Goldoni</i> (Venice, 1875); Rabany, <i>Carlo Goldoni</i> (Paris, 1896). +The <i>Memoirs</i> were translated into English by John Black (Boston, +1877). with preface by W. D. Howells.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDS,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> a Mongolo-Tatar people, living on the Lower Amur +in south-eastern Siberia. Their chief settlements are on the right +bank of the Amur and along the Sungari and Usuri rivers. In +physique they are typically Mongolic. Like the Chinese they +wear a pigtail, and from them, too, have learnt the art of silk +embroidery. The Golds live almost entirely on fish, and are +excellent boatmen. They keep large herds of swine and dogs, +which live, like themselves, on fish. Geese, wild duck, eagles, +bears, wolves and foxes are also kept in menageries. There is +much reverence paid to the eagles, and hence the Manchus call +the Golds “Eaglets.” Their religion is Shamanism.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L. Schrenck, <i>Die Völker des Amurlandes</i> (St Petersburg, 1891); +Laufer, “The Amoor Tribes,” in <i>American Anthropologist</i> (New +York, 1900); E. G. Ravenstein, <i>The Russians on the Amur</i> (1861).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDSBORO,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Wayne county, +North Carolina, U.S.A., on the Neuse river, about 50 m. S.E. of +Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 4017; (1900) 5877 (2520 negroes); (1910) +6107. It is served by the Southern, the Atlantic Coast Line +and the Norfolk & Southern railways. The surrounding country +produces large quantities of tobacco, cotton and grain, and +trucking is an important industry, the city being a distributing +point for strawberries and various kinds of vegetables. The +city’s manufactures include cotton goods, knit goods, cotton-seed +oil, agricultural implements, lumber and furniture. Goldsboro +is the seat of the Eastern insane asylum (for negroes) and +of an Odd Fellows’ orphan home. The municipality owns and +operates its water-works and electric-lighting plant. Goldsboro +was settled in 1838, and was first incorporated in 1841. In the +campaign of 1865 Goldsboro was the point of junction of the +Union armies under generals Sherman and Schofield, previous +to the final advance to Greensboro.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDSCHMIDT, HERMANN<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1802-1866), German painter +and astronomer, was the son of a Jewish merchant, and was born +at Frankfort on the 17th of June 1802. He for ten years assisted +his father in his business; but, his love of art having been +awakened while journeying in Holland, he in 1832 began the +study of painting at Munich under Cornelius and Schnorr, and +in 1836 established himself at Paris, where he painted a number +of pictures of more than average merit, among which may be +mentioned the “Cumaean Sibyl” (1844); an “Offering to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>214</span> +Venus” (1845); a “View of Rome” (1849); the “Death of +Romeo and Juliet” (1857); and several Alpine landscapes. +In 1847 he began to devote his attention to astronomy; and +from 1852 to 1861 he discovered fourteen asteroids between +Mars and Jupiter, on which account he received the grand +astronomical prize from the Academy of Sciences. His observations +of the protuberances on the sun, made during the total +eclipse on the 10th of July 1860, are included in the work of +Mädler on the eclipse, published in 1861. Goldschmidt died at +Fontainebleau on the 26th of August 1866.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDSMID,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> the name of a family of Anglo-Jewish bankers +sprung from Aaron Goldsmid (d. 1782), a Dutch merchant who +settled in England about 1763. Two of his sons, Benjamin +Goldsmid (<i>c.</i> 1753-1808) and Abraham Goldsmid (<i>c.</i> 1756-1810), +began business together about 1777 as bill-brokers in London, +and soon became great powers in the money market, during the +Napoleonic war, through their dealings with the government. +Abraham Goldsmid was in 1810 joint contractor with the Barings +for a government loan, but owing to a depreciation of the scrip +he was forced into bankruptcy and committed suicide. His +brother, in a fit of depression, had similarly taken his own life +two years before. Both were noted for their public and private +generosity, and Benjamin had a part in founding the Royal +Naval Asylum. Benjamin left four sons, the youngest being +Lionel Prager Goldsmid; Abraham a daughter, Isabel.</p> + +<p>Their nephew, Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, Bart. (1778-1859), +was born in London, and began in business with a firm of bullion +brokers to the Bank of England and the East India Company. +He amassed a large fortune, and was made Baron da Palmeira +by the Portuguese government in 1846 for services rendered In +settling a monetary dispute between Portugal and Brazil, but +he is chiefly known for his efforts to obtain the emancipation of +the Jews in England and for his part in founding University +College, London. The Jewish Disabilities Bill, first introduced +in Parliament by Sir Robert Grant in 1830, owed its final passage +to Goldsmid’s energetic work. He helped to establish the +University College hospital in 1834, serving as its treasurer for +eighteen years, and also aided in the efforts to obtain reform in +the English penal code. Moreover he assisted by his capital +and his enterprise to build part of the English southern railways +and also the London docks. In 1841 he became the first Jewish +baronet, the honour being conferred upon him by Lord Melbourne. +He had married his cousin Isabel (see above), and their second +son was Sir Francis Henry Goldsmid, Bart. (1808-1878), born in +London, and called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1833 (the first +Jew to become an English barrister; Q.C. 1858). After the +passing of the Jewish Disabilities Bill, in which he had aided +his father with a number of pamphlets that attracted great +attention, he entered Parliament in 1860 (having succeeded to +the baronetcy) as member for Reading, and represented that +constituency until his death. He was strenuous on behalf of the +Jewish religion, and the founder of the great Jews’ Free School. +He was a munificent contributor to charities and especially to +the endowment of University College. He, like his father, +married a cousin, and, dying without issue, was succeeded in the +baronetcy by his nephew Sir Julian Goldsmid, Bart. (1838-1896), +son of Frederick David Goldsmid (1812-1866), long M.P. for +Honiton. Sir Julian was for many years in Parliament, and his +wealth, ability and influence made him a personage of considerable +importance. He was eventually made a privy councillor. +He had eight daughters, but no son, and his entailed property +passed to his relation, Mr d’Avigdor, his house in Piccadilly +being converted into the Isthmian Club.</p> + +<p>Another distinguished member of the same family, Sir +Frederic John Goldsmid (1818-1908), son of Lionel Prager +Goldsmid (see above), was educated at King’s College, London, +and entering the Madras army in 1839 served in the China War +of 1840-41, with the Turkish troops in eastern Crimea in 1855-56, +and was given political employment by the Indian government. +He received the thanks of the commander-in-chief and of the +war office for services during the Egyptian campaign, and was +retired a major-general in 1875. Sir Frederic Goldsmid’s name +is, however, associated less with military service than with much +valuable work in exploration and in surveying, for which he +repeatedly received the thanks of government. From 1865 to +1870 he was director-general of the Indo-European telegraph, +and carried through the telegraph convention with Persia; and +between 1870 and 1872, as commissioner, he settled with Persia +the difficult questions of the Perso-Baluch and Perso-Afghan +boundaries. In the course of his work he had to travel extensively, +and he followed this up by various responsible missions +connected with emigration questions. In 1881-1882 he was in +Egypt, as controller of the Daira Sanieh, and doing other miscellaneous +military work; and in 1883 he went to the Congo, +on behalf of the king of the Belgians, as one of the organizers +of the new state, but had to return on account of illness. From +his early years he had made studies of several Eastern languages, +and he ranked among the foremost Orientalists of his day. In +1886 he was president of the geographical section of the British +Association meeting held at Birmingham. He had married in +1849, and had two sons and four daughters. In 1871 he was +made a K.C.S.I. Besides important contributions to the 9th +edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> and many periodicals, +he wrote an excellent and authoritative biography of Sir James +Outram (2 vols., 1880).</p> + +<p>A sister of the last-named married Henry Edward Goldsmid +(1812-1855), an eminent Indian civil servant, son of Edward +Goldsmid; his reform of the revenue system in Bombay, and +introduction of a new system, established after his death, through +his reports in 1840-1847, and his devoted labour in land-surveys, +were of the highest importance to western India, and established +his memory there as a public benefactor.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDSMITH, LEWIS<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1763-1846), Anglo-French publicist, +of Portuguese-Jewish extraction, was born near London about +1763. Having published in 1801 <i>The Crimes of Cabinets, or a +Review of the Plans and Aggressions for Annihilating the Liberties +of France, and the Dismemberment of her Territories</i>, an attack on +the military policy of Pitt, he moved, in 1802, from England to +Paris. Talleyrand introduced him to Napoleon, who arranged +for him to establish in Paris an English tri-weekly, the <i>Argus</i>, +which was to review English affairs from the French point of +view. According to his own account, he was in 1803 entrusted +with a mission to obtain from the head of the French royal +family, afterwards Louis XVIII., a renunciation of his claims to +the throne of France, in return for the throne of Poland. The +offer was declined, and Goldsmith says that he then received +instructions to kidnap Louis and kill him if he resisted, but, +instead of executing these orders, he revealed the plot. He was, +nevertheless, employed by Napoleon on various other secret +service missions till 1807, when his Republican sympathies began +to wane. In 1809 he returned to England, where he was at first +imprisoned but soon released; and he became a notary in +London. In 1811, being now violently anti-republican, he founded +a Sunday newspaper, the <i>Anti-Gallican Monitor</i> and <i>Anti-Corsican +Chronicle</i>, subsequently known as the <i>British Monitor</i>, +in which he denounced the French Revolution. In 1811 he +proposed that a public subscription should be raised to put a +price on Napoleon’s head, but this suggestion was strongly reprobated +by the British government. In the same year he published +<i>Secret History of the Cabinet of Bonaparte and Recueil des manifestes, +or a Collection of the Decrees of Napoleon Bonaparte</i>, and in +1812 <i>Secret History of Bonaparte’s Diplomacy</i>. Goldsmith alleged +that in the latter year he was offered £200,000 by Napoleon +to discontinue his attacks. In 1815 he published <i>An Appeal to +the Governments of Europe on the Necessity of bringing Napoleon +Bonaparte to a Public Trial</i>. In 1825 he again settled down in +Paris, and in 1832 published his <i>Statistics of France</i>. His only +child, Georgiana, became, in 1837, the second wife of Lord +Lyndhurst. He died in Paris on the 6th of January 1846.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDSMITH, OLIVER<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1728-1774), English poet, playwright, +novelist and man of letters, came of a Protestant and Saxon +family which had long been settled in Ireland. He is +usually said to have been born at Pallas or Pallasmore, Co. +Longford; but recent investigators have contended, with much +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>215</span> +show of probability, that his true birthplace was Smith-Hill +House, Elphin, Roscommon, the residence of his mother’s father, +the Rev. Oliver Jones. His father, Charles Goldsmith, lived at +Pallas, supporting with difficulty his wife and children on what +he could earn, partly as a curate and partly as a farmer.</p> + +<p>While Oliver was still a child his father was presented to the +living of Kilkenny West, in the county of West Meath. This +was worth about £200 a year. The family accordingly quitted +their cottage at Pallas for a spacious house on a frequented road, +near the village of Lissoy. Here the boy was taught his letters by +a relative and dependent, Elizabeth Delap, and was sent in his +seventh year to a village school kept by an old quartermaster on +half-pay, who professed to teach nothing but reading, writing +and arithmetic, but who had an inexhaustible fund of stories +about ghosts, banshees and fairies, about the great Rapparee +chiefs, Baldearg O’Donnell and galloping Hogan, and about the +exploits of Peterborough and Stanhope, the surprise of Monjuich +and the glorious disaster of Brihuega. This man must have been +of the Protestant religion; but he was of the aboriginal race, and +not only spoke the Irish language, but could pour forth unpremeditated +Irish verses. Oliver early became, and through life +continued to be, a passionate admirer of the Irish music, and +especially of the compositions of Carolan, some of the last notes +of whose harp he heard. It ought to be added that Oliver, though +by birth one of the Englishry, and though connected by numerous +ties with the Established Church, never showed the least sign of +that contemptuous antipathy with which, in his days, the ruling +minority in Ireland too generally regarded the subject majority. +So far indeed was he from sharing in the opinions and feelings of +the caste to which he belonged that he conceived an aversion to +the Glorious and Immortal Memory, and, even when George III. +was on the throne, maintained that nothing but the restoration +of the banished dynasty could save the country.</p> + +<p>From the humble academy kept by the old soldier Goldsmith +was removed in his ninth year. He went to several grammar-schools, +and acquired some knowledge of the ancient languages. +His life at this time seems to have been far from happy. He had, +as appears from the admirable portrait of him by Reynolds at +Knole, features harsh even to ugliness. The small-pox had set its +mark on him with more than usual severity. His stature was +small, and his limbs ill put together. Among boys little tenderness +is shown to personal defects; and the ridicule excited by +poor Oliver’s appearance was heightened by a peculiar simplicity +and a disposition to blunder which he retained to the last. He +became the common butt of boys and masters, was pointed at as +a fright in the play-ground, and flogged as a dunce in the schoolroom. +When he had risen to eminence, those who had once +derided him ransacked their memory for the events of his early +years, and recited repartees and couplets which had dropped +from him, and which, though little noticed at the time, were +supposed, a quarter of a century later, to indicate the powers +which produced the <i>Vicar of Wakefield</i> and the <i>Deserted Village</i>.</p> + +<p>On the 11th of June 1744, being then in his sixteenth year, +Oliver went up to Trinity College, Dublin, as a sizar. The sizars +paid nothing for food and tuition, and very little for lodging; +but they had to perform some menial services from which they +have long been relieved. Goldsmith was quartered, not alone, in +a garret of what was then No. 35 in a range of buildings which has +long since disappeared. His name, scrawled by himself on one of +its window-panes is still preserved in the college library. From +such garrets many men of less parts than his have made their +way to the woolsack or to the episcopal bench. But Goldsmith, +while he suffered all the humiliations, threw away all the +advantages of his situation. He neglected the studies of the +place, stood low at the examinations, was turned down to the +bottom of his class for playing the buffoon in the lecture-room, +was severely reprimanded for pumping on a constable, and was +caned by a brutal tutor for giving a ball in the attic storey of the +college to some gay youths and damsels from the city.</p> + +<p>While Oliver was leading at Dublin a life divided between +squalid distress and squalid dissipation, his father died, leaving +a mere pittance. In February 1749 the youth obtained his +bachelor’s degree, and left the university. During some time +the humble dwelling to which his widowed mother had retired +was his home. He was now in his twenty-first year; it was +necessary that he should do something; and his education +seemed to have fitted him to do nothing but to dress himself +in gaudy colours, of which he was as fond as a magpie, to take a +hand at cards, to sing Irish airs, to play the flute, to angle in +summer and to tell ghost stories by the fire in winter. He tried +five or six professions in turn without success. He applied for +ordination; but, as he applied in scarlet clothes, he was speedily +turned out of the episcopal palace. He then became tutor in an +opulent family, but soon quitted his situation in consequence of a +dispute about pay. Then he determined to emigrate to America. +His relations, with much satisfaction, saw him set out for Cork +on a good horse, with £30 in his pocket. But in six weeks he +came back on a miserable hack, without a penny, and informed +his mother that the ship in which he had taken his passage, +having got a fair wind while he was at a party of pleasure, had +sailed without him. Then he resolved to study the law. A +generous uncle, Mr Contarine, advanced £50. With this sum +Goldsmith went to Dublin, was enticed into a gaming-house +and lost every shilling. He then thought of medicine. A small +purse was made up; and in his twenty-fourth year he was sent +to Edinburgh. At Edinburgh he passed eighteen months in +nominal attendance on lectures, and picked up some superficial +information about chemistry and natural history. Thence he +went to Leiden, still pretending to study physic. He left that +celebrated university, the third university at which he had +resided, in his twenty-seventh year, without a degree, with the +merest smattering of medical knowledge, and with no property +but his clothes and his flute. His flute, however, proved a useful +friend. He rambled on foot through Flanders, France and +Switzerland, playing tunes which everywhere set the peasantry +dancing, and which often procured for him a supper and a bed. +He wandered as far as Italy. His musical performances, indeed, +were not to the taste of the Italians; but he contrived to live on +the alms which he obtained at the gates of convents. It should, +however, be observed that the stories which he told about this +part of his life ought to be received with great caution; for strict +veracity was never one of his virtues; and a man who is ordinarily +inaccurate in narration is likely to be more than ordinarily +inaccurate when he talks about his own travels. Goldsmith, +indeed, was so regardless of truth as to assert in print that he was +present at a most interesting conversation between Voltaire and +Fontenelle, and that this conversation took place at Paris. +Now it is certain that Voltaire never was within a hundred +leagues of Paris during the whole time which Goldsmith passed +on the continent.</p> + +<p>In February 1756 the wanderer landed at Dover, without a +shilling, without a friend and without a calling. He had indeed, +if his own unsupported evidence may be trusted, obtained a +doctor’s degree on the continent; but this dignity proved +utterly useless to him. In England his flute was not in request; +there were no convents; and he was forced to have recourse to +a series of desperate expedients. There is a tradition that he +turned strolling player. He pounded drugs and ran about +London with phials for charitable chemists. He asserted, upon +one occasion, that he had lived “among the beggars in Axe Lane.” +He was for a time usher of a school, and felt the miseries and +humiliations of this situation so keenly that he thought it a +promotion to be permitted to earn his bread as a bookseller’s +hack; but he soon found the new yoke more galling than the +old one, and was glad to become an usher again. He obtained a +medical appointment in the service of the East India Company; +but the appointment was speedily revoked. Why it was revoked +we are not told. The subject was one on which he never liked +to talk. It is probable that he was incompetent to perform +the duties of the place. Then he presented himself at Surgeons’ +Hall for examination, as “mate to an hospital.” Even to so +humble a post he was found unequal. Nothing remained but to +return to the lowest drudgery of literature. Goldsmith took a +room in a tiny square off Ludgate Hill, to which he had to climb +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>216</span> +from Sea-coal Lane by a dizzy ladder of flagstones called Breakneck +Steps. Green Arbour Court and the ascent have long +<span class="correction" title="amended from diasppeared">disappeared</span>. Here, at thirty, the unlucky adventurer sat +down to toil like a galley slave. Already, in 1758, during his first +bondage to letters, he had translated Marteilhe’s remarkable +<i>Memoirs of a Protestant, Condemned to the Galleys of France for his +Religion</i>. In the years that now succeeded he sent to the press +some things which have survived, and many which have perished. +He produced articles for reviews, magazines and newspapers; +children’s books, which, bound in gilt paper and adorned with +hideous woodcuts, appeared in the window of Newbery’s once +far-famed shop at the corner of Saint Paul’s churchyard; <i>An +Inquiry into the State of Polite Learning in Europe</i>, which, though +of little or no value, is still reprinted among his works; a volume +of essays entitled <i>The Bec; a Life of Beau Nash</i>; a superficial +and incorrect, but very readable, <i>History of England</i>, in a series +of letters purporting to be addressed by a nobleman to his son; +and some very lively and amusing sketches of London Society in +another series of letters purporting to be addressed by a Chinese +traveller to his friends. All these works were anonymous; +but some of them were well known to be Goldsmith’s; and he +gradually rose in the estimation of the booksellers for whom he +drudged. He was, indeed, emphatically a popular writer. For +accurate research or grave disquisition he was not well qualified +by nature or by education. He knew nothing accurately; his +reading had been desultory; nor had he meditated deeply on +what he had read. He had seen much of the world; but he had +noticed and retained little more of what he had seen than some +grotesque incidents and characters which had happened to strike +his fancy. But, though his mind was very scantily stored with +materials, he used what materials he had in such a way as to +produce a wonderful effect. There have been many greater +writers; but perhaps no writer was ever more uniformly agreeable. +His style was always pure and easy, and, on proper +occasions, pointed and energetic. His narratives were always +amusing, his descriptions always picturesque, his humour rich +and joyous, yet not without an occasional tinge of amiable +sadness. About everything that he wrote, serious or sportive, +there was a certain natural grace and decorum, hardly to be +expected from a man a great part of whose life had been passed +among thieves and beggars, street-walkers and merryandrews, +in those squalid dens which are the reproach of great capitals.</p> + +<p>As his name gradually became known, the circle of his acquaintance +widened. He was introduced to Johnson, who was then +considered as the first of living English writers; to Reynolds, +the first of English painters; and to Burke, who had not yet +entered parliament, but had distinguished himself greatly by his +writings and by the eloquence of his conversation. With these +eminent men Goldsmith became intimate. In 1763 he was one +of the nine original members of that celebrated fraternity which +has sometimes been called the Literary Club, but which has +always disclaimed that epithet, and still glories in the simple +name of the Club.</p> + +<p>By this date Goldsmith had quitted his miserable dwelling +at the top of Breakneck Steps, and, after living for some time +at No. 6 Wine Office Court, Fleet Street, had moved into the +Temple. But he was still often reduced to pitiable shifts, the +most popular of which is connected with the sale of his solitary +novel, the <i>Vicar of Wakefield</i>. Towards the close of 1764(?) +his rent is alleged to have been so long in arrear that his landlady +one morning called in the help of a sheriff’s officer. The debtor, +in great perplexity, despatched a messenger to Johnson; and +Johnson, always friendly, though often surly, sent back the +messenger with a guinea, and promised to follow speedily. +He came, and found that Goldsmith had changed the guinea, +and was railing at the landlady over a bottle of Madeira. Johnson +put the cork into the bottle, and entreated his friend to consider +calmly how money was to be procured. Goldsmith said that he +had a novel ready for the press. Johnson glanced at the manuscript, +saw that there were good things in it, took it to a bookseller, +sold it for £60 and soon returned with the money. The rent +was paid; and the sheriff’s officer withdrew. (Unfortunately, +however, for this time-honoured version of the circumstances, +it has of late years been discovered that as early as October +1762 Goldsmith had already sold a third of the <i>Vicar</i> to one +Benjamin Collins of Salisbury, a printer, by whom it was eventually +printed for F. Newbery, and it is difficult to reconcile this +fact with Johnson’s narrative.)</p> + +<p>But before the <i>Vicar of Wakefield</i> appeared in 1766, came the +great crisis of Goldsmith’s literary life. In Christmas week 1764 +he published a poem, entitled the <i>Traveller</i>. It was the first +work to which he had put his name, and it at once raised him +to the rank of a legitimate English classic. The opinion of the +most skilful critics was that nothing finer had appeared in verse +since the fourth book of the <i>Dunciad</i>. In one respect the +<i>Traveller</i> differs from all Goldsmith’s other writings. In general +his designs were bad, and his execution good. In the <i>Traveller</i> +the execution, though deserving of much praise, is far inferior +to the design. No philosophical poem, ancient or modern, has +a plan so noble, and at the same time so simple. An English +wanderer, seated on a crag among the Alps, near the point +where three great countries meet, looks down on the boundless +prospect, reviews his long pilgrimage, recalls the varieties of +scenery, of climate, of government, of religion, of national +character, which he has observed, and comes to the conclusion, +just or unjust, that our happiness depends little on political +institutions, and much on the temper and regulation of our own +minds.</p> + +<p>While the fourth edition of the <i>Traveller</i> was on the counters +of the booksellers, the <i>Vicar of Wakefield</i> appeared, and rapidly +obtained a popularity which has lasted down to our own time, +and which is likely to last as long as our language. The fable +is indeed one of the worst that ever was constructed. It wants, +not merely that probability which ought to be found in a tale of +common English life, but that consistency which ought to be +found even in the wildest fiction about witches, giants and +fairies. But the earlier chapters have all the sweetness of pastoral +poetry, together with all the vivacity of comedy. Moses and his +spectacles, the vicar and his monogamy, the sharper and his +cosmogony, the squire proving from Aristotle that relatives are +related, Olivia preparing herself for the arduous task of converting +a rakish lover by studying the controversy between Robinson +Crusoe and Friday, the great ladies with their scandal about Sir +Tomkyn’s amours and Dr Burdock’s verses, and Mr Burchell +with his “Fudge,” have caused as much harmless mirth as has +ever been caused by matter packed into so small a number of +pages. The latter part of the tale is unworthy of the beginning. +As we approach the catastrophe, the absurdities lie thicker and +thicker, and the gleams of pleasantry become rarer and rarer.</p> + +<p>The success which had attended Goldsmith as a novelist +emboldened him to try his fortune as a dramatist. He wrote +the <i>Good Natur’d Man</i>, a piece which had a worse fate than it +deserved. Garrick refused to produce it at Drury Lane. It was +acted at Covent Garden in January 1768, but was coldly received. +The author, however, cleared by his benefit nights, and by the +sale of the copyright, no less than £500, five times as much as he +had made by the <i>Traveller</i> and the <i>Vicar of Wakefield</i> together. +The plot of the <i>Good Natur’d Man</i> is, like almost all Goldsmith’s +plots, very ill constructed. But some passages are exquisitely +ludicrous,—much more ludicrous indeed than suited the taste +of the town at that time. A canting, mawkish play, entitled +<i>False Delicacy</i>, had just been produced, and sentimentality +was all the mode. During some years more tears were shed at +comedies than at tragedies; and a pleasantry which moved the +audience to anything more than a grave smile was reprobated +as low. It is not strange, therefore, that the very best scene in +the <i>Good Natur’d Man</i>, that in which Miss Richland finds her +lover attended by the bailiff and the bailiff’s follower in full +court dresses, should have been mercilessly hissed, and should +have been omitted after the first night, not to be restored for +several years.</p> + +<p>In May 1770 appeared the <i>Deserted Village</i>. In mere diction +and versification this celebrated poem is fully equal, perhaps +superior, to the <i>Traveller</i>; and it is generally preferred to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id="page217"></a>217</span> +<i>Traveller</i> by that large class of readers who think, with Bayes +in the <i>Rehearsal</i>, that the only use of a plot is to bring in fine +things. More discerning judges, however, while they admire +the beauty of the details, are shocked by one unpardonable fault +which pervades the whole. The fault which we mean is not that +theory about wealth and luxury which has so often been censured +by political economists. The theory is indeed false; but the +poem, considered merely as a poem, is not necessarily the worse +on that account. The finest poem in the Latin language—indeed, +the finest didactic poem in any language—was written +in defence of the silliest and meanest of all systems of natural +and moral philosophy. A poet may easily be pardoned for +reasoning ill; but he cannot be pardoned for describing ill, for +observing the world in which he lives so carelessly that his +portraits bear no resemblance to the originals, for exhibiting as +copies from real life monstrous combinations of things which +never were and never could be found together. What would +be thought of a painter who should mix August and January in +one landscape, who should introduce a frozen river into a harvest +scene? Would it be a sufficient defence of such a picture to say +that every part was exquisitely coloured, that the green hedges, +the apple-trees loaded with fruit, the waggons reeling under the +yellow sheaves, and the sun-burned reapers wiping their foreheads +were very fine, and that the ice and the boys sliding were +also very fine? To such a picture the <i>Deserted Village</i> bears a +great resemblance. It is made up of incongruous parts. The +village in its happy days is a true English village. The village +in its decay is an Irish village. The felicity and the misery +which Goldsmith has brought close together belong to two +different countries and to two different stages in the progress +of society. He had assuredly never seen in his native island such +a rural paradise, such a seat of plenty, content and tranquillity, +as his Auburn. He had assuredly never seen in England all +the inhabitants of such a paradise turned out of their homes in +one day and forced to emigrate in a body to America. The +hamlet he had probably seen in Kent; the ejectment he had +probably seen in Münster; but by joining the two, he has +produced something which never was and never will be seen in +any part of the world.</p> + +<p>In 1773 Goldsmith tried his chance at Covent Garden with a +second play, <i>She Stoops to Conquer</i>. The manager was, not +without great difficulty, induced to bring this piece out. The +sentimental comedy still reigned, and Goldsmith’s comedies were +not sentimental. The <i>Good Natur’d Man</i> had been too funny to +succeed; yet the mirth of the <i>Good Natur’d Man</i> was sober when +compared with the rich drollery of <i>She Stoops to Conquer</i>, which +is, in truth, an incomparable farce in five acts. On this occasion, +however, genius triumphed. Pit, boxes and galleries were in a +constant roar of laughter. If any bigoted admirer of Kelly +and Cumberland ventured to hiss or groan, he was speedily +silenced by a general cry of “turn him out,” or “throw him +over.” Later generations have confirmed the verdict which was +pronounced on that night.</p> + +<p>While Goldsmith was writing the <i>Deserted Village</i> and <i>She +Stoops to Conquer</i>, he was employed on works of a very different +kind—works from which he derived little reputation but much +profit. He compiled for the use of schools a <i>History of Rome</i>, +by which he made £250; a <i>History of England</i>, by which he +made £500; a <i>History of Greece</i>, for which he received £250; +a <i>Natural History</i>, for which the booksellers covenanted to pay +him 800 guineas. These works he produced without any +elaborate research, by merely selecting, abridging and translating +into his own clear, pure and flowing language, what he found in +books well known to the world, but too bulky or too dry for boys +and girls. He committed some strange blunders, for he knew +nothing with accuracy. Thus, in his <i>History of England</i>, he tells +us that Naseby is in Yorkshire; nor did he correct this mistake +when the book was reprinted. He was very nearly hoaxed into +putting into the <i>History of Greece</i> an account of a battle between +Alexander the Great and Montezuma. In his <i>Animated Nature</i> +he relates, with faith and with perfect gravity, all the most +absurd lies which he could find in books of travels about gigantic +Patagonians, monkeys that preach sermons, nightingales that +repeat long conversations. “If he can tell a horse from a cow,” +said Johnson, “that is the extent of his knowledge of zoology.” +How little Goldsmith was qualified to write about the physical +sciences is sufficiently proved by two anecdotes. He on one +occasion denied that the sun is longer in the northern than in the +southern signs. It was vain to cite the authority of Maupertuis. +“Maupertuis!” he cried, “I understand those matters better +than Maupertuis.” On another occasion he, in defiance of +the evidence of his own senses, maintained obstinately, and +even angrily, that he chewed his dinner by moving his upper +jaw.</p> + +<p>Yet, ignorant as Goldsmith was, few writers have done more +to make the first steps in the laborious road to knowledge easy +and pleasant. His compilations are widely distinguished from +the compilations of ordinary bookmakers. He was a great, +perhaps an unequalled, master of the arts of selection and condensation. +In these respects his histories of Rome and of +England, and still more his own abridgments of these histories, +well deserved to be studied. In general nothing is less attractive +than an epitome; but the epitomes of Goldsmith, +even when most concise, are always amusing; and to read them +is considered by intelligent children not as a task but as a +pleasure.</p> + +<p>Goldsmith might now be considered as a prosperous man. +He had the means of living in comfort, and even in what to one +who had so often slept in barns and on bulks must have been +luxury. His fame was great and was constantly rising. He +lived in what was intellectually far the best society of the kingdom, +in a society in which no talent or accomplishment was +wanting, and in which the art of conversation was cultivated +with splendid success. There probably were never four talkers +more admirable in four different ways than Johnson, Burke, +Beauclerk and Garrick; and Goldsmith was on terms of intimacy +with all the four. He aspired to share in their colloquial renown, +but never was ambition more unfortunate. It may seem strange +that a man who wrote with so much perspicuity, vivacity and +grace should have been, whenever he took a part in conversation, +an empty, noisy, blundering rattle. But on this point the +evidence is overwhelming. So extraordinary was the contrast +between Goldsmith’s published works and the silly things which +he said, that Horace Walpole described him as an inspired idiot. +“Noll,” said Garrick, “wrote like an angel, and talked like poor +Poll.” Charnier declared that it was a hard exercise of faith to +believe that so foolish a chatterer could have really written the +<i>Traveller</i>. Even Boswell could say, with contemptuous compassion, +that he liked very well to hear honest Goldsmith run on. +“Yes, sir,” said Johnson, “but he should not like to hear himself.” +Minds differ as rivers differ. There are transparent and +sparkling rivers from which it is delightful to drink as they flow; +to such rivers the minds of such men as Burke and Johnson may +be compared. But there are rivers of which the water when first +drawn is turbid and noisome, but becomes pellucid as crystal +and delicious to the taste, if it be suffered to stand till it has +deposited a sediment; and such a river is a type of the mind of +Goldsmith. His first thoughts on every subject were confused +even to absurdity, but they required only a little time to work +themselves clear. When he wrote they had that time, and +therefore his readers pronounced him a man of genius; but +when he talked he talked nonsense and made himself the +laughing-stock of his hearers. He was painfully sensible of +his inferiority in conversation; he felt every failure keenly; yet +he had not sufficient judgment and self-command to hold his +tongue. His animal spirits and vanity were always impelling +him to try to do the one thing which he could not do. After +every attempt he felt that he had exposed himself, and writhed +with shame and vexation; yet the next moment he began +again.</p> + +<p>His associates seem to have regarded him with kindness, which, +in spite of their admiration of his writings, was not unmixed with +contempt. In truth, there was in his character much to love, +but very little to respect. His heart was soft even to weakness; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218"></a>218</span> +he was so generous that he quite forgot to be just; he forgave +injuries so readily that he might be said to invite them, and was +so liberal to beggars that he had nothing left for his tailor and his +butcher. He was vain, sensual, frivolous, profuse, improvident. +One vice of a darker shade was imputed to him, envy. But there +is not the least reason to believe that this bad passion, though it +sometimes made him wince and utter fretful exclamations, ever +impelled him to injure by wicked arts the reputation of any of +his rivals. The truth probably is that he was not more envious, +but merely less prudent, than his neighbours. His heart was +on his lips. All those small jealousies, which are but too common +among men of letters, but which a man of letters who is also a +man of the world does his best to conceal, Goldsmith avowed +with the simplicity of a child. When he was envious, instead of +affecting indifference, instead of damning with faint praise, +instead of doing injuries slyly and in the dark, he told everybody +that he was envious. “Do not, pray, do not, talk of Johnson in +such terms,” he said to Boswell; “you harrow up my very soul.” +George Steevens and Cumberland were men far too cunning +to say such a thing. They would have echoed the praises of the +man whom they envied, and then have sent to the newspapers +anonymous libels upon him. Both what was good and what was +bad in Goldsmith’s character was to his associates a perfect +security that he would never commit such villainy. He was +neither ill-natured enough, nor long-headed enough, to be +guilty of any malicious act which required contrivance and +disguise.</p> + +<p>Goldsmith has sometimes been represented as a man of genius, +cruelly treated by the world, and doomed to struggle with +difficulties, which at last broke his heart. But no representation +can be more remote from the truth. He did, indeed, go through +much sharp misery before he had done anything considerable +in literature. But after his name had appeared on the title-page +of the <i>Traveller</i>, he had none but himself to blame for his distresses. +His average income, during the last seven years of his +life, certainly exceeded £400 a year, and £400 a year ranked, +among the incomes of that day, at least as high as £800 a year +would rank at present. A single man living in the Temple, with +£400 a year, might then be called opulent. Not one in ten of the +young gentlemen of good families who were studying the law +there had so much. But all the wealth which Lord Clive had +brought from Bengal and Sir Lawrence Dundas from Germany, +joined together, would not have sufficed for Goldsmith. He +spent twice as much as he had. He wore fine clothes, gave +dinners of several courses, paid court to venal beauties. He had +also, it should be remembered, to the honour of his heart, though +not of his head, a guinea, or five, or ten, according to the state of +his purse, ready for any tale of distress, true or false. But it was +not in dress or feasting, in promiscuous amours or promiscuous +charities, that his chief expense lay. He had been from boyhood +a gambler, and at once the most sanguine and the most unskilful +of gamblers. For a time he put off the day of inevitable ruin by +temporary expedients. He obtained advances from booksellers +by promising to execute works which he never began. But at +length this source of supply failed. He owed more than £2000; +and he saw no hope of extrication from his embarrassments. +His spirits and health gave way. He was attacked by a nervous +fever, which he thought himself competent to treat. It would +have been happy for him if his medical skill had been appreciated +as justly by himself as by others. Notwithstanding the degree +which he pretended to have received on the continent, he could +procure no patients. “I do not practise,” he once said; “I +make it a rule to prescribe only for my friends.” “Pray, dear +Doctor,” said Beauclerk, “alter your rule; and prescribe only +for your enemies.” Goldsmith, now, in spite of this excellent +advice, prescribed for himself. The remedy aggravated the +malady. The sick man was induced to call in real physicians; +and they at one time imagined that they had cured the disease. +Still his weakness and restlessness continued. He could get no +sleep. He could take no food. “You are worse,” said one of his +medical attendants, “than you should be from the degree of +fever which you have. Is your mind at ease?” “No; it is +not,” were the last recorded words of Oliver Goldsmith. He +died on the 4th of April 1774, in his forty-sixth year. He was +laid in the churchyard of the Temple; but the spot was not +marked by any inscription and is now forgotten. The coffin +was followed by Burke and Reynolds. Both these great men +were sincere mourners. Burke, when he heard of Goldsmith’s +death, had burst into a flood of tears. Reynolds had been so +much moved by the news that he had flung aside his brush and +palette for the day.</p> + +<p>A short time after Goldsmith’s death, a little poem appeared, +which will, as long as our language lasts, associate the names of +his two illustrious friends with his own. It has already been +mentioned that he sometimes felt keenly the sarcasm which his +wild blundering talk brought upon him. He was, not long +before his last illness, provoked into retaliating. He wisely +betook himself to his pen; and at that weapon he proved +himself a match for all his assailants together. Within a small +compass he drew with a singularly easy and vigorous pencil +the characters of nine or ten of his intimate associates. +Though this little work did not receive his last touches, it +must always be regarded as a masterpiece. It is impossible, +however, not to wish that four or five likenesses which have +no interest for posterity were wanting to that noble gallery, +and that their places were supplied by sketches of Johnson +and Gibbon, as happy and vivid as the sketches of Burke and +Garrick.</p> + +<p>Some of Goldsmith’s friends and admirers honoured him +with a cenotaph in Westminster Abbey. Nollekens was the +sculptor, and Johnson wrote the inscription. It is much to be +lamented that Johnson did not leave to posterity a more durable +and a more valuable memorial of his friend. A life of Goldsmith +would have been an inestimable addition to the Lives of the Poets. +No man appreciated Goldsmith’s writings more justly than +Johnson; no man was better acquainted with Goldsmith’s +character and habits; and no man was more competent to +delineate with truth and spirit the peculiarities of a mind in +which great powers were found in company with great weaknesses. +But the list of poets to whose works Johnson was requested by +the booksellers to furnish prefaces ended with Lyttelton, who +died in 1773. The line seems to have been drawn expressly for +the purpose of excluding the person whose portrait would have +most fitly closed the series. Goldsmith, however, has been +fortunate in his biographers.</p> +<div class="author">(M.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Goldsmith’s life has been written by Prior (1837), by Washington +Irving (1844-1849), and by John Forster (1848, 2nd ed. 1854). +The diligence of Prior deserves great praise; the style of Washington +Irving is always pleasing; but the highest place must, in justice, be +assigned to the eminently interesting work of Forster. Subsequent +biographies are by William Black (1878), and Austin Dobson (1888, +American ed. 1899). The above article by Lord Macaulay has been +slightly revised for this edition by Mr Austin Dobson, as regards +questions of fact for which there has been new evidence.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDSTÜCKER, THEODOR<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1821-1872), German Sanskrit +scholar, was born of Jewish parents at Königsberg on the 18th of +January 1821, and, after attending the gymnasium of that +town, entered the university in 1836 as a student of Sanskrit. +In 1838 he removed to Bonn, and, after graduating at Königsberg +in 1840, proceeded to Paris; in 1842 he edited a German translation +of the <i>Prabodha Chandrodaya</i>. From 1847 to 1850 he +resided at Berlin, where his talents and scholarship were recognized +by Alexander von Humboldt, but where his advanced +political views caused the authorities to regard him with suspicion. +In the latter year he removed to London, where in 1852 he was +appointed professor of Sanskrit in University College. He now +worked on a new Sanskrit dictionary, of which the first instalment +appeared in 1856. In 1861 he published his chief work: +<i>Pānini: his place in Sanskrit Literature</i>; and he was one of the +founders and chief promoters of the Sanskrit Text Society; +he was also an active member of the Philological Society, and of +other learned bodies. He died in London on the 6th of March +1872.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>As <i>Literary Remains</i> some of his writings were published in two +volumes (London, 1879), but his papers were left to the India Office +with the request that they were not to be published until 1920.