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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan, and
+Caddoan Tribes West of the Mississippi, by David Ives Bushnell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan, and Caddoan Tribes West of the Mississippi
+
+Author: David Ives Bushnell
+
+Release Date: November 1, 2011 [EBook #37897]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VILLAGES OF THE ALGONQUIAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Julia Neufeld and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note: For this text version passages in italics are
+indicated by _underscores_. Small caps have been replaced by ALL
+CAPS and "i" with a breve is shown as [)i].
+
+On page 6 "pursued by y^e Savages", "^e" refers to superscript "e".
+
+Inconsistent spelling is maintained in this document, for example
+"Chayenne" and "Cheyenne".
+
+
+
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 1
+
+[Illustration: DRYING BUFFALO MEAT--A TYPICAL CAMP SCENE
+
+ERNEST HENRY GRISET]
+
+  SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+  BULLETIN 77
+
+  VILLAGES OF THE ALGONQUIAN, SIOUAN,
+  AND CADDOAN TRIBES WEST OF
+  THE MISSISSIPPI
+
+  BY
+  DAVID I. BUSHNELL, JR.
+
+  [Illustration: Decoration]
+
+  WASHINGTON
+  GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
+  1922
+
+
+
+
+LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
+
+
+                                       SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
+                                     BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY,
+                                 _Washington, D. C., January 4, 1921_.
+
+SIR: I have the honor to transmit the accompanying manuscript, entitled
+"Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan, and Caddoan Tribes West of the
+Mississippi," by David I. Bushnell, jr., and to recommend its
+publication, subject to your approval, as a bulletin of this Bureau.
+
+      Very respectfully,
+
+                                               J. WALTER FEWKES,
+                                                           _Chief_.
+
+  DR. CHARLES D. WALCOTT,
+      _Secretary of the Smithsonian institution_.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+When Louisiana became a part of the United States the great wilderness
+to the westward of the Mississippi was the home of many native tribes,
+or groups of tribes, retaining their primitive manners and customs,
+little influenced by contact with Europeans. Their villages were
+scattered along the water courses or skirted the prairies, over which
+roamed vast herds of buffalo, these serving to attract the Indians and
+to supply many of their wants--food, raiment, and covering for their
+shelters. But so great are the changes wrought within a century that now
+few buffalo remain, the Indian in his primitive state has all but
+vanished, and even the prairies have been altered in appearance. The
+early accounts of the region contain references to the native camps and
+villages, their forms and extent, tell of the manner in which the
+habitations were constructed, and relate how some were often removed
+from place to place. Extracts from the various narratives are now
+brought together, thus to describe the homes and ways of life of the
+people who once claimed and occupied a large section of the present
+United States.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                               Page
+
+  The tribes and their habitat                    1
+
+  The buffalo (_Bison americanus_)                3
+
+  Villages and forms of structures                7
+
+    Algonquian tribes                             8
+
+      Ojibway                                     8
+
+      Cree                                       17
+
+      Cheyenne                                   21
+
+      Blackfoot confederacy                      25
+
+      Arapaho                                    33
+
+      Sauk and Foxes                             37
+
+      Illinois                                   41
+
+    Siouan tribes                                43
+
+      Dakota-Assiniboin group                    44
+
+        Mdewakanton                              45
+
+        Wahpeton                                 52
+
+        Yanktonai                                54
+
+        Yankton                                  57
+
+        Teton                                    59
+
+          Oglala                                 63
+
+        Assiniboin                               71
+
+      Dhegiha group                              77
+
+        Omaha                                    77
+
+        Ponca                                    87
+
+        Kansa                                    89
+
+        Osage                                    98
+
+        Quapaw                                  108
+
+      Chiwere group                             112
+
+        Iowa                                    113
+
+        Oto                                     114
+
+        Missouri                                121
+
+      Winnebago                                 122
+
+      Mandan                                    122
+
+      Hidatsa group                             140
+
+        Hidatsa                                 141
+
+        Crows                                   150
+
+    Caddoan tribes                              155
+
+      Pawnee                                    155
+
+      Arikara                                   167
+
+      Wichita                                   179
+
+        Waco                                    181
+
+      Caddo                                     182
+
+  Conclusion                                    184
+
+  Authorities cited                             186
+
+  Synonymy                                      193
+
+  Explanation of plates                         194
+
+  Index                                         203
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+PLATES
+
+                                                               Page
+
+  1. Drying buffalo meat. Griset                      Frontispiece.
+
+  2. "A buffalo hunt on the southwestern prairies." Stanley       4
+
+  3. "Buffalo hunt." Wimar                                        4
+
+  4. "Buffalo hunting on the frozen snow." Rindisbacher           4
+
+  5. _a_, "A buffalo pound." Kane. _b_, Scene in a Sioux village,
+           about 1870                                             4
+
+  6. _a_, Camp of "Sautaux Indians on the Red River." _b_,
+           Ojibway wigwam at Leech Lake, Minnesota               10
+
+  7. _a_, "Encampment among the islands of Lake Huron." Kane.
+           _b_, Ojibway camp on bank of Red River                10
+
+  8. _a_, Ojibway camp west of Red River. _b_, Ojibway camp
+           on bank of Red River                                  12
+
+  9. Ojibway habitations. _a_, Wigwams covered with elm bark.
+           _b_, Wigwams covered with birch bark                  12
+
+  10. _a_, Ojibway birch bark canoe. _b_, Ojibway Indians with
+            birch bark canoes                                    16
+
+  11. _a_, Trader's store near Cass Lake. _b_, Outside an elm
+            bark covered structure                               16
+
+  12. Objects of Ojibway make. _a_, Hammer, bag, and two
+            skin-dressing tools. _b_, Section of a rush mat      16
+
+  13. _a_, Ojibway mortar and pestle. _b_, Delaware mortar
+            and pestle. _c_, Ojibway birch bark dish             16
+
+  14. Cheyenne family                                            24
+
+  15. Piegan camp. Bodmer                                        24
+
+  16. _a_, Blackfoot camp. Kane. _b_, Arapaho village            34
+
+  17. Atsina camp. Bodmer                                        34
+
+  18. Sauk and Fox habitations. _a_, Frames of structures.
+            _b_, Mat-covered lodges                              38
+
+  19. Sauk and Fox habitation covered with elm bark              38
+
+  20. _a_, Northwest shore of Mille Lac, 1900. _b_, The
+            Sacred Island in Mille Lac                           46
+
+  21. "Kaposia, June 19th, 1851." Mayer                          46
+
+  22. _a_, "Dakotah village." Eastman. _b_, "Dakotah
+            encampment." Eastman                                 50
+
+  23. _a_, Council at the mouth of the Teton. Catlin.
+            _b_, Fort Pierre, July 4, 1851. Kurz                 50
+
+  24. _a_, _b_, Near Fort Laramie, 1868. _c_, "A skin lodge
+            of an Assiniboin chief." Bodmer                      76
+
+  25. _a_, Assiniboin lodges formed of pine boughs. Kane. _b_,
+            "Horse camp of the Assiniboins, March 21,
+            1852." Kurz                                          76
+
+  26. _a_, Tipi of an Omaha chief. _b_, Page of Kurz's
+            sketchbook                                           76
+
+  27. "The village of the Omahas." 1871                          76
+
+  28. _a_, Page of Kurz's sketchbook, showing Omaha village.
+            _b_, Page of Kurz's sketchbook, showing interior
+            of an Omaha lodge                                    80
+
+  29. "Punka Indians encamped on the banks of the Missouri."
+            Bodmer                                               80
+
+  30. _a_, Kansa village, 1841. Lehman. _b_, Dog dance within
+            a Kansa lodge, 1819. Seymour                         96
+
+  31. Kansa habitation                                           96
+
+  32. _a_, Frame of an Osage habitation. _b_, An Iowa
+            structure                                           102
+
+  33. "Oto encampment, near the Platte, 1819." Seymour          102
+
+  34. _a_, Oto pemmican maul. _b_, Heavy stone maul.
+            _c_, Mandan implement for dressing hides            120
+
+  35. _a_, Oto dugout canoe, from Kurz's sketchbook.
+            _b_, Hidatsa bull-boat and paddle                   120
+
+  36. Winnebago habitations, about 1870. _a_, Structure
+            with arbor. _b_, Showing entrance on side           120
+
+  37. Winnebago structures        120
+
+  38. _a_, Interior of a Mandan lodge. Catlin. _b_, Scene
+            in a Mandan village. Catlin                         132
+
+  39. "Mih-tutta-hangkusch," a Mandan village. Bodmer           132
+
+  40. Interior of a Mandan lodge. Bodmer                        136
+
+  41. _a_, _c_, Mandan wooden bowls. _b_, Mandan
+            earthenware jar                                     136
+
+  42. _a_, Buffalo horn spoon. _b_, Spoon made of horn of
+            mountain sheep. Mandan                              136
+
+  43. "Miniatarree village." Catlin                             136
+
+  44. "Winter village of the Minatarres." _a_, Original pencil
+            sketch. _b_, Finished picture of same. Bodmer       142
+
+  45. From Kurz's sketchbook. _a_, Use of a carrying basket.
+            _b_, The ring-and-pole game. _c_, Hidatsa with
+            bull-boats                                          142
+
+  46. Crow tipis. _a_, "Crow lodge." Catlin. _b_, Camp at
+            the old agency, 1871                                152
+
+  47. A camp in a cottonwood grove                              152
+
+  48. Trader crossing the prairies. Page of Kurz's sketchbook   162
+
+  49. Pawnee village, 1871                                      162
+
+  50. Pawnee earth lodges, 1871                                 162
+
+  51. In a Pawnee village, 1871. _a_, Children at lodge
+            entrance. _b_, Showing screen near same entrance    162
+
+  52. __a, Arikara carrying basket. _b_, Wichita mortar         168
+
+  53. "Riccaree village." Catlin                                168
+
+  54. _a_, Arikara rake. _b_, Arikara hoe. _c_, Crow
+            parfleche box                                       178
+
+  55. Wichita habitations. _a_, Near Anadarko. _b_, Lodge
+            standing about 1880                                 178
+
+
+  TEXT FIGURES
+
+  1. The buffalo of Gomara, 1554                     4
+
+  2. Tipis                                          59
+
+  3. Horse travois                                  66
+
+  4. Plan of the large Mandan village, 1833        131
+
+  5. "The ark of the first man"                    132
+
+  6. Typical earth lodges                          133
+
+  7. Inclosed bed                                  134
+
+  8. Plan of the interior of a Mandan lodge        135
+
+  9. Wooden club                                   138
+
+  10. Plan of the Mandan village at Fort Clark     140
+
+  11. Plan of a ceremonial lodge                   144
+
+  12. Plan of the large Hidatsa village            145
+
+
+
+
+VILLAGES OF THE ALGONQUIAN, SIOUAN, AND CADDOAN TRIBES WEST OF THE
+MISSISSIPPI.
+
+BY DAVID I. BUSHNELL, JR.
+
+
+
+
+THE TRIBES AND THEIR HABITAT.
+
+
+The country occupied by the tribes belonging to the three linguistic
+groups whose villages are now to be described extended from south of the
+Arkansas northward to and beyond the Canadian boundary, and from the
+Mississippi across the Great Plains to the Rocky Mountains. It thus
+embraced the western section of the valley of the Mississippi, including
+the entire course of the Missouri, the hilly regions bordering the
+rivers, and the vast rolling prairies. The climatic conditions were as
+varied as were the physiographical features, for, although the winters
+in the south were comparatively mild, in the north they were long and
+severe.
+
+The three linguistic families to be considered are the Algonquian,
+Siouan, and Caddoan. Many Algonquian and Siouan tribes formerly lived
+east of the Mississippi, and their villages have already been described
+(Bushnell, (1)),[1] but within historic times all Caddoan tribes appear
+to have occupied country to the westward of the river, although it is
+not improbable that during earlier days they may have had villages
+beyond the eastern bank of the stream, the remains of which exist.
+
+[1] For citation of references throughout this bulletin, _see_
+"Authorities cited," p. 186.
+
+The Algonquians included in this account comprise principally the three
+groups which may be termed the western division of the great linguistic
+family. These are: (1) The Blackfoot confederacy, composed of three
+confederated tribes, the Siksika or Blackfeet proper, the Piegan, and
+the Kainah or Bloods; (2) the Arapaho, including several distinct
+divisions, of which the Atsina, or Gros Ventres of the Prairie, who were
+closely allied with the Blackfeet, were often mentioned; (3) the
+Cheyenne, likewise forming various groups or divisions. Belonging to the
+same great family were the Cree or Kristinaux, whose habitat was farther
+north, few living south of the Canadian boundary; also the Ojibway,
+whose villages were scattered northward from the upper waters of the
+Mississippi. Some Sauk later lived west of the Mississippi, as did bands
+of the Foxes and some of the Illinois tribes.
+
+The Siouan tribes were among the most numerous and powerful on the
+continent, and those to be mentioned on the following pages belonged to
+several clearly defined groups. As classified in the Handbook of
+American Indians North of Mexico,[2] these include:
+
+[2] Bull. 30, Bur. Amer. Ethn., part 2, p. 579.
+
+I. Dakota-Assiniboin group: 1, Mdewakanton; 2, Wahpekute (forming, with
+the Mdewakanton, the Santee); 3, Sisseton; 4, Wahpeton; 5, Yankton; 6,
+Yanktonai; 7, Teton--(a) Sichangu or Brulés, (b) Itazipcho or Sans Arcs,
+(c) Sihasapa or Blackfeet, (d) Miniconjou, (e) Oohenonpa or Two
+Kettles, (f) Oglala, (g) Hunkpapa; 8, Assiniboin.
+
+II. Dhegiha group: 1, Omaha; 2, Ponca; 3, Quapaw; 4, Osage--(a) Pahatsi,
+(b) Utschta, (c) Santsukhdhi; 5, Kansa.
+
+III. Chiwere group: 1, Iowa; 2, Oto; 3, Missouri.
+
+IV. Winnebago.
+
+V. Mandan.
+
+VI. Hidatsa group: 1, Hidatsa; 2, Crows.
+
+The Caddoan family is less clearly defined than either of the preceding,
+but evidently consisted of many small tribes grouped, and forming
+confederacies. Those to be mentioned later include: (1) The Arikara; (2)
+the Pawnee confederacy, composed of four tribes--(a) Chaui or Grand
+Pawnee, (b) Kitkehahki or Republican Pawnee, (c) Pitahauerat or Tapage
+Pawnee, (d) Skidi or Wolf Pawnee; (3) the Wichita confederacy, including
+the Waco and various small tribes; (4) the Caddo proper.
+
+Although the latter are included in the same linguistic group with the
+Arikara, Pawnee, and others as mentioned above, they are regarded by
+some as constituting a distinct linguistic stock.
+
+During the years following the close of the Revolution, the latter part
+of the eighteenth century, many tribes, or rather the remnants of
+tribes, then living east of the Mississippi, sought a refuge in the West
+beyond the river. Many settled on the streams in the southern part of
+the present State of Missouri and northern Arkansas, and, as stated by
+Stoddard when writing about the year 1810: "A considerable number of
+Delawares, Shawanese, and Cherokees, have built some villages on the
+waters of the St. Francis and White Rivers. Their removal into these
+quarters was authorized by the Spanish government, and they have
+generally conducted themselves to the satisfaction of the whites. Some
+stragglers from the Creeks, Chocktaws, and Chickasaws, who are
+considered as outlaws by their respective nations, have also established
+themselves on the same waters; and their disorders and depredations
+among the white settlers are not unfrequent." (Stoddard, (1), pp.
+210-211.) And at about the same time another writer, referring to the
+same region, said: "Below the Great Osage, on the waters of the Little
+Osage, Saint Francis, and other streams, are a number of scattered bands
+of Indians, and two or three considerable villages. These bands were
+principally Indians, who were formerly outcasts from the tribes east of
+the Mississippi. Numbers have since joined from the Delawares,
+Shawanoes, Wayondott, and other tribes towards the lakes. Their warriors
+are said to be five or six hundred. They have sometimes made excursions
+and done mischief on the Ohio river, but the settlements on the
+Mississippi have suffered the most severely by their depredations."
+(Cutler, (1), p. 120.)
+
+No attempt will be made in the present work to describe the habitations
+or settlements occupied by the scattered bands just mentioned.
+
+It is quite evident that during the past two or three centuries great
+changes have taken place in the locations of the tribes which were
+discovered occupying the region west of the Mississippi by the first
+Europeans to penetrate the vast wilderness. Thus the general movement of
+many Siouan tribes has been westward, that of some Algonquian groups
+southward from their earlier habitats, and the Caddoan appear to have
+gradually gone northward. It resulted in the converging of the tribes in
+the direction of the great prairies occupied by the vast herds of
+buffalo which served to attract the Indian. Until the beginning of this
+tribal movement it would seem that a great region eastward from the base
+of the Rocky Mountains, the rolling prairie lands, was not the home of
+any tribes but was solely the range of the buffalo and other wild
+beasts, which existed in numbers now difficult to conceive.
+
+
+
+
+THE BUFFALO.
+
+(_Bison americanus_.)
+
+
+With the practical extermination of the buffalo in recent years, and the
+rapid changes which have taken place in the general appearance of the
+country, it is difficult to picture it as it was two or more centuries
+ago. While the country continued to be the home of the native tribes
+game was abundant, and the buffalo, in prodigious numbers, roamed over
+the wide region from the Rocky Mountains to near the Atlantic. It is
+quite evident, and easily conceivable, that wherever the buffalo was to
+be found it was hunted by the people of the neighboring villages,
+principally to serve as food. But the different parts of the animal were
+made use of for many purposes, and, as related in an early Spanish
+narrative, one prepared nearly four centuries ago, when referring to
+"the oxen of Quivira ... Their masters have no other riches nor
+substance: of them they eat, they drink, they apparel, they shooe
+themselves: and of their hides they make many things, as houses, shooes,
+apparell and ropes: of their bones they make bodkins: of their sinews
+and haire, threed: of their hornes, maws, and bladders, vessels: of
+their dung, fire: and of their calves-skinnes, budgets, wherein they
+drawe and keepe water. To bee short, they make so many things of them as
+they neede of, or as many as suffice them in the use of this life."
+(Gomara, (1), p. 382.) A crude engraving of a buffalo made at that time
+is reproduced in figure 1.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The buffalo of Gomara, 1554]
+
+The preceding account describes the customs of the people then living in
+the southern part of the region treated in the present sketch, either a
+Caddoan or a neighboring tribe or group, and it suggests another
+reference to the great importance of the buffalo, but applying to the
+tribes of the north more than three centuries later.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 2
+
+[Illustration: "A BUFFALO HUNT ON THE SOUTHWESTERN PRAIRIES"
+
+J. M. Stanley, 1845]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 3
+
+[Illustration: "BUFFALO HUNT"
+
+Carl Wimar, 1860]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 4
+
+[Illustration: "BUFFALO HUNTING ON THE FROZEN SNOW"
+
+Peter Rindisbacher, about 1825]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 5
+
+[Illustration: _a._ "A Buffalo Pound." Paul Kane, 1845]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Scene in a Sioux village, about 1870. Photograph by
+S. J. Morrow]
+
+"The animals inhabiting the Dakota country, and hunted more or less by
+them for clothing, food, or for the purposes of barter, are buffalo,
+elk, black- and white-tailed deer, big-horn, antelope, wolves of several
+kinds, red and gray foxes, a few beaver and otter, grizzly bear, badger,
+skunk, porcupine, rabbits, muskrats, and a few panthers in the
+mountainous parts. Of all those just mentioned the buffalo is most
+numerous and most necessary to their support. Every part of this animal
+is eaten by the Indian except the horns, hoofs, and hair, even the skin
+being made to sustain life in times of great scarcity. The skin is used
+to make their lodges and clothes, the sinews for bowstrings, the horns
+to contain powder, and the bones are wrought into various domestic
+implements, or pounded up and boiled to extract the fatty matter. In the
+proper season, from the beginning of October until the 1st of March, the
+skins are dressed with the hair remaining on them, and are either worn
+by themselves or exchanged with the traders." (Hayden, (1), p. 371.)
+
+In the early days the tribes who occupied a region frequented by or in
+the vicinity of the range of the buffalo could and undoubtedly did kill
+sufficient numbers to satisfy their various wants and requirements, but
+hunting was made more easy in later times when horses were possessed by
+the Indian. Then it became possible for the bands of hunters, or
+even the entire village, to follow the vast herds, to surround and kill
+as many as they desired, and to carry away great quantities of meat to
+be "jerked," or dried, for future use. So intimately connected were the
+buffalo with the life of the tribes of the plains and the circumjacent
+country that frequent allusions will be made to the former when
+describing the camps and villages of the latter.
+
+
+The various ways of hunting the buffalo and other wild beasts of the
+plains and mountainous country, as practiced by the different tribes,
+have been described by many writers. The several methods of hunting the
+buffalo were often forced through natural conditions, but nothing could
+have exceeded the excitement produced during the chase by well-mounted
+Indian hunters. This was the usual custom of the tribes of the plains
+after horses had become plentiful and the buffalo continued numerous.
+The paintings reproduced in plates 2 and 3 vividly portray this phase of
+the hunt. In the north the hunters were compelled during the long
+winters to attack the herds on the frozen, snow-covered prairies, and
+plate 4 shows a party of hunters, wearing snowshoes, mingled with the
+buffalo. This sketch, made about the year 1825, bears the legend:
+"Indian Hunters pursuing the Buffalo early in the spring when the snow
+is sufficiently frozen to bear the men but the Animal breaks through and
+cannot run." This graphic sketch may represent a party of Cree or
+Assiniboin hunters, probably the latter, and it will be noticed that
+they are using bows and arrows, not firearms, although other drawings by
+the same artist representing a summer hunt shows them having guns.
+
+Another custom in the North was that of constructing inclosures of logs
+and branches of trees, leaving one opening through which the buffalo
+were driven, and when thus secured were killed. Such an inclosure, or
+pound, is shown in plate 5, _a_. This is a reproduction of the original
+painting made by Paul Kane, September, 1845. In describing it he wrote:
+"These pounds can only be made in the vicinity of forests, as they are
+composed of logs piled up roughly, five feet high, and enclose about two
+acres. At one side an entrance is left, about ten feet wide, and from
+each side of this, to the distance of half a mile, a row of posts or
+short stumps, called dead men, are planted, at the distance of twenty
+feet each, gradually widening out into the plain from the entrance. When
+we arrived at the pound we found a party there anxiously awaiting the
+arrival of the buffaloes, which their companions were driving in. This
+is accomplished as follows:--A man, mounted on a fleet horse, usually
+rides forward till he sees a band of buffaloes. This may be sixteen or
+eighteen miles distant from the ground, but of course the nearer to it
+the better. The hunter immediately strikes a light with a flint and
+steel, and places the lighted spunk in a handful of dried grass, the
+smoke arising from which the buffaloes soon smell and start away from it
+at the top of their speed. The man now rides up alongside of the herd,
+which, from some unaccountable propensity, invariably endeavour to cross
+in front of his horse. I have had them follow me for miles in order to
+do so. The hunter thus possesses an unfailing means, wherever the pound
+may be situated, of conducting them to it by the dexterous management of
+his horse. Indians are stationed at intervals behind the posts, or dead
+men, provided with buffalo robes, who, when the herd are once in the
+avenue, rise up and shake the robes, yelling and urging them on until
+they get into the enclosure, the spot usually selected for which is one
+with a tree in the centre. On this they hang offerings to propitiate the
+Great Spirit to direct the herd towards it. A man is also placed in the
+tree with a medicine pipestem in his hand, which he waves continually,
+chaunting a sort of prayer to the Great Spirit, the burden of which is
+that the buffaloes may be numerous and fat." (Kane, (1), pp. 117-119.)
+Quite similar to this is the description of a pound constructed by the
+Cree a few years later. This was some 120 feet across, "constructed of
+the trunks of trees, laced with withes together, and braced by outside
+supports," and within "lay tossed in every conceivable position over two
+hundred dead buffalo." Another pound erected at this time had the "dead
+men" extending for a distance of 4 miles from the entrance. (Hind, (1),
+I, pp. 356-359.) Maximilian, Lewis and Clark, and other explorers of the
+upper Missouri Valley refer to enclosures into which the Indians drove
+antelope. And that the custom was followed by the tribes far east of the
+Mississippi is proved by the writings of early explorers. Champlain in
+1615 gave an account, accompanied by an interesting drawing, of such a
+hunt, and Lahontan nearly a century later presented an illustration
+bearing the legend: "Stags block'd up in a park, after being pursued by
+y^e Savages." Many other references could be quoted, as the ways of
+hunting followed by the Indians have always been of interest to the many
+writers who have described the manners and customs of the people.
+
+What was probably a characteristic view in a Sioux village of half a
+century ago, after a successful hunt, is shown in the old photograph
+reproduced in plate 5, _b_. Here, in front of the group of skin tipis,
+are quantities of meat suspended and being "jerked" or dried in the air.
+Buffalo skins are stretched on the ground, and in the immediate
+foreground are two women scraping a skin. This is a picture of the
+greatest interest and rarity.
+
+The sight of the great herds roaming unmolested over the far-reaching
+prairies proved of interest to all who saw them, and many accounts are
+left by the early travelers. One brief description of such a scene may
+be quoted. It refers to a place in the upper Missouri Valley, not far
+from a Mandan village, and was written June 22, 1811:
+
+"We arrived on the summit of a ridge more elevated than any we had yet
+passed. From thence we saw before us a beautiful plain, as we judged,
+about four miles across, in the direction of our course, and of similar
+dimensions from east to west. It was bounded on all sides by long
+ridges, similar to that which we had ascended. The scene exhibited in
+this valley was sufficiently interesting to excite even in our Canadians
+a wish to stop a few minutes and contemplate it. The whole of the plain
+was perfectly level, and, like the rest of the country, without a single
+shrub. It was covered with the finest verdure, and in every part herds
+of buffaloes were feeding. I counted seventeen herds, but the aggregate
+number of the animals it was difficult even to guess at: some thought
+upwards of 10,000." (Bradbury, (1), pp. 134-135.) And this was but one
+of innumerable similar scenes to have been witnessed throughout the wide
+range of the vast herds.
+
+"The Indians say ... that in travelling over a country with which they
+are unacquainted they always follow the buffalo trail, for this animal
+always selects the most practicable route for his road." (Warren, (1),
+p. 74.) This is a well-known fact, and many roads both east and west of
+the Mississippi which have now developed into important highways owe
+their origin to this cause.
+
+The story of the buffalo will ever be one of interest, becoming more and
+more so as the years pass; and so it is gratifying to know that nearly
+all the available information bearing on the customs of the animal, the
+migration of the herds, their ancient habitat, and their rapid reduction
+in numbers was some years ago brought together and preserved in a single
+volume. (Allen, (1).) This was done while the buffalo were still quite
+numerous, and many facts recorded were derived from hunters or others
+acquainted with the customs of the times.
+
+
+
+
+VILLAGES AND FORMS OF STRUCTURES.
+
+
+The villages as well as the separate structures reared by the many
+tribes who formerly occupied the region treated in the present work
+presented marked characteristics, causing them to be easily identified
+by the early travelers through the wilderness of a century ago. The mat
+and bark covered wigwam predominated among the Algonquian tribes of the
+north, although certain members of this great linguistic family also
+used the skin tipi so typical of the Siouan tribes of the plains, while
+some of the latter stock constructed the earth lodge similar to that
+erected by the Caddoan tribes. Thus, it will be understood no one group
+occupied habitations of a single form to the exclusion of all others,
+and again practically all the tribes had two or more types of dwellings
+which were reared and used under different conditions, some forming
+their permanent villages, others, being easily removed and transported,
+serving as their shelters during long journeys in search of the buffalo.
+The villages of the several groups will now be mentioned in detail.
+
+
+ALGONQUIAN TRIBES.
+
+The numerous tribes and the many confederated groups belonging to the
+great Algonquian linguistic family extended over the continent from the
+Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic coast, and from Labrador on the north
+southward to Carolina. They surrounded the Iroquoian tribes of the
+north, and, at various places came in contact with members of other
+stocks. The combined population of the widely scattered Algonquian
+tribes was greater than that of any other linguistic family in North
+America.
+
+The native tribes of tidewater Virginia and those who were encountered
+by the New England colonists, tribes so intimately associated with the
+early history of the Colonies, belonged to this stock, as did the later
+occupants of the Ohio Valley and of the "country of Illinois." In the
+present work the villages of other members of the linguistic group will
+be considered, including those of the Ojibway and the related Cree, and
+of the Blackfoot confederacy, Arapaho, and Cheyenne, usually termed the
+western division of the stock. Several tribes whose villages stood east
+of the Mississippi in early historic times will also be mentioned.
+
+OJIBWAY.
+
+The Ojibway (the Sauteux of many writers) formed the connecting link
+between the tribes living east of the Mississippi and those whose homes
+were across the "Great River." A century ago their lands extended from
+the shores of Lake Superior westward, beyond the headwaters of the
+Mississippi to the vicinity of the Turtle Mountains, in the present
+State of North Dakota. Thus they claimed the magnificent lakes of
+northern and central Minnesota--Mille Lac, Leech Lake, Cass Lake, and
+Red Lake--on the shores of which stood many of their camps and villages,
+serving as barriers against invasions and attacks by their inveterate
+enemies, the Sioux. The Ojibway are essentially a timber people, whose
+manners and customs were formed and governed by the environment of lakes
+and streams, and who were ever surrounded by the vast virgin forests of
+pine. While game, fish, and wild fowl were abundant and easily
+obtained, yet during the long winters when the lakes were frozen and
+the land was covered by several feet of snow there were periods of want
+when food was scarce.
+
+The habitations and other structures of the Ojibway, which have already
+been described and figured (Bushnell, (2)), were of various forms,
+constructed of several materials, and varying in different localities,
+according to the nature of the available supply of barks or rushes.
+
+In the north, on the shores of Lake Superior and westward along the
+lakes and streams, as in the valley of Red River and the adjacent
+region, the majority of structures were covered with sheets of birch
+bark, secured to frames of small saplings.
+
+About the year 1804 Peter Grant, a member of the old North-West Company,
+and for a long period at the head of the Red River Department of the
+company, prepared an account of the Sauteux Indians, and when describing
+the habitations of the people, wrote: "Their tents are constructed with
+slender long poles, erected in the form of a cone and covered with the
+rind of the birch tree. The general diameter of the base is about
+fifteen feet, the fire place exactly in the middle, and the remainder of
+the area, with the exception of a small place for the hearth, is
+carefully covered with the branches of the pine or cedar tree, over
+which some bear skins and old blankets are spread, for sitting and
+sleeping. A small aperture is left in which a bear skin is hung in lieu
+of a door, and a space is left open at the top, which answers the
+purpose of window and chimney. In stormy weather the smoke would be
+intolerable, but this inconvenience is easily removed by contracting or
+shifting the aperture at top according to the point from which the wind
+blows. It is impossible to walk, or even to stand upright, in their
+miserable habitations, except directly around the fire place. The men
+sit generally with their legs stretched before them, but the women have
+theirs folded backwards, inclined a little to the left side, and can
+comfortably remain the whole day in those attitudes, when the weather is
+too bad for remaining out of doors. In fine weather they are very fond
+of basking in the sun.
+
+"When the family is very large, or when several families live together,
+the dimensions of their tents are, of course, in proportion and of
+different forms. Some of these spacious habitations resemble the roof of
+a barn, with small openings at each end for doors, and the whole length
+of the ridge is left uncovered at top for the smoke and light." (Grant,
+(1), pp. 329-330.) And referring briefly to the ways of life of the
+people: "In the spring, when the hunting season is over, they generally
+assemble in small villages, either at the trader's establishment, or in
+places where fish or wild fowl abound; sturgeon and white fish are most
+common, though they have abundance of pike, trout, suckers, and
+pickerel. They sometimes have the precaution to preserve some for the
+summer consumption, this is done by opening and cleaning the fish, and
+then carefully drying it in the smoke or sun, after which it is tied up
+very tight in large parcels, wrapped up in bark and kept for use; their
+meat, in summer, is cured in the same manner.... Their meat is either
+boiled in a kettle, or roasted by means of a sharp stick, fixed in the
+ground at a convenient distance from the fire, and on which the meat is
+fixed and turned occasionally towards the fire, until the whole is
+thoroughly done; their fish is dressed in the same manner." (Op. cit.,
+pp. 330-331.)
+
+The method of cooking food, as mentioned in the preceding paragraph, is
+graphically illustrated in the old sketch made a century ago, now
+reproduced in plate 6, _a_. This shows a family gathered about a small
+fire where food is being prepared, and beyond is a bark-covered wigwam.
+The sketch bears the legend, "A family from the tribe of the wild
+Sautaux Indians on the Red River. Drawn from nature." It indicates the
+primitive dress and appearance of the people, and it is of interest to
+compare this with the photograph which is reproduced in plate 6, _b_,
+showing another small group of the people three-quarters of a century
+later. Such were the changes within that period.
+
+Similar to the preceding were the habitations shown by Kane in a sketch
+made during the early summer of 1845, the original painting being
+reproduced as plate 7, _a_. This was described as an "Indian encampment
+amongst the islands of Lake Huron; the wigwams are made of birch-bark,
+stripped from the trees in large pieces and sewed together with long
+fibrous roots; when the birch tree cannot be conveniently had, they
+weave rushes into mats ... for covering, which are stretched round in
+the same manner as the bark, upon eight or ten poles tied together at
+the top, and stuck in the ground at the required circle of the tent, a
+hole being left at the top to permit the smoke to go out. The fire is
+made in the centre of the lodge, and the inmates sleep all round with
+their feet towards it." (Kane, (1), pp. 6-7.) The interesting painting
+could well have been made among the Ojibway camps or settlements of
+northern Minnesota instead of representing a group of wigwams located
+many miles eastward, but this tends to prove the similarity of the small
+villages in the region where large sheets of birch bark were to be
+obtained.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 6
+
+[Illustration: _a._ "A family from the tribe of the wild Sautaux Indians
+on the Red River." Drawn from nature, 1821]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Ojibway wigwam. Leech Lake, Minnesota, 1896]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 7
+
+[Illustration: _a._ "Encampment among the Islands of Lake Huron." Paul
+Kane, 1845]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Ojibway camp on bank of Red River. Photograph by H.
+L. Hime, 1858]
+
+Between the loosely placed sheets of bark were necessarily many openings
+through which the wind could enter, and in addition was the open space
+at the top intentionally left as a vent through which the smoke could
+escape from the inside. In describing the appearance of the interior of
+such a structure it was told how--
+
+"Around the fire in the centre, and at a distance of perhaps 2 feet from
+it, are placed sticks as large as one's arm, in a square form, guarding
+the fire; and it is a matter of etiquette not to put one's feet nearer
+the fire than that boundary. One or more pots or kettles are hung over
+the fire on the crotch of a sapling. In the sides of the wigwam are
+stowed all clothing, food, cooking utensils, and other property of the
+family." When referring to the great feeling of relief on arriving at
+such a shelter in the frozen wilderness the same writer continued:
+
+"When one has been traveling all day through the virgin forest, in a
+temperature far below zero, and has not seen a house nor a human being
+and knows not where or how he is to pass the night, it is the most
+comforting sight in the whole world to see the glowing column of light
+from the top of the wigwam of some wandering family out hunting, and to
+look in and see that happy group bathed in the light and warmth of the
+life-giving fire ... and no one, Ojibway or white, is ever refused
+admission; on the contrary, they are made heartily welcome, as long as
+there is an inch of space." (Gilfillan, (1), pp. 68-69.) As a missionary
+among the Ojibway of northern Minnesota for a quarter of a century, Dr.
+Gilfillan learned to know and love the forests and lakes in the changing
+seasons of the year and to know the ways of life of the Ojibway as few
+have ever known them.
+
+The structures just mentioned were of a circular form, with the ends of
+the poles which supported the bark describing a circle on the ground. Of
+quite similar construction were the larger oval wigwams, where two
+groups of poles were arranged at the ends in the form of semicircles,
+with a ridgepole extending between the tops of the two groups. Other
+poles rested against the ridgepole and so formed the sloping supports
+upon which the strips of bark were placed. One most interesting example
+of this form of primitive habitation was visited by the writer during
+the month of October, 1899. It formed one of a small group of wigwams
+which at that time stood near the Canadian boundary, north of Ely,
+Minnesota. It was about 18 feet in length and between 8 and 9 feet in
+width. There were two entrances, one at each end, with hanging blankets
+to cover the openings. Within, along the median line on the ground,
+burned four small fires. Beautiful examples of rush mats, made by the
+women, were spread upon the ground near the sloping walls, these serving
+as seats during the day and sleeping places at night. Many articles hung
+from the poles which sustained the bark covering, as small bags and
+baskets, and many bunches of herbs. In one corner was a large covered
+_mokak_, and on the opposite side was a carefully wrapped drum, owned by
+the old Ojibway, _Ahgishkemunsit_, the Kingfisher, who was sitting on
+the ground near by.
+
+Quite similar to the preceding must have been the wigwam visited by Hind
+in 1858. This stood a short distance from Manitobah House, of the
+Hudson's Bay Company, and belonged to an Ojibway hunter. As Hind wrote:
+"His birch-bark tent was roomy and clean. Thirteen persons including
+children squatted round the fire in the centre. On the floor some
+excellent matting was laid upon spruce boughs for the strangers; the
+squaws squatted on the bare ground, the father of the family on an old
+buffalo robe. Attached to the poles of the tent were a gun, bows and
+arrows, a spear, and some mink skins. Suspended on cross pieces over the
+fire were fishing nets and floats, clothes, and a bunch of the bearberry
+to mix with tobacco for the manufacture of kinni-kinnik." (Hind, (1),
+II, p. 63.) Hind was accompanied on his second journey, in 1858, by a
+photographer, Humphrey Lloyd Hime, who made many interesting negatives
+while in the Indian country. Among the photographs made at this time are
+three views of bark wigwams of the Ojibway which stood near the banks of
+Red River. These are now reproduced in plates 7, _b_, and 8 _a_, _b_.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 8
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Ojibway camp west of Red River. Photograph by H. L.
+Hime, 1858]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Ojibway camp on bank of Red River. Photograph by H.
+L. Hime, 1858]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 9
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Wigwams covered with elm bark]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Two types of wigwams covered with birch bark
+
+OJIBWAY HABITATIONS, ABOUT 1865]
+
+While in the vicinity of Red River the year before (1857) Hind
+encountered several interesting Ojibway structures. At a point not far
+north of the Minnesota boundary his party crossed the Roseau a few miles
+east of Red River, and there "on the bank at the crossing place the
+skeletons of Indian wigwams and sweating-houses were grouped in a
+prominent position, just above a fishing weir where the Ojibways of this
+region take large quantities of fish in the spring. The framework of a
+large medicine wigwam measured twenty-five feet in length by fifteen in
+breadth; the sweating-houses were large enough to hold one man in a
+sitting position, and differed in no respect from those frequently seen
+on the canoe route between Lakes Superior and Winnipeg, and which have
+been often described by travelers." (Hind, (1), I, p. 163.) During the
+journey, when camping on an island in Bonnet Lake, the party encountered
+"an Indian cache elevated on a stage in the centre of the island. The
+stage was about seven feet above the ground, and nine feet long by four
+broad. It was covered with birch bark, and the treasures it held
+consisted of rabbit-skin robes, rolls of birch bark, a ragged blanket,
+leather leggings, and other articles of winter apparel, probably the
+greater part of the worldly wealth of an Indian family." (Op. cit., p.
+120.)
+
+The canoe route between the lakes mentioned by Hind was often broken by
+dangerous rapids, around which it was necessary to carry the canoes, as
+Catlin described the Ojibway party doing at the Falls of St. Anthony.
+
+The ceremonial lodge of the Ojibway, where the M[)i]dé rites were
+enacted, was often 100 feet or more in length and about 12 feet in
+width. The frame was made of small saplings, bent and fastened by cords,
+similar to the frames of wigwams which were to be covered with mats or
+sheets of bark, but the coverings of the ceremonial lodges were usually
+of a more temporary nature, boughs and branches of the pine and spruce
+being sometimes used, which would soon fall away, although the rigid
+frame would stand from year to year, to be covered when required.
+Somewhat of this form was the "medicine lodge," described by Kane. This
+stood in the center of a large camp of the "Saulteaux" or Ojibway, not
+far from Fort Alexander, which was about 3 miles above Lake Winnipeg, on
+the bank of Winnipeg River. The camp was visited June 11, 1846, and in
+referring to the lodge: "It was rather an oblong structure, composed of
+poles bent in the form of an arch, and both ends forced into the ground,
+so as to form, when completed, a long arched chamber, protected from the
+weather by a covering of birch bark.... On my first entrance into the
+medicine lodge ... I found four men, who appeared to be chiefs, sitting
+upon mats spread upon the ground gesticulating with great violence, and
+keeping time to the beating of a drum. Something, apparently of a sacred
+nature was covered up in the centre of the group, which I was not
+allowed to see.... The interior of their lodge or sanctuary was hung
+round with mats constructed with rushes, to which were attached various
+offerings consisting principally of bits of red and blue cloth, calico,
+&c., strings of beads, scalps of enemies, and sundry other articles
+beyond my comprehension." (Kane, (1), pp. 68-71.)
+
+It is quite evident the frame of the large lodge encountered by Hind was
+similar to the structure described by Kane a few years before. Both
+stood in the northern part of the Ojibway country, a region where birch
+bark was extensively used as covering for the wigwams, and where it was
+easily obtained.
+
+The temporary, quickly raised shelters of the Ojibway were described by
+Tanner, who learned to make them from the people with whom he remained
+many years. Referring to a journey up the valley of the Assiniboin, he
+wrote: "In bad weather we used to make a little lodge, and cover it with
+three or four fresh buffaloe hides, and these being soon frozen, made a
+strong shelter from wind and snow. In calm weather, we commonly encamped
+with no other covering than our blankets." (Tanner, (1) p. 55.) On
+another occasion fire destroyed the wigwam and all the possessions of
+the family with whom he lived, and then, so he said: "We commenced to
+repair our loss, by building a small grass lodge, in which to shelter
+ourselves while we should prepare the pukkwi for a new wigwam. The
+women were very industrious in making these.... At night, also, when it
+was too dark to hunt, Wa-me-gon-a-biew and myself assisted at this
+labour. In a few days our lodge was completed." (Op. cit., p. 85.) And
+again when near Rainy Lake, "I had no pukkwi, or mats, for a lodge and
+therefore had to build one of poles and long grass." (p. 214.) It is
+quite evident the shelters of poles and grass, as mentioned by Tanner,
+were similar to those erected by the Assiniboin as described on another
+page, and as indicated in the painting by Paul Kane, which is reproduced
+as plate 25, _a_.
+
+Two very interesting old photographs, made more than half a century ago,
+are shown in plate 9. One, _a_, represents clearly the elm-bark covering
+of the wigwams, and in this picture the arbor suggests a Siouan rather
+than an Ojibway encampment; _b_ is more characteristic of the Ojibway.
+
+The structures encountered in the Ojibway country farther south differed
+from those already mentioned, the majority of which were covered with
+sheets of birch bark, a form which must necessarily have been restricted
+to the northern country. But the type was widely scattered northward,
+and undoubtedly extended eastward to the Atlantic, especially down the
+valley of the St. Lawrence into northern Maine and the neighboring
+Provinces. South of this zone were the dome-shaped mat or bark covered
+wigwams, varying in different localities according to the available
+supply of barks, or of rushes to be made into mats, which served to
+cover the rigid, oval-topped frame. Most interesting examples were
+standing in the Ojibway settlements on the shore of Mille Lac,
+Minnesota, during the spring of 1900. One, which may be accepted as a
+type specimen, was of a quadrilateral rather than oval outline of base,
+and measured about 14 feet each way, with a maximum height of 6 feet or
+more. The saplings which formed the frame were seldom more than 2 inches
+in diameter, one end being set firmly in the ground, the top being bent
+over and attached to similar pieces coming from the opposite side. Other
+small saplings or branches were tied firmly to these in a horizontal
+position about 2 feet apart, thus forming a rigid frame, over which was
+spread the covering of mats and sheets of bark, the latter serving as
+the roof. In this particular example the covering was held in place by
+cords which passed over the top and were attached to poles which hung
+horizontally about a foot above the ground. A second row of mats was
+fastened to the inside of the frame and others were spread on the ground
+near the walls. A small fire burned within near the center of the open
+space, although the cooking was often done outside, just beyond the
+single entrance.
+
+Although the Ojibway were numerous, they had few large villages or
+settlements. They lived for the most part in small, scattered groups,
+and often moved from place to place. However, there were some
+long-occupied sites, as at Red Lake, Sandy Lake, on the shores of Leech
+Lake, where the Pillagers gathered, and the more recently occupied
+villages at Mille Lac, sites once covered by the settlements of the
+Mdewakanton. These villages, which should more properly be termed
+"gathering places," at once suggest the various descriptions and
+accounts of the great village of the Illinois, which stood on the banks
+of the upper Illinois during the latter part of the seventeenth century
+and was many times visited by the French.
+
+When the Ojibway and Sioux gathered at Fort Snelling, at the mouth of
+the Minnesota River, during the summer of 1835 in the endeavor to
+establish peace between the two tribes or groups, they were encamped on
+opposite sides of the fort. Catlin, who was there at the time, wrote of
+the temporary camp of the Ojibway: "their wigwams made of birch bark,
+covering the frame work, which was of slight poles stuck in the ground,
+and bent over at the top, so as to give a rooflike shape to the lodge,
+best calculated to ward off rain and winds." (Catlin, (1), II, p. 137.)
+Unfortunately, the original painting of the camp does not exist in the
+great collection of Catlin paintings now belonging to the National
+Museum, Washington. In the catalogue of the collection printed in
+London, 1848, it appears as "334, Chippeway Village and Dog Feast at the
+Falls of St. Anthony; lodges built with birch-bark; Upper Mississippi."
+
+An outline drawing of the picture was given as plate 238 to illustrate
+the account quoted above, but how accurate either description or sketch
+may be is now quite difficult to determine. However, it is doubtful if
+the structures had flat ends, as indicated, and mats may have formed
+part of the covering. Catlin continued his narrative and told of the
+removal of the camp (p. 138): "After the business and amusements of this
+great Treaty between the Chippeways and Sioux were all over, the
+Chippeways struck their tents by taking them down and rolling up their
+bark coverings, which, with their bark canoes seen in the picture,
+turned up amongst their wigwams, were carried to the water's edge; and
+all things being packed in, men, women, dogs, and all, were swiftly
+propelled by paddles to the Falls of St Anthony." They reached "an eddy
+below the Falls, and as near as they could get by paddling." Here the
+canoes were unloaded and the canoes and all else carried about one-half
+mile above the Falls, where they again embarked and continued on their
+way. It is interesting to contemplate this scene and to realize it was
+enacted within the limits of the present city of Minneapolis so short a
+time ago. A beautiful example of the light birch-bark canoe of the
+Ojibway is shown in plate 10, _a_, and a photograph of two old Ojibway
+Indians with similar canoes is reproduced in plate 10, _b_. The canoes
+indicated by Kane in his painting (pl. 7, _a_) were of this form,
+probably the most graceful and easiest propelled craft ever devised.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 10
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Ojibway birch bark canoe. Northern Minnesota, 1899]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Ojibway Indians with birch bark canoes. North of
+Ely, Minn., 1899]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 11
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Trader's store at the village of the Pillagers, Cass
+Lake in the distance on the right. November 26, 1899]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Outside an elm-bark structure. At the Ojibway
+village of Sagawamick, on south shore of Mille Lac, Minnesota. May 21,
+1900]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 12
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Hammer, bag, and two skin-dressing tools]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Section of a rush mat, as used to form covering for
+a wigwam
+
+OBJECTS OF OJIBWAY MAKE]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 13
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Ojibway mortar and pestle]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Delaware mortar and pestle]
+
+[Illustration: _c._ Ojibway birch bark dish]
+
+The various structures in an Ojibway village do not appear to have been
+erected or placed with any degree of order. Certainly this is true of
+conditions in recent times, and whether any accepted or recognized plan
+was followed in the past is not known. The small wigwams formed an
+irregular group on the shore of a lake or the bank of a stream
+surrounded by the primeval forest.
+
+In the month of May, 1900, a council house which had been erected by the
+Ojibway some years before stood on a high point of land in the midst of
+dense woods, about 1 mile north of the outlet of Mille Lac--the
+beginning of Rum River--and about 200 yards from the lake shore. It was
+oriented with its sides facing the cardinal points, about 20 feet
+square, with walls 6 feet in height and the peak of the roof twice that
+distance above the ground. The heavy frame was covered with large sheets
+of elm bark, which had evidently been renewed from time to time during
+the preceding years. No traces of seats remained and grass was again
+growing on the ground which had served as the floor. This was the scene
+of the treaty of October 5, 1889, between the Ojibway of Mille Lac and
+the United States Government. Within a short time this very interesting
+primitive structure had disappeared and two years later no trace of it
+remained. Whether this represented an ancient type of building could not
+be ascertained.
+
+The Ojibway villages were supplied with the usual sweat houses, a small
+frame covered with blankets or other material, so often described.
+Resembling these were the shelters prepared for the use of certain old
+men who were believed to possess the power of telling of future events
+and happenings. Such a lodge was seen standing on the shore of Lake
+Superior, about 18 miles from Fond du Lac, July 27, 1826. As described
+by McKenney: "At this place, Burnt river is a place of divination, the
+seat of a _jongleur's_ incantations. It is a circle, made of eight
+poles, twelve feet high, and crossing at the top, which being covered in
+with mats, or bark, he enters, and foretells future events." (McKenney,
+(1), p. 269.) Interesting, indeed, are the many accounts of the
+predictions believed to have been made by these old men.
+
+A remarkable performance of this nature was witnessed by Paul Kane. When
+returning from the far West during the summer of 1848 the small party of
+which he was one arrived at Lake Winnipeg and on July 28 had advanced
+about midway down the eastern shore. On that day Kane made this entry in
+his journal: "_July 28th._--About 2 o'clock P.M., we endeavoured to
+proceed, but got only as far as the Dog's Head, the wind being so strong
+and unfavourable, that it was thought useless to run any risk for
+the short distance we would be able to make against it. In the evening
+our Indians constructed a jonglerie, or medicine lodge, the main object
+of which was to procure a fair wind for next day. For this purpose they
+first drive ten or twelve poles, nine or ten feet long, into the ground,
+enclosing a circular area of about three feet in diameter, with a boat
+sail open at the top. The medicine-man, one of which is generally found
+in every brigade, gets inside and commences shaking the poles violently,
+rattling his medicinal rattle, and singing hoarse incantations to the
+Great Spirit for a fair wind. Being unable to sleep on account of the
+discordant noises, I wrapped a blanket round me, and went out into the
+woods, where they were holding their midnight orgies, and lay down
+amongst those on the outside of the medicine lodge, to witness the
+proceedings. I had no sooner done so than the incantations at once
+ceased, and the performer exclaimed that a white man was present. How he
+ascertained this fact I am at a loss to surmise ... The Major,
+[M'Kenzie] ... with many other intelligent persons, is a firm believer
+in their medicine." (Kane, (1), pp. 439-441.)
+
+In addition to the several forms of structures erected by the Ojibway,
+as already described, they reared the elm-bark lodge which resembled in
+form the log cabin of the early settlers. Three of these were standing
+on the south shore of Mille Lac, Minnesota, during the spring of 1900,
+and the outside of one, showing the manner in which the bark covering
+was placed, is indicated in plate 11, _b_. This was similar in shape to
+the Sauk and Fox habitation reproduced in plate 19, although the Ojibway
+structure was more skillfully constructed. Habitations of a like nature
+were found among the Sioux villages on the banks of the Mississippi in
+the vicinity of Fort Snelling, and others were erected within a
+generation by the Menomini in northern Wisconsin, but whether this may
+be considered a primitive form of structure has not been determined.
+
+A trader's store standing near the Ojibway village on the shore of Cass
+Lake, Minnesota, during the late autumn of 1899 is shown in plate 11,
+_a_. Similar cabins were occupied by some of the Indian families, these
+having taken the place of the native wigwams.
+
+Various objects of primitive forms, made and used by the Ojibway within
+a generation, are shown in plates 12 and 13.
+
+CREE.
+
+The Cree (the Knisteneaux of Mackenzie) were closely related to the
+Ojibway; they spoke the same language, and had many customs in common.
+As Hayden wrote: "The Cree nation was originally a portion of the
+Chippewa, as the similarity of language proves; and even now they are
+so mingled with the latter people as with difficulty to be considered a
+distinct tribe, further than a slight difference in language and their
+local position." (Hayden, (1), p. 235.) Formerly they occupied the
+forest region to the eastward of the country which they later claimed.
+There they were probably accustomed to the mat or bark covered
+structures, similar to those of the neighboring Ojibway, but in more
+recent times, after having been attracted to the prairies by the
+buffalo, they followed the customs of the prairie tribes and for the
+most part made and used the typical conical skin-covered lodge.