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id="page219"></a>219</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDWELL, THOMAS<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (d. 1585), English ecclesiastic, began +his career as vicar of Cheriton in 1531, after graduating M.A. at +All Souls College, Oxford. He became chaplain to Cardinal +Pole and lived with him at Rome, was attainted in 1539, but +returned to England on Mary’s accession, and in 1555 became +bishop of St Asaph, a diocese which he did much to win back +to the old faith. On the death of Mary, Goldwell escaped from +England and in 1561 became superior of the Theatines at Naples. +He was the only English bishop at the council of Trent, and in +1562 was again attainted. In the following year he was appointed +vicar-general to Carlo Borromeo, archbishop of Milan. He died +in Rome in 1585, the last of the English bishops who had refused +to accept the Reformation.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1850-  ), Jewish Hungarian orientalist, +was born in Stuhlweissenburg on the 22nd of June +1850. He was educated at the universities of Budapest, Berlin, +Leipzig and Leiden, and became privat docent at Budapest in +1872. In the next year, under the auspices of the Hungarian +government, he began a journey through Syria, Palestine and +Egypt, and took the opportunity of attending lectures of +Mahommedan sheiks in the mosque of el-Azhar in Cairo. He +was the first Jewish scholar to become professor in the Budapest +University (1894), and represented the Hungarian government +and the Academy of Sciences at numerous international congresses. +He received the large gold medal at the Stockholm +Oriental Congress in 1889. He became a member of several +Hungarian and other learned societies, was appointed secretary +of the Jewish community in Budapest. He was made Litt. D. +of Cambridge (1904) and LL.D. of Aberdeen (1906). His eminence +in the sphere of scholarship is due primarily to his careful investigation +of pre-Mahommedan and Mahommedan law, tradition, +religion and poetry, in connexion with which he published a large +number of treatises, review articles and essays contributed to +the collections of the Hungarian Academy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among his chief works are: <i>Beiträge zur Literaturgeschichte der +Schi’a</i> (1874); <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte der Sprachgelehrsamkeit bei +den Arabern</i> (Vienna, 1871-1873); <i>Der Mythos bei den Hebräern und +seine geschichtliche Entwickelung</i> (Leipzig, 1876; Eng. trans., R. +Martineau, London, 1877); <i>Muhammedanische Studien</i> (Halle, +1889-1890, 2 vols.); <i>Abhandlungen zur arabischen Philologie</i> (Leiden, +1896-1899, 2 vols.); <i>Buch v. Wesen d. Seele</i> (ed. 1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLETTA<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> [<span class="sc">La Goulette</span>], a town on the Gulf of Tunis in +36° 50′ N. 10° 19′ E., a little south of the ruins of Carthage, and +on the north side of the ship canal which traverses the shallow +Lake of Tunis and leads to the city of that name. Built on the +narrow strip of sand which separates the lake from the gulf, +Goletta is defended by a fort and battery. The town contains +a summer palace of the bey, the old seraglio, arsenal and customhouse, +and many villas, gardens and pleasure resorts, Goletta +being a favourite place for sea-bathing. A short canal, from +which the name of the town is derived (Arab. <i>Halk-el-Wad</i>, +“throat of the canal”), 40 ft. broad and 8½ ft. deep, divides the +town and affords communication between the ship canal and +a dock or basin, 1082 ft. long and 541 ft. broad. An electric +tramway which runs along the north bank of the ship canal +connects Goletta with the city of Tunis (<i>q.v.</i>). Pop. (1907) +about 5000, mostly Jews and Italian fishermen.</p> + +<p>Beyond Cape Carthage, 5 m. N. of Goletta, is La Marsa, a +summer resort overlooking the sea. The bey has a palace here, +and the French resident-general, the British consul, other +officials, and many Tunisians have country-houses, surrounded +by groves of olive trees.</p> + +<p>Before the opening of the ship canal in 1893 Goletta, as the +port of Tunis, was a place of considerable importance. The +basin at the Goletta end of the canal now serves as a subsidiary +harbour to that of Tunis. The most stirring events in the +history of the town are connected with the Turkish conquest +of the Barbary states. Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa having made +himself master of Tunis and its port, Goletta was attacked in +1535 by the emperor Charles V., who seized the pirate’s fleet, +which was sheltered in the small canal, his arsenal, and 300 brass +cannon. The Turks regained possession in 1574. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tunisia</a></span>: +<i>History</i>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLF<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (in its older forms <span class="sc">Goff</span>, <span class="sc">Gouff</span> or <span class="sc">Gowff</span>, the last of +which gives the genuine old pronunciation), a game which +probably derives its name from the Ger. <i>kolbe</i>, a club—in Dutch, +<i>kolf</i>—which last is nearly in sound identical and might suggest a +Dutch origin,<a name="fa1s" id="fa1s" href="#ft1s"><span class="sp">1</span></a> which many pictures and other witnesses further +support.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—One of the most ancient and most interesting of the +pictures in which the game is portrayed is the tailpiece to an +illuminated <i>Book of Hours</i> made at Bruges at the beginning of +the 16th century. The original is in the British Museum. The +players, three in number, have but one club apiece. The heads +of the clubs are steel or steel covered. They play with a ball each. +That which gives this picture a peculiar interest over the many +pictures of Dutch schools that portray the game in progress is +that most of them show it on the ice, the putting being at a stake. +In this <i>Book of Hours</i> they are putting at a hole in the turf, as in +our modern golf. It is scarcely to be doubted that the game is of +Dutch origin, and that it has been in favour since very early days. +Further than that our knowledge does not go. The early Dutchmen +played golf, they painted golf, but they did not write it.</p> + +<p>It is uncertain at what date golf was introduced into Scotland, +but in 1457 the popularity of the game had already become so +great as seriously to interfere with the more important pursuit +of archery. In March of that year the Scottish parliament +“decreted and ordained that <i>wapinshawingis</i> be halden be the +lordis and baronis spirituale and temporale, four times in the +zeir; and that the fute-ball and <i>golf be utterly cryit down, and +nocht usit</i>; and that the bowe-merkis be maid at ilk paroche kirk +a pair of buttis, and <i>schuttin be usit ilk Sunday</i>.” Fourteen years +afterwards, in May 1471, it was judged necessary to pass another +act “anent wapenshawings,” and in 1491 a final and evidently +angry fulmination was issued on the general subject, with pains +and penalties annexed. It runs thus—“Futeball and Golfe +forbidden. Item, it is statut and ordainit that in na place of the +realme there be usit fute-ball, <i>golfe, or uther sik unprofitabill +sportis</i>,” &c. This, be it noted, is an edict of James IV.; and it is +not a little curious presently to find the monarch himself setting +an ill example to his commons, by practice of this “unprofitabill +sport,” as is shown by various entries in the accounts of the lord +high treasurer of Scotland (1503-1506).</p> + +<p>About a century later, the game again appears on the surface of +history, and it is quite as popular as before. In the year 1592 +the town council of Edinburgh “ordanis proclamation to be made +threw this burgh, that na inhabitants of the samyn be seen at ony +pastymes within or without the toun, upoun the Sabboth day, sic +as golfe, &c.”<a name="fa2s" id="fa2s" href="#ft2s"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The following year the edict was re-announced, +but with the modification that the prohibition was “in tyme of +sermons.”</p> + +<p>Golf has from old times been known in Scotland as “The +<i>Royal and Ancient</i> Game of Goff.” Though no doubt Scottish +monarchs handled the club before him, James IV. is the first who +figures formally in the golfing record. James V. was also very +partial to the game distinctively known as “royal”; and there +is some scrap of evidence to show that his daughter, the unhappy +Mary Stuart, was a golfer. It was alleged by her enemies that, as +showing her shameless indifference to the fate of her husband, a +very few days after his murder, she “was seen playing <i>golf</i> and +pallmall in the fields beside Seton.”<a name="fa3s" id="fa3s" href="#ft3s"><span class="sp">3</span></a> That her son, James VI. +(afterwards James I. of England), was a golfer, tradition confidently +asserts, though the evidence which connects him with the +personal practice of the game is slight. Of the interest he took in +it we have evidence in his act—already alluded to—“anent <i>golfe +ballis</i>,” prohibiting their importation, except under certain +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220"></a>220</span> +restrictions. Charles I. (as his brother Prince Henry had been<a name="fa4s" id="fa4s" href="#ft4s"><span class="sp">4</span></a>) +was devotedly attached to the game. Whilst engaged in it on +the links of Leith, in 1642, the news reached him of the Irish +rebellion of that year. He had not the equanimity to finish his +match, but returned precipitately and in much agitation to +Holyrood.<a name="fa5s" id="fa5s" href="#ft5s"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Afterwards, while prisoner to the Scots army at +Newcastle, he found his favourite diversion in “the royal game.” +“The King was nowhere treated with more honour than at Newcastle, +as he himself confessed, both he and his train having liberty +to go abroad and play at goff in the Shield Field, without the +walls.”<a name="fa6s" id="fa6s" href="#ft6s"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Of his son, Charles II., as a golfer, nothing whatever is +ascertained, but James II. was a known devotee.<a name="fa7s" id="fa7s" href="#ft7s"><span class="sp">7</span></a> After the +Restoration, James, then duke of York, was sent to Edinburgh in +1681/2 as commissioner of the king to parliament, and an +historical monument of his prowess as a golfer remains there to +this day in the “Golfer’s Land,” as it is still called, 77 Canongate. +The duke having been challenged by two English noblemen of his +suite, to play a match against them, for a very large stake, along +with any Scotch ally he might select, chose as his partner one +“Johne Patersone,” a shoemaker. The duke and the said Johne +won easily, and half of the large stake the duke made over to his +humble coadjutor, who therewith built himself the house mentioned +above. In 1834 William IV. became patron of the St +Andrews Golf Club (St Andrews being then, as now, the most +famous seat of the game), and approved of its being styled “The +<i>Royal and Ancient</i> Golf Club of St Andrews.” In 1837, as +further proof of royal favour, he presented to it a magnificent gold +medal, which “should be challenged and played for annually”; +and in 1838 the queen dowager, duchess of St Andrews, became +patroness of the club, and presented to it a handsome gold medal—“The +Royal Adelaide”—with a request that it should be worn +by the captain, as president, on all public occasions. In June +1863 the prince of Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) signified his +desire to become patron of the club, and in the following September +was elected captain by acclamation. His engagements did not +admit of his coming in person to undertake the duties of the +office, but his brother Prince Leopold (the duke of Albany), having +in 1876 done the club the honour to become its captain, twice +visited the ancient city in that capacity.</p> + +<p>In more recent days, golf has become increasingly popular in +a much wider degree. In 1880 the man who travelled about +England with a set of golf clubs was an object of some astonishment, +almost of alarm, to his fellow-travellers. In those days the +commonest of questions in regard to the game was, “You have to +be a fine rider, do you not, to play golf?” so confounded was it in +the popular mind with the game of polo. At Blackheath a few +Scotsmen resident in London had long played golf. In 1864 the +Royal North Devon Club was formed at Westward Ho, and this +was the first of the seaside links discovered and laid out for golf in +England. In 1869 the Royal Liverpool Club established itself in +possession of the second English course of this quality at Hoylake, in +Cheshire. A golf club was formed in connexion with the London +Scottish Volunteers corps, which had its house on the Putney end +of Wimbledon Common on Putney Heath; and, after making so +much of a start, the progress of the game was slow, though steady, +for many years. A few more clubs were formed; the numbers of +golfers grew; but it could not be said that the game was yet in +any sense popular in England. All at once, for no very obvious +reason, the qualities of the ancient Scottish game seemed to strike +home, and from that moment its popularity has been wonderfully +and increasingly great. The English links that rose into most +immediate favour was the fine course of the St George’s Golf +Club, near Sandwich, on the coast of Kent. To the London golfer +it was the first course of the first class that was reasonably +accessible, and the fact made something like an epoch in +English golf. A very considerable increase, it is true, in the +number of English golfers and English golf clubs had taken place +before the discovery for golfing purposes of the links at Sandwich. +Already there was a chain of links all round the coast, besides +numerous inland courses; but since 1890 their increase has been +extraordinary, and the number which has been formed in the +colonies and abroad is very large also, so that in the <i>Golfer’s +Year Book</i> for 1906 a space of over 300 pages was allotted to the +Club Directory alone, each page containing, on a rough average, +six clubs. To compute the average membership of these clubs is +very difficult. There is not a little overlapping, in the sense that +a member of one club will often be a member of several others; +but probably the average may be placed at something like 200 +members for each club.</p> + +<p>The immense amount of golf-playing that this denotes, the +large industry in the making of clubs and balls, in the upkeep +of links, in the actual work of club-carrying by the caddies, +and in the instruction given by the professional class, is obvious. +Golf has taken a strong hold on the affections of the people in +many parts of Ireland, and the fashion for golf in England has +reacted strongly on Scotland itself, the ancient home of the game, +where since 1880 golfers have probably increased in the ratio of +forty to one. Besides the industry that such a growth of the +game denotes in the branches immediately connected with it, +as mentioned above, there is to be taken into further account +the visiting population that it brings to all lodging-houses and +hotels within reach of a tolerable golf links, so that many a +fishing village has risen into a moderate watering-place by virtue +of no other attractions than those which are offered by its golf +course. Therefore to the Briton, golf has developed from +something of which he had a vague idea—as of “curling”—to +something in the nature of an important business, a business +that can make towns and has a considerable effect on the receipts +of railway companies.</p> + +<p>Moreover, ladies have learned to play golf. Although this +is a crude and brief sentence, it does not state the fact too +widely nor too forcibly, for though it is true that before 1885 +many played on the short links of St Andrews, North Berwick, +Westward Ho and elsewhere, still it was virtually unknown +that they should play on the longer courses, which till then +had been in the undisputed possession of the men. At many +places women now have their separate links, at others they play +on the same course as the men. But even where links are set +apart for women, they are far different from the little courses +that used to be assigned to them. They are links only a little +less formidable in their bunkers, a little less varied in their +features than those of men. The ladies have their annual +championship, which they play on the long links of the men, +sometimes on one, sometimes on another, but always on courses +of the first quality, demanding the finest display of golfing skill.</p> + +<p>The claim that England made to a golfing fellowship with +Scotland was conceded very strikingly by the admission of +three English greens, first those of Hoylake and of Sandwich, +and in 1909 Deal, into the exclusive list of the links on which +the open championship of the game is decided. Before England +had so fully assimilated Scotland’s game this great annual +contest was waged at St Andrews, Musselburgh and Prestwick +in successive years. Now the ancient green of Musselburgh, +somewhat worn out with length of hard and gallant service, and +moreover, as a nine-holes course inadequately accommodating +the numbers who compete in the championships to-day, has been +superseded by the course at Muirfield as a championship arena.</p> + +<p>While golf had been making itself a force in the southern +kingdom, the professional element—men who had learned the +game from childhood, had become past-masters, were capable +of giving instruction, and also of making clubs and balls and +looking after the greens on which golf was played—had at first +been taken from the northern side of the Border. But when +golf had been started long enough in England for the little boys +who were at first employed as “caddies”—in carrying the +players’ clubs—to grow to sufficient strength to drive the ball +as far as their masters, it was inevitable that out of the number +who thus began to play in their boyhood some few should +develop an exceptional talent for the game. This, in fact, +actually happened, and English golfers, both of the amateur +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>221</span> +and the professional classes, have proved themselves so adept +at Scotland’s game, that the championships in either the Open +or the Amateur competitions have been won more often by +English than by Scottish players of late years. Probably in the +United Kingdom to-day there are as many English as Scottish +professional golf players, and their relative number is increasing.</p> + +<p>Golf also “caught on,” to use the American expression, in +the United States. To the American of 1890 golf was largely an +unknown thing. Since then, however, golf has become perhaps +a greater factor in the life of the upper and upper-middle classes +in the United States than it ever has been in England or Scotland. +Golf to the English and the Scots meant only one among several +of the sports and pastimes that take the man and the woman +of the upper and upper-middle classes into the country and the +fresh air. To the American of like status golf came as the one +thing to take him out of his towns and give him a reason for +exercise in the country. To-day golf has become an interest +all over North America, but it is in the Eastern States that it +has made most difference in the life of the classes with whom it +has become fashionable. Westerners and Southerners found +more excuses before the coming of golf for being in the open +country air. It is in the Eastern States more especially that it +has had so much influence in making the people live and take +exercise out of doors. In a truly democratic spirit the American +woman golfer plays on a perfect equality with the American +man. She does not compete in the men’s championships; she +has championships of her own; but she plays, without question, +on the same links. There is no suggestion of relegating her, as a +certain cynical writer in the Badminton volume on golf described +it, to a waste corner, a kind of “Jews’ Quarter,” of the links. +And the Americans have taken up golf in the spirit of a sumptuous +and opulent people, spending money on magnificent clubhouses +beyond the finest dreams of the Englishman or the Scot. The +greatest success achieved by any American golfer fell to the lot +of Mr Walter Travis of the Garden City club, who in 1904 won +the British amateur championship.</p> + +<p>So much enthusiasm and so much golf in America have not +failed to make their influence felt in the United Kingdom. +Naturally and inevitably they have created a strong demand +for professional instruction, both by example and by precept, +and for professional advice and assistance in the laying-out and +upkeep of the many new links that have been created in all parts +of the States, sometimes out of the least promising material. +By the offer of great prizes for exhibition matches, and of wages +that are to the British rate on the scale of the dollar to the +shilling, they have attracted many of the best Scottish and +English professionals to pay them longer or shorter visits as the +case may be, and thus a new opening has been created for the +energies of the professional golfing class.</p> + +<p><i>The Game.</i>—The game of golf may be briefly defined as +consisting in hitting the ball over a great extent of country, +preferably of that sand-hill nature which is found by the seaside, +and finally hitting or “putting” it into a little hole of some +4 in. diameter cut in the turf. The place of the hole is commonly +marked by a flag. Eighteen is the recognized number of these +holes on a full course, and they are at varying distances apart, +from 100 yds. up to anything between a ¼ and ½ m. For the +various strokes required to achieve the hitting of the ball over +the great hills, and finally putting it into the small hole, a number +of different “clubs” has been devised to suit the different +positions in which the ball may be found and the different +directions in which it is wished to propel it. At the start +for each hole the ball may be placed on a favourable position +(<i>e.g.</i> “tee’d” on a small mound of sand) for striking it, but +after that it may not be touched, except with the club, until +it is hit into the next hole. A “full drive,” as the farthest distance +that the ball can be hit is called, is about 200 yds. in length, +of which some three-fourths will be traversed in the air, and the +rest by bounding or running over the ground. It is easily to be +understood that when the ball is lying on the turf behind a tall +sand-hill, or in a bunker, a differently-shaped club is required +for raising it over such an obstacle from that which is needed +when it is placed on the tee to start with; and again, that +another club is needed to strike the ball out of a cup or out of +heavy grass. It is this variety that gives the game its charm. +Each player plays with his own ball, with no interference from +his opponent, and the object of each is to hit the ball from the +starting-point into each successive hole in the fewest strokes. +The player who at the end of the round (<i>i.e.</i> of the course of +eighteen holes) has won the majority of the holes is the winner +of the round; or the decision may be reached before the end +of the round by one side gaining more holes than there remain to +play. For instance, if one player be four holes to the good, and +only three holes remain to be played, it is evident that the +former must be the winner, for even if the latter win every +remaining hole, he still must be one to the bad at the finish.</p> + +<p>The British Amateur Championship is decided by a tournament +in matches thus played, each defeated player retiring, and +his opponent passing on into the next round. In the case of the +Open Championship, and in most medal competitions, the scores +are differently reckoned—each man’s total score (irrespective +of his relative merit at each hole) being reckoned at the finish +against the total score of the other players in the competition. +There is also a species of competition called “bogey” play, in +which each man plays against a “bogey” score—a score fixed +for each hole in the round before starting—and his position in +the competition relatively to the other players is determined +by the number of holes that he is to the good or to the bad of the +“bogey” score at the end of the round. The player who is most +holes to the good, or fewest holes to the bad, wins the competition. +It may be mentioned incidentally that golf occupies the almost +unique position of being the only sport in which even a single +player can enjoy his game, his opponent in this event being +“Colonel Bogey”—more often than not a redoubtable adversary.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The links which have been thought worthy, by reason of their +geographical positions and their merits, of being the scenes on which +the golf championships are fought out, are, as we have already said, +three in Scotland—St Andrews, Prestwick and Muirfield—and three +in England—Hoylake, Sandwich and Deal. This brief list is very +far from being complete as regards links of first-class quality in Great +Britain. Besides those named, there are in Scotland—Carnoustie, +North Berwick, Cruden Bay, Nairn, Aberdeen, Dornoch, Troon, +Machrihanish, South Uist, Islay, Gullane, Luffness and many more. +In England there are—Westward Ho, Bembridge, Littlestone, Great +Yarmouth, Brancaster, Seaton Carew, Formby, Lytham, Harlech, +Burnham, among the seaside ones; while of the inland, some of them +of very fine quality, we cannot even attempt a selection, so large is +their number and so variously estimated their comparative merits. +Ireland has Portrush, Newcastle, Portsalon, Dollymount and many +more of the first class; and there are excellent courses in the Isle of +Man. In America many fine courses have been constructed. There +is not a British colony of any standing that is without its golf course—Australia, +India, South Africa, all have their golf championships, +which are keenly contested. Canada has had courses at Quebec and +Montreal for many years, and the Calcutta Golf Club, curiously +enough, is the oldest established (next to the Blackheath Club), the +next oldest being the club at Pau in the Basses-Pyrénées.</p> + +<p>The Open Championship of golf was started in 1860 by the +Prestwick Club giving a belt to be played for annually under the +condition that it should become the property of any who could win +it thrice in succession. The following is the list of the champions:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">1860.</td> <td class="tcl">W. Park, Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">174—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1861.</td> <td class="tcl">Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick</td> <td class="tcl">163—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1862.</td> <td class="tcl">Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick</td> <td class="tcl">163—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1863.</td> <td class="tcl">W. Park, Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">168—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1864.</td> <td class="tcl">Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick</td> <td class="tcl">160—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1865.</td> <td class="tcl">A. Strath, St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">162—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1866.</td> <td class="tcl">W. Park, Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">169—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1867.</td> <td class="tcl">Tom Morris, sen., St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">170—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1868.</td> <td class="tcl">Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">154—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1869.</td> <td class="tcl">Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">157—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1870.</td> <td class="tcl">Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">149—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Tom Morris, junior, thus won the belt finally, according to the +conditions. In 1871 there was no competition; but by 1872 the +three clubs of St Andrews, Prestwick and Musselburgh had subscribed +for a cup which should be played for over the course of each +subscribing club successively, but should never become the property +of the winner. In later years the course at Muirfield was substituted +for that at Musselburgh, and Hoylake and Sandwich were admitted +into the list of championship courses. Up to 1891, inclusive, the +play of two rounds, or thirty-six holes, determined the championship, +but from 1892 the result has been determined by the play of 72 holes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222"></a>222</span></p> + +<p class="noind">After the interregnum of 1871, the following were the champions:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">1872.</td> <td class="tcl">Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">166—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1873.</td> <td class="tcl">Tom Kidd, St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">179—at St Andrews.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1874.</td> <td class="tcl">Mungo Park, Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">159—at Musselburgh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1875.</td> <td class="tcl">Willie Park, Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">166—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1876.</td> <td class="tcl">Bob Martin, St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">176—at St Andrews.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1877.</td> <td class="tcl">Jamie Anderson, St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">160—at Musselburgh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1878.</td> <td class="tcl">Jamie Anderson, St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">157—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1879.</td> <td class="tcl">Jamie Anderson, St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">170—at St Andrews.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1880.</td> <td class="tcl">Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">162—at Musselburgh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1881.</td> <td class="tcl">Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">170—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1882.</td> <td class="tcl">Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">171—at St Andrews.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1883.</td> <td class="tcl">W. Fernie, Dumfries</td> <td class="tcl">159—at Musselburgh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1884.</td> <td class="tcl">Jack Simpson, Carnoustie</td> <td class="tcl">160—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1885.</td> <td class="tcl">Bob Martin, St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">171—at St Andrews.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1886.</td> <td class="tcl">D. Brown, Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">157—at Musselburgh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1887.</td> <td class="tcl">Willie Park, jun., Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">161—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1888.</td> <td class="tcl">Jack Burns, Warwick</td> <td class="tcl">171—at St Andrews.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1889.</td> <td class="tcl">Willie Park, jun., Musselburgh</td> <td class="tcl">155—at Musselburgh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1890.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr John Ball, jun., Hoylake</td> <td class="tcl">164—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1891.</td> <td class="tcl">Hugh Kirkaldy, St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">166—at St Andrews.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1892.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr H. H. Hilton, Hoylake</td> <td class="tcl">305—at Muirfield.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1893.</td> <td class="tcl">W. Auchterlonie, St Andrews</td> <td class="tcl">322—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1894.</td> <td class="tcl">J. H. Taylor, Winchester</td> <td class="tcl">326—at Sandwich.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1895.</td> <td class="tcl">J. H. Taylor, Winchester</td> <td class="tcl">322—at St Andrews.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1896.</td> <td class="tcl">H. Vardon, Scarborough</td> <td class="tcl">316—at Muirfield.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1897.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr H. H. Hilton, Hoylake</td> <td class="tcl">314—at Hoylake.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1898.</td> <td class="tcl">H. Vardon, Scarborough</td> <td class="tcl">307—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1899.</td> <td class="tcl">H. Vardon, Scarborough</td> <td class="tcl">310—at Sandwich.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1900.</td> <td class="tcl">J. H. Taylor, Richmond</td> <td class="tcl">309—at St Andrews.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1901.</td> <td class="tcl">J. Braid, Romford</td> <td class="tcl">309—at Muirfield.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1902.</td> <td class="tcl">A. Herd, Huddersfield</td> <td class="tcl">307—at Hoylake.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1903.</td> <td class="tcl">H. Vardon, Ganton</td> <td class="tcl">300—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1904.</td> <td class="tcl">J. White, Sunningdale</td> <td class="tcl">296—at Sandwich.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1905.</td> <td class="tcl">J. Braid, Walton Heath</td> <td class="tcl">318—at St Andrews.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1906.</td> <td class="tcl">J. Braid, Walton Heath</td> <td class="tcl">300—at Muirfield.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1907.</td> <td class="tcl">Arnaud Massey, La Boulie</td> <td class="tcl">312—at Hoylake.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1908.</td> <td class="tcl">J. Braid, Walton Heath</td> <td class="tcl">291—at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1909.</td> <td class="tcl">J. H. Taylor, Richmond</td> <td class="tcl">295—at Deal.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1910.</td> <td class="tcl">J. Braid, Walton Heath</td> <td class="tcl">298—at St Andrews.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The Amateur Championship is of far more recent institution.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">1886.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr Horace Hutchinson</td> <td class="tcl">at St Andrews.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1887.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr Horace Hutchinson</td> <td class="tcl">at Hoylake.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1888.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr John Ball</td> <td class="tcl">at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1889.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr J. E. Laidlay</td> <td class="tcl">at St Andrews.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1890.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr John Ball</td> <td class="tcl">at Hoylake.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1891.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr J. E. Laidlay</td> <td class="tcl">at St Andrews.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1892.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr John Ball</td> <td class="tcl">at Sandwich.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1893.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr P. Anderson</td> <td class="tcl">at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1894.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr John Ball</td> <td class="tcl">at Hoylake.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1895.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr L. Balfour-Melville</td> <td class="tcl">at St Andrews.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1896.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr F. G. Tait</td> <td class="tcl">at Sandwich.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1897.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr J. T. Allan</td> <td class="tcl">at Muirfield.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1898.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr John Ball</td> <td class="tcl">at Prestwick.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1899.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr F. G. Tait</td> <td class="tcl">at Hoylake.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1900.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr H. H. Hilton</td> <td class="tcl">at Sandwich.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1901.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr H. H. Hilton</td> <td class="tcl">at St Andrews.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1902.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr C. Hutchings</td> <td class="tcl">at Hoylake.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1903.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr R. Maxwell</td> <td class="tcl">at Muirfield.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1904.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr W. J. Travis</td> <td class="tcl">at Sandwich.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1905.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr A. G. Barry</td> <td class="tcl">at St Andrews.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1906.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr J. Robb</td> <td class="tcl">at Hoylake.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1907.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr John Ball</td> <td class="tcl">at St Andrews.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1908.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr E. A. Lassen</td> <td class="tcl">at Sandwich.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1909.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr Robert Maxwell</td> <td class="tcl">at Muirfield.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1910.</td> <td class="tcl">Mr John Ball</td> <td class="tcl">at Hoylake.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The Ladies’ Championship was started in 1893.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">1893.</td> <td class="tcl">Lady M. Scott</td> <td class="tcl">at St Annes.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1894.</td> <td class="tcl">Lady M. Scott</td> <td class="tcl">at Littlestone.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1895.</td> <td class="tcl">Lady M. Scott</td> <td class="tcl">at Portrush.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1896.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss A. B. Pascoe</td> <td class="tcl">at Hoylake.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1897.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss E. C. Orr</td> <td class="tcl">at Gullane.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1898.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss L. Thompson</td> <td class="tcl">at Yarmouth.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1899.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss M. Hezlet</td> <td class="tcl">at Newcastle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1900.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss R. K. Adair</td> <td class="tcl">at Westward Ho.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1901.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss M. A. Graham</td> <td class="tcl">at Aberdovy.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1902.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss M. Hezlet</td> <td class="tcl">at Deal.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1903.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss R. K. Adair</td> <td class="tcl">at Portrush.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1904.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss L. Dod</td> <td class="tcl">at Troon.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1905.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss B. Thompson</td> <td class="tcl">at Cromer.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1906.</td> <td class="tcl">Mrs Kennion</td> <td class="tcl">at Burnham.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1907.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss M. Hezlet</td> <td class="tcl">at Newcastle (Co. Down).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1908.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss M. Titterton</td> <td class="tcl">at St Andrews.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1909.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss D. Campbell</td> <td class="tcl">at Birkdale.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1910.</td> <td class="tcl">Miss Grant Suttie</td> <td class="tcl">at Westward Ho.</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>There have been some slight changes of detail and arrangement +as time has gone on, in the rules of the game (the latest edition +of the Rules should be consulted). A new class of golfer has +arisen, requiring a code of rules framed rather more exactly +than the older code. The Scottish golfer, who was “teethed” +on a golf club, as Mr Andrew Lang has described it, imbibed all +the traditions of the game with his natural sustenance. Very +few rules sufficed for him. But when the Englishman, and still +more the American (less in touch with the traditions), began to +play golf as a new game, then they began to ask for a code of +rules that should be lucid and illuminating on every point—an +ideal perhaps impossible to realize. It was found, at least, +that the code put forward by the Royal and Ancient Club of +St Andrews did not realize it adequately. Nevertheless the new +golfers were very loyal indeed to the club that had ever of old +held, by tacit consent, the position of fount of golfing legislation. +The Royal and Ancient Club was appealed to by English golfers +to step into the place, analogous to that of the Marylebone +Cricket Club in cricket, that they were both willing and anxious +to give it. It was a place that the Club at St Andrews did not +in the least wish to occupy, but the honour was thrust so insistently +upon it, that there was no declining. The latest effort to +meet the demands for some more satisfactory legislation on the +thousand and one points that continually must arise for decision +in course of playing a game of such variety as golf, consists of +the appointment of a standing committee, called the “Rules +of Golf Committee.” Its members all belong to the Royal and +Ancient Club; but since this club draws its membership from +all parts of the United Kingdom, this restriction is quite consistent +with a very general representation of the views of north, +south, east and west—from Westward Ho and Sandwich to +Dornoch, and all the many first-rate links of Ireland—on the +committee. Ireland has, indeed, some of the best links in the +kingdom, and yields to neither Scotland nor England in enthusiasm +for the game. This committee, after a general revision +of the rules into the form in which they now stand, consider +every month, either by meeting or by correspondence, the +questions that are sent up to it by clubs or by individuals; and +the committee’s answers to these questions have the force of law +until they have come before the next general meeting of the +Royal and Ancient Club at St Andrews, which may confirm or +may reject them at will. The ladies of Great Britain manage +otherwise. They have a Golfing Union which settles questions +for them; but since this union itself accepts as binding the +answers given by the Rules of Golf Committee, they really arrive +at the same conclusions by a slightly different path. Nor does the +American Union, governing the play of men and women alike +in the States, really act differently. The Americans naturally +reserve to themselves freedom to make their own rules, but in +practice they conform to the legislation of Scotland, with the +exception of a more drastic definition of the status of the amateur +player, and certain differences as to the clubs used.</p> + +<p>A considerable modification has been effected in the implements +of the game. The tendency of the modern wooden clubs is to +be short in the head as compared with the clubs of, say, 1880 or +1885. The advantage claimed (probably with justice) for this +shape is that it masses the weight behind the point on which +the ball is struck. Better material in the wood of the club is a +consequence of the increased demand for these articles and the +increased competition among their makers. Whereas under +the old conditions a few workers at the few greens then in +existence were enough to supply the golfing wants, now there +is a very large industry in golf club and ball making, which not +only employs workers in the local club-makers’ shops all the +kingdom over, but is an important branch of the commerce of +the stores and of the big athletic outfitters, both in Great Britain +and in the United States. By far the largest modification in +the game since the change to gutta-percha balls from balls +of leather-covering stuffed with feathers, is due to the American +invention of the india-rubber cased balls. Practically it is as an +American invention that it is still regarded, although the British +law courts decided, after a lengthy trial (1905), that there had +been “prior users” of the principle of the balls’ manufacture, +and therefore that the patent of Mr Haskell, by whose name the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>223</span> +first balls of the kind were called, was not good. It is singular +to remark that in the first introduction of the gutta-percha +balls, superseding the leather and feather compositions, they also +were called by the name of their first maker, “Gourlay.” The +general mode of manufacture of the rubber-cored ball, which is +now everywhere in use, is interiorly, a hard core of gutta-percha +or some other such substance; round this is wound, by +machinery, india-rubber thread or strips at a high tension, and +over all is an outer coat of gutta-percha. Some makers have +tried to dispense with the kernel of hard substance, or to substitute +for it kernels of some fluid or gelatinous substance, but +in general the above is a sufficient, though rough, description of +the mode of making all these balls. Their superiority over the +solid gutta-percha lies in their superior resiliency. The effect +is that they go much more lightly off the club. It is not so much +in the tee-shots that this superiority is observed, as in the +second shots, when the ball is lying badly; balls of the rubber-cored +kind, with their greater liveliness, are more easy to raise +in the air from a lie of this kind. They also go remarkably well +off the iron clubs, and thus make the game easier by placing the +player within an iron shot of the hole at a distance at which he +would have to use a wooden club if he were playing with a solid +gutta-percha ball. They also tend to make the game more easy by +the fact that if they are at all mis-hit they go much better than +a gutta-percha ball similarly inaccurately struck. As a slight set-off +against these qualities, the ball, because of the greater liveliness, +is not quite so good for the short game as the solid ball; but on +the whole its advantages distinctly overbalance its disadvantages.</p> + +<p>When these balls were first put on the market they were sold +at two shillings each and even, when the supply was quite +unequal to the demand, at a greater deal higher price, rising to as +much as a guinea a ball. But the normal price, until about a +year after the decision in the British courts of law affirming that +there was no patent in the balls, was always two shillings for the +best quality of ball. Subsequently there was a reduction down +to one shilling for the balls made by many of the manufacturing +companies, though in 1910 the rise in the price of rubber sent up +the cost. The rubber-cored ball does not go out of shape so +quickly as the gutta-percha solid ball and does not show other +marks of ill-usage with the club so obviously. It has had the +effect of making the game a good deal easier for the second- and +third-class players, favouring especially those who were short +drivers with the old gutta-percha ball. To the best players it has +made the least difference, nevertheless those who were best with +the old ball are also best with the new; its effect has merely +been to bring the second, third and fourth best closer to each +other and to the best.</p> + +<p>Incidentally, the question of the expense of the game has +been touched on in this notice of the new balls. There is no +doubt that the balls themselves tend to a greater economy, not +only because of their own superior durability but also because, +as a consequence of their greater resiliency, they are not nearly +so hard on the clubs, and the clubs themselves being perhaps +made of better material than used to be given to their manufacture, +the total effect is that a man’s necessary annual expenditure +on them is very small indeed even though he plays pretty +constantly. Four or five rounds are not more than the average +of golfers will make an india-rubber cored ball last them, so that +the outlay on the weapons is very moderate. On the other +hand the expenditure of the clubs on their courses has increased +and tends to increase. Demands are more insistent than they +used to be for a well kept course, for perfectly mown greens, +renewed teeing grounds and so on, and probably the modern +golfer is a good deal more luxurious in his clubhouse wants than +his father used to be. This means a big staff of servants and +workers on the green, and to meet this a rather heavy subscription +is required. Such a subscription as five guineas added to a ten +or fifteen guinea entrance fee is not uncommon, and even this is +very moderate compared with the subscriptions to some of the +clubs in the United States, where a hundred dollars a year, or +twenty pounds of our money, is not unusual. But on the whole +golf is a very economical pastime, as compared with almost +any other sport or pastime which engages the attention of +Britons, and it is a pastime for all the year round, and for all +the life of a man or woman.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Glossary of Technical Terms used in the Game.</i></p> + +<p><i>Addressing the Ball.</i>—Putting oneself in position to strike the ball.</p> + +<p><i>All Square.</i>—Term used to express that the score stands level, +neither side being a hole up.</p> + +<p><i>Baff.</i>—To strike the ground with the club when playing, and so +loft the ball unduly.</p> + +<p><i>Baffy.</i>—A short wooden club, with laid-back face, for lofting shots.</p> + +<p><i>Bogey.</i>—The number of strokes which a good average player +should take to each hole. This imaginary player is usually known +as “Colonel Bogey,” and plays a fine game.</p> + +<p><i>Brassy.</i>—A wooden club with a brass sole.</p> + +<p><i>Bulger.</i>—A driver in which the face “bulges” into a convex shape. +The head is shorter than in the older-fashioned driver.</p> + +<p><i>Bunker.</i>—A sand-pit.</p> + +<p><i>Bye.</i>—The holes remaining after one side has become more holes up +than remain for play.</p> + +<p><i>Caddie.</i>—The person who carries the clubs. Diminutive of +“cad”; cf. laddie (from Fr. <i>cadet</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Cleek.</i>—The iron-headed club that is capable of the farthest drive +of any of the clubs with iron heads.</p> + +<p><i>Cup.</i>—A depression in the ground causing the ball to lie badly.</p> + +<p><i>Dead.</i>—A ball is said to be “dead” when so near the hole that +the putting it in in the next stroke is a “dead” certainty. A ball +is said to “fall dead” when it pitches with hardly any run.</p> + +<p><i>Divot.</i>—A piece of turf cut out in the act of playing, which, be it +noted, should always be replaced before the player moves on.</p> + +<p><i>Dormy.</i>—One side is said to be “dormy” when it is as many +holes to the good as remain to be played—so that it cannot be +beaten.</p> + +<p><i>Driver.</i>—The longest driving club, used when the ball lies very +well and a long shot is needed.</p> + +<p><i>Foozle.</i>—Any very badly missed or bungled stroke.</p> + +<p>“<i>Fore!</i>”—A cry of warning to people in front.</p> + +<p><i>Foursome.</i>—A match in which four persons engage, two on each +side playing alternately with the same ball.</p> + +<p><i>Green.</i>—(<i>a</i>) The links as a whole; (<i>b</i>) the “putting-greens” +around the holes.</p> + +<p><i>Grip.</i>—(<i>a</i>) The part of the club-shaft which is held in the hands +while playing; (<i>b</i>) the grasp itself—<i>e.g.</i> “a firm grip,” “a loose +grip,” are common expressions.</p> + +<p><i>Half-Shot.</i>—A shot played with something less than a full swing.</p> + +<p><i>Halved.</i>—A hole is “halved” when both sides have played it in +the same number of strokes. A round is “halved” when each side +has won and lost the same number of holes.</p> + +<p><i>Handicap.</i>—The strokes which a player receives either in match +play or competition.</p> + +<p><i>Hanging.</i>—Said of a ball that lies on a slope inclining downwards +in regard to the direction in which it is wished to drive.</p> + +<p><i>Hazard.</i>—A general term for bunker, whin, long grass, roads and +all kinds of bad ground.</p> + +<p><i>Heel.</i>—To hit the ball on the “heel” of the club, <i>i.e.</i> the part of +the face nearest the shaft, and so send the ball to the right, with the +same result as from a slice.</p> + +<p><i>Honour.</i>—The privilege (which its holder is not at liberty to +decline) of striking off first from the tee.</p> + +<p><i>Iron.</i>—An iron-headed club intermediate between the cleek and +lofting mashie. There are driving irons and lofting irons according +to the purposes for which they are intended.</p> + +<p><i>Lie.</i>—(<i>a</i>) The angle of the club-head with the shaft (<i>e.g.</i> a “flat +lie,” “an upright lie”); (<i>b</i>) the position of the ball on the ground +(<i>e.g.</i> “a good lie,” “a bad lie”).</p> + +<p><i>Like, The.</i>—The stroke which makes the player’s score equal to +his opponent’s in course of playing a hole.</p> + +<p><i>Like-as-we-Lie.</i>—Said when both sides have played the same +number of strokes.</p> + +<p><i>Line.</i>—The direction in which the hole towards which the player +is progressing lies with reference to the present position of his ball.</p> + +<p><i>Mashie.</i>—Ah iron club with a short head. The <i>lofting mashie</i> has +the blade much laid back, for playing a short lofting shot. The +<i>driving mashie</i> has the blade less laid back, and is used for longer, +less lofted shots.</p> + +<p><i>Match-Play.</i>—Play in which the score is reckoned by holes won +and lost.</p> + +<p><i>Medal-Play.</i>—Play in which the score is reckoned by the total +of strokes taken on the round.</p> + +<p><i>Niblick.</i>—A short stiff club with a short, laid back, iron head, +used for getting the ball out of a very bad lie.</p> + +<p><i>Odd, The.</i>—A stroke more than the opponent has played.</p> + +<p><i>Press.</i>—To strive to hit harder than you can hit with accuracy.</p> + +<p><i>Pull.</i>—To hit the ball with a pulling movement of the club, so as +to make it curve to the left.</p> + +<p><i>Putt.</i>—To play the short strokes near the hole (pronounced as in +“but”).</p> + +<p><i>Putter.</i>—The club used for playing the short strokes near the hole. +Some have a wooden head, some an iron head.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>224</span></p> + +<p><i>Rub-of-the-Green.</i>—Any chance deflection that the ball receives as +it goes along.</p> + +<p><i>Run Up.</i>—To send the ball low and close to the ground in +approaching the hole—opposite to lofting it up.</p> + +<p><i>Scratch Player.</i>—Player who receives no odds in handicap competitions.</p> + +<p><i>Slice.</i>—To hit the ball with a cut across it, so that it flies curving +to the right.</p> + +<p><i>Stance.</i>—(<i>a</i>) The place on which the player has to stand when +playing—<i>e.g.</i> “a bad stance,” “a good stance,” are common expressions; +(<i>b</i>) the position relative to each other of the player’s feet.</p> + +<p><i>Stymie.</i>—When one ball lies in a straight line between another and +the hole the first is said to “stymie,” or “to be a stymie to” the +other—from an old Scottish word given by Jamieson to mean “the +faintest form of anything.” The idea probably was, the “stymie” +only left you the “faintest form” of the hole to aim at.</p> + +<p><i>Tee.</i>—The little mound of sand on which the ball is generally +placed for the first drive to each hole.</p> + +<p><i>Teeing-Ground.</i>—The place marked as the limit, outside of which +it is not permitted to drive the ball off. This marked-out ground is +also sometimes called “the tee.”</p> + +<p><i>Top.</i>—To hit the ball above the centre, so that it does not rise +much from the ground.</p> + +<p><i>Up.</i>—A player is said to be “one up,” “two up,” &c., when he is so +many holes to the good of his opponent.</p> + +<p><i>Wrist-Shot.</i>—A shot less in length than a half-shot, but longer than +a putt.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The literature of the game has grown to some +considerable bulk. For many years it was practically comprised in +the fine work by Mr Robert Clark, <i>Golf: A Royal and Ancient Game</i>, +together with two handbooks on the game by Mr Chambers and by +Mr Forgan respectively, and the <i>Golfiana Miscellanea</i> of Mr Stewart. +A small book by Mr Horace Hutchinson, named <i>Hints on Golf</i>, was +very shortly followed by a much more important work by Sir Walter +Simpson, Bart., called <i>The Art of Golf</i>, a title which sufficiently +explains itself. The Badminton Library book on <i>Golf</i> attempted to +collect into one volume the most interesting historical facts known +about the game, with <i>obiter dicta</i> and advice to learners, and, on +similar didactic lines, books have been written by Mr H. C. S. +Everard, Mr Garden Smith and W. Park, the professional player. +Mr H. J. Whigham, sometime amateur champion golfer of the +United States, has given us a book about the game in that country. +<i>The Book of Golf and Golfers</i>, compiled, with assistance, by Mr Horace +Hutchinson, is in the first place a picture-gallery of famous golfers +in their respective attitudes of play. Taylor, Vardon and Braid have +each contributed a volume of instruction, and Mr G. W. Beldam has +published a book with admirable photographs of players in action, +called <i>Great Golfers: their Methods at a Glance</i>. A work intended for +the use of green committees is among the volumes of the <i>Country Life</i> +Library of Sport. Much interesting lore is contained in the <i>Golfing +Annual</i>, in the <i>Golfer’s Year Book</i> and in the pages of <i>Golf</i>, which +has now become <i>Golf Illustrated</i>, a weekly paper devoted to the game. +Among works that have primarily a local interest, but yet contain +much of historical value about the game, may be cited the <i>Golf Book +of East Lothian</i>, by the Rev. John Kerr, and the <i>Chronicle of Blackheath +Golfers</i>, by Mr W. E. Hughes.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. G. H.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1s" id="ft1s" href="#fa1s"><span class="fn">1</span></a> From an enactment of James VI. (then James I. of England), +bearing date 1618, we find that a considerable importation of golf +balls at that time took place from Holland, and as thereby “na +small quantitie of gold and silver is transported zierly out of his +Hienes’ kingdome of Scoteland” (see letter of His Majesty from +Salisbury, the 5th of August 1618), he issues a royal prohibition, at +once as a wise economy of the national moneys, and a protection to +native industry in the article. From this it might almost seem that +the game was at that date still known and practised in Holland.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2s" id="ft2s" href="#fa2s"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Records of the City of Edinburgh</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3s" id="ft3s" href="#fa3s"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Inventories of Mary Queen of Scots</i>, preface, p. lxx. (1863).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4s" id="ft4s" href="#fa4s"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Anonymous author of MS. in the Harleian Library.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5s" id="ft5s" href="#fa5s"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See <i>History of Leith</i>, by A. Campbell (1827).</p> + +<p><a name="ft6s" id="ft6s" href="#fa6s"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Local Records of Northumberland</i>, by John Sykes (Newcastle, +1833).</p> + +<p><a name="ft7s" id="ft7s" href="#fa7s"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Robertson’s <i>Historical Notices of Leith</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLIAD,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> an unincorporated village and the county-seat of +Goliad county, Texas, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the San Antonio +river, 85 m. S.E. of San Antonio. Pop. (1900) about 1700. It +is served by the Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio railway +(Southern Pacific System). Situated in the midst of a rich +farming and stock-raising country, Goliad has flour mills, cotton +gins and cotton-seed oil mills. Here are the interesting ruins of +the old Spanish mission of La Bahia, which was removed to this +point from the Guadaloupe river in 1747. During the struggle +between Mexico and Spain the Mexican leader Bernardo Gutierrez +(1778-1814) was besieged here. The name Goliad, probably an +anagram of the name of the Mexican patriot Hidalgo (1753-1811), +was first used about 1829. On the outbreak of the Texan War +of Liberation Goliad was garrisoned by a small force of Mexicans, +who surrendered to the Texans in October 1835, and on the 20th +of December a preliminary “declaration of independence” +was published here, antedating by several months the official +Declaration issued at Old Washington, Texas, on the 2nd of +March 1836. In 1836, when Santa Anna began his advance +against the Texan posts, Goliad was occupied by a force of about +350 Americans under Colonel James W. Fannin (<i>c.</i> 1800-1836), +who was overtaken on the Coletta Creek while attempting to +carry out orders to withdraw from Goliad and to unite with +General Houston; he surrendered after a sharp fight (March +19-20) in which he inflicted a heavy loss on the Mexicans, and +was marched back with his force to Goliad, where on the morning +of the 27th of March they were shot down by Santa Anna’s +orders. Goliad was nearly destroyed by a tornado on the 19th +of May 1903.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLIARD,<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> a name applied to those wandering students +(<i>vagantes</i>) and clerks in England, France and Germany, during +the 12th and 13th centuries, who were better known for their +rioting, gambling and intemperance than for their scholarship. +The derivation of the word is uncertain. It may come from +the Lat. <i>gula</i>, gluttony (Wright), but was connected by them +with a mythical “Bishop Golias,” also called “<i>archipoëta</i>” and +“<i>primas</i>”—especially in Germany—in whose name their satirical +poems were mostly written. Many scholars have accepted +Büdinger’s suggestion (<i>Über einige Reste der Vagantenpoesie in +Österreich</i>, Vienna, 1854) that the title of Golias goes back to +the letter of St Bernard to Innocent II., in which he referred +to Abelard as Goliath, thus connecting the goliards with the +keen-witted student adherents of that great medieval critic. +Giesebrecht and others, however, support the derivation of +goliard from <i>gailliard</i>, a gay fellow, leaving “Golias” as the +imaginary “patron” of their fraternity.</p> + +<p>Spiegel has ingeniously disentangled something of a biography +of an <i>archipoëta</i> who flourished mainly in Burgundy and at +Salzburg from 1160 to beyond the middle of the 13th century; +but the proof of the reality of this individual is not convincing. +It is doubtful, too, if the jocular references to the rules of the +“gild” of goliards should be taken too seriously, though their +aping of the “orders” of the church, especially their contrasting +them with the mendicants, was too bold for church synods. +Their satires were almost uniformly directed against the church, +attacking even the pope. In 1227 the council of Trèves forbade +priests to permit the goliards to take part in chanting the service. +In 1229 they played a conspicuous part in the disturbances at +the university of Paris, in connexion with the intrigues of the +papal legate. During the century which followed they formed +a subject for the deliberations of several church councils, notably +in 1289 when it was ordered that “no clerks shall be jongleurs, +goliards or buffoons,” and in 1300 (at Cologne) when they were +forbidden to preach or engage in the indulgence traffic. This +legislation was only effective when the “privileges of clergy” +were withdrawn from the goliards. Those historians who regard +the middle ages as completely dominated by ascetic ideals, regard +the goliard movement as a protest against the spirit of the time. +But it is rather indicative of the wide diversity in temperament +among those who crowded to the universities in the 13th century, +and who found in the privileges of the clerk some advantage +and attraction in the student life. The goliard poems are as +truly “medieval” as the monastic life which they despised; +they merely voice another section of humanity. Yet their +criticism was most keenly pointed, and marks a distinct step +in the criticism of abuses in the church.</p> + +<p>Along with these satires went many poems in praise of wine +and riotous living. A remarkable collection of them, now at +Munich, from the monastery at Benedictbeuren in Bavaria, +was published by Schmeller (3rd ed., 1895) under the title <i>Carmina +Burana</i>. Many of these, which form the main part of song-books +of German students to-day, have been delicately translated by +John Addington Symonds in a small volume, <i>Wine, Women and +Song</i> (1884). As Symonds has said, they form a prelude to the +Renaissance. The poems of “Bishop Golias” were later +attributed to Walter Mapes, and have been published by Thomas +Wright in <i>The Latin Poems commonly attributed to Walter Mapes</i> +(London, 1841).</p> + +<p>The word “goliard” itself outlived these turbulent bands +which had given it birth, and passed over into French and +English literature of the 14th century in the general meaning of +jongleur or minstrel, quite apart from any clerical association. +It is thus used in <i>Piers Plowman</i>, where, however, the <i>goliard</i> +still rhymes in Latin, and in Chaucer.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See, besides the works quoted above, M. Haezner, <i>Goliardendichtung +und die Satire im 13ten Jahrhundert in England</i> (Leipzig, 1905); +Spiegel, <i>Die Vaganten und ihr “Orden”</i> (Spires, 1892); Hubatsch, +<i>Die lateinischen Vagantenlieder des Mittelalters</i> (Görlitz, 1870); and +the article in <i>La grande Encyclopédie</i>. All of these have bibliographical +apparatus.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. T. S.*)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>225</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLIATH,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> the name of the giant by slaying whom David +achieved renown (1 Sam. xvii.). The Philistines had come up to +make war against Saul and, as the rival camps lay opposite each +other, this warrior came forth day by day to challenge to single +combat. Only David ventured to respond, and armed with a +sling and pebbles he overcame Goliath. The Philistines, seeing +their champion killed, lost heart and were easily put to flight. +The giant’s arms were placed in the sanctuary, and it was his +famous sword which David took with him in his flight from Saul +(1 Sam. xxi. 1-9). From another passage we learn that Goliath +of Gath, “the shaft of whose spear was like a weaver’s beam,” +was slain by a certain Elhanan of Bethlehem in one of David’s +conflicts with the Philistines (2 Sam. xxi. 18-22)—the parallel +1 Chron. xx. 5, avoids the contradiction by reading the “brother +of Goliath.” But this old popular story has probably preserved +the more original tradition, and if Elhanan is the son of Dodo +in the list of David’s mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 9, 24), the +resemblance between the two names may have led to the transference. +The narratives of David’s early life point to some +exploit by means of which he gained the favour of Saul, Jonathan +and Israel, but the absence of all reference to his achievement +in the subsequent chapters (1 Sam. xxi. 11, xxix. 5) +is evidence of the relatively late origin of a tradition which +in course of time became one of the best-known incidents in +David’s life (Ps. cxliv., LXX. title, the apocryphal Ps. cli., Ecclus. +xlvii. 4).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">David</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samuel</a></span> (<span class="sc">Books</span>) and especially Cheyne, <i>Aids and +Devout Study of Criticism</i>, pp. 80 sqq., 125 sqq. In the old Egyptian +romance of <i>Sinuhit</i> (ascribed to about 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the story of the +slaying of the Bedouin hero has several points of resemblance with that +of David and Goliath. See L. B. Paton, <i>Hist. of Syr. and Pal.</i>, p. 60; +A. Jeremias, <i>Das A. T. im Lichte d. alten Orients</i>, 2nd ed. pp. 299, 491; +A. R. S. Kennedy, <i>Century Bible: Samuel</i>, p. 122, argues that David’s +Philistine adversary was originally nameless, in 1 Sam. xvii. he is +named only in v. 4.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLITSUIN, BORIS ALEKSYEEVICH<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1654-1714), Russian +statesman, came of a princely family, claiming descent from +Prince Gedimin of Lithuania. Earlier members of the family +were Mikhail (d. c. 1552), a famous soldier, and his great-grandson +Vasily Vasilevich (d. 1619), who was sent as ambassador to Poland +to offer the Russian crown to Prince Ladislaus. Boris became +court chamberlain in 1676. He was the young tsar Peter’s chief +supporter when, in 1689, Peter resisted the usurpations of his +elder sister Sophia, and the head of the loyal council which +assembled at the Troitsa monastery during the crisis of the struggle. +Golitsuin it was who suggested taking refuge in that strong +fortress and won over the boyars of the opposite party. In 1690 +he was created a boyar and shared with Lev Naruishkin, Peter’s +uncle, the conduct of home affairs. After the death of the +tsaritsa Natalia, Peter’s mother, in 1694, his influence increased +still further. He accompanied Peter to the White Sea (1694-1695); +took part in the Azov campaign (1695); and was one of +the triumvirate who ruled Russia during Peter’s first foreign +tour (1697-1698). The Astrakhan rebellion (1706), which affected +all the districts under his government, shook Peter’s confidence +in him, and seriously impaired his position. In 1707 he was +superseded in the Volgan provinces by Andrei Matvyeev. A +year before his death he entered a monastery. Golitsuin was a +typical representative of Russian society of the end of the 17th +century in its transition from barbarism to civilization. In +many respects he was far in advance of his age. He was highly +educated, spoke Latin with graceful fluency, frequented the society +of scholars and had his children carefully educated according +to the best European models. Yet this eminent, this superior +personage was an habitual drunkard, an uncouth savage who +intruded upon the hospitality of wealthy foreigners, and was not +ashamed to seize upon any dish he took a fancy to, and send it +home to his wife. It was his reckless drunkenness which +ultimately ruined him in the estimation of Peter the Great, +despite his previous inestimable services.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See S. Solovev, <i>History of Russia</i> (Rus.), vol. xiv. (Moscow, 1858); +R. N. Bain, <i>The First Romanovs</i> (London, 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLITSUIN, DMITRY MIKHAILOVICH<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (1665-1737), +Russian statesman, was sent in 1697 to Italy to learn “military +affairs”; in 1704 he was appointed to the command of an +auxiliary corps in Poland against Charles XII.; from 1711 to +1718 he was governor of Byelogorod. In 1718 he was appointed +president of the newly erected <i>Kammer Kollegium</i> and a senator. +In May 1723 he was implicated in the disgrace of the vice-chancellor +Shafirov and was deprived of all his offices and +dignities, which he only recovered through the mediation of the +empress Catherine I. After the death of Peter the Great, +Golitsuin became the recognized head of the old Conservative +party which had never forgiven Peter for putting away Eudoxia +and marrying the plebeian Martha Skavronskaya. But the +reformers, as represented by Alexander Menshikov and Peter +Tolstoi, prevailed; and Golitsuin remained in the background +till the fall of Menshikov, 1727. During the last years of Peter II. +(1728-1730), Golitsuin was the most prominent statesman in +Russia and his high aristocratic theories had full play. On the +death of Peter II. he conceived the idea of limiting the autocracy +by subordinating it to the authority of the supreme privy council, +of which he was president. He drew up a form of constitution +which Anne of Courland, the newly elected Russian empress, +was forced to sign at Mittau before being permitted to proceed to +St Petersburg. Anne lost no time in repudiating this constitution, +and never forgave its authors. Golitsuin was left in peace, however, +and lived for the most part in retirement, till 1736, when he +was arrested on suspicion of being concerned in the conspiracy +of his son-in-law Prince Constantine Cantimir. This, however, +was a mere pretext, it was for his anti-monarchical sentiments +that he was really prosecuted. A court, largely composed of +his antagonists, condemned him to death, but the empress +reduced the sentence to lifelong imprisonment in Schlüsselburg +and confiscation of all his estates. He died in his prison on the +14th of April 1737, after three months of confinement.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. N. Bain, <i>The Pupils of Peter the Great</i> (London, 1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLITSUIN, VASILY VASILEVICH<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1643-1714), Russian +statesman, spent his early days at the court of Tsar Alexius +where he gradually rose to the rank of boyar. In 1676 he was +sent to the Ukraine to keep in order the Crimean Tatars and +took part in the Chigirin campaign. Personal experience of the +inconveniences and dangers of the prevailing system of preferment, +the so-called <i>myestnichestvo</i>, or rank priority, which had +paralysed the Russian armies for centuries, induced him to propose +its abolition, which was accomplished by Tsar Theodore III. +(1678). The May revolution of 1682 placed Golitsuin at the +head of the <i>Posolsky Prikaz</i>, or ministry of foreign affairs, and +during the regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the Great, whose +lover he became, he was the principal minister of state (1682-1689) +and “keeper of the great seal,” a title bestowed upon +only two Russians before him, Athonasy Orduin-Nashchokin +and Artamon Matvyeev. In home affairs his influence was +insignificant, but his foreign policy was distinguished by the +peace with Poland in 1683, whereby Russia at last recovered +Kiev. By the terms of the same treaty, he acceded to the +grand league against the Porte, but his two expeditions against +the Crimea (1687 and 1689), “the First Crimean War,” were +unsuccessful and made him extremely unpopular. Only with the +utmost difficulty could Sophia get the young tsar Peter to +decorate the defeated commander-in-chief as if he had returned +a victor. In the civil war between Sophia and Peter (August-September +1689), Golitsuin half-heartedly supported his mistress +and shared her ruin. His life was spared owing to the supplications +of his cousin Boris, but he was deprived of his boyardom, +his estates were confiscated and he was banished successively to +Kargopol, Mezen and Kologora, where he died on the 21st of +April 1714. Golitsuin was unusually well educated. He understood +German and Greek as well as his mother-tongue, and could +express himself fluently in Latin. He was a great friend of +foreigners, who generally alluded to him as “the great Golitsuin.”</p> + +<p>His brother <span class="sc">Mikhail</span> (1674-1730) was a celebrated soldier, who +is best known for his governorship of Finland (1714-1721), where +his admirable qualities earned the remembrance of the people +whom he had conquered. And Mikhail’s son Alexander (1718-1783) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>226</span> +was a diplomat and soldier, who rose to be field-marshal +and governor of St Petersburg.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. N. Bain, <i>The First Romanovs</i> (London, 1905); A. +Brückner, <i>Fürst Golizin</i> (Leipzig, 1887); S. Solovev, <i>History of +Russia</i> (Rus.), vols. xiii.-xiv. (Moscow, 1858, &c.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLIUS<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> or (<span class="sc">Gohl</span>), <b>JACOBUS</b> (1596-1667), Dutch Orientalist, +was born at the Hague in 1596, and studied at the university of +Leiden, where in Arabic and other Eastern languages he was the +most distinguished pupil of Erpenius. In 1622 he accompanied +the Dutch embassy to Morocco, and on his return he was chosen +to succeed Erpenius (1624). In the following year he set out on a +Syrian and Arabian tour from which he did not return until 1629. +The remainder of his life was spent at Leiden where he held the +chair of mathematics as well as that of Arabic. He died on the +28th of September 1667.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His most important work is the <i>Lexicon Arabico-Latinum</i>, fol., +Leiden, 1653, which, based on the <i>Sihah</i> of Al-Jauhari, was only +superseded by the corresponding work of Freytag. Among his earlier +publications may be mentioned editions of various Arabic texts +(<i>Proverbia quaedam Alis, imperatoris Muslemici, et Carmen Tograipoëtae +doctissimi, necnon dissertatio quaedam Aben Synae</i>, 1629; and +<i>Ahmedis Arabsiadae vitae et rerum gestarum Timuri, qui vulgo Tamer, +lanes dicitur, historia</i>, 1636). In 1656 he published a new edition, +with considerable additions, of the <i>Grammatica Arabica</i> of Erpenius. +After his death, there was found among his papers a <i>Dictionarium +Persico-Latinum</i> which was published, with additions, by Edmund +Castell in his <i>Lexicon heptaglotton</i> (1669). Golius also edited, translated +and annotated the astronomical treatise of Alfragan (<i>Muhammedis, +filii Ketiri Ferganensis, qui vulgo Alfraganus dicitur, elementa +astronomica Arabice et Latine</i>, 1669).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLLNOW,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Pomerania, on the right bank of the Ihna, 14 m. N.N.E. of Stettin, +with which it has communication by rail and steamer. Pop. +(1905) 8539. It possesses two Evangelical churches, a synagogue +and some small manufactures. Gollnow was founded in 1190, +and was raised to the rank of a town in 1268. It was for a time +a Hanse town, and came into the possession of Prussia in 1720, +having belonged to Sweden since 1648.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLOSH,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Galosh</span> (from the Fr. <i>galoche</i>, Low Lat. <i>calopedes</i>, +a wooden shoe or clog; an adaptation of the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kalopodion">καλοπόδιον</span>, +a diminutive formed of <span class="grk" title="kalon">κᾶλον</span>, wood, and <span class="grk" title="pous">ποῦς</span>, foot), originally +a wooden shoe or patten, or merely a wooden sole fastened to +the foot by a strap or cord. In the middle ages “galosh” was a +general term for a boot or shoe, particularly one with a wooden +sole. In modern usage, it is an outer shoe worn in bad weather +to protect the inner one, and keep the feet dry. Goloshes are +now almost universally made of rubber, and in the United States +they are known as “rubbers” simply, the word golosh being +rarely if ever used. In the bootmakers’ trade, a “golosh” +is the piece of leather, of a make stronger than, or different from +that of the “uppers,” which runs around the bottom part of a +boot or shoe, just above the sole.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLOVIN, FEDOR ALEKSYEEVICH,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (d. 1706), +Russian statesman, learnt, like so many of his countrymen in +later times, the business of a ruler in the Far East. During the +regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the Great, he was sent to the +Amur to defend the new Muscovite fortress of Albazin against +the Chinese. In 1689 he concluded with the Celestial empire the +treaty of Nerchinsk, by which the line of the Amur, as far as its +tributary the Gorbitsa, was retroceded to China because of the +impossibility of seriously defending it. In Peter’s grand embassy +to the West in 1697 Golovin occupied the second place +immediately after Lefort. It was his chief duty to hire foreign +sailors and obtain everything necessary for the construction and +complete equipment of a fleet. On Lefort’s death, in March 1699, +he succeeded him as admiral-general. The same year he was +created the first Russian count, and was also the first to be +decorated with the newly-instituted Russian order of St Andrew. +The conduct of foreign affairs was at the same time entrusted +to him, and from 1699 to his death he was “the premier minister +of the tsar.” Golovin’s first achievement as foreign minister was +to supplement the treaty of Carlowitz, by which peace with +Turkey had only been secured for three years, by concluding with +the Porte a new treaty at Constantinople (June 13, 1700), by +which the term of the peace was extended to thirty years and, +besides other concessions, the Azov district and a strip of territory +extending thence to Kuban were ceded to Russia. He also +controlled, with consummate ability, the operations of the +brand-new Russian diplomatists at the various foreign courts. +His superiority over all his Muscovite contemporaries was due +to the fact that he was already a statesman, in the modern sense, +while they were still learning the elements of statesmanship. +His death was an irreparable loss to the tsar, who wrote upon the +despatch announcing it, the words “Peter filled with grief.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. N. Bain, <i>The First Romanovs</i> (London, 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLOVKIN, GAVRIIL IVANOVICH,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1660-1734), +Russian statesman, was attached (1677), while still a lad, to the +court of the tsarevitch Peter, afterwards Peter the Great, with +whose mother Natalia he was connected, and vigilantly guarded +him during the disquieting period of the regency of Sophia, +sister of Peter the Great (1682-1689). He accompanied the +young tsar abroad on his first foreign tour, and worked by his +side in the dockyards of Saardam. In 1706 he succeeded Golovin +in the direction of foreign affairs, and was created the first Russian +grand-chancellor on the field of Poltava (1709). Golovkin held +this office for twenty-five years. In the reign of Catherine I. +he became a member of the supreme privy council which had +the chief conduct of affairs during this and the succeeding reigns. +The empress also entrusted him with her last will whereby she +appointed the young Peter II. her successor and Golovkin one +of his guardians. On the death of Peter II. in 1730 he declared +openly in favour of Anne, duchess of Courland, in opposition +to the aristocratic Dolgorukis and Golitsuins, and his determined +attitude on behalf of autocracy was the chief cause of the failure +of the proposed constitution, which would have converted Russia +into a limited monarchy. Under Anne he was a member of the +first cabinet formed in Russia, but had less influence in affairs than +Ostermann and Münnich. In 1707 he was created a count of +the Holy Roman empire, and in 1710 a count of the Russian +empire. He was one of the wealthiest, and at the same time +one of the stingiest, magnates of his day. His ignorance of any +language but his own made his intercourse with foreign ministers +very inconvenient.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. N. Bain, <i>The Pupils of Peter the Great</i> (London, 1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLOVNIN, VASILY MIKHAILOVICH<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1776-1831), Russian +vice-admiral, was born on the 20th of April 1776 in the village +of Gulynki in the province of Ryazan, and received his education +at the Cronstadt naval school. From 1801 to 1806 he served as +a volunteer in the English navy. In 1807 he was commissioned +by the Russian government to survey the coasts of Kamchatka +and of Russian America, including also the Kurile Islands. +Golovnin sailed round the Cape of Good Hope, and on the 5th of +October 1809, arrived in Kamchatka. In 1810, whilst attempting +to survey the coast of the island of Kunashiri, he was seized by +the Japanese, and was retained by them as a prisoner, until the +13th of October 1813, when he was liberated, and in the following +year he returned to St Petersburg. Soon after this the government +planned another expedition, which had for its object the +circumnavigation of the globe by a Russian ship, and Golovnin +was appointed to the command. He started from St Petersburg +on the 7th of September 1817, sailed round Cape Horn, and +arrived in Kamchatka in the following May. He returned to +Europe by way of the Cape of Good Hope, and landed at St +Petersburg on the 17th of September 1819. He died on the 12th +of July 1831.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Golovnin published several works, of which the following are the +most important:—<i>Journey to Kamchatka</i> (2 vols., 1819); <i>Journey +Round the World</i> (2 vols., 1822); and <i>Narrative of my Captivity in +Japan, 1811-1813</i> (2 vols., 1816). The last has been translated into +French, German and English, the English edition being in three +volumes (1824). A complete edition of his works was published at +St Petersburg in five volumes in 1864, with maps and charts, and a +biography of the author by N. Grech.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLTZ, BOGUMIL<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1801-1870), German humorist and +satirist, was born at Warsaw on the 20th of March 1801. After +attending the classical schools of Marienwerder and Königsberg, +he learnt farming on an estate near Thorn, and in 1821 entered +the university of Breslau as a student of philosophy. But he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>227</span> +soon abandoned an academical career, and, after returning for +a while to country life, retired to the small town of Gollub, +where he devoted himself to literary studies. In 1847 he settled +at Thorn, “the home of Copernicus,” where he died on the 12th +of November 1870. Goltz is best known to literary fame by his +<i>Buch der Kindheit</i> (Frankfort, 1847; 4th ed., Berlin, 1877), in +which, after the style of Jean Paul, and Adalbert Stifter, but +with a more modern realism, he gives a charming and idyllic +description of the impressions of his own childhood. Among his +other works must be noted <i>Ein Jugendleben</i> (1852); <i>Der Mensch +und die Leute</i> (1858); <i>Zur Charakteristik und Naturgeschichte +der Frauen</i> (1859); <i>Zur Geschichte und Charakteristik des deutschen +Genius</i> (1864), and <i>Die Weltklugheit und die Lebensweisheit</i> +(1869).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Goltz’s works have not been collected, but a selection will be found +in Reclam’s <i>Universalbibliothek</i> (ed. by P. Stein, 1901 and 1906). +See O. Roquette, <i>Siebzig Jahre</i>, i. (1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLTZ, COLMAR,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr Von Der</span> (1843-  ), +Prussian soldier and military writer, was born at Bielkenfeld, +East Prussia, on the 12th of August 1843, and entered the +Prussian infantry in 1861. In 1864 he entered the Berlin +Military Academy, but was temporarily withdrawn in 1866 to +serve in the Austrian war, in which he was wounded at Trautenau. +In 1867 he joined the topographical section of the general staff, +and at the beginning of the Franco-German War of 1870-71 +was attached to the staff of Prince Frederick Charles. He took +part in the battles of Vionville and Gravelotte and in the siege +of Metz. After its fall he served under the Red Prince in the +campaign of the Loire, including the battles of Orleans and Le +Mans. He was appointed in 1871 professor at the military school +at Potsdam, and the same year was promoted captain and placed +in the historical section of the general staff. It was then he +wrote <i>Die Operationen der II. Armee bis zur Capitulation von +Metz</i> and <i>Die Sieben Tage von Le Mans</i>, both published in 1873. +In 1874 he was appointed to the staff of the 6th division, and +while so employed wrote <i>Die Operationen der II. Armee an der +Loire and Léon Gambetta und seine Armeen</i>, published in 1875 +and 1877 respectively. The latter was translated into French +the same year, and both are impartially written. The views +expressed in the latter work led to his being sent back to regimental +duty for a time, but it was not long before he returned +to the military history section. In 1878 von der Goltz was +appointed lecturer in military history at the military academy +at Berlin, where he remained for five years and attained the rank +of major. He published, in 1883, <i>Rossbach und Jena</i> (new and +revised edition, <i>Von Rossbach bis Jena und Auerstädt</i>, 1906), +<i>Das Volk in Waffen</i> (English translation <i>The Nation in Arms</i>), +both of which quickly became military classics, and during his +residence in Berlin contributed many articles to the military +journals. In June 1883 his services were lent to Turkey to +reorganize the military establishments of the country. He spent +twelve years in this work, the result of which appeared in the +Greco-Turkish War of 1897, and he was made a pasha and in +1895 a <i>mushir</i> or field-marshal. On his return to Germany in +1896 he became a lieutenant-general and commander of the 5th +division, and in 1898, head of the Engineer and Pioneer Corps +and inspector-general of fortifications. In 1900 he was made +general of infantry and in 1902 commander of the I. army corps. +In 1907 he was made inspector-general of the newly created +sixth army inspection established at Berlin, and in 1908 was +given the rank of colonel-general (<i>Generaloberst</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In addition to the works already named and frequent contributions +to military periodical literature, he wrote <i>Kriegführung</i> (1895, +later edition <i>Krieg- und Heerführung</i>, 1901; Eng. trans. <i>The Conduct +of War</i>); <i>Der thessalische Krieg</i> (Berlin, 1898); <i>Ein Ausflug nach +Macedonien</i> (1894); <i>Anatolische Ausflüge</i> (1896); a map and description +of the environs of Constantinople; <i>Von Jena bis Pr. Eylau</i> +(1907), a most important historical work, carrying on the story of +<i>Rossbach und Jena</i> to the peace of Tilsit, &c.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1558-1617), Dutch painter and +engraver, was born in 1558 at Mülebrecht, in the duchy of +Jülich. After studying painting on glass for some years under +his father, he was taught the use of the burin by Dirk Volkertsz +<span class="correction" title="amended from Coornlert">Coornhert</span>, a Dutch engraver of mediocre attainment, whom he +soon surpassed, but who retained his services for his own +advantage. He was also employed by Philip Galle to engrave a +set of prints of the history of Lucretia. At the age of twenty-one +he married a widow somewhat advanced in years, whose money +enabled him to establish at Haarlem an independent business; +but his unpleasant relations with her so affected his health that +he found it advisable in 1590 to make a tour through Germany +to Italy, where he acquired an intense admiration for the works +of Michelangelo, which led him to surpass that master in the +grotesqueness and extravagance of his designs. He returned +to Haarlem considerably improved in health, and laboured there +at his art till his death, on the 1st of January 1617. Goltzius +ought not to be judged chiefly by the works he valued most, +his eccentric imitations of Michelangelo. His portraits, though +mostly miniatures, are master-pieces of their kind, both on +account of their exquisite finish, and as fine studies of individual +character. Of his larger heads, the life-size portrait of himself +is probably the most striking example. His “master-pieces,” +so called from their being attempts to imitate the style of the +old masters, have perhaps been overpraised. In his command +of the burin Goltzius is not surpassed even by Dürer; but his +technical skill is often unequally aided by higher artistic qualities. +Even, however, his eccentricities and extravagances are greatly +counterbalanced by the beauty and freedom of his execution. +He began painting at the age of forty-two, but none of his +works in this branch of art—some of which are in the imperial +collection at Vienna—display any special excellences. He +also executed a few pieces in chiaroscuro.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His prints amount to more than 300 plates, and are fully described +in Bartsch’s <i>Peintre-graveur</i>, and Weigel’s supplement to the same +work.