+
+After reaching the open country, and becoming more accustomed to the
+life of roving hunters, they were necessarily less sedentary in their
+habits than formerly, and their camps probably seldom remained long in
+any one place. They became scattered over a wide region, and in 1856 it
+was said: "They number about ten or eleven hundred persons. Like most of
+the tribes in the Northwest Territory, they are separated into clans or
+bands, and live in different districts for greater advantages in
+hunting." Here is given a list of the several bands, with the number of
+skin lodges claimed by each group, but the "Pis-ka-kau-a-kis, or
+'Magpies,' are about thirty lodges; are stationed at Tinder Mountain;
+live in dirt lodges and log-cabins; cultivate the soil to some extent,
+and raise considerable quantities of corn and potatoes; hunt buffalo
+during the winter, and trade also with the Hudson's Bay Company."
+(Hayden, (1), p. 237.) The same writer continues (p. 238): "Besides the
+foregoing there are about two hundred lodges more who are not formed
+into bands, but scattered along Lac de L'Isle Croix, and live by hunting
+reindeer, moose, fish, and wild fowl. They live in skin tents in the
+summer, but sometimes build log and bark huts in winter, and seldom more
+than one cabin is found in the same place. These are the poorest of the
+Crees."
+
+Thus it will be understood how scattered bands of the same tribe often
+reared and occupied several forms of habitations, influenced by their
+natural surroundings and requirements. And here are references to the
+use of the bark-covered lodge, the skin-covered lodge of probably a
+different shape, the structure covered with earth or sod, and, lastly,
+the log cabin, by widely dispersed bands of the Cree.
+
+A simple form of temporary shelter was constructed by the Cree and
+Ojibway to serve during certain ceremonies. This was described about a
+century ago when recounting the customs of the "Sauteaux and the Crees."
+It was told that in public feasts "Several chiefs unite in preparing a
+suitable place, and in collecting sufficient provisions, for the
+accommodation of a numerous assemblage. To provide a place, poles are
+fixed obliquely into the ground, enclosing a sufficient space to hold
+several hundred, and at times, nearly a thousand people. On these
+poles, skins are laid, at the height of twelve or fifteen feet, thus
+forming a spacious court, or tent. The provisions consist both of dried
+and of fresh meat, as it would not be practicable to prepare a
+sufficient quantity of fresh meat, for such a multitude, which, however,
+consists only of men. At these feasts, the guests converse only on
+elevated topics, such as the public interests of the tribe, and the
+noble exploits of their progenitors, that they may infuse a publick and
+an heroic spirit, into their young men. Dancing always forms the
+concluding ceremony, at these festivals; and the women, who are not
+permitted to enter the place where they are celebrated, dance and sing
+around them, often keeping time with the music within." (Harmon, (1), p.
+362.) It is to be regretted that these early accounts are often so
+lacking in detail, and that so much is left to imagination. In this
+instance the form of the large structure was not mentioned, but it was
+probably extended, resembling to some degree the M[)i]dé lodge of the
+Ojibway. Among the latter the large ceremonial lodge was covered with
+mats, sheets of bark, or sometimes with skins or boughs of pine or
+spruce. Like customs may have prevailed among the Cree.
+
+Proving the wandering, roving disposition of the Cree, and the
+consequent lack of permanent villages, Maximilian wrote from Fort Union,
+at the mouth of the Yellowstone, during the latter part of June, 1833:
+"The Crees live in the same territory as the Assiniboins, that is,
+between the Saskatschawan, the Assiniboin, and the Missouri. They ramble
+about in small bands with the others, are poor, have many dogs, which
+carry their baggage, but only a few horses. They live, like the
+Assiniboins, in leather tents, follow the herds of buffaloes, of which
+they sometimes kill great numbers in their parks. The Crees are reckoned
+at 600 or 800 tents." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 199-200.)
+
+The dog travois, such as was used by the Cree and mentioned in the
+preceding account, was of very ancient origin, having been seen and
+described by the first Spanish explorers to traverse the prairie lands
+of the Southwest. In _Relacion Postrera de Sivola_, prepared in the year
+1541, appears this interesting note:
+
+"These people have dogs like those in this country, except that they are
+somewhat larger, and they load these dogs like beasts of burden, and
+make saddles for them like our pack saddles, and they fasten them with
+their leather thongs, and these make their backs sore on the withers
+like pack animals. When they go hunting, they load these with their
+necessities, and when they move--for these Indians are not settled in
+one place, since they travel wherever the cows [buffalo] move, to
+support themselves--these dogs carry their houses, and they have the
+sticks of their houses dragging along tied on to the pack-saddles,
+besides the load which they carry on top, and the load may be, according
+to the dog, from 35 to 50 pounds." (Winship, (1), pp. 510-571.) This
+description could easily refer to conditions and customs among the
+tribes three centuries and more later.
+
+A very graphic sketch of a dog travois was made at Fort Union, October
+10, 1851, by the Swiss artist, Friedrich Kurz, and is now reproduced in
+plate 26, _b_, showing the method of attaching the poles, and how the
+load was rolled and placed upon the latter. The use of the horse for a
+similar purpose in later years followed as a natural sequence.
+
+Among the many paintings by Paul Kane, now preserved in the Royal
+Ontario Museum of Archæology, at Toronto, is one bearing the legend:
+"Cree Indians Travelling." It represents a small party of Indians, some
+walking, others mounted on horses, with several horse and dog travois.
+The latter show long poles attached to the sides of the dogs, one end of
+the poles dragging on the ground, while about midway of their length is
+a small pack upon which a child is seated. The broken, rolling land of
+the north is represented with a few clumps of small trees. The picture
+is one of much beauty and interest, depicting as it does some of the
+primitive customs of the Cree.
+
+During the summer of 1858 the Hind expedition into the region far west
+of the Red River encountered many small groups of Cree hunters and also
+observed the ancient camp sites of the same tribe. They wrote in part:
+"Immediately on the banks of the Qu'appelle Valley near the 'Round Hill'
+opposite Moose Jaws Forks, are the remains of ancient encampments, where
+the Plain Crees, in the day of their power and pride, had erected large
+skin tents, and strengthened them with rings of stones placed round the
+base. These circular remains were twenty-five feet in diameter, the
+stones or boulders being about one foot in circumference. They wore the
+aspect of great antiquity, being partially covered with soil and grass.
+When this camp ground was occupied by the Crees, timber no doubt grew in
+the valley below, or on the prairie and ravines in detached groves, for
+their permanent camping grounds are always placed near a supply of fuel.
+
+"Making an early start in search of wood, we came suddenly upon four
+Cree tents, whose inmates were still fast asleep; about three hundred
+yards west of them we found ten more tents, with over fifty or sixty
+Indians in all. They were preparing to cross the valley in the direction
+of the Grand Coteau, following the buffalo. Their provisions for trade,
+such as dried meat and pemmican, were drawn by dogs, each bag of
+pemmican being supported upon two long poles, which are shaft, body, and
+wheels in one. Buffalo Pound Hill Lake, sixteen miles long, begins near
+Moose Jaws Forks, and on the opposite or south side of this long sheet
+of water, we saw eighteen tents and a large number of horses. The women
+in those we visited on our side of the valley and lake, had collected a
+great quantity of the mesaskatomina berry which they were drying." And
+not far beyond we "began to find the fresh bones of buffalo very
+numerous on the ground, and here and there startled a pack of wolves
+feeding on a carcas which had been deprived of its tongue and hump only
+by the careless, thriftless Crees. On the high banks of the valley the
+remains of ancient encampments in the form of rings of stones to hold
+down the skin tents are everywhere visible, and testify to the former
+numbers of the Plain Crees.... The largest ancient encampment we saw
+lies near a shallow lake in the prairie about a mile from the Qu'appelle
+valley. It is surrounded by a few low sandy and gravelly hills, and is
+quite screened from observation. It may have been a camping ground for
+centuries, as some circles of stones are partially covered with grass
+and embedded in the soil." (Hind, (1), I, pp. 338-341.)
+
+This is a simple explanation of the origin of small circles of stones
+now encountered in different parts of the country, but in other
+localities, where stones were not obtainable, masses of sod were used
+for the same purpose, and these in turn may have caused the small earth
+circles which are now discovered in the lower Mississippi Valley and
+elsewhere.
+
+CHEYENNE.
+
+As has been remarked by the most observant student of this tribe:
+"Information as to the region occupied by the Cheyenne in early days is
+limited and for the most part traditional. Some ethnologists declare
+that Indian tradition has no historical value, but other students of
+Indians decline to assent to this dictum. If it is to be accepted, we
+can know little of the Cheyenne until they are found as nomads following
+the buffalo over the plains. There is, however, a mass of traditionary
+data which points back to conditions at a much earlier date quite
+different from these. In primitive times they occupied permanent earth
+lodges and raised crops of corn, beans, and squashes, on which they
+largely depended for subsistence." (Grinnell, (1), p. 359.)
+
+According to tradition, which in part is verified by the accounts of
+early explorations, the Cheyenne at one time lived in the valley of the
+Minnesota, whence they gradually moved westward. Thus at least a part of
+the tribe removed from the edge of the timbered region to the plains, a
+movement which probably took place during the latter part of the
+eighteenth century.
+
+While living in the vicinity of the Minnesota the villages and camps of
+the Cheyenne undoubtedly resembled those of the Sioux of later days; the
+conical skin-covered lodge, or possibly the mat or bark structure of the
+timber people, as used by the Ojibway and others. But during the same
+period it is evident other bands of the tribe lived quite a distance
+westward, probably on the banks of the Missouri, and there the
+habitations were the permanent earth lodge, similar to those of the
+Pawnee, Mandan, and other Missouri Valley tribes. Sioux traditions refer
+to Cheyenne villages on the banks of the Missouri near Fort Yates, Sioux
+County, North Dakota. These were visited and described by Dr. Grinnell,
+during the spring of 1918, who wrote: "The Teton Sioux, now allotted and
+scattered over the Standing Rock Indian reservation, declare that on the
+west bank of the Missouri river, not far from Fort Yates, there were
+formerly two Cheyenne villages.... I visited the two sites. The most
+northerly one is situated on a bluff above the Missouri river on the
+south side of Porcupine creek, less than five miles north of Ft. Yates.
+The village has been partly destroyed by the Missouri river, which has
+undermined the bank and carried away some of the house rings reported to
+have been well preserved, but a number remain. Of these a few are still
+seen as the raised borders of considerable earth lodges, the rings about
+the central hollow being from twelve to fifteen inches above the
+surrounding soil, and the hollows noticeably deep. In most cases,
+however, the situation of the house is indicated merely by a slight
+hollow and especially by the peculiar character of the grass growing on
+the house site. The eye recognizes the different vegetation, and as soon
+as the foot is set on the soil within a house site, the difference is
+felt between that and the ground immediately without the site. The
+houses nearest both Porcupine creek and the Missouri river stand on the
+bank immediately above the water, and it is possible that some of those
+on the Porcupine have been undermined and carried away by that stream
+when in flood. This settlement must have been large. It stands on a
+flat, now bisected by a railroad embankment, slightly sloping toward the
+river, and the houses stood close together." More than 70 large house
+sites were counted, "one at least being 60 feet in diameter," and in
+addition to these were a large number of smaller ones. "On the gently
+rising land to the west of the Porcupine village the Cheyenne are said
+to have planted their corn, as also on the flats on the north side of
+the Porcupine river. The village site now stands on the farm of Yellow
+Lodge, a Yankton Sioux, who stated that he had always been told by the
+old people that this was a Cheyenne village and that in plowing he had
+often turned up pottery from the ground." And in reference to the age of
+this interesting site: "Sioux tradition declares that the village on
+the Porcupine river was established about 1733 or a little earlier,
+perhaps 1730; they fix the date as about one hundred years before the
+stars fell, 1833. It was a large village and was occupied for fifty
+years or more and then the people abandoned it and moved over to a point
+on Grand river twenty miles above its mouth. The date of the removal is
+given as about the time of a great flood at this point, which, it is
+said, took place about 1784." (Grinnell, Op. cit.) This later village
+existed until about 1840 and appears to have been composed of skin
+lodges, not the permanent earth structures. Sioux tradition also places
+the earlier home of the people who erected the village on the Porcupine
+at some point in the Valley of the Minnesota.
+
+The second of the two sites mentioned stood some 2 miles below Porcupine
+Creek, and it is the belief of Dr. Grinnell that these were the villages
+to which Lewis and Clark referred in their journals as having been
+passed by the expedition on the 15th and 16th of October, 1804. At that
+time game was abundant and several hunting parties of the Arikara were
+encountered, and an entry in the journal dated October 15, 1804, reads:
+"We stopped at three miles on the north a little above a camp of Ricaras
+who are hunting, where we were visited by about thirty Indians. They
+came over in their skin canoes, bringing us meat, for which we returned
+them beads and fishhooks. About a mile higher we found another
+encampment of Ricaras on the south, consisting of eight lodges: here we
+again ate and exchanged a few presents. As we went we discerned numbers
+of other Indians on both sides of the river; and at about nine miles we
+came to a creek on the south, where we saw many high hills resembling a
+house with a slanting roof; and a little below the creek an old village
+of the Sharha or Cheyenne Indians.... At sunset we halted, after coming
+ten miles over several sandbars and points, above a camp of ten Ricara
+lodges on the north side." (Lewis and Clark, (1), pp. 108-109.) Such was
+the nature of the country a little more than a century ago.
+
+Another ancient village site presenting many interesting features stands
+on the bank of an old bed of the Sheyenne River, near Lisbon, Ransom
+County, N. Dak. This would have been about midway between the Minnesota
+River and the village on the Missouri near Porcupine Creek. A plan of
+this village made a few years ago is now preserved in the Historical
+Society of North Dakota and was reproduced by Dr. Grinnell in the
+article cited. It shows a large number--70 or more--earth-lodge sites,
+varying in size, but closely grouped, and protected by a ditch except on
+the river side. There is a remarkable similarity between this site and
+others east of the Mississippi, where structures of a like form
+evidently stood in the centuries before the coming of Europeans. The
+ditch may have been accompanied by an embankment, in turn surmounted by
+palisades. The river served to protect the settlement on the north, the
+encircling embankment and ditch reaching the bank of the stream both
+above and below the occupied area.
+
+Unfortunately no sketch or picture of any sort of a Cheyenne earth lodge
+is known to exist, but the villages just mentioned must necessarily have
+resembled in appearance those of the Pawnee of a later generation,
+remarkable photographs of which have been preserved and which are shown
+in the present work. And as Dr. Grinnell has said in a recent
+communication (February 2, 1920) when referring to the places long ago
+occupied by the camps of the Cheyenne: "I have walked about on the sites
+of these old villages, and the grandmother of a woman of my
+acquaintance, and probably the father of that woman, lived in
+earth-lodge houses, presumably very similar to those occupied in my time
+by the Pawnees and the Mandans. I have never seen one, however, and do
+not know anyone who has seen one. Many years ago, I might have procured
+from old Elk River a description of such houses, though he was even then
+very old and growing feeble. It is too late to lament that now."
+
+The conical skin lodge of the Cheyenne resembled that of other plains
+tribes, and they must in earlier times, when buffalo were so numerous
+and easily secured, have been rather large and commodious structures.
+When Lewis and Clark descended the Missouri, on their return from the
+far west, they reached on August 21, 1806, an encampment of the Cheyenne
+on the bank of the Missouri, opposite the upper village of the Arikara,
+not far below the old Cheyenne village mentioned in the journal of the
+expedition on October 15, 1804. To quote from the entry made August 21,
+1806: "... arrived opposite to the upper Ricara villages. We saluted
+them with the discharge of four guns, which they answered in the same
+manner; and on our landing we were met by the greater part of the
+inhabitants of each village, and also by a band of Chayennes, who were
+encamped on a hill in the neighbourhood...." After conversing with all
+concerning the Mandans, "The sun being now very hot, the chief of the
+Chayennes invited us to his lodge, which was at no great distance from
+the river. We followed him, and found a very large lodge, made of twenty
+buffaloe skins, surrounded by eighteen or twenty lodges, nearly equal in
+size. The rest of the nation are expected to-morrow, and will make the
+number of one hundred and thirty or fifty lodges, containing from three
+hundred and fifty to four hundred men, at which the men of the nation
+may be computed. These Chayennes are a fine looking people, of a large
+stature, straight limbs, high cheek-bones and noses, and of a complexion
+similar to that of the Ricaras." (Lewis and Clark, (1), II, pp.
+413-414.)
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 14
+
+[Illustration: CHEYENNE. STUMP HORSE AND FAMILY]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 15
+
+[Illustration: "ENCAMPMENT OF THE PIEKANN INDIANS"
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833]
+
+The photograph reproduced in plate 14 shows a Cheyenne family group, an
+interesting example of a travois, and part of a lodge. The latter
+differs from all described on the preceding pages and evidently
+resembles those erected by the Pawnee in their temporary camps. This
+form may have been used in later times in the place of the conical skin
+lodge, although the latter was not abandoned, but, as among other
+tribes, the Cheyenne appear to have erected several types of shelters or
+habitations, governed by the available supply of materials necessary for
+their construction.
+
+Large lodges, evidently tipis, set up for special purposes by the
+Cheyenne, are mentioned by Grinnell. In the spring of 1853 the main
+village of that tribe, so he wrote, stood "at the mouth of Beaver Creek
+on the South Platte. There a large lodge was set up as a meeting-place
+for each of the soldier bands. To each such place came the relations of
+those killed the year before to implore the soldier bands to take pity
+on them and to help to revenge their injuries." And at this time many
+presents were given the warriors. (Grinnell, (2), p. 80.)
+
+This was before many of the primitive customs of the tribe had been
+changed through contact with the whites.
+
+BLACKFOOT CONFEDERACY.
+
+The tribes forming this group are the Siksika, or Blackfeet proper, the
+Piegan, and the Kainah, or Bloods. Closely allied and associated with
+these were the Atsina, a branch of the Arapaho, but who later became
+incorporated with the Assiniboin. These tribes roamed over a wide
+territory of mountains, plains, and valleys.
+
+Early accounts of the manners and ways of life of the Blackfeet are to
+be found in the journals kept by traders belonging to the Hudson's Bay
+Company, who penetrated the vast, unknown wilderness southwestward from
+York Factory during the eighteenth century. Although the records are all
+too brief and leave much to be desired, nevertheless they are of the
+greatest interest, referring as they do to the people while yet in a
+primitive state, with no knowledge of the customs of Europeans.
+
+The first of the journals to be mentioned is that of Anthony Hendry, who
+left York Factory June 26, 1754. He ascended Hayes River many miles,
+thence, after crossing numerous lakes and streams and traversing forests
+and plains, arrived on Monday, October 14, 1754, at a point not far
+northeastward from the present city of Calgary, Alberta. This was in the
+country of the Blackfeet, mentioned in the journal as the Archithinue
+Natives. That same day, so the narrative continues: "Came to 200 tents
+of Archithinue Natives, pitched in two rows, and an opening in the
+middle; where we were conducted to the Leader's tent; which was at one
+end, large enough to contain fifty persons; where he received us seated
+on a clear [white] Buffalo skin, attended by 20 elderly men. He made
+signs for me to sit down on his right hand: which I did. Our Leader set
+on several grand-pipes, and smoked all round, according to their usual
+custom: not a word was yet spoke on either side. Smoking being over,
+Buffalo flesh boiled was served round in baskets of a species of bent,
+and I was presented with 10 Buffalo tongues." The following day he again
+visited the lodge of the chief, where he received as a gift "a handsome
+Bow & Arrows," and the journal continues: "I departed and took a view of
+the camp. Their tents were pitched close to one another in two regular
+lines, which formed a broad street open at both ends. Their horses are
+turned out to grass, their legs being fettered: and when wanted, are
+fastened to lines cut of Buffalo skin, that stretches along & is
+fastened to stakes drove in the ground. They have hair halters, Buffalo
+skin pads, & stirrups of the same."
+
+Although Hendry mentioned the encampment to consist of 200 lodges it is
+quite evident others were in the vicinity, or came soon after his
+arrival, for three days later, on October 17, he noted in his journal
+"322 tents of Archithinue Natives unpitched and moved Westward."
+(Hendry, (1), pp. 337-340.) They did not have permanent villages, and
+"never wanted food, as they followed the Buffalo & killed them with the
+Bows and Arrows. They were unacquainted with the canoe, would not eat
+fish, and their garments were finely painted with red paint." Such were
+the Blackfeet about the middle of the eighteenth century.
+
+On June 27, 1772, Matthew Cocking, second factor at York Factory,
+started on a journey quite similar to that performed by Hendry just
+eighteen years earlier. He ascended Hayes River, passed north of Lake
+Winnipeg, and continued in a southwestwardly direction to some point not
+far north of the South Saskatchewan River in the extreme western part of
+the present Province of Saskatchewan. When near this position on
+December 1, 1772, they encamped not far from a "Beast pound," which had
+probably stood from year to year. That day, so he entered in his
+journal, "our Archithinue friends came to us and pitched a small
+distance from us; on one side the pound 21 tents of them, the other
+seven are pitched another way." And the following day, "the Archithinue
+Natives repairing the pound, the repair we gave it on our arrival not
+being sufficient." Two days later "the Archithinue Natives drove into
+the pound 3 male & one female Buffalo, & brought several considerable
+droves very near. They set off in the Evening; & drive the Cattle all
+night. Indeed not only at this Game, but in all their actions they far
+excell the other Natives. They are all well mounted.... Their Weapons,
+Bows & Arrows. Several have on Jackets of Moose leather six fold,
+quilted, & without sleeves." Cocking evidently visited many of the
+tents, and on December 5 wrote: "Our Archithinue Friends are very
+Hospitable, continually inviting us to partake of their best fare;
+generally berries infused in water with fat, very agreeable eating.
+Their manner of showing respect to strangers is, in holding the pipe
+while they smoke: this is done three times. Afterwards every person
+smokes in common; the Women excepted.... The tobacco they use is of
+their own planting.... These people are much more cleanly in their
+cloathing, & food, than my companions: Their Victuals are dressed in
+earthen pots, of their own Manufacturing; much in the same form as
+Newcastle pots, but without feet: their fire tackling a black stone used
+as flint, & a kind of Ore as a steel, using tuss balls as tinder, (i.
+e.) a kind of moss." December 6, 1772: "No success in pounding: the
+Strangers say the season is past." On December 21 "we were joined by ten
+tents of Asinepoet Indians," and the following day "by five tents of
+Nehetheway Indians." The former were Assiniboin and the latter Cree.
+(Cocking, (1), pp. 110-112.)
+
+One of the reasons which inspired Cocking to undertake the long journey
+into the wilderness was the desire to win the Blackfeet away from the
+French interests, and to persuade them to carry their furs to the posts
+of the Hudson's Bay Company. Soon the English were successful in their
+endeavors, and for several generations secured the furs and robes
+collected by the people of the ever-shifting camps, who followed the
+buffalo as the vast herds moved from place to place with the changing
+seasons of the year. Later, traders from another people penetrated the
+country to the upper waters of the Missouri, and certain of the
+Blackfeet began trading at the posts erected by these newcomers. The
+various tribes wandered over a wide region, and 60 years ago it was
+said:
+
+"The Blood Indians range through the district along Maria, Teton, and
+Belly Rivers, inclining west and northwest far into the interior. In
+this section, wood is more abundant, pasturage excellent, and,
+consequently, buffalo almost always abound there. The Blackfeet inhabit
+a portion of country farther north than the Bloods, extending to the
+banks of the Saskatchewan, along which they often reside. They have
+never altogether abandoned their English friends, and more frequently
+dispose of their furs to them than to the American traders on the head
+branches of the Missouri. The Piegans roam through the Rocky Mountains
+on the south side of Maria River, on both banks of the Missouri.... They
+also hunt as far down the Missouri as the Mussel-shell River, and up
+that stream to the borders of the Crow country. The three divisions ...
+constitute the Blackfoot nation proper, whose name has become notorious
+for their fierce and deadly struggles with all the neighboring tribes,
+and in former times struck terror to all white men who travelled in any
+district from the Saskatchewan to the Yellowstone, and from the
+Yellowstone to the Columbia.... These bands all live in skin tents, like
+the rest of the prairie tribes, follow the chase for a subsistence, and
+in former years were famous for their war excursions against neighboring
+tribes." (Hayden, (1), pp. 249-250.)
+
+The region mentioned would have included the central portion of the
+present State of Montana and northward. Marias River flows into the
+Missouri just below Fort Benton.
+
+Maximilian, who visited the Blackfeet during the summer of 1833, has
+left a very concise and interesting account of the appearance of their
+camps:
+
+"The leather tents of the Blackfeet, their internal arrangement, and the
+manner of loading their dogs and horses, agree, in every respect, with
+those of the Sioux and Assiniboins, and all the wandering tribes of
+hunters of the upper Missouri. The tents, made of tanned buffalo skin,
+last only for one year; they are, at first, neat and white, afterwards
+brownish, and at the top, where the smoke issues, black, and, at last,
+transparent, like parchment, and very light inside. Painted tents,
+adorned with figures, are very seldom seen, and only a few chiefs
+possess them. When these tents are taken down, they leave a circle of
+sods, exactly as in the dwellings of the Esquimaux. They are often
+surrounded by fifteen or twenty dogs, which serve, not for food, but
+only for drawing and carrying their baggage. Some Blackfeet, who have
+visited the Sioux, have imitated them in eating dogs, but this is rare.
+Near the tents they keep their dog sledges, with which they form conical
+piles resembling the tents themselves, but differing from them in not
+being covered with leather. On these they hang their shields, travelling
+bags, saddles and bridles; and at some height, out of the reach of the
+hungry dogs, they hang the meat, which is cut into long strips, their
+skins, &c. The medicine bag or bundle, the conjuring apparatus, is often
+hung and fastened to a separate pole, or over the door of the tent.
+Their household goods consist of buffalo robes and blankets, many kinds
+of painted parchment bags, some of them in a semicircular form, with
+leather strings and fringes; wooden dishes, large spoons made of the
+horn of the mountain sheep, which are very wide and deep.... In the
+center of the tent there is a small fire in a circle composed of stones,
+over which the kettle for cooking is suspended." (Maximilian, (1), pp.
+250-251.)
+
+A painting of a Piegan camp was made at that time by Bodmer, who
+accompanied Maximilian, and served as an illustration in the latter's
+work. It is here reproduced as plate 15. It shows clearly the many skin
+lodges forming the encampment, the numerous dogs and horses, with some
+of the Indians wrapped in highly decorated buffalo robes. Some of the
+lodges are decorated, but the great majority are plain, thus conforming
+with the description.
+
+Maximilian again wrote while at Fort McKenzie, in August, 1833:
+
+"Having made our arrangements on the first day of our arrival, and
+viewed the Indian camp, with its many dogs, and old dirty leather tents,
+we were invited, on the following day, together with Mr Mitchell, to a
+feast, given by the Blackfoot chief, Mehkskehme-Sukahs (the iron shirt).
+We proceeded to a large circle in the middle of the camp, enclosed with
+a kind of fence of boughs of trees, which contained part of the tents,
+and was designed to confine the horses during the night, for the Indians
+are so addicted to horse stealing that they do not trust each other. The
+hut of the chief was spacious; we had never before seen so handsome a
+one; it was full fifteen paces in diameter, and was very clean and
+tastefully decorated. We took our seats, without ceremony, on buffalo
+skins, spread out on the left hand of the chief, round the fire, in the
+centre of the tent, which was enclosed in a circle of stones, and a dead
+silence prevailed. Our host was a tall, robust man, who at this time had
+no other clothes than his breechcloth; neither women nor children were
+visible. A tin dish was set before us, which contained dry grated meat,
+mixed with sweet berries, which we ate with our fingers, and found very
+palatable. After we had finished, the chief ate what was left in the
+dish, and took out of a bag a chief's scarlet uniform, with blue facings
+and yellow lace, which he had received from the English, six red and
+black plumes of feathers, a dagger with its sheath, a coloured
+pocket-handkerchief, and two beaver skins, all of which he laid before
+Mr Mitchell as a present, who was obliged to accept these things whether
+he liked or not, thereby laying himself under the obligation of making
+presents in return, and especially a new uniform. When the chief began
+to fill his pipe, made of green talc, we rose and retired (quite in
+Indian fashion) in silence, and without making any salutations." (Op.
+cit., pp. 261-262.)
+
+As Maximilian had already visited and seen many skin lodges as he
+ascended the Missouri, his remarks concerning this one which belonged to
+the Blackfeet chief are most interesting. It was between 40 and 50 feet
+in diameter, very clean and well decorated, probably a remarkable
+example.
+
+The circles of earth which indicated the former positions of lodges were
+noticed by Maximilian, and he again mentioned them while at Fort Union,
+at the mouth of the Yellowstone, October 16, 1833. He said (p. 305):
+"The little prairie fox was so hungry, and, therefore so tame, that it
+often visited the environs of the fort, and we found these pretty little
+animals among the circles of turf which were left on the removal of the
+Indian tents."
+
+Another visit to the Piegan, in the same region, was made just 20 years
+later, during the month of September, 1853. J. M. Stanley, who
+accompanied Gov. Stevens as the artist of the expedition, left camp on
+the banks of Marias River and three days later, September 14, 1853,
+reached the divide between Milk and Bow Rivers: "From this divide I had
+a view of the Bull's Head, forming the base of Cypress mountain.... At 1
+o'clock I descended to a deep valley, in which flows an affluent of
+Beaver river. Here was the Piegan camp, of ninety lodges, under their
+chief Low Horn, one hundred and sixty-three miles north, 20° west, of
+Fort Benton.
+
+"Little Dog conducted me, with my party, to his lodge, and immediately
+the chief and braves collected in the 'council Lodge,' to receive my
+message...." This was conducted with customary formality, and the next
+day, September 15, "At an early hour a town crier announced the
+intention of the chief to move camp. The horses were immediately brought
+in and secured around their respective lodges, and in less than one hour
+the whole encampment was drawn out in two parallel lines on the plains,
+forming one of the most picturesque scenes I have ever witnessed.
+
+"Preparation for their transportation is made in the following manner:
+The poles of the lodges, which are from twenty to thirty-five feet in
+length, are divided, the small ends being lashed together and secured to
+the shoulders of the horse, allowing the butt-ends to drag upon the
+ground on either side; just behind the horse are secured to
+cross-pieces, to keep the poles in their respective places, and upon
+which are placed the lodge and domestic furniture. This also serves for
+the safe transportation of the children and infirm unable to ride on
+horseback--the lodge being folded so as to allow two or more to ride
+securely. The horses dragging this burden--often of three hundred pounds
+are also ridden by the squaws, with a child astride behind, and one in
+her arms, embracing a favorite young pup.
+
+"Their dogs (of which they have a large number) are also used in
+transporting their effects in the same manner as the horses, making,
+with ease, twenty miles a day, dragging forty pounds. In this way this
+heterogeneous caravan, comprising of a thousand souls, fell into line
+and trotted quietly until night, while the chiefs and braves rode in
+front, flank, or rear, ever ready for the chase or defence against a
+foe.... Like other tribes in this region, the Piegans retain all their
+primitive customs, adhering with faithful pertinacity to the ceremonies
+of their forefathers." (Stanley, (1), pp. 448-449.) At that time the
+Piegan were estimated to have had 430 lodges, the average number of
+persons occupying each being 10.
+
+During this brief but interesting journey Stanley made many sketches of
+the Indians with whom he came in contact, but not one of the drawings is
+known to exist at the present time. His beautiful painting of a buffalo
+hunt, shown in plate 2, is one of his five pictures now in the National
+Museum at Washington.
+
+The Blackfeet allies often moved in great numbers from place to place
+when searching for the herds of buffalo or tracking some enemy tribe.
+Such a war party was encountered on the banks of the River Saskatchewan,
+two days' journey below Fort Pitt, about the present town of Battleford,
+Saskatchewan, on June 1, 1848. Among the party then going from Fort Pitt
+to Norway House, the Hudson's Bay Company's post on the northeast shore
+of Lake Winnipeg, was the Canadian artist Kane, who entered in his
+journal: "We saw a large party of mounted Indians, riding furiously
+towards us. On their nearer approach they proved to be a large war
+party, consisting of Blackfoot Indians, Blood Indians, Sur-cees, Gros
+Ventres, and Paygans.... We instantly put ashore to meet them.... They
+told us they were a party of 1,500 warriors, from 1,200 lodges, who were
+then 'pitching on' towards Fort Edmonton; that is, they were making
+short journeys, and pitching their tents on towards Edmonton, leaving
+few behind capable of bearing arms. They were in pursuit of the Crees
+and Assiniboines, whom they threatened totally to annihilate, boasting
+that they themselves were as numerous as the grass on the plains. They
+were the best mounted, the best looking, the most warlike in appearance,
+and the best accoutred of any tribe I had ever seen on the continent
+during my route.... After our smoke several of the young Braves engaged
+in a horse race, to which sport they are very partial, and at which they
+bet heavily; they generally ride on those occasions stark naked, without
+a saddle, and with only a lasso fastened to the lower jaw of the horse
+as represented in Sketch No. 16." (Kane, (1), pp. 417-420.) The "sketch
+No. 16" is here reproduced in plate 16, _a_. It shows, in addition to
+the horses, several conical skin-covered lodges, the one on the right
+being highly decorated.
+
+The valley of the Saskatchewan and southward to the waters of the
+Missouri was a region frequented by many tribes, rich in game, and one
+from which the Hudson's Bay Company derived quantities of furs. The
+Blackfeet, who, as already mentioned, occupied in recent years the
+country about the headwaters of the Missouri, formerly lived farther
+north, and about the close of the eighteenth century were encountered
+near the Saskatchewan, neighbors of the Assiniboin and Cree. About the
+year 1790 Mackenzie traversed the country, and wrote, regarding the
+number and distribution of the tribes then claiming that northern
+region: "At Nepawi, and South-Branch House, about thirty tents of
+Knisteneaux, or ninety warriors; and sixty tents of Stone-Indians, or
+Assiniboins, who are their neighbors, and are equal to two hundred men;
+their hunting ground extends upwards to about Eagle Hills. Next to them
+are those who trade at Forts George and Augustus, and are about eighty
+tents or upwards of Knisteneaux: on either side of the river, their
+number may be two hundred. In the same country are one hundred and forty
+tents of Stone-Indians; not quite half of them inhabit the West woody
+country; the others never leave the plains, and their numbers cannot be
+less than four hundred and fifty men. At the Southern headwaters of the
+North branch dwells a tribe called Sarsees, consisting of about
+thirty-five tents, or one hundred and twenty men. Opposite to those
+Eastward, on the head-waters of the South Branch, are the Picaneaux, to
+the number of from twelve to fifteen hundred men. Next to them, on the
+same water, are the Blood-Indians, of the same nation as the last, to
+the number of about fifty tents, or two hundred and fifty men. From them
+downwards extend the Black-Feet Indians, of the same nation as the two
+last tribes; their number may be eight hundred men. Next to them, and
+who extend to the confluence of the South and North branch, are the
+Fall, or Big-bellied Indians, who may amount to about six hundred
+warriors." (Mackenzie, (1), p. lxx.) "South-Branch House" of this
+narrative stood between the north and south branches of the
+Saskatchewan, near the present town of Dalmeny, in the Province of
+Saskatchewan. The Picaneaux, who probably possessed from 200 to 300
+skin-covered lodges, were the Piegan, the Piekann Indians of Maximilian,
+whose village as it appeared in 1833 was painted by Bodmer. Likewise the
+Fall or Big-bellied Indians, whose habitat about the year 1790 was near
+the junction of the two branches of the Saskatchewan, were the Atsina,
+the Gros Ventres of the Prairie, and their village or camp in 1790 was
+probably quite similar to the one visited by Maximilian 43 years later,
+when it was sketched by Bodmer.
+
+By reason of the roving disposition of the northern tribes, those
+mentioned in the preceding quotations and their neighbors, it was not
+possible for them to erect and maintain permanent villages. The
+skin-covered lodge served as a shelter easily and quickly raised and
+readily transported from place to place as requirements and desires made
+necessary. But many bark-covered structures were probably to have been
+found scattered throughout the wooded sections.
+
+Something of the manners and ways of life of these people may be
+gathered from another passage in Mackenzie's narrative: "In the fall of
+the year the natives meet the traders at the forts, where they barter
+the furs or provisions which they may have procured; then they obtain
+credit, and proceed to hunt the beavers, and do not return till the
+beginning of the year; when they are again fitted out in the same manner
+and come back the latter end of March, or the beginning of April. They
+are now unwilling to repair to the beaver hunt until the waters are
+clear of ice, that they may kill them with fire-arms, which the
+Chepewyans are averse to employ. The major part of the latter return to
+the barren grounds, and live during the summer with their relations and
+friends in the enjoyment of that plenty which is derived from numerous
+herds of deer. But those of that tribe who are most partial to these
+desarts, cannot remain there in winter, and they are obliged, with the
+deer, to take shelter in the woods during that rigorous season, when
+they contrive to kill a few beavers, and send them by young men, to
+exchange for iron utensils and ammunition." (Mackenzie, (1), pp.
+xc-xci.)
+
+The large ceremonial lodges erected by the Blackfeet were among the most
+interesting structures reared by the tribes of the Northwest. A
+remarkable example was encountered by the Fisk party September 1, 1862,
+near the banks of Milk River, a short distance from Fort Benton. As
+described in the journal: "We passed this afternoon an abandoned camp of
+some three thousand or four thousand Blackfeet Indians. A large
+'medicine lodge,' in which they had celebrated their superstitious
+rites, was left standing, although its covering had been mostly stripped
+from its frame-work. It was circular, and about one hundred feet in
+diameter and forty feet high in the centre, the roof poles running from
+the top down to and around a tree, which was erected for a centre pole.
+This, in time of occupancy, is covered with dressed buffalo skins, and
+constitutes the Indian's highest achievement in the architectural line."
+(Fisk, (1), p. 24.) The entire ceremony attending the selection of a
+site for the structure, the cutting of the poles, the erection of the
+associated sweat lodges, and the final raising of the medicine lodge,
+has been recorded by Grinnell, (3), pages 263-267, and is one of the
+most complete accounts of a native ceremony ever prepared.
+
+ARAPAHO.
+
+The ancient habitat of the Arapaho, according to tradition, was once far
+northeast of the country which they later occupied. It may have been
+among the forests of the region about the headwaters of the Mississippi,
+the present State of Minnesota, where their villages would have stood on
+the shores of lakes and streams. But later, like the related Cheyenne,
+with whom they have been closely allied during recent generations and
+probably for a long period, they reached the prairies, through what
+causes may never be known, and there, with different environments, their
+manners and ways of life changed. While a people of the timbered
+country, they undoubtedly reared and occupied the forms of habitations
+so characteristic of the forests, as exemplified by the wigwams of the
+Ojibway and other tribes in recent times, but after reaching the prairie
+country, where buffalo were obtained in such vast numbers, their
+villages or camps assumed the appearance of those of the Siouan tribes,
+conical skin lodges taking the place of the mat or bark covered
+structures.
+
+The Atsina, a detached division of the Arapaho, closely associated with
+the Blackfeet, were often mentioned by the early writers as the Gros
+Ventres of the Prairie, and in certain English narratives as the Fall or
+Rapid Indians. In other journals they were mentioned under the name
+Minnetarees of Fort de Prairie. Thus they were called by the early
+American explorers.
+
+On May 29, 1805, just two weeks before arriving at the Great Falls of
+the Missouri, the Lewis and Clark party reached Judith River, and a
+short distance above its junction with the Missouri "We saw the fires of
+one hundred and twenty-six lodges, which appeared to have been deserted
+about twelve or fifteen days, and on the other side of the Missouri a
+large encampment, apparently made by the same nation. On examining some
+moccasins which we found there, our Indian woman said that they did not
+belong to her own nation the Snake Indians, but she thought that they
+indicated a tribe on this side of the Rocky mountains, and to the north
+of the Missouri; indeed it is probable that these are the Minnetarees of
+fort de Prairie." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, p. 234.) The following year,
+when the expedition was returning from the west, the tribe was again
+mentioned. On July 15, 1806, the expedition passed Shields River, and
+two days later reached Brattons River (now Bridger Creek), a tributary
+of the Yellowstone in the present Sweetgrass County, Montana. Here, "In
+one of the low bottoms of the river was an Indian fort, which seems to
+have been built during the last summer. It was built in the form of a
+circle, about fifty feet in diameter, five feet high, and formed of
+logs, lapping over each other, and covered on the outside with bark set
+up on end, the entrance also was guarded by a work on each side of it,
+facing the river. These intrenchments, the squaw informs us, are
+frequently made by the Minnetarees and other Indians at war with the
+Shoshonees, when pursued by their enemies on horseback." Another similar
+work was encountered the next day. (Lewis and Clark, (1), II, pp.
+379-380.)
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 16
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Blackfoot camp. Paul Kane, 1848]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Arapaho village, Whitewood Canyon, Wyoming, about
+1870]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 17
+
+[Illustration: "CAMP OF THE GROS VENTRES OF THE PRAIRIES" ON THE UPPER
+MISSOURI
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833]
+
+The preceding references to fortified camps are of great interest, but
+similar works were mentioned by other explorers of the upper Missouri
+Valley. During the summer of 1833 several were encountered by
+Maximilian, and on July 18 of that year he wrote: "On this day at noon,
+we reached, on the south bank, an Indian fort ... it is a kind of
+breastwork, which Indian war-parties construct in haste of dry trunks of
+trees.... This fort consisted of a fence, and several angles, enclosing
+a rather small space, with the open side towards the river. In the
+center of the space there was a conical hut, composed of wood. Near this
+fort, on the same bank of the river, there was a beaver's den made of a
+heap of brushwood." (Maximilian, (1), p. 216.) Six days before, on July
+12, they had encountered several huts probably similar to that which
+stood within the "fort." In the narrative it is said: "Just at the place
+where our vessel lay, were four old Indian huts, of some war or hunting
+party, composed of trunks and boughs of trees piled together in a
+square, in which some of our party made a fire to cook their meat.
+Scarcely 100 paces above these huts, was the Indian Fort Creek of Lewis
+and Clark." (Op. cit., p. 212.)
+
+Elsewhere in this sketch other native "forts" will be mentioned. The
+erection of such works appears to have been quite common among the
+widely scattered tribes.
+
+Fortunately, a very interesting picture of a skin lodge village or camp
+of the Atsina has been preserved, a painting made by Bodmer during the
+summer of 1833, when it was visited by Maximilian. It stood on the bank
+of the Yellowstone, at the mouth of the Big Horn, near the dividing line
+between Rosebud and Yellowstone Counties, Montana. Describing the
+settlement as it appeared on the evening of August 3, 1833. Maximilian
+wrote: "On the left was the mouth of Bighorn River, between considerable
+hills, on which numbers of Indians had collected. In the front of the
+eminence the prairie declined gently towards the river, where above 260
+leather tents of the Indians were set up; the tent of the principal
+chief was in the foreground, and, near it, a high pole, with the
+American flag. The whole prairie was covered with Indians, in various
+groups, and with numerous dogs; horses of every colour were grazing
+round, and horsemen galloping backwards and forwards, among whom was a
+celebrated chief, who made a good figure on his light bay horse." These
+were the Gros Ventres, "called by the English, Fall Indians."
+(Maximilian, (1), pp. 231-232.) Bodmer's painting, or more correctly, an
+engraving made from the painting, is reproduced in plate 17.
+
+On July 8, 1842, Fremont, while on his journey to the Rocky Mountains,
+reached a village of the Arapaho and Cheyenne. But before arriving at
+the village the party came in contact with a large number of Indians
+belonging to the two tribes, who were chasing a herd of buffalo. Of the
+exciting scene presented by these many mounted Indians and the rushing
+buffalo, he left a vivid account: "We were too far to hear the report of
+the guns, or any sound; and at every instant, through the clouds of
+dust, which the sun made luminous, we could see for a moment two or
+three buffalo dashing along, and close behind them an Indian with his
+long spear, or other weapon, and instantly again they disappeared. The
+apparent silence, and the dimly seen figures flitting by with such
+rapidity, gave it a kind of dreamy effect, and seemed more like a
+picture than a scene of real life. It had been a large herd when the
+_cerne_ commenced, probably three or four hundred in number; but, though
+I watched them closely, I did not see one emerge from the fatal cloud
+where the work of destruction was going on. After remaining here about
+an hour, we resumed our journey in the direction of the village.
+
+"Gradually, as we rode on, Indian after Indian came dropping along,
+laden with meat; and by the time we had neared the lodges, the backward
+road was covered with the returning horsemen. It was a pleasant contrast
+with the desert road we had been traveling. Several had joined company
+with us, and one of the chiefs invited us to his lodge. The village
+consisted of about one hundred and twenty-five lodges, of which twenty
+were Cheyennes; the latter pitched a little apart from the Arapahoes.
+They were disposed in a scattering manner on both sides of a broad,
+irregular street, about one hundred and fifty feet wide, and running
+along the river. As we rode along, I remarked near some of the lodges a
+kind of tripod frame, formed of three slender poles of birch, scraped
+very clean, to which were affixed the shield and spear, with some other
+weapons of a chief. All were scrupulously clean, the spear-head was
+burnished bright, and the shield white and stainless. It reminded me of
+the days of feudal chivalry; and when, as I rode by, I yielded to the
+passing impulse, and touched one of the spotless shields with the muzzle
+of my gun, I almost expected a grim warrior to start from the lodge and
+resent my challenge. The master of the lodge spread out a robe for me to
+sit upon, and the squaws set before us a large wooden dish of buffalo
+meat. He had lit his pipe in the mean while, and when it had been passed
+around, we commenced our dinner while he continued to smoke. Gradually,
+five or six other chiefs came in, and took their seats in silence. When
+we had finished, our host asked a number of questions.... A storm had
+been gathering for the past hour, and some pattering drops on the lodge
+warned us that we had some miles to our camp.... We found our companions
+under some densely foliaged old trees, about three miles up the
+river.... Nearly opposite was the mouth of one of the most considerable
+affluents of the South fork, _la Fourche aux Castors_, (Beaver fork,)
+heading off in the ridge to the southeast." (Fremont, (1), pp. 29-30.)
+This would have been near the eastern boundary of the present Morgan
+County, Colorado, a region approaching the western edge of the great
+prairie, in the midst of the range of vast herds of buffalo. The entire
+description of the events of the day as prepared by Fremont reads more
+like fiction than fact and is one of the clearest and most concise
+accounts extant of a buffalo hunt by native tribes under such
+conditions. The paintings by Stanley and Wimar, as reproduced in plates
+2 and 3, would serve to illustrate Fremont's narrative.
+
+The following year (1843) Fremont, on his second expedition, reached St.
+Vrain's Fort; thence continuing up the South Fork of the Platte he soon
+arrived in the vicinity of the present city of Denver, and at some point
+not far below the mouth of Cherry Creek discovered a large Arapaho
+village. This was on July 7, 1843, and to quote from his journal: "We
+made this morning an early start, continuing to travel up the Platte;
+and in a few miles frequent bands of horses and mules, scattered for
+several miles round about, indicated our approach to the Arapaho
+village, which we found encamped in a beautiful bottom, and consisting
+of about 160 lodges. It appeared extremely populous, with a great number
+of children; a circumstance which indicated a regular supply of the
+means of subsistence. The chiefs, who were gathered together at the
+farther end of the village, received us (as probably strangers are
+always received to whom they desire to show respect or regard) by
+throwing their arms around our necks and embracing us.... I saw here, as
+I had remarked in an Arapaho village the preceding year, near the lodges
+of the chiefs, tall tripods of white poles supporting their spears and
+shields, which showed it to be a regular custom.... Though disappointed
+in obtaining the presents which had been evidently expected, they
+behaved very courteously, and after a little conversation, I left them,
+and, continuing up the river, halted to noon on the bluff, as the
+bottoms are almost inundated; continuing in the afternoon our route
+along the mountains, which are dark, misty, and shrouded." (Fremont,
+(1), pp. 111-112.)
+
+A photograph of a small Arapaho village, standing in Whitewood Canyon,
+Wyoming, about the year 1870, is reproduced in plate 16, b. The
+skin-covered lodges shown in this photograph were probably similar to
+those sketched by Bodmer a generation before.
+
+SAUK AND FOXES.
+
+It is not the purpose of the present sketch to trace the early
+migrations of the two related tribes, or to refer to their connection,
+linguistically or socially. However, it is evident their villages were
+similar in appearance, and both had two distinct forms of habitations
+which were occupied during different seasons of the year. The summer
+villages of both tribes consisted of bark houses, and near by were
+gardens in which they raised corn, squashes, beans, and some tobacco,
+but with the coming of autumn the families scattered and sought the more
+protected localities where game was to be secured, and there erected the
+dome-shaped, mat-covered lodge, resembling the structures of other
+tribes of the region.
+
+The middle of the eighteenth century found the two tribes established in
+villages near the mouth of Rock River, on the left bank of the
+Mississippi, in the present Rock Island County, Illinois. Here they were
+visited by Long and his small party August 1, 1817, at which time the
+Fox settlement "containing about thirty cabins, with two fires each,"
+stood on the left bank of Rock River, at its junction with the
+Mississippi. The Sauk village was 2 miles up Rock River and consisted
+"of about one hundred cabins, of two, three, and in some instances, four
+fires each," and it was, so Long wrote, "by far the largest Indian
+village situated in the neighborhood of the Mississippi between St.
+Louis and the Falls of St. Anthony." (Long, (1), pp. 68-69.) This was
+the birthplace, in the year 1767, of the great Sauk leader Black Hawk.
+At the time of Long's visit the people of the two villages had several
+hundred acres of corn, "partly in the low ground and extended up the
+slopes of the bluffs," and were in a very prosperous condition.
+
+The village was destroyed by the militia June 15, 1831, and those who
+escaped soon after crossed the Mississippi. In 1837, having ceded their
+hunting grounds in Iowa to the Government, they removed to a tract in
+Kansas beyond the Missouri, where they continued to reside for some 20
+years as practically one tribe. Later the majority of the Foxes returned
+to Iowa and secured a small tract of land near Tama, in Tama County, on
+the left bank of Iowa River, where a mixed group continues to dwell. In
+1867 the remaining Sauk ceded their lands in Kansas and removed to the
+Indian Territory.
+
+As already mentioned, the tribes erected two distinct types of
+habitations. The mat-covered lodge is shown in plate 18. The bare
+frames, ready for the mat coverings, are indicated in _a_, while the
+completed structure is represented in _b_ of the same plate. Both
+photographs were made near Tama within the past few years.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 18
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Frames of structures ready to be covered with mats
+or sheets of bark]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Mat-covered lodges
+
+SAUK AND FOX HABITATIONS]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 19
+
+[Illustration: SAUK AND FOX HABITATION COVERED WITH ELM BARK]
+
+During the summer of 1820 Schoolcraft was on the upper Mississippi and
+stopped at the village of the Sioux chief "La Petit Corbeau," which
+stood on the bank of the river a few miles below the present city of St.
+Paul. He was conducted to the lodge of the chief, which, so he wrote,
+"is spacious, being about sixty feet in length by thirty in width--built
+in a permanent manner of logs, and covered with bark." (Schoolcraft,
+(2), p. 318.) A few days later, on August 6, 1820, he left the mouth of
+the Wisconsin, passed the mouth of Turkey River, which joins the
+Mississippi from the west, and 1 mile below the mouth of Turkey River
+arrived at a Fox village which stood on the left bank of the
+Mississippi. This would have been near the present village of Cassville,
+Grant County, Wisconsin. Here were twelve lodges, "large, and built of
+logs, in the same substantial manner practised among the Narcotah
+bands." This refers to the village of La Petit Corbeau and others which
+he had recently visited. And continuing the narrative, "The cause of
+their being now deserted, is the fear entertained of an attack from the
+Sioux, in retaliation for the massacre lately perpetrated upon the banks
+of the St. Peter's. The desertion appears to have taken place after they
+had planted their corn, and from the order in which the village is left,
+it may be concluded that its re-occupation is kept in view. I found
+several small gardens and corn fields adjoining the village, in which
+squashes, beans, and pumpkins were abundant, but the corn had been
+nearly all destroyed, probably by wild animals. Walking back from the
+river half a mile ... I was surprised to find an extensive field of
+water- and musk-melons, situated in the midst of a grove of small,
+scattering trees, but without any inclosure. Some of the fruit had been
+destroyed by animals, but a great abundance still remained." (Op. cit.,
+pp. 340-341.)
+
+The preceding references would seem to apply to summer habitations, as
+distinguished from the mat-covered structures already mentioned. The
+descriptions are rather vague, and the lodges encountered by Schoolcraft
+may have been similar in form to that shown in plate 19. This most
+interesting and valuable photograph was made in the Indian Territory
+probably 40 years or more ago, and represents a rather large dwelling.
+It shows clearly the manner in which sheets of bark were placed and
+secured to serve as roof and sides, and in this instance the bark
+appears to be that of the elm.
+
+Interesting notes on the manners and ways of life of the Sauk and Foxes
+just a century ago are to be found in a communication from Maj. M.