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOLUCHOWSKI, AGENOR,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1849-  ), Austrian +statesman, was born on the 25th of March 1849. His father, +descended from an old and noble Polish family, was governor +of Galicia. Entering the diplomatic service, the son was in +1872 appointed attaché to the Austrian embassy at Berlin, +where he became secretary of legation, and thence he was +transferred to Paris. After rising to the rank of counsellor of +legation, he was in 1887 made minister at Bucharest, where he +remained till 1893. In these positions he acquired a great +reputation as a firm and skilful diplomatist, and on the retirement +of Count Kalnoky in May 1895 was chosen to succeed him as +Austro-Hungarian minister for foreign affairs. The appointment +of a Pole caused some surprise in view of the importance of +Austrian relations with Russia (then rather strained) and Germany, +but the choice was justified by events. In his speech of that +year to the delegations he declared the maintenance of the Triple +Alliance, and in particular the closest intimacy with Germany, +to be the keystone of Austrian policy; at the same time he +dwelt on the traditional friendship between Austria and Great +Britain, and expressed his desire for a good understanding with +all the powers. In pursuance of this policy he effected an understanding +with Russia, by which neither power was to exert any +separate influence in the Balkan peninsula, and thus removed +a long-standing cause of friction. This understanding was +formally ratified during a visit to St Petersburg on which he +accompanied the emperor in April 1897. He took the lead in +establishing the European concert during the Armenian troubles +of 1896, and again resisted isolated action on the part of any of +the great powers during the Cretan troubles and the Greco-Turkish +War. In November 1897, when the Austro-Hungarian +flag was insulted at Mersina, he threatened to bombard the +town if instant reparation were not made, and by his firm +attitude greatly enhanced Austrian prestige in the East. In his +speech to the delegations in 1898 he dwelt on the necessity of +expanding Austria’s mercantile marine, and of raising the fleet +to a strength which, while not vying with the fleets of the great +naval powers, would ensure respect for the Austrian flag wherever +her interests needed protection. He also hinted at the necessity +for European combination to resist American competition. +The understanding with Russia in the matter of the Balkan +States temporarily endangered friendly relations with Italy, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>228</span> +who thought her interests threatened, until Goluchowski +guaranteed in 1898 the existing order. He further encouraged +a good understanding with Italy by personal conferences with +the Italian foreign minister, Tittoni, in 1904 and 1905. Count +Lamsdorff visited Vienna in December 1902, when arrangements +were made for concerted action in imposing on the sultan reforms +in the government of Macedonia. Further steps were taken after +Goluchowski’s interview with the tsar at Mürzsteg in 1903, and +two civil agents representing the countries were appointed for +two years to ensure the execution of the promised reforms. This +period was extended in 1905, when Goluchowski was the chief +mover in forcing the Porte, by an international naval demonstration +at Mitylene, to accept financial control by the powers in +Macedonia. At the conference assembled at Algeciras to settle +the Morocco Question, Austria supported the German position, +and after the close of the conferences the emperor William II. +telegraphed to Goluchowski: “You have proved yourself a +brilliant second on the duelling ground and you may feel certain +of like services from me in similar circumstances.” This pledge +was redeemed in 1908, when Germany’s support of Austria in +the Balkan crisis proved conclusive. By the Hungarians, +however, Goluchowski was hated; he was suspected of having +inspired the emperor’s opposition to the use of Magyar in the +Hungarian army, and was made responsible for the slight +offered to the Magyar deputation by Francis Joseph in September +1905. So long as he remained in office there was no hope of +arriving at a settlement of a matter which threatened the disruption +of the Dual monarchy, and on the 11th of October 1906 +he was forced to resign.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOMAL,<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gumal</span>, the name of a river of Afghanistan, and of +a mountain pass on the Dera Ismail Khan border of the North-West +Frontier Province of British India. The Gomal river, one +of the most important rivers in Afghanistan, rises in the unexplored +regions to the south-east of Ghazni. Its chief tributary +is the Zhob. Within the limits of British territory the Gomal +forms the boundary between the North-West Frontier Province +and Baluchistan, and more or less between the Pathan and +Baluch races. The Gomal pass is the most important pass on +the Indian frontier between the Khyber and the Bolan. It +connects Dera Ismail Khan with the Gomal valley in Afghanistan, +and has formed for centuries the outlet for the povindah trade. +Until the year 1889 this pass was almost unknown to the Anglo-Indian +official; but in that year the government of India +decided that, in order to maintain the safety of the railway +as well as to perfect communication between Quetta and the +Punjab, the Zhob valley should, like the Bori valley, be brought +under British protection and control, and the Gomal pass should +be opened. After the Waziristan expedition of 1894 Wana was +occupied by British troops in order to dominate the Gomal and +Waziristan; but on the formation of the North-West Frontier +Province in 1901 it was decided to replace these troops by the +South Waziristan militia, who now secure the safety of the +pass.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOMARUS, FRANZ<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (1563-1641), Dutch theologian, was born +at Bruges on the 30th of January 1563. His parents, having +embraced the principles of the Reformation, emigrated to the +Palatinate in 1578, in order to enjoy freedom to profess their +new faith, and they sent their son to be educated at Strassburg +under Johann Sturm (1507-1589). He remained there three +years, and then went in 1580 to Neustadt, whither the professors +of Heidelberg had been driven by the elector-palatine because +they were not Lutherans. Here his teachers in theology were +Zacharius Ursinus (1534-1583), Hieronymus Zanchius (1560-1590), +and Daniel Tossanus (1541-1602). Crossing to England +towards the end of 1582, he attended the lectures of John Rainolds +(1549-1607) at Oxford, and those of William Whitaker (1548-1595) +at Cambridge. He graduated at Cambridge in 1584, and +then went to Heidelberg, where the faculty had been by this time +re-established. He was pastor of a Reformed Dutch church in +Frankfort from 1587 till 1593, when the congregation was +dispersed by persecution. In 1594 he was appointed professor +of theology at Leiden, and before going thither received from +the university of Heidelberg the degree of doctor. He taught +quietly at Leiden till 1603, when Jakobus Arminius came to be +one of his colleagues in the theological faculty, and began to +teach Pelagian doctrines and to create a new party in the university. +Gomarus immediately set himself earnestly to oppose +these views in his classes at college, and was supported by +Johann B. Bogermann (1570-1637), who afterwards became +professor of theology at Franeker. Arminius “sought to make +election dependent upon faith, whilst they sought to enforce +absolute predestination as the rule of faith, according to which +the whole Scriptures are to be interpreted” (J. A. Dorner, +<i>History of Protestant Theology</i>, i. p. 417). Gomarus then became +the leader of the opponents of Arminius, who from that circumstance +came to be known as Gomarists. He engaged twice in +personal disputation with Arminius in the assembly of the +estates of Holland in 1608, and was one of five Gomarists who +met five Arminians or Remonstrants in the same assembly of +1609. On the death of Arminius shortly after this time, Konrad +Vorstius (1569-1622), who sympathized with his views, was +appointed to succeed him, in spite of the keen opposition of +Gomarus and his friends; and Gomarus took his defeat so ill +that he resigned his post, and went to Middleburg in 1611, where +he became preacher at the Reformed church, and taught theology +and Hebrew in the newly founded <i>Illustre Schule</i>. From this +place he was called in 1614 to a chair of theology at Saumur, +where he remained four years, and then accepted a call as +professor of theology and Hebrew to Groningen, where he stayed +till his death on the 11th of January 1641. He took a leading +part in the synod of Dort, assembled in 1618 to judge of the +doctrines of Arminius. He was a man of ability, enthusiasm +and learning, a considerable Oriental scholar, and also a keen +controversialist. He took part in revising the Dutch translation +of the Old Testament in 1633, and after his death a book by him, +called the <i>Lyra Davidis</i>, was published, which sought to explain +the principles of Hebrew metre, and which created some controversy +at the time, having been opposed by Louis Cappel. +His works were collected and published in one volume folio, +in Amsterdam in 1645. He was succeeded at Groningen in 1643 +by his pupil Samuel Maresius (1599-1673).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOMBERVILLE, MARIN LE ROY,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> <span class="sc">Sieur du Parc et de</span> +(1600-1674), French novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born +at Paris in 1600. At fourteen years of age he wrote a volume +of verse, at twenty a <i>Discours sur l’histoire</i> and at twenty-two +a pastoral, <i>La Carithée</i>, which is really a novel. The persons in +it, though still disguised as shepherds and shepherdesses, represent +real persons for whose identification the author himself +provides a key. This was followed by a more ambitious attempt, +<i>Polexandre</i> (5 vols. 1632-1637). The hero wanders through the +world in search of the island home of the princess Alcidiane. +It contains much history and geography; the travels of Polexandre +extending to such unexpected places as Benin, the Canary +Islands, Mexico and the Antilles, and incidentally we learn all that +was then known of Mexican history. <i>Cythérée</i> (4 vols.) appeared +in 1630-1642, and in 1651 the <i>Jeune Alcidiane</i>, intended to undo +any harm the earlier novels may have done, for Gomberville +became a Jansenist and spent the last twenty-five years of his +life in pious retirement. He was one of the earliest and most +energetic members of the Academy. He died in Paris on the +14th of June 1674.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOMER,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> the biblical name of a race appearing in the table +of nations (Gen. x. 2), as the “eldest son” of Japheth and the +“father” of Ashkenaz, Riphath and Togarmah; and in Ezek. +xxxviii. 6 as a companion of “the house of Togarmah in the +uttermost parts of the north,” and an ally of Gog; both Gomer +and Togarmah being credited with “hordes,”<a name="fa1t" id="fa1t" href="#ft1t"><span class="sp">1</span></a> E.V., <i>i.e.</i> +“bands” or “armies.” The “sons” of Gomer are probably +tribes of north-east Asia Minor and Armenia, and Gomer is +identified with the Cimmerians. These are referred to in cuneiform +inscriptions under the Assyrian name <i>gimmirā</i> (<i>gimirrai</i>) +as raiding Asia Minor from the north and north-east of the Black +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>229</span> +Sea, and overrunning Lydia in the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cimmerii</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scythia</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lydia</a></span>). They do not seem to have made +any permanent settlements, unless some such are indicated by +the fact that the Armenians called Cappadocia <i>Gamir</i>. It is, +however, suggested that this name is borrowed from the Old +Testament.<a name="fa2t" id="fa2t" href="#ft2t"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The name Gomer (Gomer bath Diblaim) was also borne by the +unfaithful wife of Hosea, whom he pardoned and took back (Hosea +i. 3). Hosea uses these incidents as symbolic of the sin, punishment +and redemption of Israel, but there is no need to regard Gomer as a +purely imaginary person.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. H. Be.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1t" id="ft1t" href="#fa1t"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <span title="agaf">אגף</span> <i>Ăgaph</i>, a word peculiar to Ezekiel, Clarendon Press <i>Heb. +Lex.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft2t" id="ft2t" href="#fa2t"><span class="fn">2</span></a> A. Jeremias, <i>Das A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients</i>, pp. 145 f.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOMERA,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part of +the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (<i>q.v.</i>). Pop. +(1900) 15,358; area 144 sq. m. Gomera lies 20 m. W.S.W. of +Teneriffe. Its greatest length is about 23 m. The coast is +precipitous and the interior mountainous, but Gomera has the +most wood and is the best watered of the group. The inhabitants +are very poor. Dromedaries are bred on Gomera in large +numbers. San Sebastian (3187) is the chief town and a port. +It was visited by Columbus on his first voyage of discovery in +1492.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOMEZ, DIOGO<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Diego</span>) (fl. 1440-1482), Portuguese seaman, +explorer and writer. We first trace him as a <i>cavalleiro</i> of the +royal household; in 1440 he was appointed receiver of the royal +customs—in 1466 judge—at Cintra (<i>juiz das causas e feitorias +contadas de Cintra</i>); on the 5th of March 1482 he was confirmed +in the last-named office. He wrote, especially for the benefit +of Martin Behaim, a Latin chronicle of great value, dealing with +the life and discoveries of Prince Henry the Navigator, and +divided into three parts: (1) <i>De prima inventione Guineae</i>; +(2) <i>De insulis primo inventis in mare</i> (<i>sic</i>) <i>Occidentis</i>; (3) <i>De +inventione insularum de Açores</i>. This chronicle contains the +only contemporary account of the rediscovery of the Azores +by the Portuguese in Prince Henry’s service, and is also noteworthy +for its clear ascription to the prince of deliberate scientific +and commercial purpose in exploration. For, on the one hand, +the infante sent out his caravels to search for new lands (<i>ad +quaerendas terras</i>) from his wish to know the more distant parts +of the western ocean, and in the hope of finding islands or <i>terra +firma</i> beyond the limits laid down by Ptolemy (<i>ultra descriptionem +Tolomei</i>); on the other hand, his information as to the +native trade from Tunis to Timbuktu and the Gambia helped +to inspire his persistent exploration of the West African coast—“to +seek those lands by way of the sea.” Chart and quadrant +were used on the prince’s vessels, as by Gomez himself on reaching +the Cape Verde Islands; Henry, at the time of Diogo’s first +voyage, was in correspondence with an Oran merchant who +kept him informed upon events even in the Gambia <i>hinterland</i>; +and, before the discovery of the Senegal and Cape Verde in 1445, +Gomez’ royal patron had already gained reliable information +of <i>some</i> route to Timbuktu. In the first part of his chronicle +Gomez tells how, no long time after the disastrous expedition +of the Danish nobleman “Vallarte” (Adalbert) in 1448, he was +sent out in command of three vessels along the West African +coast, accompanied by one Jacob, an Indian interpreter, to be +employed in the event of reaching India. After passing the Rio +Grande, beyond Cape Verde, strong currents checked his course; +his officers and men feared that they were approaching the +extremity of the ocean, and he put back to the Gambia. He +ascended this river a considerable distance, to the negro town of +“Cantor,” whither natives came from “Kukia” and Timbuktu +for trade; he gives elaborate descriptions of the negro world +he had now penetrated, refers to the Sierra Leone (“Serra Lyoa”) +Mountains, sketches the course of this range, and says much of +Kukia (in the upper Niger basin?), the centre of the West African +gold trade, and the resort of merchants and caravans from Tunis, +Fez, Cairo and “all the land of the Saracens.” Mahommedanism +was already dominant at the Cambria estuary, but Gomez +seems to have won over at least one important chief, with his +court, to Christianity and Portuguese allegiance. Another +African voyage, apparently made in 1462, two years after Henry +the Navigator’s death (though assigned by some to 1460), resulted +in a fresh discovery of the Cape Verde Islands, already found by +Cadamosto (<i>q.v.</i>). To the island of Santiago Gomez, like his +Venetian forerunner, claims to have given its present name. +His narrative is a leading authority on the last illness and death +of Prince Henry, as well as on the life, achievements and purposes +of the latter; here alone is recorded what appears to have +been the earliest of the navigator’s exploring ventures, that +which under João de Trasto reached Grand Canary in 1415.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Of Gomez’ chronicle there is only one MS., viz. <i>Cod. Hisp.</i> 27, in the +Hof- und Staats-Bibliothek, Munich; the original Latin text was +printed by Schmeller “Über Valentim Fernandez Alemão” in the +<i>Abhandlungen der philosoph.-philolog. Kl. der bayerisch. Akademie der +Wissenschaften</i>, vol. iv., part iii. (Munich, 1847); see also Sophus Ruge, +“Die Entdeckung der Azoren,” pp. 149-180 (esp. 178-179) in the +27th <i>Jahresbericht des Vereins für Erdkunde</i> (Dresden, 1901); Jules +Mees, <i>Histoire de la découverte des îles Açores</i>, pp. 44-45, 125-127 (Ghent, +1901); R. H. Major, <i>Life of Prince Henry the Navigator</i>, pp. xviii., +xix., 64-65, 287-299, 303-305 (London, 1868); C. R. Beazley, <i>Prince +Henry the Navigator</i>, 289-298, 304-305; and Introduction to Azurara’s +<i>Discovery and Conquest of Guinea</i>, ii., iv., xiv., xxv.-xxvii., xcii.-xcvi. +(London, 1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. R. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA, GERTRUDIS<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1814-1873), +Spanish dramatist and poet, was born at Puerto Príncipe +(Cuba) on the 23rd of March 1814, and removed to Spain in 1836. +Her <i>Poesías líricas</i> (1841), issued with a laudatory preface by +Gallego, made a most favourable impression and were republished +with additional poems in 1850. In 1846 she married a diplomatist +named Pedro Sabater, became a widow within a year, +and in 1853 married Colonel Domingo Verdugo. Meanwhile +she had published <i>Sab</i> (1839), <i>Guatimozín</i> (1846), and other +novels of no great importance. She obtained, however, a series +of successes on the stage with <i>Alfonso Munio</i> (1844), a tragedy +in the new romantic manner; with <i>Saúl</i> (1849), a biblical drama +indirectly suggested by Alfieri; and with <i>Baltasar</i> (1858), a +piece which bears some resemblance to Byron’s <i>Sardanapalus</i>. +Her commerce with the world had not diminished her natural +piety, and, on the death of her second husband, she found so +much consolation in religion that she had thoughts of entering +a convent. She died at Madrid on the 2nd of February 1873, +full of mournful forebodings as to the future of her adopted +country. It is impossible to agree with Villemain that “le +génie de don Luis de Léon et de sainte Thérèse a reparu sous le +voile funèbre de Gomez de Avellaneda,” for she has neither the +monk’s mastery of poetic form <span class="correction" title="amended from not">nor</span> the nun’s sublime simplicity of +soul. She has a grandiose tragical vision of life, a vigorous +eloquence rooted in pietistic pessimism, a dramatic gift effective +in isolated acts or scenes; but she is deficient in constructive +power and in intellectual force, and her lyrics, though instinct +with melancholy beauty, or the tenderness of resigned devotion, +too often lack human passion and sympathy. The edition of her +<i>Obras literarias</i> (5 vols., 1869-1871), still incomplete, shows a +scrupulous care for minute revision uncommon in Spanish +writers; but her emendations are seldom happy. But she is +interesting as a link between the classic and romantic schools of +poetry, and, whatever her artistic shortcomings, she has no rivals +of her own sex in Spain during the 19th century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOMM, SIR WILLIAM MAYNARD<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (1784-1875), British +soldier, was gazetted to the 9th Foot at the age of ten, in recognition +of the services of his father, Lieut.-Colonel William Gomm, +who was killed in the attack on Guadaloupe (1794). He joined +his regiment as a lieutenant in 1799, and fought in Holland under +the duke of York, and subsequently was with Pulteney’s Ferrol +expedition. In 1803 he became Captain, and shortly afterwards +qualified as a staff officer at the High Wycombe military college. +On the general staff he was with Cathcart at Copenhagen, with +Wellington in the Peninsula, and on Moore’s staff at Corunna. +He was also on Chatham’s staff in the disastrous Walcheren +expedition of 1809. In 1810 he rejoined the Peninsular army as +Leith’s staff officer, and took part in all the battles of 1810, +1811 and 1812, winning his majority after Fuentes d’Onor and +his lieutenant-colonelcy at Salamanca. His careful reconnaissances +and skilful leading were invaluable to Wellington in the +Vittoria campaign, and to the end of the war he was one of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>230</span> +most trusted men of his staff. His reward was a transfer to the +Coldstream Guards and the K.C.B. In the Waterloo campaign +he served on the staff of the 5th British Division. From the +peace until 1839 he was employed on home service, becoming +colonel in 1829 and major-general in 1837. From 1839 to 1842 +he commanded the troops in Jamaica. He became lieutenant-general +in 1846, and was sent out to be commander-in-chief in +India, arriving only to find that his appointment had been +cancelled in favour of Sir Charles Napier, whom, however, he +eventually succeeded (1850-1855). In 1854 he became general +and in 1868 field marshal. In 1872 he was appointed constable +of the Tower, and he died in 1875. He was twice married, but +had no children. His <i>Letters and Journals</i> were published by +F. C. Carr-Gomm in 1881. Five “Field Marshal Gomm” +scholarships were afterwards founded in his memory at Keble +College, Oxford.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOMPERS, SAMUEL<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (1850-  ), American labour leader, +was born in London on the 27th of January 1850. He was +put to work in a shoe-factory when ten years old, but soon +became apprenticed to a cigar-maker, removed to New York +in 1863, became a prominent member of the International +Cigar-makers’ Union, was its delegate at the convention of the +Federation of Organized Trade and Labor Unions of the United +States and Canada, later known as the American Federation of +Labor, of which he became first president in 1882. He was +successively re-elected up to 1895, when the opposition of the +Socialist Labor Party, then attempting to incorporate the +Federation into itself, secured his defeat; he was re-elected +in the following year. In 1894 he became editor of the Federation’s +organ, <i>The American Federationist</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOMPERZ, THEODOR<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (1832-  ), German philosopher and +classical scholar, was born at Brünn on the 29th of March 1832. +He studied at Brünn and at Vienna under Herman Bonitz. +Graduating at Vienna in 1867 he became <i>Privatdozent</i>, and +subsequently professor of classical philology (1873). In 1882 +he was elected a member of the Academy of Science. He +received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy <i>honoris causa</i> from +the university of Königsberg, and Doctor of Literature from +the universities of Dublin and Cambridge, and became correspondent +for several learned societies. His principal works are: +<i>Demosthenes der Staatsmann</i> (1864), <i>Philodemi de ira liber</i> (1864). +<i>Traumdeutung und Zauberei</i> (1866), <i>Herkulanische Studien</i> +(1865-1866), <i>Beiträge zur Kritik und Erklärung griech. Schriftsteller</i> +(7 vols., 1875-1900), <i>Neue Bruchstücke Epikurs</i> (1876), +<i>Die Bruchstücke der griech. Tragiker und Cobets neueste kritische +Manier</i> (1878), <i>Herodoteische Studien</i> (1883), <i>Ein bisher unbekanntes +griech. Schriftsystem</i> (1884), <i>Zu Philodems Büchern +von der Musik</i> (1885), <i>Über den Abschluss des herodoteischen +Geschichtswerkes</i> (1886), <i>Platonische Aufsätze</i> (3 vols., 1887-1905), +<i>Zu Heraklits Lehre und den Überresten seines Werkes</i> (1887), +<i>Zu Aristoteles’ Poëtik</i> (2 parts, 1888-1896), <i>Über die Charaktere +Theophrasts</i> (1888), <i>Nachlese zu den Bruchstücken der griech. +Tragiker</i> (1888), <i>Die Apologie der Heilkunst</i> (1890), <i>Philodem +und die ästhetischen Schriften der herculanischen Bibliothek</i> (1891), +<i>Die Schrift vom Staatswesen der Athener</i> (1891), <i>Die jüngst entdeckten +Überreste einer den Platonischen Phädon enthaltenden Papyrusrolle</i> +(1892), <i>Aus der Hekale des Kallimachos</i> (1893), <i>Essays +und Erinnerungen</i> (1905). He supervised a translation of J. S. +Mill’s complete works (12 vols., Leipzig, 1869-1880), and +wrote a life (Vienna, 1889) of Mill. His <i>Griechische Denker: +Geschichte der antiken Philosophie</i> (vols. i. and ii., Leipzig, 1893 +and 1902) was translated into English by L. Magnus (vol. i., 1901).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GONAGUAS<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (“borderers”), descendants of a very old cross +between the Hottentots and the Kaffirs, on the “ethnical divide” +between the two races, apparently before the arrival of the +whites in South Africa. They have been always a despised race +and regarded as outcasts by the Bantu peoples. They were +threatened with extermination during the Kaffir wars, but were +protected by the British. At present they live in settled communities +under civil magistrates without any tribal organization, +and in some districts could be scarcely distinguished from the other +natives but for their broken Hottentot-Dutch-English speech.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GONÇALVES DIAS, ANTONIO<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1823-1864), Brazilian lyric +poet, was born near the town of Caxias, in Maranhão. From the +university of Coimbra, in Portugal, he returned in 1845 to his +native province, well-equipped with legal lore, but the literary +tendency which was strong within him led him to try his fortune +as an author at Rio de Janeiro. Here he wrote for the newspaper +press, ventured to appear as a dramatist, and in 1846 established +his reputation by a volume of poems—<i>Primeiros Cantos</i>—which +appealed to the national feelings of his Brazilian readers, were +remarkable for their autobiographic impress, and by their beauty +of expression and rhythm placed their author at the head of the +lyric poets of his country. In 1848 he followed up his success by +<i>Segundos Cantos e sextilhas de Frei Antão</i>, in which, as the title +indicates, he puts a number of the pieces in the mouth of a simple +old Dominican friar; and in the following year, in fulfilment of +the duties of his new post as professor of Brazilian history in the +Imperial College of Pedro II. at Rio de Janeiro, he published an +edition of Berredo’s <i>Annaes historicos do Maranhão</i> and added a +sketch of the migrations of the Indian tribes. A third volume of +poems, which appeared with the title of <i>Ultimos Cantos</i> in 1851, +was practically the poet’s farewell to the service of the muse, for +he spent the next eight years engaged under government patronage +in studying the state of public instruction in the north and the +educational institutions of Europe. On his return to Brazil in +1860 he was appointed a member of an expedition for the exploration +of the province of Ceará, was forced in 1862 by the state of +his health to try the effects of another visit to Europe, and died in +September 1864, the vessel that was carrying him being wrecked +off his native shores. While in Germany he published at Leipzig +a complete collection of his lyrical poems, which went through +several editions, the four first cantos of an epic poem called <i>Os +Tymbiras</i> (1857) and a <i>Diccionario da lingua Tupy</i> (1858).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A complete edition of the works of Dias has made its appearance +at Rio de Janeiro. See Wolf, <i>Brésil littéraire</i> (Berlin, 1863); Innocencio +de Silva, <i>Diccionario bibliographico portuguez</i>, viii. 157; +Sotero dos Reis, <i>Curso de litteratura portugueza e brazileira</i>, +iv. (Maranhão, 1868); José Verissimo, <i>Estudos de literatura +brazileira, segunda serie</i> (Rio, 1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GONCHAROV, IVAN ALEXANDROVICH<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1812-1891), Russian +novelist, was born 6/18 July 1812, being the son of a rich +merchant in the town of Simbirsk. At the age of ten he was +placed in one of the gymnasiums at Moscow, from which he passed, +though not without some difficulty on account of his ignorance +of Greek, into the Moscow University. He read many French +works of fiction, and published a translation of one of the novels +of Eugène Sue. During his university career he devoted himself +to study, taking no interest in the political and Socialistic agitation +among his fellow-students. He was first employed as secretary to +the governor of Simbirsk, and afterwards in the ministry of +finance at St Petersburg. Being absorbed in bureaucratic work, +Goncharov paid no attention to the social questions then ardently +discussed by such men as Herzen, Aksakov and Bielinski. He +began his literary career by publishing translations from Schiller, +Goethe and English novelists. His first original work was +<i>Obuiknovennaya Istoria</i>, “A Common Story” (1847). In 1856 he +sailed to Japan as secretary to Admiral Putiatin for the purpose of +negotiating a commercial treaty, and on his return to Russia he +published a description of the voyage under the title of “The +Frigate <i>Pallada</i>.” His best work is <i>Oblomov</i> (1857), which exposed +the laziness and apathy of the smaller landed gentry in Russia +anterior to the reforms of Alexander II. Russian critics have +pronounced this work to be a faithful characterization of Russia +and the Russians. Dobrolubov said of it, “Oblomofka [the +country-seat of the Oblomovs] is our fatherland: something of +Oblomov is to be found in every one of us.” Peesarev, another +celebrated critic, declared that “Oblomovism,” as Goncharov +called the sum total of qualities with which he invested the hero +of his story, “is an illness fostered by the nature of the Slavonic +character and the life of Russian society.” In 1858 Goncharov +was appointed a censor, and in 1868 he published another novel +called <i>Obreev</i>. He was not a voluminous writer, and during the +latter part of his life produced nothing of any importance. His +death occurred on 15/27 September 1891.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id="page231"></a>231</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GONCOURT, DE,<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> a name famous in French literary history. +<span class="sc">Edmond Louis Antoine Huot de Goncourt</span> was born at +Nancy on the 26th of May 1822, and died at Champrosay on the +16th of July 1896. <span class="sc">Jules Alfred Huot de Goncourt</span>, his +brother, was born in Paris on the 17th of December 1830, and +died in Paris on the 20th of June 1870.</p> + +<p>Writing always in collaboration, until the death of the younger, +it was their ambition to be not merely novelists, inventing a new +kind of novel, but historians; not merely historians, but the +historians of a particular century, and of what was intimate and +what is unknown in it; to be also discriminating, indeed innovating, +critics of art, but of a certain section of art, the 18th century, in +France and Japan; and also to collect pictures and bibelots, +always of the French and Japanese 18th century. Their histories +(<i>Portraits intimes du XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1857), <i>La Femme au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> +siècle</i> (1862), <i>La du Barry</i> (1878), &c.) are made entirely out of +documents, autograph letters, scraps of costume, engravings, +songs, the unconscious self-revelations of the time; their three +volumes on <i>L’Art du XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1859-1875) deal with Watteau +and his followers in the same scrupulous, minutely enlightening +way, with all the detail of unpublished documents; and when +they came to write novels, it was with a similar attempt to give +the inner, undiscovered, minute truths of contemporary existence, +the <i>inédit</i> of life. The same morbidly sensitive noting of the +<i>inédit</i>, of whatever came to them from their own sensations of +things and people around them, gives its curious quality to the +nine volumes of the <i>Journal</i>, 1887-1896, which will remain, +perhaps, the truest and most poignant chapter of human history +that they have written. Their novels, <i>Sœur Philomène</i> (1861), +<i>Renée Mauperin</i> (1864), <i>Germinie Lacerteux</i> (1865), <i>Manette +Salomon</i> (1865), <i>Madame Gervaisais</i> (1869), and, by Edmond +alone, <i>La Fille Elisa</i> (1878), <i>Les Frères Zemganno</i> (1879), <i>La +Faustin</i> (1882), <i>Chérie</i> (1884), are, however, the work by which +they will live as artists. Learning something from Flaubert, and +teaching almost everything to Zola, they invented a new kind of +novel, and their novels are the result of a new vision of the world, +in which the very element of sight is decomposed, as in a picture +of Monet. Seen through the nerves, in this conscious abandonment +to the tricks of the eyesight, the world becomes a thing of +broken patterns and conflicting colours, and uneasy movement. +A novel of the Goncourts is made up of an infinite number of +details, set side by side, every detail equally prominent. While a +novel of Flaubert, for all its detail, gives above all things an +impression of unity, a novel of the Goncourts deliberately dispenses +with unity in order to give the sense of the passing of life, the +heat and form of its moments as they pass. It is written in little +chapters, sometimes no longer than a page, and each chapter is a +separate notation of some significant event, some emotion or sensation +which seems to throw sudden light on the picture of a soul. +To the Goncourts humanity is as pictorial a thing as the world it +moves in; they do not search further than “the physical basis +of life,” and they find everything that can be known of that +unknown force written visibly upon the sudden faces of little +incidents, little expressive moments. The soul, to them, is a +series of moods, which succeed one another, certainly without +any of the too arbitrary logic of the novelist who has conceived of +character as a solid or consistent thing. Their novels are hardly +stories at all, but picture-galleries, hung with pictures of the +momentary aspects of the world. French critics have complained +that the language of the Goncourts is no longer French, no longer +the French of the past; and this is true. It is their distinction—the +finest of their inventions—that, in order to render new +sensations, a new vision of things, they invented a new +language.</p> +<div class="author">(A. Sy.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In his will Edmond de Goncourt left his estate for the endowment +of an academy, the formation of which was entrusted to MM. +Alphonse Daudet and Léon Hennique. The society was to consist of +ten members, each of whom was to receive an annuity of 6000 francs, +and a yearly prize of 5000 francs was to be awarded to the author of +some work of fiction. Eight of the members of the new academy +were nominated in the will. They were: Alphonse Daudet, J. K. +Huysmans, Léon Hennique, Octave Mirbeau, the two brothers +J. H. Rosny, Gustave Geffroy and Paul Margueritte. On the 19th +of January 1903, after much litigation, the academy was constituted, +with Elémir Bourges, Lucien Descaves and Léon Daudet as members +in addition to those mentioned in de Goncourt’s will, the place of +Alphonse Daudet having been left vacant by his death in 1897.</p> + +<p>On the brothers de Goncourt see the <i>Journal des Goncourt</i> already +cited; also M. A. Belloc (afterwards Lowndes) and M. L. Shedlock, +<i>Edmond and Jules de Goncourt, with Letters and Leaves from their +Journals</i> (1895); Alidor Delzant, <i>Les Goncourt</i> (1889) which contains +a valuable bibliography; <i>Lettres de Jules de Goncourt</i> (1888), with +preface by H. Céard; R. Doumic, <i>Portraits d’écrivains</i> (1892); Paul +Bourget, <i>Nouveaux Essais de psychologie contemporaine</i> (1886); +Émile Zola, <i>Les Romanciers naturalistes</i> (1881). &c.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GONDA,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Fyzabad +division of the United Provinces. The town is 28 m. N.W. of +Fyzabad, and is an important junction on the Bengal & North-Western +railway. The site on which it stands was originally a +jungle, in the centre of which was a cattle-fold (<i>Gontha</i> or <i>Gothah</i>), +where the cattle were enclosed at night as a protection against +wild beasts, and from this the town derives its name. Pop. +(1901) 15,811. The cantonments were abandoned in 1863.</p> + +<p>The district of Gonda has an area of 2813 sq. m. It consists +of a vast plain with very slight undulations, studded with groves +of mango trees. The surface consists of a rich alluvial deposit +which is naturally divided into three great belts known as the +<i>tarai</i> or swampy tract, the <i>uparhar</i> or uplands, and the <i>tarhar</i> +or wet lowlands, all three being marvellously fertile. Several +rivers flow through the district, but only two, the Gogra and +Rapti, are of any commercial importance, the first being navigable +throughout the year, and the latter during the rainy season. +The country is dotted with small lakes, the water of which is +largely used for irrigation. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in +1857, the raja of Gonda, after honourably escorting the government +treasure to Fyzabad, joined the rebels. His estates, along +with those of the rani of Tulsipur, were confiscated, and conferred +as rewards upon the maharajas of Balrampur and Ajodhya, who +had remained loyal. In 1901 the population was 1,403,195, +showing a decrease of 4% in one decade. The district is traversed +by the main line and three branches of the Bengal & Northwestern +railway.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GONDAL,<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> a native state of India, in the Kathiawar political +agency of Bombay, situated in the centre of the peninsula of +Kathiawar. Its area is 1024 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 162,859. The +estimated gross revenue is about £100,000, and the tribute +£7000. Grain and cotton are the chief products. The chief, +whose title is Thakur Sahib, is a Jadeja Rajput, of the same clan +as the Rao of Cutch. The Thakur Sahib, Sir Bhagvat Sinhji +(b. 1865), was educated at the Rajkot college, and afterwards +graduated in arts and medicine at the university of Edinburgh. +He published (in English) a <i>Journal of a Visit to England</i> and +<i>A Short History of Aryan Medical Science</i>. In 1892 he received +the honorary degree of D.C.L. of Oxford University. He was +created K.C.I.E. in 1887 and G.C.I.E. in 1897. The state has +long been conspicuous for its progressive administration. It +is traversed by a railway connecting it with Bhaunagar, Rajkot +and the sea-board. The town of Gondal is 23 m. by rail S. of +Rajkot; pop. (1901) 19,592.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GONDAR,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> properly <span class="sc">Guendar</span>, a town of Abyssinia, formerly +the capital of the Amharic kingdom, situated on a basaltic ridge +some 7500 ft. above the sea, about 21 m. N.E. of Lake Tsana, +a splendid view of which is obtained from the castle. Two +streams, the Angreb on the east side and the Gaha or Kaha on +the west, flow from the ridge, and meeting below the town, pass +onwards to the lake. In the early years of the 20th century the +town was much decayed, numerous ruins of castles, palaces +and churches indicating its former importance. It was never a +compact city, being divided into districts separated from each +other by open spaces. The chief quarters were those of the +Abun-Bed or bishop, the Etchege-Bed or chief of the monks, +the Debra Berhan or Church of the Light, and the Gemp or +castle. There was also a quarter for the Mahommedans. Gondar +was a small village when at the beginning of the 16th century +it was chosen by the Negus Sysenius (Seged I.) as the capital +of his kingdom. His son Fasilidas, or A’lem-Seged (1633-1667), +was the builder of the castle which bears his name. Later +emperors built other castles and palaces, the latest in date being +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>232</span> +that of the Negus Yesu II. This was erected about 1736, at +which time Gondar appears to have been at the height of its +prosperity. Thereafter it suffered greatly from the civil wars +which raged in Abyssinia, and was more than once sacked. In +1868 it was much injured by the emperor Theodore, who did +not spare either the castle or the churches. After the defeat +of the Abyssinians at Debra Sin in August 1887 Gondar was +looted and fired by the dervishes under Abu Anga. Although +they held the town but a short time they inflicted very great +damage, destroying many churches, further damaging the castles +and carrying off much treasure. The population, estimated by +James Bruce in 1770 at 10,000 families, had dwindled in 1905 +to about 7000. Since the pacification of the Sudan by the +British (1886-1889) there has been some revival of trade between +Gondar and the regions of the Blue Nile. Among the inhabitants +are numbers of Mahommedans, and there is a settlement of +Falashas. Cotton, cloth, gold and silver ornaments, copper +wares, fancy articles in bone and ivory, excellent saddles and +shoes are among the products of the local industry.</p> + +<p>Unlike any other buildings in Abyssinia, the castles and +palaces of Gondar resemble, with some modifications, the +medieval fortresses of Europe, the style of architecture being +the result of the presence in the country of numbers of Portuguese. +The Portuguese were expelled by Fasilidas, but his castle was +built, by Indian workmen, under the superintendence of +Abyssinians who had learned something of architecture from the +Portuguese adventurers, helped possibly by Portuguese still in +the country. The castle has two storeys, is 90 ft. by 84 ft., +has a square tower and circular domed towers at the corners. +The most extensive ruins are a group of royal buildings enclosed +in a wall. These ruins include the palace of Yesu II., which has +several fine chambers. Christian Levantines were employed in +its construction and it was decorated in part with Venetian +mirrors, &c. In the same enclosure is a small castle attributed +to Yesu I. The exterior walls of the castles and palaces named +are little damaged and give to Gondar a unique character among +African towns. Of the forty-four churches, all in the circular +Abyssinian style, which are said to have formerly existed in +Gondar or its immediate neighbourhood, Major Powell-Cotton +found only one intact in 1900. This church contained some +well-executed native paintings of St George and the Dragon, +The Last Supper, &c. Among the religious observances of the +Christians of Gondar is that of bathing in large crowds in the +Gaha on the Feast of the Baptist, and again, though in more +orderly fashion, on Christmas day.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Rüppell, <i>Reise in Abyssinien</i> (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1838-1840); +T. von Heuglin, <i>Reise nach Abessinien</i> (Jena, 1868); G. +Lejean, <i>Voyage en Abyssinie</i> (Paris, 1872); Achille Raffray, <i>Afrique +orientale; Abyssinie</i> (Paris, 1876); P. H. G. Powell-Cotton, <i>A +Sporting Trip through Abyssinia</i>, chaps. 27-30 (London, 1902); and +<i>Boll. Soc. Geog. Italiana</i> for 1909. Views of the castle are given by +Heuglin, Raffray and Powell-Cotton.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GONDOKORO,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> a government station and trading-place on the +east bank of the upper Nile, in 4° 54′ N., 31° 43′ E. It is the +headquarters of the Northern Province of the (British) Uganda +protectorate, is 1070 m. by river S. of Khartum and 350 m. +N.N.W. in a direct line of Entebbe on Victoria Nyanza. The +station, which is very unhealthy, is at the top of a cliff 25 ft. +above the river-level. Besides houses for the civil and military +authorities and the lines for the troops, there are a few huts +inhabited by Bari, the natives of this part of the Nile. The +importance of Gondokoro lies in the fact that it is within a few +miles of the limit of navigability of the Nile from Khartum up +stream. From this point the journey to Uganda is continued +overland.</p> + +<p>Gondokoro was first visited by Europeans in 1841-1842, +when expeditions sent out by Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, +ascended the Nile as far as the foot of the rapids above Gondokoro. +It soon became an ivory and slave-trading centre. In 1851 an +Austrian Roman Catholic mission was established here, but it +was abandoned in 1859. It was at Gondokoro that J. H. Speke +and J. A. Grant, descending the Nile after their discovery of its +source, met, on the 15th of February 1863, Mr (afterwards Sir) +Samuel Baker and his wife who were journeying up the river. +In 1871 Baker, then governor-general of the equatorial provinces +of Egypt, established a military post at Gondokoro which he +named Ismailia, after the then khedive. Baker made this post +his headquarters, but Colonel (afterwards General) C. G. Gordon, +who succeeded him in 1874, abandoned the station on account +of its unhealthy site, removing to Lado. Gondokoro, however, +remained a trading-station. It fell into the hands of the Mahdists +in 1885. After the destruction of the Mahdist power in 1898 +Gondokoro was occupied by British troops and has since formed +the northernmost post on the Nile of the Uganda protectorate +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sudan</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nile</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Uganda</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GONDOMAR, DIEGO SARMIENTO DE ACUÑA,<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count of</span> +(1567-1626), Spanish diplomatist, was the son of Garcia Sarmiento +de Sotomayor, corregidor of Granada, and governor of the +Canary Islands, by his marriage with Juana de Acuña, an +heiress. Diego Sarmiento, their eldest son, was born in the +parish of Gondomar, in the bishopric of Tuy, Galicia, Spain, +on the 1st of November 1567. He inherited wide estates both +in Galicia and in Old Castile. In 1583 he was appointed by +Philip II. to the military command of the Portuguese frontier +and sea coast of Galicia. He is said to have taken an active +part in the repulse of an English coast-raid in 1585, and in the +defence of the country during the unsuccessful English attack +on Corunna in 1589. In 1593 he was named corregidor of Toro. +In 1603 he was sent from court to Vigo to superintend the +distribution of the treasure brought from America by two +galleons which were driven to take refuge at Vigo, and on his +return was named a member of the board of finance. In 1609 +he was again employed on the coast of Galicia, this time to repel +a naval attack made by the Dutch. Although he held military +commands, and administrative posts, his habitual residence was +at Valladolid, where he owned the Casa del Sol and was already +collecting his fine library. He was known as a courtier, and +apparently as a friend of the favourite, the duke of Lerma. +In 1612 he was chosen as ambassador in England, but did not +leave to take up his appointment till May 1613.</p> + +<p>His reputation as a diplomatist is based on his two periods +of service in England from 1613 to 1618 and from 1619 to 1622. +The excellence of his latinity pleased the literary tastes of James +I., whose character he judged with remarkable insight. He +flattered the king’s love of books and of peace, and he made +skilful use of his desire for a matrimonial alliance between the +prince of Wales and a Spanish infanta. The ambassador’s +task was to keep James from aiding the Protestant states +against Spain and the house of Austria, and to avert English +attacks on Spanish possessions in America. His success made +him odious to the anti-Spanish and puritan parties. The active +part he took in promoting the execution of Sir Walter Raleigh +aroused particular animosity. He was attacked in pamphlets, +and the dramatist Thomas Middleton made him a principal +person in the strange political play <i>A Game of Chess</i>, which was +suppressed by order of the council. In 1617 Sarmiento was +created count of Gondomar. In 1618 he obtained leave to come +home for his health, but was ordered to return by way of Flanders +and France with a diplomatic mission. In 1619 he returned to +London, and remained till 1622, when he was allowed to retire. +On his return he was named a member of the royal council and +governor of one of the king’s palaces, and was appointed to a +complimentary mission to Vienna. Gondomar was in Madrid +when the prince of Wales—afterwards Charles I.