+Marston, of the Fifth Infantry, to Morse. Marston was commanding officer
+at Fort Armstrong, from which place the letter was written during the
+month of November, 1820. At that time the Fox village standing on the
+bank of the Mississippi, opposite Fort Armstrong, consisted of
+"thirty-five permanent lodges," and this may refer to the type of
+structures shown in plate 19. As Marston then wrote: "There is also a
+small Sauk village of five or six lodges on the west bank of the
+Mississippi, near the mouth of Des Moin river, and below Fort Edwards;
+and a Fox village near the lead mines (about a hundred miles above this
+place,) of about twenty lodges; and another near the mouth of the
+Wapsipinica of about ten lodges." Thus the villages and camps of the two
+tribes were to have been seen on both banks of the Mississippi, but
+undoubtedly the greater part of their hunting was done westward from the
+river, within the present State of Iowa. A century ago the people of the
+village would leave "as soon as their corn, beans, &c., are ripe and
+taken care of, and their traders arrive and give out their credit, (or
+their outfits on credit,) and go to their wintering grounds; it being
+previously determined in council, on what particular ground each party
+shall hunt. The old men, women, and children, embark in canoes; the
+young men go by land with their horses; on their arrival, they
+immediately commence their winter's hunt, which lasts about three
+months." The traders would follow and remain in convenient places.
+During the winter most of the Indians would pay their debts, get many
+necessary articles, and at the same time reserve the more valuable
+skins. These, "such as beaver, otter, &c., they take home with them to
+their villages, and dispose of for such articles as they may afterwards
+find necessary." The winter of 1819-20 was evidently a very prosperous
+one for the two tribes as well as for the traders, and Marston wrote:
+"These traders, including the peltries received at the United States
+Factory, near Fort Edwards, collected of the Sauk and Fox Indians during
+this season, _nine hundred and eighty packs_. They consisted of 2,760
+beaver skins; 922 Otter; 13,440 Raccoon; 12,900 Musk Rat; 500 Mink; 200
+Wild Cat; 680 Bear Skins; 28,600 Deer. Whole number, 60,082."
+
+At the close of the winter hunt "they return to their villages, in the
+month of April, and after putting their lodges in order, commence
+preparing the ground to receive the seed. The number of acres cultivated
+by that part of the two nations, who reside at their villages in this
+vicinity, is supposed to be upwards of _three hundred_. They usually
+raise from seven to eight thousand bushels of corn, besides beans,
+pumpkins, melons, &c. About one thousand bushels of the corn they
+annually sell to traders and others; the remainder (except about five
+bushels for each family, which is taken with them,) they put into bags,
+and bury in holes dug in the ground, for their use in the spring and
+summer. The labor of agriculture is confined principally to the women,
+and this is done altogether with a hoe. In June, the greatest part of
+the young men go out on a summer hunt, and return in August. While they
+are absent the old men and women are collecting rushes for mats, and
+bark to make into bags for their corn, &c.
+
+"The women usually make about three hundred floor mats every summer....
+The twine which connects the rushes together, is made either of
+basswood bark, after being boiled and hammered, or the bark of the
+nettle; the women twist or spin it by rolling it on the knee with the
+hand." (Morse, (1), App., pp. 124-127.) Some men, as well as women, of
+these tribes are often employed in and about the lead mines on the
+Mississippi, not far from their villages.
+
+The customs of the tribes, as related in the preceding notes, their
+hunts away from the villages during certain seasons of the year, their
+return to plant and care for their fields and gardens, and the placing
+of the surplus grain in caches, had probably been followed by native
+tribes of the Mississippi Valley and adjacent regions for generations
+before the coming of the Europeans.
+
+ILLINOIS.
+
+Although the tribes of the loosely constituted Illinois confederacy
+claimed and occupied a wide region east of the Mississippi, in later
+years centering in the valley of the Illinois River, nevertheless
+certain villages are known to have crossed and recrossed the great
+river. Thus, in the early summer of 1673, Père Marquette arrived at a
+village of the Peoria then standing on the right or west bank of the
+Mississippi, at or near the mouth of the Des Moines. Two months later it
+had removed to the upper Illinois. A few weeks after passing the Peoria
+Marquette discovered another of the Illinois tribes, the Michigamea,
+living near the northeastern corner of the present State of Arkansas,
+and consequently west of the Mississippi. On the map of Pierre van der
+Aa, _circa_ 1720, two small streams are shown flowing into the
+Mississippi from the west, a short distance south of the Missouri. The
+more northerly of the two is probably intended to represent the Meramec
+and a dot at the north side of the mouth of the stream bears the legend:
+"_Village des_ Ilinois _et des_ Caskoukia," probably the Cahokia. This
+stream forms the boundary between Jefferson and St. Louis Counties,
+Missouri, and a short distance above its junction with the Mississippi
+are traces of a large village, with many stone-lined graves, probably
+indicating the position of the Illinois village of two centuries ago.
+Also, on the d'Anville map, issued in the year 1755, an "Ancien Village
+Cahokias" is shown at a point corresponding with the mouth of the small
+Rivière des Pères, a stream which joins the Mississippi and there forms
+the southern boundary of the city of St. Louis. Until covered by
+railroad embankments many small mounds were visible near the mouth of
+the Rivière des Pères, indications of the old settlement were numerous,
+and graves were encountered on the neighboring hills. These were
+evidently the remains of the "Ancien Village Cahokias." The many salt
+springs found on the Missouri side of the Mississippi served to attract
+the Indians from the eastern shore. Establishing their camps in the
+vicinity of the springs, they would evaporate the waters and so obtain a
+supply of salt, a process which continued long after the French had
+settled in this part of upper Louisiana.
+
+The villages of the Illinois tribes have been described in a former
+publication (Bushnell, (1)).
+
+About the close of the eighteenth century many scattered bands of
+various tribes whose habitat was east of the Mississippi sought new
+homes to the westward. Especially was this true after the signing of the
+treaty of Greenville, Ohio, August 3, 1795. But two years before the
+signing of this important treaty small groups of Shawnee and Delaware
+crossed the river, and by the year 1793 had established a village on
+Apple Creek, near the Mississippi and some 40 miles south of the French
+settlement of Ste. Genevieve. A few years later these, or others of the
+same tribes, had small towns not far west of St. Louis and only a short
+distance south of the Missouri. Within another generation many of the
+remaining tribes were removed from east of the Mississippi by the
+Government to lands set apart for them just west of the western boundary
+of Missouri. But for many years after the beginning of the nineteenth
+century the western part of the Ozarks was occupied, or frequented, by
+bands of several tribes.
+
+It seems quite evident that with the removal of the tribes from the east
+came certain changes in their customs and ways of life. And it is
+doubtful whether all attempted to erect their native form of
+habitations. Again, before leaving the east they had seen and
+constructed the log cabin of the pioneers, and it is evident similar
+structures were reared by them in their new homes, or at least by some
+of the tribes, among them the Delaware. An interesting account of one of
+these later settlements has been preserved, but it is very brief. It was
+mentioned in the journal of a dragoon, one of the command then crossing
+the wilderness from St. Louis to the valley of the Arkansas, and was
+prepared about the beginning of December, in the year 1833: "It was
+drawing towards the close of the day, when at a little distance we
+descried a cluster of huts that we imagined might be a squatter
+settlement, but upon a nearer approach, found it to be the remains of a
+log-town long since evacuated, that had formerly been the settlement of
+a tribe of the Delawares.... The site was a beautiful one; and the
+associations that were connected with it, as well as the many vestiges
+of rude art that remained about it, invested this spot with many
+pleasing sources of reflection. As we entered the town, our regiment
+slackened their pace, and slowly rode through this now silent ruin. A
+small space of cleared land encompassed the settlement, but scarce large
+enough to relieve it from the deep gloom of the lofty and surrounding
+forest of aged oaks.... The huts were small, containing but one
+apartment, built of logs, many of which had become so decayed as to have
+fallen to the ground, and the whole was covered with a rich coat of
+moss." (Hildreth, (1), pp. 70-71.) Scattered throughout the settlement,
+near and between the ruined houses, stood many large oaks. On the trunks
+of some of these had been cut various figures and symbols by the
+Indians.
+
+This Delaware village evidently stood not far from the present town of
+Springfield, Green County, Missouri. Just beyond it began the "Kickapoo
+prairie, which is the commencement of that immense chain of prairie land
+that extends in broken patches to the Rocky Mountains." (Op. cit., p.
+70.)
+
+The preceding reference to various figures cut on the trees near the
+deserted village tends to recall a somewhat similar allusion by Irving.
+On November 2, 1832, during his "Tour on the Prairies," so he wrote: "We
+came out upon an extensive prairie, and about six miles to our left
+beheld a long line of green forest, marking the course of the north fork
+of the Arkansas. On the edge of the prairie, and in a spacious grove of
+noble trees which overshadowed a small brook, were traces of an old
+Creek hunting camp. On the bark of the trees were rude delineations of
+hunters and squaws, scrawled with charcoal; together with various signs
+and hieroglyphics, which our half-breeds interpreted as indicating that
+from this encampment the hunters had returned home." (Irving,
+Washington. (1), p. 187.)
+
+It is to be regretted that all such figures should so soon have
+disappeared, as did the frail structures of the native villages, leaving
+only fragments of pottery and bits of stone, ashes, and occasional
+animal bones to indicate where they had once stood.
+
+
+SIOUAN TRIBES.
+
+The numerous and widely scattered tribes belonging to the Siouan
+linguistic family formerly had a combined population which caused this
+to rank as the second largest stock north of Mexico, being exceeded only
+by the Algonquian.
+
+All evidence tends to prove that during past centuries the many tribes
+who were found living west of the Mississippi when the great central
+valley of the continent first became known to Europeans had, within a
+few generations, migrated from the eastward. This is likewise indicated
+by certain tribal traditions. Many had undoubtedly occupied the upper
+parts of the Ohio Valley, and were probably the builders of the great
+earthworks discovered in that region. What impelled the westward
+movement of the tribes may never be determined. Whether they were forced
+to abandon their early habitat by stronger forces, by the lack of food
+which made it necessary for them to seek a more plentiful supply, or by
+reason of causes distinct from either of these can never be definitely
+known.
+
+But some remained in the east; all did not join in the migration, and
+the native tribes encountered by the colonists living in the piedmont
+region of Virginia and extending southward into Carolina belonged to
+this linguistic family. Their villages have been mentioned in a former
+publication. (Bushnell, (1), pp. 92-94.)
+
+It is more than probable that while living east of the Mississippi all
+reared and occupied structures similar to those of the Algonquian tribes
+of later generations, mat and bark covered lodges, such as continued in
+use by the Osage, Quapaw, and others even after they had reached their
+new homes, but some through necessity were compelled to adopt other
+forms of dwellings. Thus many were found occupying the conical skin
+tipi, while some had learned the art of building the large earth-covered
+lodges, an art which had evidently been derived from the Caddoan tribes
+coming from the Southwest.
+
+DAKOTA-ASSINIBOIN GROUP.
+
+The Dakota constitute the largest division of the great Siouan
+linguistic family. To quote from the Handbook, this group includes the
+following tribes, a classification which is recognized by the people
+themselves: "1. Mdewakanton; 2. Wahpeton; 3. Wahpekute; 4. Sisseton; 5.
+Yankton; 6. Yanktonai; 7. Teton, each of which is again subdivided into
+bands and subbands." These seven principal divisions are often referred
+to as the Seven Council Fires of the Dakota. The first four groups as
+given in this classification formed the eastern division, and their
+home, when first encountered by Europeans, was in the densely forested
+region about the headwaters of the Mississippi. The others lived
+westward, reaching far into the plains. The Assiniboin, in historic
+times a separate tribe, was originally a part of the Yanktonai, from
+whom they separated and became closely allied with the Algonquian Cree.
+Thus some of the Dakota as first known to history were a timber people,
+others lived where the forest and prairie joined, with a mingling of the
+fauna and flora of the two regions, and in later years the Oglala, the
+principal division of the Teton, extended their wanderings to and beyond
+the Black Hills, crossing the great buffalo range.
+
+As will be shown in the sketches of the dwellings and other structures
+of the Dakota tribes, those who lived in the timbered region, occupying
+much of the present State of Minnesota, erected the type of habitation
+characteristic of the region, but in the villages along the Minnesota
+both bark and skin covered lodges were in use, and the more western
+villages were formed exclusively of the latter type, the conical skin
+tipi of the plains. There appears to have been very little variation in
+the form of structure as erected by the widely scattered bands.
+
+MDEWAKANTON.
+
+When preparing a sketch of the villages and village sites of the
+Mdewakanton, it is quite natural to begin with a brief description of
+the site of the village to which Father Hennepin was led captive, during
+the early spring of the year 1680. On the afternoon of April 11 of that
+year, while ascending the Mississippi with two companions, he was taken
+by a war party of the Sioux, and after much anxiety and suffering
+reached the Falls of St. Anthony, which he so named. Thence, going
+overland through the endless forests, they arrived at the village of
+their captors. Soon Indians were seen running from the village to meet
+them, and then it was that "One of the principal Issati chiefs gave us
+his peace-calumet to smoke, and accepted the one we had brought. He then
+gave us some wild rice to eat, presenting it to us in large bark
+dishes." From this place they were later taken in bark canoes "a short
+league ... to an island where their cabins were." (Shea, (1), pp.
+224-225.)
+
+The Mdewakanton "mystery lake village," of the Santee or eastern
+division of the Dakota, were considered by some as "the only Dakota
+entitled to the name Isanyati (`Santee'), given them from their old home
+on Mille Lac, Minnesota, called by them Isantamde, 'Knife Lake.'" There
+is no doubt of the Mdewakanton being the Issati of Hennepin, to whose
+principal village he was taken, and where he remained for some weeks
+during the year 1680. It has always been acknowledged that the village
+stood on or near the shore of Mille Lac, but not until 1900 was a site
+discovered which appears without doubt to indicate the position of that
+ancient settlement. The outlet of Mille Lac is Rum River, which enters
+the Mississippi at Anoka. The stream soon after leaving the lake expands
+into a series of small lakes, usually designated as the First, Second,
+and Third Lake, from the outlet at Mille Lac. Rum River leaves Mille Lac
+near the southwest corner, but soon turns eastward, therefore the three
+lakes are rather parallel with the south shore of the great lake. At the
+upper end of Third Lake is an isolated mass, rising some feet above the
+highest stage of water, and having a superficial area of several acres.
+On May 29, 1900, this spot was surrounded by a marsh, in places
+overgrown with rushes, with pools of water, more numerous on the north
+side. But a short time has elapsed since all the lakes were somewhat
+deeper and more water flowed in Rum River. And at that time the waters
+surrounded this elevated mass and it stood as an island at the head of
+Third Lake. When the surface of this island was examined it was found
+to be strewn with innumerable fragments of pottery, some fractured
+stones, and a few stone implements. The amount of pottery was greater
+than is often found on any site, in any part of the country, and it was
+quite evident this island was once occupied by a large, permanent native
+settlement. Without doubt this was the site of the village to which
+Hennepin was taken in a bark canoe, "an island where their cabins were."
+At present this is in Sec. 25, T. 42, R. 27, Mille Lacs County,
+Minnesota.
+
+No description of the ancient village has been preserved, but it
+undoubtedly resembled the settlements of other tribes living in the
+midst of the great forests. The structures were probably bark or mat
+covered, many of an oval form quite similar to those of the Ojibway, who
+later occupied the near-by sites on the shores of Mille Lac. And like
+the Ojibway, the Mdewakanton may have had more than one type of dwelling
+in the same village, or structures of different forms may have served
+different purposes.
+
+The shores of Mille Lac, one of the most beautiful sheets of water in
+Minnesota, abound in traces of the ancient settlements which stood
+generations or centuries ago. Near several of the sites are groups of a
+hundred or more burial mounds, all of which may be attributed to the
+Siouan tribes. One village, the site of which is marked by a large
+number of mounds, stood on the shore of the bay in the northwestern part
+of the lake, shown in the photograph reproduced in plate 20, _a_.
+
+The sacred or mysterious island, known as such to the Sioux and later to
+the Ojibway, is in the southern part of the lake, several miles from the
+south shore. It is a remarkable spot, one to be looked upon by the
+Indian as a place of mystery. So small that often it is not visible from
+the shore, it consists of a great quantity of blocks of granitic
+formation which are piled to a height of 20 feet or more upon a ledge
+which comes to within a foot or less of the surface of the lake. The
+island is about 250 feet in length from east to west, the width from
+north to south being about one-half the length. Some of the great blocks
+are 10 or 12 feet in length, 4 or 5 feet in thickness and width, and
+would weigh many tons. The ledge extends for a distance of about 150
+feet to the north and east of the island, covered by a foot or more of
+water. There is no soil on the island, no vegetation, and its only
+occupants are numbers of gulls. A photograph of this most interesting
+spot, made by the writer May 20, 1900, is reproduced as plate 20, _b_.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 20
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Northwest shore of Mille Lac, 1900. Site of an
+ancient Sioux settlement]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ The Sacred Island in the southern part of Mille Lac.
+May, 1900]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 21
+
+[Illustration: "KAPOSIA, JUNE 19TH, 1851"
+
+F. B. Mayer]
+
+According to the stories of the old Ojibway who were still living on the
+shore of Mille Lac during the spring of 1900, the Mdewakanton were
+driven from that region about the middle of the eighteenth century,
+and moving southward settled along the banks of the Mississippi.
+Descendants of these were occupying well-known villages on the
+Mississippi and Minnesota during the summer of 1823, when Major Long and
+his party ascended the rivers from Prairie du Chien.
+
+Before leaving Prairie du Chien to discover the course of the Minnesota,
+or St. Peters, as it was then designated, the members of the expedition
+were divided into two groups, one to go overland to the mouth of the St.
+Peters, the other to convey the supplies by boat to that point. Both
+parties visited the principal villages on the way. First following the
+route of those who went overland, on June 26, 1823, they encountered a
+village of five lodges, evidently on the Iowa River, in the present
+Winneshiek County, Iowa. Two days later, June 28, they arrived at the
+more important village of Wapasha, in the present Wabasha County,
+Minnesota, and as told in the narrative: "Whatever might be the reveries
+in which the party were indulging, they were soon recalled to the dull
+realities of travelling, by the howling and barking of a band of dogs,
+that announced their approach to an Indian village consisting of twenty
+fixed lodges and cabins. It is controlled by Wa-pa-sha, an Indian chief
+of considerable distinction. In his language, (Dacota,) his name
+signifies _the red leaf_. A number of young men fantastically decorated
+with many and variously coloured feathers, and their faces as oddly
+painted, advanced to greet the party. One of them, the son of the chief,
+was remarkable for the gaudiness and display of his dress, which from
+its showy appearance imparted to his character foppishness.... The chief
+is about fifty years of age, but appears older.... His disposition to
+the Americans has generally been a friendly one." (Keating, (1), I, pp.
+249-250.) Hennepin's reception by the ancestors of the same people, in
+their ancient village near Mille Lac, about a century and a half
+earlier, may have been quite similar to this accorded the members of the
+Long expedition in 1823.
+
+On the evening of June 30 the party going by land arrived "at an Indian
+village, which is under the direction of Shakea, (_the man that paints
+himself red_;) the village has retained the appellation of Redwing,
+(_aile rouge_,) by which the chief was formerly distinguished." This was
+on the site of the present Red Wing, Goodhue County, Minnesota. There
+the party remained overnight, and on the following morning, July 1,
+1823, the boat bearing the supplies belonging to the expedition, on its
+way from Prairie du Chien to Fort St. Anthony, reached the village, and
+"The whole party being again united, the chief invited them to his
+lodge, with a view to have a formal conversation with them.... As a
+compliment to the party, the United States' flag was hoisted over his
+cabin, and a deputation of some of his warriors waited at our encampment
+to invite us to his lodge. We were received in due ceremony; the chief
+and his son, Tatunkamane, (the walking buffalo,) were seated next to the
+entrance. We took our stations near them, on the same bed-frame, while
+his warriors seated themselves on the frame opposite to us." This was
+followed by handshaking, and the smoking of the pipe of peace. (Op.
+cit., pp. 251-252.) The two parties again separated and those passing
+overland arrived at the fort the following evening.
+
+The boat party, ascending the Mississippi, arrived at "Wapasha's
+village" on June 29, soon after the departure of the others who were
+going overland. They left Redwing early in the afternoon of July 1, and
+on the following day passed the St. Croix. Continuing, they "passed an
+Indian village consisting of ten or twelve huts, situated at a handsome
+turn on the river, about ten miles below the mouth of the St. Peter; the
+village is generally known by the name of the _Petit Corbeau_, or Little
+Raven, which was the appellation of the father and grandfather of the
+present chief.... As the village was abandoned for the season, we
+proceeded without stopping. The houses which we saw here were
+differently constructed from those which we had previously observed.
+They are formed by upright flattened posts, implanted in the ground,
+without any interval except here and there some small loopholes for
+defence; these posts support the roof, which presents a surface of bark.
+Before and behind each hut, there is a scaffold used for the purpose of
+drying maize, pumpkins, &c." Late in the same day they arrived at the
+fort. (Keating, (1), I, pp. 288-289.) Whether the method of constructing
+lodges by forming the walls of upright posts or logs was of native
+conception or was derived from the French is now difficult to determine.
+In referring to the customs prevailing in the Mississippi Valley,
+particularly the French portions, about the year 1810, Brackenridge
+said: "In building their houses, the logs, instead of being laid
+horizontally, as ours, are placed in a perpendicular position, the
+interstices closed with earth or stone, as with us." (Brackenridge, (1),
+p. 119.) The old courthouse at St. Louis was built after this method.
+Again, among some tribes along the eastern slopes of the Rocky
+Mountains, as will be told on another page, were to have been found
+small, well-protected lodges formed of upright poles, and in this
+instance there is no reason to suspect European influence. Therefore it
+is not possible to say definitely whether the structures standing on the
+banks of the Mississippi during the summer of 1823 were of a primitive,
+native form, or if they represented the influence of the early French
+who had penetrated the region many years before.
+
+Just three years before the Long expedition passed up the Mississippi
+and prepared the preceding descriptions of the Sioux settlements
+Schoolcraft went down the river, and in his journal are to be found
+brief references to the same villages. To quote from the journal, August
+2, 1820: "Four miles below Carver's cave, we landed at the village of Le
+Petit Corbeau, or the Little Raven. Here is a Sioux band of twelve
+lodges, and consisting of about two hundred souls, who plant corn upon
+the adjoining plain, and cultivate the cucumber, and pumpkin. They
+sallied from their lodges on seeing us approach, and gathering upon the
+bank of the river fired a kind of _feu-de-joie_, and manifested the
+utmost satisfaction on our landing.... We were conducted into his cabin
+which is spacious, being about sixty feet in length by thirty in
+width--built in a permanent manner of logs, and covered with bark."
+(Schoolcraft, (2), pp. 317-318.) The following day at noon the party
+arrived "at the Sioux village of Talangamane, or the Red wing, which is
+handsomely situated on the west banks of the river, six miles above Lake
+Pepin. It consists of four large, and several small lodges, built of
+logs in the manner of the little Raven's village. Talangamane is now
+considered the first chief of his nation.... Very few of his people were
+at home, being engaged in hunting or fishing. We observed several fine
+corn fields near the village, but they subsist chiefly by taking
+sturgeon in the neighbouring lake, and by hunting the deer. The buffalo
+is also occasionally killed, but they are obliged to go two days journey
+west of the Mississippi, before this animal is found in plenty. We
+observed several buffalo skins which were undergoing the Indian process
+of tanning." (Op. cit., p. 323.) The third settlement was reached during
+the afternoon of August 4, 1820, at which time, to quote from the
+journal, "we made a short halt at the Sioux village of Wabashaw, which
+is eligibly situated on the west bank of the Mississippi, sixty miles
+below Lake Pepin. It consists of four large lodges, with a population
+of, probably, sixty souls. A present of tobacco and whiskey was given,
+and we again embarked at twenty minutes before five o'clock." (Op, cit.,
+p. 334.) The question now arises, Were the various structures seen by
+Schoolcraft, those "built in a permanent manner of logs," constructed of
+"upright flattened posts," as mentioned in the Long narrative? If so, it
+is evident similar habitations were reared by the Foxes and were
+encountered by Schoolcraft at the Fox village standing on the left bank
+of the Mississippi, below the mouth of the Wisconsin, August 6, 1820.
+However, the statements are rather vague, and the various dwellings may
+have been quite similar to the bark houses more clearly described in
+later narratives. But it is beyond question that some of the structures
+were strongly built, and Long on July 16, 1817, wrote: "Passed a Sioux
+village on our right containing fourteen cabins. The name of the chief
+is the Petit Corbeau, or Little Raven.... One of their cabins is
+furnished with loop holes, and is situated so near the water that the
+opposite side of the river is within musket-shot range from the
+building.... The cabins are a kind of stockade buildings, and of a
+better appearance than any Indian dwellings I have before met with."
+(Long, (1), p. 31.)
+
+One of the most interesting accounts of the villages just mentioned is
+contained in the journal of a traveler who visited them in 1849, the
+year the Territory of Minnesota was created. On May 16 of that year he
+"passed Wapasha's Prairie ... a beautiful prairie in Minnesota, about
+nine miles long and three miles wide, occupied by the chief Wapasha (or
+Red-Leaf) and his band of Sioux, whose bark lodges are seen at the upper
+end of the prairie." (Seymour, (1), p. 75.) And later in the day, after
+leaving Lake Pepin, "an Indian village, called Red Wing, inhabited by a
+tribe of Sioux is seen on the Minnesota shore. It appears to contain
+about one dozen bark lodges, and half as many conical lodges, covered
+with buffalo skins; also, a log or frame house, occupied by a
+missionary. Indian children were seen running, in frolicsome mood, over
+the green prairie, and Indian females were paddling their canoes along
+the shore. This village is near the mouth of Cannon River." On the
+following day, May 17, 1849, Seymour passed the village of Kaposia,
+occupied by the chief Little Crow, or Little Raven. It stood on the west
+bank of the river about 5 miles below the then small town of St. Paul.
+The Indian village at that time consisted of about 40 lodges, having a
+population of some 300. A few days later he went to the village, and
+regarding the visit wrote: "During the time I visited them, the Indians
+were living in skin lodges, such as they use during the winter, and when
+traveling. These are formed of long, slender poles, stuck in the ground,
+in a circle of about eight feet in diameter, and united at the top, and
+covered with the raw hide of the buffalo, having the hair scraped off.
+They are in the form of a cone, and can be distinguished from those of
+the Winnebagos and other Indians as far as they can be seen. During the
+summer they live in bark houses, which are more spacious, and when seen
+from a distance, resemble, in form and appearance, the log cabins of the
+whites. When passing in sight of the village, a few days afterward, I
+noticed that they had removed their skin lodges, and erected their bark
+houses. The population of this village, as I before remarked, is from
+250 to 300 souls." He entered one of the small skin-covered lodges. "An
+iron kettle, suspended in the center, over a fire, forms the principal
+cooking utensil. Blankets spread around on the ground, were used as
+seats and beds." (Op. cit., pp. 137-138.) A cemetery, with its scaffold
+burials, stood on the bluffs in the rear of the village. There is reason
+to believe these were the first skin-covered tipis encountered by Seymour
+while ascending the Mississippi.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 22
+
+[Illustration: _a._ "Dakotah Village." Seth Eastman]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ "Dakotah Encampment." Seth Eastman]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 23
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Council at the mouth of the Teton. George Catlin]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Page of Kurz's Sketchbook, showing Fort Pierre and
+the Indian encampment, July 4, 1851]
+
+It will be noticed that in the preceding description of Kaposia no
+mention is made of log structures, such as were alluded to by Long and
+Schoolcraft. Only the typical bark house and the conical skin-covered
+tipi were seen by Seymour. Fortunately a most valuable and interesting
+picture of the village, as it appeared on June 19, 1851, is preserved
+and is now reproduced in plate 21. Both forms of habitations are shown,
+and in the distance, on the left, are indicated the scaffold burials
+standing on the bluffs in the rear of the settlement. On the extreme
+right is the prow of a canoe, evidently on the immediate bank of the
+Mississippi. Having this remarkable sketch, it is gratifying to find a
+brief description of the two forms of lodges, and also to know that the
+notes may have referred to Kaposia in particular. It tells that "the
+lodges are from eight to fifteen feet in diameter, about ten to fifteen
+feet high and made of buffalo-skins tanned. Elk skins are used for this
+purpose also. The summer house is built of wood, or perches set upright,
+twenty or thirty feet long, by fifteen or twenty wide. The perches are
+set in the ground about one foot, and are about six feet out of the
+ground. Over this is put a roof of elm bark. They are very comfortable
+for summer use. The lodge of skin lasts three or four years; the lodge
+of wood seven or eight years." (Prescott, (1), p. 67.)
+
+The bark houses, which resembled "the log cabins of the whites," were
+shown by Capt. Eastman in one of his paintings. It was used as an
+illustration by Schoolcraft, and is here reproduced as plate 22, _a_. It
+is less interesting than the sketch of Kaposia, but in many respects the
+two are quite similar.
+
+Several bark houses of the form just mentioned stood on the shore of
+Mille Lac, forming part of the Ojibway village visited in 1900, and
+similar to these were the "winter habitations," occasionally erected by
+the Menominee, as mentioned and figured by Hoffman as plate xviii in his
+work on that tribe. (Hoffman, (1), p. 255.) It is rather curious that
+these should be described as "winter habitations" among that Algonquian
+tribe, and as being occupied during the summer by the Siouan people. As
+a matter of fact this strong distinction may not have existed. The use
+of this type of house by the Foxes has already been mentioned. Whether
+these may be regarded as representing a purely aboriginal form of
+structure is not easily determined, but they will at once recall the
+unit of the long communal dwellings of the Iroquois. The slanting roof,
+the flat front and back, and the upright walls, all covered with large
+sheets of bark, were the same.
+
+Again returning to the narrative of the Long expedition. Early in July,
+1823, the party having rested at the mouth of the Minnesota, or St.
+Peters River, began ascending that stream. Having advanced a short
+distance they arrived at the village of Taoapa, better known as
+"Shakopee's Village," from the name of the chief of this band of the
+Mdewakanton. It stood in the present Scott County, Minnesota, and in the
+summer of 1823 "consisted of fifteen large bark lodges, in good order;
+they were arranged along the river. Some of them were large enough to
+hold from thirty to fifty persons, accommodated as the Indians usually
+are in their lodges. The ground near it is neatly laid out, and some
+fine corn-fields were observed in the vicinity. There were scaffolds
+annexed to the houses, for the purpose of drying maize, etc.; upon these
+we were told that the Indians sleep during very hot nights." Near the
+village were seen various scaffold burials, while "In the midst of the
+corn-fields a dog was suspended, his head decorated with feathers, and
+with horse-hair stained red; it was probably a sacrifice for the
+protection of the corn-fields during the absence of the Indians." Six
+miles above the village was Little Prairie. (Keating, (1), pp. 329-330.)
+Quite likely the structures at this village were similar to those
+described above, which resembled in outline the log cabins of the white
+settlers.
+
+WAHPETON.
+
+The Wahpeton, "dwellers among leaves," constitute one of the seven great
+divisions of the Dakota, and to quote from the Handbook: "Historic and
+linguistic evidence proves the affinity of this tribe with the Sisseton,
+Wahpekute, and Mdewakanton. Hennepin (1680) mentions them as living in
+the vicinity of Mille Lac, Minn., near the Mdewakanton, Sisseton, and
+Teton. On his map they are placed a little to the N. E. of the lake."
+While living in the seclusion of the vast forests which surrounded the
+great lakes of central Minnesota, the villages of the Wahpeton were
+probably formed of groups of bark or mat covered structures so typical
+of the region at a later day. Gradually they left the timbered regions,
+and about the first years of the last century were living near the mouth
+of the Minnesota River. Thence they appear to have moved up the stream,
+and during the summer of 1823 were encountered by the Long expedition in
+the vicinity of Big Stone Lake, in the present Lac qui Parle County,
+Minnesota. The account of the meeting with the Indians on the prairie,
+and later of their visit to the village, by the members of the
+expedition, is most interesting. On July 21, 1823, "While traveling over
+the prairie which borders upon this part of the St. Peter, that connects
+Lake qui Parle with Big Stone Lake, our attention was aroused by the
+sight of what appeared to be buffaloes chased across the prairie. They,
+however, soon proved to be Indians; their number, at first limited to
+two, gradually increased to near one hundred; they were seen rising from
+every part of the prairie, and after those in advance had reconnoitered
+us, and made signals that we were friends, by discharging their guns,
+they all came running towards us, and in a few minutes we found
+ourselves surrounded by a numerous band.... Some of them were mounted on
+horseback, and were constantly drumming upon the sides of their horses
+with their heels, being destitute both of whip and spur. Many of them
+came and shook hands with us, while the rest were riding all round us in
+different directions. They belonged, as we were told, to the Wahkpatoan,
+[Wahpeton] one of the tribes of the Dacotas.... As we rode towards their
+lodges, we were met by a large party of squaws and children, who formed
+a very motly group.... The village, to which they directed us, consisted
+of thirty skin lodges, situated on a fine meadow on the bank of the
+lake. Their permanent residence, or at least that which they have
+occupied as such for the last five years, is on a rocky island, (Big
+Island), in the lake, nearly opposite to, and within a quarter of a mile
+of, their present encampment. Upon the island they cultivate their
+cornfields, secure against the aggressions of their enemies. They had
+been lately engaged in hunting buffalo, apparently with much success.
+The principal man led us to his lodge, wherein a number of the
+influential men were admitted, the women being excluded; but we observed
+that they, with the children, went about the lodge, peeping through all
+the crevices, and not unfrequently raising the skins to observe our
+motion. They soon brought in a couple of large wooden dishes, filled
+with pounded buffalo meat boiled, and covered with the marrow of the
+same animal; of this we partook with great delight." This was followed
+by another feast, in a near-by tent, and still a third where a dog had
+been killed and prepared, "which is considered not only as the greatest
+delicacy, but also as a sacred animal, of which they eat only on great
+occasions." The party did not remain long at the village, but continued
+on up the lake shore, and soon encountered on a bluff "two Indian
+lodges, in one of which was Tatanka Wechacheta, (the buffalo man,) an
+Indian who claims the command of the Wahkpatoans." Later in the day the
+party returned to these lodges, where "the chief, and his principal men,
+were in waiting. We entered the skin lodge, and were seated on fine
+buffalo robes, spread all round; on the fire, which was in the centre of
+the lodge, two large iron kettles, filled with choicest pieces of
+buffalo, were placed.... Our hosts were gratified and flattered at the
+quantity which we ate; the residue of the feast was sent to our
+soldiers. In this, and every other instance where we have been invited
+to a feast by Indians, we observed that they never eat with their
+guests." (Keating, (1), I, pp. 367-373.)
+
+The village of skin-covered tipis standing on the shore of the lake, as
+seen by members of the expedition on that July day nearly a century ago,
+must have resembled the painting later made by Capt. Eastman, which is
+reproduced in plate 22, _b_, taken from Schoolcraft. In the painting the
+tipis are undoubtedly too closely placed, but otherwise they are quite
+accurately shown. This illustration as used in Schoolcraft bears the
+legend "Dakotah Encampment."
+
+YANKTONAI.
+
+Like other divisions of the Dakota, the Yanktonai formerly lived in the
+thickly timbered region surrounding the headwaters of the Mississippi,
+in the central portion of the present State of Minnesota, and, like
+them, moved southward and westward until they reached the plains and the
+habitat of the buffalo. Although in their earlier home they undoubtedly
+reared the mat-covered structures, nevertheless when they reached the
+open country they constructed the conical skin lodge.
+
+During the latter part of July, 1823, the Long expedition reached a
+village of this tribe then standing in the vicinity of Lake Traverse, in
+the present Traverse County, Minnesota. In the narrative of the
+expedition very little is said regarding the appearance of the
+encampment, which may not have offered any peculiar features, but much
+was said concerning the dress and ways of the inhabitants. In part the
+narrative states: "The principal interest which we experienced in the
+neighbourhood of Lake Traverse, was from an acquaintance with Wanotan,
+(the Charger,) the most distinguished chief of the Yanktoanan tribe,
+which, as we were informed, is subdivided into six bands. He is one of
+the greatest men of the Dacota nation, and although but twenty-eight
+years of age, he has already acquired great renown as a warrior." As the
+party neared the establishment of the Columbia Fur Company, on the
+border of the lake, "a salute was fired from a number of Indian tents
+which were pitched in the vicinity, from the largest of which the
+American colours were flying. And as soon as we had dismounted from our
+horses, we received an invitation to a feast which Wanotan had prepared
+for us." Three dogs had been killed and prepared for the great occasion.
+"We repaired to a sort of pavilion which they had erected by the union
+of several large skin lodges. Fine Buffalo robes were spread all around,
+and the air was perfumed by the odour of sweet scenting grass which had
+been burned in it. On entering the lodge we saw the chief seated near
+the further end of it, and one of his principal men pointed out to us
+the place which was destined for our accommodation; it was at the upper
+end of the lodge." (Keating, (1), I, pp. 429-432.)
+
+Arranging the skin covers of several large tipis in such a way as to
+form a single shelter, to serve as a ceremonial "lodge," was the custom
+of many tribes, and other instances will be mentioned. But another and
+more elaborate form of structure was used by the tribes just mentioned.
+In 1858, when describing certain customs of the people then living along
+the course of the Minnesota and in the vicinity of Lake Traverse, Riggs
+referred to the sacred dance and said: "Among the Dakotas a most
+remarkable society exists which is called _Wakan wachepe_, or Sacred
+Dance, of which the medicine sack is the badge. It may be regarded as
+the depository and guardian of whatever they esteem as _wakan_, or
+sacred." He then related the contents of the bag and the meaning of the
+ceremony, and continues: "A large skin lodge is usually occupied as the
+center of operations, the door of which is made wide by throwing up the
+corners. From this, on each hand, extends a kind of railing, some thirty
+or forty feet, on which skins are thrown. The entrance is at the farther
+end. All around the inside of this sanctum sanctorum and along the
+extended sides sit those who are called to the dance. Beyond this and
+near the place of entrance is a fire, with great kettles hanging over
+it, which are filled with dried buffalo meat or other food; and near by
+lay several packs or bags of the same, which are consecrated to the
+feast. The whole village are gathered around and are looking over or
+peeping through the holes in the barricades." Much was then told about
+the strange and curious ceremonies enacted within the lodge. (Riggs,
+(1), pp. 505-506.)
+
+Leaving the encampment in the vicinity of the post of the Columbia Fur
+Company, the Long expedition moved northward, and when just beyond Lake
+Traverse, while traversing the prairies on July 27, 1823, "passed a
+party of squaws engaged in conveying to their camp some slices of fresh
+meat to jerk; their fellow labourers were dogs. Each of the dogs had the
+ends of two poles crossed and fastened over the shoulders, with a piece
+of hide underneath to prevent chafing. The other extremities dragged on
+the ground. This sort of vehicle was secured to the animal by a string
+passing round the breast, and another under the abdomen; transverse
+sticks, the ends of which were fastened in the poles, kept these at a
+proper distance, and supported the meat. This seems to be the only mode
+of harnessing dogs, practised among the Sioux; we believe, they never
+use them in teams, as is customary with the traders." (Keating, (1), II,
+pp. 9-10.)
+
+The expedition soon arrived at Pembina, near the international boundary,
+where it would appear they found the two characteristic forms of native
+habitations in use by the Indians. A drawing was at that time made by
+Seymour and used as an illustration in the narrative, showing the "two
+different kind of lodges used by the northwest Indians," the first being
+the skin lodge of the prairie tribes, and "of this nature are all the
+lodges used by the Dacotas;" the second were the bark-covered structures
+of the Ojibway, "who for the most part live to the north-east of the
+buffalo regions." To this latter class must have belonged the
+habitations of the Siouan tribes before they were forced from their
+early homes among the forests and lakes to the eastward.
+
+When referring to the two characteristic forms of habitations it will be
+of interest to quote from the writings of one who traversed the country
+more than a century and a half ago, when all was in its primitive
+condition, but, like many writers of that period, he failed to give
+details which at the present time would prove of the greatest value. He
+wrote: "The Indians, in general, pay a greater attention to their dress
+and to the ornaments with which they decorate their persons, than to the
+accommodation of their huts or tents. They construct the latter in the
+following simple and expeditious manner.
+
+"Being provided with poles of a proper length, they fasten two of them
+across, near their ends, with bands made of bark. Having done this, they
+raise them up, and extend the bottom of each as wide as they purpose to
+make the area of the tent: they then erect others of an equal height,
+and fix them so as to support the two principal ones. On the whole they
+lay skins of the elk or deer, sewed together, in quantity sufficient to
+cover the poles, and by lapping over to form the door. A great number of
+skins are sometimes required for this purpose, as some of their tents
+are very capacious. That of the chief warrior of the Naudowessies was at
+least forty feet in circumference, and very commodious.
+
+"They observe no regularity in fixing their tents when they encamp, but
+place them just as it suits their conveniency.
+
+"The huts also, which those who use no tents erect when they travel,
+for very few tribes have fixed abodes or regular towns or villages, are
+equally simple, and almost as soon constructed.
+
+"They fix small pliable poles in the ground, by bending them till they
+meet at the top and form a semi-circle, then lash them together. These
+they cover with mats made of rushes platted, or with birch bark, which
+they carry with them in their canoes for this purpose.
+
+"These cabins have neither chimnies nor windows; there is only a small
+aperture left in the middle of the roofs through which the smoke is
+discharged, but as this is obliged to be stopped up when it rains or
+snows violently, the smoke then proves exceedingly troublesome.
+
+"They lie on skins, generally those of the bear, which are placed in
+rows on the ground; and if the floor is not large enough to contain
+beds sufficient for the accommodation of the whole family, a frame is
+erected about four or five feet from the ground, in which the younger
+part of it sleep." (Carver, (1), pp. 152-154.) Though lacking much in
+detail, nevertheless the preceding notes are of historical interest and
+value, describing as they do the primitive habitations which were reared
+and occupied by the native tribes living in the upper Mississippi Valley
+about the middle of the eighteenth century. Skins of the elk and deer
+were evidently used as coverings for the conical tipi, which seems to
+prove the lack of a sufficient number of buffalo skins to serve the
+purpose, although farther west, beyond the timbered country, where
+buffalo were more easily obtained, their skins were made use of and
+covered the shelters of tribes by whom they were hunted.
+
+YANKTON.
+
+When the expedition under the leadership of General Atkinson ascended
+the Missouri, during the summer of 1825, he wrote regarding the Yankton:
+"The Yanctons are a band of the Sioux, and rove in the plains north of
+the Missouri, from near the Great Bend, down as far as the Sioux river.
+They do not cultivate, but live by the chase alone, subsisting
+principally upon buffalo. They cover themselves with leather tents, or
+lodges, which they move about from place to place, as the buffalo may
+chance to range. They are pretty well supplied with fusees, and with
+horses, and a few mules. They are estimated at 3,000 souls, of which 600
+are warriors. They are comfortably habited in frocks, or shirts of
+dressed skins, and leggings, reaching to the waist, of the same; they
+use besides, robes of buffalo skins, which are frequently beautifully
+wrought with porcupine quills, or painted tastefully; are friendly to
+the whites, but make war upon almost all other tribes, except those of
+their own nation. Their trading ground is on the river Jaques."
+(Atkinson, (1), pp. 8-9.) On June 17 the party arrived at Fort Lookout,
+a post of the American Fur Company, and four days later, "on the 21st,
+the Tetons, Yanctons, and Yanctonies, three distinct bands of the Sioux
+Nation, having arrived, a council was opened, and, on the 22d, a treaty
+concluded with them." This great gathering of the tribes, with their
+numerous skin-covered tipis, would have presented a sight similar to
+that witnessed and described by Catlin just seven years later, in the
+vicinity of Fort Pierre.
+
+An excellent description of the skin-covered tipi of the Sioux, but of
+the structures of the Yankton in particular, is contained in
+Maximilian's narrative. Writing on May 25, 1833, he said the "Sioux
+Agency, or, as it is now usually called, Fort Lookout, is a square, of
+about sixty paces, surrounded by pickets, twenty or thirty feet high,
+made of squared trunks of trees placed close to each other, within which
+the dwellings are built close to the palisades.... About ten leather
+tents or huts of the Sioux, of the branch of the Yanktons or Yanktoans,
+were set up near the fort.... All these Dacotas of the Missouri, as well
+as most of those of the Mississippi, are only hunters, and, in their
+excursions, always live in portable leather tents.... The tents of the
+Sioux are high pointed cones, made of strong poles, covered with buffalo
+skins, closely sewed together. These skins are scraped on both sides, so
+that they become as transparent as parchment, and give free admission to
+the light. At the top, where the poles meet, or cross each other, there
+is an opening, to let out the smoke, which they endeavor to close by a
+piece of the skin covering of the tent, fixed to a separate pole
+standing upright, and fastened to the upper part of the covering on the
+side from which the wind blows. The door is a slit, in the front of the
+tent, which is generally closed by another piece of buffalo hide,
+stretched upon a frame. A small fire is kept up in the centre of the
+tent. Poles are stuck in the ground, near the tent, and utensils of
+various kinds are suspended from them. There are, likewise, stages, on
+which to hang the newly-tanned hides; others, with gaily-painted
+parchment pouches and bags, on some of which they hang their bows,
+arrows, quivers, leather shields, spears, and war clubs.
+
+"We paid a visit to Wahktageli in his tent, and had some difficulty in
+creeping into the narrow, low entrance, after pulling aside the skin
+that covered it. The inside of this tent was light, and it was about ten
+paces in diameter. Buffalo skins were spread on the ground, upon which
+we sat down. Between us and the side of the tent were a variety of
+articles, such as pouches, boxes, saddles, arms, &c. A relation of the
+chief was employed in making arrows, which were finished very neatly,
+and with great care. Wahktageli immediately, with much gravity, handed
+the tobacco-pipe round, and seemed to inhale the precious smoke with
+great delight.... The conversation was carried on by Cephier, the
+interpreter kept by the Agency, who accompanied us on this visit.... The
+owner of a neighbouring tent had killed a large elk, the skin of which
+the women were then busily employed in dressing. They had stretched it
+out, by means of leather straps, on the ground near the tent, and the
+women were scraping off the particles of flesh and fat with a very
+well-contrived instrument. It is made of bone, sharpened at one end, and
+furnished with little teeth like a saw, and, at the other end, a strap,
+which is fastened round the wrist." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 148-152.) A
+drawing by Bodmer, reproduced by Maximilian on page 151 of the work
+cited, is here shown as figure 2. It represents a small group of tipis,
+of the type mentioned in the narrative, and on the right, in the rear,
+is a tripod with what appears to be a shield suspended from it. The bone
+implement mentioned as being used by the women to remove particles of
+flesh from the skin of the recently killed elk belonged to a well-known
+type which was extensively used throughout the region. It was formed of
+the large bones of the leg of the buffalo, elk, or moose. Many old
+examples are preserved in the National Museum, Washington.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Tipis.]
+
+When dealing with the agents of the Government the Yankton would gather
+on the plains around Fort Pierre. Just 20 years after Maximilian's visit
+to the upper Missouri a small party passed down the river, and on
+October 18, 1853, entered in their journal: "We reached Fort Pierre
+about 12 o'clock m.... Two days before our arrival at this place, the
+main body of the Yankton Sioux, in number some twenty-five hundred, had
+left for the buffalo country. They have been here to receive their
+presents from the government. Two more bands are expected in a few
+days." (Saxton, (1), p. 267.) And some days later, while continuing down
+the Missouri: "The prairies are burning in every direction, and the
+smoke is almost stifling."
+
+TETON.
+
+The Teton, moving westward from their early habitat to the east and
+north of the Minnesota, were encountered on the banks of the Missouri by
+Captains Lewis and Clark when they ascended the river, during the early
+autumn of 1804. On September 26 of that year the expedition reached the
+mouth of Teton River (the present Bad River), which enters the Missouri
+from the west at Pierre, Stanley County, South Dakota. Here stood the
+great village of the Teton, concerning which Sergeant Gass gave a very
+interesting account in his journal: "We remained here all day. Capt.
+Lewis, myself and some of the men, went over to the Indian camp. Their
+lodges are about eighty in number, and contain about ten persons each;
+the greater part women and children. The women were employed in dressing
+buffaloe skins, for clothing for themselves and for covering their
+lodges. They are the most friendly people I ever saw; but will pilfer if
+they have an opportunity. They are also very dirty: the water they make
+use of, is carried in the paunches of the animals they kill, just as
+they are emptied, without being cleaned.... About 3 o'clock we went
+aboard the boat accompanied with the old chief and his little son. In
+the evening captain Clarke and some of the men went over, and the
+Indians made preparations for a dance. At dark it commenced. Captain
+Lewis, myself and some of our party went up to see them perform. Their
+band of music, or orchestra, was composed of about twelve persons
+beating on a buffalo hide, and shaking small bags that made a rattling
+noise. They had a large fire in the centre of their camp; on one side
+the women, about 80 in number, formed a solid column round the fire,
+with sticks in their hands, and the scalps of the Mahas they had killed,
+tied on them. They kept moving, or jumping round the fire, rising and
+falling on both feet at once; keeping a continual noise, singing and
+yelling. In this manner they continued till 1 o'clock at night, when we
+returned to the boat with two of the chiefs." (Gass, (1), pp. 45-46.)
+
+In the journal of the expedition is a very full account of the events
+which transpired during the two days spent at the Teton camp, but only
+part will now be quoted, sufficient to describe the place of meeting:
+"Captain Lewis went on shore and remained several hours, and observing
+that their disposition was friendly we resolved to remain during the
+night to a dance, which they were preparing for us. Captains Lewis and
+Clark, who went on shore one after the other, were met on landing by ten
+well dressed young men, who took them up in a robe highly decorated and
+carried them to a large council house, where they were placed on a
+dressed buffaloe skin by the side of the grand chief. The hall or
+council-room was in the shape of three quarters of a circle, covered at
+the top and sides with skins well dressed and sewed together. Under this
+shelter sat about seventy men, forming a circle round the chief, before
+whom were placed a Spanish flag and the one we had given them yesterday.
+This left a vacant circle of about six feet diameter, in which the pipe
+of peace was raised on two forked sticks, about six or eight inches
+from the ground, and under it the down of the swan was scattered: a
+large fire, in which they were cooking provisions, stood near, and in
+the centre about four hundred pounds of excellent buffaloe meat as a
+present for us." Then followed several addresses by the chiefs;
+offerings of dog meat to the flag "by way of sacrifice," and the smoking
+of the pipe of peace. (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 84-86.) The entire
+ceremony proved of the greatest interest. Then followed an account of
+the habitations standing in the village: "Their lodges are very neatly
+constructed, in the same form as those of the Yanktons; they consist of
+about one hundred cabins, made of white buffaloe hide dressed, with a
+larger one in the centre for holding councils and dances. They are built
+round with poles about fifteen or twenty feet high, covered with white
+skins; these lodges may be taken to pieces, packed up, and carried with
+the nation wherever they go, by dogs which bear great burdens. The women
+are chiefly employed in dressing buffaloe skins: they seem perfectly
+well disposed, but are addicted to stealing any thing which they can
+take without being observed." (Op. cit., pp. 88-89.)
+
+During the year 1832 George Catlin remained for some time at and near
+the mouth of the Teton, where a few years before had been erected a
+station of the American Fur Company, which was soon given the name Fort
+Pierre. "The country about this Fort is almost entirely prairie,
+producing along the banks of the river and streams only, slight
+skirtings of timber.... On my way up the river I made a painting of this
+lovely spot, taken from the summit of the bluffs, a mile or two distant,
+showing an encampment of Sioux, of six hundred tents of skin lodges,
+around the Fort, where they had concentrated to make their spring trade;
+exchanging their furs and peltries for articles and luxuries of
+civilized manufactures." (Catlin, (1), I, p. 209.) And he continued (p.
+211): "I mentioned that this is the nucleus or place of concentration of
+the numerous tribe of the Sioux, who often congregate here in great
+masses to make their trades with the American Fur Company; and that on
+my way up the river, some months since, I found here encamped, six
+hundred families of Sioux, living in tents covered with buffalo hides.
+Amongst these there were twenty or more of the different bands, each one
+with their chief at their head, over whom was a _superior chief_ and
+leader, a middle-aged man, of middling stature, with a noble
+countenance.... The name of this chief is Ha-won-je-tah (the one horn)
+of the Mee-ne-cow-e-gee band, who has risen rapidly to the highest
+honours in the tribe."
+
+About this time a "grand feast" was prepared by the Indians in honor of
+the Indian agent and the several Americans who were then at Fort Pierre,
+including Catlin. A sketch of the gathering is shown in plate 23, _a_,
+after the illustration in Catlin's narrative, but it may be of interest
+to know that the original painting is now in the National Museum,
+Washington. Describing this scene, Catlin wrote:
+
+"The two chiefs, Ha-wan-je-tah and Tchan-dee ... brought their two tents
+together, forming the two into a semi-circle, enclosing a space
+sufficiently large to accommodate 150 men; and sat down with that number
+of the principal chiefs and warriors of the Sioux nation." The several
+Americans were "placed on elevated seats in the centre of the crescent;
+while the rest of the company all sat upon the ground, and mostly
+cross-legged, preparatory to the feast being dealt out. In the centre of
+the semi-circle was erected a flag-staff, on which was waving a white
+flag, and to which also was tied the calumet, both expressive of their
+friendly feelings towards us. Near the foot of the flag-staff were
+placed in a row on the ground, six or eight kettles, with iron covers on
+them, shutting them tight, in which were prepared the viands for our
+_voluptuous_ feast. Near the kettles, and on the ground also, bottomside
+upwards, were a number of wooden bowls, in which the meat was to be
+served out. And in front, two or three men, who were there placed as
+waiters, to light the pipes for smoking, and also to deal out the food."
+(Op. cit., p. 228.) The account of the ceremony which soon followed
+proves the gathering to have been one of much interest, and to the
+Indians one of great moment. The arrangement of the two large tipis so
+as to form a single shelter recalls the site of the gathering near the
+shore of Lake Traverse only a few years before. It is to be regretted
+that Catlin did not leave a more detailed description of the appearance
+of the great encampment as it was at the time of his visit, but he
+devoted much of his time to painting portraits of the Indians, of which
+he prepared a large number.
+
+Although Catlin found representatives of many bands of Sioux gathered
+about on the plain surrounding Fort Pierre, nevertheless the
+comparatively permanent village of the Teton was near the mouth of the
+stream of that name. Maximilian, who ascended the Missouri during the
+spring of 1833, arrived at Fort Pierre late in May, and in his journal
+said: "The Sioux, who live on Teton River, near Fort Pierre, are mostly
+of the branch of the Tetons; though there are some Yanktons here."
+(Maximilian, (1), p. 150.) He elsewhere mentioned that "the tents are
+generally composed of fourteen skins," therefore consider the great
+number of buffalo required to furnish coverings for the lodges mentioned
+by Catlin. Maximilian wrote on May 30, 1833, near Fort Pierre: "Round an
+isolated tree in the prairie I observed a circle of holes in the ground,
+in which thick poles had stood. A number of buffalo skulls were piled up
+there; and we were told that this was a medicine, or charm, contrived
+by the Indians in order to entice the herds of buffaloes. Everywhere in
+the plain we saw circles of clods of earth, with a small circular ditch,
+where the tents of many Indians had stood." (Op. cit., p. 157.) These
+were evidently the remains of the encampment seen by Catlin the
+preceding year.
+
+A sketch of Fort Pierre as it appeared July 4, 1851, is given in plate
+23, _b_. This was the work of the young Swiss artist, Friedrich Kurz,
+and is now reproduced for the first time. The small groups of Indians,
+the tipis standing near the fort, and the rolling prairie in the
+distance are all graphically shown.
+
+The several divisions of the Teton performed the sun dance, at which
+time a large ceremonial lodge would be erected, which stood alone in the
+camp circle, formed of the numerous skin tipis. The lodge as reared at
+different times and by the various tribes varied in form and method of
+construction, but it seems to have been the custom of all the tribes to
+abandon the structure at the termination of the ceremonies. It was
+regarded as a sacred place and one not to be destroyed by man. Large
+structures of this sort were often encountered by parties traversing the
+plains and adjacent regions, and one, probably erected by a tribe of the
+Teton, was discovered by the Raynolds party, July 16, 1859, in the
+extreme eastern part of the present Crook County, Wyoming. In the
+journal of the expedition it was written on that day, "We have not yet
+met any Indians, nor any indications of their recent presence. The site
+of our camp is, however, marked by the remains of an immense Indian
+lodge, the frame of which consists of large poles, over thirty feet in
+length. Close by is also a high post, around which a perfect circle of
+buffalo skulls has been arranged." (Raynolds, (1), p. 31.) This may have
+been used during the preceding year, at which time the skin tipis of the
+people enacting the sacred ceremonies were pitched in the form of a
+circle with the great lodge standing in the center. But with the
+completion of the annual dance the participants removed, with their skin
+tipis, to other localities, allowing the sacred structure to be
+destroyed by the elements.
+
+OGLALA.
+
+Of the early history of this, the principal division of the Teton,
+nothing is known. During the first years of the last century they were
+discovered by Lewis and Clark on the banks of the upper Missouri, south
+of the Cheyenne River, in the present Stanley County, South Dakota. They
+hunted and roamed over a wide region, and by the middle of the century
+occupied the country between the Forks of the Platte and beyond to the
+Black Hills. While living on the banks of the Missouri their villages
+undoubtedly resembled the skin-covered tipi settlements of the other
+kindred tribes, and later, when they had pushed farther into the prairie
+country, there was probably no change in the appearance of their
+structures. A very interesting account of the villages of this tribe,
+with reference to their ways of life, after they had arrived on the
+banks of the Platte, is to be found in the narrative of Stansbury's
+expedition, during the years 1849 and 1850.
+
+July 2, 1849, the expedition crossed the South Fork of the Platte,
+evidently at some point in the western part of the present Keith County,
+Nebraska, and on the following day "crossed the ridge between the North
+and South Forks of the Platte, a distance of eighteen and a half miles."
+On July 5 the expedition began moving up the right bank of the North
+Fork, and after advancing 23 miles encamped on the bank of the river.
+They had arrived in the region dominated by the Oglala. "Just above us,
+was a village of Sioux, consisting of ten lodges. They were accompanied
+by Mr. Badeau, a trader; and having been driven from the South Fork by
+the cholera, had fled to the emigrant-road, in the hope of obtaining
+medical aid from the whites. As soon as it was dark, the chief and a
+dozen of the braves of the village came and sat down in a semicircle
+around the front of my tent, and, by means of an interpreter, informed
+me that they would be very glad of a little coffee, sugar, or biscuit. I
+gave them what we could spare." This particular band had not suffered
+very severely from the ailment, but were greatly heartened to receive
+medicines from the doctor, or "medicine-man," of the expedition, and
+when they returned to their village "the sound of the drum and the song,
+expressive of the revival of hope, which had almost departed, resounded
+from the 'medicine lodge,' and continued until a late hour of the
+night." (Stansbury, (1), pp. 44-45.) During this visit some of the
+Indians told of a larger camp about 2 miles distant, where many were ill
+with the dreaded malady.
+
+The following morning, July 6, 1849, the expedition resumed its advance
+up the valley, and soon reached the "upper village," of which an
+interesting account is given in the journal. It "contained about two
+hundred and fifty souls. They were in the act of breaking up their
+encampment, being obliged to move farther up the river to obtain fresh
+grass for their animals. A more curious, animated, and novel scene I
+never witnessed. Squaws, papooses, dogs, puppies, mules, and ponies, all
+in busy motion, while the lordly, lazy men lounged about with an air of
+listless indifference, too proud to render the slightest aid to their
+faithful drudges. Before the lodge of each brave was erected a tripod of
+thin slender poles about ten feet in length, upon which was suspended
+his round white shield, with some device painted upon it, his spear, and
+a buckskin sack containing his 'medicine' bag.... We continued our
+journey, accompanied for several miles by the people of both villages.
+The whole scene was unique in the highest degree. The road was strewn
+for miles with the most motley assemblage I ever beheld, each lodge
+moving off from the village as soon as its inhabitants were ready,
+without waiting for the others. The means of transportation were horses,
+mules, and dogs. Four or five lodge-poles are fastened on each side of
+the animal, the ends of which trail on the ground behind, like the
+shafts of a truck or dray. On these, behind the horse, is fastened a
+light framework, the outside of which consists of a strong hoop bent
+into an oval form, and interlaced with a sort of network of rawhide.
+Most of these are surmounted by a light wicker canopy, very like our
+covers for children's wagons, except that it extends the whole length
+and is open only at one side. Over the canopy is spread a blanket,
+shawl, or buffalo-robe, so as to form a protection from the sun or rain.
+Upon this light but strong trellice-work, they place the lighter
+articles, such as clothing, robes, &c., and then pack away among these
+their puppies and papooses, (of both which they seem to have a goodly
+number;) the women, when tired of walking, get upon them to rest and
+take care of their babies.... The dogs also are made to perform an
+important part in this shifting of quarters. Two short, light
+lodge-poles are fastened together at the small end, and made to rest at
+the angle upon the animal's back, the other end of course, trailing upon
+the ground. Over his shoulders is placed a sort of pad, or small saddle,
+the girth of which fastens the poles to his sides, and connects with a
+little collar or breast-strap. Behind the dog, a small platform or frame
+is fastened to the poles, similar to that used for the horses, upon
+which are placed lighter articles, generally puppies, which are
+considered quite valuable, being raised for beasts of burden as well as
+for food and the chase.... The whole duty of taking down and putting up
+the lodges, packing up, loading the horses, arranging the lodge-poles,
+and leading or driving the animals, devolves upon the squaws, while the
+men stalk along at their leisure; even the boys of larger growth deeming
+it beneath their dignity to lighten the toils of their own mothers."
+(Op. cit., pp. 45-47.)
+
+From the preceding account of the movement of a village of the Oglala it
+is quite apparent they did not advance in the orderly manner followed by
+the Pawnee, as described by Murray in 1835, but the dreaded illness from
+which many were then suffering may have caused the rather demoralized
+condition of the band. The travois as used at that time was similar to
+the example shown in plate 14, although the latter was in use by the
+Cheyenne a generation later. But the frame was not always utilized, and
+often the tipi, folded and rolled, with other possessions of the family,
+rested upon the poles or upon the back of the horse.
+
+Horses thus laden, and with trailing poles on either side, left a very
+distinctive trail as they crossed the prairie, and as described: "The
+trail of the Plain Indians consists usually of three paths, close
+together, yet at fixed distances apart. They are produced as follows:
+The framework of their lodges or tents are made of long poles which, on
+a journey, are tied to each side of a pony, and allowed to trail upon
+the ground. The result is that a long string of ponies, thus laden and
+following each other, will wear a triple path--the central one being
+caused by the tread of the ponies, the two outer by the trailing of the
+lodge-poles." (Bell, (1), pp. 25-26.) An illustration of a horse so
+loaded is given on page 26 and is here reproduced as figure 3. It bears
+the legend "Sioux Indian Lodges or Tents; one packed for a journey, the
+other standing," and, although crude, conveys a clear conception of the
+subject.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Horse travois.]
+
+To continue the narrative of the Stansbury expedition. The party
+advanced up the river and pursued their journey to the Great Salt Lake
+and there wintered. The following year they returned to the east and on
+September 21, 1850, reached the left bank of the North Fork of the
+Platte, at a point near the center of the present Carbon County,
+Wyoming. Describing the site of their encampment that night, near the
+bank of the Platte: "The place we now occupy has long been a favorite
+camp-ground for the numerous war-parties which annually meet in this
+region to hunt buffalo and one another. Remains of old Indian stockades
+are met with scattered about among the thickets; and the guide informed
+us, that four years since there were at one and the same time, upon this
+one bottom, fifteen or twenty of these forts, constructed by different
+tribes. Most of them have since been destroyed by fire. As this was the
+season of the year when we might expect to find them upon their
+expeditions, we were on the _qui vive_, lest we should be surprised."
+They remained in camp the following day, Sunday, and that evening
+entered in the journal: "Several herds of buffalo were seen during the
+day."
+
+The morning of the 23d was warm and cloudy, and the party soon after
+leaving their camp forded the river "on a ripple, with a depth of
+eighteen inches." The water was clear, with a pebbly bottom. That this
+location was frequented by Indians was again indicated by the discovery
+of another great group of "forts," as told in the narrative:
+"Immediately above where we crossed, were about twenty Indian forts, or
+lodges constructed of logs set up endwise, somewhat in the form of an
+ordinary skin lodge, which had been erected among the timber by
+different war-parties: they appeared to be very strong, and were
+ball-proof." (Stansbury, (1), pp. 243-246.) These strongly constructed
+lodges will at once recall the rather similar structures which stood at
+some of the Siouan villages, on the Mississippi below the mouth of the
+Minnesota, during the early years of the last century.
+
+On September 27, when about midway across the present Albany County,
+Wyoming, the expedition encountered a large number of Indians belonging
+to a village a short distance beyond. These proved to be the Oglala, and
+during the following day the village was visited by Stansbury, who wrote
+in the journal: "This village was the largest and by far the
+best-looking of any I had ever seen. It consisted of nearly one hundred
+lodges, most of which were entirely new, pitched upon the level prairie
+which borders on the verdant banks of the Laramie. No regular order
+seemed to be observed in their position, but each builder appeared to
+have selected the site for his habitation according to his own fancy.
+
+"We rode at once to the lodge of the chief, which was painted in broad
+horizontal stripes of alternate black and white, and, on the side
+opposite to the entrance, was ornamented with large black crosses on a
+white ground. We found the old fellow sitting on the floor of his lodge,
+and his squaw busily engaged over a few coals, endeavouring to fry, or
+rather boil, in a pan nearly filled with grease, some very
+suspicious-looking lumps of dough, made doubtless from the flour they
+had received from us yesterday.... After some further conversation,
+another chief, named the 'Iron Heart,' rose up and invited us to a
+feast at his lodge: we accordingly accompanied him, and found him
+occupying the largest and most complete structure in the village,
+although I was assured that the Sioux frequently make them much larger.
+It was intended to be used whenever required, for the accommodation of
+any casual trader that might come among them for the purpose of traffic,
+and was accordingly called 'The Trader's Lodge.' It was made of
+twenty-six buffalo-hides, perfectly new, and white as snow, which, being
+sewed together without a wrinkle, were stretched over twenty-four new
+poles, and formed a conical tent of thirty feet diameter upon the
+ground, and thirty-five feet in height." This must have been a
+magnificent example of the tipi of the plains tribes, and is one of the
+largest of which any record has been preserved.
+
+Moving in a southeastwardly direction from the great village, they
+passed many mounted Indians killing buffalo, and later in the day passed
+another Oglala village of some 50 lodges, moving southward. The surface
+of the prairie for many miles was strewn with the remains of buffalo,
+which had been killed by the Indians and from which only choice pieces
+had been removed. (Op. cit., pp. 254-257.) They were now ascending the
+western slopes of the Black Hills, and approaching the region dominated
+by the Cheyenne, and two days later, September 29, 1850, were a short
+distance south of a village of the latter tribe.
+
+The region just mentioned, the southeastern part of Wyoming, was
+traversed by a missionary who, July 24, 1835, encountered a party of 30
+or 40 mounted Indians. "They were Ogallallahs, headed by eight of their
+chiefs, clad in their war habiliments, and presenting somewhat of a
+terrific appearance.... They told us their whole village was only a few
+hours' travel ahead of us, going to the Black Hills for the purpose of
+trading." Late the following day the party overtook the Indians,
+"consisting of more than two thousand persons. These villages are not
+stationary, but move from place to place, as inclination or convenience
+may dictate. Their lodges are comfortable, and easily transported. They
+are constructed of eight or ten poles about eighteen feet long, set up
+in a circular form, the small ends fastened together, making an apex,
+and the large ends are spread out so as to enclose an area of about
+twenty feet in diameter. The whole is covered with their coarse skins,
+which are elk, or buffalo, taken when they are not good for robes. A
+fire is made in the centre, a hole being left in the top of the lodge
+for the smoke to pass out. All that they have for household furniture,
+clothing, and skins for beds, is deposited around according to their
+ideas of propriety and convenience. Generally not more than one family
+occupies a lodge." (Parker, (1), pp. 66-67.)
+
+Fort Laramie was reached by the Stansbury expedition on July 12, 1849,
+after advancing about 100 miles beyond the Oglala villages passed six
+days before. The fort stood on the emigrant road, and was likewise a
+great gathering place of the neighboring Indians. An interesting account
+of the visit of a party of emigrants just four years before is
+preserved: "Our camp is stationary to-day; part of the emigrants are
+shoeing their horses and oxen; others are trading at the fort and with
+the Indians.... In the afternoon we gave the Indians a feast, and held a
+long _talk_ with them. Each family, as they could best spare it,
+contributed a portion of bread, meat, coffee or sugar, which being
+cooked, a table was set by spreading buffalo skins upon the ground, and
+arranging the provisions upon them. Around this attractive board, the
+Indian chiefs and their principal men seated themselves, occupying one
+fourth of the circle; the remainder of the male Indians made out the
+semi-circle; the rest of the circle was completed by the whites. The
+squaws and younger Indians formed an outer semi-circular row immediately
+behind their dusky lords and fathers." (Palmer, (1), pp. 25-26.) This
+was June 25, 1845, and the account of the gathering of emigrants and
+Indians is followed by a brief description of the fort itself which is
+of equal interest; "Here are two forts. Fort Laramie, situated upon the
+west side of Laramie's fork, two miles from Platte river, belongs to the
+North American Fur Company. The fort is built of _adobes_. The walls are
+about two feet thick, and twelve or fourteen feet high, the tops being
+picketed or spiked. Posts are planted in these walls, and support the
+timber for the roof. They are then covered with mud. In the centre is an
+open square, perhaps twenty-five yards each way, along the sides of
+which are ranged the dwellings, store rooms, smith shop, carpenter's
+shop, offices, &c., all fronting upon the inner area. There are two
+principal entrances; one at the north, the other at the south." (Op.
+cit., pp. 27-28.) Outside the fort proper, on the eastern side, stood
+the stables, and a short distance away was a field of about 4 acres
+where corn was planted, "by way of experiment." About 1 mile distant was
+a similar though smaller structure called Fort John. It was then owned
+and occupied by a company from St. Louis, but a few months later it was
+purchased by the North American Fur Company and destroyed. Such were the
+typical "forts," on and beyond the frontier during the past century.
+
+The Indians would gather about the fort, their skin tipis standing in
+clusters over the surrounding prairie. Such groups are shown in plate
+24, _a_, _b_. These two very interesting photographs were made during
+the visit of the Indian Peace Commission to Fort Laramie in 1868, and it
+is highly probable the tipis shown in the pictures were occupied by
+some of the Indians with whom the commissioners treated.
+
+The Black Hills lay north and west of the region then occupied by the
+Oglala, and although it is known that the broken country was often
+visited and frequented by parties of Indians in quest of poles for their
+tipis, yet it seems doubtful if any permanent settlements ever stood
+within the region. Dodge, in discussing this question, said:
+
+"My opinion is, that the Black Hills have never been a permanent home
+for any Indians. Even now small parties go a little way into the Hills
+to cut spruce lodge-poles, but all the signs indicate that these are
+mere sojourns of the most temporary character.
+
+"The 'teepe,' or lodge, may be regarded as the Indian's house, the
+wickup as his tent. One is his permanent residence, the other the
+make-shift shelter for a night. Except in one single spot, near the head
+of Castle Creek, I saw nowhere any evidence whatever of a lodge having
+been set up, while old wickups were not unfrequent in the edge of the
+Hills. There is not one single teepe or lodge-pole trail, from side to
+side of the Hills, in any direction, and these poles, when dragged in
+the usual way by ponies, soon make a trail as difficult to obliterate as
+a wagon road, visible for many years, even though not used." (Dodge,
+(1), pp. 136-137.)
+
+Col. R. I. Dodge, from whose work the preceding quotation has been made,
+was in command of the military escort which formed part of the
+expedition into the Black Hills during the summer of 1875. The traces of
+the lodges which had stood near the head of Castle Creek, as mentioned
+in 1875, undoubtedly marked the position of the small encampment
+encountered by the Ludlow party the previous year. In the journal of
+that expedition, dated July 26, 1874, is to be found this brief mention:
+"In the afternoon occurred the first rencontre with Indians. A village
+of seven lodges, containing twenty-seven souls, was found in the valley.
+The men were away peacefully engaged in hunting; the squaws in camp
+drying meat, cooking, and other camp avocations. Red Cloud's daughter
+was the wife of the head-man, whose name was One Stab. General Custer
+was desirous they should remain and introduce us to the hills, but the
+presence among our scouts of a party of Rees, with whom the Sioux wage
+constant war, rendered them very uneasy, and toward night-fall,
+abandoning their camp, they made the escape. Old One Stab was at
+headquarters when the flight was discovered, and retained both as guide
+and hostage.... The high limestone ridges surrounding the camp had
+weathered into castellated forms of considerable grandeur and beauty and
+suggested the name of Castle Valley." (Ludlow, (1), p. 13.) Red Cloud,
+whose daughter is mentioned above, was one of the greatest chiefs and
+warriors of the Oglala; born in 1822 near the forks of the Platte, and
+lived until December, 1909.
+
+Although there may never have been any large permanent camps within the
+Black Hills district, nevertheless it is quite evident the region was
+frequented and traversed by bands of Indians, who left well-defined
+trails. Such were discovered by an expedition in 1875, and after
+referring to small trees which had been bent down by the weight of snow
+the narrative continued: "The snow must be sometimes deep enough to hide
+trails and landmarks, as the main Indian trails leading through the
+Hills were marked by stones placed in the forks of the trees or by one
+or more sets of blazes, the oldest almost overgrown by the bark."
+(Newton and Jenney, (1), p. 302.) And in the same work (p. 323), when
+treating of the timber of the Hills, it was said: "The small slender
+spruce-trees are much sought after by the Indians, who visit the Hills
+in the spring for the purpose of procuring them for lodge-poles."
+
+In another work Dodge described the customs of the tribes with whom he
+had been in close contact for many years. The book is illustrated with
+engravings made from original drawings by the French artist Griset, and
+one sketch shows a few Indians, several tipis, and frames from which are
+hanging quantities of buffalo meat in the process of being dried.
+(Dodge, (2), p. 353.) This suggests the scene at Red Cloud's camp. The
+original drawing is now reproduced as plate 1, the frontispiece.
+
+ASSINIBOIN.
+
+The Assiniboin were, until comparatively recent times, a part of the
+Yanktonai, from whom they may have separated while living in the forest
+region of the northern section of the present State of Minnesota.
+Leaving the parent stock, they joined the Cree, then living to the
+northward, with whom they remained in close alliance. Gradually they
+moved to the valleys of the Saskatchewan and Assiniboin Rivers and here
+were encountered by Alexander Henry in 1775. Interesting though brief
+notes on the structures of the Assiniboin as they appeared in 1775 and
+1776 are contained in the narrative of Henry's travels through the great
+northern country. In 1775, when west of Lake Winnipeg, Henry wrote: "At
+eighty leagues above Fort de Bourbon, at the head of a stream which
+falls into the Sascatchiwaine, and into which we had turned, we found
+the Pasquayah village. It consisted of thirty families, lodged in tents
+of a circular form, and composed of dressed ox-skins, stretched upon
+poles twelve feet in length, and leaning against a stake driven into the
+ground in the centre. On our arrival, the chief, named Chatique, or the
+Pelican, came down upon the beach, attended by thirty followers, all
+armed with bows and arrows and with spears." (Henry, (1), pp.
+256-257.) Fort de Bourbon stood at the northwest corner of Lake
+Winnipeg, and the Assiniboin village of Pasquayah was on the present
+Carrot River, which flows parallel with the Saskatchewan before joining
+the larger stream. This was in the eastern part of the province of
+Saskatchewan.
+
+Early the following year Henry made a visit to an Assiniboin village, to
+reach which he crossed many miles of the frozen wilderness. He was
+accompanied by a party of Indians and the short account of the journey
+contains much of interest. They left Fort des Prairies, "built on the
+margin of the Pasquayah, or Sascatchiwaine," February 5, 1776, and, as
+is recorded in the journal, "At noon, we crossed a small river, called
+Moose-river, flowing at the feet of very lofty banks. Moose-river is
+said to fall into Lake Dauphin. Beyond this stream, the wood grows still
+more scanty, and the land more and more level. Our course was southerly.
+The snow lay four feet deep. The Indians travelled swiftly; and, in
+keeping pace with them, my companions and myself had too much exercise,
+to suffer from the coldness of the atmosphere; but, our snow-shoes being
+of a broader make than those of the Indians, we had much fatigue in
+following their track. The women led, and we marched till sunset, when
+we reached a small coppice of wood, under the protection of which we
+encamped. The baggage of the Indians was drawn by dogs, who kept pace
+with the women, and appeared to be under their command. As soon as we
+halted, the women set up the tents, which were constructed, and covered,
+like those of the Cristinaux.
+
+"The tent, in which I slept, contained fourteen persons, each of whom
+lay with his feet to the fire, which was in the middle; but, the night
+was so cold, that even this precaution, with the assistance of our
+_buffalo-robes_ was insufficient to keep us warm. Our supper was made on
+the tongues of the wild ox, or buffalo, boiled in my kettle, which was
+the only one in the camp."
+
+On the morning of February 7, "I was still asleep, when the women began
+their noisy preparations for our march. The striking of the tents, the
+tongues of the women, and the cries of the dogs, were all heard at once.
+At the first dawn of day, we commenced our journey. Nothing was visible
+but the snow and sky; and the snow was drifted into ridges, resembling
+waves.
+
+"Soon after sunrise, we descried a herd of oxen, extending a mile and a
+half in length, and too numerous to be counted. They travelled, not one
+after another, as, in the snow, other animals usually do, but, in a
+broad phalanx, slowly, and sometimes stopping to feed."
+
+One week was required to reach their destination, and during the morning
+of the 12th of February the party arrived at a small wood, in which the
+Assiniboin village stood. And "at the entrance of the wood, we were met
+by a large band of Indians, having the appearance of a guard; each man
+being armed with his bow and spear, and having his quiver filled with
+arrows.... Forming themselves in regular file, on either side of us,
+they escorted us to the lodge, or tent, which was assigned us. It was of
+a circular form, covered with leather, and not less than twenty feet in
+diameter. On the ground within, ox-skins were spread, for beds and
+seats."
+
+Later, the same day of their arrival, they were invited to a feast in
+the tent of the chief. An Indian appeared. "We followed him accordingly,
+and he carried us to the tent of the great chief, which we found neither
+more ornamented, nor better furnished, than the rest." And another feast
+followed in the evening, "Every thing was nearly as before, except that
+in the morning all the guests were men, and now half were women. All the
+women were seated on one side of the floor of the tent, and all the men
+on the other, with a fire placed between them."
+
+The village consisted of about 200 tents, "each tent containing from two
+to four families." And here "I saw, for the first time, one of those
+herds of horses which the Osinipoilles possess in numbers. It was
+feeding on the skirts of the plain." (Henry, (1), pp. 275-289.) Such was
+a great Assiniboin village nearly a century and a half ago.
+
+The entire village was to return to Fort des Prairies, and so, on the
+morning of February 20, 1776, the tents were struck, and "Soon after
+sunrise, the march began. In the van were twenty-five soldiers, who were
+to beat the path, so that the dogs might walk. They were followed by
+about twenty men, apparently in readiness for contingent services; and
+after these went the women, each driving one or two, and some, five
+loaded dogs. The number of these animals, actually drawing loads,
+exceeded five hundred. After the baggage, marched the main body of men,
+carrying only their arms. The rear was guarded by about forty soldiers.
+The line of march certainly exceeded three miles in length." (Op. cit.,
+p. 309.)
+
+It is easy to visualize this great body of Indians passing over the
+frozen plain, camping at night under the scant protection of a small
+cluster of trees. The hundreds of dogs carrying the skin lodges of the
+villages, the men and women moving forward on snowshoes, undoubtedly
+stopping to kill buffalo and thus to obtain food for all. An exciting
+and animated scene it must have been, but only typical and
+characteristic, not unusual.
+
+The preceding description of the movement of an entire village suggests
+a passage in the journal of La Verendrye, treating of the same people a
+generation earlier. Late in the autumn of 1738 a small party of French,
+accompanied by a numerous band of Assiniboin, set out from the village
+of the latter to visit the Mandan, who lived many leagues distant. La
+Verendrye, the leader of the expedition, wrote: "I observed to M. de la
+Marque the good order in which the Assiniboins march to prevent
+surprise, marching always on the prairies, the hillsides and valleys
+from the first mountain, which did not make them fatigued by mounting
+and descending often in their march during the day. There are
+magnificent plains of three or four leagues. The march of the
+Assiniboins, especially when they are numerous, is in three columns,
+having skirmishers in front, with a good rear guard, the old and lame
+march in the middle, forming the central column.... If the skirmishers
+discovered herds of cattle on the road, as often happens, they raise a
+cry which is soon returned by the rear guard, and all the most active
+men in the columns join the vanguard to hem in the cattle, of which they
+secure a number, and each takes what flesh he wants. Since that stops
+the march, the vanguard marks out the encampment which is not to be
+passed; the women and dogs carry all the baggage, the men are burdened
+only with their arms; they make the dogs even carry wood to make the
+fires, being often obliged to encamp in the open prairie, from which the
+clumps of wood may be at a great distance." (La Verendrye, (1), p. 13.)
+
+The Assiniboin appear to have possessed a great fondness for visiting
+other tribes, and many narratives of journeys in the upper Missouri
+Valley contain references to meeting with such parties.
+
+The size of the Assiniboin camps was often mentioned by the early
+writers. Thus Tanner wrote: "When we came from the Little Saskawjawun
+into the Assinneboin river, we came to the rapids, where was a village
+of one hundred and fifty lodges of Assinneboins, and some Crees."
+(James, (2), p. 57.) This was a century ago, when the villages retained
+their primitive appearance, and so it is to be regretted that no
+detailed description was prepared of this large group of skin-covered
+tipis.
+
+The two associated tribes extended their wanderings to the southward,
+reaching the Missouri, a large gathering of the allies being encountered
+by Lewis and Clark at the Mandan towns in November, 1804. In their
+journal, on November 14, appears this entry: "The river rose last night
+half an inch, and is now filled with floating ice. This morning was
+cloudy with some snow: about seventy lodges of Assiniboins and some
+Knistenaux are at the Mandan village, and this being the day of adoption
+and exchange of property between them all, it is accompanied by a dance,
+which prevents our seeing more than two Indians to-day: these Knistenaux
+are a band of Chippeways whose language they speak; they live on the
+Assiniboin and Saskashawan rivers, and are about two hundred and forty
+men...." And on the following day: "The ceremony of yesterday seem to
+continue still, for we were not visited by a single Indian. The swan are
+still passing to the south." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, p. 127.)
+
+As will be recalled, the expedition under command of Lewis and Clark
+wintered near the Mandan towns, and on April 7, 1805, proceeded on their
+journey up the Missouri. On the 13th of April they arrived at a small
+creek which entered the Missouri about 20 miles above the mouth of the
+Little Missouri. They ascended the creek and at a distance of about
+1-1/2 miles reached a pond "which seemed to have been once the bed of
+the Missouri: near this lake were the remains of forty-three temporary
+lodges which seem to belong to the Assiniboins, who are now on the river
+of the same name." The following day, April 14, 1805, after advancing
+about 15 miles beyond the creek entered on the 13th, "we passed timbered
+low grounds and a small creek: in these low grounds are several
+uninhabited lodges built with the boughs of the elm, and the remains of
+two recent encampments, which from the hoops of small kegs found in them
+we judged could belong to Assiniboins only, as they are the only
+Missouri Indians who use spirituous liquors: of these they are so
+passionately fond that it forms their chief inducement to visit the
+British on the Assiniboin." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 185-186.)
+
+During the days following many Assiniboin camps were discovered.
+
+From these brief statements recorded in 1804 and 1805 it will be
+understood that when a large party of the Assiniboin moved, or when on a
+visit to another tribe, they carried with them their skin lodges, but
+when on a hunting trip they raised temporary shelters of brush and
+boughs, and the same custom was undoubtedly followed by war parties.
+
+Evidently the establishment in after years of posts of the American Fur
+Company at certain points along the course of the upper Missouri served
+to attract bands of the Assiniboin as well as representatives of other
+tribes. Several interesting accounts of the arrival of such parties at
+Fort Union, near the mouth of the Yellowstone, are preserved. Thus
+Maximilian wrote when at the fort, June 29, 1833: "The expected arrival
+of more Assiniboins was delayed; they do not willingly travel with their
+leather tents in wet weather, because their baggage then becomes very
+heavy.... On the 30th of June, at noon, a band of Indians had arrived,
+and twenty-five tents were set up near the fort. The women, who were
+short, and mostly stout, with faces painted red, soon finished this
+work, and dug up with their instruments the clods of turf, which they
+lay round the lower part of the hut. One of these tents, the dwelling of
+a chief, was distinguished from the rest. It was painted of the colour
+of yellow ochre, had a broad reddish-brown border below, and on each of
+its sides a large black bear was painted (something of a caricature it
+must be confessed), to the head of which, just above the nose, a piece
+of red cloth, that fluttered in the wind, was fastened, doubtless a
+medicine." Continuing, the narrative recorded the arrival of others.
+"Another band of Assiniboins appeared at a distance. To the west, along
+the wood by the river-side, the prairie was suddenly covered with red
+men, most of whom went singly, with their dogs drawing the loaded
+sledges. The warriors, about sixty in number, formed a close column....
+The whole column entered the fort, where they smoked, ate, and drank:
+and, meantime, forty-two tents were set up. The new camp had a very
+pretty appearance; the tents stood in a semicircle, and all the fires
+were smoking, while all around was life and activity." (Maximilian, (1),
+pp. 202-204.)
+
+A painting of the dwelling of the chief, with a broad border at the
+bottom, "and on each of its sides a large black bear," was made by
+Bodmer and reproduced by Maximilian. It is here shown in plate 24, _c._
+Several interesting details are represented in this graphic sketch. The
+dog travois is well shown, both the manner in which a dog appeared when
+the frame was attached, and the several pairs of poles with the small
+net-covered frames, standing together to the left of the principal tipi.
+
+The preceding quotation from Maximilian is suggestive of an entry in the
+journal of the Swiss artist Friedrich Kurz, made some years later. Kurz
+wrote while at Fort Union: "October 13, 1851. As we were weighing and
+hanging up dried meat, a lot of Assiniboins came to the fort with squaws
+and many horse and dog travois. As a whole these trading parties do not
+show much of interest, but there are always many details to be picked
+up, of great value to a painter." (Bushnell, (3), p. 15.) Kurz remained
+at Fort Union until April 19, 1852, when he descended the Missouri to
+St. Louis, and thence returned to his native city of Bern. While still
+at Fort Union on March 21, 1852, he made the sketch now reproduced in
+plate 25, _b_, which bears the legend, "Horse camp of the Assiniboins."
+It shows a group of skin-covered lodges in the midst of a grove of
+cottonwoods, and evidently the Missouri is in the distance on the right.
+At that time (1851-52), according to Kurz, the Assiniboin then living in
+the vicinity of Fort Union numbered 420 lodges, with 1,050 men, but
+"from 2-3000 Assiniboins live far above, near lake Winnibeg."
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 24
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Near Fort Laramie, 1868]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Near Fort Laramie, 1868]
+
+[Illustration: _c._ "A skin lodge of an Assiniboin chief." Karl Bodmer]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 25
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Assiniboin lodges "formed entirely of pine
+branches." Paul Kane, 1848]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ "Horse camp of the Assiniboins, March 21, 1852."
+Friedrich Kurz]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 26
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Tipi of Gi-he-ga, an Omaha chief. Photograph by W.
+H. Jackson, 1871]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Page of Kurz's Sketchbook]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 27
+
+[Illustration: "THE VILLAGE OF THE OMAHAS"
+
+Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871]
+
+The Assiniboin living in the far northwest had another and simpler form
+of temporary structure, as mentioned by Kane. He wrote, when arriving at
+Rocky Mountain Fort, a post of the Hudson's Bay Company, April 21, 1848:
+"This fort is beautifully situated on the banks of the Saskatchewan, in
+a small prairie, backed by the Rocky Mountains in the distance. In the
+vicinity was a camp of Assiniboine lodges, formed entirely of pine
+branches." (Kane, (1), p. 408.) The painting made by him showing the fort
+and lodges is reproduced in plate 25, _a_.
+
+DHEGIHA GROUP.
+
+Five tribes are considered as belonging to this group of the Siouan
+linguistic family: Omaha, Ponca, Quapaw, Osage, and Kansa. Distinct from
+the Dakota-Assiniboin tribes already mentioned, these undoubtedly some
+centuries ago lived in the central and upper Ohio valleys, whence they
+moved westward to and beyond the Mississippi. To these tribes may be
+attributed the great earthworks of the southern portion of Ohio and the
+adjacent regions bordering the Ohio River. To quote from the Handbook:
+"Hale and Dorsey concluded from a study of the languages and traditions
+that, in the westward migration of the Dhegiha from their seat on Ohio
+and Wabash rivers, after the separation, at least as early as 1500, of
+the Quapaw, who went down the Mississippi from the mouth of the Ohio,
+the Omaha branch moved up the great river, remaining awhile near the
+mouth of the Missouri while war and hunting parties explored the country
+to the northwest. The Osage remained on Osage River, and the Kansa
+continued up the Missouri, while the Omaha, still including the Ponca,
+crossed the latter stream and remained for a period in Iowa, ranging as
+far as the Pipestone quarry at the present Pipestone, Minnesota."
+
+While living in the heavily timbered valleys reaching to the Ohio the
+several tribes now being considered unquestionably occupied villages
+consisting of groups of mat-covered lodges of the type erected by the
+Osage and Quapaw until the present time. But with the Omaha, Ponca, and
+Kansa, it was different, and when they reached the intermediate region,
+where forest and prairie joined, they were compelled to adopt a new form
+of structure, one suited to the natural environments, and thus they
+began to make use of the earth-covered lodge, and the conical skin tipi,
+with certain variations in form. The characteristic structures of the
+five tribes will now be briefly described, beginning with those of the
+Omaha.
+
+OMAHA.
+
+When Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri in 1804 they found the Omaha
+village not far from the Missouri, in the present Dakota County,
+Nebraska. On the 13th of August the expedition reached the mouth of a
+creek entering the right bank of the Missouri. Just beyond they encamped
+on a sandbar, "opposite the lower point of a large island." From here
+Sergeant Ordway and four men were sent to the Omaha village and returned
+the following day. "After crossing a prairie covered with high grass,
+they reached the Maha creek, along which they proceeded to its three
+forks, which join near the village: they crossed the north branch and
+went along the south; the walk was very fatiguing, as they were forced
+to break their way through grass, sunflowers, and thistles, all above
+ten feet high, and interspersed with wild pea. Five miles from our camp
+they reached the position of the ancient Maha village: it had once
+consisted of three hundred cabins, but was burnt about four years ago,
+soon after the smallpox had destroyed four hundred men, and a proportion
+of women and children. On a hill, in the rear of the village, are the
+graves of the nation." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 44-45.)
+
+Seven years after Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri the traveler
+Bradbury visited the Omaha village standing on or near the site of the
+one mentioned in the earlier narrative. May 12, 1811, while away from
+the boat and traversing the country in search of botanical specimens, he
+arrived on the summit of the bluffs, and, to quote from his journal: "I
+had a fine view of the town below. It had a singular appearance; the
+framework of the lodges consists of ten or twelve long poles, placed in
+the periphery of a circle of about sixteen feet in diameter, and are
+inclined towards each other, so as to cross at a little more than half
+their length from the bottom; and the tops diverging with the same
+angle, exhibit the appearance of one cone inverted on the apex of
+another. The lower cone is covered with dressed buffalo skins, sewed
+together, and fancifully painted; some with an undulating red or yellow
+band of ten or twelve inches in breadth, surrounding the lodge at half
+its height; on others, rude figures of horses, buffaloes, or deer were
+painted; others again with attempts at the human face, in a circle, as
+the moon is sometimes painted; these were not less than four feet in
+diameter. I judged there were not fewer than eighty lodges. I did not
+remain long on the summit of the bluffs, as I perceived, from the heaps
+of earth, some of these recent, that it was a burial ground, and I knew
+the veneration they have for the graves of their ancestors." (Bradbury,
+(1), pp. 65-67.)
+
+It is interesting to read of the number of decorated lodges then
+standing in an Omaha village, but in later years fewer structures were
+so ornamented. A typical example of a tipi of half a century ago is
+shown in plate 26, _a_, from a photograph made by Jackson in 1871.
+
+According to the best authorities on the Omaha, from whose monographs
+much of the following information has been gleaned, the earth lodge and
+the skin tipi are the only forms of habitations made use of by the
+Omaha in recent generations. The earth lodge resembled those of other
+tribes of the upper Missouri, and among the Omaha the work of erecting
+such a structure was shared in by both man and woman.
+
+"The marking out of the site and the cutting of the heavy logs were done
+by the men. When the location was chosen, a stick was thrust in the spot
+where the fireplace was to be, one end of a rawhide rope was fastened to
+the stick and a circle 20 to 60 feet in diameter was drawn on the earth
+to mark where the wall was to be erected. The sod within the circle was
+removed, the ground excavated about a foot in depth, and the earth
+thrown around the circle like an embankment. Small crotched posts about
+10 feet high were set 8 or 10 feet apart and 1-1/2 feet within the
+circle, and on these were laid beams. Outside this frame split posts
+were set close together, having one end braced against the bottom of the
+bank and the other end leaning against the beams, thus forming a wall of
+timber. The opening generally, though not always, faced the east. Midway
+between the central fireplace and the wall were planted 4 to 8 large
+crotched posts about 10 feet in height, on which heavy beams rested,
+these serving to support the roof. This was made of long, slender,
+tapering trees stripped of their bark. These were tied at their large
+ends with cords (made from the inner bark of the linden) to the beams at
+the top of the stockade and at the middle to those resting in the
+crotches of the large posts forming the inner circle about the
+fireplace. The slender ends were cut so as to form the circular opening
+for the smoke, the edges being woven together with elm twine, so as to
+be firm. Outside the woodwork of the walls and roof, branches of willow
+were laid crosswise and bound tight to each slab and pole. Over the
+willows a heavy thatch of coarse grass was arranged so as to shed water.
+On the grass was placed a thick coating of sod. The sods were cut to lap
+and be laid like shingles. Finally they were tamped with earth and made
+impervious to rain. The entrance way, 6 to 10 feet long, projected from
+the door and was built in the same manner as the lodge and formed a part
+of it. A curtain of skin hung at the inner and one at the outer door of
+this entrance way. Much labor was expended on the floor of the lodge.
+The loose earth was carefully removed and the ground then tamped. It was
+next flooded with water, after which dried grass was spread over it and
+set on fire. Then the ground was tamped once again. This wetting and
+heating was repeated two or three times, until the floor became hard and
+level and could be easily swept and kept clean. Brooms were made of
+brush or twigs tied together. Couches were arranged around the wall in
+the spaces between the posts of the framework. These were provided with
+skins and pillows, and served as seats by day and as beds by night. In
+the building of an earth lodge the cutting and putting on of the sods
+was always done by women, and as this part of the task had to be
+accomplished rapidly to prevent the drying out of the sods, which must
+hold well together, kindred helped one another. The erection of this
+class of dwelling required considerable labor, hence only the
+industrious and thrifty possessed these lodges." (Fletcher and La
+Flesche, (1), pp. 97-98.)
+
+Although the earth-covered lodge, as just described, was used in the
+permanent villages, nevertheless in the same villages were to have been
+seen many of the conical skin tipis. Both types of habitation were
+standing at the Omaha village in 1871 when the photograph, now
+reproduced in plate 27, was made by W. H. Jackson.
+
+Near each earth lodge, "generally to the left of the entrance, the cache
+was built. This consisted of a hole in the ground about 8 feet deep,
+rounded at the bottom and sides, provided with a neck just large enough
+to admit the body of a person. The whole was lined with split posts, to
+which was tied an inner lining of bunches of dried grass. The opening
+was protected by grass, over which sod was placed. In these caches the
+winter supply of food was stored; the shelled corn was put into skin
+bags, long strings of corn on the cob were made by braiding the outer
+husks, while the jerked meat was packed in parfleche cases. Pelts,
+regalia, and extra clothing were generally kept in the cache; but these
+were laid in ornamented parfleche cases, never used but for this
+purpose." (Op. cit., p. 98.)
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 28
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Page of Kurz's Sketchbook showing Omaha village, May
+20, 1851]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Page of Kurz's Sketchbook showing interior of an
+Omaha lodge, May 16, 1851]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 29
+
+[Illustration: "PUNKA INDIANS ENCAMPED ON THE BANKS OF THE MISSOURI"
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833]
+
+On pages 95 and 96 of the work just cited appears a very interesting
+description of the making and raising of a skin tipi. "Formerly the
+cover was made of 9 to 12 buffalo skins tanned on both sides. To cut and
+sew this cover so that it would fit well and be shapely when stretched
+over the circular framework of poles required skilful workmanship, the
+result of training and of accurate measurements.... The tent poles were
+14 to 16 feet long. Straight young cedar poles were preferred. The bark
+was removed and the poles were rubbed smooth. The setting up of a tent
+was always a woman's task. She first took four poles, laid them together
+on the ground, and then tied them firmly with a thong about 3 feet from
+one end. She then raised the poles and spread their free ends apart and
+thrust them firmly into the ground. These four tied poles formed the
+true framework of the tent. Other poles--10 to 20 in number, according
+to the size of the tent--were arranged in a circle, one end pressed well
+into the ground, the other end laid in the forks made by the tied ends
+of the four poles. There was a definite order in setting up the poles so
+that they would lock one another, and when they were all in place they
+constituted an elastic but firm frame, which could resist a fairly
+heavy wind." There was probably very little variation in the ways and
+customs of the different members of the tribe, and the tents of an
+entire village would have been raised after the same, long-established
+manner. But the structures in an Omaha village did not surround an open
+space, "nor were they set so the people could live in the order of their
+gentes, an order observed when they were on the hunt and during their
+tribal ceremonies. Yet each family knew to what gens it belonged,
+observed its rites, and obeyed strictly the rule of exogamy. To the
+outward appearance a village presented a motley group of tribesmen. The
+dwellings and their different corrals were huddled together; the
+passageways between the lodges were narrow and tortuous. There was
+little of the picturesque. The grass and weeds that grew over the earth
+lodges while the people were off on their summer buffalo hunt were all
+cut away when the tribe returned. So, except for the decorations on the
+skin tents, there was nothing to relieve the dun-colored aspect." (Op.
+cit., p. 99.) Such was the appearance of an Omaha village in the valley
+of the Missouri.
+
+In 1847 the Omaha erected a village on the banks of Papillon Creek, near
+the line between Sarpy and Douglas Counties, Nebraska. Four years later
+it was visited by Kurz during his journey up the Missouri. Kurz was
+camped near Council Bluffs, on the left bank of the Missouri. Opposite
+was Bellevue, the trading post of Peter A. Sarpy, and while at the
+latter place, May 16, 1851, Kurz entered in his journal: "In Bellevue I
+have drawn an Indian winter house made of earth, and also a Pawnee
+girl." And on May 20 he wrote: "Again crossed the river to Bellevue in
+order to visit the Omaha village some six miles distant; went over the
+bluffs, as being the shortest way, then crossed the high prairie ... to
+the _Papillon_ creek which partly surrounds the village of the Omahas.
+The village itself is built on a hill.... The camp or village is
+composed of leather tents and earth-covered lodges. Between the tents
+and lodges are scaffolds for drying meat and also an enclosure for the
+horses.... I walked into the village and watched a group of young men
+endeavoring to throw lances through rolling rings, the others being
+gathered on top the earth lodges, [pl. 26, _b_] as spectators."
+(Bushnell, (3), p. 11.) Sketches made by Kurz at that time are
+reproduced in plate 28. The interior of an earth lodge, drawn at
+Bellevue May 16, 1851, is shown in _b_; the couches extending along the
+wall are clearly indicated, also the fireplace in the center of the
+lodge, over which is hanging a hook for the suspension of a kettle. The
+village, which stood on the banks of Papillion Creek, is shown in the
+lower part of _a_, of the same plate. Both forms of dwellings are
+represented in the sketch; also the scaffolds for drying meat and other
+purposes, and several inclosures in which their horses were confined.
+
+On June 12 Kurz attended a sacred dance performed for the benefit of a
+wounded man. He referred to it in his journal as being given by the
+Buffalo Society, where all wore buffalo masks. It was held in a large
+earth lodge, and he was accompanied by the chief, Joseph La Flesche.
+
+The site of the small village mentioned by Kurz was identified a few
+years ago by Gilder, and some of the ruins were examined. It stood in
+the forks of the Papillion, about 4 miles in a direct line west of the
+Missouri. To quote from the brief narrative: "It was here the Omaha
+lived last before going on a reservation, and where they were visited by
+the Swiss artist, Kurz.... It was found that the ruins were quite
+shallow and had left but slight depressions, while others left small
+circular mounds above the surrounding level. The Rock Island Railroad
+has cut through the village, and at least one cache was exposed from top
+to bottom--about fifteen feet. In all instances the caches were outside
+the lodge sites.
+
+"The surface yielded fractured iron pots, delft or figured china of
+white man's manufacture, and rusty iron objects, besides flint scrapers
+and chips, potsherds, and the usual accumulations of a village prior to
+contact with white people. The writer cannot attribute the flint
+implements to the Omaha, but considers the favorable site on a plateau
+at the junction of two streams to have been used by another people long
+before the Omaha erected their lodges there." (Gilder, (1), p. 75.)
+
+Innumerable ruins of earth lodges were to have been found in the
+vicinity of the present city of Omaha, the great majority of which stood
+in early days before the arrival of Europeans in the valley of the
+Missouri, and it is not possible to say by which tribe the villages were
+erected. Many large ruins were discovered on Childs Point, in the
+extreme northeastern corner of Sarpy County, just south of Omaha, and
+some 4 miles northeast of the small village visited by Kurz. Some of the
+ruins were carefully examined by Gilder. One, which appears to have been
+considered as possessing the typical characteristics of the group, was
+described by Gilder, who wrote: "In all house ruins similar to the one
+here described, the main fireplace, four or five feet in diameter, is
+situated near the exact center. From this fireplace the floor extends,
+nearly flat, to within ten feet of the extreme outer edge or periphery
+of the ruin. Here a platform, or step, twelve to fourteen inches high
+and almost vertical, rose from the floor and sloped rather sharply to
+the outer rim.... Around the line of the inner circumference of the
+platform, at distances of approximately five feet, the remains of posts
+six or seven inches in diameter were discovered. These were either in
+the form of charcoal or of wood dust. Sometimes bowlders lay about the
+remains of the posts, as if designed to aid in holding them in position.
+The grain of the charcoal posts indicated the wood to have been oak.
+About the posts, under the floor, and also under the platform, objects
+were more numerous than at other points in the ruin. The charred remains
+of four posts about eight feet apart surrounded the central fireplace.
+There were two features of house construction that stand out
+conspicuously: (1) the floor was approximately six to eight feet lower
+than the level of the surrounding ridge; (2) the angle at which the
+slabs, logs, or paling probably leaned inward from the periphery seems
+to indicate the highest part of the roof at about the same distance
+above the surrounding level as the floor was below, making the highest
+part of the roof about fifteen feet above the fireplace in the center of
+the dwelling.... Little besides broken flint instruments, flint chips,
+shells, potsherds, and fractured drift bowlders were found upon the
+floor itself; the major number of objects was beneath the floor surface,
+very often covered with bowlders, as if the latter had been placed to
+mark the spot. Small fireplaces were of frequent occurrence on all parts
+of the floor.
+
+"Three caches were found in the first ruin.... In one, fifteen feet west
+of the center of the dwelling were found flint blades, a score of Unio
+shells, a mano or muller made from a rounded drift bowlder ... and a
+pottery pipe in form of a soaring bird.... The bottom of this cache was
+six feet from the surface. The second cache lay at the southeastern side
+of the ruin. Its bottom was eight feet from the surface of the ground.
+It contained thirty shells, several large flint blades, other large
+flint implements of unknown use ... animal bones, projectile points, and
+a small piece of galena. The third cache, in the northeastern part of
+the ruin, was the largest and deepest of the three, its bottom being
+nine feet and a half from the surface. On a small shelf, or niche, at
+its eastern side, two feet from the bottom, lay, a small image of a
+human face carved from pink soapstone, a number of animal bones and
+skulls, fish bones and scales, and Unio shells.
+
+"So many and varied were the objects found in the ruin, so abundant the
+charred sticks and grasses, that the impression is conveyed that the
+dwelling had been abandoned in haste and that it had burned to the
+ground." (Gilder, (1), pp. 58-61.) The objects discovered in this
+ancient ruin were truly varied, as the discoverer remarked, and likewise
+of the greatest interest, including specimens of stone, bone, and
+pottery, with bones of animals which had probably served as food. But
+how interesting it would be to know the date of the construction of this
+large lodge, and the tribe to which its occupants belonged--questions
+which may never be determined. However, it unquestionably belonged to
+people of a tribe who reared and occupied similar structures in the
+valley of the Missouri as late as the latter half of the nineteenth
+century.
+
+Other quite similar ruins a short distance north of the city of Omaha
+were examined by Gilder. Many objects of bone, stone, and pottery were
+discovered. Caches were encountered, and to quote from his account of
+the work: "The caches within the house sites are smaller in diameter
+near the top than at the bottom, the latter part flaring out somewhat in
+the manner of a large earthen pot. The bottom of the caches are rounded,
+and the walls are almost as hard as fired clay. In the very bottom of
+each cache was a quantity of dust, or earth as fine as dust (not compact
+as at other points), in which were found small arrowpoints, flint
+blades, shell beads, and flint flakes. In each case where the cache was
+found within the house circle it occurred close under the western wall,
+back of the fireplace and exactly opposite the entrance to the lodge,
+the latter in every instance facing the east." (Gilder, (2), p. 716.)