—made his +journey there in search of a wife. He died at the house of the +constable of Castile, near Haro in the Rioja, on the 2nd of +October 1626.</p> + +<p>Gondomar was twice married, first to his niece Beatrix +Sarmiento, by whom he had no children, and then to his cousin +Constanza de Acuña, by whom he had four sons and three +daughters. The hatred he aroused in England, which was +shown by constant jeers at the intestinal complaint from which +he suffered for years, was the best tribute to the zeal with which +he served his own master. Gondomar collected, both before he +came to London and during his residence there, a very fine +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id="page233"></a>233</span> +library of printed books and manuscripts. Orders for the +arrangement, binding and storing of his books in his house at +Valladolid take a prominent place in his voluminous correspondence. +In 1785 the library was ceded by his descendant and +representative the marquis of Malpica to King Charles III., +and it is now in the Royal Library at Madrid. A portrait of +Gondomar, attributed to Valazquez, was formerly at Stowe. +It was mezzotinted by Robert Cooper.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Gondomar’s missions to England are largely dealt +with in S. R. Gardiner’s <i>History of England</i> (London, 1883-1884). +In Spanish, Don Pascual de Gayangos wrote a useful biographical +introduction to a publication of a few of his letters—<i>Cinco Cartas +politico-literarias de Don Diego Sarmiento de Acuña, Conde de +Gondomar</i>, issued at Madrid 1869 by the <i>Sociedad de Bibliófilos</i> of the +Spanish Academy; and there is a life in English by F. H. Lyon +(1910).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GONDOPHARES,<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gondophernes</span>, an Indo-Parthian king +who ruled over the Kabul valley and the Punjab. By means +of his coins his accession may be dated with practical certainty +at <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 21, and his reign lasted for some thirty years. He is +notable for his association with St Thomas in early Christian +tradition. The legend is that India fell to St Thomas, who +showed unwillingness to start until Christ appeared in a vision +and ordered him to serve King Gondophares and build him a +palace. St Thomas accordingly went to India and suffered +martyrdom there. This legend is not incompatible with what +is known of the chronology of Gondophares’ reign.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GONDWANA,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> the historical name for a large tract of hilly +country in India which roughly corresponds with the greater +part of the present Central Provinces. It is derived from the +aboriginal tribe of Gonds, who still form the largest element +in the population and who were at one time the ruling power. +From the 12th to as late as the 18th century three or four Gond +dynasties reigned over this region with a degree of civilization +that seems surprising when compared with the existing condition +of the people. They built large walled cities, and accumulated +immense treasures of gold and silver and jewels. On the whole, +they maintained their independence fairly well against the +Mahommedans, being subject only to a nominal submission and +occasional payment of tribute. But when the Mahratta invaders +appeared, soon after the beginning of the 18th century, the Gond +kingdoms offered but a feeble resistance and the aboriginal +population fled for safety to the hills. Gondwana was thus +included in the dominions of the Bhonsla raja of Nagpur, from +whom it finally passed to the British in 1853.</p> + +<p>The Gonds, who call themselves Koitur or “highlanders,” +are the most numerous tribe of Dravidian race in India. Their +total number in 1901 was 2,286,913, of whom nearly two millions +were enumerated in the Central Provinces, where they form 20% +of the population. They have a language of their own, with +many dialects, which is intermediate between the two great +Dravidian languages, Tamil and Telugu. It is unwritten and +has no literature, except a little provided by the missionaries. +More than half the Gonds in the Central Provinces have now +abandoned their own dialects, and have adopted Aryan forms +of speech. This indicates the extent to which they have become +Hinduized. The higher class among them, called Raj Gonds, +have been definitely admitted into Hinduism as a pure cultivating +caste; but the great majority still retain the animistic beliefs, +ceremonial observances and impure customs of food which are +common to most of the aboriginal tribes of India.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GONFALON<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (the late French and Italian form, also found in +other Romanic languages, of <i>gonfanon</i>, which is derived from +the O.H. Ger. <i>gundfano</i>, <i>gund</i>, war, and <i>fano</i>, flag, cf. Mod. Ger. +<i>Fahne</i>, and English “vane”), a banner or standard of the +middle ages. It took the form of a small pennon attached below +the head of a knight’s lance, or when used in religious processions +and ceremonies, or as the banner of a city or state or military +order, it became a many-streamered rectangular ensign, frequently +swinging from a cross-bar attached to a pole. This is +the most frequent use of the word. The title of “gonfalonier,” +the bearer of the gonfalon, was in the middle ages both military +and civil. It was borne by the counts of Vexin, as leaders of the +men of Saint Denis, and when the Vexin was incorporated in the +kingdom of France the title of <i>Gonfalonier de Sant Denis</i> passed +to the kings of France, who thus became the bearers of the +“oriflamme,” as the banner of St Denis was called. “Gonfalonier” +was the title of civic magistrates of various degrees +of authority in many of the city republics of Italy, notably of +Florence, Sienna and Lucca. At Florence the functions of the +office varied. At first the gonfaloniers were the leaders of the +various military divisions of the inhabitants. In 1293 was +created the office of gonfalonier of justice, who carried out the +orders of the signiory. By the end of the 14th century the +gonfalonier was the chief of the signiory. At Lucca he was the +chief magistrate of the republic. At Rome two gonfaloniers +must be distinguished, that of the church and that of the +Roman people; both offices were conferred by the pope. The +first was usually granted to sovereigns, who were bound to +defend the church and lead her armies. The second bore a +standard with the letters S.P.Q.R. on any enterprise undertaken +in the name of the church and the people of Rome, and also at +ceremonies, processions, &c. This was granted by the pope to +distinguished families. Thus the Cesarini held the office till +the end of the 17th century. The Pamphili held it from 1686 +till 1764.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GONG<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (Chinese, <i>gong-gong</i> or <i>tam-tam</i>), a sonorous or musical +instrument of Chinese origin and manufacture, made in the form +of a broad thin disk with a deep rim. Gongs vary in diameter +from about 20 to 40 in., and they are made of bronze containing +a maximum of 22 parts of tin to 78 of copper; but in many cases +the proportion of tin is considerably less. Such an alloy, when +cast and allowed to cool slowly, is excessively brittle, but it can be +tempered and annealed in a peculiar manner. If suddenly cooled +from a cherry-red heat, the alloy becomes so soft that it can be +hammered and worked on the lathe, and afterwards it may be +hardened by re-heating and cooling it slowly. In these properties +it will be observed, the alloy behaves in a manner exactly opposite +to steel, and the Chinese avail themselves of the known peculiarities +for preparing the thin sheets of which gongs are made. They +cool their castings of bronze in water, and after hammering out +the alloy in the soft state, harden the finished gongs by heating +them to a cherry-red and allowing them to cool slowly. These +properties of the alloy long remained a secret, said to have been +first discovered in Europe by Jean Pierre Joseph d’Arcet at the +beginning of the 19th century. Riche and Champion are said +to have succeeded in producing tam-tams having all the qualities +and timbre of the Chinese instruments. The composition of the +alloy of bronze used for making gongs is stated to be as follows:<a name="fa1u" id="fa1u" href="#ft1u"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +Copper, 76.52; Tin, 22.43; Lead, 0.62; Zinc, 0.23; Iron, 0.18. +The gong is beaten with a round, hard, leather-covered pad, +fitted on a short stick or handle. It emits a peculiarly sonorous +sound, its complex vibrations bursting into a wave-like succession +of tones, sometimes shrill, sometimes deep. In China and Japan +it is used in religious ceremonies, state processions, marriages +and other festivals; and it is said that the Chinese can modify +its tone variously by particular ways of striking the disk.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The gong has been effectively used in the orchestra to intensify the +impression of fear and horror in melodramatic scenes. The tam-tam +was first introduced into a western orchestra by François Joseph +Gossec in the funeral march composed at the death of Mirabeau in +1791. Gaspard Spontini used it in <i>La Vestale</i> (1807), in the finale of +act II., an impressive scene in which the high pontiff pronounces the +anathema on the faithless vestal. It was also used in the funeral +music played when the remains of Napoleon the Great were brought +back to France in 1840. Meyerbeer made use of the instrument in the +scene of the resurrection of the three nuns in <i>Robert le diable</i>. Four +tam-tams are now used at Bayreuth in <i>Parsifal</i> to reinforce the bell +instruments, although there is no indication given in the score (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Parsifal</a></span>). The tam-tam has been treated from its ethnographical +side by Franz Heger.<a name="fa2u" id="fa2u" href="#ft2u"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> +</div> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1u" id="ft1u" href="#fa1u"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See <i>La grande Encyclopédie</i>, vol. viii. (Paris), “Bronze,” p. 146a.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2u" id="ft2u" href="#fa2u"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Alte Metalltrommeln aus Südost-Asien</i> (Leipzig, 1902). Bd. i., +Text; Bd. ii., Tafeln.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÓNGORA Y ARGOTE, LUIS DE<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (1561-1627), Spanish lyric +poet, was born at Cordova on the 11th of July 1561. His father, +Francisco de Argote, was <i>corregidor</i> of that city; the poet early +adopted the surname of his mother, Leonora de Góngora, who +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234"></a>234</span> +was descended from an ancient family. At the age of fifteen he +entered as a student of civil and canon law at the university of +Salamanca; but he obtained no academic distinctions and was +content with an ordinary pass degree. He was already known +as a poet in 1585 when Cervantes praised him in the <i>Galatea</i>; in +this same year he took minor orders, and shortly afterwards +was nominated to a canonry at Cordova. About 1605-1606 +he was ordained priest, and thenceforth resided principally at +Valladolid and Madrid, where, as a contemporary remarks, he +“noted and stabbed at everything with his satirical pen.” His +circle of admirers was now greatly enlarged; but the acknowledgment +accorded to his singular genius was both slight and tardy. +Ultimately indeed, through the influence of the duke of Sandoval, +he obtained an appointment as honorary chaplain to Philip III., +but even this slight honour he was not permitted long to enjoy. +In 1626 a severe illness, which seriously impaired his memory, +compelled his retirement to Cordova, where he died on the 24th +of May 1627. An edition of his poems was published almost +immediately after his death by Juan Lopez de Vicuña; the +frequently reprinted edition by Hozes did not appear till 1633. +The collection consists of numerous sonnets, odes, ballads, songs +for the guitar, and of certain larger poems, such as the <i>Soledades</i> +and the <i>Polifemo</i>. Too many of them exhibit that tortuous +elaboration of style (<i>estilo culto</i>) with which the name of Góngora +is inseparably associated; but though Góngora has been justly +censured for affected Latinisms, unnatural transpositions, strained +metaphors and frequent obscurity, it must be admitted that he +was a man of rare genius,—a fact cordially acknowledged by +those of his contemporaries who were most capable of judging. +It was only in the hands of those who imitated Góngora’s style +without inheriting his genius that <i>culteranismo</i> became absurd. +Besides his lyrical poems Góngora is the author of a play entitled +<i>Las Firmezas de Isabel</i> and of two incomplete dramas, the +<i>Comedia venatoria</i> and <i>El Doctor Carlino</i>. The only satisfactory +edition of his works is that published by R. Foulché-Delbose in +the <i>Bibliotheca Hispanica</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Edward Churton, <i>Góngora</i> (London, 1862, 2 vols.); M. +González y Francés, <i>Góngora racionero</i> (Córdoba, 1895); M. González +y Francés, <i>Don Luis de Góngora vindicando su fama ante el propio +obispo</i> (Córdoba, 1899); “Vingt-six Lettres de Góngora” in the <i>Revue +hispanique</i>, vol. x. pp. 184-225 (Paris, 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GONIOMETER<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="gonia">γωνία</span>, angle, and <span class="grk" title="metron">μέτρον</span>, measure), +an instrument for measuring the angles of crystals; there are two +kinds—the contact goniometer and the reflecting goniometer. +Nicolaus Stena in 1669 determined the interfacial angles of +quartz crystals by cutting sections perpendicular to the edges, +the plane angles of the sections being then the angles between the +faces which are perpendicular to the sections. The earliest instrument +was the contact goniometer devised by Carangeot in 1783.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:360px; height:243px" src="images/img234a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Contact Goniometer.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Contact Goniometer</i> (or <i>Hand-Goniometer</i>).—This consists of +two metal rules pivoted together at the centre of a graduated semicircle +(fig. 1). The instrument is placed with its plane perpendicular +to an edge between +two faces of the +crystal to be measured, +and the rules +are brought into +contact with the +faces; this is best +done by holding the +crystal up against +the light with the +edge in the line of +sight. The angle +between the rules, +as read on the +graduated semicircle, +then gives +the angle between +the two faces. The +rules are slotted, so that they may be shortened and their tips applied +to a crystal partly embedded in its matrix. The instrument represented +in fig. 1 is practically the same in all its details as that made +for Carangeot, and it is employed at the present day for the approximate +measurement of large crystals with dull and rough faces. +S. L. Penfield (1900) has devised some cheap and simple forms of +contact goniometer, consisting of jointed arms and protractors made +of cardboard or celluloid.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:253px; height:400px" src="images/img234b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Vertical-Circle Goniometer.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>The Reflecting Goniometer.</i>—This is an instrument of far greater +precision, and is always used for the accurate measurement of the +angles when small crystals with bright faces are available. As a rule, +the smaller the crystal the more even are its faces, and when these are +smooth and bright they reflect sharply defined images of a bright +object. By turning the crystal +about an axis parallel to the +edge between two faces, the +image reflected from a second +face may be brought into the +same position as that formerly +occupied by the image reflected +from the first face; the angle +through which the crystal has +been rotated, as determined by +a graduated circle to which the +crystal is fixed, is the angle +between the normals to the +two faces.</p> + +<p>Several forms of instruments +depending on this principle +have been devised, the earliest +being the vertical-circle goniometer +of W. H. Wollaston, +made in 1809. This consists +of a circle <i>m</i> (fig. 2), graduated +to degrees of arc and reading +with the vernier <i>h</i> to minutes, +which turns with the milled +head <i>t</i> about a horizontal +axis. The crystal is attached +with wax (a mixture of beeswax +and pitch) to the holder +q, and by means of the pivoted arcs it may be adjusted so that +the edge between two faces (a zone-axis) is parallel to, and coincident +with, the axis of the instrument. The crystal-holder and adjustment-arcs, +together with the milled head s, are carried on an axis which +passes through the hollow axis of the graduated circle, and may thus +be rotated independently of the circle. In use, the goniometer is +placed directly opposite to a window, with its axis parallel to the +horizontal window-bars, and as far distant as possible. The eye is +placed quite close to the crystal, and the image of an upper window-bar +(or better still a slit in a dark screen) as seen in the crystal-face +is made to coincide with a lower window-bar (or chalk mark on the +floor) as seen directly: this is done by turning the milled head s, +the reading of the graduated circle having previously been observed. +Without moving the eye, the milled head t, together with the crystal, +is then rotated until the image from a second face is brought into the +same position; the difference between the first and second readings +of the graduated circle will then give the angle between the normals +of the two faces.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:377px; height:379px" src="images/img234c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Horizontal-Circle Goniometer.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Several improvements have been made on Wollaston’s goniometer. +The adjustment-arcs have been modified; a mirror of black +glass fixed to the stand beneath the crystal gives a reflected image of +the signal, with +which the reflection +from the +crystal can be +more conveniently +made to coincide; +a telescope +provided with +cross-wires gives +greater precision +to the direction +of the reflected +rays of light; and +with the telescope +a collimator has +sometimes been +used.</p> + +<p>A still greater +improvement was +effected by placing +the graduated +circle in a horizontal +position, +as in the instruments +of E. L. +Malus (1810), F. +C. von Riese (1829) and J. Babinet (1839). Many forms of +the <i>horizontal-circle goniometer</i> have been constructed; they are +provided with a telescope and collimator, and in construction are +essentially the same as a spectrometer, with the addition of arrangements +for adjusting and centring the crystal. The instrument shown +in fig. 3 is made by R. Fuess of Berlin. It has four concentric axes, +which enable the crystal-holder A, together with the adjustment-arcs +B and centring-slides D, to be raised or lowered, or to be rotated +independently of the circle H; further, either the crystal-holder or +the telescope T may be rotated with the circle, while the other +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id="page235"></a>235</span> +remains fixed. The crystal is placed on the holder and adjusted +so that the edge (zone-axis) between two faces is coincident with the +axis of the instrument. Light from an incandescent gas-burner +passes through the slit of the collimator C, and the image of the slit +(signal) reflected from the crystal face is viewed in the telescope. +The clamp a and slow-motion screw F enable the image to be +brought exactly on the cross-wires of the telescope, and the position +of the circle with respect to the vernier is read through the lens. +The crystal and the circle are then rotated together until the image +from a second face is brought on the cross-wires of the telescope, and +the angle through which they have been turned is the angle between +the normals to the two faces. While measuring the angles between +the faces of crystals the telescope remains fixed by the clamp β, but +when this is released the instrument may be used as a spectrometer +or refractometer for determining, by the method of minimum +deviation, the indices of refraction of an artificially cut prism or of a +transparent crystal when the faces are suitably inclined to one +another.</p> + +<p>With a one-circle goniometer, such as is described above, it is +necessary to mount and re-adjust the crystal afresh for the measurement +of each zone of faces (<i>i.e.</i> each set of faces intersecting in parallel +edges); with very small crystals this operation takes a considerable +time, and the minute faces are not readily identified again. Further, +in certain cases, it is not possible to measure the angles between zones, +nor to determine the position of small faces which do not lie in prominent +zones on the crystal. These difficulties have been overcome +by the use of a two-circle goniometer or theodolite-goniometer, +which as a combination of a vertical-circle goniometer and one with a +horizontal-circle was first employed by W. H. Miller in 1874. Special +forms have been designed by E. S. Fedorov (1889), V. Goldschmidt +(1893). S. Czapski (1893) and F. Stoeber (1898), which differ mainly +in the arrangement of the optical parts. In these instruments the +crystal is set up and adjusted once for all, with the axis of a prominent +zone parallel to the axis of either the horizontal or the vertical +circle. As a rule, only in this zone can the angles between the faces be +measured directly; the positions of all the other faces, which need +be observed only once, are fixed by the simultaneous readings of the +two circles. These readings, corresponding to the polar distance and +azimuth, or latitude and longitude readings of astronomical telescopes, +must be plotted on a projection before the symmetry of the +crystal is apparent; and laborious calculations are necessary in +order to determine the indices of the faces and the angles between +them, and the other constants of the crystal, or to test whether any +three faces are accurately in a zone.</p> + +<p>These disadvantages are overcome by adding still another graduated +circle to the instrument, with its axis perpendicular to the axis +of the vertical circle, thus forming a three-circle goniometer. With +such an instrument measurements may be made in any zone or +between any two faces without re-adjusting the crystal; further the +troublesome calculations are avoided, and, indeed, the instrument +may be used for solving spherical triangles. Different forms of +three-circle goniometers have been designed by G. F. H. Smith +(1899 and 1904), E. S. Fedorov (1900) and J. F. C. Klein (1900). +Besides being used as a one-, two-, or three-circle goniometer for +the measurement of the interfacial angles of crystals, and as a refractometer +for determining refractive indices by the prismatic +method or by total reflection, Klein’s instrument, which is called a +polymeter, is fitted with accessory optical apparatus which enables +it to be used for examining a crystal in parallel or convergent polarized +light and for measuring the optic axial angle.</p> + +<p>Goniometers of special construction have been devised for certain +purposes; for instance, the inverted horizontal-circle goniometer of +H. A. Miers (1903) for measuring crystals during their growth in the +mother-liquid. A. E. Tutton (1894) has combined a goniometer with +lapidaries’ appliances for cutting section-plates and prisms from +crystals accurately in any desired direction. The instrument +commonly employed for measuring the optic axial angle of biaxial +crystals is really a combination of a goniometer with a polariscope. +For the optical investigation of minute crystals under the microscope, +various forms of stage-goniometer with one, two or three graduated +circles have been constructed. An ordinary microscope fitted with +cross-wires and a rotating graduated stage serves the purpose of a +goniometer for measuring the plane angles of a crystal face or section, +being the same in principle as the contact goniometer.</p> + +<p>For fuller descriptions of goniometers reference may be made to +the text-books of Crystallography and Mineralogy, especially to +P. H. Groth, <i>Physikalische Krystallographie</i> (4th ed., Leipzig, 1905). +See also C. Leiss, <i>Die optischen Instrumente der Firma R. Fuess, deren +Beschreibung, Justierung und Anwendung</i> (Leipzig, 1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GONTAUT, MARIE JOSÉPHINE LOUISE,<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duchesse de</span> +(1773-1857). was born in Paris on the 3rd of August 1773, +daughter of Augustin François, comte de Montaut-Navailles, +who had been governor of Louis XVI. and his two brothers when +children. The count of Provence (afterwards Louis XVIII.) +and his wife stood sponsors to Joséphine de Montaut, and she +shared the lessons given by Madame de Genlis to the Orleans +family, with whom her mother broke off relations after the outbreak +of the Revolution. Mother and daughter emigrated to +Coblenz in 1792; thence they went to Rotterdam, and finally +to England, where Joséphine married the marquis Charles +Michel de Gontaut-Saint-Blacard. They returned to France +at the Restoration, and resumed their place at court. Madame +de Gontaut became lady-in-waiting to Caroline, duchess of +Berry, and, on the birth of the princess Louise (Mlle d’Artois, +afterwards duchess of Parma), governess to the children of +France. Next year the birth of Henry, duke of Bordeaux +(afterwards known as the comte de Chambord), added to her +charge the heir of the Bourbons. She remained faithful to his +cause all her life. Her husband died in 1822, and in 1827 she +was created duchesse de Gontaut. She followed the exiled royal +family in 1830 to Holyrood Palace, and then to Prague, but in +1834, owing to differences with Pierre Louis, duc de Blacas, who +thought her comparatively liberal views dangerous for the +prince and princess, she received a brusque congé from Charles X. +Her twin daughters, Joséphine (1796-1844) and Charlotte (1796-1818), +married respectively Ferdinand de Chabot, prince de Léon +and afterwards duc de Rohan, and François, comte de Bourbon-Busset. +She herself wrote in her old age some naïve memoirs, +which throw an odd light on the pretensions of the “governess +of the children of France.” She died in Paris in 1857.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See her <i>Memoirs</i> (Eng. ed., 2 vols., 1894), and <i>Lettres inédites</i> (1895).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GONVILE, EDMUND<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (d. 1351), founder of Gonville Hall, +now Gonville and Caius College, at Cambridge, England, is +thought to have been the son of William de Gonvile, and the +brother of Sir Nicholas Gonvile. In 1320 he was rector of +Thelnetham, Suffolk, and steward there for William, earl Warren +and the earl of Lancaster. Six years later he was rector of +Rushworth, and in 1342 rector of Terrington St John and commissioner +for the marshlands of Norfolk. In this year he +founded and endowed a collegiate church at Rushworth, suppressed +in 1541. The foundation of Gonville Hall at Cambridge +was effected by a charter granted by Edward III. in 1348. +It was called, officially, the Hall of the Annunciation of the +Blessed Virgin, but was usually known as Gunnell or Gonville +Hall. Its original site was in Free-school Lane, where Corpus +Christi College now stands. Gonvile apparently wished it to +be devoted to training for theological study, but after his death +the foundation was completed by William Bateman, bishop of +Norwich and founder of Trinity Hall, on a different site and with +considerably altered statutes. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caius, John</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GONZAGA,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> an Italian princely family named after the town +where it probably had its origin. Its known history begins with +the 13th century, when Luigi I. (1267-1360), after fierce struggles +supplanted his brother-in-law Rinaldo (nicknamed Passerino) +Bonacolsi as lord of Mantua in August 1328, with the title of +captain-genera, and afterwards of vicar-general of the empire, +adding the designation of count of Mirandola and Concordia, +which fief the Gonzagas held from 1328 to 1354. In July 1335 +his son Guido, with the help of Filippino and Feltrino Gonzaga, +wrested Reggio from the Scaligeri and held it until 1371. Luigi +was succeeded by Guido (d. 1369); the latter’s son Luigi II. +came next in succession (d. 1382), and then Giovan Francesco I. +(d. 1407), who, although at one time allied with the treacherous +Gian Galeazzo Visconti, incurred the latter’s enmity and all but +lost his estates and his life in consequence; eventually he joined +the Florentines and Bolognese, enemies of Visconti. He promoted +commerce and wisely developed the prosperity of his +dominions. His son Giovan Francesco II. (d. 1444) succeeded him +under the regency of his uncle Carlo Malatesta and the protection +of the Venetians. He became a famous general, and was rewarded +for his services to the emperor Sigismund with the title of +marquess of Mantua for himself and his descendants (1432), an +investiture which legitimatized the usurpations of the house of +Gonzaga. His son Luigi III. “il Turco” (d. 1478) likewise +became a celebrated soldier, and was also a learned and liberal +prince, a patron of literature and the arts. His son Federigo I. +(d. 1484) followed in his father’s footsteps, and served under +various foreign sovereigns, including Bona of Savoy and Lorenzo +de’ Medici; subsequently he upheld the rights of the house of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page236" id="page236"></a>236</span> +Este against Pope Sixtus IV. and the Venetians, whose ambitious +claims were a menace to his own dominions of Ferrara and +Mantova. His son Giovan Francesco III. (d. 1519) continued the +military traditions of the family, and commanded the allied +Italian forces against Charles VIII. at the battle of Fornovo; +he afterwards fought in the kingdom of Naples and in Tuscany, +until captured by the Venetians in 1509. On his liberation he +adopted a more peaceful and conciliatory policy, and with the +help of his wife, the famous Isabella d’Este, he promoted the +fine arts and letters, collecting pictures, statues and other works +of art with intelligent discrimination. He was succeeded by his +son Federigo II. (d. 1540), captain-general of the papal forces. +After the peace of Cambrai (1529) his ally and protector, the +emperor Charles V., raised his title to that of duke of Mantua in +1530; in 1536 the emperor decided the controversy for the +succession of Monferrato between Federigo and the house of +Savoy in favour of the former. His son Francesco I. succeeded +him, and, being a minor, was placed under the regency of his +uncle Cardinal Ercole; he was accidentally drowned in 1550, +leaving his possessions to his brother Guglielmo. The latter +was an extravagant spendthrift, but having subdued a revolt +in Monferrato was presented with that territory by the emperor +Maximilian II. At his death in 1587 he was succeeded by his +son Vincenzo I. (d. 1612), who was more addicted to amusements +than to warfare. Then followed in succession his sons Francesco +II. (d. 1612), Ferdinando (d. 1626), and Vincenzo II. (d. 1627), all +three incapable and dissolute princes. The last named appointed +as his successor Charles, the son of Henriette, the heiress of the +French family of Nevers-Rethel, who was only able to take +possession of the ducal throne after a bloody struggle; his +dominions were laid waste by foreign invasions and he himself +was reduced to the sorest straits. He died in 1637, leaving his +possessions to his grandson Charles (Carlo) II. under the regency +of the latter’s mother Maria Gonzaga, which lasted until 1647. +Charles died in consequence of his own profligacy and was +succeeded by his son Ferdinand Charles (Ferdinando Carlo), +who was likewise for some years under the regency of his mother +Isabella of Austria. Ferdinand Charles, another extravagant +and dissolute prince, acquired the county of Guastalla by +marriage in 1678, but lost it soon afterwards; he involved his +country in useless warfare, with the result that in 1708 Austria +annexed the duchy. On the 5th of July of the same year he +died in Venice, and with him the Gonzagas of Mantua came to an +end.</p> + +<p>Of the cadet branches of the house one received the lordship +of Bozzolo, another the counties of Novellara and Bagnolo, a +third, of which the founder was Ferrante I. (d. 1557), retained +the county of Guastalla, raised to a duchy in 1621, and came to +an end with the death of Giuseppe Maria on the 16th of August +1746.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—S. Maffei, <i>Annali di Mantova</i> (Tortona, 1675); +G. Veronesi, <i>Quadro storico della Mirandola</i> (Modena, 1847); T. Affò, +<i>Storia di Guastalla</i> (Guastalla, 1875, 4 vols.); Alessandro Luzio, +<i>I Precattori d’Isabella d’Este</i> (Ancona, 1887); A. Luzio and R. Renier, +“Francesco Gonzaga alla battaglia di Fornovo (1495). secondo i +documenti Mantovani” (in <i>Archivio storico italiano</i>, ser. v. vol. vi., +205-246); <i>id.</i>, <i>Mantova e Urbino, Isabella d’Este e Elisabeth Gonzaga +nette relazioni famigliari e nelle vicende politiche</i> (Turin, 1893); L. G., +Pélissier, “Les Relations de François de Gonzague, marquis de +Mantoue, avec Ludovico Sforza et Louis XII” (in <i>Annales de la +faculté de Lettres de Bordeaux</i>, 1893); Antonino Bertolotti, “Lettere +del duca di Savoia Emanuele Filiberto a Guglielmo Gonzaga, duca di +Mantova” (<i>Arch. stor. it.</i>, ser. v., vol. ix. pp. 250-283); Edmondo Solari, +<i>Lettere inedite del card. Gasparo Contarini nel carteggio del card. +Ercole Gonzaga</i> (Venice, 1904); Arturo Segrè, <i>Il Richiamo di Don +Ferrante Gonzaga dal governo di Milano, e sue conseguenze</i> (Turin, +1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GONZAGA, THOMAZ ANTONIO<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (1744-1809), Portuguese +poet, was a native of Oporto and the son of a Brazilian-born +judge. He spent a part of his boyhood at Bahia, where his +father was <i>disembargador</i> of the appeal court, and returning to +Portugal he went to the university of Coimbra and took his law +degree at the age of twenty-four. He remained on there for some +years and compiled a treatise of natural law on regalist lines, +dedicating it to Pombal, but the fall of the marquis led him to +leave Coimbra and become a candidate for a magistracy, and in +1782 he obtained the posts of <i>ouvidor</i> and <i>provedor</i> of the goods of +deceased and absent persons at Villa Rica in the province of Minas +Geraes in Brazil. In 1786 he was named <i>disembargador</i> of the +appeal court at Bahia, and three years later, as he was about to +marry a young lady of position, D. Maria de Seixas Brandão, the +<i>Marilia</i> of his verses, he suddenly found himself arrested on the +charge of being the principal author of a Republican conspiracy in +Minas. Conducted to Rio, he was imprisoned in a fortress and +interrogated, but constantly asserted his innocence. However, +his friendship with the conspirators compromised him in the eyes +of his absolutist judges, who, on the ground that he had known of +the plot and not denounced it, sentenced him in April 1792 to +perpetual exile in Angola, with the confiscation of his property. +Later, this penalty was commuted into one of ten years of exile to +Mozambique, with a death sentence if he should return to America. +After having spent three years in prison, Gonzaga sailed in May +1792 for Mozambique and shortly after his arrival a violent fever +almost ended his life. A wealthy Portuguese gentleman, married +to a lady of colour, charitably received him into his house, and +when the poet recovered, he married their young daughter who +had nursed him through the attack. He lived in exile until his +death, practising advocacy at intervals, but his last years were +embittered by fits of melancholia, deepening into madness, which +were brought on by the remembrance of his misfortunes. His +reputation as a poet rests on a little volume of bucolics entitled +<i>Marilia</i>, which includes all his published verses and is divided into +two parts, corresponding with those of his life. The first extends +to his imprisonment and breathes only love and pleasure, while +the main theme of the second part, written in prison, is his +<i>saudade</i> for <i>Marilia</i> and past happiness. Gonzaga borrowed his +forms from the best models, Anacreon and Theocritus, but the +matter, except for an occasional imitation of Petrarch, the +natural, elegant style and the harmonious metrification, are all +his own. The booklet comprises the most celebrated collection of +erotic poetry dedicated to a single person in the Portuguese +tongue; indeed its popularity is so great as to exceed its intrinsic +merit.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Twenty-nine editions had appeared up to 1854, but the Paris +edition of 1862 in 2 vols, is in every way the best, although the +authenticity of the verses in its 3rd part, which do not relate to +<i>Marilia</i>, is doubtful. A popular edition of the first two parts was +published in 1888 (Lisbon, Corazzi). A French version of <i>Marilia</i> by +Monglave and Chalas appeared in Paris in 1825, an Italian by +Vegezzi Ruscalla at Turin in 1844, a Latin by Dr Castro Lopes at +Rio in 1868, and there is a Spanish one by Vedia.</p> + +<p>See Innocencio da Silva, <i>Diccionario bibliographico portuguez</i>, +vol. vii. p. 320, also Dr T. Braga, <i>Filinto Elysio e os Dissidentas da +Arcadia</i> (Oporto, 1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Pr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GONZÁLEZ-CARVAJAL, TOMAS JOSÉ<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (1753-1834), Spanish, +poet and statesman, was born at Seville in 1753. He studied at +the university of Seville, and took the degree of LL.D. at Madrid. +He obtained an office in the financial department of the government; +and in 1795 was made intendant of the colonies which had +just been founded in Sierra Morena and Andalusia. During +1809-1811 he held an intendancy in the patriot army. He +became, in 1812, director of the university of San Isidro; but +having offended the government by establishing a chair of international +law, he was imprisoned for five years (1815-1820). The +revolution of 1820 reinstated him, but the counter-revolution of +three years later forced him into exile. After four years he was +allowed to return, and he died, in 1834, a member of the supreme +council of war. González-Carvajal enjoyed European fame as +author of metrical translations of the poetical books of the Bible. +To fit himself for this work he commenced the study of Hebrew at +the age of fifty-four. He also wrote other works in verse and +prose, avowedly taking Luis de Leon as his model.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See biographical notice in <i>Biblioteca de Rivadeneyra</i>, vol. lxvii., +<i>Poetas del siglo 18.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GONZALO DE BERCEO<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1180-<i>c.</i> 1246), the earliest Castilian +poet whose name is known to us, was born at Berceo, a village in +the neighbourhood of Calahorra in the province of Logroño. In +1221 he became a deacon and was attached, as a secular priest, +to the Benedictine monastery of San Millan de la Cogolla, in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page237" id="page237"></a>237</span> +diocese of Calahorra. His name is to be met with in a number of +documents between the years 1237 and 1246. He wrote upwards +of 13,000 verses, all on devotional subjects. His best work is a +life of St Oria; others treat of the life of St Millan, of St Dominic +of Silos, of the Sacrifice of the Mass, the Martyrdom of St Laurence, +the visible signs preceding the Last Judgment, the Praises of +Our Lady, the Miracles of Our Lady and the Lamentations of the +Virgin on the Passion of her Son. He writes in the common +tongue, the <i>roman paladino</i>, and his claim to the name of poet +rests on his use of the <i>cuaderna via</i> (single-rhymed quatrains, +each verse being of fourteen syllables). Sometimes, however, he +takes the more modest title of <i>juglar</i> (<i>jongleur</i>), when claiming +payment for his poems. His literary attainments are not great, +and he lacks imagination and animation of style, but he has a +certain eloquence, and in speaking of the Virgin and the saints a +certain charm, while his verse bears at times the imprint of a +passionate devotion, recalling the lyrical style of the great +Spanish mystics. There is, however, a very strong popular element +in his writings, which explains his long vogue. The great +majority of his legends of the Virgin are obviously borrowed +from the collection of a Frenchman, Gautier de Coinci; but he +has succeeded in making this material entirely his own by reason +of a certain conciseness and a realism in detail which make his +work far superior to the tedious and colourless narrative of his +model.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Poesías</i> are in the <i>Biblioteca de autores españoles</i> of Rivadeneyra, +vol. lvii. (1864); <i>La Vida de San Domingo de Silos</i> has been +edited by J. D. FitzGerald (Paris, 1904; see the <i>Bibliothèque de +l’École des Hautes Études</i>, part 149); see also F. Fernandez y +Gonzalez in the <i>Razón</i> (vol. i., Madrid, 1860); N. Hergueta, “Documentos +referentes a Gonzalo de Berceo,” in the <i>Revista de archivos</i>, +(3rd series, Feb.-March, 1904, pp. 178-179).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOOCH, SIR DANIEL,<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> Bart. (1816-1889), English mechanical +engineer, was born at Bedlington, in Northumberland, on the +16th of August 1816. At the age of fifteen, having shown a taste +for mechanics, he was put to work at the Tredegar Ironworks, +Monmouthshire. In 1834 he went to Warrington, where, at the +Vulcan foundry, under Robert Stephenson, he acquired the +principles of locomotive design. Subsequently, after passing a +year at Dundee, he was engaged by the Stephensons at their +Gateshead works, where he seems to have conceived that predilection +for the broad gauge for which he was afterwards distinguished, +through having to design some engines for a 6-foot gauge in +Russia and noticing the advantages it offered in allowing greater +space for the machinery, &c., as compared with the standard +gauge favoured by Stephenson. In 1837, on I. K. Brunel’s +recommendation, he was appointed locomotive superintendent to +the Great Western railway at a time when the engines possessed +by the railway were very poor and inefficient. He soon improved +this state of affairs, and gradually provided his employers with +locomotives which were unsurpassed for general excellence and +economy of working. One of the most famous, the “Lord of the +Isles,” was awarded a gold medal at the Great Exhibition of 1851, +and when, thirty years afterwards, it was withdrawn from active +service it had run more than three-quarters of a million miles, all +with its original boiler. In 1864 he left the Great Western and +interested himself in the problem of laying a telegraph cable +across the Atlantic. At this time the “Great Eastern” was in +the hands of the bondholders, of whom he himself was one of the +most important, and it occurred to him that she might advantageously +be utilized in the enterprise. Accordingly, at his +instance she was chartered by the Telegraph Construction +Company, of which also he was a director, and in 1865 was +employed in the attempt to lay a cable, Gooch himself superintending +operations. The cable, however, broke in mid-ocean, +and the attempt was a failure. Next year it was renewed with +more success, for not only was a new cable safely put in place, but +the older one was picked up and spliced, so that there were two +complete lines between England and America. For this achievement +Gooch was created a baronet. Meanwhile the Great +Western railway had fallen on evil days, being indeed on the +verge of bankruptcy, when in 1866 the directors appealed to him +to accept the chairmanship of the board and undertake the +rehabilitation of the company. He agreed to the proposal, and +was so successful in restoring its prosperity that in 1889, at the +last meeting over which he presided, a dividend was declared at the +rate of 7½%. Under his administration the system was greatly +enlarged and consolidated by the absorption of various smaller +lines, such as the Bristol and Exeter and the Cornwall railways; +and his appreciation of its strategic value caused him to be a +strenuous supporter of the construction of the Severn Tunnel. +His death occurred on the 15th of October 1889 at his residence, +Clewer Park, near Windsor.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOOD, JOHN MASON<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (1764-1827), English writer on medical, +religious and classical subjects, was born on the 25th of May +1764 at Epping, Essex. After attending a school at Romsey +kept by his father, the Rev. Peter Good, who was a Nonconformist +minister, he was, at about the age of fifteen, apprenticed to a +surgeon-apothecary at Gosport. In 1783 he went to London to +prosecute his medical studies, and in the autumn of 1784 he +began to practise as a surgeon at Sudbury in Suffolk. In 1793 +he removed to London, where he entered into partnership with +a surgeon and apothecary. But the partnership was soon +dissolved, and to increase his income he began to devote attention +to literary pursuits. Besides contributing both in prose and +verse to the <i>Analytical</i> and <i>Critical Reviews</i> and the <i>British</i> +and <i>Monthly Magazines</i>, and other periodicals, he wrote a large +number of works relating chiefly to medical and religious subjects. +In 1794 he became a member of the British Pharmaceutical +Society, and in that connexion, and especially by the publication +of his work, <i>A History of Medicine</i> (1795), he did much to effect +a greatly needed reform in the profession of the apothecary. +In 1820 he took the diploma of M.D. at Marischal College, +Aberdeen. He died at Shepperton, Middlesex, on the 2nd of +January 1827. Good was not only well versed in classical +literature, but was acquainted with the principal European +languages, and also with Persian, Arabic and Hebrew. His +prose works display wide erudition; but their style is dull and +tedious. His poetry never rises above pleasant and well-versified +commonplace. His translation of Lucretius, <i>The Nature of +Things</i> (1805-1807), contains elaborate philological and explanatory +notes, together with parallel passages and quotations +from European and Asiatic authors.