+
+Before closing this brief sketch of the Omaha villages and forms of
+structures, it will be of interest to quote from the writings of one who
+was intimately acquainted with the people of whom he wrote. Referring to
+their various types of habitations, he says:
+
+"The primitive domiciles of the Omaha were chiefly (1) lodges of earth
+or, more rarely, of bark or mats, and (2) skin lodges or tents. It may
+be observed that there were no sacred rites connected with the earth
+lodge-building or tent-making among the Omaha and Ponka. When earth
+lodges were built, the people did not make them in a tribal circle, each
+man erecting his lodge where he wished; yet kindred commonly built near
+one another. The earth lodges were made by the women, and were intended
+principally for summer use, when the people were not migrating or going
+on the hunt.... Earth lodges were generally used for large gatherings,
+such as feasts, councils, or dances.... On a bluff near the Omaha agency
+I found the remains of several ancient earth lodges, with entrances on
+the southern sides. Two of these were 75 feet and one was 100 feet in
+diameter. In the center of the largest there was a hollow about 3 feet
+deep and nearly 4 feet below the surface outside the lodge.
+
+"The Omaha sometimes make bark lodges for summer occupancy, as did the
+Iowa and Sak." (Dorsey, (1), pp. 269-271.)
+
+Referring to the more temporary structure, the skin tipi: "The tent was
+used when the people were migrating, and also when they were traveling
+in search of the buffalo. It was also the favorite abode of a household
+during the winter season, as the earth lodge was generally erected in an
+exposed situation, selected on account of comfort in the summer. The
+tent could be pitched in the timber or brush, or down in wooded ravines,
+where the cold winds never had full sweep. Hence, many Indians abandoned
+their houses in winter and went into their tents, even when they were of
+canvas.
+
+"The tent was commonly made of ten or a dozen dressed or tanned buffalo
+skins. It was in the shape of a sugar loaf, and was from 10 to 12 feet
+high, 10 or 15 feet in diameter at the bottom, and about a foot and a
+half in diameter at the top, which served as a smoke-hole.... No totem
+posts were in use among the Omaha. The tent of the principal man of each
+gens was decorated on the outside with his gentile badge, which was
+painted on each side of the entrance as well as on the back of the
+tent." (Op. cit., pp. 271-274.)
+
+In an earlier work, "A Study of Siouan Cults," Dr. Dorsey showed the
+varied designs on ceremonial tipis of the different Siouan tribes. Among
+other interesting illustrations are pictures of lodges erected at the
+time of the Sun dance, with the great camp circle as formed at that
+time. (Dorsey, (2).)
+
+A clear insight into the ways of life of the primitive Omaha of a
+century ago, before their native manners and customs had been changed
+through influence with the whites, may be obtained from the narrative of
+the Long expedition. A great part of the recorded information was
+imparted by John Dougherty, at that time deputy Indian agent for the
+tribes of the Missouri.
+
+In 1819 and 1820, the period of the narrative, the permanent village of
+the tribe stood on the banks of Omaha Creek, about 2-1/2 miles from the
+right bank of the Missouri, in the present Dakota County, Nebraska. As
+told on preceding pages, this was the large, permanent village of the
+tribe, but nevertheless it was occupied for less than half the year, and
+as related by Dougherty: "The inhabitants occupy their village not
+longer than five months in the year. In April they arrive from their
+hunting excursions, and in the month of May they attend to their
+horticultural interests, and plant maize, beans, pumpkins, and
+watermelons, besides which they cultivate no other vegetable. They also,
+at this season, dress the bison skins, which have been procured during
+the winter hunt, for the traders, who generally appear for the purpose
+of obtaining them. The young men, in the mean time, are employed in
+hunting within the distance of seventy or eighty miles around, for
+beaver, otter, deer, muskrat, elk, &c.
+
+"When the trading and planting occupations of the people are terminated,
+and provisions begin to fail them, which occurs generally in June, the
+chiefs assemble a council for the purpose of deliberating upon the
+further arrangements necessary to be made...." A feast is prepared, and
+all gather to determine where and when the next hunt shall take place.
+These important questions being settled, all are in readiness, and "The
+day assigned for their departure having arrived, the squaws load their
+horses and dogs, and take as great a weight upon their own backs, as
+they can conveniently transport, and, after having closed the entrances
+to their several habitations, by placing a considerable quantity of
+brushwood before them, the whole nation departs from the village." And
+thus they continue to move until word is brought that herds of buffalo
+are near, then they encamp at the nearest watercourse. The skin lodges,
+having been conveyed by means of the travois, are soon set up, to be
+occupied during the period of the hunt. These "are often fancifully
+ornamented on the exterior, with figures, in blue and red paint, rudely
+executed, though sometimes depicted with no small degree of taste." The
+buffalo skins obtained during the summer hunt were known as _summer
+skins_, and were used especially for the covering of their lodges and
+also for their garments. After a successful hunt all parts of the
+buffalo were carried to the camp and the vertebrae were crushed "by
+means of stone axes, similar to those which are not unfrequently
+ploughed up out of the earth in the Atlantic states."
+
+After the summer hunt "The nation return towards their village in the
+month of August, having visited for a short time the Pawnee villages for
+the purpose of trading their guns for horses. They are sometimes so
+successful, in their expedition, in the accumulation of meat, as to be
+obliged to make double trips, returning about mid-day for half the whole
+quantity, which was left in the morning. When within two or three days
+journey of their own village, runners are dispatched to it, charged with
+the duty of ascertaining the safety of it, and the state of the maize.
+
+"On the return of the nation, which is generally early in September, a
+different kind of employment awaits the ever industrious squaws. The
+property buried in the earth is to be taken up and arranged in the
+lodges, which are cleaned out, and put in order. The weeds which during
+their absence had grown up, in every direction through the village, are
+cut down and removed. A sufficient quantity of _sweet corn_ is next to
+be prepared, for present and future use."
+
+Being now plentifully supplied with food, unless for some unforeseen
+cause having an ample quantity of buffalo meat and corn, together with
+the other products of the gardens, they would "content themselves in
+their village until the latter part of October, when, without the
+formality of a council, or other ceremony, they again depart from the
+village, and move in separate parties to various situations on both
+sides of the Missouri, and its tributaries, as far down as the Platte.
+Their primary object at this time, is to obtain, on credit from the
+traders, various articles, indispensably necessary to their fall,
+winter, and spring hunts; such as guns, particularly those of
+_Mackinaw_, powder, ball, and flints, beaver traps, brass, tin, and
+camp-kettles, knives, hoes, squaw-axes and tomahawks.
+
+"Having obtained these implements, they go in pursuit of deer, or apply
+themselves to trapping for beaver and otter. Elk was some time since an
+object of pursuit, but these animals are now rather rare, in the Omawhaw
+territories.
+
+"This hunt continues until towards the close of December, and during the
+rigours of the season they experience an alternation of abundance and
+scarcity of food."
+
+The skins secured during the late autumn hunt would be carried to the
+traders and left as payment for the goods previously obtained on credit,
+and also given in exchange for blankets, wampum, and various other
+articles. Thence they would return to their permanent village "in order
+to procure a supply of maize from their places of concealment, after
+which they continue their journey, in pursuit of bisons.... This
+expedition continues until the month of April, when they return to their
+village as before stated, loaded with provisions. It is during this
+expedition that they procure all the skins, of which the bison robes of
+commerce are made; the animals at this season having their perfect
+winter dress, the hair and wool of which are long and dense." (James,
+(1), I, pp. 200-221.)
+
+Such was the life of the Omaha a hundred years ago, and it may have been
+quite the same for many generations, omitting, of course, the visits
+made to the traders. But their systematic hunts had probably been
+performed ever since the Omaha reached the valley of the Missouri, and
+possibly long before.
+
+PONCA.
+
+That the Ponca and Omaha were formerly a single tribe is accepted
+without question, and that the separation took place long after they
+crossed the Mississippi from their ancient habitat is established by the
+traditions of the two tribes. Probably the two tribes in later years,
+after the separation, continued to resemble one another to such a degree
+that the villages of one could not have been distinguished from those of
+the other.
+
+A deserted village of the Ponca was discovered by members of the Lewis
+and Clark expedition in 1804, and according to the narrative of the
+expedition on September 5 they arrived at the "river Poncara," which
+entered the Missouri from the south, and at its mouth was 30 yards in
+width. "Two men whom we despatched to the village of the same name,
+returned with information that they had found it on the lower side of
+the creek; but as this is the hunting season, the town was so completely
+deserted that they had killed a buffaloe in the village itself." (Lewis
+and Clark, (1), I, pp. 66-67.) The "river Poncara," later to be known as
+Ponca Creek, enters the right bank of the Missouri in the western part
+of the present Knox County, Nebraska. Here they continued to live for
+some years, and during the spring of 1833 Maximilian said they "dwell on
+both sides of Running-water River, and on Ponca Creek, which Lewis and
+Clark call Poncara." Running-water River was the earlier name of the
+Niobrara. "The band of them, which we met with here, has set up eight or
+nine leather tents, at the mouth of Basil Creek, on a fine forest." On
+May 12, 1833, appears this note in the narrative: Arrived "opposite the
+huts of the Punca Indians. They lay in the shade of a forest, like white
+cones, and, in front of them, a sand bank extended into the river, which
+was separated from the land by a narrow channel. The whole troop was
+assembled on the edge of the bank, and it was amusing to see how the
+motley group crowded together, wrapped in brown buffalo skins, white and
+red blankets--some naked, of a deep brown colour." (Maximilian, (1), pp.
+137-139.) A sketch made at that time by Bodmer and reproduced by
+Maximilian is here shown in plate 29. It bears the legend "Punka Indians
+Encamped on the Banks of the Missouri."
+
+Although at that time living in the typical skin tipi, Maximilian stated
+(p. 137), "They formerly lived, like the Omahas, in clay huts at the
+mouth of the river, but their powerful enemies, the Sioux and the
+Pawnees, destroyed their villages, and they have since adopted the mode
+of life of the former, living more generally in tents made of skins, and
+changing their place from time to time." The village visited by members
+of the Lewis and Clark expedition, September 5, 1804, when they "killed
+a buffaloe in the village itself," was probably composed of
+earth-covered lodges.
+
+When discovering a trail, or rather tracks made by a number of Indians
+crossing the prairie, it was often possible to determine the nature of
+the party. The Ponca, who often moved from place to place, setting up
+their tipis in various localities during the course of the year, could
+have been held in mind by Gregg when he wrote: "These lodges are always
+pitched or set up by the squaws, and with such expedition, that, upon
+the stopping of an itinerant band, a town springs up in a desert valley
+in a few minutes, as if by enchantment. The lodge-poles are often neatly
+prepared, and carried along from camp to camp. In conveying them one end
+frequently drags on the ground, whereby the trail is known to be that of
+a band with families, as war parties never carry lodge-poles." (Gregg,
+(1), II, pp. 286-288.) The rapidity and skill with which the squaws set
+up and arranged the tipis, when the site of the camp had been selected,
+was commented on by many writers, and what an interesting and animated
+scene it must have been.
+
+KANSA.
+
+To quote from the Handbook: "Their linguistic relations are closest with
+the Osage, and are close with the Quapaw. In the traditional migration
+of the group, after the Quapaw had first separated therefrom, the main
+body divided at the mouth of Osage River, the Osage moving up that
+stream and the Omaha and Ponca crossing Missouri River and proceeding
+northward, while the Kansa ascended the Missouri on the south side to
+the mouth of Kansa River. Here a brief halt was made, after which they
+ascended the Missouri on the south side until they reached the present
+north boundary of Kansas, where they were attacked by the Cheyenne and
+compelled to retrace their steps. They settled again at the mouth of
+Kansas River, where the Big Knives, as they called the whites, came with
+gifts and induced them to go farther west. The native narrators of this
+tradition give an account of about 20 villages occupied successively
+along Kansas River before the settlement at Council Grove, Kansas,
+whence they were finally removed to their reservation in Indian Ter.
+Marquette's autograph map, drawn probably as early as 1674, places the
+Kansas a considerable distance directly west of the Osage and some
+distance south of the Omaha, indicating that they were then on Kansas
+River.... It is known that the Kansa moved up Kansas River in historic
+times as far as Big Blue River, and thence went to Council Grove in
+1847. The move to the Big Blue must have taken place after 1723."
+
+Thus it would appear that for many generations the villages of the Kansa
+had stood near the eastern boundary of the great plains, a region where
+buffalo were plentiful, one suited to the wants and requirements of the
+native tribes.
+
+On June 26, 1804, the Lewis and Clark expedition reached the mouth of
+the Kansas and encamped on the north side, where they remained two days.
+In the journal of those days they referred to the Kansa, and said: "On
+the banks of the Kanzas reside the Indians of the same name, consisting
+of two villages, one at about twenty, the other forty leagues from its
+mouth, and amounting to about three hundred men. They once lived
+twenty-four leagues higher than the Kanzas [river], on the south bank of
+the Missouri.... This nation is now hunting in the plains for the
+buffaloe which our hunters have seen for the first time." (Lewis and
+Clark, (1), I, pp. 18-19.) A few days later, July 2, after advancing a
+short distance up the Missouri, above the mouth of the Kansas, they
+arrived at the site of an ancient village of the tribe. In the journal
+(p. 20) is this account: "Opposite our camp is a valley, in which was
+situated an old village of the Kansas, between two high points of land,
+and on the bank of the river. About a mile in the rear of the village
+was a small fort, built by the French on an elevation. There are now no
+traces of the village, but the situation of the fort may be recognized
+by some remains of chimnies, and the general outline of the
+fortification, as well as by the fine spring which supplied it with
+water." Three days later, July 5, 1804, while on the right bank of the
+Missouri, they "came along the bank of an extensive and beautiful
+prairie, interspersed with copses of timber, and watered by Independence
+creek. On this bank formerly stood the second village of the Kanzas;
+from the remains it must have been once a large town." (Op. cit., pp.
+21-22.)
+
+The village mentioned by Lewis and Clark as standing on the banks of the
+Kansas River some 40 league above its confluence with the Missouri may
+have been the one visited and described by Maj. George C. Sibley during
+the summer of 1811. Sibley wrote in his journal: "The Konsee town is
+seated immediately on the north bank of the Konsee River, about one
+hundred miles by its course above its junction with the Missouri; in a
+beautiful prairie of moderate extent, which is nearly encircled by the
+River; one of its Northern branches (commonly called the Republican
+fork, which falls in a few hundred paces above the village) and a small
+creek that flows into the north branch. On the north and southwest it is
+overhung by a chain of high prairie hills which give a very pleasing
+effect to the whole scene.
+
+"The town contains one hundred and twenty-eight houses or lodges which
+are generally about 60 feet long and 25 feet wide, constructed of stout
+poles and saplings arranged in form of an arbour and covered with skins,
+bark and mats; they are commodious and quite comfortable. The place for
+fire is simply a hole in the earth, under the ridge pole of the roof,
+where an opening is left for the smoke to pass off. All the larger
+lodges have two, sometimes three, fire places; one for each family
+dwelling in it. The town is built without much regard to order; there
+are no regular streets or avenues. The lodges are erected pretty
+compactly together in crooked rows, allowing barely space sufficient to
+admit a man to pass between them. The avenues between these crooked rows
+are kept in tolerable decent order and the village is on the whole
+rather neat and cleanly than otherwise. Their little fields or patches
+of corn, beans and pumpkins, which they had just finished planting, and
+which constitute their whole variety, are seen in various directions, at
+convenient distances around the village. The prairie was covered with
+their horses and mules (they have no other domestic animals except
+dogs)."
+
+The manuscript journal from which the preceding quotation is made is now
+in the possession of Lindenwood College, St. Charles, Mo., the copy
+having been made by Mrs. N. H. Beauregard.
+
+The preceding is a clear though all too brief account of a native
+village, prepared at a time when it continued in a primitive condition.
+The site, on the left bank of Kansas River just below the mouth of the
+Republican, would have been about the present Fort Riley, near the
+northern line of Geary County. In some respects this is the most
+interesting description of a Kansa village given in the present work.
+The habitations--long mat-covered lodges--were of the type erected by
+the Osage and Quapaw, kindred tribes of the Kansa, and it is highly
+probable they represented the form of dwellings reared by the same
+tribes many generations before in their ancient villages which then
+stood in the valley of the Ohio, far east of the Mississippi.
+
+Just 15 years elapsed between the time of the Lewis and Clark expedition
+and the arrival of the Long party in the country of the Kansa. In
+August, 1819, to those aboard the steamboat _Western Engineer_, "The
+site of an old village of the Konzas, and the remains of a fortification
+erected by the French, were pointed out a few miles below Isle au Vache.
+This island, which lies about one hundred miles above Fort Osage, was
+the wintering post of Capt. Martin's detachment, destined to proceed in
+advance of the troops ordered to the Missouri." And nothing shows more
+clearly the changed conditions in that region during the past century
+than the continuation of this narrative: "Captain Martin, with three
+companies of the rifle regiment, left Bellefontain in September 1818,
+and arrived at Isle au Vache in October, with the expectation of
+resuming his march, as early in the following spring as the weather
+would permit. But not having received the necessary supplies of
+provisions as anticipated, they had been compelled to remain till the
+time of our arrival, subsisting themselves principally by hunting....
+Between two and three thousand deer, besides great numbers of bears,
+turkies, &c. had been taken." On August 23, 1819, a large number of
+Kansa Indians, from their villages on the river bearing their tribal
+name, gathered at Isle au Vache to meet members of the Long party in
+council. "There were present at this council, one hundred and sixty-one
+Konzas, including chiefs and warriors, and thirteen Osages." (James,
+(1), I, pp. 110-112.)
+
+While at Fort Osage members of the Long expedition left for an overland
+journey to the Kansa towns. The party was led by Say, and left the fort
+August 6, arriving at the villages just two weeks later. The Kansa town
+then stood in the extreme southwestern corner of the present
+Pottawatomie County, Kansas, at the mouth of the Big Blue. And "as they
+approached the village, they perceived the tops of the lodges red with
+the crowds of natives; the chiefs and warriors came rushing out on
+horseback, painted and decorated, and followed by great numbers on foot
+... the village was in confusion, the hunters having lately returned;
+and being then engaged in preparations for the journey to Isle au
+Vache." The journey was that mentioned above, when the Indians arrived
+at Isle au Vache to hold council with Long. Continuing the narrative:
+"The approach to the village is over a fine level prairie of
+considerable extent; passing which, you ascend an abrupt bank of the
+height of ten feet, to a second level, on which the village is situate
+in the distance, within about 1/4 of a mile of the river. It consists of
+about 120 lodges, placed as closely together as convenient, and
+destitute of any regularity of arrangement. The ground area of each
+lodge is circular, and is excavated to the depth of from one to three
+feet, and the general form of the exterior may be denominated
+hemispheric.
+
+"The lodge, in which we reside, is larger than any other in the town,
+and being that of the grand chief, it serves as a council house for the
+nation. The roof is supported by two series of pillars, or rough
+vertical posts, forked at top for the reception of the transverse
+connecting pieces of each series; twelve of these pillars form the outer
+series, placed in a circle; and eight longer ones, the inner series,
+also describing a circle; the outer wall, of rude frame work, placed at
+a proper distance from the exterior series of pillars, is five or six
+feet high. Poles, as thick as the leg at base, rest with their butts
+upon the wall, extending on the cross pieces, which are upheld by the
+pillars of the two series, and are of sufficient length to reach nearly
+to the summit. These poles are very numerous, and, agreeable to the
+position which we have indicated, they are placed all around in a
+radiating manner, and support the roof like rafters. Across these are
+laid long and slender sticks or twigs, attached parallel to each other
+by means of bark cord; these are covered by mats made of long grass, or
+reeds, or with the bark of trees; the whole is then covered completely
+over with earth, which, near the ground, is banked up to the eaves. A
+hole is permitted to remain in the middle of the roof to give exit to
+the smoke. Around the walls of the interior, a continuous series of mats
+are suspended; these are of neat workmanship, composed of a soft reed,
+united by bark cord, in straight or undulated lines, between which,
+lines of black paint sometimes occur. The bedsteads are elevated to the
+height of a common seat from the ground, and are about six feet wide;
+they extend in an uninterrupted line around three-fourths of the
+circumference of the apartment, and are formed in the simplest manner of
+numerous sticks, or slender pieces of wood resting at their ends on
+cross pieces, which are supported by short notched or forked posts,
+driven into the ground; bison skins supply them with a comfortable
+bedding. Several medicine or mystic bags are carefully attached to the
+mats of the wall, these are cylindrical, and neatly bound up; several
+reeds are usually placed upon them, and a human scalp serves for the
+fringe and tassels. Of their contents we know nothing. The fireplace is
+a simple shallow cavity, in the center of the apartment, with an upright
+and a projecting arm for the support of the culinary apparatus." (Op.
+cit., pp. 120-121.)
+
+Say and his associates left the Kansa village to rejoin the main party
+aboard the steamboat _Western Engineer_, then waiting near Isle au
+Vache, but soon after starting on the journey were attacked by some
+wandering Pawnee and forced to return to seek refuge among those whom
+they had just left. And as told in the narrative, they were, as a
+consequence, able to witness an interesting ceremony in one of the large
+earth lodges. This was August 23, 1819. "Mr. Say's party were kindly
+received at the village they had left on the preceding day. In the
+evening they had retired to rest in the lodge set apart for their
+accommodation, when they were alarmed by a party of savages, rushing in
+armed with bows, arrows and lances, shouting and yelling in a most
+frightful manner. The gentlemen of the party had immediate recourse to
+their arms, but observing that some squaws, who were in the lodge,
+appeared unmoved, they began to suspect that no molestation to them was
+intended. The Indians collected around the fire in the centre of the
+lodge, yelling incessantly; at length their howlings assumed something
+of a measured tone, and they began to accompany their voices with a sort
+of drum and rattles. After singing for some time, one who appeared to be
+their leader, struck the post over the fire with his lance, and they all
+began to dance, keeping very exact time with the music. Each warrior
+had, besides his arms, and rattles made of strings of deer's hoof, some
+part of the intestines of an animal inflated, and inclosing a few small
+stones, which produced a sound like pebbles in a gourd shell. After
+dancing round the fire for some time, without appearing to notice the
+strangers, they departed, raising the same wolfish howl, with which they
+had entered; but their music and their yelling continued to be heard
+about the village during the night.
+
+"This ceremony, called the _dog dance_, was performed by the Konzas for
+the entertainment of their guests. Mr. Seymour took an opportunity to
+sketch the attitudes and dresses of the principal figures." (Op. cit.,
+p. 135.) The sketch made by Seymour was engraved and served as an
+illustration in the narrative of the expedition prepared by James. It is
+here reproduced as plate 30, _b_. The interior of the large earth lodge
+is clearly shown. The "continuous series of mats" are suspended around
+the wall, and the "bedsteads," as described, serve as seats for the
+guests. Mats are also represented as spread over the floor in the
+foreground.
+
+On August 25, 1819, the steamboat _Western Engineer_ steamed away from
+Isle au Vache, and that night, after having advanced about 23 miles up
+the Missouri, stopped at the mouth of Independence Creek, and a little
+above the creek, on the right bank of the Missouri, was "the site of an
+old Konza town, called formerly the village of the Twenty Four." This
+was evidently the same site as mentioned by Lewis and Clark, July 5,
+1804. Ruins of the earth lodges had undoubtedly remained quite distinct,
+being overgrown with the grass of the prairie.
+
+Isle au Vache, in the Missouri, faces Oak Mills, Atchison County,
+Kansas, and Iatan, Platte County, Missouri. A brief history of the
+island was prepared a few years ago. (Remsburg, (1), pp. 436-443.)
+
+Interesting notes on the habitations of the Kansa Indians are contained
+in a narrative prepared by one who passed through their country during
+the month of May, 1834.
+
+On the night of May 1 the party encamped on a small branch of the Kansas
+River, where they were joined by some members of the Kansa tribe who
+occupied six lodges in a near-by woods. "This party is a small division
+of a portion of this tribe, who are constantly wandering; but although
+their journeys are sometimes pretty extensive, they seldom approach
+nearer to the settlements than they are at present." Later they arrived
+at the banks of the Kansas River, and as it was approached, so the
+narrative continues, "we saw a number of Indian lodges, made of saplings
+driven into the ground, bent over and tied at top, and covered with bark
+and buffalo skins. These lodges, or wigwams, are numerous on both sides
+of the river. As we passed them, the inhabitants, men, women, and
+children, flocked out to see us, and almost prevented our progress by
+their eager greetings. Our party stopped on the bank of the river, and
+the horses were unloaded and driven into the water." They crossed the
+river by means of a large flat-bottomed boat, and reaching the opposite
+bank saw many Indian lodges with some frame houses occupied by whites.
+"The canoes used by the Indians are mostly made of buffalo skins,
+stretched, while recent, over a light frame work of wood, the seams
+sewed with sinews, and so closely, as to be wholly impervious to water.
+These light vessels are remarkably buoyant, and capable of sustaining
+very heavy burthens." That evening they were visited by the Kansa chief
+who lived near by, a "young man about twenty-five years of age, straight
+as a poplar, and with a noble countenance and bearing.... The Kaws
+living here appear to be much more wealthy than those who joined our
+camp on the prairie below.... Their dress consists, universally of deer
+skin leggings, belted around the loins, and over the upper part of the
+body a buffalo robe or blanket." (Townsend, (1), pp. 30-33.)
+
+During the morning of May 20, 1834, the party departed from the Kansa
+settlement on or near the banks of the Kansas River, "leaving the river
+immediately, and making a N. W. by W. course--and the next day came to
+another village of the same tribe, consisting of about thirty lodges,
+and situated in the midst of a beautiful level prairie.... The lodges
+here are constructed very differently from those of the lower village.
+They are made of large and strong timbers, a ridge Pole runs along the
+top, and the different pieces are fastened together by leathern thongs.
+The roofs, which are single, make but one angle, are of stout poplar
+bark, and forms an excellent defence, both against rain and the rays of
+the sun, which must be intense during midsummer in this region. These
+prairies are often visited by heavy gales of wind, which would probably
+demolish the huts, were they built of frail materials like those below.
+We encamped in the evening on a small stream called Little Vermillion
+creek...." (Op. cit., pp. 33-34.)
+
+The sketch by Seymour conveys a very good idea of the general appearance
+of the interior of a Kansa lodge, and an equally interesting picture of
+the village, as it was just 22 years later, is to be found in one of
+Father de Smet's works. He arrived at the first of the villages May 19,
+1841, and in describing it said: "At the first sight of their wigwams,
+we were struck at the resemblance they bore to the large stacks of wheat
+which cover our fields in harvest-time. There were of these in all no
+more than about twenty, grouped together without order, but each
+covering a space about one hundred and twenty feet in circumference, and
+sufficient to shelter from thirty to forty persons. The entire village
+appeared to us to consist of from seven to eight hundred souls,--an
+approximation which is justified by the fact that the total population
+of the tribe is confined to two villages, together numbering 1900
+inhabitants. These cabins, however humble they may appear, are solidly
+built and convenient. From the top of the wall, which is about six feet
+in height, rise inclined poles, which terminate round an opening above,
+serving at once for a chimney and window. The door of the edifice
+consists of an undressed hide on the most sheltered side, the hearth
+occupies the centre and is in the midst of four upright posts destined
+to support the _rotunda_; the beds are ranged round the wall and the
+space between the beds and the hearth is occupied by the members of the
+family, some standing, others sitting or lying on skins, or yellow
+colored mats. It would seem that this last named article is regarded as
+a piece of extra finery, for the lodge assigned to us had one of them."
+(De Smet, (1), pp. 65-66.) Following this description of a lodge is an
+account of its occupants. He refers to the women busily engaged at
+various occupations, and the men, some eating or smoking, and others
+plucking the hair from their brows and beard. The brief description of
+the interior of the lodge conforms with those of the earlier writers,
+but it is to be regretted that more was not said about the outside of
+the structure. Were they covered with earth or thatch? The village
+visited by Say in 1819 was composed of earth-covered lodges, clearly
+described, but the drawing made by one of Father de Smet's associates
+(it is marked _Geo. Lehman, del._) represents the large circular houses
+with overhanging roofs, more closely resembling thatch than the usual
+covering of earth and sod. This drawing, which was reproduced in the
+work cited, is here shown in plate 30, _a_. The structures standing in
+the village visited by Father de Smet may have resembled the
+bark-covered house illustrated in plate 31. This most interesting
+photograph was probably made about 40 years ago, and at once suggests
+the frame, covered with bark, and ready for the final covering of earth;
+in other words, an unfinished earth lodge. However, it was probably a
+complete and finished structure.
+
+Regarding the large village visited by De Smet as mentioned above, one
+historian of the tribe has written: "An important village, and the
+largest of the tribe at that time, was that of old Kah-he-gah-wa-ti-an-gah,
+known as Fool Chief, which from about 1830 to 1846 was located on the north
+side of the Kansas river, just north of the present Union Pacific station
+of Menoken.... Until recent years the lodge-circle marks were visible and
+its exact location easy to be found." (Morehouse, (1), p. 348.)
+
+A year passed between the visit of Father de Smet to the Kansa towns and
+the arrival of Fremont in the same locality, but it had been a period of
+trouble for the tribe and they had suffered greatly. On June 18, 1842,
+Fremont wrote in his journal: "We left our camp seven, journeying along
+the foot of the hills which border the Kansas valley.... I rode off some
+miles to the left, attracted by the appearance of a cluster of huts near
+the mouth of the Vermillion. It was a large but deserted Kansas village,
+scattered in an open wood, along the margin of the stream, chosen with
+the customary Indian fondness for beauty of scenery. The Pawnees had
+attacked it in the early spring. Some of the houses were burnt, and
+others blackened with smoke, and weeds were already getting possession
+of the cleared places." (Fremont, (1), pp. 12-13.)
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 30
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Kansa village, 1841. George Lehman]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Dog dance within a Kansa lodge, August 23, 1819.
+Samuel Seymour]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 31
+
+[Illustration: KANSA HABITATION]
+
+It is quite probable that during their journeys away from the permanent
+villages the Kansa, like other tribes of the Missouri Valley, made use
+of skin tipis as being easily transported from one place to another. It
+would also appear that in later years the earth and bark covered lodge
+ceased to be used, and that skin tipis were constructed to the exclusion
+of other forms of dwellings. A missionary who resided at the Kansa
+agency from 1865 to 1868 wrote: "The tribe at that time was divided into
+three bands, or villages, as they were generally called. Ish-tal-a-sa's
+village occupied the northern part of the reserve. He was not only
+village chief, but head chief of the whole tribe also. Fool Chief's
+village occupied the central part of the reserve, and Al-le-ga-wa-ho's
+the southern portion. The latter became head chief after Ish-tal-a-sa's
+death. There were probably about 300 in each band. Their custom was for
+the entire band to camp together in some desirable locality, where wood,
+water and grass for their ponies were accessible, and remain until the
+pasture was eaten down, and then move to another site. Another reason
+for moving was to get away from the filth that always accumulated in an
+Indian village. Their tents, or tepees, were made of buffalo skins....
+The lodge, as they usually designated their tepees, was easily taken
+down and removed to another place." (Spencer, (1), p. 373.)
+
+Of the numerous tribes mentioned at the present time no one appears to
+have erected a greater variety of dwellings than did the Kansa, whose
+habitations were of several distinct forms and were constructed of
+various materials.
+
+The long mat-covered lodges described by Sibley in 1811, as at that time
+standing in the village at the mouth of the Republican, on the left bank
+of the Kansas River, may be accepted as being the typical or primitive
+form of structure erected by the tribe. Eight years later Say and his
+companions reached another village, a few miles eastward from the one
+preceding, and there found the circular earth lodges. Evidently the
+ruined towns mentioned by Lewis and Clark as being visible from the
+Missouri River were once groups of similar earth lodges. But all
+circular lodges were not covered with earth and sod; in some instances
+the walls and roofs were formed of sheets of bark.
+
+During the month of May, 1834, many small dwellings were standing on
+both banks of the Kansas River which were formed by covering a frame
+composed "of saplings driven into the ground, bent over and tied at
+top," with sheets of bark and buffalo skins. And not far away was
+another village of the same tribe but presenting a very different
+appearance. The structures were described as being "made of large and
+strong timbers, a ridge pole runs along the top, and the different
+pieces are fastened together by leathern thongs. The roofs, which are
+single, make but one angle, are of stout poplar bark." Whether this was
+of circular or quadrangular base is difficult to determine, but probably
+the latter, resembling the example shown in plate 19. And in addition to
+the various structures already noted, the conical skin tipis were
+extensively used by the Kansa, probably serving in early days when the
+people were away from their more permanent villages, but later they were
+more generally utilized.
+
+OSAGE.
+
+From the earliest historical times the habitat of the Osage was among
+the hills and valleys of the Ozarks, south of the Missouri, in the
+present State of Missouri, and here they continued to dwell until their
+removal during the early part of the last century.
+
+When Père Marquette passed down the Mississippi, late in the month of
+June, 1673, he learned of the Osage, and on his map, prepared soon
+afterwards, indicated the villages of that tribe near a stream which was
+evidently the river bearing their tribal name. They continued to occupy
+rather permanent villages until the beginning of the nineteenth century.
+
+The tribe included three bands, two of which may be rather old; the
+third more recently created. These are: (1) Pahatsi or Great Osage, (2)
+Utsehta or Little Osage, (3) Santsukhdhi or Arkansas band. The latter
+dates from the year 1802 or thereabouts, when a large part of the Great
+Osage, under the leadership of the chief Big Track, removed to the
+vicinity of the Arkansas.
+
+The Osage, unlike certain other members of the Siouan group to which
+they belong, continued to erect and occupy the mat or bark covered
+habitations so characteristic of the forest tribes. Their villages which
+stood among the Ozarks were probably similar in appearance to the
+ancient settlements of their ancestors which once occupied a part of the
+upper valley of the Ohio, whence they migrated to the region beyond the
+Mississippi. But the country which served as their new home was one well
+suited to the wants and requirements of the tribe. Game was plentiful,
+the streams teemed with fish, and wild fruits were to be had in vast
+quantities. Thus food was easily obtained.
+
+The expedition under the command of Captains Lewis and Clark began
+ascending the Missouri May 14, 1804, and just one month later, on June
+15, arrived at the site of an earlier settlement of the Little Osage. In
+the journal the entry for that day states that: "We passed several
+islands and one creek on the south side, and encamped on the north
+opposite a beautiful plain, which extends as far back as the Osage
+river, and some miles up the Missouri. In front of our encampment are
+the remains of an old village of the Little Osage, situated at some
+distance from the river, and at the foot of a small hill. About three
+miles above them, in view of our camp is the situation of the old
+village of the Missouris after they fled from the Sauks. The inroads of
+the same tribe compelled the Little Osage to retire from the Missouri a
+few years ago, and establish themselves near the Great Osages." And two
+days later, at a place about 20 miles above their camp, on the 15th,
+they reached "the crossing place for the Sauks, Ayauways, and Sioux, in
+their excursions against the Osage." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, p. 15.)
+
+The ruined or deserted village of the Little Osage seen by the party
+stood on the right or south bank of the Missouri, in the western part of
+the present Saline County, Missouri, not far from the village of Malta.
+The structures which had stood at this old site were probably similar to
+those later erected by the people in their new village near the town of
+the Great Osage, both of which were visited two years later. They were
+situated far south of the Missouri, in the northern part of the present
+Vernon County, in the valley of the Little Osage River.
+
+During the latter part of August, 1806, Pike arrived at the two villages
+of the Osage, having departed from Fort Bellefontain a short time before
+on his journey to the far west. But, unfortunately, his accounts of the
+native tribes and their villages which he encountered during his travels
+are neither full nor clear, and so it is with the description of the
+habitations of the Osage. To quote from the narrative: "The Osage lodges
+are generally constructed with upright posts, put firmly in the ground,
+of about 20 feet in height, with a crotch at the top; they are generally
+about 12 feet distant from each other; in the crotch of those posts, are
+put the ridge poles, over which are bent small poles, the ends of which
+are brought down and fastened to a row of stakes of about 5 feet in
+height; these stakes are fastened together with three horizontal bars,
+and form the flank walls of the lodge. The gable ends are generally
+broad slabs and rounded off to the ridge pole. The whole of the building
+and sides are covered with matting made of rushes, of two or three feet
+in length, and four feet in width, which are joined together, and
+entirely exclude the rain. The doors are in the side of the building,
+and generally are one on each side. The fires are made in holes in the
+centre of the lodge; the smoke ascending through apertures left in the
+roof for the purpose; at one end of the dwelling is a raised platform,
+about three feet from the ground, which is covered with bear skins, and
+generally holds all the little choice furniture of the master, and on
+which repose his honorable guests.... They vary in length from 36 to 100
+feet." (Pike, (1), App., pp. 11-12.)
+
+Fort Osage, soon to be named Fort Clark, stood on the right bank of the
+Missouri, a short distance northeast of Independence, in Jackson County,
+Missouri. During the early years of the last century it was a gathering
+place for the Osage and neighboring tribes, and several interesting
+accounts are preserved of the appearance of the Indian lodges clustered
+about the post. Both Bradbury and Brackenridge made mention of the fort
+in their journals. The former wrote on April 8, 1811, and told of his
+arrival: "About ten o'clock we came in sight of the fort, about six
+miles distant. We had not been long in sight before we saw the flag was
+hoisted, and at noon we arrived, saluting with a volley as we passed on
+to the landing place, where we met Mr. Crooks, who had come down from
+the wintering station at the mouth of the river Naduet to meet us. There
+were also collected at the landing place about 200 Indians, men, women,
+and children, of the Petit Osage nation, whose village was then about
+300 yards from the fort." And continuing: "At evening Dr. Murray
+proposed that we should walk into the village, and I found it to consist
+of about one hundred lodges of an oblong form, the frame of timber, and
+the covering mats, made of the leaves of flag, or _Typha palustris_. On
+our return through the town, we called at the lodge belonging to a chief
+named Waubuschon, with whom Dr. Murray was particularly acquainted. The
+floor was covered with mats, on which they sat; but as I was a stranger,
+I was offered a cushion. A wooden bowl was now handed round, containing
+square pieces of cake, in taste resembling ginger-bread. On enquiry I
+found it was made of the pulp of the persimon, mixed with pounded corn.
+This bread they called staninca." (Bradbury, (1), pp. 35-37.)
+
+Less than three weeks elapsed before Brackenridge reached the fort in
+the company of Manuel Lisa. April 25, 1811, "About eleven, came in sight
+of Fort Osage, situate on a bluff, three miles off, on a commanding
+eminence.... A number of Indians of the Osage nation, of all ages, and
+sexes, were scattered along the bank, attracted by curiosity, some with
+old buffalo robes thrown over their shoulders, others dressed out in the
+gayest manner.... On landing at the fort, on a very rocky shore, a
+soldier under arms, who waited for us at the water's side, escorted Mr.
+Lisa and myself to the fort, where we were politely received by the
+commanding officer. While Mr. Lisa was transacting some business,
+accompanied by Mr. Sibley, the factor, and an interpreter, I went to
+deliver a pipe to _Sans Oreille_, (a warrior, and head man of this
+tribe) sent to him by gen. Clark....
+
+"The lodges of the Little Osage, are sixty in number, and within gun
+shot of the fort; but they are about to remove their village to a
+prairie, three miles off. Their lodges are of a circular form, not more
+than ten or fifteen feet in diameter, constructed by placing mats, made
+of coarse rushes, over forks and poles.
+
+"All three of the Osage bands, together with some Kansas, were lately
+encamped here for the purpose of trading, to the number of fifteen
+hundred warriors." (Brackenridge, (1), pp. 216-217.)
+
+It is more than probable the Little Osage were then returning to their
+distant villages. Within less than three weeks the group of dwellings in
+the vicinity of the post had been reduced in number from about 100 to
+60, and undoubtedly before the lapse of many days all would have begun
+their homeward journey. But the structures as described would have
+resembled the dwellings in their permanent villages, differing from the
+more temporary lodges discovered by Schoolcraft a few years later.
+
+When Schoolcraft traversed the southern part of the State of Missouri a
+century ago, crossing the Ozarks and following the deep valleys which
+separated the ridges, he encountered many deserted camps of the Osages
+and frames of one or more habitations, the mat or bark covers often
+having been removed, thus allowing the bare frames to remain. These had
+been the temporary shelters occupied by small parties hunting away from
+their home villages. On November 27, 1818, so he wrote, "night overtook
+us, and we encamped in an Indian bark tent on the bank of the river,
+which had not been occupied for one or two years." (Schoolcraft, (1), p.
+28.) The river mentioned was the Great North Fork of White River, and
+the latter was soon reached. Continuing their journey over the rough and
+rugged hills, through tangled masses of vegetation, often advancing only
+a few miles each day, and that with the greatest exertion, they arrived
+December 30, 1818, in the region a short distance east of James River,
+possibly in the present Christian County, Missouri. Here they
+encountered several deserted camps, of which, fortunately, interesting
+accounts are preserved in the narrative: "In pursuing up the valley of
+Swan Creek, about nine miles, we fell into the Osage trace, a horse-path
+beaten by the Osages in their hunting excursions along this river, and
+passing successively three of their camps, now deserted, all very large,
+arranged with much order and neatness, and capable of quartering
+probably 100 men each. Both the method of building camps, and the order
+of encampment observed by this singular nation of savages, are different
+from any thing of the kind I have noticed among the various tribes of
+aboriginal Americans, through whose territories I have had occasion to
+travel. The form of the tent or camp may be compared to an inverted
+bird's nest, or hemisphere, with a small aperture left in the top, for
+the escape of smoke; and a similar, but larger one, at one side, for
+passing in and out. It is formed by cutting a number of slender flexible
+green-poles of equal length, sharpened at each end, stuck in the ground
+like a bow, and, crossing at right angles at the top, the points of
+entrance into the ground forming a circle. Small twigs are then wove in,
+mixed with the leaves of cane, moss, and grass, until it is perfectly
+tight and warm. These tents are arranged in large circles, one within
+another, according to the number of men intended to be accommodated. In
+the centre is a scaffolding for meat, from which all are supplied every
+morning, under the inspection of a chief, whose tent is conspicuously
+situated at the head of the encampment, and differs from all the rest,
+resembling a half cylinder inverted. Their women and children generally
+accompany them on these excursions, which often occupy three months."
+Schoolcraft soon crossed the ridge separating Swan Creek from Findley's
+River, the latter "running from the north-east, and tributary to James'
+river, the main north-western branch of White River." (Op. cit., pp.
+52-53.)
+
+It must be understood that this description applies to a temporary
+encampment of the Osage, not to a permanent village, although they would
+probably not have differed greatly in appearance. The structures in a
+camp were rather smaller than those in the villages, and the latter were
+covered with mats or sheets of bark instead of the walls being composed
+of the crude wattlework, as mentioned in the preceding account.
+
+Throughout the region traversed by Schoolcraft are to be found traces of
+ancient camps, some quite large, others small. The innumerable caves and
+caverns occurring in the limestone formations through which the many
+streams have cut deep valleys show evidence of long occupancy by the
+natives. Great masses of wood ashes, intermingled with broken and lost
+implements of bone and stone, fragments of pottery vessels, and charred
+or broken bones of animals which had served as food, are to be found
+accumulated near the opening, beneath the overhanging strata. The great
+majority of such material should undoubtedly be attributed to the Osage,
+whose hunters penetrated all parts of the Ozarks.
+
+A beautiful example of a frame for an Osage habitation is shown in plate
+32, _a_, a reproduction of a photograph made near Hominy, Oklahoma, in
+1911. This was probably the form of structure seen by the early
+travelers, which is more clearly described on the following pages. It is
+interesting, showing as it does the manner in which the uprights were
+placed in the ground, then bent over and bound in place. As the Osage
+undoubtedly lived, generations ago, in the Ohio Valley, it is possible
+the ancient village sites discovered in Ross County, Ohio, belonged
+either to this or a related tribe, and the ground plan of the structures
+revealed during the exploration of a certain site would agree with the
+typical Osage habitation of recent years. A ground plan was prepared by
+the discoverer of the ancient village site (Mills, (1)) and was
+reproduced on page 139, Bulletin 71, of this Bureau.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 32
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Frame of an Osage habitation, near Hominy, Okla.,
+1911]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ An Iowa structure]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 33
+
+[Illustration: "OTO ENCAMPMENT, NEAR THE PLATTE, 1819"
+
+Samuel Seymour]
+
+On the plan of the ancient settlement which stood many generations ago
+are several interesting features in addition to the outline of the oval
+habitation. North of the space once occupied by the dwelling are many
+comparatively large caches, with fireplaces between. On the opposite
+side of the structure were encountered 30 burials, representing children
+and adults. It would be of the greatest interest at the present time
+to discover the exact location of one of the Osage villages of a century
+ago, and to determine the position of the caches and burials, if any
+exist, in relation to the sites of the habitations.
+
+About the time of Schoolcraft's journey through the Ozarks another
+traveler went up the valley of the Arkansas, and when far west of the
+Mississippi came in contact with the Osage. Nuttall, on July 15, 1819,
+wrote: "The first village of the Osages lies about 60 miles from the
+mouth of the Verdigris, and is said to contain 7 or 800 men and their
+families. About 60 miles further, on the Osage River, is situated the
+village of the chief called White Hair. The whole of the Osages are now,
+by governor Clark, enumerated at about 8000 souls. At this time nearly
+the whole town, men, and women, were engaged in their summer hunt,
+collecting bison tallow and meat. The principal chief is called by the
+French Clarmont, although his proper name is the Iron bird, a species of
+Eagle." (Nuttall, (1), p. 173.) Under date of August 5, 1819, he
+referred to the women of the tribe, saying: "It is to their industry and
+ingenuity, that the men owe every manufactured article of their dress,
+as well as every utensil in their huts. The Osage women appear to excel
+in these employments. Before the Cherokees burnt down their town on the
+Verdigris, their houses were chiefly covered with hand-wove matts of
+bulrushes. Their baskets and bed matts of this material were
+parti-coloured and very handsome. This manufacture, I am told, is done
+with the assistance of three sticks, arranged in some way so as to
+answer the purpose of a loom, and the strands are inlaid diagonally.
+They, as well as the Cherokees and others, frequently take the pains to
+unravel old blankets and cloths, and reweave the yarn into belts and
+garters." (Op. cit., pp. 192-193.)
+
+Evidently it was not the custom of the Osage to entirely abandon their
+villages when they went on their periodical hunts. Some remained, either
+through choice or necessity. In the above quotation Nuttall spoke of
+"nearly the whole town" being absent on their summer hunt, and one very
+familiar with the habits of the tribe said: "The Osages and Kansas live
+in villages, which, even during the hunting seasons, are never wholly
+abandoned, as in the case with several tribes settled on the Missouri."
+(Hunter, (1), p. 334.) Regarding the general appearance of the villages:
+"Their lodges are built promiscuously, in situations to please their
+respective proprietors: they are arranged to neither streets nor alleys,
+and are sometimes so crowded, as to render the passage between them
+difficult."
+
+That some of the Osage constructed very long structures is told by
+Morse, but if the dimensions given in his account are accurate they
+refer to the unusual rather than to the usual form of habitation erected
+by members of that tribe. He said: "The Osages of the Arkansaw occupy
+several villages. The principal village contains about three hundred
+lodges or huts, and about three thousand souls. The lodges are generally
+from fifty to a hundred feet in length; and irregularly arranged, they
+cover a surface of about half a mile square. They are constructed of
+posts, matting, bark and skins. They have neither floors nor chimneys.
+The fire is built on the ground, in the centre of the lodge, and the
+family, and the guests, sit around in a circle, upon skins or mats."
+(Morse, (1), p. 219.) These various statements appear grossly
+exaggerated, and on page 225 of the same work appears the statement that
+"Their villages are nothing more than what they can remove on the
+shortest notice, one horse being capable of carrying house, household
+furniture, and children all at one load." Morse included in his notes on
+the Osage several letters written by missionaries then working among the
+tribe. One communication from Dr. Palmer, dated at Union, March 18,
+1820, contained a note on their habitations: "Their houses are made of
+poles, arched from fifteen to twenty feet, covered by matting made of
+flags. At the sides they set up rived planks, lining the inside with
+neatly made flagg matting. They build several fires in the lodge,
+according to its size, or the number of wives the owner has. For a
+fire-place, they dig a hole about as big as a bushel-basket, leaving the
+smoke to ascend through a hole in the roof. Around the fire they spread
+their mats to sit or eat." And when visiting the settlement, "Having
+entered the lodge, and had our horses turned out, we took a humble seat
+around the fire. Presently there was brought to us a wooden bowl, filled
+with food made of corn. In a short time we were invited to eat at
+another lodge, and before we had finished, at another, and another." And
+another letter, from W. C. Requa, dated February 3, 1822, told of the
+native dwellings. He wrote at that time: "I live at present among the
+Osages, at one of their villages about fifty miles from Union. This
+unhappy people live in low huts, covered with long grass or flag, but so
+badly put together that they leak considerably in a storm of rain. They
+have very little furniture, merely a few pots or kettles in which they
+boil their provisions. The art of cooking their meat in any other way
+than boiling is unknown among them, except roasting it on a stick before
+the fire. They have very little variety in their food. Wild game, corn,
+dried pumpkins, and beans constitute about all on which they subsist.
+With this, however, they are contented. They have wooden bowls, out of
+which they eat, drink, wash themselves." (Op. cit., pp. 227-233.) Union,
+where the two communications were written, was probably Union Agency,
+which stood on the right bank of the Arkansas River, just southwest of
+Fort Gibson, in the present Muskogee County, Oklahoma. The settlement
+"about fifty miles from Union" may have been on the Verdigris, near the
+center of the present Rogers County, Oklahoma.
+
+An interesting description of a deserted camp of the Osage was prepared
+by Irving, as it appeared, standing near the banks of the Arkansas,
+October 11, 1832. On that day, so he wrote: "We came in sight of the
+Arkansas. It presented a broad and rapid stream, bordered by a beach of
+fine sand, overgrown with willows and cotton-wood trees. Beyond the
+river, the eye wandered over a beautiful champaign country, of flowery
+plains and sloping uplands.... Not far from the river, on an open
+eminence, we passed through the recently deserted camping place of an
+Osage war party. The frames of their tents or wigwams remained,
+consisting of poles bent into an arch, with each end stuck into the
+ground; these are intertwined with twigs and branches, and covered with
+bark and skins. Those experienced in Indian lore, can ascertain the
+tribe, and whether on a hunting or warlike expedition, by the shape and
+disposition of the wigwams. Beatte pointed out to us, in the present
+skeleton camp, the wigwam in which the chiefs had held their
+consultations round the council fire; and an open area, well trampled
+down, on which the grand war-dance had been performed." (Irving, W.,
+(1), pp. 38-39.) The frames probably resembled the example shown in
+plate 32, _a_.
+
+This mention of a dance by Irving suggests the description of a ceremony
+witnessed at the village of the Little Osage during the same year. The
+account of a "war-dance" was prepared July 25, 1832: "Much of the
+ceremony consisted in a sort of dancing march round the streets of the
+village between their lodges.... In their marching round the settlement,
+the warriors were followed by a band of musicians, some drumming on a
+piece of deer skin, stretched over the head of a keg, and others singing
+their wild songs. Among the retinue I observed a great many youths, who
+appeared to be young disciples, catching the spirit of their seniors and
+fathers. Another group followed, who appeared to be mourners, crying for
+vengeance on their enemies, to reward them for the death of some
+relative." (Colton, (1), pp. 299-300.)
+
+A brief but interesting sketch of the manners and ways of life of the
+Osage of a century ago is to be found in Morse's work already quoted.
+Although the notes were prepared to apply to several neighboring tribes,
+they referred primarily to the tribe now being discussed. First speaking
+of their gardens: "They raise annually small crops of corn, beans, and
+pumpkins, these they cultivate entirely with the hoe, in the simplest
+manner. Their crops are usually planted in April, and receive one
+dressing before they leave their villages for the summer hunt, in May.
+About the first week in August they return to their villages and gather
+their crops, which have been left unhoed and unfenced all the season.
+Each family, if lucky, can save from ten to twenty bags of corn and
+beans, of a bushel and a half each; besides a quantity of dried
+pumpkins. On this they feast, with the dried meat saved in the summer,
+till September, when what remains is _cashed_, and they set out on the
+fall hunt, from which they return about Christmas. From that time, till
+some time in February or March, as the season happens to be mild or
+severe, they stay pretty much in their villages, making only short
+hunting excursions occasionally, and during that time they consume the
+greater part of their _cashes_. In February or March the spring hunt
+commences; first the bear, and then the beaver hunt. This they pursue
+till planting time, when they again return to their village, pitch their
+crops, and in May set out for the summer hunt, taking with them their
+residue, if any, of their corn, &c. This is the circle of an Osage life,
+here and there indented with war and trading expeditions; and thus it
+has been, with very little variation, these twelve years past." (Morse,
+(1), pp. 203-205.)
+
+The cornfields were left without watchers and were probably often
+destroyed by roving parties of the enemy or by wild beasts. On August
+18, 1820, a hunter belonging to a division of the Long expedition
+"returned with the information of his having discovered a small field of
+maize, occupying a fertile spot at no great distance from the camp, it
+exhibited proofs of having been lately visited by the cultivators; a
+circumstance which leads us to believe that an ascending column of smoke
+seen at a distance this afternoon, proceeded from an encampment of
+Indians, whom, if not a war party, we should now rejoice to meet. We
+took the liberty, agreeable to the custom of the Indians, of procuring a
+mess of corn, and some small but nearly ripe watermelons, that were also
+found growing there, intending to recompense the Osages for them, to
+whom we supposed them to belong." The following morning, August 19, they
+encountered several small cornfields near a creek along which they were
+passing, and that day discovered "an Indian camp, that had a more
+permanent aspect than any we had before seen near this river. The
+boweries were more completely covered, and a greater proportion of bark
+was used in the construction of them. They are between sixty and seventy
+in number. Well worn traces or paths lead in various directions from
+this spot, and the vicinity of the cornfields induce the belief that it
+is occasionally occupied by a tribe of Indians, for the purpose of
+cultivation as well as of hunting." (James, (1), II, pp. 220-221.)