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOOD FRIDAY<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (probably “God’s Friday”), the English +name for the Friday before Easter, kept as the anniversary of +the Crucifixion. In the Greek Church it has been or is known +as <span class="grk" title="pascha [staurôsimon], paraskeuê, paraskeuê megalê">πάσχα [σταυρώσιμον], παρασκευή, παρασκευὴ μεγάλη</span> or <span class="grk" title="hagia, +sôtêria">ἁγία, σωτηρία</span> or <span class="grk" title="ta sôtêria, hêmepa tou staurou">τὰ σωτήρια, ἡμέρα τοῦ σταυροῦ</span>, while among the +Latins the names of most frequent occurrence are Pascha Crucis, +Dies Dominicae Passionis, Parasceve, Feria Sexta Paschae, +Feria Sexta Major in Hierusalem, Dies Absolutionis. It was +called Long Friday by the Anglo-Saxons<a name="fa1v" id="fa1v" href="#ft1v"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and Danes, possibly in +allusion to the length of the services which marked the day. +In Germany it is sometimes designated Stiller Freitag (compare +Greek, <span class="grk" title="hêbdomas apraktos">ἑβδομὰς ἄπρακτος</span>; Latin, <i>hebdomas inofficiosa, non +laboriosa</i>), but more commonly Charfreitag. The etymology +of this last name has been much disputed, but there seems now +to be little doubt that it is derived from the Old High German +<i>chara</i>, meaning suffering or mourning.</p> + +<p>The origin of the custom of a yearly commemoration of the +Crucifixion is somewhat obscure. It may be regarded as certain +that among Jewish Christians it almost imperceptibly grew out +of the old habit of annually celebrating the Passover on the +14th of Nisan, and of observing the “days of unleavened bread” +from the 15th to the 21st of that month. In the Gentile churches, +on the other hand, it seems to be well established that originally +no yearly cycle of festivals was known at all. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Easter</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>From its earliest observance, the day was marked by a specially +rigorous fast, and also, on the whole, by a tendency to greater +simplicity in the services of the church. Prior to the 4th century +there is no evidence of non-celebration of the eucharist on Good +Friday; but after that date the prohibition of communion +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" id="page238"></a>238</span> +became common. In Spain, indeed, it became customary to +close the churches altogether as a sign of mourning; but this +practice was condemned by the council of Toledo (633). In the +Roman Catholic Church the Good Friday ritual at present +observed is marked by many special features, most of which +can be traced back to a date at least prior to the close of the 8th +century (see the Ordo Romanus in Muratori’s <i>Liturg. Rom. Vet.</i>). +The altar and officiating clergy are draped in black, this being the +only day on which that colour is permitted. Instead of the +epistle, sundry passages from Hosea, Habakkuk, Exodus and +the Psalms are read. The gospel for the day consists of the +history of the Passion as recorded by St John. This is often +sung in plain-chaunt by three priests, one representing the “narrator,” +the other two the various characters of the story. The +singing of this is followed by bidding prayers for the peace and +unity of the church, for the pope, the clergy, all ranks and +conditions of men, the sovereign, for catechumens, the sick and +afflicted, heretics and schismatics, Jews and heathen. Then +follows the “adoration of the cross” (a ceremony derived from +the church of Jerusalem and said to date back to near the time +of Helena’s “invention of the cross”); the hymns <i>Pange +lingua</i> and <i>Vexilla regis</i> are sung, and then follows the “Mass +of the Presanctified.” The name is derived from the fact that +it is celebrated with elements consecrated the day before, the +liturgy being omitted on this day. The priest merely places the +Sacrament on the altar, censes it, elevates and breaks the host, +and communicates, the prayers and responses interspersed being +peculiar to the day. This again is followed by vespers, with a +special anthem; after which the altar is stripped in silence. +In many Roman Catholic countries—in Spain, for example—it is +usual for the faithful to spend much time in the churches in +meditation on the “seven last words” of the Saviour; no +carriages are driven through the streets; the bells and organs +are silent; and in every possible way it is sought to deepen the +impression of a profound and universal grief. In the Greek +Church also the Good Friday fast is excessively strict; as in the +Roman Church, the Passion history is read and the cross adored; +towards evening a dramatic representation of the entombment +takes place, amid open demonstrations of contempt for Judas +and the Jews. In Lutheran churches the organ is silent on this +day, and altar, font and pulpit are draped in black, as indeed +throughout Holy Week. In the Church of England the history +of the Passion from the gospel according to John is also read; +the collects for the day are based upon the bidding prayers +which are found in the Ordo Romanus. The “three hours” +service, borrowed from Roman Catholic usage and consisting +of prayers, addresses on the “seven last words from the cross” +and intervals for meditation and silent prayer, has become very +popular in the Anglican Church, and the observance of the day +is more marked than formerly among Nonconformist bodies, +even in Scotland.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1v" id="ft1v" href="#fa1v"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Johnson’s <i>Collection of Ecclesiastical Laws</i> (vol. i., anno 957): +“Housel ought not to be hallowed on Long Friday, because Christ +suffered for us on that day.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOODMAN, GODFREY<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (1583-1656), bishop of Gloucester, +was born at Ruthin, Denbighshire, and educated at Westminster +and Cambridge. He took orders in 1603, and in 1606 obtained +the living of Stapleford Abbots, Essex, which he held together +with several other livings. He was canon of Windsor from 1617 +and dean of Rochester 1620-1621, and became bishop of +Gloucester in 1625. From this time his tendencies towards +Roman Catholicism constantly got him into trouble. He +preached an unsatisfactory sermon at court in 1626, and in +1628 incurred charges of introducing popery at Windsor. In +1633 he secured the see of Hereford by bribery, but Archbishop +Laud persuaded the king to refuse his consent. In 1638 he was +said to be converted to Rome, and two years later he was imprisoned +for refusing to sign the new canons denouncing popery +and affirming the divine right of kings. He afterwards signed +and was released on bail, but next year the bishops who had +signed were all imprisoned in the Tower, by order of parliament, +on the charge of treason. After eighteen weeks’ imprisonment +Goodman was allowed to return to his diocese. About 1650 he +settled in London, where he died a confessed Roman Catholic. +His best known book is <i>The Fall of Man</i> (London, 1616).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOODRICH, SAMUEL GRISWOLD<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> (1793-1860), American +author, better known under the pseudonym of “Peter Parley,” +was born, the son of a Congregational minister, at Ridgefield, +Connecticut, on the 19th of August 1793. He was largely +self-educated, became an assistant in a country store at Danbury, +Conn., in 1808, and at Hartford, Conn., in 1811, and from 1816 to +1822 was a bookseller and publisher at Hartford. He visited +Europe in 1823-1824, and in 1826 removed to Boston, where +he continued in the publishing business, and from 1828 to 1842 +he published an illustrated annual, the <i>Token</i>, to which he was +a frequent contributor both in prose and verse. A selection +from these contributions was published in 1841 under the title +<i>Sketches from a Student’s Window</i>. The <i>Token</i> also contained +some of the earliest work of Nathaniel Hawthorne, N. P. Willis, +Henry W. Longfellow and Lydia Maria Child. In 1841 he +established <i>Merry’s Museum</i>, which he continued to edit till +1854. In 1827 he began, under the name of “Peter Parley,” his +series of books for the young, which embraced geography, +biography, history, science and miscellaneous tales. Of these +he was the sole author of only a few, but in 1857 he wrote that he +was “the author and editor of about 170 volumes,” and that +about seven millions had been sold. In 1857 he published +<i>Recollections of a Lifetime</i>, which contains a list both of the +works of which he was the author or editor and of the spurious +works published under his name. By his writings and publications +he amassed a large fortune. He was chosen a member of +the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1836, and of the +state Senate in 1837, his competitor in the last election being +Alexander H. Everett, and in 1851-1853 he was consul at Paris, +where he remained till 1855, taking advantage of his stay to have +several of his works translated into French. After his return +to America he published, in 1859, <i>Illustrated History of the +Animal Kingdom</i>. He died, in New York, on the 9th of May +1860.</p> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Charles Augustus Goodrich</span> (1790-1862), a +Congregational clergyman, published various ephemeral books, +and helped to compile some of the “Peter Parley” series.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOODRICH,<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Goodricke</span>, <b>THOMAS</b> (d. 1554), English +ecclesiastic, was a son of Edward Goodrich of East Kirkby, +Lincolnshire, and was educated at Corpus Christi College, +Cambridge, afterwards becoming a fellow of Jesus College in the +same university. He was among the divines consulted about the +legality of Henry VIII.’s marriage with Catherine of Aragon, +became one of the royal chaplains about 1530, and was consecrated +bishop of Ely in 1534. He was favourable to the Reformation, +helped in 1537 to draw up the <i>Institution of a Christian +Man</i> (known as the <i>Bishops’ Book</i>), and translated the Gospel +of St John for the revised New Testament. On the accession of +Edward VI. in 1547 the bishop was made a privy councillor, +and took a conspicuous part in public affairs during the reign. +“A busy secular spirited man,” as Burnet calls him, he was +equally opposed to the zealots of the “old” and the “new +religion.” He assisted to compile the First Prayer Book of +Edward VI., was one of the commissioners for the trial of Bishop +Gardiner, and in January 1551-1552 succeeded Rich as lord high +chancellor. This office he continued to hold during the nine +days’ reign of “Queen Jane” (Lady Jane Grey); but he continued +to make his peace with Queen Mary, conformed to the +restored religion, and, though deprived of the chancellorship, +was allowed to keep his bishopric until his death on the 10th of +May 1554.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i>, where further authorities are cited.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOODSIR, JOHN<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (1814-1867), Scottish anatomist, born at +Anstruther, Fife, on the 20th of March 1814, was the son of Dr +John Goodsir, and grandson of Dr John Goodsir of Largo. He +was educated at the burgh and grammar-schools of his native +place and at the university of St Andrews. In 1830 he was +apprenticed to a surgeon-dentist in Edinburgh, where he studied +anatomy under Robert Knox, and in 1835 he joined his father +in practice at Anstruther. Three years later he communicated +to the British Association a paper on the pulps and sacs of the +human teeth, his researches on the whole process of dentition +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239"></a>239</span> +being at this time distinguished by their completeness; and +about the same date, on the nomination of Edward Forbes, he +was elected to the famous coterie called the “Universal Brotherhood +of the Friends of Truth,” which comprised artists, scholars, +naturalists and others, whose relationship became a potent +influence in science. With Forbes he worked at marine zoology, +but human anatomy, pathology and morphology formed his +chief study. In 1840 he moved to Edinburgh, where in the +following year he was appointed conservator of the museum of +the College of Surgeons, in succession to William Macgillivray. +Much of his reputation rested on his knowledge of the anatomy of +tissues. In his lectures in the theatre of the college in 1842-1843 +he evidenced the largeness of his observation of cell-life, both +physiologically and pathologically, insisting on the importance +of the cell as a centre of nutrition, and pointing out that the +organism is subdivided into a number of departments. R. +Virchow recognized his indebtedness to these discoveries by +dedicating his <i>Cellular Pathologie</i> to Goodsir, as “one of the +earliest and most acute observers of cell-life.” In 1843 Goodsir +obtained the post of curator in the university of Edinburgh; +the following year he was appointed demonstrator of anatomy, +and in 1845 curator of the entire museum. A year later he was +elected to the chair of anatomy in the university, and devoted +all his energies to anatomical research and teaching.</p> + +<p>Human myology was his strong point; no one had laboured +harder at the dissecting-table; and he strongly emphasized +the necessity of practice as a means of research. He believed +that anatomy, physiology and pathology could never be properly +advanced without daily consideration and treatment of disease. +In 1848 he became a fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons, +and in the same year he joined the Highland and Agricultural +Society, acting as chairman of the veterinary department, and +advising on strictly agricultural matters. In 1847 he delivered +a series of systematic lectures on the comparative anatomy +of the invertebrata; and, about this period, as member of an +aesthetic club, he wrote papers on the natural principles of +beauty, the aesthetics of the ugly, of smell, the approbation or +disapprobation of sounds, &c. Owing to the failing health of +Professor Robert Jameson, Goodsir was induced to deliver the +course of lectures on natural history during the summer of 1853.</p> + +<p>The lectures were long remembered for their brilliancy, but +the infinite amount of thought and exertion which they cost +broke down the health of the lecturer. Goodsir, nevertheless, +persevered in his labours, writing in 1855 on organic electricity, +in 1856 on morphological subjects, and afterwards on the structure +of organized forms. His speculations in the latter domain gave +birth to his theory of a triangle as the mathematical figure +upon which nature had built up both the organic and inorganic +worlds, and he hoped to complete this triangle theory of formation +and law as the greatest of his works. In his lectures on the skull +and brain he held the doctrine that symmetry of brain had more +to do with the higher faculties than bulk or form. He died at +Wardie, near Edinburgh, on the 6th of March 1867, in the same +cottage in which his friend Edward Forbes died. His anatomical +lectures were remarkable for their solid basis of fact; and no one +in Britain took so wide a field for survey or marshalled so many +facts for anatomical tabulation and synthesis.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Anatomical Memoirs of John Goodsir, F.R.S., edited by W. +Turner, with Memoir by H. Lonsdale</i> (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1868), in +which Goodsir’s lectures, addresses and writings are epitomized; +<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> vol. iv. (1868); <i>Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin.</i> vol. ix. (1868).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOODWILL,<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> in the law of property, a term of somewhat +vague significance. It has been defined as every advantage +which has been acquired in carrying on a business, whether +connected with the premises in which the business has been +carried on, or with the name of the firm by whom it has been +conducted (<i>Churton</i> v. <i>Douglas</i>, 1859, Johns, 174). Goodwill +may be either professional or trade. Professional goodwill +usually takes the form of the recommendation by a retiring +professional man, doctor, solicitor, &c., to his clients of the successor +or purchaser coupled generally with an undertaking not +to compete with him. Trade goodwill varies with the nature of +the business with which it is connected, but there are two rights +which, whatever the nature of the business may be, are invariably +associated with it, viz. the right of the purchaser to represent +himself as the owner of the business, and the right to restrain +competition. For the purposes of the Stamp Act, the goodwill of +a business is property, and the proper duty must be paid on the +conveyance of such. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Partnership</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Patents</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOODWIN, JOHN<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1594-1665), English Nonconformist +divine, was born in Norfolk and educated at Queens’ College, +Cambridge, where he was elected fellow in 1617. He was vicar +of St Stephen’s, Coleman Street, London, from 1633 to 1645, +when he was ejected by parliament for his attacks on Presbyterianism, +especially in his <span class="grk" title="Theomachia">Θεομαχία</span>(1644). He thereupon established +an independent congregation, and put his literary gifts at Oliver +Cromwell’s service. In 1648 he justified the proceedings of the +army against the parliament (“Pride’s Purge”) in a pamphlet +<i>Might and Right Well Met</i>, and in 1649 defended the proceedings +against Charles I. (to whom he had offered spiritual advice) in +<span class="grk" title="Hubristodikai">Ὑβριστοδίκαι</span>. At the Restoration this tract, with some that +Milton had written to Monk in favour of a republic, was publicly +burnt, and Goodwin was ordered into custody, though finally indemnified. +He died in 1665. Among his other writings are <i>Anti-Cavalierisme</i> +(1642), a translation of the <i>Stratagemata Satanae</i> of +Giacomo Aconcio, the Elizabethan advocate of toleration, tracts +against Fifth-Monarchy Men, Cromwell’s “Triers” and +Baptists, and <i>Redemption Redeemed, containing a thorough +discussion of ... election, reprobation and the perseverance of +the saints</i> (1651, reprinted 1840). Goodwin’s strongly Arminian +tendencies brought him into conflict with Robert Baillie, professor +of divinity of Glasgow, George Kendall, the Calvinist prebendary +of Exeter, and John Owen (<i>q.v.</i>), who replied to <i>Redemption +Redeemed</i> in <i>The Doctrine of the Saints’ Perseverance</i>, paying a +high tribute to his opponent’s learning and controversial skill. +Goodwin answered all three in the <i>Triumviri</i> (1658). John +Wesley in later days held him in much esteem and published an +abridged edition of his <i>Imputatio fidei</i>, a work on justification +that had originally appeared in 1642.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Life</i> by T. Jackson (London, 1839).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOODWIN, NATHANIEL CARL<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (1857-  ), American actor, +was born in Boston on the 25th of July 1857. While clerk in a +large shop he studied for the stage, and made his first appearance +in 1873 in Boston in Stuart Robson’s company as the newsboy +in Joseph Bradford’s <i>Law</i>. He made an immediate success by his +imitations of popular actors. A hit in the burlesque <i>Black-eyed +Susan</i> led to his taking part in Rice and Goodwin’s <i>Evangeline</i> +company. It was at this time that he married Eliza Weathersby +(d. 1887), an English actress with whom he played in B. E. +Woollf’s <i>Hobbies</i>. It was not until 1889, however, that Nat +Goodwin’s talent as a comedian of the “legitimate” type began +to be recognized. From that time he appeared in a number of +plays designed to display his drily humorous method, such as +Brander Matthews’ and George H. Jessop’s <i>A Gold Mine</i>, +Henry Guy Carleton’s <i>A Gilded Fool</i> and <i>Ambition</i>, Clyde Fitch’s +<i>Nathan Hale</i>, H. V. Esmond’s <i>When we were Twenty-one</i>, &c. +Till 1903 he was associated in his performances with his third +wife, the actress Maxine Elliott (b. 1873), whom he married in +1898; this marriage was dissolved in 1908.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOODWIN, THOMAS<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> (1600-1680), English Nonconformist +divine, was born at Rollesby, Norfolk, on the 5th of October +1600, and was educated at Christ’s College, Cambridge, where in +1616 he graduated B.A. In 1619 he removed to Catharine Hall, +where in 1620 he was elected fellow. In 1625 he was licensed +a preacher of the university; and three years afterwards he +became lecturer of Trinity Church, to the vicarage of which he +was presented by the king in 1632. Worried by his bishop, who +was a zealous adherent of Laud, he resigned all his preferments and +left the university in 1634. He lived for some time in London, +where in 1638 he married the daughter of an alderman; but in the +following year he withdrew to Holland, and for some time was +pastor of a small congregation of English merchants and refugees +at Arnheim. Returning to London soon after Laud’s impeachment +by the Long Parliament, he ministered for some years to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240"></a>240</span> +Independent congregation meeting at Paved Alley Church, Lime +Street, in the parish of St Dunstan’s-in-the-East, and rapidly rose +to considerable eminence as a preacher; in 1643 he was chosen a +member of the Westminster Assembly, and at once identified +himself with the Congregational party, generally referred to in +contemporary documents as “the dissenting brethren.” He +frequently preached by appointment before the Commons, and in +January 1650 his talents and learning were rewarded by the +House with the presidentship of Magdalen College, Oxford, a post +which he held until the Restoration. He rose into high favour with +the protector, and was one of his intimate advisers, attending him +on his death-bed. He was also a commissioner for the inventory +of the Westminster Assembly, 1650, and for the approbation of +preachers, 1653, and together with John Owen (<i>q.v.</i>) drew up an +amended Westminster Confession in 1658. From 1660 until his +death on the 23rd of February 1680 he lived in London, and +devoted himself exclusively to theological study and to the +pastoral charge of the Fetter Lane Independent Church.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The works published by Goodwin during his lifetime consist +chiefly of sermons printed by order of the House of Commons; but +he was also associated with Philip Nye and others in the preparation +of the <i>Apologeticall Narration</i> (1643). His collected writings, which +include expositions of the Epistle to the Ephesians and of the +Apocalypse, were published in five folio volumes between 1681 and +1704, and were reprinted in twelve 8vo volumes (Edin., 1861-1866). +Characterized by abundant yet one-sided reading, remarkable at once +for the depth and for the narrowness of their observation and spiritual +experience, often admirably thorough in their workmanship, yet in +style intolerably prolix—they fairly exemplify both the merits and +the defects of the special school of religious thought to which they +belong. Calamy’s estimate of Goodwin’s qualities may be quoted +as both friendly and just. “He was a considerable scholar and an +eminent divine, and had a very happy faculty in descanting upon +Scripture so as to bring forth surprising remarks, which yet generally +tended to illustration.” A memoir, derived from his own papers, by +his son (Thomas Goodwin, “the younger,” 1650?-1716?, Independent +minister at London and Pinner, and author of the <i>History +of the Reign of Henry V.</i>) is prefixed to the fifth volume of his collected +works; as a “patriarch and Atlas of Independency” he is also noticed +by Anthony Wood in the <i>Athenae Oxonienses</i>. An amusing sketch, +from Addison’s point of view, of the austere and somewhat fanatical +president of Magdalen is preserved in No. 494 of the <i>Spectator</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (1831-  ), American +classical scholar, was born in Concord, Massachusetts, on the +9th of May 1831. He graduated at Harvard in 1851, studied in +Germany, was tutor in Greek at Harvard in 1856-1860, and +Eliot professor of Greek there from 1860 until his resignation in +1901. He became an overseer of Harvard in 1903. In 1882-1883 +he was the first director of the American School for Classical +Studies at Athens. Goodwin edited the <i>Panegyricus</i> of Isocrates +(1864) and Demosthenes <i>On The Crown</i> (1901); and assisted in +preparing the seventh edition of Liddell and Scott’s <i>Greek-English +Lexicon</i>. He revised an English version by several +writers of <i>Plutarch’s Morals</i> (5 vols., 1871; 6th ed., 1889), and +published the Greek text with literal English version of Aeschylus’ +<i>Agamemnon</i> (1906) for the Harvard production of that play in +June 1906. As a teacher he did much to raise the tone of classical +reading from that of a mechanical exercise to literary study. +But his most important work was his <i>Syntax of the Moods and +Tenses of the Greek Verb</i> (1860), of which the seventh revised +edition appeared in 1877 and another (enlarged) in 1890. This +was “based in part on Madvig and Krüger,” but, besides making +accessible to American students the works of these continental +grammarians, it presented original matter, including a “radical +innovation in the classification of conditional sentences,” notably +the “distinction between particular and general suppositions.” +Goodwin’s <i>Greek Grammar</i> (elementary edition, 1870; enlarged +1879; revised and enlarged 1892) gradually superseded in most +American schools the <i>Grammar</i> of Hadley and Allen. Both the +<i>Moods and Tenses</i> and the <i>Grammar</i> in later editions are largely +dependent on the theories of Gildersleeve for additions and +changes. Goodwin also wrote a few elaborate syntactical +studies, to be found in <i>Harvard Studies in Classical Philology</i>, +the twelfth volume of which was dedicated to him upon the +completion of fifty years as an alumnus of Harvard and forty-one +years as Eliot professor.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOODWIN SANDS,<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> a dangerous line of shoals at the entrance +to the Strait of Dover from the North Sea, about 6 m. from the +Kent coast of England, from which they are separated by the +anchorage of the Downs. For this they form a shelter. They +are partly exposed at low water, but the sands are shifting, and +in spite of lights and bell-buoys the Goodwins are frequently +the scene of wrecks, while attempts to erect a lighthouse or +beacon have failed. Tradition finds in the Goodwins the remnant +of an island called Lomea, which belonged to Earl Godwine in +the first half of the 11th century, and was afterwards submerged, +when the funds devoted to its protection were diverted to build +the church steeple at Tenterden (<i>q.v.</i>). Four lightships mark +the limits of the sands, and also signal by rockets to the lifeboat +stations on the coast when any vessel is in distress on the sands. +Perhaps the most terrible catastrophe recorded here was the +wreck of thirteen ships of war during a great storm in November +1703.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOODWOOD,<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> a mansion in the parish of Boxgrove, in the +Chichester parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 4 m. +N.E. of Chichester. It was built from designs of Sir William +Chambers with additions by Wyatt, after the purchase of the +property by the first duke of Richmond in 1720. The park is in +a hilly district, and is enriched with magnificent trees of many +varieties, including some huge cedars. In it is a building containing +a Roman slab recording the construction of a temple +to Minerva and Neptune at Chichester. There is mention of a +British tributary prince named Cogidubnus, who perhaps served +also as a Roman official. A reference to early Christianity in +Britain has been erroneously read into this inscription. On the +racecourse a famous annual meeting, dating from 1802, is held +in July. The parish church of SS. Mary and Blaize, Boxgrove, +is almost entirely a rich specimen of Early English work.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOODYEAR, CHARLES<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (1800-1860), American inventor, +was born at New Haven, Connecticut, on the 29th of December +1800, the son of Amasa Goodyear, an inventor (especially of +farming implements) and a pioneer in the manufacture of hardware +in America. The family removed to Naugatuck, Conn., +when Charles was a boy; he worked in his father’s button +factory and studied at home until 1816, when he apprenticed +himself to a firm of hardware merchants in Philadelphia. In +1821 he returned to Connecticut and entered into a partnership +with his father at Naugatuck, which continued till 1830, when it +was terminated by business reverses. Already he was interested +in an attempt to discover a method of treatment by which india-rubber +could be made into merchandizable articles that would +stand extremes of heat and cold. To the solution of this problem +the next ten years of his life were devoted. With ceaseless +energy and unwavering faith in the successful outcome of his +labours, in the face of repeated failures and hampered by +poverty, which several times led him to a debtor’s prison, he +persevered in his endeavours. For a time he seemed to have +succeeded with a treatment (or “cure”) of the rubber with +<i>aqua fortis</i>. In 1836 he secured a contract for the manufacture +by this process of mail bags for the U.S. government, but the +rubber fabric was useless at high temperatures. In 1837 he met +and worked with Nathaniel Hayward (1808-1865), who had been +an employee of a rubber factory in Roxbury and had made +experiments with sulphur mixed with rubber. Goodyear bought +from Hayward the right to use this imperfect process. In 1839, +by dropping on a hot stove some india-rubber mixed with sulphur, +he discovered accidentally the process for the vulcanization of +rubber. Two years more passed before he could find any one who +had faith enough in his discovery to invest money in it. At +last, in 1844, by which time he had perfected his process, his +first patent was granted, and in the subsequent years more than +sixty patents were granted to him for the application of his +original process to various uses. Numerous infringements had +to be fought in the courts, the decisive victory coming in 1852 +in the case of <i>Goodyear</i> v. <i>Day</i>, in which his rights were defended +by Daniel Webster and opposed by Rufus Choate. In 1852 he +went to England, where articles made under his patents had +been displayed at the International Exhibition of 1851, but he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>241</span> +was unable to establish factories there. In France a company +for the manufacture of vulcanized rubber by his process failed, +and in December 1855 he was arrested and imprisoned for debt +in Paris. Owing to the expense of the litigation in which he was +engaged and to bad business management, he profited little from +his inventions. He died in New York City on the 1st of July +1860. He wrote an account of his discovery entitled <i>Gum-Elastic +and its Varieties</i> (2 vols., New Haven, 1853-1855).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also B. K. Peirce, <i>Trials of an Inventor, Life and Discoveries of +Charles Goodyear</i> (New York, 1866); James Parton, <i>Famous +Americans of Recent Times</i> (Boston, 1867); and Herbert L. Terry, +<i>India Rubber and its Manufacture</i> (New York, 1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOOGE, BARNABE<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> (1540-1594), English poet, son of Robert +Googe, recorder of Lincoln, was born on the 11th of June 1540 +at Alvingham, Lincolnshire. He studied at Christ’s College, +Cambridge, and at New College, Oxford, but does not seem to +have taken a degree at either university. He afterwards removed +to Staple’s Inn, and was attached to the household of his kinsman, +Sir William Cecil. In 1563 he became a gentleman pensioner +to Queen Elizabeth. He was absent in Spain when his poems +were sent to the printer by a friend, L. Blundeston. Googe then +gave his consent, and they appeared in 1563 as <i>Eglogs, Epytaphes, +and Sonettes</i>. There is extant a curious correspondence on the +subject of his marriage with Mary Darrell, whose father refused +Googe’s suit on the ground that she was bound by a previous +contract. The matter was decided by the intervention of Sir +William Cecil with Archbishop Parker, and the marriage took +place in 1564 or 1565. Googe was provost-marshal of the court +of Connaught, and some twenty letters of his in this capacity +are preserved in the record office. He died in February 1594. +He was an ardent Protestant, and his poetry is coloured by his +religious and political views. In the third “Eglog,” for instance, +he laments the decay of the old nobility and the rise of a new +aristocracy of wealth, and he gives an indignant account of the +sufferings of his co-religionists under Mary. The other eclogues +deal with the sorrows of earthly love, leading up to a dialogue +between Corydon and Cornix, in which the heavenly love is +extolled. The volume includes epitaphs on Nicholas Grimald, +John Bale and on Thomas Phaer, whose translation of Virgil +Googe is uncritical enough to prefer to the versions of Surrey +and of Gavin Douglas. A much more charming pastoral than +any of those contained in this volume, “Phyllida was a fayer +maid” (<i>Tottel’s Miscellany</i>) has been ascribed to Barnabe +Googe. He was one of the earliest English pastoral poets, and +the first who was inspired by Spanish romance, being considerably +indebted to the <i>Diana Enamorada</i> of Montemayor.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His other works include a translation from Marcellus Palingenius +(said to be an anagram for Pietro Angelo Manzolli) of a satirical +Latin poem, <i>Zodiacus vitae</i> (Venice, 1531?), in twelve books, under +the title of <i>The Zodyake of Life</i> (1560); <i>The Popish Kingdome, or +reign of Antichrist</i> (1570), translated from Thomas Kirchmayer or +Naogeorgus; <i>The Spiritual Husbandrie</i> from the same author, +printed with the last; <i>Foure Bookes of Husbandrie</i> (1577), collected +by Conradus Heresbachius; and <i>The Proverbes of ... Lopes de +Mendoza</i> (1579).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOOLE,<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> a market town and port in the Osgoldcross parliamentary +division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, +at the confluence of the Don and the Ouse, 24 m. W. by S. from +Hull, served by the North Eastern, Lancashire & Yorkshire, +Great Central and Asholme joint railways. Pop. of urban +district (1901) 16,576. The town owes its existence to the +construction of the Knottingley canal in 1826 by the Aire and +Calder Navigation Company, after which, in 1829, Goole was +made a bonding port. Previously it had been an obscure hamlet. +The port was administratively combined with that of Hull in +1885. It is 47 m. from the North Sea (mouth of the Humber), +and a wide system of inland navigation opens from it. There are +eight docks supplied with timber ponds, quays, warehouses and +other accommodation. The depth of water is 21 or 22 ft. at high +water, spring tides. Chief exports are coal, stone, woollen goods +and machinery; imports, butter, fruit, indigo, logwood, timber +and wool. Industries include the manufacture of alum, sugar, +rope and agricultural instruments, and iron-founding. Ship-building +is also carried on, and there is a large dry dock and a +patent slip for repairing vessels. Passenger steamship services +are worked in connexion with the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway +to Amsterdam, Antwerp, Bruges, Copenhagen, Rotterdam and +other north European ports. The handsome church of St John +the Evangelist, with a lofty tower and spire, dates from 1844.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOOSE<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> (a common Teut. word, O. Eng. <i>gós</i>, pl. <i>gés</i>, Ger. <i>Gans</i>, +O. Norse <i>gás</i>, from Aryan root, <i>ghans</i>, whence Sans. <i>haṇsá</i>, Lat. +<i>anser</i> (for <i>hanser</i>), Gr. <span class="grk" title="chên">χήν</span>, &c.), the general English name for a +considerable number of birds, belonging to the family <i>Anatidae</i> +of modern ornithologists, which are mostly larger than ducks +and less than swans. Technically the word goose is reserved +for the female, the male being called gander (A.-S. <i>gandra</i>).</p> + +<p>The most important species of goose, and the type of the +genus <i>Anser</i>, is undoubtedly that which is the origin of the +well-known domestic race (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poultry</a></span>), the <i>Anser ferus</i> or +<i>A. cinereus</i> of most naturalists, commonly called in English the +grey or grey lag<a name="fa1w" id="fa1w" href="#ft1w"><span class="sp">1</span></a> goose, a bird of exceedingly wide range in the +Old World, apparently breeding where suitable localities are +to be found in most European countries from Lapland to Spain +and Bulgaria. Eastwards it extends to China, but does not +seem to be known in Japan. It is the only species indigenous +to the British Islands, and in former days bred abundantly in +the English Fen-country, where the young were caught in large +numbers and kept in a more or less reclaimed condition with the +vast flocks of tame-bred geese that at one time formed so valuable +a property to the dwellers in and around the Fens. It is impossible +to determine when the wild grey lag goose ceased from +breeding in England, but it certainly did so towards the end of +the 18th century, for Daniell mentions (<i>Rural Sports</i>, iii. 242) +his having obtained two broods in one season. In Scotland this +goose continues to breed sparingly in several parts of the Highlands +and in certain of the Hebrides, the nests being generally +placed in long heather, and the eggs seldom exceeding five or +six in number. It is most likely the birds reared here that are +from time to time obtained in England, for at the present day +the grey lag goose, though once so numerous, is, and for many +years has been, the rarest species of those that habitually resort +to the British Islands. The domestication of this species, as +Darwin remarks (<i>Animals and Plants under Domestication</i>, i. +287), is of very ancient date, and yet scarcely any other animal +that has been tamed for so long a period, and bred so largely in +captivity, has varied so little. It has increased greatly in size +and fecundity, but almost the only change in plumage is that +tame geese commonly lose the browner and darker tints of the +wild bird, and are more or less marked with white—being often +indeed wholly of that colour.<a name="fa2w" id="fa2w" href="#ft2w"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The most generally recognized +breeds of domestic geese are those to which the distinctive names +of Emden and Toulouse are applied; but a singular breed, said +to have come from Sevastopol, was introduced into western +Europe about the year 1856. In this the upper plumage is +elongated, curled and spirally twisted, having their shaft +transparent, and so thin that it often splits into fine filaments, +which, remaining free for an inch or more, often coalesce again;<a name="fa3w" id="fa3w" href="#ft3w"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +while the quills are aborted, so that the birds cannot fly.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id="page242"></a>242</span></p> + +<p>The other British species of typical geese are the bean-goose +(<i>A. segetum</i>), the pink-footed (<i>A. brachyrhynchus</i>) and the white-fronted +(<i>A. albifrons</i>). On the continent of Europe, but not +yet recognized as occurring in Britain, is a small form of the last +(<i>A. erythropus</i>) which is known to breed in Lapland. All these, +for the sake of discrimination, may be divided into <i>two</i> groups—(1) +those having the “nail” at the tip of the bill white, or of a +very pale flesh colour, and (2) those in which this “nail” is +black. To the former belong the grey lag goose, as well as <i>A. +albifrons</i> and <i>A. erythropus</i>, and to the latter the other two. +<i>A. albifrons</i> and <i>A. erythropus</i>, which differ little but in size,—the +last being not much bigger than a mallard (<i>Anas boschas</i>),—may +be readily distinguished from the grey lag goose by their +bright orange legs and their mouse-coloured upper wing-coverts, +to say nothing of their very conspicuous white face and the +broad black bars which cross the belly, though the last two +characters are occasionally observable to some extent in the +grey lag goose, which has the bill and legs flesh-coloured, and +the upper wing-coverts of a bluish-grey. Of the second group, +with the black “nail,” <i>A. segetum</i> has the bill long, black at the +base and orange in the middle; the feet are also orange, and +the upper wing-coverts mouse-coloured, as in <i>A. albifrons</i> and +<i>A. erythropus</i>, while <i>A. brachyrhynchus</i> has the bill short, bright +pink in the middle, and the feet also pink, the upper wing-coverts +being nearly of the same bluish-grey as in the grey lag goose. +Eastern Asia possesses in <i>A. grandis</i> a third species of this group, +which chiefly differs from <i>A. segetum</i> in its larger size. In North +America there is only one species of typical goose, and that +belongs to the white-“nailed” group. It very nearly resembles +<i>A. albifrons</i>, but is larger, and has been described as distinct +under the name of <i>A. gambeli</i>. Central Asia and India possess +in the bar-headed goose (<i>A. indicus</i>) a bird easily distinguished +from any of the foregoing by the character implied by its English +name; but it is certainly somewhat abnormal, and, indeed, +under the name of <i>Eulabia</i>, has been separated from the genus +<i>Anser</i>, which has no other member indigenous to the Indian +Region, nor any at all to the Ethiopian, Australian or Neotropical +Regions.</p> + +<p>America possesses by far the greatest wealth of Anserine forms. +Beside others, presently to be mentioned, its northern portions +are the home of all the species of snow-geese belonging to the +genus <i>Chen</i>. The first of these is <i>C. hyperboreus</i>, the snow-goose +proper, a bird of large size, and when adult of a pure white, +except the primaries, which are black. This has long been +deemed a visitor to the Old World, and sometimes in considerable +numbers, but the later discovery of a smaller form, <i>C. albatus</i>, +scarcely differing except in size, throws some doubt on the older +records, especially since examples which have been obtained in +the British Islands undoubtedly belong to this lesser bird, and +it would be satisfactory to have the occurrence in the Old World +of the true <i>C. hyperboreus</i> placed on a surer footing. So nearly +allied to the species last named as to have been often confounded +with it, is the blue-winged goose, <i>C. coerulescens</i>, which is said +never to attain a snowy plumage. Then we have a very small +species, long ago described as distinct by Samuel Hearne, the +Arctic traveller, but until 1861 discredited by ornithologists. +Its distinctness has now been fully recognized, and it has received, +somewhat unjustly, the name of <i>C. rossi</i>. Its face is adorned +with numerous papillae, whence it has been removed by Elliot +to a separate genus, <i>Exanthemops</i>, and for the same reason it +has long been known to the European residents in the fur +countries as the “horned wavey”—the last word being a +rendering of a native name, <i>Wawa</i>, which signifies goose. Finally, +there appears to belong to this section, though it has been +frequently referred to another (<i>Chloephaga</i>), and has also been +made the type of a distinct genus (<i>Philacte</i>), the beautiful +emperor goose, <i>P. canagica</i>, which is almost peculiar to the +Aleutian Islands, though straying to the continent in winter, +and may be recognized by the white edging of its remiges.</p> + +<p>The southern portions of the New World are inhabited by +about half a dozen species of geese not nearly akin to the foregoing, +and separated as the genus <i>Chloephaga</i>. The most +noticeable of them are the rock or kelp goose, <i>C. antarctica</i>, and +the upland goose, <i>C. magellanica</i>. In both of these the sexes +are totally unlike in colour, but in others a greater similarity +obtains.<a name="fa4w" id="fa4w" href="#ft4w"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Formerly erroneously associated with the birds of +this group comes one which belongs to the northern hemisphere, +and is common to the Old World as well as the New. It contains +the geese which have received the common names of bernacles +or brents,<a name="fa5w" id="fa5w" href="#ft5w"><span class="sp">5</span></a> and the scientific appellations of <i>Bernicla</i> and <i>Branta</i>—for +the use of either of which much may be said by nomenclaturists. +All the species of this section are distinguished by +their general dark sooty colour, relieved in some by white of +greater or less purity, and by way of distinction from the members +of the genus <i>Anser</i>, which are known as grey geese, are frequently +called by fowlers black geese. Of these, the best known both +in Europe and North America is the brent-goose—the <i>Anas +bernicla</i> of Linnaeus, and the <i>B. torquata</i> of many modern +writers—a truly marine bird, seldom (in Europe at least) quitting +salt-water, and coming southwards in vast flocks towards +autumn, frequenting bays and estuaries on the British coasts, +where it lives chiefly on sea-grass (<i>Zostera maritima</i>). It is +known to breed in Spitsbergen and in Greenland. A form which +is by some ornithologists deemed a good species, and called +by them <i>B. nigricans</i>, occurs chiefly on the Pacific coast of +North America. In it the black of the neck, which in the common +brent terminates just above the breast, extends over most of +the lower parts. The true bernacle-goose,<a name="fa6w" id="fa6w" href="#ft6w"><span class="sp">6</span></a> the <i>B. leucopsis</i> of +most authors, is but a casual visitor to North America, but is +said to breed in Iceland, and occasionally in Norway. Its usual +<i>incunabula</i>, however, still form one of the puzzles of the ornithologist, +and the difficulty is not lessened by the fact that it will +breed freely in semi-captivity, while the brent-goose will not. +From the latter the bernacle-goose is easily distinguished by its +larger size and white cheeks. Hutchins’s goose (<i>B. Hutchinsi</i>) +seems to be its true representative in the New World. In this +the face is dark, but a white crescentic or triangular patch +extends from the throat on either side upwards behind the eye. +Almost exactly similar in coloration to the last, but greatly +superior in size, and possessing 18 rectrices, while all the foregoing +have but 16, is the common wild goose of America, <i>B. +canadensis</i>, which, for more than two centuries has been introduced +into Europe, where it propagates so freely that it has been +included by nearly all the ornithologists of this quarter of the +globe as a member of its fauna. An allied form, by some +deemed a species, is <i>B. leucopareia</i>, which ranges over the western +part of North America, and, though having 18 rectrices, is +distinguished by a white collar round the lower part of the +neck. The most diverse species of this group of geese are the +beautiful <i>B. ruficollis</i>, a native of north-eastern Asia, which +occasionally strays to western Europe, and has been obtained +more than once in Britain, and that which is peculiar to the +Hawaian archipelago, <i>B. sandvicensis</i>.</p> + +<p>The largest living goose is that called the Chinese, Guinea or +swan-goose, <i>Cygnopsis cygnoides</i>, and this is the stock whence +the domestic geese of several eastern countries have sprung. +It may often be seen in English parks, and it is found to cross +readily with the common tame goose, the offspring being fertile, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>243</span> +and Blyth has said that these crosses are very abundant in India. +The true home of the species is in eastern Siberia or Mongolia. +It is distinguished by its long smooth neck, marked dorsally +by a chocolate streak. The reclaimed form is usually distinguished +by the knob at the base of the bill, but the evidence of +many observers shows that this is not found in the wild race. +Of this bird there is a perfectly white breed.</p> + +<p>We have next to mention a very curious form, <i>Cereopsis +novae-hollandiae</i>, which is peculiar to Australia, and is a more +terrestrial type of goose than any other now existing. Its short, +decurved bill and green cere give it a very peculiar expression, +and its almost uniform grey plumage, bearing rounded black +spots, is also remarkable. It bears captivity well, breeding in +confinement, but is now seldom seen. It appears to have been +formerly very abundant in many parts of Australia, from which +it has of late been exterminated. Some of its peculiarities seem +to have been still more exaggerated in a bird that is wholly +extinct, the <i>Cnemiornis calcitrans</i> of New Zealand, the remains +of which were described in full by Sir R. Owen in 1873 +(<i>Trans. Zool. Society</i>, ix. 253). Among the first portions of this +singular bird that were found were the <i>tibiae</i>, presenting an +extraordinary development of the <i>patella</i>, which, united with +the shank-bone, gave rise to the generic name applied. For some +time the affinity of the owner of this wonderful structure was +in doubt, but all hesitation was dispelled by the discovery of a +nearly perfect skeleton, now in the British Museum, which proved +the bird to be a goose, of great size, and unable, from the shortness +of its wings, to fly. In correlation with this loss of power may +also be noted the dwindling of the keel of the sternum. Generally, +however, its osteological characters point to an affinity to <i>Cereopsis</i>, +as was noticed by Dr Hector (<i>Trans. New Zeal. Institute</i>, +vi. 76-84), who first determined its Anserine character.</p> + +<p>Birds of the genera <i>Chenalopex</i> (the Egyptian and Orinoco +geese), <i>Plectropterus</i>, <i>Sarcidiornis</i>, <i>Chlamydochen</i> and some others, +are commonly called geese. It seems uncertain whether they +should be grouped with the <i>Anserinae</i>. The males of all, like +those of the above-mentioned genus <i>Chloëphaga</i>, appear to have +that curious enlargement at the junction of the bronchial tubes +and the trachea which is so characteristic of the ducks or +<i>Anatinae</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1w" id="ft1w" href="#fa1w"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The meaning and derivation of this word <i>lag</i> had long been a +puzzle until Skeat suggested (<i>Ibis</i>, 1870, p. 301) that it signified +late, last, or slow, as in <i>laggard</i>, a loiterer, <i>lagman</i>, the last man, +<i>lagteeth</i>, the posterior molar or “wisdom” teeth (as the last to +appear), and <i>lagclock</i>, a clock that is behind time. Thus the grey +lag goose is the grey goose which in England when the name was +given was not migratory but <i>lagged</i> behind the other wild species at +the season when they betook themselves to their northern breeding-quarters. +In connexion with this word, however, must be noticed +the curious fact mentioned by Rowley (<i>Orn. Miscell.</i>, iii. 213), +that the flocks of tame geese in Lincolnshire are urged on by their +drivers with the cry of “lag’em, lag’em.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft2w" id="ft2w" href="#fa2w"><span class="fn">2</span></a> From the times of the Romans white geese have been held in +great estimation, and hence, doubtless, they have been preferred as +breeding stock, but the practice of plucking geese alive, continued +for so many centuries, has not improbably also helped to perpetuate +this variation, for it is well known to many bird-keepers that a +white feather is often produced in place of one of the natural colour +that has been pulled out.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3w" id="ft3w" href="#fa3w"><span class="fn">3</span></a> In some English counties, especially Norfolk and Lincoln, it +was no uncommon thing formerly for a man to keep a stock of a +thousand geese, each of which might be reckoned to rear on an +average seven goslings. The flocks were regularly taken to pasture +and water, just as sheep are, and the man who tended them was +called the gooseherd, corrupted into gozzerd. The birds were +plucked five times in the year, and in autumn the flocks were driven +to London or other large markets. They travelled at the rate of +about a mile an hour, and would get over nearly 10 m. in the day. +For further particulars the reader may be referred to Pennant’s +<i>British Zoology</i>; Montagu’s <i>Ornithological Dictionary</i>; Latham’s +<i>General History of Birds</i>; and Rowley’s <i>Ornithological Miscellany</i> +(iii. 206-215), where some account also may be found of the goose-fatting +at Strassburg.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4w" id="ft4w" href="#fa4w"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Society (1876), pp. 361-369.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5w" id="ft5w" href="#fa5w"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The etymology of these two words is exceedingly obscure. +The ordinary spelling bernicle seems to be wrong, if we may judge +from the analogy of the French <i>Bernache</i>. In both words the <i>e</i> +should be sounded as <i>a</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6w" id="ft6w" href="#fa6w"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The old fable, perhaps still believed by the uneducated in some +parts of the world, was that bernacle-geese were produced from the +barnacles (<i>Lepadidae</i>) that grow on timber exposed to salt-water.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOOSE<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Game of</span>), an ancient French game, said to have been +derived from the Greeks, very popular at the close of the middle +ages. It was played on a piece of card-board upon which was +drawn a fantastic scroll, called the <i>jardin de l’Oie</i> (goose-garden), +divided into 63 spaces marked with certain emblems, such as +dice, an inn, a bridge, a labyrinth, &c. The emblem inscribed on +1 and 63, as well as every ninth space between, was a goose. +The object was to land one’s counter in number 63, the number +of spaces moved through being determined by throwing two +dice. The counter was advanced or retired according to the space +on which it was placed. For instance if it rested on the inn it +must remain there until each adversary, of which there might +be several, had played twice; if it rested on the <i>death’s head</i> +the player must begin over again; if it went beyond 63 it must +be retired a certain number of spaces. The game was usually +played for a stake, and special fines were exacted for resting on +certain spaces. At the end of the 18th century a variation of +the game was called the <i>jeu de la Révolution Française</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOOSEBERRY,<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> <i>Ribes Grossularia</i>, a well-known fruit-bush +of northern and central Europe, placed in the same genus of +the natural order to which it gives name (Ribesiaceae) as the +closely allied currants. It forms a distinct section <i>Grossularia</i>, +the members of which differ from the true currents chiefly in +their spinous stems, and in their flowers growing on short footstalks, +solitary, or two or three together, instead of in racemes.</p> + +<p>The wild gooseberry is a small, straggling bush, nearly resembling +the cultivated plant,—the branches being thickly +set with sharp spines, standing out singly or in diverging tufts +of two or three from the bases of the short spurs or lateral leaf +shoots, on which the bell-shaped flowers are produced, singly +or in pairs, from the groups of rounded, deeply-crenated 3- or 5-lobed +leaves. The fruit is smaller than in the garden kinds, +but is often of good flavour; it is generally hairy, but in one +variety smooth, constituting the <i>R. Uva-crispa</i> of writers; the +colour is usually green, but plants are occasionally met with +having deep purple berries. The gooseberry is indigenous in +Europe and western Asia, growing naturally in alpine thickets +and rocky woods in the lower country, from France eastward, +perhaps as far as the Himalaya. In Britain it is often found in +copses and hedgerows and about old ruins, but has been so long +a plant of cultivation that it is difficult to decide upon its claim +to a place in the native flora of the island. Common as it is now +on some of the lower slopes of the Alps of Piedmont and Savoy, +it is uncertain whether the Romans were acquainted with the +gooseberry, though it may possibly be alluded to in a vague +passage of Pliny: the hot summers of Italy, in ancient times as +at present, would be unfavourable to its cultivation. Abundant +in Germany and France, it does not appear to have been much +grown there in the middle ages, though the wild fruit was held +in some esteem medicinally for the cooling properties of its acid +juice in fevers; while the old English name, <i>Fea-berry</i>, still +surviving in some provincial dialects, indicates that it was +similarly valued in Britain, where it was planted in gardens +at a comparatively early period. William Turner describes the +gooseberry in his <i>Herball</i>, written about the middle of the 16th +century, and a few years later it is mentioned in one of Thomas +Tusser’s quaint rhymes as an ordinary object of garden culture. +Improved varieties were probably first raised by the skilful +gardeners of Holland, whose name for the fruit, <i>Kruisbezie</i>, may +have been easily corrupted into the present English vernacular +word.<a name="fa1x" id="fa1x" href="#ft1x"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Towards the end of the 18th century the gooseberry +became a favourite object of cottage-horticulture, especially in +Lancashire, where the working cotton-spinners have raised +numerous varieties from seed, their efforts having been chiefly +directed to increasing the size of the fruit. Of the many hundred +sorts enumerated in recent horticultural works, few perhaps equal +in flavour some of the older denizens of the fruit-garden, such +as the “old rough red” and “hairy amber.” The climate of +the British Islands seems peculiarly adapted to bring the gooseberry +to perfection, and it may be grown successfully even in +the most northern parts of Scotland; indeed, the flavour of the +fruit is said to improve with increasing latitude. In Norway +even, the bush flourishes in gardens on the west coast nearly up +to the Arctic circle, and it is found wild as far north as 63°. +The dry summers of the French and German plains are less +suited to it, though it is grown in some hilly districts with tolerable +success. The gooseberry in the south of England will grow well +in cool situations, and may be sometimes seen in gardens near +London flourishing under the partial shade of apple trees; but +in the north it needs full exposure to the sun to bring the fruit +to perfection. It will succeed in almost any soil, but prefers a +rich loam or black alluvium, and, though naturally a plant of +rather dry places, will do well in moist land, if drained.</p> + +<p>The varieties are most easily propagated by cuttings planted +in the autumn, which root rapidly, and in a few years form +good fruit-bearing bushes. Much difference of opinion prevails +regarding the mode of pruning this valuable shrub; it is probable +that in different situations it may require varying treatment. +The fruit being borne on the lateral spurs, and on the shoots of +the last year, it is the usual practice to shorten the side branches +in the winter, before the buds begin to expand; some reduce the +longer leading shoots at the same time, while others prefer to +nip off the ends of these in the summer while they are still +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244"></a>244</span> +succulent. When large fruit is desired, plenty of manure should +be supplied to the roots, and the greater portion of the berries +picked off while still small. If standards are desired, the gooseberry +may be with advantage grafted or budded on stocks of +some other species of <i>Ribes</i>, <i>R. aureum</i>, the ornamental golden +currant of the flower garden, answering well for the purpose. The +giant gooseberries of the Lancashire “fanciers” are obtained +by the careful culture of varieties specially raised with this +object, the growth being encouraged by abundant manuring, and +the removal of all but a very few berries from each plant. Single +gooseberries of nearly 2 oz. in weight have been occasionally +exhibited; but the produce of such fanciful horticulture is +generally insipid. The bushes at times suffer much from the +ravages of the caterpillars of the gooseberry or magpie moth, +<i>Abraxas grossulariata</i>, which often strip the branches of leaves +in the early summer, if not destroyed before the mischief is +accomplished. The most effectual way of getting rid of this +pretty but destructive insect is to look over each bush carefully, +and pick off the larvae by hand; when larger they may be +shaken off by striking the branches, but by that time the harm +is generally done—the eggs are laid on the leaves of the previous +season. Equally annoying in some years is the smaller larva +of the V-moth, <i>Halias vanaria</i>, which often appears in great +numbers, and is not so readily removed. The gooseberry is +sometimes attacked by the grub of the gooseberry sawfly, +<i>Nematus ribesii</i>, of which several broods appear in the course of +the spring and summer, and are very destructive. The grubs +bury themselves in the ground to pass into the pupal state; +the first brood of flies, hatched just as the bushes are coming into +leaf in the spring, lay their eggs on the lower side of the leaves, +where the small greenish larvae soon after emerge. For the +destruction of the first broods it has been recommended to syringe +the bushes with tar-water; perhaps a very weak solution of +carbolic acid might prove more effective. The powdered root +of white hellebore is said to destroy both this grub and the +caterpillars of the gooseberry moth and V-moth; infusion of +foxglove, and tobacco-water, are likewise tried by some growers. +If the fallen leaves are carefully removed from the ground in the +autumn and burnt, and the surface of the soil turned over with +the fork or spade, most eggs and chrysalids will be destroyed.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:372px; height:263px" src="images/img244a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—A Fungal Disease of the Gooseberry +(<i>Aecidium Grossulariae</i>.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">1, Leaf showing patches of cluster-cups on +surface; 2, Fruit, showing same; 3, Cluster-cups +much enlarged.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The gooseberry was introduced into the United States by the +early settlers, and in some parts of New England large quantities +of the green fruit are produced and sold for culinary use in the +towns; but the excessive heat of the American summer is not +adapted for the healthy maturation of the berries, especially of +the English varieties. Perhaps if some of these, or those raised +in the country, could be crossed with one of the indigenous +species, kinds might be obtained better fitted for American +conditions of culture, although the gooseberry does not readily +hybridize. The attacks of the American gooseberry mildew +have largely contributed +to the +failure of the crop +in America.</p> + +<p>Occasionally the +gooseberry is attacked +by the +fungus till recently +called <i>Aecidium +Grossulariae</i>, +which forms little +cups with white +torn edges clustered +together on +reddish spots on +the leaves or fruits +(fig. 1). It has +recently been discovered +that the +spores contained in these cups will not reproduce the disease on +the gooseberry, but infect species of <i>Carex</i> (sedges) on which +they produce a fungus of a totally different appearance. This +stage in the life-history of the parasite gives its name to the +whole fungus, so that it is now known as <i>Puccinia Pringsheimiana</i>. +Both <i>uredospores</i> and +<i>teleutospores</i> are formed +on the sedge, and the +latter live through the +winter and produce the +disease on the gooseberry +in the succeeding +year. In cases where +the disease proves +troublesome the sedges +in the neighbourhood +should be destroyed.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:313px; height:424px" src="images/img244b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From George Massee’s <i>Text-Book of Plant Diseases</i>, +by permission of Duckworth & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Gooseberry Mildew (Microsphaeria +Grossulariae.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">1, Leaf attacked by the fungus; 2, +Fructification or <i>perithecium</i>; the end of +one of its numerous appendages is shown +more highly magnified in 3, 4, 5, spore +sacs (<i>asci</i>) from the <i>perithecium</i>, containing +spores.</td></tr></table> + +<p>A much more prevalent +disease is that +caused by <i>Microsphaeria +Grossulariae</i>. +This is a mildew growing +on the surface of +the leaf and sending +suckers into the epidermis. +The white +mycelium gives the +leaves of the plant the +appearance of having +been whitewashed +(fig. 2). Numerous +white spores are produced +in the summer +which are able to germinate +immediately, +and later small blackish fruits (<i>perithecia</i>) are produced that pass +uninjured through the winter liberating the spores they contain +in the spring, +which infect the +young developing +leaves of the +bush. In bad +cases the plants +are greatly injured +but frequently +little +harm is done. +Attacked plants +should be sprayed +with potassium +sulphide.</p> + +<p>An allied fungus, +<i>Sphaerotheca +mors-uvae</i>, of +much greater virulence, +has recently +appeared in +England, causing +the disease known +as “American +gooseberry mildew” +(fig. 3A). In +the main the mode +of attack is similar +to that of the +last-mentioned, +but not only are +the leaves attacked, +but the +tips of the young +shoots and the +fruits become +covered by the +cobweb-like mycelium, the attack frequently resulting in the +death of the shoots and the destruction of the fruits. After a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id="page245"></a>245</span> +time the mycelium becomes rusty brown and produces the +winter form of the fungus. Through the winter the shoots +are covered thickly with the brown mycelium and in the spring +the spores contained in the perithecia germinate and start the +infection anew, as in the case of the European mildew. This +fungus has recently been the subject of legislation, and when it +appears in a district strong repressive measures are called for. +In bad cases the attacked bushes should be destroyed, while in +milder attacks frequent spraying with potassium sulphide and +the pruning off and immediate destruction by fire of all the +young shoots showing the mildew should be resorted to.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:380px; height:605px" src="images/img244c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From the <i>Journal of the Board of Agriculture</i> (May 1907), +by permission of the Dept. of Agriculture and Technical +Instruction for Ireland.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3A.</span>—American Gooseberry Mildew (<i>Sphaerotheca +mors-uvae</i>). Plant with leaves and fruit +attacked by the fungus.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The gooseberry, when ripe, yields a fine wine by the fermentation +of the juice with water and sugar, the resulting sparkling +liquor retaining much of the flavour of the fruit. By similarly +treating the juice of the green fruit, picked just before it ripens, +an effervescing wine is produced, nearly resembling some kinds +of champagne, and, when skilfully prepared, far superior to +much of the liquor sold under that name. Brandy has been +made from ripe gooseberries by distillation; by exposing the +juice with sugar to the acetous fermentation a good vinegar +may be obtained. The gooseberry, when perfectly ripe, contains +a large quantity of sugar, most abundant in the red and amber +varieties; in the former it amounts to from 6 to upwards of +8%. The acidity of the fruit is chiefly due to malic acid.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:418px; height:228px" src="images/img245.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3B.</span>—1, Fructification (<i>perithecium</i>) bursting, ascus containing +spores protruding; 2, Ascus with spores more highly magnified.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Several other species of the sub-genus produce edible fruit, +though none have as yet been brought under economic culture. +Among them may be noticed <i>R. oxyacanthoides</i> and <i>R. Cynosbati</i>, +abundant in Canada and the northern parts of the United States, +and <i>R. gracile</i>, common along the Alleghany range. The +group is a widely distributed one in the north temperate zone,—one +species is found in Europe extending to the Caucasus and +North Africa (Atlas Mountains), five occur in Asia and nineteen +in North America, the range extending southwards to Mexico +and Guatemala.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1x" id="ft1x" href="#fa1x"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The first part of the word has been usually treated as an etymological +corruption either of this Dutch word or the allied Ger. +<i>Krausbeere</i>, or of the earlier forms of the Fr. <i>groseille</i>. The <i>New +English Dictionary</i> takes the obvious derivation from “goose” and +“berry” as probable; “the grounds on which plants and fruits +have received names associating them with animals are so commonly +inexplicable, that the want of appropriateness in the meaning affords +no sufficient ground for assuming that the word is an etymologizing +corruption.” Skeat (<i>Etym. Dict.</i>, 1898) connects the French, Dutch +and German words, and finds the origin in the M.H.G. <i>krus</i>, curling, +crisped, applied here to the hairs on the fruit. The French word +was latinized as <i>grossularia</i> and confused with <i>groseus</i>, thick, fat.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOOTY,<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> a town and hill fortress in southern India, in the +Anantapur district of Madras, 48 m. E. of Bellary. Pop. (1901) +9682. The town is surrounded by a circle of rocky hills, connected +by a wall. On the highest of these stands the citadel, 2100 ft. +above sea-level and 1000 ft. above the surrounding country. +Here was the stronghold of Morari Rao Ghorpade, a famous +Mahratta warrior and ally of the English, who was ultimately +starved into surrender by Hayder Ali in 1775.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOPHER<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> (<i>Testudo polyphemus</i>), the only living representative +on the North American continent of the genus <i>Testudo</i> of the +family <i>Testudinidae</i> or land tortoises; it occurs in the south-eastern +parts of the United States, from Florida in the south to +the river Savannah in the north. Its carapace, which is oblong +and remarkably compressed, measures from 12-18 in. in extreme +length, the shields which cover it being grooved, and of a yellow-brown +colour. It is characterized by the shape of the front lobe +of the plastron, which is bent upwards and extends beyond the +carapace. The gopher abounds chiefly in the forests, but +occasionally visits the open plains, where it does great damage, +especially to the potato crops, on which it feeds. It is a nocturnal +animal, remaining concealed by day in its deep burrow, and +coming forth at night to feed. The eggs, five in number, almost +round and 1½ in. in diameter, are laid in a separate cavity near +the entrance. The flesh of the gopher or mungofa, as it is also +called, is considered excellent eating.</p> + +<p>The name “gopher” is more commonly applied to certain +small rodent mammals, particularly the pocket-gopher.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÖPPINGEN,<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, +on the right bank of the Fils, 22 m. E.S.E. of Stuttgart on +the railway to Friedrichshafen. Pop. (1905) 20,870. It possesses +a castle built, partly with stones from the ruined castle of Hohenstaufen, +by Duke Christopher of Württemberg in the 16th century +and now used as public offices, two Evangelical churches, a +Roman Catholic church, a synagogue, a classical school, and a +modern school. The manufactures are considerable and include +linen and woollen cloth, leather, glue, paper and toys. There are +machine shops and tanneries in the town. Three m. N. of the +town are the ruins of the castle of Hohenstaufen. Göppingen +originally belonged to the house of Hohenstaufen, and in 1270 +came into possession of the counts of Württemberg. It was +surrounded by walls in 1129, and was almost entirely rebuilt after +a fire in 1782.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Pfeiffer, <i>Beschreibung und Geschichte der Stadt Göppingen</i> +(1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORAKHPUR,<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> a city, district and division of the United +Provinces of British India. The city is situated on the left bank +of the river Rapti. Pop. (1901) 64,148. It is believed to have +been founded about 1400 <span class="scs">A.D.</span> It is the civil headquarters of the +district and was formerly a military cantonment. It consists of +a number of adjacent village sites, sometimes separated by +cultivated land, and most of the inhabitants are agriculturists.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Gorakhpur</span> has an area of 4535 sq. m. It +lies immediately south of the lower Himalayan slopes, but itself +forms a portion of the great alluvial plain. Only a few sandhills +break the monotony of its level surface, which is, however, intersected +by numerous rivers studded with lakes and marshes. In +the north and centre dense forests abound, and the whole country +has a verdant appearance. The principal rivers are the Rapti, +the Gogra, the Gandak and Little Gandak, the Kuana, the Rohin, +the Ami and the Gunghi. Tigers are found in the north, and +many other wild animals abound throughout the district. The +lakes are well stocked with fish. The district is not subject to +very intense heat, from which it is secured by its vicinity to the +hills and the moisture of its soil. Dust-storms are rare, and cool +breezes from the north, rushing down the gorges of the Himalayas, +succeed each short interval of warm weather. The climate is, +however, relaxing. The southern and eastern portions are as +healthy as most parts of the province, but the <i>tarai</i> and forest-tracts +are still subject to malaria.</p> + +<p>Gautama Buddha, the founder of the religion bearing his name, +was born, and died near the boundaries of the district. From the +beginning of the 6th century the country was the scene of a continuous +struggle between the Bhars and their Aryan antagonists, +the Rathors. About 900 the Domhatars or military Brahmans +appeared, and expelled the Rathors from the town of Gorakhpur, +but they also were soon driven back by other invaders. During +the 15th and 16th centuries, after the district had been desolated +by incessant war, the descendants of the various conquerors held +parts of the territory, and each seems to have lived quite isolated, +as no bridges or roads attest any intercourse with each other. +Towards the end of the 16th century Mussulmans occupied +Gorakhpur town, but they interfered very little with the district, +and allowed it to be controlled by the native rajas. In the +middle of the 18th century a formidable foe, the Banjaras from the +west, so weakened the power of the rajas that they could not resist +the fiscal exactions of the Oudh officials, who plundered the +country to a great extent. The district formed part of the +territory ceded by Oudh to the British under the treaty of 1801. +During the Mutiny it was lost for a short time, but under the +friendly Gurkhas the rebels were driven out. The population in +1901 was 2,957,074, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. +The district is traversed by the main line and several branches of +the Bengal & North-Western railway, and the Gandak, the Gogra +and the Rapti are navigable.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>246</span></p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">Division</span> has an area of 9534 sq. m. The population in +1901 was 6,333,012, giving an average density of 664 persons per +sq. m., being more than one to every acre, and the highest for +any large tract in India.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORAL,<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> the native name of a small Himalayan rough-haired +and cylindrical-horned ruminant classed in the same group as the +chamois. Scientifically this animal is known as <i>Urotragus</i> (or +<i>Cemas</i>) <i>goral</i>; and the native name is now employed as the +designation of all the other members of the same genus. In +addition to certain peculiarities in the form of the skull, gorals +are chiefly distinguished from serows (<i>q.v.</i>) by not possessing a +gland below the eye, nor a corresponding depression in the skull. +Several species are known, ranging from the Himalaya to Burma, +Tibet and North China. Of these, the two Himalayan gorals +(<i>U. goral</i> and <i>U. bedfordi</i>) are usually found in small parties, but +less commonly in pairs. They generally frequent grassy hills, or +rocky ground clothed with forest; in fine weather feeding only +in the mornings and evenings, but when the sky is cloudy grazing +throughout the day.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORAMY,<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gouramy</span> (<i>Osphromenus olfax</i>), reputed to be one +of the best-flavoured freshwater fishes in the East Indian archipelago. +Its original home is Java, Sumatra, Borneo and several +other East Indian islands, but thence it has been transported to +and acclimatized in Penang, Malacca, Mauritius and even +Cayenne. Being an almost omnivorous fish and tenacious of life, +it seems to recommend itself particularly for acclimatization in +other tropical countries; and specimens kept in captivity become +as tame as carps. It attains the size of a large turbot. Its +shape is flat and short, the body covered with large scales; the +dorsal and anal fins are provided with numerous spines, and +the ventral fins produced into long filaments. Like <i>Anabas</i>, +the climbing perch, it possesses a suprabranchial accessory +respiratory organ.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:414px; height:242px" src="images/img246.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Goramy.</td></tr></table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÖRBERSDORF,<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> a village and climatic health resort of +Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, romantically +situated in a deep and well-wooded valley of the Waldenburg +range, 1900 ft. above the sea, 60 m. S.W. of Breslau by the +railway to Friedland and 3 m. from the Austrian frontier. Pop. +700. It has four large sanatoria for consumptives, the earliest of +which was founded in 1854 by Hermann Brehmer (1826-1889).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORBODUC,<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> a mythical king of Britain. He gave his kingdom +away during his lifetime to his two sons, Ferrex and Porrex. +The two quarrelled and the younger stabbed the elder. Their +mother, loving the latter most, avenged his death by murdering +her son, and the people, horrified at her act, revolted and +murdered both her and King Gorboduc. This legend was the +subject of the earliest regular English tragedy which in 1561 +was played before Queen Elizabeth in the Inner Temple hall. +It was written by Thomas Sackville, Lord Buckhurst and +Thomas Norton in collaboration. Under the title of <i>Gorboduc</i> it +was published first very corruptly in 1565, and in better form as +<i>The Tragedy of Ferrex and Porrex</i> in 1570.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORCHAKOV,<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gortchakoff</span>, a noble Russian family, +descended from Michael Vsevolodovich, prince of Chernigov, +who, in 1246, was assassinated by the Mongols. <span class="sc">Prince Andrey +Ivanovich</span> (1768-1855), general in the Russian army, took a +conspicuous part in the final campaigns against Napoleon. +<span class="sc">Alexander Ivanovich</span> (1769-1825) served with distinction +under his relative Suvarov in the Turkish Wars, and took part +as a general officer in the Italian and Swiss operations of 1799, +and in the war against Napoleon in Poland in 1806-1807 (battle +of Heilsberg). <span class="sc">Petr Dmitrievich</span> (1790-1868) served under +Kamenski and Kutusov in the campaign against Turkey, and +afterwards against France in 1813-1814. In 1820 he suppressed +an insurrection in the Caucasus, for which service he was raised +to the rank of major-general. In 1828-1829 he fought under +Wittgenstein against the Turks, won an action at Aidos, and +signed the treaty of peace at Adrianople. In 1839 he was made +governor of Eastern Siberia, and in 1851 retired into private +life. When the Crimean War broke out he offered his services +to the emperor Nicholas, by whom he was appointed general of +the VI. army corps in the Crimea. He commanded the corps +in the battles of Alma and Inkerman. He retired in 1855 and +died at Moscow, on the 18th of March 1868.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Prince Mikhail Dmitrievich</span> (1795-1861), brother of the +last named, entered the Russian army in 1807 and took part +in the campaigns against Persia in 1810, and in 1812-1815 +against France. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829 +he was present at the sieges of Silistria and Shumla. After +being appointed, in 1830, a general officer, he was present in the +campaign in Poland, and was wounded at the battle of Grochow, +on the 25th of February 1831. He also distinguished himself +at the battle of Ostrolenka and at the taking of Warsaw. For +these services he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general. +In 1846 he was nominated military governor of Warsaw. In +1849 he commanded the Russian artillery in the war against the +Hungarians, and in 1852 he visited London as a representative +of the Russian army at the funeral of the duke of Wellington. +At this time he was chief of the staff of the Russian army and +adjutant-general to the tsar. Upon Russia declaring war +against Turkey in 1853, he was appointed commander-in-chief +of the troops which occupied Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1854 +he crossed the Danube and besieged Silistria, but was superseded +in April by Prince Paskevich, who, however, resigned on the 8th +of June, when Gorchakov resumed the command. In July +the siege of Silistria was raised, and the Russian armies recrossed +the Danube; in August they withdrew to Russia. In 1855 he +was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian forces in the +Crimea in place of Prince Menshikov. Gorchakov’s defence of +Sevastopol, and final retreat to the northern part of the town, +which he continued to defend till peace was signed in Paris, were +conducted with skill and energy. In 1856 he was appointed +governor-general of Poland in succession to Prince Paskevich. +He died at Warsaw on the 30th of May 1861, and was buried, +in accordance with his own wish, at Sevastopol.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Prince Gorchakov, Alexander Mikhailovich</span> (1798-1883). +Russian statesman, cousin of Princes Petr and Mikhail Gorchakov, +was born on the 16th of July 1798, and was educated at the +lyceum of Tsarskoye Selo, where he had the poet Pushkin as a +school-fellow. He became a good classical scholar, and learnt +to speak and write in French with facility and elegance. Pushkin +in one of his poems described young Gorchakov as “Fortune’s +favoured son,” and predicted his success. On leaving the lyceum +Gorchakov entered the foreign office under Count Nesselrode. +His first diplomatic work of importance was the negotiation of a +marriage between the grand duchess Olga and the crown prince +Charles of Württemberg. He remained at Stuttgart for some +years as Russian minister and confidential adviser of the crown +princess. He foretold the outbreak of the revolutionary spirit +in Germany and Austria, and was credited with counselling the +abdication of Ferdinand in favour of Francis Joseph. When the +German confederation was re-established in 1850 in place of the +parliament of Frankfort, Gorchakov was appointed Russian +minister to the diet. It was here that he first met Prince +Bismarck, with whom he formed a friendship which was afterwards +renewed at St Petersburg. The emperor Nicholas found +that his ambassador at Vienna, Baron Meyendorff, was not a +sympathetic instrument for carrying out his schemes in the East. +He therefore transferred Gorchakov to Vienna, where the latter +remained through the critical period of the Crimean War. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id="page247"></a>247</span> +Gorchakov perceived that Russian designs against Turkey, +supported by Great Britain and France, were impracticable, +and he counselled Russia to make no more useless sacrifices, +but to accept the bases of a pacification. At the same time, +although he attended the Paris conference of 1856, he purposely +abstained from affixing his signature to the treaty of peace after +that of Count Orlov, Russia’s chief representative. For the time, +however, he made a virtue of necessity, and Alexander II., +recognizing the wisdom and courage which Gorchakov had +exhibited, appointed him minister of foreign affairs in place of +Count Nesselrode. Not long after his accession to office Gorchakov +issued a circular to the foreign powers, in which he announced +that Russia proposed, for internal reasons, to keep herself as +free as possible from complications abroad, and he added the +now historic phrase, “<i>La Russie ne boude pas; elle se recueille</i>.” +During the Polish insurrection Gorchakov rebuffed the suggestions +of Great Britain, Austria and France for assuaging the +severities employed in quelling it, and he was especially acrid +in his replies to Earl Russell’s despatches. In July 1863 +Gorchakov was appointed chancellor of the Russian empire +expressly in reward for his bold diplomatic attitude towards an +indignant Europe. The appointment was hailed with enthusiasm +in Russia, and at that juncture Prince Chancellor Gorchakov +was unquestionably the most powerful minister in Europe.</p> + +<p>An <i>approchement</i> now began between the courts of Russia and +Prussia; and in 1863 Gorchakov smoothed the way for the +occupation of Holstein by the Federal troops. This seemed +equally favourable to Austria and Prussia, but it was the latter +power which gained all the substantial advantages; and when +the conflict arose between Austria and Prussia in 1866, Russia +remained neutral and permitted Prussia to reap the fruits and +establish her supremacy in Germany. When the Franco-German +War of 1870-71 broke out Russia answered for the neutrality +of Austria. An attempt was made to form an anti-Prussian +coalition, but it failed in consequence of the cordial understanding +between the German and Russian chancellors. In return for +Russia’s service in preventing the aid of Austria from being +given to France, Gorchakov looked to Bismarck for diplomatic +support in the Eastern Question, and he received an instalment +of the expected support when he successfully denounced the +Black Sea clauses of the treaty of Paris. This was justly regarded +by him as an important service to his country and one of the +triumphs of his career, and he hoped to obtain further successes +with the assistance of Germany, but the cordial relations between +the cabinets of St Petersburg and Berlin did not subsist much +longer. In 1875 Bismarck was suspected of a design of again +attacking France, and Gorchakov gave him to understand, in a +way which was not meant to be offensive, but which roused the +German chancellor’s indignation, that Russia would oppose any +such scheme. The tension thus produced between the two +statesmen was increased by the political complications of 1875-1878 +in south-eastern Europe, which began with the Herzegovinian +insurrection and culminated at the Berlin congress. +Gorchakov hoped to utilize the complications in such a way as +to recover, without war, the portion of Bessarabia ceded by the +treaty of Paris, but he soon lost control of events, and the +Slavophil agitation produced the Russo-Turkish campaign of +1877-78. By the preliminary peace of San Stefano the +Slavophil aspirations seemed to be realized, but the stipulations +of that peace were considerably modified by the congress of +Berlin (13th June to 13th July 1878), at which the aged chancellor +held nominally the post of first plenipotentiary, but left to the +second plenipotentiary, Count Shuvalov, not only the task of +defending Russian interests, but also the responsibility and +odium for the concessions which Russia had to make to Great +Britain and Austria. He had the satisfaction of seeing the lost +portion of Bessarabia restored to his country by the Berlin +treaty, but at the cost of greater sacrifices than he anticipated. +After the congress he continued to hold the post of minister for +foreign affairs, but lived chiefly abroad, and resigned formally in +1882, when he was succeeded by M. de Giers. He died at Baden-Baden +on the 11th of March 1883. Prince Gorchakov devoted +himself entirely to foreign affairs, and took no part in the great +internal reforms of Alexander II.’s reign. As a diplomatist he +displayed many brilliant qualities—adroitness in negotiation, +incisiveness in argument and elegance in style. His statesmanship, +though marred occasionally by personal vanity and love +of popular applause, was far-seeing and prudent. In the latter +part of his career his main object was to raise the prestige of +Russia by undoing the results of the Crimean War, and it may +fairly be said that he in great measure succeeded.</p> +<div class="author">(D. M. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORDIAN,<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gordianus</span>, the name of three Roman +emperors. The first, Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus +Romanus Africanus (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 159-238), an extremely wealthy man, +was descended from the Gracchi and Trajan, while his wife was +the great-granddaughter of Antoninus Pius. While he gained +unbounded popularity by his magnificent games and shows, his +prudent and retired life did not excite the suspicion of Caracalla, +in whose honour he wrote a long epic called <i>Antoninias</i>. Alexander +Severus called him to the dangerous honours of government in +Africa, and during his proconsulship occurred the usurpation of +Maximin. The universal discontent roused by the oppressive rule +of Maximin culminated in a revolt in Africa in 238, and Gordian +reluctantly yielded to the popular clamour and assumed the +purple. His son, Marcus Antonius Gordianus (192-238), was +associated with him in the dignity. The senate confirmed the +choice of the Africans, and most of the provinces gladly sided +with the new emperors; but, even while their cause was so +successful abroad, they had fallen before the sudden inroad of +Cappellianus, legatus of Numidia and a supporter of Maximin. +They had reigned only thirty-six days. Both the Gordians had +deserved by their amiable character their high reputation; they +were men of great accomplishments, fond of literature, and +voluminous authors; but they were rather intellectual voluptuaries +than able statesmen or powerful rulers. Having embraced +the cause of Gordian, the senate was obliged to continue the +revolt against Maximin, and appointed Pupienus Maximus +and Caelius Balbinus, two of its noblest and most esteemed +members, as joint emperors. At their inauguration a sedition +arose, and the popular outcry for a Gordian was appeased +by the association with them of M. Antonius Gordianus +Pius (224-244), grandson of the elder Gordian, then a boy of +thirteen. Maximin forthwith invaded Italy, but was murdered +by his own troops while besieging Aquileia, and a revolt of the +praetorian guards, to which Pupienus and Balbinus fell victims, +left Gordian sole emperor. For some time he was under the +control of his mother’s eunuchs, till Timesitheus,<a name="fa1y" id="fa1y" href="#ft1y"><span class="sp">1</span></a> his father-in-law +and praefect of the praetorian guard, persuaded him to assert +his independence. When the Persians under Shapur (Sapor) I. +invaded Mesopotamia, the young emperor opened the temple of +Janus for the last time recorded in history, and marched in person +to the East. The Persians were driven back over the Euphrates +and defeated in the battle of Resaena (243), and only the death +of Timesitheus (under suspicious circumstances) prevented an +advance into the enemy’s territory. Philip the Arabian, who +succeeded Timesitheus, stirred up discontent in the army, and +Gordian was murdered by the mutinous soldiers in Mesopotamia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See lives of the Gordians by Capitolinus in the <i>Scriptores historiae +Augustae</i>; Herodian vii. viii.; Zosimus i. 16, 18; Ammianus +Marcellinus, xxiii. 5; Eutropius ix. 2; Aurelius Victor, <i>Caesares</i>, +27; article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shapur</a></span> (I.); Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, i. +2619 f. (von Rohden).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1y" id="ft1y" href="#fa1y"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For this name see footnote to <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shapur</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORDIUM,<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> an ancient city of Phrygia situated on the Persian +“Royal road” from Pessinus to Ancyra, and not far from the +Sangarius. It lies opposite the village Pebi, a little north of +the point where the Constantinople-Angora railway crosses the +Sangarius. It is not to be confused with Gordiou-kome, refounded +as Juliopolis, a Bithynian town on a small tributary of the +Sangarius, about 47 m. in an air-line N.W. of Gordium. According +to the legend, Gordium was founded by Gordius, a Phrygian +peasant who had been called to the throne by his countrymen in +obedience to an oracle of Zeus commanding them to select the +first person that rode up to the temple of the god in a wagon. +The king afterwards dedicated his car to the god, and another +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248"></a>248</span> +oracle declared that whoever succeeded in untying the strangely +entwined knot of cornel bark which bound the yoke to the pole +should reign over all Asia. Alexander the Great, according to +the story, cut the knot by a stroke of his sword. Gordium was +captured and destroyed by the Gauls soon after 189 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and +disappeared from history. In imperial times only a small village +existed on the site. Excavations made in 1900 by two German +scholars, G. and A. Koerte, revealed practically no remains later +than the middle of the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (when Phrygia fell under +Persian power).