+
+The encampment just mentioned may have resembled the one described by
+Schoolcraft the preceding year, though many miles away in the heart of
+the Ozarks.
+
+Although it is quite probable that hunting parties of the Osage, during
+their wanderings, reached all parts of the Ozarks, and occupied camps on
+banks of many streams in distant regions far away from their more
+permanent villages, nevertheless all sites do not present the same
+characteristic features. Thus in the central and eastern sections of the
+hill country, as in the valleys of the Gasconade and its tributary, the
+Piney, and along the courses of the streams farther eastward quantities
+of fragmentary pottery are to be found scattered over the surface of the
+many village and camp sites, and here it may be remarked that seldom are
+traces of a settlement not to be discovered at the junction of two
+streams, however small or large they may be.
+
+A great many caves, some rather large, occur in the limestone formation,
+often in the cliffs facing or near the streams. As previously mentioned,
+these show evidence of long or frequent occupancy by the Indians. At the
+openings are masses of wood ashes and charcoal, filling the space
+between the sides to a depth of several feet, and in the caves
+encountered in the vicinity of the Gasconade quantities of broken
+pottery are found, with bones of animals which served as food, various
+implements, shells, etc., all intermingled with the accumulated ashes. A
+short distance from the bank of the Piney, several miles above its
+junction with the Gasconade, a cave of more than usual interest is met
+with in the high cliff. This is in Pulaski County. Flowing from the cave
+is a small stream of clear, very cold water. It enters the main chamber
+through an opening not more than 4 feet in height and about the same in
+width, the stream, when the cave was visited some years ago, being 3 or
+4 inches in depth. A few yards up the watercourse the channel widens
+several feet and so continues for a short distance. This widening was
+caused by pieces of chert having been removed from the mass, this
+evidently having been one of the sources whence the Indians secured
+material for the making of their implements. The bed of the stream was
+strewn with flakes and roughly formed rejected pieces of stone.
+
+Thus, as has been shown, vessels of earthenware were made and used by
+the people who occupied or frequented this part of the Ozark country,
+but conditions appear to have been different in the western sections.
+Bits of pottery do not occur on the surface of the camp sites, and it is
+evident it was neither made nor used by the occupants of certain
+settlements. Fragments of pottery are not encountered on these
+particular sites, but large stone mortars are often found, objects which
+do not seem to have been very frequently used farther east.
+
+The valleys of the James and White Rivers, in Stone and Taney Counties,
+Missouri, were visited some years ago and many interesting sites were
+discovered. Traces of a comparatively extensive village were encountered
+on the E. 1/2 of lot 1, S. W. 1/4 of Sec. 9, T. 22, R. 23, Stone County,
+on the left bank of White River. Within a radius of a few feet, on a
+level spot near the center of the once occupied area, were found four
+large sandstone mortars, the concavity of the largest being about 15
+inches in diameter and 6 inches in depth, while the entire block of
+stone was more than 2 feet in thickness. When discovered, June 11, 1901,
+the mortars gave the impression of not having been touched since they
+were last used by some of the inhabitants of the ancient village, and
+from the surrounding surface, an acre or more in extent, were collected
+several hundred stone implements, but not a fragment of pottery was
+encountered. This site, although rather larger and more extensive than
+the majority, was, nevertheless, typical of the 20 or more which were
+discovered during that interesting journey through the valleys
+mentioned. Quantities of stone implements were gathered from the surface
+of the sites, and many mortars were found, but no pottery.
+
+While the material recovered from the sites in the valley of the
+Gasconade is similar to that found to the eastward, the finding of
+mortars and the lack of pottery on the James and White River Valley
+sites suggests a different culture, and it is possible the latter owe
+their origin to parties of the Wichita or neighboring tribes who entered
+the western valleys of the Ozarks from the prairie lands.
+
+QUAPAW.
+
+This, the southernmost tribe of the Dhegiha group, occupied several
+villages west of the Mississippi, near the mouth of the Arkansas. When
+the closely allied tribes had removed from their ancient habitat in the
+upper valley of the Ohio, and had arrived at the mouth of that stream,
+the Quapaw are believed to have turned southward while the others went
+northward. The name of the tribe, Quapaw, signifies "downstream people;"
+Omaha being translated "those going against the wind or current." As a
+people they seem to have been known to the members of the De Soto
+expedition about 1541, probably occupying villages on or near the sites
+of the settlements visited by the French during the latter part of the
+next century.
+
+Père Marquette, while on his memorable journey down the Mississippi, in
+the year 1673, went as far as the mouth of the Arkansas, where he
+lingered a few days before returning northward on July 17. The villages
+of the Quapaw, designated the Arkansa, were reached, but the habitations
+were only briefly described: "Their cabins, which are long and wide,
+are made of bark; they sleep at the two extremities, which are raised
+about two feet from the ground. They keep their corn in large baskets,
+made of cane, or in gourds, as large as half barrels." They used both
+wooden dishes and "plates of baked earth. Their cooking was done in
+large earthen pots, of their own make." (Shea, (2), p. 48.) But the most
+interesting early account of the villages is contained in Joutel's
+narrative of La Salle's last expedition, when he attempted to reach the
+Illinois country overland from the Gulf coast. Through jealousy and
+intrigue of members of the expedition he was murdered by one of their
+number, March 20, 1687; but others continued eastward, and on July 24,
+1687, arrived at the four villages of the Quapaw, and to quote from the
+narrative of the expedition: "The Nation of the _Accancea's_ consists of
+four Villages. The first is call'd _Otsotchove_, near which we were; the
+second _Toriman_, both of them seated on the River; the third
+_Tonginga_; and the fourth _Cappa_, on the Bank of the _Missisipi_.
+These Villages are built after a different Manner from the others we had
+seen before, in this Point, that the Cottages, which are alike as to
+their Materials and Rounding at the Top, are long, and cover'd with the
+Bark of Trees, and so very large, that several of them can hold two
+hundred Persons, belonging to several Families. The People are not so
+neat as the _Cenis_ [Caddo], or the _Assonis_ [Caddo], in their Houses,
+for some of them lie on the Ground, without any Thing under them but
+some Mats, or dress'd Hide. How ever, some of them have more
+Conveniencies, but the Generality has not. All their Movables consist in
+some Earthen Vessels and oval wooden Platters, which are neatly made,
+and with which they drive a Trade."
+
+The expedition was then resting at the village standing on the banks of
+the Arkansas, not far above its junction with the Mississippi. Here they
+remained three days, departing on July 27. On that day "We imbark'd on a
+Canoe belonging to one of the Chiefs, being at least twenty Persons, as
+well Women as Men, and arriv'd safe, without any Trouble, at a Village
+call'd _Toriman_, for we were going down the River." The river was the
+Arkansas. Later in the day they reached the "fatal River, so much sought
+after by us, called _Colbert_, when first discover'd, and _Missisipi_,
+or _Mechassipi_ by the Natives that were near us." The party lingered at
+Toriman during the twenty-eighth, and on the following day arrived at
+"the next Village call'd _Tonningua_, seated on the Bank of that River
+[the Mississippi], where we were receiv'd in the Chief's Cottage, as we
+had been in the others." On July 30, "We set out for Cappa, the last
+Village of the _Accancea's_, eight Leagues distant from the Place we had
+left." (Joutel, (1), pp. 155-161.) Passing up the Mississippi from the
+Quapaw towns, they encamped during the night of August 2 on an island,
+"for our greater Safety, for we were then come into an Enemy's Nation,
+call'd _Machigamea_, which put our Indians into great Frights."
+
+Père Anastasius Douay, also a member of the party, had very little to
+say about their stop among the Quapaw, only that "We visited three of
+these villages, the Torimans, the Doginga, and the Kappa; everywhere we
+had feasts, harangues, calumet-dances, with every mark of joy." (Shea,
+(2), p. 220.) Evidently his notes were faulty, as no mention was made of
+the fourth town.
+
+When La Harpe made his journey into the region bordering the Mississippi
+some distance above New Orleans he encountered the Quapaw, and in his
+journal referred to them as the Alkansa, and said: "La nation Alkansa,
+ainsi nommée parce qu'elle sort des Canzés [Kansa] etablis sur le
+Missouri, est situé sur le bord du Mississipi dans un terrein isolé par
+les ruisseaux qui l'environnent; elle se divise en trois villages,
+Ougapa, Torisna et Tonginga, éloignés d'une lieue les uns les autres, et
+renfermant ensemble quatre cents habitans; leur principal chef est celui
+des Ougapas; les Sotoüis le reconnaissent aussi pour le leur; ils
+Sotoüis le reconnaissent aussi pour le leur; ils sont tous sortis de la
+même nation et parlent le même langue." (La Harpe, (1), p. 317.)
+Elsewhere he referred to reaching the "rivière Blanche, qui court dans
+le nord-ouest du coté des Osages," which entered the "rivière des
+Sotoüis," or Arkansas, 4 leagues from the Mississippi. Here stood a
+village of the Sotoüis, consisting of 40 habitations and having a
+population of 330.
+
+Nearly a century elapsed between the time of La Harpe's visit to the
+country occupied by the Quapaw and the journey performed by Nuttall. On
+February 27, 1819, when the latter was ascending the Arkansas River, he
+wrote: "In the course of the day we passed the outlet of the bayou, or
+rather river, Meta, which diagonally traverses the Great Prairie, also
+two Indian villages on the south bank [of the Arkansas].... The first
+was the periodical residence of a handful of Choctaws, the other was
+occupied by the Quapaws." (Nuttall, (1), p. 91.) This was near the line
+between Lincoln and Desha Counties, Arkansas. Some distance beyond,
+apparently at some point in the present Jefferson County, on March 11,
+1819, he saw other native villages, but whether occupied by Quapaw or
+some other tribe was not told. However, they were probably Quapaw
+settlements. On that day: "Passed Mr. Embree's, and arrived at Mr.
+Lewismore's. Six miles above, we also saw two Indian villages, opposite
+each of those settlements.... The Indians, unfortunately, are here, as
+usual, both poor and indolent, and alive to wants which they have not
+the power of gratifying. The younger ones are extremely foppish in
+their dress; covered with feathers, blazing calicoes, scarlet blankets,
+and silver pendants. Their houses, sufficiently convenient with their
+habits, are oblong square, and without any other furniture than baskets
+and benches, spread with skins for the purpose of rest and repose. The
+fire, as usual, is in the middle of the hut, which is constructed of
+strips of bark and cane, with doors also of the latter split and plaited
+together." (Op. cit., pp. 97-98.)
+
+When returning down the Arkansas, on January 18, 1820, Nuttall evidently
+reached the Quapaw village which he had passed when ascending the stream
+during the preceding February. He wrote: "About noon we landed at one of
+the Quapaw or Osark villages, but found only three houses constructed of
+bark, and those unoccupied. In the largest of them, apparently
+appropriated to amusement and superstition, we found two gigantic
+painted wooden masks of Indians, and a considerable number of conic pelt
+caps, also painted. These, as we learnt from an Indian who came up to us
+from some houses below, were employed at festivals, and worn by the
+dancers.... At the entrance of the cabin, and suspended from the wall,
+there was a female figure, with a rudely carved head of wood painted
+with vermillion. Being hollow, and made of leather, we supposed it to be
+employed as a mask for one of the musicians, having in one hand a
+pendent ferule, as if for the purpose of beating a drum. In the spring
+and autumn the Quapaws have a custom of making a contribution dance, in
+which they visit also the whites, who live in the vicinity, and the
+chief alms which they crave is salt or articles of diet." The following
+day the party reached Arkansas Post. (Nuttall, (1), p. 223.)
+
+This account of the ceremonial lodge, for such it undoubtedly was, of
+the Quapaw of a century ago, is most interesting, as it proves how the
+rapidly diminishing tribe held to their old customs. The tribe gradually
+disappeared from the lower Arkansas. The remnants of this once large
+body moved westward, and on August 11, 1853, some were encountered by
+the Whipple expedition in the extreme north west corner of the Choctaw
+Nation, on the right bank of the Canadian, where the Shawnee Hills reach
+to the river bank. There, on the "high bank of the Canadian, stand still
+some wigwams or rather log-houses of Quappa Indians, who may boast of
+not having yet quitted the land of their forefathers. But they have
+shrunk to a small band that cannot furnish above twenty-five warriors,
+and it would scarcely be supposed that they are all who are left of the
+once powerful tribe of the Arkansas, whose hunting grounds extended from
+the Canadian to the Mississippi." (Möllhausen, (1), I, p. 74.)
+
+Probably no section of the country has revealed more traces of the
+period of aboriginal occupancy than has that part of the Mississippi
+Valley which extends southward from the Ohio to the Arkansas. This was
+the region traversed by the Quapaw during the latter part of their
+migration from their earlier habitat east of the Mississippi, and may
+have been occupied by them since the fifteenth century, or before. Many
+of the mound groups, village sites, and burial places occurring within
+this area may undoubtedly be justly attributed to the Quapaw. Vast
+quantities of earthenware vessels, of great variety of forms and sizes,
+have been recovered from the sites north of the Arkansas, and these
+often present marked characteristics differing from the ware found
+farther south. The Quapaw are known to have been skilled pottery makers.
+As already mentioned, Marquette, in 1673, referred to their "plates of
+baked earth," and also to the large earthen cooking vessels "of their
+own make." And in 1687 Joutel wrote of their earthen vessels "with which
+they drive a Trade." Therefore it is more than probable that much of the
+ancient pottery encountered in this part of the Mississippi Valley was
+made by this southern Siouan tribe. Many of the village sites discovered
+near the Mississippi, north of the Arkansas, were probably once occupied
+by the Quapaw who, by the latter part of the seventeenth century, had
+moved as far south as the mouth of the Arkansas River, in the present
+Desha County. The earlier references to the tribe, those contained in
+the narratives of the De Soto expedition, 1541, mention the towns being
+protected by encircling embankments and ditches. The former were
+probably surmounted by palisades. The village or villages of this period
+probably stood on the bank of the Mississippi, and one may have occupied
+the interesting site at Avenue, in Phillips County, where some
+remarkable pottery vessels have been discovered. Other ancient sites in
+Lee and Crittenden Counties, north of Phillips, were possibly occupied
+by the same people at different times.
+
+The position of the village of the Algonquian Michigamea, who lived
+north of the Quapaw, has not been determined.
+
+CHIWERE GROUP.
+
+This group, so designated by the late Dr. J. O. Dorsey, includes three
+tribes, the Iowa, Oto, and Missouri, who spoke slightly different
+dialects of the same language. According to tribal traditions, they
+were, generations ago, allied and associated with the Winnebago, from
+whom they separated and scattered while living in the vicinity of the
+Great Lakes east of the Mississippi, where the Winnebago continued to
+dwell. It is not the purpose of the present sketch to trace the
+movements of the three tribes from their ancient habitat to the banks of
+the Mississippi, thence westward to the Missouri and beyond, but the
+routes followed in their migrations can be fairly accurately determined
+by comparing their own statements and traditions with early historical
+records, and it is quite probable that many village sites now discovered
+within this region were once occupied by some members of these tribes.
+
+While living east of the Mississippi in a region of lakes and streams
+surrounded by vast forests, their habitations were undoubtedly the bark
+or mat covered structures, but when some moved far west and came in
+contact with tribes beyond the Missouri they evidently learned the art
+of constructing the earth-covered lodge which they soon began to occupy.
+Likewise when and where the skin tipi first became known to them is not
+possible to determine, but probably not until they had reached the
+valley of the Missouri and were nearing the banks of that stream north
+of the Kansas.
+
+IOWA.
+
+On September 15, 1819, the expedition under command of Maj. Stephen H.
+Long arrived at the mouth of Papillion Creek, on the right bank of the
+Missouri a few miles above the Platte, a site now covered by the city of
+Omaha, Nebraska. In the narrative of the expedition it is said that at
+the mouth of the Papillion "we found two boats belonging to the Indian
+traders at St Louis. They had passed us some days before, and were to
+remain for the winter at the mouth of the Papillion, to trade with the
+Otoes, Missouries, and other Indians.
+
+"The banks of the Missouri above the Platte, have long been frequented
+by the Indians, either as places of permanent or occasional residence.
+Deserted encampments are often seen. On the northeast side, near the
+mouth of Mosquito river, are the remains of an old Ioway village. Four
+miles above, on the opposite side, was formerly a village of the Otoes."
+(James, (1), I, pp. 144-145.)
+
+As mentioned elsewhere, the Iowa and their kindred tribes had migrated
+from their ancient habitat in the vicinity of the Great Lakes to the
+Missouri Valley, and in 1848 a map was prepared by an Iowa Indian
+showing the route of the tribe from the mouth of Rock River, Illinois,
+to the banks of the Missouri, across the State which perpetuates the
+tribal name. The map was reproduced by Schoolcraft. (Schoolcraft, (3),
+III, pp. 256-257.)
+
+Unfortunately very little is to be found in the early writings regarding
+the appearance of the Iowa villages, but they probably did not differ
+from those of the tribes with whom they were so closely associated, and
+the primitive village, composed of a group of mat or bark covered
+structures, must have resembled the towns of the Osage. But in addition
+to the usual habitation the Iowa evidently erected a larger, longer
+structure. Maximilian on April 25, 1833, when in the region then
+occupied by the Iowa, wrote: "The canal between Nadaway Island and the
+cantonment is called Nadaway Slew, at the end of which we saw the
+remains of some Indian huts. In a dark glen in the forest, we observed a
+long Indian hut, which occupied almost its whole breadth, and must have
+served for a great number of persons." (Maximilian, (1), p. 124.) It is
+to be regretted that a full description of this "long Indian hut" was
+not preserved. It may have been a ceremonial lodge rather than a large
+dwelling.
+
+An interesting though brief account of the Iowa as they were at this
+time is preserved. It was related by a missionary, Samuel M. Irvin, who
+arrived among the Iowa April 10, 1837. They were living in the
+northwestern part of Missouri, the "Platte purchase," but were soon to
+be removed to lands west of the Missouri. At that time, the spring of
+1837, so the narrative continues: "They numbered in all 830. They were a
+wild, warlike, roving people, and in a most wretched condition,
+depending mainly on the chase for a subsistence. Their habitations were
+of the most frail and temporary kind. They were shelters in the form of
+huts or houses made of the bark of trees stretched over slender poles
+and tied together with bark strings, or they were tents or lodges made
+of the skins of the buffalo or elk, and sewed together with the sinews
+of these animals. These bark houses were mainly for summer shelter, and
+would in a few years yield to the wear of time, when they would be
+abandoned and a new location sought. The skin tents were carried with
+them, and made their habitations wherever they chanced to stop. They
+were strictly a migratory and unsettled people." (Plank, (1), p. 312.)
+And "domestic animals, excepting ponies and dogs, were not among them.
+Indeed, to some of them, such things as cattle, hogs, sheep and poultry
+were almost unknown, and did such animals happen their way they would
+pounce upon them for present food as quickly as upon a buffalo or wild
+turkey."
+
+An excellent picture of an Iowa habitation accompanied the article from
+which the preceding quotations have been made and is now reproduced in
+plate 32, _b_.
+
+OTO.
+
+When Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri during the summer of 1804
+they reached the mouth of the Platte July 21. At that time, so they
+entered in their journal, the Oto were living on the south side of the
+Platte 10 leagues above its junction with the Missouri, and 5 leagues
+beyond, on the same bank, were the Pawnee. Living with the Oto were the
+remnants of the Missouri who had, a few years before, joined them. On
+August 3, 1804, the expedition having ascended the Missouri to about the
+location of the present city of Council Bluffs, Iowa, held a council
+with representatives of the two tribes, Oto and Missouri, an event which
+has been perpetuated in the name of the city. A majority of the two
+tribes were then absent from their village on their summer buffalo hunt,
+consequently few were present at the council.
+
+On May 3, 1811, Bradbury arrived at the Oto village, but it was
+deserted. All were probably some miles away hunting the buffalo.
+However, a very interesting description of the habitations in the
+deserted village is preserved. First referring to the Platte: "The
+southern bank is wholly divested of timber, and as the village is
+situated on a declivity near the river, we could see the lodges very
+distinctly, but there was no appearance of Indians." (p. 54.) On the
+following day, May 4, 1811, he visited the village and found it "to
+consist of about fifty-four lodges, of a circular form, and about forty
+feet in diameter, with a projecting part at the entrance, of ten or
+twelve feet in length, in the form of a porch. At almost every lodge,
+the door or entrance was closed after the manner which is customary with
+Indians when they go on hunting parties and take their squaws and
+children with them. It consists in putting a few sticks across, in a
+particular manner, which they so exactly note and remember, as to be
+able to discover the least change in their position. Although anxious to
+examine the internal structure of the lodges, I did not violate the
+injunction conveyed by this slight obstruction, and after searching some
+time found a few that were left entirely open. On entering one, I found
+the length of the porch to be an inclined plane to the level of the
+floor, about two and a half or three feet below the surface of the
+ground; round the area of the lodge are placed from fifteen to eighteen
+posts, forked at the top, and about seven feet high from the floor. In
+the centre, a circular space of about eight feet in diameter is dug, to
+the depth of two feet; four strong posts are placed in the form of a
+square, about twelve feet asunder, and at equal distances from this
+space these posts are about twenty feet high, and cross pieces are laid
+on the tops. The rafters are laid from the forked tops of the outside
+posts over these cross pieces, and reach nearly to the centre, where a
+small hole is left for the smoke to escape; across the rafters small
+pieces of timber are laid; over these, sticks and a covering of sods,
+and lastly earth. The fire is made in the middle of the central space,
+round the edges of which they sit, and the beds are fixed between the
+outer posts. The door is placed at the immediate entrance into the
+lodge; it is made of a buffalo skin, stretched in a frame of wood, and
+is suspended from the top. On entering, it swings forward, and when let
+go, it falls to its former position." (Bradbury, (1), pp. 56-57.)
+
+It is to be regretted that Bradbury did not give a more detailed account
+of the general appearance of the village; that he did not tell of the
+placing of the lodges, and of the other structures, if any stood within
+the village. But this large group of earth-covered lodges undoubtedly
+resembled the village of the Republican Pawnee, as shown in the
+photograph made by Jackson more than half a century later.
+
+In the narrative of the Long expedition, during the spring of 1820, more
+than a century ago, is a brief note on the Oto. It reads: "The Oto
+nation of Indians is distinguished by the name of _Wah-toh-ta-na_. The
+permanent village of this nation is composed of large dirt lodges,
+similar to those of the Konzas and Omawhaws, and is situate on the left
+bank of the river Platte, or Nebreska, about forty miles above it
+confluence with the Missouri." (James, (1), I, p. 338.) On the map which
+accompanies the narrative the village is indicated on the south or right
+bank of the Platte, in the eastern part of the present Saunders County,
+Nebraska. Continuing, the journal states (p. 342): "The hunting grounds
+of the Oto nation, extend from the Little Platte up to the Boyer creek,
+on the north side of the Missouri, and from Independence creek to about
+forty miles above the Platte, on the south side of that river. They hunt
+the bison, between the Platte and the sources of the Konzas rivers."
+Thus their hunting grounds included one of the richest and most fertile
+sections of the valley of the Missouri, now occupied by many towns and
+villages.
+
+Much of interest respecting the manners and ways of life of the Oto when
+they occupied their village near the mouth of the Platte is to be found
+in Irving's narrative of the expedition of which he was a member. During
+the summer of 1833 the small party under the leadership of Commissioner
+H. L. Ellsworth left St. Louis and, with several teams, proceeded up the
+Valley of the Missouri. They traversed the vast rolling prairie: "Hour
+after hour passed on; the prospect was still the same. At last a loud
+cry from our guide announced that we had come in sight of the
+cantonment. There was a snowy speck resting upon the distant green;
+behind it rose a forest of lofty timber which shadowed the Missouri.
+This was Leavenworth.... It was mid day when we first caught sight of
+Leavenworth, but it was near sunset before we arrived there. About a
+dozen white-washed cottage-looking houses, composed the barracks and the
+abodes of the officers. They are so arranged as to form the three sides
+of a hollow square; the fourth is open, and looks out into a wide but
+broken prairie. It is a rural looking spot--a speck of civilization
+dropped in the heart of a wilderness." (Irving, J. T., (1), I, pp.
+46-47.) From Fort Leavenworth they continued up the valley, soon
+reaching the village of the Oto, near the banks of the Platte. After
+describing the reception accorded the party by the people of the town
+Irving wrote: "The village of the Otoe Indians is situated upon a ridge
+of swelling hills overlooking the darkly wooded banks of the Platte
+river, about a quarter of a mile distant. There is but little beauty or
+neatness about an Indian town. The lodges are built in the shape of a
+half egg. They frequently are twenty feet in height, and sometimes sixty
+in diameter. The roofs are formed of long poles, which diverge like the
+radii of a circle, from one common centre. The ring of the circle is
+formed of upright posts, driven closely together in the ground, and
+projecting upward about five feet. These are interwoven with brushwood
+and the smaller branches of trees, and form the support of the outer end
+of the poles composing the roof, the interstices of which are also
+interwoven with twigs and brushwood. The whole is then covered with
+earth, and when finished resembles a large hillock. The town contained
+about seventy of these lodges, standing singly or in groups, without any
+attention to order or regularity. Within, they are capacious, but dark,
+being lighted merely by a small aperture at the top, which serves both
+as window and chimney. The fire is built in a cavity in the centre,
+directly under the hole in the roof, by which the smoke escapes after
+floating in easy wreaths about the interior.
+
+"As the lodges are very spacious, a little back from the fire there is a
+circular range of tree trunks standing like columns, and connected by
+timber laid in their forks, forming a support for the roof, which
+otherwise, from the great length of the poles that form it, and the
+heavy mass of superincumbent earth, might fall in, and bury the
+inhabitants. Around the wall of the building, are ranged cribs or berths
+for sleeping, screened from view by heavy mats of grass and rushes. Over
+the fire is inclined a forked stake, in the hook of which hangs a large
+kettle, generally filled with buffalo flesh and corn. This, to judge
+from its looks, is never removed from the fire, even for the purpose of
+cleaning it." (Op. cit., pp. 158-160.)
+
+A week or more passed after the arrival of the party at the Oto village
+before a council was held with the chief men of the tribe, "for the
+purpose of forming a treaty, with respect to the lands lying in the
+neighbourhood of the Nemahaw river." The time for holding the council
+having arrived, the commissioner and his party proceeded from their camp
+to the earth-covered lodge in which the ceremony was to be enacted. They
+entered and "found nearly the whole tribe assembled, and seated in
+circles, in the large lodge of the Iotan chief. At the far end of the
+building was the Iotan; and by his side were stationed those two
+worthies, the Big Kaw and the Thief. Next them were the stern forms of
+the older warriors and braves.... The lodge was excessively crowded. One
+ring was formed beyond another; one dark head rose behind another; until
+the dim, dusk outlines of the more distant were lost in shadow, and
+their glistening eyes alone could be seen. The passage which led to the
+air was completely crowded with women and children; and half a dozen
+curious faces were peering down through the round hole in the roof.
+
+"The most of them had adorned themselves for the occasion. Plumes were
+floating from their scalp-locks; their heads and breasts were painted
+with vermilion, and long strings of wampum hung from their necks and
+mutilated ears. But at the present moment there appeared to be no
+thought of their appearance. Every sense was wrapped up in an intense
+interest in the approaching council; every breath was held; and every
+eye fixed with eagerness upon the face of the Commissioner, as he arose
+to address the meeting." (Op. cit., pp. 233-235.) This vivid description
+of the gathering of the Oto in a great earth-covered structure near the
+banks of the Missouri during the summer of 1833 tends to recall Lieut.
+Timberlake's meeting with the head men of the Cherokee, when they came
+together in the townhouse at Chote late in the year 1761. The two
+structures were of similar appearance and probably did not differ
+greatly in size, although at Chote there were several tiers of seats
+surrounding the central space within the house which were lacking in the
+Oto lodge, but the two gatherings were evidently quite similar, although
+belonging to different generations and being in regions separated by
+many hundreds of miles of forest and plain. The great rotundas, or
+townhouses of the Cherokee, were the most interesting of the various
+native structures which formerly stood east of the Mississippi.
+(Bushnell, (1), pp. 59-63.)
+
+The preceding notes on the Oto refer to their permanent earth-lodge
+villages, which were occupied only part of each year. When away from the
+village they would make use of the skin-covered tipi, although the
+temporary shelter of the Pawnee may have been copied by some members of
+the tribe. Fortunately a very good description of the appearance of a
+winter encampment of several families, at some point far west of the
+Missouri on the prairie of Nebraska, during the winter of 1851-52, has
+been preserved. The account was prepared by a traveler who became
+separated from his companions and reached the camp unexpectedly while
+traversing the snow-covered wilderness. The "little camp consisted of
+two large tents, which stood in a deep ravine, overgrown with stunted
+oaks, and on the banks of a deep stream, whose waters were hidden
+beneath a thick covering of ice." One tent belonged to the chief
+Wa-ki-ta-mo-nee, the other to a half-breed named Louis Farfar. Arriving
+at the camp, so the narrative continues, I "crawled into the tent of the
+medicine-man, and took my place by his blazing fire, while the other
+occupants lay or crouched around. The old mother was busy in the
+preparation of the meat, and by her side, next the opening, were two
+daughters; the older about eighteen, the younger about two years old.
+The father of the family, his son, and Schin-ges-in-ki-nee had,
+according to Indian custom, kept the best places for themselves, which
+was so much the better for me as I was placed between them. The medicine
+pipe, with a bowl cut out of some red stone, went round briskly, and the
+time that was employed in distributing the meat intended for the meal I
+spent in taking a good view of the Indian dwelling. Sixteen long poles,
+made of slender pine trees, were so placed as to form a circle of
+sixteen or eighteen feet in diameter, their tops being bent over and
+fastened together. Around this framework was thrown, like a mantle, the
+tent leather, consisting of a great number of buffalo-hides, tanned
+white, and neatly sewed together for the purpose with sinews. The
+leather did not reach quite to the top, but left an opening, by which
+the smoke could escape; but there were two prolongations of the tent
+leather, something like flags, which were supported by particular poles,
+so as, in stormy weather or contrary winds, to form a very tolerable
+chimney. The tent was fixed so firmly to the ground with pegs that the
+tightly stretched sides would admit neither the rain nor the snow, when
+it melted from the heat of the fire; and the inhabitants had not only a
+secure refuge, but a tolerably comfortable dwelling. The various
+possessions of the Indians were hung round on the tent poles, where they
+only took up room that could easily be dispensed with, and kept out the
+cold that could have most readily found an entrance at those places. On
+the space round the fire, buffalo-hides were spread for beds at night,
+and when rolled up in the day made convenient seats; the fire, in a kind
+of pit half a foot deep, and two and a half in diameter, was a mass of
+glowing embers, with a number of logs blazing on the top, and diffused a
+most pleasant warmth over the small space. Near the fire a branch of a
+tree was stuck into the ground, and another placed horizontally across
+it, and running the whole breadth of the tent, from which hung the most
+indispensable of household utensils in the form of a great kettle,
+whilst the rest of the pole was covered with wet and torn mocassins and
+gaiters, in a manner that was certainly more convenient than
+ornamental.... Besides the wild half-naked forms of the Indians, a
+number of dogs, young and old, made part of the company assembled in
+Wa-ki-ta-mo-nee's tent. The attention of the mistress of the family, a
+very dirty old squaw, was exclusively devoted to the vast kettle and its
+bubbling contents; a row of roughly-cut wooden platters stood before
+her, and by means of a pointed stick she fished up from the cauldron
+large joints of bear and half turkeys, and loaded each of the platters
+with a huge portion of the savoury smelling food." (Möllhausen, (1), I,
+pp. 171-175.) The second tent, so he wrote, "was more spacious" than the
+one which he had entered, and described. This is an interesting
+description of a small winter camp of the Oto as it stood in the midst
+of the snow-covered prairie, near a stream "whose waters were hidden
+beneath a thick covering of ice." The scene could undoubtedly have been
+repeated in many localities in the vast region west of the Missouri. The
+identity of the stream near which the two tents stood during the winter
+of 1851-52 is suggested by a note in Fremont's journal, written 10 years
+earlier. On June 22, 1842, when traversing the prairies, soon to reach
+the right bank of the Platte, he wrote: "Made our bivouac in the midst
+of some well-timbered ravines near the Little Blue.... Crossing the next
+morning a number of handsome creeks, with clear water and sandy beds, we
+reached at 10 A. M., a very beautiful wooded stream, about thirty-five
+feet wide, called Sandy creek, and sometimes, as the Ottoes frequently
+winter there, Otto fork." (Fremont, (1), p. 14.) The greater part of the
+course of Sandy Creek is through the present Clay and Thayer Counties,
+Nebraska, a hundred miles or more south of west from the Oto village
+then situated near the mouth of the Platte.
+
+Möllhausen remained with the Oto until the temporary camp was abandoned,
+then returned with them to their permanent village. The journey required
+several weeks but in time they approached the Missouri, and as they
+neared their destination: "We passed the burial place of the Ottoes just
+before we descended into the valley, and shortly afterwards came to the
+village. The first consisted of a number of hillocks inclosed by rough
+palings, and decorated with sticks with little bits of coloured stuff
+and feathers fluttering from them. The village, which lay not many
+hundred yards farther was a group of about sixty huts of various
+construction, some of clay, shaped like haycocks or baking ovens, others
+like small houses, built of thick oak bark. These dwellings stood mostly
+empty, as the inhabitants had pitched their tents just now in the angle
+formed by the Nebrasca and Missouri, on account of the rich grass to be
+found in these bottom lands under the protecting snow, and because they
+and their cattle were in that situation more sheltered from the violent
+gales of wind." (Möllhausen, (1), I, pp. 210-211.) Here is a reference
+to a third form of habitation known to the Oto. In addition to the
+earth-covered lodge and the skin tipi, both of which were characteristic
+of the time and place, they appear to have reared structures similar to
+the habitation of the Sauk and Fox, as shown in plate 19, a type of
+dwelling known to several neighboring tribes in the upper Mississippi
+Valley.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 34
+
+[Illustration: _a._ "Pemmican maul, Oto Agency, Nebrasca, J. W. Griest."
+Formed of one piece of wood. Extreme length, 39 inches. (U.S.N.M.
+22437)]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Heavy stone maul with handle attached. "Yankton
+Sioux. Fort Berthold. Drs. Gray and Matthews, U. S. A." Extreme length
+about 2 feet 2 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6325)]
+
+[Illustration: _c._ "Tools of the Mandans for dressing leather, Dakota.
+Drs. Gray and Matthews, U. S. A." Handle of antler, with flint blade
+attached. Extreme length of handle about 11 inches. (U.S.N.M. 8409)]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 35
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Oto dugout canoe, from Kurz's Sketchbook, May 15,
+1851]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Bull-boat and paddle, obtained from the Hidatsa.
+Marked "Fort Buford, Dak. Ter. Grosventres Tribe. Drs. Gray and
+Matthews." (U.S.N.M. 9785)]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 36
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Structure showing arbor over entrance]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Long structure with entrance on one side
+
+WINNEBAGO HABITATIONS, ABOUT 1870]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 37
+
+[Illustration: WINNEBAGO STRUCTURES]
+
+It is quite evident that after leaving the permanent earth-lodge village
+of the Oto the Long party just a century ago passed one of the temporary
+camps of the same people. This, fortunately, was sketched by the artist
+of the expedition and reproduced in the narrative of the journey, and is
+now shown in plate 33. To quote from the narrative: "For the
+elucidation of what we have said respecting the form and arrangement of
+the skin, or travelling lodges of the Indians, we subjoin an engraving,
+representing an encampment of Oto Indians, which Mr. Seymour sketched
+near the Platte river. In this plate, the group of Indians on the left
+is intended to represent a party of Konza Indians approaching to perform
+the calumet dance in the Oto village. It may be proper to remark, that
+this party when still distant from the Otoes, had sent forward a
+messenger, with the offer of a prize to the first Oto that should meet
+them. This circumstance was productive of much bustle and activity among
+the warriors and young men, who eagerly mounted their horses, and
+exerted their utmost speed." (James. (1), II, pp. 188-189.)
+
+Various ethnological specimens collected among the Oto a generation or
+more ago are in the collections of the National Museum. One quite rare
+object, a "pemmican maul," formed of a single piece of wood, is figured
+in plate 34, _a_.
+
+An original sketch by Kurz in May, 1851, representing a group of Oto
+with a dugout canoe, is reproduced in plate 35, _a_.
+
+MISSOURI.
+
+In the narrative of the Lewis and Clark expedition appears this record:
+"June 13, 1804. We passed ... a bend of the river, Missouri and two
+creeks on the north, called the Round Bend creeks. Between these two
+creeks is the prairie, in which once stood the ancient village of the
+Missouris. Of this village there remains no vestige, nor is there any
+thing to recall this great and numerous nation, except a feeble remnant
+of about thirty families. They were driven from their original seats by
+the invasions of the Sauks and other Indians from the Mississippi, who
+destroyed at this village two hundred of them in one contest." (Lewis
+and Clark, (1), I, p. 13.) About 5 miles beyond they reached the mouth
+of Grand River which flows from the northwest, serves as the boundary
+between Carroll and Chariton Counties, Missouri, and enters the left
+bank of the Missouri River. Therefore the old village of the Missouri
+evidently stood at some point in the latter county. It was probably
+composed of a number of mat and bark covered lodges resembling the
+village of the Osage which stood a few miles farther up the river. Two
+days later, June 15, the party identified the site or remains of the
+former village of the Little Osage, and, so the narrative continues:
+"About three miles above them, in view of our camp is the situation of
+the old village of the Missouris after they fled from the Sauks." (Op.
+cit., p. 15.) From this village the few Missouri Indians appear to have
+sought refuge among the Oto, then living on the banks of the Platte.
+
+WINNIBAGO.
+
+When first known to Europeans the Winnebago occupied the region west of
+Green Bay, west of Lake Michigan, where, according to the Jesuit
+missionaries, they had resided for many generations. There they were
+living in the year 1634 when visited by Nicollet, and just 35 years
+later, during the winter of 1669-70, a mission on the shore of the same
+bay was conducted by Père Allouez, which proved a gathering place for
+various tribes, including the Winnebago, Sauk and Foxes, Menominee, and
+Potawatomi. These, with the exception of the Winnebago, were Algonquian
+tribes.
+
+As already mentioned, the Oto, Iowa, and Missouri appear to have been
+closely connected with the Winnebago, all speaking dialects understood
+by one another. And it is also evident that when the Oto, Iowa, and
+Missouri began their movement westward to the Mississippi and beyond the
+Winnebago remained behind. However, about the beginning of the last
+century they reached the banks of the Mississippi, and by successive
+moves during the next 50 years some arrived in western Minnesota, soon
+to be removed to lands beyond the Missouri, adjoining the Omaha, in the
+northeastern part of Nebraska.
+
+While living in the vicinity of Green Bay their villages were groups of
+mat and bark-covered lodges, typical of the tribes of the wooded country
+which abounded in lakes and streams. And it is quite evident that during
+their migration westward, when they made long stops before finally
+reaching the banks of the Missouri, they continued to erect and occupy
+structures similar to those which had stood in their old villages
+generations before.
+
+Typical examples of Winnebago dwellings are shown in plates 36 and 37.
+The arbor over the entrance is an interesting feature, seldom appearing
+in the Algonquian villages, although often shown in front of Siouan
+lodges.
+
+In a forthcoming publication Radin has given a list of the various forms
+of structures erected by the Winnebago, some of which existed until very
+recent years. (Radin, (1).)
+
+MANDAN.
+
+As mentioned in the sketch of the Assiniboin, a small party of French
+accompanied by members of that tribe during the autumn of 1738 went
+southward from the Assiniboin country to the Mandan towns, where the
+French remained several weeks. The leader of the expedition, La
+Verendrye, prepared an account of the journey, this being the earliest
+record of a visit by Europeans to the Mandans known to exist, although
+it is easily conceived that French trappers may have been among the
+tribe earlier in the century.
+
+The expedition arrived among the Mandan November 28, 1738, after a
+journey of 46 days, but soon pushed forward to a larger village.
+Fortunately the journal contains references to the ways of life of the
+Mandan and a brief description of their fortified or protected
+settlements. At that time the tribe was said to have had six villages,
+and evidently all were protected by encircling palisades. The village in
+which the French then rested consisted of 130 lodges, and "all the
+streets, squares and huts resembled each other." The French were
+particularly interested in the manner in which the town was protected,
+but the account in the journal must exaggerate the strength, or rather
+the size, of the ditch. The palisade was described as being 15 feet in
+height, and "At fifteen points doubled are green skins which are put for
+sheathing when required, fastened only above in the places needed, as in
+the bastion there are four at each curtain well flanked. The fort is
+built on a height in the open prairie with a ditch upwards of fifteen
+feet deep by fifteen to eighteen feet wide. Their fort can only be
+gained by steps or posts which can be removed when threatened by an
+enemy. If all their forts are alike, they may be called impregnable to
+Indians.... Both men and women of this nation are very laborious; their
+huts are large and spacious, separated into several apartments by thick
+planks; nothing is left lying about; all their baggage is in large bags
+hung on posts; their beds made like tombs surrounded by skins.... Their
+fort is full of caves, in which are stored such articles as grain, food,
+fat, dressed robes, bear skins. They are well supplied with these; it is
+the money of the country.... They make wicker work very neatly, flat and
+in baskets. They make use of earthen pots, which they use like many
+other nations for cooking their food." (La Verendrye, (1), p. 21.) In
+addition to the six more important villages there appear to have been
+others, similar but smaller. Referring to these La Verendrye wrote (p.
+23): "We noticed that in the plain there were several small forts, of
+forty or fifty huts, built like the large ones, but no one was there at
+the time. They made us understand that they came inside for the summer
+to work their fields and that there was a large reserve of grain in
+their cellars." Evidently these were nearer their cornfields, away from
+the river banks, and were occupied only parts of each year.
+
+From this all too brief account of the Mandan it is quite evident that
+when they were first encountered by the French, living in their earth
+lodges, their villages strongly palisaded, their caches filled with corn
+and other food supplies, buffalo robes and bear skins, they were in
+their most powerful and prosperous state. But what great changes they
+were destined to undergo during the next hundred years!
+
+On October 19, 1804, the Lewis and Clark party discovered the first of
+the ruined villages of the Mandan, evidently standing on the left bank
+of the Missouri, in the southern part of the present Burleigh County,
+North Dakota. It proved an interesting day. "In walking along the shore
+we counted fifty-two herds of buffaloe and three of elk, at a single
+view. Besides these we also observed elk, deer, pelicans, and wolves."
+The ruined village had been protected by palisades and, according to the
+Arikara chief, who accompanied them, had been occupied by the Mandan.
+These, so they wrote, "are the first ruins which we have seen of that
+nation in ascending the Missouri." During the night of October 19 the
+expedition encamped on the south, i. e., right, bank of the Missouri,
+evidently about 2 miles below the mouth of Little Heart River, which
+flows from the westward and joins the Missouri in the present Morton
+County, North Dakota. The following day they advanced 12 miles up the
+Missouri.
+
+October 21, 1804, was cold and bleak. Snow and ice covered the ground,
+and the wind blew strong from the northeast. That day the expedition
+advanced only 7 miles. They passed the mouth of Big Heart River and the
+site of Bismarck, the present capital of the State. Two miles above
+their camp of the night previous, about opposite the mouth of the Big
+Heart, they reached "the ruins of a second Mandan village, which was in
+existence at the same time with that just mentioned. It is situated on
+the north at the foot of a hill in a beautiful and extensive plain,
+which is now covered with herds of buffaloes; nearly opposite are
+remains of a third village on the south of the Missouri, and there is
+another also about two miles further on the north, a little off the
+river. At the distance of seven miles we encamped on the south, and
+spent a cold night." The next day, October 22, they discovered other
+ruined towns of the Mandan. "In the morning we passed an old Mandan
+village on the south, near our camp; at four miles another on the same
+side.... At six we reached an island about one mile in length, at the
+head of which is a Mandan village on the north in ruins, and two miles
+beyond a bad sandbar. At eight miles are remains of another Mandan
+village on the south; and at twelve miles encamped on the south....
+These villages, which are nine in number, are scattered along each side
+of the river within a space of twenty miles; almost all that remains of
+them is the wall which surrounds them, the fallen heaps of earth which
+covered the houses, and occasionally human skulls and the teeth and
+bones of men, and different animals, which are scattered on the surface
+of the ground." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 112-114.) Other deserted
+villages were passed as they continued ascending the Missouri, to arrive
+late on the 26th of October, at an old field of the Mandan, about
+one-half mile below the first of their then occupied villages.
+
+The winter encampment of the expedition, Fort Mandan, was situated on
+the left bank of the Missouri, about opposite the future Fort Clark, and
+some 7 or 8 miles below the mouth of Knife River, and consequently
+several miles from the first Mandan village. Here the expedition
+remained until April 7, 1805. The lower of the Mandan villages was
+"Matootonha," the second and smaller was "Rooptahee." The list continues
+and refers to "the third village which is called Mahawha, and where the
+Arwacahwas reside." "The fourth village where the Minnetarees live, and
+which is called Metaharta." A fifth village is mentioned but its name is
+not given. (Op. cit., pp. 120-121.) Referring to these more in detail
+the narrative tells something of their origin: November 21, 1804, "The
+villages near which we are established are five in number, and are the
+residence of three distinct nations: the Mandans, the Ahnahaways, and
+the Minnetarees. The history of the Mandans, as we received it from our
+interpreters and from the chiefs themselves, and as it is attested by
+existing monuments, illustrates more than that of any other nation the
+unsteady movements and the tottering fortunes of the American nations.
+Within the recollection of living witnesses, the Mandans were settled
+forty years ago in nine villages, the ruins of which we passed about
+eighty miles below, and situated seven on the west and two on the east
+side of the Missouri. The two finding themselves wasting away before the
+small-pox and the Sioux, united into one village, and moved up the river
+opposite to the Ricaras. The same causes reduced the remaining seven to
+five villages, till at length they emigrated in a body to the Ricara
+nation, where they formed themselves into two villages, and joined those
+of their countrymen who had gone before them. In their new residence
+they were still insecure, and at length the three villages ascended the
+Missouri to their present position. The two who had emigrated together
+still settled in the two villages on the northwest side of the Missouri,
+while the single village took a position on the southeast side. In this
+situation they were found by those who visited them in 1796; since which
+the two villages have united into one. They are now in two villages, one
+on the southeast of the Missouri, the other on the opposite side, and at
+the distance of three miles across. The first, in an open plain,
+contains about forty or fifty lodges, built in the same way as those of
+the Ricaras: the second, the same number, and both may raise about three
+hundred and fifty men.
+
+"On the same side of the river, and at the distance of four miles from
+the lower Mandan village, is another called Mahaha. It is situated in a
+high plain at the mouth of the Knife river, and is the residence of the
+Ahnahaways. This nation, whose name indicated that they were 'people
+whose village is on a hill,' formerly resided on the Missouri, about
+thirty miles below where they now live. The Assiniboins and Sioux forced
+them to a spot five miles higher, where the greatest part of them were
+put to death, and the rest emigrated to their present situation, in
+order to obtain an asylum near the Minnetarees. They are called by the
+French, Soulier Noir or Shoe Indians; by the Mandans, Wattasoons, and
+their whole force is about fifty men.
+
+"On the south side of the same Knife river, half a mile above the Mahaha
+and in the same open plain with it, is a village of the Minnetarees
+surnamed Metaharta, who are about one hundred and fifty men in number.
+On the opposite side of Knife river, and one and a half mile above this
+village is a second of Minnetarees, who may be considered as the proper
+Minnetaree nation. It is situated in a beautiful low plain, and contains
+four hundred and fifty warriors." (Op. cit., pp. 129-131.)
+
+In their journal, kept while in winter quarters at Fort Mandan, are to
+be found many interesting references to the Mandan. To quote several of
+these will tend to shed light on the ways of life in the native village.
+On November 22, 1804, the Mandan sold to the members of the expedition
+"a quantity of corn of a mixed colour, which they dug up in ears from
+the holes made near the front of their lodges, in which it is buried
+during the winter." This had probably been gathered only a few weeks
+before the arrival of the party at the village, then deposited in the
+caches for future use. December 19 the weather had moderated, and the
+Indians were seen playing a game on the level space between the lodges
+of the first and second chiefs, a distance of about 50 yards. The entry
+for January 13, 1805, contains an interesting note: "We have a
+continuation of clear weather, and the cold has increased, the mercury
+having sunk to 34 below 0. Nearly one half of the Mandan nation passed
+down the river to hunt for several days; in these excursions men, women
+and children, with their dogs, all leave the village together, and after
+discovering a spot convenient for the game, fix their tents; all the
+family bear their part in the labour, and the game is equally divided
+among the families of the tribe." And on February 12, it was told how
+"The horses of the Mandans are so often stolen by the Sioux, Ricaras,
+and Assiniboins, that the invariable rule now is to put the horses every
+night in the same lodge with the family. In the summer they ramble in
+the plains in the vicinity of the camp, and feed on the grass, but
+during cold weather the squaws cut down the cottonwood trees as they are
+wanted, and the horses feed on the boughs and bark of the tender
+branches, which are also brought into the lodges at night and placed
+near them."
+
+About the year 1797, and consequently a few years before the arrival of
+the Lewis and Clark expedition at the Mandan villages, John McDonnell,
+a partner of the North-West Company, made brief mention of the Mandan in
+his journal. He wrote: "These Indians live in settled villages,
+fortified with palisades, which they seldom ever abandon, and they are
+the best husbandman in the whole Northwest. They raise indian corn or
+maize, beans, pumpkins, squashes in considerable quantity, not only
+sufficient to supply their own wants, with the help of the buffalo, but
+also to sell and give away to all strangers that enter their villages."
+(McDonnell, (1), pp. 272-273.) And in 1804 another representative of the
+old North-West Company referred to the gardens of the Mandans and said
+in part:
+
+"In the spring, as soon as the weather and the state of the ground will
+permit, the women repair to the fields, when they cut the stalks of the
+Indian corn of the preceding year and drop new seed into the socket of
+the remaining roots. A small kind of pumpkins which are very productive
+they plant with a dibble, and raise the ground into hillocks the same as
+those about Indian corn. Their kidney beans they plant in the same
+manner. They cultivate a tall kind of sunflower, the seed of which is
+reckoned good eating dry and pounded with fat and made into balls of
+three or four ounces; they are found excellent for long journeys."
+(Mackenzie, Charles, (1), pp. 338-339.) And the narrative continued:
+"The only implement used among the Mandanes for the purpose of
+agriculture is a hoe made from the shoulder blade of a buffalo and which
+is ingrafted upon a short crooked handle. With this crooked instrument
+they work very expeditiously, and soon do all that is required for their
+supplies."
+
+As already mentioned, the Lewis and Clark party departed from their
+winter quarters April 7, 1805, to pursue their journey westward. The
+next year, on August 14, 1806, when returning, they again arrived at the
+Mandan villages. They reached Rooptahee, where they were kindly received
+by the people, but it is interesting to know that during the 16 months
+which had intervened between the departure and return of the Lewis and
+Clark party a great change had taken place in the appearance of the
+native village. As mentioned in the journal, "This village has been
+rebuilt since our departure, and was now much smaller; a quarrel having
+arisen among the Indians, in consequence of which a number of families
+had removed to the opposite side of the river." Such were the changes
+ever occurring among the people of the upper Missouri. Old villages were
+abandoned and new ones built, some to be divided and others united,
+consequently very few of the ruined sites discovered along the course of
+the river represent towns which were occupied at the same time.
+
+Although the work just quoted contains much of interest pertaining to
+the Mandan and neighboring tribes, subsequent writers described the
+appearance of the villages and separate structures more in detail, and
+from the narratives of Catlin and Maximilian, supplemented by many
+sketches, it is possible to visualize the primitive earth-lodge villages
+with their many peculiar features.
+
+Catlin remained among the Mandan for some weeks during the year 1832 and
+wrote at that time: "They have two villages only, which are about two
+miles distant from each other.... Their present villages are beautifully
+located, and judiciously also, for defence against the assaults of their
+enemies. The site of the lower (or principal) town, in particular is one
+of the most beautiful and pleasing that can be seen in the world, and
+even more beautiful than imagination could ever create. In the very
+midst of an extensive valley (embraced within a thousand graceful swells
+and parapets or mounds of interminable green, changing to blue, as they
+vanish in distance) is built the city, or principal town of the
+Mandans." This was evidently the lower village, the first encountered
+when ascending the Missouri, the Matootonha of Lewis and Clark, and
+Mihtutta-hangusch of Maximilian. Describing the position of this town,
+Catlin continued: "The ground on which the Mandan village is at present
+built, was admirably selected for defence; being on a bank forty or
+fifty feet above the bed of the river. The greater part of this bank is
+nearly perpendicular and of solid rock. The river, suddenly changing its
+course to a right-angle, protects two sides of the village, which is
+built upon this promontory or angle; they have therefore but one side to
+protect, which is effectually done by a strong piquet, and a ditch
+inside of it, of three or four feet in depth. The piquet is composed of
+timbers of a foot or more in diameter, and eighteen feet high, set
+firmly in the ground at sufficient distances from each other to admit of
+guns and other missiles to be fired between them. The ditch ... is
+inside of the piquet, in which their warriors screen their bodies from
+the view and weapons of their enemies." (Catlin, (1), I, pp. 80-81.)
+This is followed by a description of the earth-covered lodges, "closely
+grouped together, leaving but just room enough for walking and riding
+between them." Outside they appeared to be made entirely of earth, but
+entering he was surprised "to see the neatness, comfort, and spacious
+dimensions of these earth-covered dwellings." The structures varied in
+size, some being 40, others 60 feet in diameter. All were of a circular
+form with the floors 2 feet or more below the original surface. "In the
+centre, and immediately under the sky-light is the fire-place, a hole of
+four or five feet in diameter, of a circular form, sunk a foot or more
+below the surface, and curbed around with stone. Over the fire-place,
+and suspended from the apex of diverging props or poles, is generally
+seen the pot or kettle, filled with buffalo meat; and around it are the
+family, reclining in all the most picturesque attitudes and groups,
+resting on their buffalo-robes and beautiful mats of rushes." Their
+beds, or sleeping places, stood against the wall and were formed of
+poles lashed together and covered with buffalo skins. Each such bed was
+screened by skins of the buffalo or elk, arranged as curtains, with a
+hole in front to serve as an entrance. "Some of these coverings or
+curtains are exceedingly beautiful, being cut tastefully into fringe,
+and handsomely ornamented with porcupine's quills and picture writings
+or hieroglyphics." Catlin's sketch of the interior of a lodge, as just
+described, is reproduced in plate 38, _a_. In this picture the beds
+resting against the wall are clearly shown, the sunken fireplace is
+surrounded by the occupants of the lodge, and on the extreme right are
+two pottery vessels and a bull-boat, so characteristic of the upper
+Missouri.
+
+Near the center of the large village, surrounded by the lodges, was the
+open space where games were played and their various ceremonies enacted.
+Referring to this, Catlin wrote (Op. cit., p. 88): "In the centre of the
+village is an open space, or public area, of 150 feet in diameter, and
+circular in form, which is used for all public games and festivals,
+shows and exhibitions and also for their 'annual religious
+ceremonies.'... The lodges around this open space front in, with their
+doors towards the centre; and in the middle of this circle stands an
+object of great religious veneration.... This object is in form of a
+large hogshead, some eight or ten feet high, made of planks and
+hoops.... One of the lodges fronting on this circular area, and facing
+this strange object of their superstition, is called the 'Medicine
+Lodge,' or council house. It is in this sacred building that these
+wonderful ceremonies, in commemoration of the flood, take place." Later
+Catlin witnessed the remarkable ceremony, as enacted by the Mandan in
+the midst of their large village, and prepared a series of paintings
+showing the various phases. The original pictures are in the collection
+belonging to the United States National Museum, and one, the last,
+showing what they termed the "last race," is now reproduced as plate 38,
+_b_. In the center of the open space stands the sacred object, "in form
+of a large hogshead." An outline drawing of this painting was reproduced
+as plate 69 in Catlin's work.
+
+One of the most interesting and vivid passages in Catlin's writings is
+his description of this village as it impressed him. To quote (Op. cit.,
+pp. 88-89): "In ranging the eye over the village from where I am
+writing, there is presented to the view the strangest mixture and medley
+of unintelligible trash (independent of the living beings that are in
+motion), that can possibly be imagined. On the roofs of the lodges,
+besides the groups of living, are buffaloes' skulls, skin canoes, pots
+and pottery; sleds and sledges--and suspended on poles, erected some
+twenty feet above the doors of their wigwams, are displayed in a
+pleasant day, the scalps of warriors, preserved as trophies; and thus
+proudly exposed as evidence of their warlike deeds. In other parts are
+raised on poles the warriors' pure and whitened shields and quivers,
+with medicine-bags attached; and here and there a sacrifice of red
+cloth, or other costly stuff, offered up to the Great Spirit, over the
+door of some benignant chief, in humble gratitude for the blessings
+which he is enjoying. Such is a part of the strange medley that is
+before and around me; and amidst them ... can be seen in distance, the
+green and boundless, treeless, bushless prairie; and on it, and
+contiguous to the piquet which encloses the village, a hundred scaffolds
+on which their 'dead live,' as they term it." Such was the appearance of
+the great Mandan town in the year 1832, and this description would
+probably have applied to many of the ruined villages which stood on the
+banks of the Missouri farther down the river, which were occupied during
+past generations by the ancestors of those whom Catlin met and whose
+portraits have been preserved.
+
+Maximilian, accompanied by the artist Karl Bodmer, left St. Louis April
+10, 1833, on board the steamboat _Yellow Stone_, bound for the upper
+Missouri. Arriving at Fort Pierre they boarded the _Assiniboin_. The
+_Yellow Stone_ being loaded with "7,000 buffalo skins and other furs,"
+was to return to St. Louis. Starting from Fort Pierre June 5, they
+arrived at Fort Clark, among the Mandan, just two weeks later.
+Maximilian wrote on June 18: "At half-past seven we passed a roundish
+island covered with willows, and reached then the wood on the western
+bank, in which the winter dwellings of part of the Mandan Indian are
+situated; and saw, at a distance, the largest village of this tribe,
+Mih-Tutta-Hang-Kush, in the vicinity of which the whole prairie was
+covered with riders and pedestrians. As we drew nearer the huts of that
+village, Fort Clarke, lying before it, relieved by the background of the
+blue prairie hills, came in sight, with the gay American banner waving
+from the flag-staff.... The _Assiniboin_ soon lay to before the fort,
+against the gently sloping shore, where above 600 Indians were waiting
+for us." (Maximilian, (1), p. 171.) They departed from Fort Clark the
+following day and on June 24, "the seventy-fifth day since our departure
+from St. Louis," arrived at Fort Union, near the mouth of the
+Yellowstone. Returning to Fort Clark November 8, they remained
+throughout the winter, departing April 18, 1834.
+
+During the long winter months Maximilian learned much of the manners and
+ways of life of the Mandan, and his records are, in many respects, to be
+preferred to those of Catlin. To quote his description of the Mandan
+towns: "Their villages are assemblages of clay huts, of greater or less
+extent, placed close to each other, without regard to order.
+Mih-Tutta-Hang-Kush, the largest of the Mandan villages, was about 150
+or 200 paces in diameter, the second was much smaller. The circumference
+forms an irregular circle, and was anciently surrounded with strong
+posts, or palisades, which have, however, gradually disappeared as the
+natives used them for fuel in the cold winters. At four places, at
+nearly equal distances from each other, is a bastion built of clay,
+furnished with loop-holes, and lined both within and without with
+basket-work of willow branches. They form an angle, and are open towards
+the village; the earth is filled in between the basket-work and it is
+said that these bulwarks, which are now in a state of decay, were
+erected for the Indians by the Whites." It is curious and interesting
+that a similar observation should have been made by La Verendrye nearly
+a century before, and so the question arises, If made by Europeans, who
+were they? No protection or fortification of this sort was at the second
+and smaller village. A plan of the larger village, indicating its
+position on the right bank of the Missouri a short distance above Fort
+Clark, is given by Maximilian on page 394 and is here reproduced in
+figure 4. This would probably have been near the southern line of the
+present Mercer County, North Dakota.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Plan of the large Mandan village, 1833.]
+
+Continuing the description of the large village, Maximilian wrote: "The
+huts, as I have before remarked, stand close to each other, leaving, in
+the centre, an open circular space, about sixty paces in diameter, in
+the centre of which (among the Mandans) the ark of the first man is set
+up, of which we shall speak in the sequel. It is a small cylinder, open
+above, made of planks, about four or five feet high, fixed in the
+ground, and bound with climbing plants, or pliable boughs, to hold them
+together (see the woodcut, p. 342 [fig. 5]).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--"The ark of the first man."]
+
+"At the north end of this circular space is the medicine lodge, in which
+festivals are celebrated, and certain customs practised, which are
+connected with the religious notions of this people.... At the top of a
+high pole, a figure is here placed, made of skins, with a wooden head,
+the face painted black, and wearing a fur cap and feathers, which is
+intended to represent the evil spirit Ochkih-Hadda.... Other grotesque
+figures, made of skins and bundles of twigs, we saw hanging on high
+poles, most of them being offerings to the deity. Among the huts are
+many stages of several stories, supported by poles, on which they dry
+the maize. The huts themselves are of a circular form, slightly vaulted,
+having a sort of portico entrance. When the inmates are absent the
+entrance is shut up with twigs and thorns; and if they wish merely to
+close the door they put up a skin stretched out on a frame, which is
+shoved aside on entering. In the centre of the roof is a square opening
+for the smoke to find vent, over which is a circular sort of screen made
+of twigs, as a protection against the wind and rain, and which, when
+necessary, is covered with skins (see woodcut [fig. 6]).
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 38
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Interior of a Mandan lodge. George Catlin]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Scene in a Mandan village. George Catlin]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 39
+
+[Illustration: "MIH-TUTTA-HANG-KUSCH," A MANDAN VILLAGE
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833]
+
+"The interior of the hut is spacious, tolerably light, and cleanly. Four
+strong pillars towards the middle, with several cross beams, support the
+roof. The inner circumference of the hut is formed by eleven or fifteen
+thick posts, four or five feet in height, between which other rather
+shorter ones are placed close to each other. On these shorter posts,
+which are all of an equal height, are long rafters, inclining to the
+centre; they are placed near each other, and bear the roof. On the
+outside the huts are covered with a kind of mat, made of osiers, joined
+together with bark, and now the skeleton of the hut is finished. Over
+this hay is spread, and the outer covering is of earth. The men and
+women work together in erecting these huts, and the relations,
+neighbours, and friends, assist them in the work.... In the centre of
+the hut a circular place is dug for the fire, over which the kettle is
+suspended. This fire-place, or hearth, is often enclosed with a ledge
+of stones. The fuel is laid, in moderately thick pieces, on the external
+edge of the hearth, crossing each other in the middle, when it is
+kindled, and the pieces gradually pushed in as they burn away. The
+Indians are not fond of large fires. The inmates sit round it, on low
+seats, made of peeled osiers, covered with buffalo or bear skin. Round
+the inner circumference of the hut lie or hang the baggage, the
+furniture, and other property, in leather bags, the painted parchment
+travelling bags, and the harness of the horses; and on separate stages
+there are arms, sledges, and snow-shoes, while meat and maize, piled up,
+complete the motley assemblage." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 342-344.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Typical earth lodges.]
+
+Among the many interesting paintings made by Bodmer during his journey
+with Maximilian is one of the large Mandan village, plate 39, looking
+down the Missouri, showing the cluster of earth lodges on the summit of
+the cliff which terminates abruptly at the river. A structure rather
+lower than the others, on the immediate edge of the level area, is
+probably the "bastion," as represented in the plan, figure 4, pointing
+out over the cliff. Beyond the village, but evidently screened from view
+by the high cliff upon which the latter stood, was Fort Clark, near the
+mouth of a small stream which flowed into the Missouri.
+
+In these large circular structures the beds stood against the wall and
+the single opening faced inward. These were described by Catlin and
+clearly indicated in his drawing of an interior of a lodge, plate 38,
+_a_. In Maximilian's work (p. 344) is a sketch of such a bed which shows
+it as a unit, not attached to the wall, and capable of being moved
+about. The sketch is reproduced in figure 7. These were so formed and
+inclosed in skins as to protect the occupants from the cold blasts of
+air which must have circulated about in the interior of the lodge during
+certain seasons of the year. And as additional protection "In the
+winter huts they place, at the inside of the door, a high screen of
+willow boughs, covered with hides, which keeps off the draught of air
+from without, and especially protects the fire." And Maximilian related
+how, about the middle of November or before, the Indians removed to
+their winter huts which were in a timbered area, and thus more protected
+from the winds and storms of winter. There they remained until the
+latter part of February, or the beginning of March, being governed by
+the climatic conditions. Thus about four months of the year would be
+spent in their winter village. As the greater part of their possessions
+would be deposited in underground caches they made frequent trips
+between their villages to get what was desired--food, clothing, skins,
+and other supplies. In the winter, when the frozen prairie was covered
+with ice and snow, they made use of sledges drawn by dogs to transport
+their goods from place to place. The sledges were "made of a couple of
+thin, narrow boards, nine or ten feet in length, fastened together with
+leather straps, and with four cross-pieces, by way of giving them
+firmness."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Inclosed bed.]
+
+On the evening of November 30, 1833, Maximilian returned to Fort Clark
+from a visit of a few days to the villages a short distance above. They
+passed through "the forest-village belonging to the inhabitants of
+Ruhptare," referring to the winter village of the people of the smaller
+Mandan town. They entered one of the winter lodges, and "there was an
+abundance of meat hanging up in this hut, as they had had a very
+successful buffalo hunt." After returning to Fort Clark Maximilian
+wrote: "The Mandan village near the fort was now entirely forsaken by
+the inhabitants. The entrances to the huts were blocked with bundles of
+thorns; a couple of families only still remained, one of which was that
+of Dipauch, whom Mr Bodmer visited every day, in order to make a drawing
+of the interior of the hut. Instead of the numerous inhabitants, magpies
+were flying about, and flocks of snow buntings were seen in the
+neighbourhood about the dry plants of the prairie, where the Indian
+children set long rows of snares, made of horsehair, to catch them
+alive." (Op. cit., p. 425.) The drawing made by Bodmer of the interior
+of the lodge proves to be one of his most interesting pictures. It was
+reproduced as plate XIX, and is here shown in plate 40.
+
+The people of Mih-tutta-hang-kusch having removed to their winter
+settlement, prepared to have "a great medicine feast," and Maximilian
+was invited to be present, and so, as he recorded in his narrative, "we
+proceeded thither, on the 3rd of December, in the afternoon. Mr. Kipp
+took his family with him, and Mato-Topé and several other Indians
+accompanied us. We were all well armed, because it was asserted that a
+band of hostile Indians had been seen among the prairie hills on the
+preceding day. Our beds, blankets, and buffalo skins were laid on a
+horse, on which Mr Kipp's wife, a Mandan Indian, rode. Thus we passed,
+at a rapid pace, through the prairie, along the Missouri, then below the
+hills, which are pretty high.... After proceeding about an hour and a
+half we reached the village in the wood, which is the winter residence
+of the inhabitants of Mih-Tutta-Hang-Kush. We stopped at the hut of Mr.
+Kipp's father-in-law, Mandeek-Suck-Choppenik (the medicine bird), who
+accommodated us with a night's lodging. The description of this hut may
+serve for all the winter huts of these Indians. It was about twenty
+paces in diameter, and circular; _h_ is the fence or wall of the hut,
+supported inside by strong, low posts, on which rests the vaulted roof,
+which has a square hole to let the smoke escape; _g_ is the entrance,
+protected by two projecting walls covered above. At _f_ is the door,
+consisting of a piece of leather stretched on a frame. At _d d_ there is
+a cross wall of considerable height, made of reeds and osier twigs woven
+together, to keep off the draught of air. At _e e e_ there is another
+cross wall, only three feet high, behind which the horses stand; _a_ is
+the fireplace, round which, at _c c c c_, are the seats of the inmates,
+consisting of benches formed of basket-work, covered with skins; _b b b
+b_ are four strong pillars which bear the roof, and are very well united
+above by cross beams. At _i_ there was a large leather case for the beds
+in which the family slept. A chain, with a large kettle, was suspended
+from the roof over the fire, to cook our supper, consisting of very
+pleasant flavoured sweet maize." (Op. cit., pp. 425-426.) A plan of the
+lodge is given on page 426, here reproduced as figure 8.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Plan of the interior of a Mandan lodge.]
+
+The "great medicine feast" was to begin the evening of their arrival at
+the winter village and to last 40 nights. That evening "after seven
+o'clock we repaired to the medicine lodge; it was entirely cleared,
+except that some women sat along the walls; the fire burned in the
+centre, before which we took our seats, near the partition _d d_, with
+several distinguished men of the band of soldiers. At our left hand, the
+other soldiers, about twenty-five in number, were seated in a row; some
+of them were handsomely dressed, though the majority were in plain
+clothes. They had their arms in their hands, and in the centre were
+three men who beat the drum." (Op. cit., pp. 426-427.) The lengthy
+detailed account of what followed during the course of the "feast" is
+most interesting, but will not be mentioned in this sketch.
+
+As among the many neighboring tribes of the Missouri Valley, the buffalo
+served as the principal source of food for the Mandan. Often sufficient
+meat could be secured very near the towns; again it would be necessary
+to undertake long journeys in search of the moving herds. It will be
+recalled that on January 13, 1805, when the mercury stood 34° below
+zero, Lewis and Clark saw "nearly one half of the Mandan nation" pass
+down the frozen Missouri on a hunt to last several days. And a few years
+later, just at the beginning of summer, June 25, 1811, Brackenridge
+wrote: "At ten, passed an old Mandan village; and at some distance
+above, saw a great number of Mandan Indians on their march along the
+prairie. They sometimes go on hunting parties by whole villages, which
+is the case at present; they are about five hundred in number, some on
+horseback, some on foot, their tents and baggage drawn by dogs. On these
+great hunting parties, the women are employed in preserving the hides,
+drying the meat, and making a provision to keep. Very little of the
+buffalo is lost, for after taking the marrow, they pound the bones, boil
+them, and preserve the oil." (Brackenridge, (1), p. 260.) On such trips
+away from their permanent earth-lodge villages the Mandan made use of
+the skin-covered tipi.
+
+In addition to the food supplied by the chase the people of the
+permanent villages had large gardens in which they raised quantities of
+corn and beans of various sorts, gourds and sunflowers of several
+varieties, and of the seeds of the latter "very nice cakes are made."
+Many animals in addition to the buffalo, and various plants besides
+those cultivated in the gardens, served the Mandan for food.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 40
+
+[Illustration: "THE INTERIOR OF THE HUT OF A MANDAN CHIEF"
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 41
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Mandan wooden bowl. Marked "Ft. Berthold, Dacotah
+Ter. Drs. Gray and Matthews." Diameter 7-1/4 inches, depth 2 inches.
+(U.S.N.M. 6341)]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Mandan earthenware jar, collected by Drs. Gray and
+Matthews. (U.S.N.M. 8407)]
+
+[Illustration: _c._ Wooden bowl. Marked "Bowl of Mandan Indians, Dakota
+T. Drs. Gray and Matthews--U. S. A." Diameters 10-3/4 and 9-1/4 inches,
+depth 3-1/2 inches. (U.S.N.M. 8406)]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 42
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Spoon, marked "Buffalo horn spoon, presented by Gen.
+T. Duncan." Length about 10 inches. (U.S.N.M. 12259)]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Spoon made of horn of mountain sheep. "Mandan
+Indians, Dacotah Ter. Drs. Gray and Matthews." Extreme length 16-1/2
+inches. (U.S.N.M. 6333)]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 43
+
+[Illustration: "MINATARREE VILLAGE"
+
+George Catlin]
+
+At the time of Catlin's and Maximilian's visits to the Mandan the latter
+were making and using their primitive forms of utensils such as had been
+in use for generations. Wooden mortars, bowls hollowed out of hard
+knots, spoons made of the horn of buffalo and mountain sheep, and, most
+interesting of all, dishes and vessels made of pottery--all these were
+used in the preparation or serving of food. Some remarkable examples of
+wooden bowls made by the Mandan are now preserved in the collection of
+the United States National Museum, Washington. One of the most
+interesting is shown in plate 41, _c_ (U.S.N.M. 8406), and another, of
+simpler form but equally well made, in plate 41, _a_ (U.S.N.M. 6341).
+Both examples were evidently quite old even when collected. They are
+fashioned out of maple knots, worked thin and smooth, and are beautiful
+specimens. Large spoons, often termed "drinking cups," were, as already
+mentioned, made of the horns of buffalo and mountain sheep. The former
+were extensively used by many tribes, and usually resembled the one
+shown in plate 42, _a_. The spoons made of mountain-sheep horns were
+often much larger and thinner, of a yellowish hue, and the handles were
+frequently bent into form or decorated. A very beautiful spoon of this
+sort is shown in plate 42, _b_. (U.S.N.M. 6333.)
+
+Pottery dishes and vessels, so Catlin wrote, "are a familiar part of the
+culinary furniture of every Mandan lodge, and are manufactured by the
+women of this tribe in great quantities, and modelled into a thousand
+forms and tastes. They are made by the hands of the women, from a tough
+black clay, and baked in kilns which are made for the purpose, and are
+nearly equal in hardness to our own manufacture of pottery; though they
+have not yet got the art of glazing, which would be to them a most
+valuable secret. They make them so strong and serviceable, however, that
+they hang them over the fire as we do our iron pots, and boil their meat
+in them with perfect success." (Op. cit., p. 116.) Maximilian described
+the art of pottery making among the Mandan as exactly like that of the
+two associated tribes, the Hidatsa and Arikara. He wrote regarding the
+three tribes that they "understand the manufacture of earthen pots and
+vessels, of various forms and sizes. The clay is of a dark slate colour,
+and burns a yellowish-red, very similar to what is seen in the burnt
+tops of the Missouri hills. This clay is mixed with flint or granite
+reduced to powder by the action of fire. The workwoman forms the hollow
+inside of the vessel by means of a round stone which she holds in her
+hand while she works and smooths the outside with a piece of poplar
+bark. When the pot is made, it is filled and surrounded with dry
+shavings, and then burnt, when it is ready for use. They know nothing of
+glazing." (Op. cit., p. 348.) This was probably the simple process of
+manufacture followed by the widely scattered tribes, and the apparent
+ease with which the vessels were made accounts for the great quantities
+of fragments now discovered scattered over ancient village sites. Two
+small vessels made by the Mandan, and collected by Dr. Matthews half a
+century ago, are in the National Museum collection, and one is shown in
+plate 41, _b_. Very few perfect specimens exist, several being in the
+collection of the State Historical Society of North Dakota. The
+specimens in the National Museum are rather small, but some very large
+vessels were made and used in boiling their food.
+
+Bows and arrows were the principal weapons of the Mandan. The heads of
+the arrows, at the time of Maximilian's stay among the people, were made
+of thin bits of iron, although persons then living remembered the use of
+stone. Lances and clubs were likewise made and used, and when mentioning
+the latter Maximilian said, "a simple, knotty, wooden club is called
+mauna-panischa," and gives, on page 390, a woodcut of such a weapon. It
+is of interest to know that an example of this peculiar form of weapon,
+which at once suggests the traditional club of Hercules, is preserved in
+the Museo Kircheriana, in Rome. It is one of four specimens now
+belonging to the museum which were collected by Maximilian, the other
+three being a knife sheath, a horse bridle, and a saddle blanket, all
+being beautifully decorated with colored quillwork. The club is shown in
+figure 9, after a drawing made for the writer in 1905 by Dr. Paribeni,
+of the museum. The smaller end is bound or braided with tanned skin, to
+serve as a handle, and around the upper end of the wrapping is a band of
+quillwork similar in workmanship to that on the other objects. All are
+remarkably well preserved, and several specimens in the Ethnological
+Museum in Florence may have belonged to the Maximilian collection.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Wooden club.]
+
+The Mandans, like other tribes of the upper Missouri Valley, were very
+expert in the art of dressing skins, especially those of the buffalo.
+They used two forms of implements, one of which is similar to those
+shown in plate 12, _a_; the second, rather more complicated, is
+represented in plate 34, _c_. This is a beautiful old specimen now in
+the National Museum. The handle is formed of a piece of elk antler; the
+blade is of clear, brownish flint, well chipped. Other similar objects
+are preserved in the collection.
+
+How fortunate it was that Catlin and Maximilian chose to spend much time
+among the Mandan during the years 1832, 1833, and 1834. A few years
+later, in the spring of 1837, the dreaded smallpox swept away the
+greater part of this most interesting nation, and "when the disease had
+abated, and when the remnant of this once powerful nation had recovered
+sufficiently to remove the decaying bodies from their cabins, the total
+number of grown men was twenty-three, of women forty, and of young
+persons sixty or seventy. These were all that were left of the eighteen
+hundred souls that composed the nation prior to the advent of that
+terrific disease, and even those that recovered were so disfigured as
+scarcely to be recognized." (Hayden, (1), p. 433.) Soon those who
+survived deserted their old village near Fort Clark and removed a few
+miles above, and the town was, about this time, occupied by the Arikara.
+It is interesting to know that the small remnant of the Mandan continued
+to follow their own peculiar customs and to maintain their tribal unity
+although so reduced in numbers. It will not be necessary in the present
+sketch to trace the later history of the tribe.
+
+In recent years the State Historical Society of North Dakota has caused
+surveys to be made of the more important village sites in that State. In
+addition to the plans of the sites, showing the position of the earth
+lodges, they have been fortunate in obtaining drawings of the Mandan and
+Hidatsa villages, made by a Mandan living on the Fort Berthold
+Reservation. In writing of the picture and plan of the "most important
+historical site of the Mandan tribe in the state, the one visited and
+described by Lewis and Clark, Catlin, and Maximilian," Libby said: "The
+Indian chart and the map of the village as it appears to-day are here
+shown. It is seen that the two representations are not essentially
+unlike. The grouping of the houses about a common center, at one side of
+which is the holy tepee, is the predominating characteristic of each."
+The Indian drawing, although crude, shows some details omitted by Catlin
+in his many sketches; but the map (fig. 10) is of the greatest interest.
+It shows the site near Fort Clark as it appeared about the year 1908,
+and to quote from the description: "In the center of the tepees, on the
+space devoted by the old Mandans to the 'big canoe' and cedar post of
+the 'elder man,' stands now a large tepee (shown in dotted outline)
+which was placed there by the Arikara who occupied the village after the
+small-pox scourge of 1837 had killed or driven away the original
+inhabitants." The structures surrounding the open space were occupied by
+the principal men of the village, and the names as given by Libby were
+secured by him from "Bad Gun, Rushing War Eagle, son of the Ma-ta-to-pe
+or Four Bears, whose portrait Catlin painted." In the list of names
+"Tepee No. 1 was the holy tepee and was also used by Lance Shoulder,"
+and "No. 2 was occupied by Four Bears." The list includes fifteen names.
+At the time the survey was made the entire ditch could not be traced,
+but its general course could be followed, thus indicating the
+approximate boundary of the town, "beyond which only a few tepees are
+located." (Libby, (1), pp. 498-499.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Plan of the Mandan village at Fort Clark.]
+
+When it is realized how little is known regarding the arrangement of the
+many ancient villages which once stood in the country east of the
+Mississippi, villages which in their time were probably as large and
+important as those of the Mandan of the last century, it is not possible
+to overestimate the value of the work of the Historical Society in
+causing to be made an accurate survey of the sites and in securing
+descriptions of the villages from some who remember them. A generation
+later this would not have been possible.
+
+HIDATSA GROUP.
+
+Two tribes are regarded as constituting this group: The Hidatsa proper,
+known to the earlier writers as the Minnetarees, and to others as the
+Gros Ventres of the Missouri; and the Crows. The Hidatsa and the Crows
+were, until a few generations ago, one people, but trouble developed and
+the latter moved farther up the Missouri to the Rocky Mountains, and
+there they were discovered by the early explorers of the region.
+
+The Amahami may have been a distinct tribe, and as such were recognized
+by Lewis and Clark, but according to their own traditions they, together
+with the Hidatsa and Crows, once formed a single tribe. Their language
+differs only slightly from that of the Hidatsa. During the early years
+of the last century their one village stood at the mouth of Knife River.
+Already greatly reduced in numbers, they suffered during the epidemic of
+1837, and later the majority of those who had survived became more
+closely associated with the Hidatsa.
+
+HIDATSA.
+
+The Hidatsa, also known as the Minnetarees and designated by some
+writers the Gros Ventres of the Missouri, a name which must not be
+confused with Gros Ventres of the Prairie often applied to the Atsina,
+lived when first known to Europeans near the junction of the Knife and
+Missouri Rivers, in the eastern part of the present Mercer County, North
+Dakota. Some are of the belief that it was the Hidatsa and not the
+Mandan whom the French, under La Verendrye, visited during the autumn
+and winter of 1738, but in the present sketch the Mandan are accepted as
+undoubtedly being the tribe at whose villages the French remained.
+
+The Hidatsa villages as seen by Catlin and Maximilian during the years
+1832, 1833, and 1834 had probably changed little since the winter of
+1804-05, when Lewis and Clark occupied Fort Mandan, their winter
+quarters, some 8 miles below the mouth of Knife River. Describing the
+villages, Catlin said the principal one stood on the bank of Knife River
+and consisted of 40 or 50 earth-covered lodges, each from 40 to 50 feet
+in diameter, and this town being on an elevated bank overlooked the
+other two which were on lower ground "and almost lost amidst their
+numerous corn fields and other profuse vegetation which cover the earth
+with their luxuriant growth.
+
+"The scenery along the banks of this little river, from village to
+village, is quite peculiar and curious; rendered extremely so by the
+continual wild and garrulous groups of men, women, and children, who are
+wending their way along its winding shores, or dashing and plunging
+through its blue waves, enjoying the luxury of swimming, of which both
+sexes seem to be passionately fond. Others are paddling about in their
+tub-like canoes, made of the skins of buffaloes." (Catlin, (1), I, p.
+186.) Among the great collection of Catlin's paintings belonging to the
+United States National Museum, in Washington, is one of the large
+village. The original painting is reproduced in plate 43. A drawing of
+the same was shown as plate 70 in Catlin's work cited above. The work is
+crude but interesting historically, and conveys some idea of the
+appearance of the town, although in this, as in other paintings by the
+same artist, the earth lodges are very poorly drawn, failing to show the
+projection which served as the entrance and having the roofs too rounded
+and dome-shaped. Bodmer's sketches are far superior.
+
+On June 19, 1833, Maximilian, aboard the steamboat _Assiniboin_, left
+Fort Clark bound for Fort Union at the mouth of the Yellowstone. Soon
+after passing the Mandan village of Ruhptare, so Maximilian wrote: "We
+saw before us the fine broad mirror of the river, and, at a distance on
+the southern bank, the red mass of the clay huts of the lower village of
+the Manitaries, which we reached in half an hour. The Missouri is joined
+by the Knife River, on which the three villages of the Manitaries are
+built. The largest, which is the furthest from the Missouri, is called
+Elah-Sa (the village of the great willows); the middle one, Awatichay
+(the little village), where Charbonneau, the interpreter, lives; and the
+third, Awachawi (le village des souliers), which is the smallest,
+consisting of only eighteen huts, situated at the mouth of Knife
+River.... The south bank of the river was now animated by a crowd of
+Indians, both on foot and on horseback; they were the Manitaries, who
+had flocked from their villages to see the steamer and to welcome us.
+The appearance of this vessel of the Company, which comes up, once in
+two years, to the Yellow Stone River, is an event of the greatest
+importance to the Indians.... The sight of the red brown crowd collected
+on the river side, for even their buffalo skins were mostly of this
+colour, was, in the highest degree, striking. We already saw above a
+hundred of them, with many dogs, some of which drew sledges, and others,
+wooden boards fastened to their backs, and the ends trailing on the
+ground, to which the baggage was attached with leather straps."
+(Maximilian, (1), pp. 178-179.)
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 44
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Original pencil sketch]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Finished picture of the same
+
+"WINTER VILLAGE OF THE MINATARRES"
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 45
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Manner of carrying basket similar to that shown in
+plate 52, _a_]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ The ring-and-pole game]
+
+[Illustration: _c._ Hidatsa group with bull-boats. At Fort Berthold,
+July 13, 1851
+
+FROM KURZ'S SKETCHBOOK]
+
+As told in the preceding section, Maximilian returned from Fort Union to
+Fort Clark, where, with the artist Bodmer, he spent the long winter.
+While near the Mandan towns he made several visits to the Hidatsa
+villages a few miles above, and learned much of the manners and ways of
+life of the people. He again spoke of the three villages on the banks of
+Knife River, "two on the left bank, and the third, which is much the
+largest, on the right bank." He continued: "At present the Manitaries
+live constantly in their villages, and do not roam about as they
+formerly did, when, like the Pawnees and other nations, they went in
+pursuit of the herds of buffaloes as soon as their fields were sown,
+returned in the autumn for the harvest, after which they again went into
+the prairie. In these wanderings they made use of leather tents, some of
+which are still standing by the side of their permanent dwellings" (p.
+395). He then described the dress and general appearance of the people
+and continued: "The Manitari villages are similarly arranged as those of
+the Mandans, except that they have no ark placed in the central space,
+and the figure of Ochkih-Hadda is not there. In the principal village,
+however, is the figure of a woman placed on a long pole, doubtless
+representing the grandmother, who presented them with the pots, of
+which I shall speak more hereafter. A bundle of brushwood is hung on
+this pole, to which are attached the leathern dress and leggins of a
+woman. The head is made of wormwood, and has a cap with feathers. The
+interior of their huts is arranged as among the Mandans: like them the
+Manitaries go, in winter, into the forests on both banks of the
+Missouri, where they find fuel, and, at the same time, protection
+against the inclement weather. Their winter villages are in the thickest
+of the forest, and the huts are built near to each other, promiscuously,
+and without any attempt at order or regularity. They have about 250 or
+300 horses in their three villages, and a considerable number of dogs"
+(pp. 396-397). Bodmer's picture of the "Winter Village of the
+Minatarres," made during the winter of 1833, is probably the most
+accurate drawing of an earth-lodge village in existence. It was given as
+plate xxvi by Maximilian, which is here reproduced as plate 44, _b_. A
+pencil sketch which may be considered as the original sketch made by
+Bodmer, and from which the finished picture was made, is now in the E.
+E. Ayer collection preserved in the Newberry Library. Unfortunately the
+drawing is unfinished but is very interesting historically. It is shown
+in plate 44, _a_.
+
+Maximilian then referred briefly to the creation myth of the people with
+whom he was then resting. The entire surface was once covered with
+water. There were two beings: one a man who lived in the far Rocky
+Mountains who made all; the other was the old woman called grandmother
+by the members of the tribe. "She gave the Manitaries a couple of pots,
+which they still preserve as a sacred treasure," and "When their fields
+are threatened with a great drought they are to celebrate a medicine
+feast with the old grandmother's pots, in order to beg for rain: this
+is, properly, the destination of the pots. The medicine men are still
+paid, on such occasions, to sing for four days together in the huts,
+while the pots remain filled with water." Such were the superstitious
+beliefs of these strange people.
+
+November 26, 1833, Maximilian, Bodmer, and several others went from Fort
+Clark to the winter village to attend "a great medicine feast among the
+Manitaries." They passed the two Mandan towns and during the journey saw
+a large stone, "undoubtedly one of those isolated blocks of granite
+which are scattered over the whole prairie, and which the Indians, from
+some superstitious notion, paint with vermilion, and surround with
+little sticks, or rods, to which were attached some feathers." The
+little party had seen much of interest on the way, and it was late in
+the day when they arrived at the village, "the large huts of which were
+built so close to each other that it was sometimes difficult to pass
+between them." Herds of buffalo having been reported in the vicinity of
+the village, a party of Indians had decided to start after them the
+following day, and planned "to implore the blessings of heaven upon
+their undertaking by a great medicine feast." This appears to have been
+a ceremony arranged by the women of the village. The structure in which
+the dance took place was not one of the earth-covered lodges of the
+town, but a rather temporary shelter of unusual shape. As described by
+Maximilian: "Between the huts, in the centre of the village, an
+elliptical space, forty paces or more in length, was enclosed in a
+fence, ten or twelve feet high, consisting of reeds and willow twigs
+inclining inwards. (See the woodcut.) [Fig. 11.] An entrance was left at
+_a_; _b_ represents the fence; _d_ are the four fires, burning in the
+medicine lodge, which were kept up the whole time. At _e_ the elder and
+principal men had taken their seats; to the right sat the old chief,
+Lachpitzi-Sihrisch (the yellow bear); some parts of his face were
+painted red, and a bandage of yellow skin encircled his head. Places
+were assigned to us on the right hand of the yellow bear. At _f_, close
+to the fence, the spectators, especially the women, were seated: the men
+walked about, some of them handsomely dressed, others quite simply;
+children were seated round the fires, which they kept alive by throwing
+twigs of willow trees into them." Here follows a description of the
+ceremony, and it is related how six elderly men who had been chosen by
+the younger ones to represent buffalo bulls, entered the inclosure. They
+came from the hut opposite and when they were within, and after certain
+formalities, were seated at _c_. The ceremony was attended by smoking,
+the pipes were "brought first to the old men and the visitors; they
+presented the mouth-piece of the pipe to us in succession, going from
+right to left: we each took a few whiffs, uttered, as before, a wish or
+prayer, and passed the pipe to our next neighbours.... The six buffalo
+bulls, meantime, sitting behind the fire, sang, and rattled the medicine
+sticks, while one of them constantly beat the badger skin. After a while
+they all stood up, bent forward, and danced; that is, they leaped as
+high as they could with both their feet together, continuing to sing and
+rattle their sticks, one of them beating time on the badger. Their song
+was invariably the same, consisting of loud, broken notes and
+exclamations. When they had danced for some time, they resumed their
+seats.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Plan of a ceremonial lodge.]
+
+"The whole was extremely interesting. The great number of red men, in a
+variety of costumes, the singing, dancing, beating the drum, &c., while
+the lofty trees of the forest, illumed by the fires, spread their
+branches against the dark sky, formed a _tout ensemble_ so striking and
+original, that I regretted the impracticability of taking a sketch of it
+on the spot."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Plan of the large Hidatsa village.]
+
+Two days after the dance, on November 28, 1833, Maximilian visited the
+chief Yellow Bear in his lodge. The interior presents an interesting
+appearance: "The beds, consisting of square leathern cases, were placed
+along the sides of the spacious hut, and the inmates sat round the fire
+variously occupied. The Yellow Bear, wearing only his breech-cloth, sat
+upon a bench made of willow boughs, covered with skins, and was painting
+a new buffalo robe with figures in vermillion and black, having his
+colours standing by him, ready mixed, in old potsherds. In lieu of a
+pencil he was using the more inartificial substitute of a sharp-pointed
+piece of wood. The robe was ornamented with the symbols of valuable
+presents which he had made, and which had gained the Yellow Bear much
+reputation, and made him a man of distinction." (Maximilian, (1), pp.
+419-423.)
+
+Among the historic village sites which have been studied and surveyed by
+the State Historical Society of North Dakota, as mentioned in the
+preceding sketch of the Mandan, was that "of the largest Hidatsa
+village on Knife river." The map made for the society is here reproduced
+in figure 12. This, to quote Libby, "shows the present appearance of the
+... largest Hidatsa village site, located just north of the mouth of
+Knife river. From the position and direction of the doorways, it is seen
+that these villages show no such large grouping as is characteristic of
+the Mandan village...." It was observed that the circles marking the
+positions of the earth lodges were much deeper in the Hidatsa villages
+than in the two Mandan sites. In the former the extreme depth below the
+"highest part of the rim was often three feet and very commonly over two
+feet," but on the Mandan sites the depressions were quite shallow. And
+"in many cases it was observed that in and near the Hidatsa villages
+were mounds of debris of varying heights, while nothing of the kind was
+seen on or near Mandan sites." (Libby, (1), p. 500.) Noting these
+characteristic features of the two groups of villages, or rather of the
+villages of the two tribes, should reduce the difficulty of identifying
+other ancient sites in the upper Missouri Valley.
+
+The several quotations already made refer to the earth-covered lodges of
+the Hidatsa, but the same people also made use of the typical skin tipi,
+although less often mentioned by the early writers. They probably
+resembled the structures used by the Crow. On November 8, 1833, when
+Maximilian was returning to Fort Clark from the mouth of the
+Yellowstone, he wrote: "At twelve o'clock we were opposite the first
+Manitari summer village, and saw, on the other side, many Indians....
+The invitations to land became more vociferous and numerous." Going
+ashore "we were immediately conducted, by a distinguished man,
+Ita-Widahki-Hisha (the red shield), to his tent, which stood apart on
+the prairie, on the summit of the bank. The white leather tent was new,
+spacious, and handsomely ornamented with tufts of hair of various
+colours, and at each side of the entrance, finished with a stripe and
+rosettes of dyed porcupine quills, very neatly executed. It had been
+well warmed by a good fire, a most refreshing sight to us. We took our
+seats around it, with the numerous family, the brother and uncle of the
+chief, young men, women, and children. The chief had rather a long
+beard, like the Punca chief, Shudegacheh, and his right breast was
+tattooed with black stripes.... A large dish of boiled maize and beans
+was immediately set before us; it was very tender and well dressed, and
+three of us eat out of the dish with spoons made of the horn of buffalo,
+or bighorn; after which the red Dacota pipe went round." (Maximilian;
+(1), p. 316.) This must have been a beautiful example of the
+buffalo-skin tipi, new and white, decorated with quillwork and tufts of
+hair.
+
+Continuing down the Missouri to Fort Clark they passed women in their
+"round leather boats," and saw others, "proceeding towards the river,
+with their boats hanging on their heads and down their backs."
+
+An example of a "bull-boat" and paddle is shown in plate 35, _b_. It was
+collected among the Hidatsa and is now preserved in the collection of
+the National Museum. It is a specimen of great interest and rarity,
+though once so extensively used by the tribes of the Missouri Valley.
+Several boats of this sort are shown by Bodmer in his picture of the
+Mandan village (pl. 39), and Kurz likewise left many drawings of these
+peculiar craft (pl. 45, _c_).
+
+In addition to the several forms of structures already mentioned, the
+Hidatsa evidently erected a very secure temporary lodge when away from
+their villages on hunting trips. On November 7, 1833, when descending
+the Missouri, and just before arriving at Fort Clark, Maximilian wrote:
+"Our breakfast was prepared at nine o'clock, when we lay to on the north
+bank, in a narrow strip of forest, where we found some old Indian
+hunting lodges, built, in a conical form, of dry timber. They had,
+doubtless, been left by the Manitaries, who had come thus far on their
+hunting excursions. The lower part of the huts, or lodges, was covered
+with the bark of trees; the entrance was square, and bones were
+scattered in all directions. We proceeded with a bleak, high wind, saw
+the singular clay tops of the hills, and, in the forest, the stages made
+of poles, where the Indian hunters dry the flesh of the animals they
+have taken in the chase. About twelve o'clock we came to the spot where
+some stakes indicated the former site of a Mandan village.... We are now
+in the centre of the territory of the Manitaries." (Maximilian, (1), pp.
+314-315.) Probably the danger of attack by their enemies made necessary
+the erection of these comparatively secure shelters.
+
+About the year 1845 many Hidatsa removed from the vicinity of Knife
+River and reared a new village not far from Fort Berthold, some 60 miles
+up the Missouri from old Fort Clark. They were joined from time to time
+by other members of their tribe, and also by many of the remaining
+Mandan. In 1862 the Arikara became the third tribe to settle near Fort
+Berthold. But in 1850 the Arikara continued to occupy the old Mandan
+town just below Fort Clark, the large village of earth lodges so often
+visited and mentioned by the explorers and traders during the early
+years of the last century. It is quite evident the new settlement of the
+Hidatsa did not differ in appearance from the old Mandan town, the later
+home of the Arikara, and on June 13, 1850, Culbertson wrote from Fort
+Berthold: "The village, with its mud lodges, differs nothing in looks
+from the Ree village described yesterday, except in one particular, that
+is, the inhabitants are now engaged in surrounding it with pickets. The
+logs are well prepared and are all up except on the west side; a bastion
+with loop holes is placed in the middle of each side. This picket is of
+course to protect the inmates against enemies by whom they are
+frequently attacked." (Culbertson, (1), pp. 118-119.) This is a most
+interesting reference. Could this palisade have been the one to which
+Matthews alluded as having stood until 1865? The manner of constructing
+the palisade, with "a bastion ... in the middle of each side," will
+tend to recall the similar arrangement as indicated on the drawing of
+the ancient Mahican village about two centuries before. (Bushnell, (1),
+p. 26.)
+
+In the autumn of 1853, just 20 years after Maximilian was among the
+Hidatsa, an officer passed down the Missouri from Fort Benton to St.
+Louis, thence to continue to Washington, where he arrived November 21.
+In his journal are several brief references to the Hidatsa, or, as he
+designated the tribe, the Gros Ventres. To quote from the journal:
+"October 8 ... a fine region, full of game, and occasionally speaking a
+hunting party of Gros Ventres out after buffalo." The next day the small
+party arrived at Fort Berthold, late in the afternoon. Then, so the
+journal continues: "We received many visits from the Gros Ventres, and
+gave them a few presents. The Gros Ventres have a large village of mud
+houses--very unsightly outside, but within warm and comfortable." The
+following morning, October 10, 1853, "I visited some of the lodges of
+the Gros Ventres, and found them exceedingly comfortable and capable of
+accommodating comfortably a hundred persons. One part of the lodge is
+appropriated to the horses, dogs, cattle, and chickens, and another to
+their own sleeping apartments. They all seemed to live sociably and
+comfortable together during the long cold winters of this cold
+latitude.... We left Fort Berthold early; but, before we had advanced
+far, were driven ashore by a strong wind, which continued throughout the
+day. The smoke from the burning prairies is so dense as to almost hide
+the sun. The fires, burning in every direction, present at night a
+beautiful and magnificent, though terrible appearance." (Saxton, (1),
+pp. 264-265.) What a vivid, though brief, description of conditions in
+the Upper Missouri Valley when all was in a primitive state.
+
+During the years following the visits of Catlin and Maximilian many
+changes took place in the native villages standing on the banks of the
+upper Missouri and its tributaries. Writing of a period about 40 years
+after Maximilian's stay among the Mandan and Hidatsa, the winter of
+1833-34, Dr. Matthews said: "The Hidatsa, Minnetaree, or Grosventre
+Indians, are one of the three tribes which at present inhabit the
+permanent village at Fort Berthold, Dakota Territory, and hunt on the
+waters of the Upper Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers, in Northwestern
+Dakota and Eastern Montana." Describing the village, he continued: "The
+village consists of a number of houses built very closely together,
+without any attempt at regularity of position. The doors face in every
+possible direction; and there is great uniformity in the appearance of
+the lodges; so it is a very difficult matter to find one's way among
+them." In a footnote to this paragraph is given the number of structures
+standing there in the year 1872. The note reads: In the fall of 1872,
+Dr. C. E. McChesney, then physician at the Berthold agency, counted,
+with great care, the buildings in the village and, in a letter, gave me
+the following results:
+
+  Old-style (round) lodges of Rees                         43
+  Log-cabins of Rees                                       28
+                                                          ---
+      Total number of houses of Rees                       71
+
+  Old-style lodges of Grosventres and Mandans              35
+  Log-cabins of Grosventres and Mandans                    69
+                                                          ---
+      Total number of houses of Grosventres and Mandans   104
+
+      Total of houses in village                          175
+
+The note states that "owing to the stupidity of the interpreter" it was
+not possible to separate the Grosventres from the Mandans, which was to
+be regretted.
+
+The "old-style lodges" were the earth-covered lodges, and Matthews
+follows with an excellent description of how they were constructed. He
+tells of the building of the frame, "covered with willows, hay, and
+earth," and over the opening in the center of the top "of many of the
+lodges are placed frames of wicker-work, on which skins are spread to
+the windward in stormy weather to keep the lodges from getting smoky.
+Sometimes bull-boats are used for this purpose." (Matthews, (1), pp.
+3-6.) A comment on the work of the early artists is worthy of being
+mentioned at this time: "Prince Maximilian's artist [Karl Bodmer]
+usually sketches the lodge very correctly; but Mr. Catlin invariably
+gives an incorrect representation of its exterior. Whenever he depicts a
+Mandan, Arickaree, or Minnetaree lodge, he makes it appear as an almost
+exact hemisphere, and always omits the entry." (Op. cit., p. 6.)
+
+Game, especially the buffalo, was becoming less plentiful in the
+vicinity of the villages, and Matthews told how, "Every winter, until
+1866, the Indians left their permanent village, and, moving some
+distance up the Missouri Valley, built temporary quarters, usually in
+the center of heavy forests and in the neighborhood of buffalo.... The
+houses of the winter-villages resembled much the log-cabins of our own
+western pioneers. They were neatly built, very warm, had regular
+fire-places and chimneys built of sticks and mud, and square holes in
+the roofs for the admission of light." About that time some cabins of
+this sort were erected "in the permanent village at Fort Berthold; every
+year since, they are becoming gradually more numerous and threaten to
+eventually supplant the original earth-covered lodges." And in 1877
+"game has recently become very scarce in their country, they are obliged
+to travel immense distances, and almost constantly, when they go out on
+their winter-hunts. Requiring, therefore, movable habitations, they take
+with them, on their journeys, the ordinary skin-lodges, or 'tepees,'
+such as are used by the Dakotas, Assiniboines, and other nomadic tribes
+of the region." (Op. cit., pp. 6-7.)
+
+Matthews's description of the caches prepared by the tribes with whom he
+was so closely associated is most interesting, and it tends to explain
+the origin and use of the numerous pits often discovered in the vicinity
+of ancient village sites east of the Mississippi. He wrote: "The
+numerous _caches_, or pits, for storing grain, are noteworthy objects in
+the village. In summer, when they are not in use, they are often left
+open, or are carelessly covered, and may entrap the unwary stroller.
+When these Indians have harvested their crops, and before they start on
+their winter-hunt, they dig their _caches_, or clear out those dug in
+previous years. A _cache_ is a cellar, usually round, with a small
+opening above, barely large enough to allow a person to descend; when
+finished, it looks much like an ordinary round cistern. Reserving a
+small portion of corn, dried squash, etc., for winter use, they deposit
+the remainder in these subterranean store-houses, along with
+household-utensils, and other articles of value which they wish to leave
+behind. They then fill up the orifices with earth, which they trample
+down and rake over; thus obliterating every trace of the excavation.
+Some _caches_ are made under the floors of the houses, others outside,
+in various parts of the village-grounds; in each case, the distance and
+direction from some door, post, bedstead, fire-place, or other object is
+noted, so that the stores may be found on the return of the owners in
+the spring. Should an enemy enter the village while it is temporarily
+deserted, the goods are safe from fire and theft. This method of
+secreting property has been in use among many tribes, has been adopted
+by whites living on the plains, and is referred to in the works of many
+travelers." (Op. cit., pp. 8-9.)
+
+Such were the characteristic features of the Hidatsa villages.
+
+CROWS.
+
+Before the separation of the Crows from the Hidatsa they may have
+occupied permanent villages of earth-covered lodges, such as the latter
+continued to erect and use until very recent years. But after the
+separation the Crows moved into the mountains, the region drained by the
+upper tributaries of the Missouri, and there no longer built permanent
+structures but adopted the skin tipi, so easily erected and transported
+from place to place. Many of their tipis were very large, beautifully
+made and decorated, and were evidently not surpassed in any manner by
+the similar structures constructed by other tribes of the Upper Missouri
+Valley.
+
+During the summer of 1805 François Antoine Larocque, a clerk attached to
+the Upper Red River Department of the Compagnie du Nord-Ouest, visited
+the Crows and in his journal recorded much of interest respecting the
+manners of the people. Larocque had, during the winter of 1804-05,
+remained near the Mandan and Hidatsa villages, and thus met Captains
+Lewis and Clark in their winter encampment. A large party of the Crows,
+the Rocky Mountain Indians of the journal, came to the Hidatsa villages
+on Knife River. There they were met by Larocque, with whom they departed
+for their distant country, on Saturday, June 29, 1805. His narrative
+contains a brief reference to the people. He wrote: "This nation known
+among the Sioux by the name of Crow Indians inhabit the eastern part of
+the Rocky Mountains at the head of the River aux Roches Jaunes (which is
+Known by the Kinistinaux and Assiniboines by the name of River a la
+Biche, from the great number of elks with which all the Country along it
+abounds) and its Branches and Close to the head of the Missouri.
+
+"There are three principal tribes of them whose names in their own
+language are _Apsarechas_, _Keetheresas_ and _Ashcabcaber_, and these
+tribes are again divided into many other small ones which at present
+consist but of a few people each, as they are the remainder of a
+numerous people who were reduced to their present number by the ravage
+of the Small Pox, which raged among them for many years successively and
+as late as three years ago. They told me they counted 2000 Lodges or
+tents in their Camp when all together before the Small Pox had infected
+them. At present their whole number consist of about 2400 persons
+dwelling in 300 tents and are able to raise 600 Wariors like the Sioux
+and Assiniboines. They wander about in Leather tents and remain where
+there are Buffaloes and Elks. After having remained a few days in one
+place so that game is not more so plentiful as it was they flit to
+another place where there are Buffaloes or deers and so on all the year
+around. Since the great decrease of their numbers they generally dwell
+all together and flit at the same time and as long as it is possible for
+them to live when together they seldom part." (Larocque, (1), pp.