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Jahrbuch des Instituts</i>, Ergänzungsheft v. (1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. G. C. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORDON,<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> the name of a Scottish family, no fewer than 157 +main branches of which are traced by the family historians. A +laird of Gorden, in Berwickshire, near the English border, is said +to have fallen in the battle of the Standard (1138). The families +of the two sons ascribed to him by tradition, Richard Gordon of +Gordon and Adam Gordon of Huntly, were united by the marriage +of their great-grandchildren Alicia and Sir Adam, whose grandson +Sir Adam (killed at Halidon Hill, 1333) at first took the English +side in the Scottish struggle for independence, and is the first +member of the family definitely to emerge into history. He was +justiciar of Scotland in 1310, but after Bannockburn he attached +himself to Robert Bruce, who granted him in 1318 the lordship of +Strathbogie in Aberdeenshire, to which Gordon gave the name of +Huntly from a village on the Gordon estate in Berwickshire. He +had two sons, Adam and William. The younger son, laird of +Stitchel in Roxburghshire, was the ancestor of William de +Gordon of Stitchel and Lochinvar, founder of the Galloway +branch of the family represented in the Scottish peerage by the +dormant viscounty of Kenmure (<i>q.v.</i>), created in 1633; most of +the Irish and Virginian Gordons are offshoots of this stock. The +elder son, Adam, inherited the Gordon-Huntly estates. He had +two grandsons, Sir John (d. 1394) and Sir Adam (slain at Homildon +Hill, 1403). Sir John had two illegitimate sons, Jock of Scurdargue, +the ancestor of the earls of Aberdeen, and Tam of +Ruthven. From these two stocks most of the northern Gordon +families are derived. Sir Adam’s daughter and heiress, Elizabeth, +married Sir Alexander Seton, and with her husband was confirmed +in 1408 in the possession of the barony of Gordon and Huntly in +Berwickshire and of the Gordon lands in Aberdeen. The Seton-Gordons +are their descendants. Their son Alexander was created +earl of Huntly (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Huntly, Earls and Marquesses of</a></span>), +probably in 1445; and his heirs became dukes of Gordon, George +Gordon (<i>c.</i> 1650-1716), 4th marquess of Huntly, being created +duke of Gordon in 1684. He had been educated in a French +Catholic seminary, and served in the French army in the campaigns +of 1673 to 1675. Under James II. he was made keeper of +Edinburgh Castle on account of his religion, but he refused to +support James’s efforts to impose Roman Catholicism on his +subjects. He offered little active resistance when the castle was +besieged by William III.’s forces. After his submission he was +more than once imprisoned on suspicion of Jacobite leanings, and +was ordered by George I. to reside on parole in Edinburgh. For +some time before his death he was separated from his wife Elizabeth +Howard, daughter of the 6th duke of Norfolk. His son Alexander, +2nd duke of Gordon (<i>c.</i> 1678-1728). joined the Old Pretender, but +gained the royal pardon after the surrender of Gordon Castle in +1716. Of his children by his wife Henrietta Mordaunt, second +daughter of Charles Mordaunt, earl of Peterborough, Cosmo +George (<i>c.</i> 1720-1752) succeeded as 3rd duke; Lord Lewis Gordon +(d. 1754) took an active part in the Jacobite rising of 1745; and +General Lord Adam Gordon (<i>c.</i> 1726-1801) became commander of +the forces in Scotland in 1782, and governor of Edinburgh Castle +in 1786. Lord George Gordon (<i>q.v.</i>) was a younger son of the +3rd duke.</p> + +<p>The title, with the earldom of Norwich and the barony of +Gordon Huntly, became extinct on the death of George, 5th +duke (1770-1836), a distinguished soldier who raised the corps +now known as the 2nd battalion of the Gordon Highlanders. +The marquessate of Huntly passed to his cousin and heir-male, +George, 5th earl of Aboyne. Lady Charlotte Gordon, sister of +and co-heiress with the 5th duke, married Charles Lennox, 4th +duke of Richmond, whose son took the name of Gordon-Lennox. +The dukedom of Gordon was revived in 1876 in favour of the +6th duke of Richmond, who thenceforward was styled duke of +Richmond and Gordon. Adam Gordon of Aboyne (d. 1537) +took the courtesy title of earl of Sutherland in right of his wife +Elizabeth, countess of Sutherland in her own right, sister of the +9th earl. The lawless and turbulent Gordons of Gight were the +maternal ancestors of Lord Byron.</p> + +<p>Among the many soldiers of fortune bearing the name of +Gordon was Colonel John Gordon, one of the murderers of +Wallenstein. Patrick Gordon (1635-1699) was born at Auchleuchries +in Aberdeenshire, entered the service of Charles X. +of Sweden in 1651 and served against the Poles. He changed +sides more than once before he found his way to Moscow in 1661 +and took service under the tsar Alexis. He became general in +1687; in 1688 he helped to secure Peter the Great’s ascendancy; +and later he crushed the revolt of the Streltzi. His diary was +published in German (3 vols., 1849-1853, Moscow and St Petersburg), +and selections from the English original by the Spalding +Club (Aberdeen, 1859).</p> + +<p>The Gordons fill a considerable place in Scottish legend and +ballad. “Captain Car,” or “Edom (Adam) of Gordon” describes +an incident in the struggle between the Forbeses and Gordons +in Aberdeenshire in 1571; “The Duke of Gordon’s Daughter” +has apparently no foundation in fact, though “Geordie” of the +ballad is sometimes said to have been George, 4th earl of Huntly; +“The Fire of Frendraught” goes back to a feud (1630) between +James Crichton of Frendraught and William Gordon of Rothiemay; +the “Gallant Gordons Gay” figure in “Chevy Chase”; +William Gordon of Earlston, the Covenanter, appears in “Bothwell +Bridge” &c.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See William Gordon (of old Aberdeen), <i>The History of the Ancient, +Noble, and Illustrious House of Gordon</i> (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1726-1727), +of which <i>A Concise History of the ... House of Gordon</i>, by +C. A. Gordon (Aberdeen, 1754) is little more than an abridgment; +<i>The Records of Aboyne, 1230-1681</i>, edited by Charles, 11th marquess +of Huntly, &c. (New Spalding Club, Aberdeen, 1894); <i>The Gordon +Book</i>, ed. J. M. Bulloch (1902); <i>The House of Gordon</i>, ed. J. M. +Bulloch (Aberdeen, vol. i., 1903); and Mr Bulloch’s <i>The First Duke +of Gordon</i> (1909).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> (1833-1870), Australian poet, +was born at Fayal, in the Azores, in 1833, the son of a retired +Indian officer who taught Hindustani at Cheltenham College. +Young Gordon was educated there and at Merton College, +Oxford, but a youthful indiscretion led to his being sent in 1853 +to South Australia, where he joined the mounted police. He then +became a horsebreaker, but on his father’s death he inherited +a fortune and obtained a seat in the House of Assembly. At +this time he had the reputation of being the best non-professional +steeplechase rider in the colony. In 1867 he moved to Victoria +and set up a livery stable at Ballarat. Two volumes of poems, +<i>Sea Spray and Smoke Drift</i> and <i>Ashtaroth</i>, were published in this +year, and two years later he gave up his business and settled +at New Brighton, near Melbourne. A <span class="correction" title="amended from second">third</span> volume of poetry, +<i>Bush Ballads and Galloping Rhymes</i>, appeared in 1870. It +brought him more praise than emolument, and, thoroughly +discouraged by his failure to make good his claim to some +property in Scotland to which he believed himself entitled, +he committed suicide on the 24th of June 1870. His reputation +rose after his death, and he became the best known and most +widely popular of Australian poets. Much of Gordon’s poetry +might have been written in England; when, however, it is +really local, it is vividly so; his genuine feeling frequently +kindles into passion; his versification is always elastic and +sonorous, but sometimes too reminiscent of Swinburne. His +compositions are almost entirely lyrical, and their merit is +usually in proportion to the degree in which they partake of the +character of the ballad.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gordon’s poems were collected and published in 1880 with a +biographical introduction by Marcus Clarke.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORDON, ALEXANDER<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1692-<i>c.</i> 1754), Scottish antiquary, +is believed to have been born in Aberdeen in 1692. He is +the “Sandy Gordon” of Scott’s <i>Antiquary</i>. Of his parentage +and early history nothing is known. He appears to have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>249</span> +distinguished himself in classics at Aberdeen University, and to +have made a living at first by teaching languages and music. +When still young he travelled abroad, probably in the capacity of +tutor. He returned to Scotland previous to 1726, and devoted +himself to antiquarian work. In 1726 appeared the <i>Itinerarium +Septentrionale</i>, his greatest and best-known work. He was already +the friend of Sir John Clerk, of Penicuik, better known as Baron +Clerk (a baron of the exchequer); and the baron and Roger Gale +(vice-president of the Society of Antiquaries) are the “two +gentlemen, the honour of their age and country,” whose letters +were published, without their consent it appears, as an appendix +to the <i>Itinerarium</i>. Subsequently Gordon was appointed secretary +to the Society for the Encouragement of Learning, with an +annual salary of £50. Resigning this post, or, as there seems +reason for believing, being dismissed for carelessness in his +accounts, he succeeded Dr Stukeley as secretary to the Society +of Antiquaries, and also acted for a short time as secretary to +the Egyptian Club, an association composed of gentlemen who +had visited Egypt. In 1741 he accompanied James Glen (afterwards +governor), to South Carolina. Through his influence Gordon, +besides receiving a grant of land in South Carolina, became +registrar of the province and justice of the peace, and filled +several other offices. From his will, dated the 22nd of August +1754, it appears he had a son Alexander and a daughter Frances, +to whom he bequeathed most of his property, among which were +portraits of himself and of friends painted by his own hand.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sir Daniel Wilson, <i>Alexander Gordon, the Antiquary</i>; and his +Papers in the <i>Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland</i>, +with Additional Notes and an Appendix of Original Letters by +Dr David Laing (<i>Proc. Soc. of Antiq. of Scot.</i> x. 363-382).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (1833-1885), British soldier +and administrator, fourth son of General H. W. Gordon, Royal +Artillery, was born at Woolwich on the 28th of January 1833. +He received his early education at Taunton school, and was +given a cadetship in the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, +in 1848. He was commissioned as second lieutenant in the +corps of Royal Engineers on the 23rd of June 1852. After +passing through a course of instruction at the Royal Engineers’ +establishment, Chatham, he was promoted lieutenant in 1854, +and was sent to Pembroke dock to assist in the construction of +the fortifications then being erected for the defence of Milford +Haven. The Crimean War broke out shortly afterwards, and +Gordon was ordered on active service, and landed at Balaklava +on the 1st of January 1855. The siege of Sevastopol was in +progress, and he had his full share of the arduous work in the +trenches. He was attached to one of the British columns which +assaulted the Redan on the 18th of June, and was also present +at the capture of that work on the 8th of September. He took +part in the expedition to Kinburn, and then returned to Sevastopol +to superintend a portion of the demolition of the Russian +dockyard. After peace with Russia had been concluded, Gordon +was attached to an international commission appointed to delimit +the new boundary, as fixed by treaty, between Russia and +Turkey in Bessarabia; and on the conclusion of this work he +was ordered to Asia Minor on similar duty, with reference to +the eastern boundary between the two countries. While so +employed Gordon took the opportunity to make himself well +acquainted with the geography and people of Armenia, and +the knowledge of dealing with eastern nations then gained +was of great use to him in after life.</p> + +<p>He returned to England towards the end of 1858, and was +then selected for the appointment of adjutant and field-works +instructor at the Royal Engineers’ establishment, +and took up his new duties at Chatham after promotion +<span class="sidenote">In China.</span> +to the rank of captain in April 1859. But his stay in England +was brief, for in 1860 war was declared against China, and +Gordon was ordered out there, arriving at Tientsin in September. +He was too late for the attack on the Taku forts, but was present +at the occupation of Peking and destruction of the Summer +Palace. He remained with the British force of occupation in +northern China until April 1862, when the British troops, +under the command of General Staveley, proceeded to Shanghai, +in order to protect the European settlement at that place from +the Taiping rebels. The Taiping revolt, which had some remarkable +points of similarity with the Mahdist rebellion in the Sudan, +had commenced in 1850 in the province of Kwangsi. The +leader, Hung Sin Tsuan, a semi-political, semi-religious enthusiast, +assumed the title of Tien Wang, or Heavenly King, +and by playing on the feelings of the lower class of people gradually +collected a considerable force. The Chinese authorities +endeavoured to arrest him, but the imperialist troops were +defeated. The area of revolt extended northwards through +the provinces of Hunan and Hupeh, and down the valley of +the Yangtsze-kiang as far as the great city of Nanking, which +was captured by the rebels in 1853. Here the Tien Wang +established his court, and while spending his own time in heavenly +contemplation and earthly pleasures, sent the assistant Wangs +on warlike expeditions through the adjacent provinces. For +some years a constant struggle was maintained between the +Chinese imperialist troops and the Taipings, with varying success +on both sides. The latter gradually advanced eastwards, and approaching +the important city of Shanghai, alarmed the European +inhabitants, who subscribed to raise a mixed force of Europeans +and Manila men for the defence of the town. This force, which +was placed under the command of an American, Frederick +Townsend Ward (1831-1862), took up a position in the country +west of Shanghai to check the advance of the rebels. Fighting +continued round Shanghai for about two years, but Ward’s +force was not altogether successful, and when General Staveley +arrived from Tientsin affairs were in a somewhat critical condition. +He decided to clear the district of rebels within a radius +of 30 m. from Shanghai, and Gordon was attached to his staff +as engineer officer. A French force, under the command of +Admiral Prôtet, co-operated with Staveley and Ward, with his +little army, also assisted. Kahding, Singpo and other towns +were occupied, and the country was fairly cleared of rebels +by the end of 1862. Ward was, unfortunately, killed in the +assault of Tseki, and his successor, Burgevine, having had a +quarrel with the Chinese authorities, Li Hung Chang, the governor +of the Kiang-su province, requested General Staveley to +appoint a British officer to command the contingent. Staveley +selected Gordon, who had been made a brevet-major in December +1862 for his previous services, and the nomination was approved +by the British government. The choice was judicious as +further events proved. In March 1863 Gordon proceeded to +Sungkiang to take command of the force, which had received +the name of “The Ever-Victorious Army,” an encouraging +though somewhat exaggerated title, considering its previous +history. Without waiting to reorganize his troops he marched +at once to the relief of Chansu, a town 40 m. north-west of +Shanghai, which was invested by the rebels. The relief was +successfully accomplished, and the operation established Gordon +in the confidence of his troops. He then reorganized his force, +a matter of no small difficulty, and advanced against Quinsan, +which was captured, though with considerable loss. Gordon +then marched through the country, seizing town after town +from the rebels until at length the great city of Suchow was +invested by his army and a body of Chinese imperialist troops. +The city was taken on the 29th of November, and after its +capture Gordon had a serious dispute with Li Hung Chang, +as the latter had beheaded certain of the rebel leaders whose +lives the former had promised to spare if they surrendered. This +action, though not opposed to Chinese ethics, was so opposed +to Gordon’s ideas of honour that he withdrew his force from +Suchow and remained inactive at Quinsan until February +1864. He then came to the conclusion that the subjugation of +the rebels was more important than his dispute with Li, and +visited the latter in order to arrange for further operations. +By mutual consent no allusion was made to the death of the +Wangs. This was a good example of one of Gordon’s marked +characteristics, that, though a man of strong personal feelings, +he was always prepared to subdue them for the public benefit. +He declined, however, to take any decoration or reward from +the emperor for his services at the capture of Suchow. After +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>250</span> +the meeting with Li Hung Chang the “Ever-Victorious Army” +again advanced and took a number of towns from the rebels, +ending with Chanchufu, the principal military position of the +Taipings. This fell in May, when Gordon returned to Quinsan +and disbanded his force. In June the Tien Wang, seeing his +cause was hopeless, committed suicide, and the capture of Nanking +by the imperialist troops shortly afterwards brought the +Taiping revolt to a conclusion. The suppression of this serious +movement was undoubtedly due in great part to the skill and +energy of Gordon, who had shown remarkable qualities as a +leader of men. The emperor promoted him to the rank of Titu, +the highest grade in the Chinese army, and also gave him the +Yellow Jacket, the most important decoration in China. He +wished to give him a large sum of money, but this Gordon refused. +He was promoted lieutenant-colonel for his Chinese services, +and made a Companion of the Bath. Henceforth he was often +familiarly spoken of as “Chinese” Gordon.</p> + +<p>Gordon was appointed on his return to England Commanding +Royal Engineer at Gravesend, where he was employed in superintending +the erection of forts for the defence of the Thames. +He devoted himself with energy to his official duties, and his +leisure hours to practical philanthropy. All the acts of kindness +which he did for the poor during the six years he was stationed +at Gravesend will never be fully known. In October 1871 he +was appointed British representative on the international +commission which had been constituted after the Crimean War +to maintain the navigation of the mouth of the river Danube, +with headquarters at Galatz. During 1872 Gordon was sent to +inspect the British military cemeteries in the Crimea, and when +passing through Constantinople on his return to Galatz he made +the acquaintance of Nubar Pasha, prime minister of Egypt, +who sounded him as to whether he would take service under the +khedive. Nothing further was settled at the time, but the +following year he received a definite offer from the khedive, +which he accepted with the consent of the British government, +and proceeded to Egypt early in 1874. He was then a colonel +in the army, though still only a captain in the corps of Royal +Engineers.</p> + +<p>To understand the object of the appointment which Gordon +accepted in Egypt, it is necessary to give a few facts with reference +to the Sudan. In 1820-22 Nubia, Sennar and Kordofan +had been conquered by Egypt, and the authority of the Egyptians +was subsequently extended southward, eastward to the Red +Sea and westward over Darfur (conquered by Zobeir Pasha in +1874). One result of the Egyptian occupation of the country +was that the slave trade was largely developed, especially in the +White Nile and Bahr-el-Ghazal districts. Captains Speke and +Grant, who had travelled through Uganda and came down the +White Nile in 1863, and Sir Samuel Baker, who went up the +same river as far as Albert Nyanza, brought back harrowing +tales of the misery caused by the slave-hunters. Public opinion +was considerably moved, and in 1869 the khedive Ismail decided +to send an expedition up the White Nile, with the double object +of limiting the evils of the slave trade and opening up the district +to commerce. The command of the expedition was given to +Sir Samuel Baker, who reached Khartum in February 1870, but, +owing to the obstruction of the river by the sudd or grass barrier, +did not reach Gondokoro, the centre of his province, for fourteen +months. He met with great difficulties, and when his four years’ +service came to an end little had been effected beyond establishing +a few posts along the Nile and placing some steamers on the river. +It was to succeed Baker as governor of the equatorial regions +that the khedive asked for Gordon’s services, having come to +the conclusion that the latter was the most likely person to bring +the affair to a satisfactory conclusion. After a short stay in +Cairo, Gordon proceeded to Khartum by way of Suakin and +Berber, a route which he ever afterwards regarded as the best +mode of access to the Sudan. From Khartum he proceeded up +the White Nile to Gondokoro, where he arrived in twenty-four +days, the sudd, which had proved such an obstacle to Baker, +having been removed since the departure of the latter by the +Egyptian governor-general. Gordon remained in the equatorial +provinces until October 1876, and then returned to Cairo. The +two years and a half thus spent in Central Africa was a time of +incessant toil. A line of stations was established from the Sobat +confluence on the White Nile to the frontier of Uganda—to +which country he proposed to open a route from Mombasa—and +considerable progress was made in the suppression of the slave +trade. The river and Lake Albert were mapped by Gordon and +his staff, and he devoted himself with wonted energy to improving +the condition of the people. Greater results might have been +obtained but for the fact that Khartum and the whole of the +Sudan north of the Sobat were in the hands of an Egyptian +governor, independent of Gordon, and not too well disposed +towards his proposals for diminishing the slave trade. On +arriving in Cairo Gordon informed the khedive of his reasons +for not wishing to return to the Sudan, but did not definitely +resign the appointment of governor of the equatorial provinces. +But on reaching London he telegraphed to the British consul-general +in Cairo, asking him to let the khedive know that he +would not go back to Egypt. Ismail Pasha, feeling, no doubt, +that Gordon’s resignation would injure his prestige, wrote to him +saying that he had promised to return, and that he expected him +to keep his word. Upon this Gordon, to whom the keeping of a +promise was a sacred duty, decided to return to Cairo, but gave +an assurance to some friends that he would not go back to the +Sudan unless he was appointed governor-general of the entire +country. After some discussion the khedive agreed, and made +him governor-general of the Sudan, inclusive of Darfur and the +equatorial provinces.</p> + +<p>One of the most important questions which Gordon had to +take up on his appointment was the state of the political relations +between Egypt and Abyssinia, which had been in an +unsatisfactory condition for some years. The dispute +<span class="sidenote">Governor-General</span> +centred round the district of Bogos, lying not far +inland from Massawa, which both the khedive and King John of +Abyssinia claimed as belonging to their respective dominions. +War broke out in 1875, when an Egyptian expedition was +despatched to Abyssinia, and was completely defeated by King +John near Gundet. A second and larger expedition, under +Prince Hassan, the son of the khedive, was sent the following year +from Massawa. The force was routed by the Abyssinians at +Gura, but Prince Hassan and his staff got back to Massawa. +Matters then remained quiet until March 1877, when Gordon +proceeded to Massawa to endeavour to make peace with King +John. He went up to Bogos, and had an interview with Walad +Michael, an Abyssinian chief and the hereditary ruler of Bogos, +who had joined the Egyptians with a view to raiding on his own +account. Gordon, with his usual powers of diplomacy, persuaded +Michael to remain quiet, and wrote to the king proposing terms +of peace. But he received no reply at that time, as John, feeling +pretty secure on the Egyptian frontier after his two successful +actions against the khedive’s troops, had gone southwards to +fight with Menelek, king of Shoa. Gordon, seeing that the +Abyssinian difficulty could wait for a few months, proceeded to +Khartum. Here he took up the slavery question, and proposed +to issue regulations making the registration of slaves compulsory, +but his proposals were not approved by the Cairo government. +In the meantime an insurrection had broken out in Darfur, and +Gordon proceeded to that province to relieve the Egyptian +garrisons, which were considerably stronger than the force he +had available, the insurgents also being far more numerous than +his little army. On coming up with the main body of rebels he +saw that diplomacy gave a better chance of success than fighting, +and, accompanied only by an interpreter, rode into the enemy’s +camp to discuss the situation. This bold move, which probably +no one but Gordon would have attempted, proved quite successful, +as part of the insurgents joined him, and the remainder +retreated to the south. The relief of the Egyptian garrisons was +successfully accomplished, and Gordon visited the provinces of +Berber and Dongola, whence he had again to return to the +Abyssinian frontier to treat with King John. But no satisfactory +settlement was arrived at, and Gordon came back to Khartum +in January 1878. There he had scarcely a week’s rest when the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id="page251"></a>251</span> +khedive summoned him to Cairo to assist in settling the financial +affairs of Egypt. He reached Cairo in March, and was at once +appointed by Ismail as president of a commission of inquiry into +the finances, on the understanding that the European commissioners +of the debt, who were the representatives of the bondholders, +and whom Ismail regarded as interested parties, should +not be members of the commission. Gordon accepted the post +on these terms, but the consuls-general of the different powers +refused to agree to the constitution of the commission, and it fell +to the ground, as the khedive was not strong enough to carry +his point. The attempt of the latter to utilize Gordon as a +counterpoise to the European financiers having failed, Ismail +fell into the hands of his creditors, and was deposed by the +sultan in the following year in favour of his son Tewfik. After +the conclusion of the financial episode, Gordon proceeded to the +province of Harrar, south of Abyssinia, and, finding the administration +in a bad condition, dismissed Raouf Pasha, the governor. +He then returned to Khartum, and in 1879 went again into +Darfur to pursue the slave traders, while his subordinate, Gessi +Pasha, fought them with great success in the Bahr-el-Ghazal +district and killed Suleiman, their leader and a son of Zobeir. +This put an end to the revolt, and Gordon went back to Khartum. +Shortly afterwards he went down to Cairo, and when there was +requested by the new khedive to pay a visit to King John and +make a definite treaty of peace with Abyssinia. Gordon had an +interesting interview with the king, but was not able to do much, +as the king wanted great concessions from Egypt, and the +khedive’s instructions were that nothing material was to be +conceded. The matter ended by Gordon being made a prisoner +and sent back to Massawa. Thence he returned to Cairo and +resigned his Sudan appointment. He was considerably exhausted +by the three years’ incessant work, during which he had +ridden no fewer than 8500 m. on camels and mules, and was +constantly engaged in the task of trying to reform a vicious +system of administration.</p> + +<p>In March 1880 Gordon visited the king of the Belgians at +Brussels, and King Leopold suggested that he should at some +future date take charge of the Congo Free State. +In April the government of the Cape Colony telegraphed +<span class="sidenote">1880-1884.</span> +to him offering the position of commandant of the +Cape local forces, but he declined the appointment. In May +the marquess of Ripon, who had been given the post of governor-general +of India, asked Gordon to go with him as private secretary. +This he agreed to do, but a few days later, feeling that he was +not suitable for the position, asked Lord Ripon to release him. +The latter refused to do so, and Gordon accompanied him to +India, but definitely resigned his post on Lord Ripon’s staff +shortly afterwards. Hardly had he resigned when he received +a telegram from Sir Robert Hart, inspector-general of customs +in China, inviting him to go to Peking. He started at once +and arrived at Tientsin in July, where he met Li Hung Chang, +and learnt that affairs were in a critical condition, and that there +was risk of war with Russia. Gordon proceeded to Peking and +used all his influence in favour of peace. His arguments, which +were given with much plainness of speech, appear to have +convinced the Chinese government, and war was avoided. +Gordon returned to England, and in April 1881 exchanged +with a brother officer, who had been ordered to Mauritius as +Commanding Royal Engineer, but who for family reasons was +unable to accept the appointment. He remained in Mauritius +until the March following, when, on promotion to the rank of +major-general, he had to vacate the position of Commanding +Royal Engineer. Just at the same time the Cape ministry +telegraphed to him to ask if he would go to the Cape to consult +with the government as regards settling affairs in Basutoland. +The telegram stated that the position of matters was grave, +and that it was of the utmost importance that the colony should +secure the services of someone of proved ability, firmness and +energy. Gordon sailed at once for the Cape, and saw the governor, +Sir Hercules Robinson, Mr Thos. Scanlen, the premier, and +Mr. J. X. Merriman, a member of the ministry, who, for political +reasons, asked him not to go to Basutoland, but to take the +appointment of commandant of the colonial forces at King +William’s Town. After a few months, which were spent in +reorganizing the colonial forces, Gordon was requested to go up +to Basutoland to try to arrange a settlement with the chief +Masupha, one of the most powerful of the Basuto leaders. +Greatly to his surprise, at the very time he was with Masupha, +Mr. J. W. Sauer, a member of the Cape government, was taking +steps to induce Lerethodi, another chief, to advance against +Masupha. This not only placed Gordon in a position of danger, +but was regarded by him as an act of treachery. He advised +Masupha not to deal with the Cape government until the hostile +force was withdrawn, and resigned his appointment. He considered +that the Basuto difficulty was due to the bad system +of administration by the Cape government. That Gordon’s +views were correct is proved by the fact that a few years later +Basutoland was separated from Cape Colony and placed directly +under the imperial government. After his return to England +from the Cape, being unemployed, Gordon decided to go to +Palestine, a country he had long desired to visit. Here he +remained for a year, and devoted his time to the study of Biblical +history and of the antiquities of Jerusalem. The king of the +Belgians then asked him to take charge of the Congo Free State, +and he accepted the mission and returned to London to make +the necessary preparations. But a few days after his arrival he +was requested by the British government to proceed immediately +to the Sudan. To understand the reasons for this, it is necessary +briefly to recapitulate the course of events in that country since +Gordon had left it in 1879.</p> + +<p>After his resignation of the post of governor-general, Raouf +Pasha, an official of the ordinary type, who, as already mentioned, +had been dismissed by Gordon for misgovernment in 1878, was +appointed to succeed him. As Raouf was instructed to increase +the receipts and diminish the expenditure, the system of government +naturally reverted to the old methods, which Gordon had +endeavoured to improve. The fact that justice and firmness +were succeeded by injustice and weakness tended naturally +to the outbreak of revolt, and unfortunately there was a leader +ready to head a rebellion—one Mahommed Ahmed, already +known for some years as a holy man, who was insulted by an +Egyptian official, and retiring with some followers to the island +of Abba on the White Nile, proclaimed himself as the mahdi, +a successor of the prophet. Raouf endeavoured to take him +prisoner but without success, and the revolt spread rapidly. +Raouf was recalled, and succeeded by Abdel Kader Pasha, a +much stronger governor, who had some success, but whose +forces were quite insufficient to cope with the rebels. The +Egyptian government was too busily engaged in suppressing +Arabi’s revolt to be able to send any help to Abdel Kader, and +in September 1882, when the British troops entered Cairo, +the position in the Sudan was very perilous. Had the British +government listened to the representations then made to them, +that, having conquered Egypt, it was imperative at once to +suppress the revolt in the Sudan, the rebellion could have been +crushed, but unfortunately Great Britain would do nothing +herself, while the steps she allowed Egypt to take ended in the +disaster to Hicks Pasha’s expedition. Then, in December 1883, +the British government saw that something must be done, and +ordered Egypt to abandon the Sudan. But abandonment was +a policy most difficult to carry out, as it involved the withdrawal +of thousands of Egyptian soldiers, civilian employés and their +families. Abdel Kader Pasha was asked to undertake the work, +and he agreed on the understanding that he would be supported, +and that the policy of abandonment was not to be announced. +But the latter condition was refused, and he declined the task. +The British government then asked General Gordon to proceed +to Khartum to report on the best method of carrying out the +evacuation. The mission was highly popular in England. +Sir Evelyn Baring (Lord Cromer) was, however, at first opposed +to Gordon’s appointment. His objections were overcome, and +Gordon received his instructions in London on the 18th of +January 1884, and started at once for Cairo, accompanied by +Lieut.-Colonel J. D. H. Stewart.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page252" id="page252"></a>252</span></p> + +<p>At Cairo he received further instructions from Sir Evelyn +Baring, and was appointed by the khedive as governor-general, +with executive powers. Travelling by Korosko and +Berber, he arrived at Khartum on the 18th of February, +<span class="sidenote">At Khartum.</span> +and was well received by the inhabitants, who believed +that he had come to save the country from the rebels. Gordon +at once commenced the task of sending the women and children +and the sick and wounded to Egypt, and about two thousand +five hundred had been removed before the mahdi’s forces closed +upon Khartum. At the same time he was impressed with the +necessity of making some arrangement for the future government +of the country, and asked for the help of Zobeir (<i>q.v.</i>), who had +great influence in the Sudan, and had been detained in Cairo +for some years. This request was made on the very day Gordon +reached Khartum, and was in accordance with a similar proposal +he had made when at Cairo. But, after delays which involved +the loss of much precious time, the British government refused +(13th of March) to sanction the appointment, because Zobeir +had been a notorious slave-hunter. With this refusal vanished +all hope of a peaceful retreat of the Egyptian garrisons. Wavering +tribes went over to the mahdi. The advance of the rebels +against Khartum was combined with a revolt in the eastern +Sudan, and the Egyptian troops in the vicinity of Suakin met +with constant defeat. At length a British force was sent to +Suakin under the command of General Sir Gerald Graham, and +routed the rebels in several hard-fought actions. Gordon +telegraphed to Sir Evelyn Baring urging that the road from +Suakin to Berber should be opened by a small force. But this +request, though strongly supported by Baring and the British +military authorities in Cairo, was refused by the government in +London. In April General Graham and his forces were withdrawn +from Suakin, and Gordon and the Sudan were seemingly +abandoned to their fate. The garrison of Berber, seeing that +there was no chance of relief, surrendered a month later and +Khartum was completely isolated. Had it not been for the +presence of Gordon the city would also soon have fallen, but with +an energy and skill that were almost miraculous, he so organized +the defence that Khartum held out until January 1885. When +it is remembered that Gordon was of a different nationality +and religion to the garrison and population, that he had only +one British officer to assist him, and that the town was badly +fortified and insufficiently provided with food, it is just to say +that the defence of Khartum is one of the most remarkable +episodes in military history. The siege commenced on the 18th +of March, but it was not until August that the British government +under the pressure of public opinion decided to take steps +to relieve Gordon. General Stephenson, who was in command +of the British troops in Egypt, wished to send a brigade at once +to Dongola, but he was overruled, and it was not until the +beginning of November that the British relief force was ready +to start from Wadi Haifa under the command of Lord Wolseley. +The force reached Korti towards the end of December, and from +that place a column was despatched across the Bayuda desert +to Metemma on the Nile. After some severe fighting in which +the leader of the column, Sir Herbert Stewart, was mortally +wounded, the force reached the river on the 20th of January, +and the following day four steamers, which had been sent down +by Gordon to meet the British advance, and which had been +waiting for them for four months, reported to Sir Charles Wilson, +who had taken command after Sir Herbert Stewart was wounded. +<span class="sidenote">Death.</span> +On the 24th Wilson started with two of the steamers +for Khartum, but on arriving there on the 28th he +found that the place had been captured by the rebels and Gordon +killed two days before. A belief has been entertained that +Wilson might have started earlier and saved the town, but this +is quite groundless. In the first place, Wilson could not have +started sooner than he did; and in the second, even if he had +been able to do so, it would have made no difference, as the rebels +could have taken Khartum any time they pleased after the 5th +of January, when the provisions were exhausted. Another +popular notion, that the capture of the place was due to treachery +on the part of the garrison, is equally without foundation. The +attack was made at a point in the fortifications where the +rampart and ditch had been destroyed by the rising of the Nile, +and when the mahdi’s troops entered the soldiers were too weak +to make any effectual resistance. Gordon himself expected the +town to fall before the end of December, and it is really difficult +to understand how he succeeded in holding out until the 26th +of January. Writing on the 14th of December he said, “Now, +mark this, if the expeditionary force—and I ask for no more +than two hundred men—does not come in ten days, the town +may fall, and I have done my best for the honour of my country.” +He had indeed done his best, and far more than could have been +regarded as possible. To understand what he went through +during the latter months of the siege, it is only necessary to read +his own journal, a portion of which, dating from 10th September +to 14th December 1884, was fortunately preserved and published.</p> + +<p>Gordon was not an author, but he wrote many short +memoranda on subjects that interested him, and a considerable +number of these have been utilized, especially in the work by +his brother, Sir Henry Gordon, entitled <i>Events in the Life of +Charles George Gordon, from its Beginning to its End</i>. He was +a voluminous letter-writer, and much of his correspondence has +been published. His character was remarkable, and the influence +he had over those with whom he came in contact was very +striking. His power to command men of non-European races +was probably unique. He had no fear of death, and cared but +little for the opinion of others, adhering tenaciously to the course +he believed to be right in the face of all opposition. Though +not holding to outward forms of religion, he was a truly religious +man in the highest sense of the word, and was a constant student +of the Bible. To serve God and to do his duty were the great +objects of his life, and he died as he had lived, carrying out the +work that lay before him to the best of his ability. The last +words of his last letter to his sister, written when he knew that +death was very near, sum up his character: “I am quite happy, +thank God, and, like Lawrence, I have <i>tried</i> to do my duty.”<a name="fa1z" id="fa1z" href="#ft1z"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" id="page253"></a>253</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—<i>The Journals of Major-General Gordon at Khartoum</i> +(1885); Lord Cromer, <i>Modern Egypt</i> (2 vols., 1908); F. R. Wingate, +<i>Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan</i> (1891); the <i>British Parliamentary +Paper on Egypt</i> (1884-1885); C. G. Gordon, <i>Reflections +in Palestine</i> (1884); edited by D. C. Boulger, <i>General Gordon’s +Letters from the Crimea, the Danube, and Armenia</i> (1884); edited by +G. B. Hill, <i>Colonel Gordon in Central Africa</i> (1881); <i>Letters of +General C. G. Gordon to his Sister</i> (1888); H. W. Gordon, <i>Events in +the Life of C. G. Gordon</i> (1886); Commander L. Brine, <i>The Taeping +Rebellion in China</i> (1862); A. Wilson, <i>Gordon’s Campaigns and the +Taeping Rebellion</i> (1868); D. C. Boulger, <i>Life of Gordon</i> (1896); +A. Egmont Hake, <i>The Story of Chinese Gordon</i> (1st vol. 1884, 2nd +vol. 1885); Colonel Sir W. F. Butler, <i>Charles George Gordon</i> (1889); +Archibald Forbes, <i>Chinese Gordon</i> (1884); edited by A. Egmont Hake, +<i>Events in the Taeping Rebellion</i> (1891); S. Mossman, <i>General Gordon’s +Diary in China</i> (1885); Lieutenant T. Lister, R.E., <i>With Gordon in +the Crimea</i> (1891); Lieutenant-General Sir G. Graham, <i>Last Words +with Gordon</i> (1887); “War Correspondent,” <i>Why Gordon Perished</i> +(1896).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. M. W.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1z" id="ft1z" href="#fa1z"><span class="fn">1</span></a> With this estimate of Gordon’s character may be contrasted +those of Lord Cromer (the most severe of Gordon’s critics), and of +Lord Morley of Blackburn; in their strictures as in their praise +they help to explain both the causes of the extraordinary influence +wielded by Gordon over all sorts and conditions of men and also +his difficulties. Lord Cromer’s criticism, it should be remembered, +does not deal with Gordon’s career as a whole but solely with his last +mission to the Sudan; Lord Morley’s is a more general judgment.</p> + +<p>Lord Cromer (<i>Modern Egypt</i>, vol. i., ch. xxvii., p. 565-571) says: +“We may admire, and for my own part I do very much admire +General Gordon’s personal courage, his disinterestedness and his +chivalrous feeling in favour of the beleaguered garrisons, but admiration +of these qualities is no sufficient plea against a condemnation +of his conduct on the ground that it was quixotic. In his last +letter to his sister, dated December 14, 1884, he wrote: ‘I am +quite happy, thank God, and, like Lawrence, I have tried to do my +duty’ ... I am not now dealing with General Gordon’s character, +which was in many respects noble, or with his military defence of +Khartoum, which was heroic, but with the political conduct of his +mission, and from this point of view I have no hesitation in saying +that General Gordon cannot be considered to have tried to do his +duty unless a very strained and mistaken view be taken of what +his duty was.... As a matter of public morality I cannot think +that General Gordon’s process of reasoning is defensible.... I +do not think that it can be held that General Gordon made any +serious effort to carry out the main ends of British and Egyptian +policy in the Sudan. He thought more of his personal opinions +than of the interests of the state.... In fact, except personal +courage, great fertility in military resource, a lively though sometimes +ill-directed repugnance to injustice, oppression and meanness +of every description, and a considerable power of acquiring influence +over those, necessarily limited in numbers, with whom he was +brought into personal contact, General Gordon does not appear to +have possessed any of the qualities which would have fitted him +to undertake the difficult task he had in hand.”</p> + +<p>Lord Morley (<i>Life of Gladstone</i>, vol. iii., 1st ed., 1903, ch. 9, +p. 151) says: “Gordon, as Mr Gladstone said, was a hero of heroes. +He was a soldier of infinite personal courage and daring, of striking +military energy, initiative and resource; a high, pure and single +character, dwelling much in the region of the unseen. But as all +who knew him admit, and as his own records testify, notwithstanding +an undercurrent of shrewd common sense, he was the creature, +almost the sport, of impulse; his impressions and purposes changed +with the speed of lightning; anger often mastered him; he went +very often by intuitions and inspirations rather than by cool +inference from carefully surveyed fact; with many variations of +mood he mixed, as we often see in people less famous, an invincible +faith in his own rapid prepossessions while they lasted. Everybody +now discerns that to despatch a soldier of this temperament on a +piece of business [the mission to the Sudan in 1884] that was not +only difficult and dangerous, as Sir E. Baring said, but profoundly +obscure, and needing vigilant sanity and self-control, was little +better than to call in a wizard with his magic. Mr Gladstone always +professed perplexity in understanding why the violent end of the +gallant Cavagnari in Afghanistan stirred the world so little in +comparison with the fate of Gordon. The answer is that Gordon +seized the imagination of England, and seized it on its higher side. +His religion was eccentric, but it was religion; the Bible was the +rock on which he founded himself, both old dispensation and new; +he was known to hate forms, ceremonies and all the ‘solemn plausibilities’; +his speech was sharp, pithy, rapid and ironic; above +all, he knew the ways of war and would not bear the sword for +nought.”</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 12, Slice 2, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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