+55-56.) The narrative continues: "They live upon Buffaloes & Deer, a
+very few of them eat Bears or Beaver flesh, but when compelled by
+hunger; they eat no fish." The Crows were at that time in their
+primitive condition. "They have never had any traders with them, they
+get their battle Guns, ammunitions etc. from the Mandans & Big Bellys in
+exchange for horses, Robes, Leggings & shirts, they likewise purchase
+corn, Pumpkins & tobacco from the Big Bellys as they do not cultivate
+the ground."
+
+Unfortunately, Larocque did not describe the appearance of the tipis,
+but such information was supplied by later writers.
+
+Catlin visited the Crows during the summer of 1832 and saw many who
+frequented Fort Union, at the mouth of the Yellowstone, during his stay
+at that post. He wrote at that time: "The Crows who live on the head
+waters of Yellow Stone, and extend from this neighborhood also to the
+base of the Rocky Mountains, are similar ... to the Blackfeet: roaming
+about a great part of the year." And describing their habitations, he
+said: "The Crows, of all the tribes in this region, or on the Continent,
+make the most beautiful lodge ... they construct them as the Sioux do,
+and make them of the same material; yet they oftentimes dress the skins
+of which they are composed almost as white as linen, and beautifully
+garnish them with porcupine quills, and paint and ornament them in such
+a variety of ways, as renders them exceedingly picturesque and agreeable
+to the eye. I have procured a very beautiful one of this description,
+highly ornamented, and fringed with scalp-locks and sufficiently large
+for forty men to dine under. The poles which support it are about thirty
+in number, of pine, and all cut in the Rocky Mountains.... This tent,
+when erected, is about twenty-five feet high." (Catlin, (1), I, pp.
+43-44.) Catlin's original painting of this most interesting tipi is in
+the National Museum, Washington, and is here reproduced in plate 46,
+_a_. The same was drawn and given by Catlin as plate 20 in his work.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 46
+
+[Illustration: _a._ "Crow lodge." George Catlin]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Crow camp at the old agency on the Yellowstone, near
+Shields River. Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871
+
+CROW TIPIS]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 47
+
+[Illustration: A CAMP IN A COTTONWOOD GROVE
+
+Photograph not identified, but probably made by J. D. Hutton]
+
+As told elsewhere in this work, Maximilian, on June 18, 1833, arrived at
+Fort Clark. At that time representatives of several tribes were gathered
+in the vicinity of the fort. These included Crows, "of which tribe there
+were now seventy tents about the fort." Referring to these in
+particular, he remarked: "The tents of the Crows are exactly like those
+of the Sioux, and are set up without any regular order. On the poles,
+instead of scalps, there were small pieces of coloured cloth, chiefly
+red, floating like streamers in the wind." (Maximilian, (1), p. 172.)
+Later in the day Maximilian accompanied the Indian agent to the tipi
+occupied by the Crow chief Eripuass. This he found to be of much
+interest. "The interior of the tent itself had a striking effect. A
+small fire in the centre gave sufficient light; the chief sat opposite
+the entrance, and round him many fine tall men, placed according to
+their rank, all with no other covering than a breech-cloth. Places were
+assigned to us on buffalo hides near the chief, who then lighted his
+Sioux pipe, which had a long flat tube, ornamented with bright yellow
+nails, made each of us take a few puffs, holding the pipe in his hand,
+and then passed it round to the left hand." And speaking of the tribe as
+a whole he wrote: "The territory in which they move about is bounded, to
+the north or north-west, by the Yellow Stone River, and extends round
+Bighorn River, towards the sources of Chayenne River and the Rocky
+Mountains. These Indians are a wandering tribe of hunters, who neither
+dwell in fixed villages, like the Mandans, Manitaries, and Arikkaras,
+nor make any plantations except of tobacco, which, however, are very
+small.... They roam about with their leather tents, hunt the buffalo,
+and other wild animals, and have many horses and dogs, which, however,
+they never use for food.... The Crow women are very skilful in various
+kinds of work, and their shirts and dresses of bighorn leather,
+embroidered and ornamented with dyed porcupine quills, are particularly
+handsome, as well as their buffalo robes, which are painted and
+embroidered in the same manner." (Op. cit., pp. 174-175.)
+
+During the spring of 1863 a peculiar type of log house was discovered in
+the Crow country which had probably been erected by members of that
+tribe. They may have resembled the cabins mentioned by Matthews as
+standing at the Fort Berthold Reservation nine years later. On May 2,
+1863, a member of the Yellowstone expedition entered in his journal: "In
+the timber along the river, we saw many houses built of dry logs and
+bark; some are built like lodges, but the most of them are either square
+or oblong, and among them were many large and strong corrals of dry
+logs. The Crows evidently winter along here, and, from the sign, they
+are very numerous." The following day, "We camped three miles below
+Pompey's Pillar, on which we found the names of Captain Clark and two of
+his men cut in the rock, with the date July 25, 1806.... Buffalo to be
+seen in every direction, and very tame.... No wonder the Crows like
+their country; it is a perfect paradise for a hunter.... About sundown a
+large band of buffalo came in to drink at a water-hole about two hundred
+yards in front of our camp." (Stuart, (1), pp. 176-178.) This may have
+represented a winter camp ground, with permanent huts to which the Crows
+returned from year to year. It was in the northeastern part of the
+present Yellowstone County, Montana.
+
+A very interesting description of a Crow camp is to be found in Lord
+Dunraven's narrative of his hunting trip to the Yellowstone region
+performed during the year 1874. The particular camp stood not far from
+the present Livingston, Montana. In describing the camp he wrote: "The
+lodges are tall, circular dwellings, composed of long fir-poles planted
+on a circle in the ground. These slope inwards and form a cone, meeting
+and leaning against each other at the apex; and upon them is stretched a
+covering of buffalo hides. They make very comfortable, clean and airy
+houses, and are far preferable to any tent, being much warmer in winter
+and cooler in summer. A tepee will hold from twelve to fifteen or even
+twenty individuals; several families, therefore, generally occupy one in
+common. The earth is beaten down hard, forming a smooth floor, and in
+the middle burns the fire, the smoke finding an exit through an aperture
+at the top. The portions of the tepee assigned to each family or couple
+are divided by a kind of wicker-work screen at the head and foot,
+separating a segment of a circle of about eight or ten feet in length
+and five or six in breadth, closed by the screen at either end, and at
+the outer side by the wall of the lodge, but being open towards the
+interior. The fire is common property, and has a certain amount of
+reverence paid to it. It is considered very bad manners, for instance,
+to step between the fire and the place where the head man sits. All
+round, on the lodge poles and on the screens, are suspended the arms,
+clothing, finery, and equipment of the men and their horses. Each lodge
+forms a little community in itself.
+
+"The tepees are pitched with all the regularity of an organized camp, in
+a large circle, inside which the stock is driven at night or on an alarm
+or occasion of danger. Outside the door is struck a spear or pole, on
+which is suspended the shield of the chief and a mysterious something
+tied up in a bundle, which is great medicine." (Dunraven, (1), pp.
+94-95.)
+
+A white shield supported outside a tipi is visible in the photograph
+reproduced as plate 47. This remarkable picture has not, unfortunately,
+been identified, but it was undoubtedly made in the Upper Missouri
+Valley, and from the nature of the tipis, many appearing to be quite
+small, it may be assumed that it was a party of Indians who had come on
+a trading trip, rather than that it represented a regular village.
+
+Several accounts are preserved of large structures discovered in the
+region frequented by the Crows which, although not positively
+identified, were possibly erected by members of that tribe. Thus Lewis
+and Clark on July 24, 1806, arrived at an island in the Yellowstone
+River between 5 and 6 miles below the mouth of Clark's Fork, and wrote:
+"It is a beautiful spot with a rich soil, covered with wild rye, and a
+species of grass like the blue-grass, and some of another kind, which
+the Indians wear in plaits round the neck, on account of a strong scent
+resembling that of vanilla. There is also a thin growth of cottonwood
+scattered over the island. In the centre is a large Indian lodge which
+seems to have been built during the last summer. It is in the form of a
+cone, sixty feet in diameter at the base, composed of twenty poles, each
+forty-five feet long, and two and a half in circumference, and the whole
+structure covered with bushes. The interior was curiously ornamented. On
+the tops of the poles were feathers of eagles, and circular pieces of
+wood, with sticks across them in the form of a girdle: from the centre
+was suspended a stuffed buffaloe skin; on the side fronting the door was
+hung a cedar bush: on one side of the lodge a buffaloe's head; on the
+other several pieces of wood stuck in the ground. From its whole
+appearance, it was more like a lodge for holding councils, than an
+ordinary dwelling house." (Lewis and Clark, (1), II, p. 386.) This was
+undoubtedly a ceremonial lodge, and it was probably quite similar to
+another observed a few years later. To quote the description of the
+second example: "In the country of the Crow Indians, (Up-sa-ro-ka,) Mr.
+Dougherty saw a singular arrangement of the magi. The upper portion of a
+cotton-wood tree was implanted, with its base in the earth, and around
+it was a sweat house, the upper part of the top of the tree arising
+through the roof. A gray bison skin, extended with oziers on the inside
+so as to exhibit a natural appearance, was suspended above the house,
+and on the branches were attached several pairs of children's mockasins
+and leggings, and from one of the limbs of the tree, a very large fan
+made of war eagle's feathers was dependent." (James, (1), I, p. 272.)
+
+CADDOAN TRIBES.
+
+The ancient habitat of the many small tribes which evidently later
+became confederated, thus forming the principal groups of this
+linguistic stock, was in the southwest, whence the Pawnee and Arikara,
+and those gathered under the name of the Wichita, moved northward.
+
+The Caddo proper, the name of a tribe later applied to the confederated
+group of which they formed the principal member, formerly occupied the
+valley of the Red River of Louisiana, the many villages of the several
+tribes being scattered along the banks of that stream and of its
+tributaries in northern Louisiana, southwestern Arkansas, and eastern
+Texas. Although usually included in the same linguistic group with the
+Pawnee, Arikara, Wichita, and others, several notable authorities are
+inclined to regard the Caddo as constituting a separate and distinct
+linguistic group. This may be established and recognized in the future.
+
+PAWNEE.
+
+Soon after the transfer of Louisiana to the United States Government
+several expeditions were sent out to explore the newly acquired domains
+and to discover the native tribes who claimed and occupied parts of the
+vast territory. Of these parties, that led by Capts. Lewis and Clark was
+the most important, but of great interest was the second expedition
+under command of Lieut. Z. M. Pike, which traversed the country
+extending from the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains, and reached the
+Pawnee villages near the North Platte during the month of September,
+1806. How long the Pawnee had occupied that region may never be
+determined, but they had evidently migrated from the southwest, probably
+moving slowly, making long stops on the way. As a tribe they were known
+to the Spaniards as early as the first half of the sixteenth century,
+and appear to have been among the first of the plains tribes to be
+visited by French and Spanish traders.
+
+Unfortunately Pike did not prepare a very extensive account of the
+Pawnee as they appeared during the autumn of 1806, but wrote in part:
+"Their houses are a perfect circle, (except where the door enters) from
+whence there is a projection of about 15 feet; the whole being
+constructed after the following manner, Viz: 1st. there is an excavation
+of a circular form, made in the ground, of about 4 feet deep and 60
+diameter, where there is a row of posts about 5 feet high, with crotches
+at the top, set firmly in all round, and horizontal poles from one to
+the other. There is then a row of posts, forming a circle of about 10
+feet width in the diameter of the others, and 10 feet in height; the
+crotches of those are so directed, that horizontal poles are also laid
+from one to the other; long poles are then laid slanting,
+perpendicularly from the lower poles over the upper, and meeting nearly
+at the top, leaving only a small aperture for the smoke of the fire to
+pass out, which is made on the ground in the middle of the lodge. There
+is then a number of small poles put up round the circle, so as to form
+the wall, and wicker work run through the whole. The roof is then
+thatched with grass, and earth thrown up against the wall until a bank
+is made to the eves of the thatch; and that is also covered with earth
+one or two feet thick, and rendered so tight, as entirely to exclude any
+storm whatsoever, and make them extremely warm. The entrance is about 6
+feet wide, with walls on each side, and roofed like our houses in shape,
+but of the same materials as the main building. Inside there are
+numerous little apartments constructed of wicker work against the wall
+with small doors; they have a great appearance of neatness and in them
+the members of the family sleep and have their little deposits. Their
+towns are by no means so much crowded as the Osage, giving much more
+space, but they have the same mode of introducing all their horses into
+the village at night, which makes it extremely crowded. They keep guards
+with the horses during the day. They are extremely addicted to gaming,
+and have for that purpose a smooth piece of ground cleared out on each
+side of the village for about 150 yards in length." (Pike, (1),
+Appendix, p. 15.)
+
+Although Pike's account of this interesting tribe is very brief and
+unsatisfactory, it was soon to be followed by a more complete and
+comprehensive description. This refers to the notes prepared by members
+of the Long expedition, 14 years later.
+
+The expedition under command of Maj. Stephen H. Long arrived at Council
+Bluff, "so called by Lewis and Clark, from a council with the Otoes and
+Missouries held there, on the 3rd of August, 1804," during the early
+autumn of 1819. Winter quarters were established at a point about 5
+miles lower down the Missouri and at a short distance north of the
+present city of Omaha, Nebr. This was called Engineer Cantonment, and
+during the ensuing months many Indians visited the encampment to treat
+with Maj. O'Fallon, the commissioner.
+
+Leaving the majority of the party in quarters at the cantonment, Maj.
+Long and others of the expedition, on October 11, "began to descend the
+Missouri in a canoe, on their way towards Washington and Philadelphia."
+Returning from the east they reached Engineer Cantonment May 28, 1820,
+having arrived at St. Louis April 24, "from Philadelphia to Council
+Bluff, to rejoin the party."
+
+During the absence of the commanding officers some members of the
+expedition made a short trip to the Pawnee villages, and the following
+brief account appears in the narrative on May 1, 1820:
+
+"At each of the villages, we observed small sticks of the length of
+eighteen inches or two feet, painted red, stuck in the earth in various
+situations, but chiefly on the roofs of the houses, each bearing the
+fragment of a human scalp, the hair of which streamed in the wind.
+Before the entrance to some of the lodges were small frames, like
+painter's easels, supporting each a shield, and generally a large
+painted cylindrical case of skin, prepared like parchment, in which a
+war dress is deposited. The shield is circular, made of bison skin, and
+thick enough to ward off an arrow, but not to arrest the flight of a
+rifle ball at close quarters.... The lodges, or houses, of these three
+villages, are similar in structure, but differ in size. The description
+of those of the Konzas will apply to them, excepting that the beds are
+all concealed by a mat partition, which extends parallel to the walls of
+the lodge, and from the floor to the roof. Small apertures, or doors, at
+intervals in this partition, are left for the different families, that
+inhabit a lodge, to enter their respective bed chambers." (James, (1),
+pp. 367-368.)
+
+After the return of Maj. Long the reunited party left Engineer
+Cantonment, June 6, 1820, and soon reached the Pawnee villages, situated
+about 100 miles westward, on the Loup River, a branch of the Platte. The
+narrative of this part of the journey is most interesting: "The path
+leading to the Pawnee villages runs in a direction a little south of
+west from the cantonment, and lies across a tract of high and barren
+prairie for the first ten miles. At this distance it crosses the
+Papillon, or Butterfly creek, a small stream discharging into the
+Missouri, three miles above the confluence of the Platte."
+
+After advancing for several days over the prairie, on June 10, "At
+sunset we arrived at a small creek, eleven miles distant from the
+village of the Grand Pawnees, where we encamped. On the following
+morning, having arranged the party according to rank, and given the
+necessary instructions for the preservation of order, we proceeded
+forward and in a short time came in sight of the first of the Pawnee
+villages. The trace on which we had travelled since we left the
+Missouri, had the appearance of being more and more frequented as we
+approached the Pawnee towns; and here, instead of a single footway, it
+consisted of more than twenty parallel paths, of similar size and
+appearance.... After a ride of about three hours, we arrived before the
+village, and despatched a messenger to inform the chief of our approach.
+Answer was returned that he was engaged with his chiefs and warriors at
+a medicine feast, and could not, therefore, come out to meet us.... The
+party which accompanied Major Long, after groping about some time, and
+traversing a considerable part of the village, arrived at the lodge of
+the principal chief. Here we were again informed that _Tarrarecawaho_,
+with all the principal men of the village, were engaged at a medicine
+feast.
+
+"Notwithstanding his absence, some mats were spread for us upon the
+ground, in the back part of the lodge. Upon these we sat down, and after
+waiting some time, were presented with a large wooden dish of hominy, or
+boiled maize. In this was a single spoon of the horn of a bison, large
+enough to hold half a pint, which, being used alternately by each of the
+party, soon emptied the dish of its contents."
+
+An excellent example of an old spoon similar to the one mentioned in the
+preceding paragraph is shown in plate 42, _a_ (U.S.N.M. 12259). It is
+about 10 inches in length and much worn from long use. Unfortunately it
+is not known when or where it was collected, but without doubt it came
+from the Upper Missouri Valley.
+
+Continuing the narrative: "The interior of this capacious dwelling was
+dimly lighted from a hole at the top, through which the sun's rays, in a
+defined column, fell upon the earthen floor. Immediately under this
+hole, which is both window and chimney, is a small depression in the
+centre of the floor, where the fire is made; but the upper parts of the
+lodge are constantly filled with smoke; adding much to the air of
+gloominess and obscurity, which prevail within. The furniture of
+Long-hair's lodge consisted of mats, ingeniously woven of grass or
+rushes, bison robes, wooden dishes, and one or two small brass kettles.
+In the part of the lodge immediately opposite the entrance, we observed
+a rude niche in the wall, which was occupied by a bison skull. It
+appeared to have been exposed to the weather, until the flesh and
+periosteum had decayed, and the bones had become white....
+
+"Our visit to this village seemed to excite no great degree of
+attention. Among the crowd, who surrounded us before we entered the
+village, we observed several young squaws rather gaily dressed, being
+wrapped in clean and new blankets, and having their heads ornamented
+with wreaths of gnaphalium and the silvery leaves of the prosalea
+canescens. On the tops of the lodges we also saw some display of finery,
+which we supposed to have been made on account of our visit. Flags were
+hoisted, shields, and bows, and quivers, were suspended in conspicuous
+places, scalps were hung out; in short, the people appeared to have
+exposed whatever they possessed, in the exhibition of which, they could
+find any gratification of the vanity. Aside from this, we received no
+distinguished marks of attention from the Grand Pawnees." (James, (1),
+I, pp. 427-437.)
+
+The camp of the expedition was a little more than a mile from the
+village of the Grand Pawnee, and the intervening prairie must have
+presented an animated sight, being "covered with great numbers of
+horses, intermixed with men, women, and children." Nearer the village
+were groups of squaws "busily engaged in dressing the skins of the bison
+for robes." During the afternoon many Indians arrived at the camp, men
+wishing to trade horses, the women endeavoring to trade various
+articles. And on the following morning, June 11, 1820, many groups of
+women were seen leaving the village, accompanied by their dogs, bound
+for their fields of corn situated a few miles away.
+
+The expedition next arrived at the village of the Republican Pawnee, 4
+miles from that of the Grand Pawnee. Both villages stood on the
+immediate bank of the stream. Remaining there but a short time, they
+continued on to the Loup village. Here they encamped during the night of
+June 12, leaving early on the following morning. On the morning of the
+13th many squaws were again observed making their way to the cornfields,
+with their small children. Some stopped to admire the "novel appearance"
+of the members of the expedition, many brought various vegetables,
+jerked buffalo meat and tallow to exchange for whatever they could
+obtain.
+
+"The three Pawnee villages, with their pasture grounds, and
+insignificant enclosures, occupy about ten miles in length of the
+fertile valley of the Wolf river. The surface is wholly naked of timber,
+rising gradually to the river hills, which are broad and low, and from a
+mile to a mile and a half distant." (James, (1), I, p. 447.)
+
+During the latter part of the summer of 1833 the small party under the
+leadership of Commissioner Henry L. Ellsworth reached the Pawnee towns,
+and in the narrative of the expedition are to be found many references
+to the customs of the people whose habitations were the primitive
+earth-covered lodges. The second morning after arriving at the village
+of the Grand Pawnee several members of the party walked about among the
+lodges, and at that time, so wrote Irving: "The warriors were collected
+in small knots of five or six, and by their vehement gestures, were
+apparently engaged in earnest conversation. The children were rolling
+and tumbling in the dirt; the squaws were busily engaged. Some were
+bringing from their lodges large leather sacks of shelled corn; others
+were spreading it out to dry, upon the leather of their buffalo-skin
+tents, which had been stretched out upon the ground. Others were
+cleansing from it the decayed kernels and packing it up in small sacks
+of whitish undressed leather, resembling parchment. These were then
+deposited in cache-holes for a winter's store.
+
+"At a distance from the village, a band of females were slowly wending
+along the top of the low prairie ridges, to their daily labour in the
+small plantations of corn. These are scattered in every direction round
+the village, wherever a spot of rich, black soil, gives promise of a
+bountiful harvest. Some of them are as much as eight miles distant from
+the town." (Irving, J. T., (1), II, pp. 44-45.)
+
+Later the same day a council was held at the lodge of the chief,
+attended by the principal men of the village, and it is interesting to
+read the description of the gathering of those who were to participate:
+"The lodge had been swept clean; a large cheery fire was crackling in
+the centre. The rabble crowd of loungers and hangers-on had been routed;
+and besides the family of the chief, we were the only occupants of the
+spacious building.
+
+"At mid-day the chiefs and braves began to assemble. They were full
+dressed; many of the young warriors had spent the whole morning in
+preparation, and now presented themselves, fully ornamented for the
+meeting.
+
+"As the hour for the opening of the council grew nearer, the tall,
+muffled warriors poured in, in one continuous stream. They moved quietly
+to the places allotted them, and seating themselves in silence round the
+chief, according to their rank.... The crowd continued flowing in until
+the lodge was filled almost to suffocation. As they came in, they seated
+themselves, until five or six circles were formed, one beyond the other,
+the last ranging against the wall of the building. In the ring nearest
+the chiefs, sat the principal braves, or those warriors whose deeds of
+blood entitled them to a high rank in the councils of the nation. The
+more distant circles were filled by such young men of the village as
+were admitted to its councils. The passage leading to the open air, was
+completely blocked up with a tight wedged mass of women and children,
+who dared venture no nearer to the deliberations of the tribe." (Op.
+cit., pp. 48-50.) When all had gathered the chief filled a large stone
+pipe, took a few puffs, then handed it to the members of the
+commissioner's party, who in turn passed it to the other Indians. The
+addresses were then made and the council deliberated on the several
+questions presented.
+
+The expedition moved on from the Grand Pawnee to the village of the
+Republican Pawnee, which stood on the bank of the Loup Fork of the
+Platte, some 20 miles distant from the former, with the rolling prairie
+between. Approaching the river they could see, on the far side, "a high
+bluff, on which was situated the dingy lodges of the Republican
+village." They were welcomed by the people of the village, and soon
+reached the lodge of the principal chief, Blue Coat, which they entered.
+Then "it was not long before the lodge became crowded. The old warriors
+moved with a hushed step across the building, and listened to our
+conversation." Soon an invitation was received to attend a feast at the
+lodge of the second chief. Entering that lodge, he was seen seated upon
+"a small leather mat.... Around him were lounging about a dozen Indians.
+Some, reclining with their backs against the pillars supporting the
+roof, with their eyes half closed, were smoking their stone pipes. Some
+were lying half asleep upon the clay floor, with their feet within a few
+inches of the fire; and others were keeping up a sleepy song.
+
+"At a short distance from the fire, half a dozen squaws were pounding
+corn, in large mortars, and chattering vociferously at the same time. In
+the farther part of the building, about a dozen naked children, with
+faces almost hid by their bushy, tangled hair, were rolling and
+wrestling upon the floor, occasionally causing the lodge to echo to
+their childish glee. In the back ground, we could perceive some half
+dozen shaggy, thievish-looking wolf dogs, skulking among the hides and
+bundles, in search of food, and gliding about with the air of dogs, who
+knew that they had no business there." (Op. cit., pp. 96-99.) Such was a
+domestic scene within a Pawnee lodge.
+
+A very clear and concise description of the interior arrangement and
+fittings of an earth lodge, one standing in the village of the Grand
+Pawnee during the autumn of 1835, has been preserved in Dunbar's
+journal. On October 22, after referring to the construction of the lodge
+itself, he wrote: "Within these buildings the earth is beat down hard,
+and forms the floor. In the center a circular place is dug about 8
+inches deep, and 3 feet in diameter. This is the fireplace. The earth
+that is taken from this place is spatted down around it, and forms the
+hearth. Near the fireplace a stake is firmly fixed in the earth in an
+inclined position, and serves all the purposes of a crane. Mats made of
+rushes are spread down round the fire on which they sit. Back next the
+walls are the sleeping apartments. A frame work is raised about two feet
+from the floor, on this are placed small rods, interwoven with slips of
+elm bark. On these rods a rush mat is spread. At proper distances
+partitions are set up, composed of small willow rods interwoven with
+slips of bark. In front of these apartments, either a partition of
+willow rods is erected, or rush mats are hung up as curtains. But this
+is not always the case. In some lodges the simple platform alone is to
+be seen, without either partitions, or curtains. In others there is not
+even the platform, and the inmates sleep on the ground.
+
+"In these lodges several families frequently live together. I believe
+there are as many as three different families in the lodge where I stop.
+Each family has its particular portion of the dwelling, and the
+furniture of each is kept separate." (Dunbar, (2), p. 600.) Comparing
+the two preceding accounts it is easy to visualize the interior of
+Pawnee earth lodges as they were nearly a century ago.
+
+The preceding references to the women of the villages going early in the
+morning to their fields of corn recall a note in Fremont's journal a few
+years later. He wrote when returning from the mountains, on September
+22, 1842, "We arrived at the village of the Grand Pawnees, on the right
+bank of the river [the Platte] about thirty miles above the mouth of the
+Loup fork. They were gathering in their corn, and we obtained from them
+a very welcome supply of vegetables." (Fremont, (1), p. 78.)
+
+The villages described in the accounts already quoted were the permanent
+settlements of the tribe, groups of earth-covered lodges quite similar
+to those erected by other tribes in the Upper Missouri Valley.
+Fortunately several remarkable photographs of the villages and of the
+separate structures are in existence, having been made by W. H. Jackson
+in 1871. The most valuable of the early pictures is reproduced as plate
+49. And here it may be remarked that this is a different photograph from
+the one which was presented as plate 12 in Bulletin 69 of this bureau's
+publications, and although both were made at the same time, nevertheless
+they differ in minor details. It is therefore of interest to know two
+negatives were made at that time. This was the village of the Republican
+Pawnee. In plate 50 are two of the large earth-covered lodges, showing
+the tunnel-like entrances, and with many persons sitting on the tops of
+the structures. The entrance is more clearly shown in plate 51, where a
+brush mat protects the side. This may be part of a small inclosure.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 48
+
+[Illustration: TRADER CROSSING THE PRAIRIES
+
+Page of Kurz's Sketchbook, August 28, 1851]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 49
+
+[Illustration: PAWNEE-VILLAGE WHICH STOOD ON THE LOUPE FORK OF THE
+PLATTE RIVER
+
+Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 50
+
+[Illustration: LODGES IN THE PAWNEE VILLAGE WHICH STOOD ON THE LOUPE
+FORK OF THE PLATTE RIVER
+
+Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 51
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Children at lodge entrance]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Showing screen near same entrance
+
+IN A PAWNEE VILLAGE
+
+Photographs by W. H. Jackson, 1871]
+
+In addition to the permanent earth-covered lodges the Pawnee made
+extensive use of temporary skin-covered shelters, unlike the conical
+lodge of the plains tribes. These served as their habitations during the
+hunting season, when away from their villages. A most valuable and
+interesting description of the ways and customs of the Pawnee while
+occupying their movable villages was prepared by one who, during the
+summer and autumn of 1835, lived among the people, sharing their
+primitive ways of life and thereby learning many of their peculiar
+traits. The English traveler, Charles A. Murray, whose narrative is
+quoted in part on the following pages, left Fort Leavenworth July 7,
+1835, and two weeks later reached the summer camp of the Pawnee: "and a
+more interesting or picturesque scene I never beheld. Upon an extensive
+prairie gently sloping down to a creek, the winding course of which
+marked a broken line of wood here and there interspersed with a fine
+clump of trees, were about five thousand savages, inclusive of women and
+children; some were sitting under their buffalo-skin lodges lazily
+smoking their pipes; while the women were stooping over their fires
+busily employed in preparing meat and maize for these indolent lords of
+the creation. Far as the eye could reach, were scattered herds of
+horses, watched (or as we should say in Scotland, 'tented') by urchins,
+whose whole dress and equipment was the slight bow and arrow, with which
+they exercised their infant archery upon the heads of the taller
+flowers, or upon the luckless blackbird perched near them. Here and
+there might be seen some gay young warrior ambling along the heights,
+his painted form partially exposed to view as his bright scarlet blanket
+waved in the breeze." (Murray, (1), I, pp. 277-278.) Later he described
+the manner of moving and pitching their large temporary camps: "On
+reaching the camping-place, which is selected by the grand chief (or, in
+his absence, by the next in rank), the senior squaw chooses the spot
+most agreeable to her fancy, and orders the younger women and children,
+who lead the pack-horses and mules (generally from five to ten in
+number, according to the size or wealth of the family), to halt; but in
+making this choice of ground, she is restricted within certain limits,
+and those of no great extent, as the Pawnees observe great regularity
+both in their line of march and encampment. I could not ascertain
+whether these regulations were invariable, or made at the pleasure of
+the chief; but I believe the latter; and that on leaving their winter,
+or stationary, villages, he issues the general orders on this subject,
+which are observed during the season or the expedition; at any rate,
+they never varied during my stay among them.
+
+"They move in three parallel bodies; the left wing consisting of part of
+the Grand Pawnees and the Tapages; the centre of the remaining Grand
+Pawnees; and the right of the Republicans.... All these bodies move in
+'Indian file,' though of course in the mingled mass of men, women,
+children, and pack-horses, it was not very regularly observed;
+nevertheless, on arriving at the halting-place, the party to which I
+belonged invariably camped at the eastern extremity of the village, the
+great chief in the centre, and the _Républiques_ on the western side;
+and this arrangement was kept so well, that, after I had been a few
+days with them, I could generally find our lodge in a new encampment
+with very little trouble, although the village consisted of about six
+hundred of them, all nearly similar in appearance.
+
+"They first unpack and unsaddle the horses, which are given to a boy to
+drive off to their grass and water; they then arrange all their bales,
+saddles, &c. in a semi-circular form, and pile them from two to three
+feet high. Around the exterior of these they drive into the ground eight
+or ten curved willow rods, from two to three feet distant from each
+other, but all firmly bound by leather thongs to four large upright
+poles, that form the front of the lodge, and along which run transverse
+willow rods, to which the extremities of the curved ones are fastened.
+When the frame, or skeleton, is thus finished, they stretch the cover
+(made of buffalo hides, sewed together) tight over the whole, leaving an
+aperture for entrance and egress in the centre of the front; and in fine
+weather, the whole front open.
+
+"This is an accurate description of a Pawnee summer-lodge; but, of
+course, the dimensions vary according to the number and wealth of the
+families residing therein; in some tents I have observed the front
+consisting of six or eight upright poles, to which were fixed more
+skins, for additional shelter or shade. On the grass, in the interior,
+are spread mats, made by the squaws from reeds, and skins of buffalo or
+bear.
+
+"From the foregoing it will be easily understood that the bales of
+cloth, maize, skins, and whatever other property they possess, form the
+back of the tent. Each occupant, from the chief to the lowest in rank,
+has his assigned place; sleeps upon his own blanket, or buffalo robe;
+has his bow and quiver suspended over his head; his saddle, bridle, and
+laryettes, &c. behind his back: and thus little confusion prevails,
+although each individual has only just room to sit or lie at full
+length.
+
+"Before the tent a kind of shield is raised, upon three poles
+pyramidically placed, on which is the device of the chief, by which his
+tent is to be recognised.... In the interior of the tent, and generally
+about the centre of its concave, is suspended the 'medicine,' which is
+most carefully and religiously preserved.... Under the head of
+'medicine,' the Indians comprise not only its own healing department,
+but everything connected with religion of superstition; all omens, all
+relics, and everything extraordinary or supernatural." (Murray (1), I,
+pp. 282-286.)
+
+Late in the year 1835 Murray left the Pawnee encampment to return to
+Fort Leavenworth, but, meeting with an accident, was not able to proceed
+on his way. The Pawnee were likewise moving, and in moving over the
+prairie made a well-defined trail. Retracing his way, and seeking the
+Pawnee, he wrote: "About ten o'clock on the following day we found the
+great Pawnee trail, and, following it, came at mid-day to the place
+where they had camped the night before, and a most hideous spectacle did
+it present; the grass was all trodden into mud--hundreds of circular
+heaps of charred wood attested the number of fires that had been used;
+and the whole plain was strewed with split heads, bare skeletons, and
+scattered entrails of buffalo; while some hundreds of the half-starved
+Pawnee dogs who had lingered behind the village were endeavoring to
+dispute some morsels of the carcasses with the gaunt snarling wolves,
+who were stripping the scanty relics of skin and sinew which are left by
+Indian butchery attached to the bone." (Op. cit., p. 438.) This vivid
+description of the appearance of an abandoned camp site quite agrees
+with a reference made by Dr. Grinnell a few years ago. Writing of events
+during the year 1853, and alluding to an abandoned camp of the Pawnee
+that year discovered by the Cheyenne, he said: "It was a big camp; and
+there were many fires. It seemed as if the Pawnees had been camped there
+killing buffalo for a long time. There were still many dogs in the camp.
+On one side was a well-beaten trail which led to another camp two
+hundred yards off where a number of people had been camped, not in
+lodges but in shelters made of willows bent over, after the fashion of a
+sweat-house." (Grinnell, (2), p. 86.)
+
+These temporary and easily erected structures of the Pawnee were
+probably quite similar in form and appearance to that of the Cheyenne,
+part of which is shown in plate 14. But in the latter instance the cover
+is not formed of the primitive buffalo skin, but of canvas, or some
+other material obtained from the trader.
+
+The Pawnee had a strange method of dealing with their sick or wounded
+during the movement of a village from place to place, and, so wrote
+Father De Smet, "if, in the long journeys which they undertake in search
+of game, any should be impeded, either by age or sickness, their
+children or relations make a small hut of dried grass to shelter them
+from the heat of the sun or from the weather, leaving as much provision
+as they are able to spare, and thus abandon them to their destiny....
+If, some days after, they are successful in the chase, they return as
+quickly as possible to render assistance and consolation. These
+practices are common to all the nomadic tribes of the mountains." (De
+Smet, (2), pp. 356-357.) It is more than probable that similar grass
+shelters were constructed and used by small parties when away from the
+villages, but such structures would necessarily have been of only
+temporary use.
+
+In addition to the semicircular skin-covered lodge mentioned by Murray,
+the Pawnee evidently made use of the conical tipi. This was described by
+Dunbar when he wrote: "Their movable dwellings consist of from 12 to 20
+poles (the number varying with the size) about 16 feet long, and a
+covering. Three of these poles are tied together near the top and set
+up. The string, with which these poles are tied together, is so long
+that one end of it reaches to the ground, when the poles are set up. The
+other poles are now successively set up save one, the top of each
+leaning against the three, first set up, and forming with them a circle.
+The string is then wound round them all at the top several times and
+fastened. The cover is tied to the top of the remaining pole by which it
+is raised up, then is spread round them all and tied together on the
+opposite side, where is the entrance formed by leaving the cover untied
+about three feet from the ground. Over the entrance the skin of a bear
+or some other animal is suspended. The tents are always set up with
+their entrances toward the east. At the top the smoke passes out among
+the poles, a place being left for that purpose. The fire place, crane and
+hearth are similar to those in their fixed habitations. The furniture is
+placed back next the cover. Rush mats are then spread down forming a
+sort of floor. On these they sit, eat and sleep. The large tents are
+about 18 feet in diameter at the base. The tent covers are made of
+buffalo skins, scraped so thin as to transmit light, and sewed together.
+These when new are quite white, and a village of them presents a
+beautiful appearance. Some of them are painted according to Pawnee
+fancy. They carry their tent poles with them during their whole journey.
+From three to six of them, as the case may be, are tied together at the
+larger end, and made fast to the saddle, an equal number on each side,
+the other end drags on the ground." (Dunbar, (2), pp. 602-603.)
+
+From these various records it will be understood the Pawnee made use of
+several forms of temporary and comparatively easily transported and
+erected structures when away from their permanent villages of
+earth-covered lodges. And what is true of the Pawnee would probably
+apply to other tribes of the upper Missouri Valley.
+
+The Pawnee, as did other tribes of the region, made long journeys away
+from their villages in quest of the buffalo, and an interesting account
+of their annual hunts, as conducted about the year 1835, has been
+preserved. Then it was told how "The Pawnees make two hunts each year,
+the summer and winter hunt. To perform the winter hunt they leave their
+villages usually in the last week of October, and do not return to them
+again till about the first of April. They now prepare their cornfields
+for the ensuing season. The ground is dug up with the hoe, the corn is
+planted and well tended. When it has attained to a certain height they
+leave it, and go out to their summer hunt. This is done near the last of
+June. About the first of September they return to their villages.
+Formerly the buffalo came down to and far below their villages. Now
+they are obliged to travel out from ten to twenty days to reach them.
+The buffalo are rapidly diminishing and will in time become extinct.
+
+"When they leave their villages to hunt the buffalo, they take every man
+and beast with them, and the place of their habitations is as desolate
+and solitary during their absence as any other spot on the prairie. When
+the time of departure arrives all the furniture and provisions they wish
+to carry with them are packed on the horses. The residue of their scant
+furniture and provisions are concealed in the earth till their return.
+As each family gets ready they fall into the train, which frequently
+extends some miles." (Dunbar, (1), pp. 329-330.) The narrative continues
+and relates many of the mannerisms of the people, and tells of their
+peculiar traits. And it is difficult to realize the great distance
+traveled during the hunting trips away from the permanent earth-lodge
+villages. Dunbar accompanied them on several of their hunts and wrote
+(Op. cit., p. 331): "The first hunting tour I performed with them they
+traveled, from the time they left their village till they returned to it
+again in the spring, about 400 miles. During the first summer hunt I was
+with them they traveled 700 miles before returning to their village.
+During my second winter hunt they traveled 900 miles, second summer hunt
+800 miles."
+
+The moving about over the vast rolling prairies of the people of an
+entire village, while on their distant hunts, covering many hundreds of
+miles, and carrying with them practically all of their belongings, with
+innumerable dogs and horses, stopping now to kill the buffalo and again
+pushing on in quest of more, constituted one of the most interesting and
+characteristic phases of primitive life on the prairies. But within a
+few decades all has changed, and now many towns and villages occupy the
+region once traversed by the roving bands.
+
+ARIKARA.
+
+When or where the Arikara separated from their kindred tribe, the
+Pawnee, may never be determined, but during the years which followed the
+separation they continued moving northward, leaving ruined villages to
+mark the line of their migration. Sixty years ago it was said: "That
+they migrated upward, along the Missouri, from their friends below is
+established by the remains of their dirt villages, which are yet seen
+along that river, though at this time mostly overgrown with grass. At
+what time they separated from the parent stock is not now correctly
+known, though some of their locations appear to have been of very
+ancient date, at least previous to the commencement of the fur trade on
+the Upper Missouri. At the time when the old French and Spanish traders
+began their dealings with the Indians of the Upper Missouri, the
+Arikara village was situated a little above the mouth of Grand River,
+since which time they have made several removals and are now located at
+Fort Clark, the former village of the Mandans." (Hayden, (1), pp.
+351-352.)
+
+The beginning of the last century found the Arikara living in three
+villages, all on the right bank of the Missouri. In the journal of the
+French trader Le Raye are brief references to the villages, together
+with some notes on the manners and customs of the inhabitants. April 22,
+1802, he wrote: "The _Ricaras_ or _Rus_ have three villages, situated on
+the south bank of the Missouri, in the great bend of the river. The
+lower village is on a large bottom covered with cotton wood, and
+contains about fifty huts." He then describes the manner in which the
+earth-covered lodges were built and refers to the structures being
+"placed with great regularity," a statement which does not seem to have
+been borne out by later writers. Continuing, he said: "The town is
+picketed with pickets twelve feet high and set very close, to prevent
+firing between them. There is one gate way, which is shut at night." On
+May 27, 1802, he left the lower village, "crossed Missouri, and arrived
+the same evening at the upper village. This village is situated on an
+Island in the Missouri, and is fortified in the same manner as the lower
+village, containing about sixty huts.... The next morning we proceeded,
+and soon left the Missouri, travelling a northwest course, in a well
+beaten path." (Le Raye, (1), pp. 171-180.)
+
+Although the preceding notes may not be very accurate, nevertheless they
+are of interest on account of the period they cover, just before the
+transfer of Louisiana to the United States, and two years before the
+most important expedition ascended the Missouri.
+
+To trace the sites of early Arikara villages as mentioned by Lewis and
+Clark, and as seen by them when the expedition under their command
+passed up the Missouri during the early autumn of 1804, is most
+interesting. On September 29 of that year they reached the mouth of a
+small creek which entered the Missouri from the south, "which we called
+Notimber creek from its bare appearance. Above the mouth of this stream,
+a Ricara band of Pawnees had a village five years ago: but there are no
+remains of it except the mound which encircled the town." This would
+have been in the present Stanley County, South Dakota. Two days later,
+on October 1, they "passed a large island in the middle of the river,
+opposite the lower end of which the Ricaras once had a village on the
+south side of the river: there are, however, no remnants of it now,
+except a circular wall three or four feet in height, which encompassed
+the town." Two miles beyond was the mouth of the Cheyenne River.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 52
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Arikara carrying basket. (U.S.N.M. 8430)]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Wooden mortar. "Witchata Inds. Dr. E. Palmer."
+Height of body 13-1/2 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6899)]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 53
+
+[Illustration: "RICCAREE VILLAGE"
+
+George Catlin]
+
+On the third day after passing the mouth of the Cheyenne they reached
+"Teal creek," and "A little above this is an island on the north side of
+the current, about one and a half mile in length and three quarters of a
+mile in breadth. In the centre of this island is an old village of the
+Ricaras, called Lahoocat; it was surrounded by a circular wall,
+containing seventeen lodges. The Ricaras are known to have lived there
+in 1797, and the village seems to have been deserted about five years
+since: it does not contain much timber."
+
+On October 6, two days' travel beyond Teal Creek, and at a distance of
+about 32 miles above it, "We halted for dinner at a village which we
+suppose to have belonged to the Ricaras: it is situated in a low plain
+on the river, and consists of about eighty lodges, of an octagonal form,
+neatly covered with earth, and placed as close to each other as
+possible, and picketed round. The skin canoes, mats, buckets, and
+articles of furniture found in the lodges, induce us to suppose that it
+had been left in the spring. We found three different sorts of squashes
+growing in the village; we also killed an elk near it, and saw two
+wolves." On the following day, after advancing about 4 or 5 miles, they
+encountered "another village or wintering camp of the Ricaras, composed
+of about sixty lodges, built in the same form as those passed yesterday,
+with willow and straw mats, baskets, buffalo-skin canoes, remaining
+entire in the camp."
+
+The baskets may have included many similar to two rare examples now in
+the National Museum, Washington, one of which is shown in plate 52, _a_
+(U.S.N.M. 8430).
+
+On October 9, 1804, after passing the mouth of the river called by them
+the Wetawhoo or Wetarko, soon to be known as Grand River, which flows
+into the Missouri from the west in the present Corson County, South
+Dakota, the expedition stopped and held a council with the Indians.
+There they remained until October 11, when "At one o'clock we left our
+camp with the grand chief and his nephew on board, and at about two
+miles anchored below a creek on the south, separating the second and
+third village of the Ricaras, which are about half a mile distant from
+each other.... These two villages are placed near each other in a high
+smooth prairie; a fine situation, except that having no wood the
+inhabitants are obliged to go for it across the river to a timbered
+lowland opposite to them."
+
+The expedition left the Arikara during the afternoon of October 12, and
+on that date in the narrative appears an interesting account of the then
+recent migrations of the tribe: "They were originally colonies of
+Pawnees, who established themselves on the Missouri, below Chayenne,
+where the traders still remember that twenty years ago they occupied a
+number of villages. From that situation a part of the Ricaras emigrated
+to the neighborhood of the Mandans, with whom they were then in
+alliance. The rest of the nation continued near the Chayenne till the
+year 1797, in the course of which, distressed by their wars with the
+Sioux, they joined their countrymen near the Mandans. Soon after a new
+war arose between the Ricaras and the Mandans, in consequence of which
+the former came down the river to their present position. In this
+migration those who had first gone to the Mandans kept together, and now
+live in the two lower villages, which may be considered as the Ricaras
+proper. The third village was composed of such remnants of the villages
+as had survived the wars, and as these were nine in number a difference
+of pronunciation and some difference of language may be observed between
+them and the Ricaras proper, who do not understand all the words of
+these wanderers. The villages are within the distance of four miles of
+each other, the two lower ones consist of between one hundred and fifty
+and two hundred men each, the third of three hundred." (Lewis and Clark,
+(1), I, pp. 92-104.) Following this, on page 106, is a brief description
+of the earth-covered lodges of the Arikara, which were of "a circular or
+octagonal form, and generally about thirty or forty feet in diameter,"
+but a rather better description was prepared by one of the members of
+the expedition, Patrick Gass, who wrote on October 10: "This day I went
+with some of the men to the lodges, about 60 in number. The following is
+a description of the form of these lodges and the manner of building
+them.
+
+"In a circle of a size suited to the dimensions of the intended lodge
+they set up 16 forked posts five or six feet high, and lay poles from
+one fork to another. Against these poles they lean other poles, slanting
+from the ground, and extending about four inches above the cross poles;
+these are to receive the ends of the upper poles that support the roof.
+They next set up four large forks, fifteen feet high, and about ten feet
+apart, in the middle of the area; and poles or beams between these. The
+roof poles are then laid on extending from the lower poles across the
+beams which rest on the middle forks, of such a length as to leave a
+hole at the top for a chimney. The whole is then covered with willow
+branches, except the chimney and a hole below to pass through. On the
+willow branches they lay grass and lastly clay. At the hole below they
+build a pen about four feet wide and projecting ten feet from the hut;
+and hang a buffalo skin at the entrance of the hut for a door. This
+labour like every other kind is chiefly performed by the squaws. They
+raise corn, beans and tobacco." (Gass, (1), p. 52.) And five days later
+Gass entered in his journal: "At 7 we saw a hunting party of the
+Rickarees, on their way down to the villages. They had 12 buffalo-skin
+canoes or boats laden with meat and skins; beside some horses that were
+going down the bank by land. They gave us a part of their meat. The
+party consisted of men, women, and children." (Op. cit., p. 54.)
+
+Two years later, on the return of the expedition, they again passed the
+villages of the Arikara, arriving opposite the upper village August 21,
+1806, at which time there was an exchange of salutes of four guns each.
+
+In 1812 Cutler wrote regarding the Arikara: "They live in fortified
+villages, claim no land, except that on which their villages stand, and
+the fields they improve." (Cutler, (1), p. 125.)
+
+It is quite evident, from the preceding references as well as from the
+observations of later travelers, that the Arikara villages were usually,
+if not always, surrounded by palisades. But to have surrounded the area
+occupied by the lodges by stout posts placed close together would have
+required some time and, with the primitive implements and methods of
+collecting the necessary number of timbers, would have been a laborious
+undertaking. However, they appear to have had another way of protecting
+their towns. This was told by a French trader who was at the Arikara
+village in 1795. During the early part of June of that year several
+Indians arrived among the Arikara and told that three Sioux villages
+"had assembled and formed an army of five hundred warriors, intending to
+attack the village of the Ricaras." Fearing this attack, the narrative
+continues: "The Ricaras have fortified their village by placing
+palisades five feet high which they have reinforced with earth. The fort
+is constructed in the following manner: All around their village they
+drive into the ground heavy forked stakes, standing from four to five
+feet high and from fifteen to twenty feet apart. Upon these are placed
+cross-pieces as thick as one's thigh; next they place poles of willow or
+cottonwood, as thick as one's leg, resting on the cross-pieces and very
+close together. Against these poles which are five feet high they pile
+fascines of brush which they cover with an embankment of earth two feet
+thick; in this way, the height of the poles would prevent the scaling of
+the fort by the enemy, while the well-packed earth protects those within
+from their balls and arrows." (Trudeau, (1), pp. 454-455.) Undoubtedly
+many embankments found east of the Mississippi owe their origin to this
+method of protecting the villages which they once surrounded.
+
+The most interesting and comprehensible accounts of the Arikara villages
+were prepared during the month of June, 1811. Two travelers that spring
+ascended the Missouri with rival parties of traders, but they were
+acquainted and again met on the upper Missouri on June 3. Brackenridge
+arrived at the village on June 12, and wrote:
+
+"The village appeared to occupy about three quarters of a mile along the
+river bank, on a level plain, the country behind it rising into hills of
+considerable height. There are little or no woods anywhere to be seen.
+The lodges are of a conical shape, and look like heaps of earth. A great
+number of horses are seen feeding in the plains around, and on the sides
+of the hills. I espied a number of squaws, in canoes, descending the
+river and landing at the village. The interpreter informed me, that they
+were returning home with wood. These canoes are made of a single buffalo
+hide, stretched over osiers, and are of a circular form. There was but
+one woman in each canoe, who kneeled down, and instead of paddling
+sideways, placed the paddle before; the load is fastened to the
+canoe.... About two o'clock fourteen of us crossed over, and accompanied
+the chief to his lodge. Mats were laid around for us to sit on, while he
+placed himself on a kind of stool or bench. The pipe was handed around,
+and smoked; after which, the herald, (every chief or great man, has one
+of them) ascended the top of the lodge and seated himself near an open
+place, and began to bawl out like one of our town criers; the chief
+every now and then addressing something to him through the aperture
+before mentioned. We soon discovered the object of this, by the arrival
+of the other chiefs, who seemed to drop in, one after the other, as
+their names were called.
+
+"When all were seated, the pipe was handed to the chief, who began as is
+usual on solemn occasions, by blowing a whiff upwards as it were to the
+sky, then to the earth, and after to the east and west, after which the
+pipe was sent round. A mark of respect in handing the pipe to another,
+is to hold it until the person has taken several whiffs." (Brackenridge,
+(1), pp. 245-246.)
+
+Bradbury, who was also present at the gathering on June 12, entered in
+his journal:
+
+"I quitted the feast, in order to examine the town, which I found to be
+fortified all round with a ditch, and with pickets or pallisadoes, of
+about nine feet high. The lodges are placed without any regard to
+regularity, which renders it difficult to count them, but there appears
+to be from 150 to 160, and they are constructed in the same manner as
+those of the Ottoes, with the additional convenience of a railing on the
+eaves: behind this railing they sit at their ease and smoke. There is
+scarcely any declivity in the scite of the town, and as little regard is
+paid to cleanliness, it is very dirty in wet weather." (Bradbury, (1),
+pp. 114-115.) Later he wrote (pp. 165-166): "I am not acquainted with
+any customs peculiar to this nation, save that of having a sacred lodge
+in the centre of the largest village. This is called the _Medicine
+lodge_, and in one particular, corresponds with the sanctuary of the
+Jews, as no blood is on any account whatsoever to be spilled within it,
+not even that of an enemy; nor is any one, having taken refuge there,
+to be forced from it. This lodge is also the general place of deposit
+for such things as they devote to the _Father of Life_."
+
+On the following day, June 13, 1811, Brackenridge "rambled through the
+village," which he found "excessively filthy," with innumerable dogs
+running about. Then he proceeded to describe the habitations: "The
+lodges are constructed in the following manner: Four large forks of
+about fifteen feet in height, are placed in the ground, usually about
+twenty feet from each other, with hewn logs, or beams across; from these
+beams, other pieces of wood are placed slanting; smaller pieces are
+placed above, leaving an aperture at the top, to admit the light, and to
+give vent to the smoke. These upright pieces are interwoven with osiers,
+after which, the whole is covered with earth, though not sodded. An
+opening is left at one side, for a door, which is secured by a kind of
+projection of ten or twelve feet, enclosed on all sides, and forming a
+narrow entrance, which might be easily defended. A buffalo robe
+suspended at the entrance, answers as a door. The fire is made in a hole
+in the ground, directly under the aperture at the top. Their beds
+elevated a few feet, are placed around the lodge, and enclosed with
+curtains of dressed elk skins. At the upper end of the lodge, there is a
+kind of trophy erected; two buffalo heads, fantastically painted, are
+placed on a little elevation; over them are placed, a variety of
+consecrated things, such as shields, skins of a rare or valuable kind,
+and quivers of arrows. The lodges seem placed at random, without any
+regularity or design, and are so much alike, that it was for some time
+before I could learn to return to the same one. The village is
+surrounded by a palisade of cedar poles, but in a very bad state. Around
+the village, there are little plats enclosed by stakes, intwined with
+osiers, in which they cultivate maize, tobacco, and beans; but their
+principal field is at the distance of a mile from the village, to which,
+such of the females whose duty it is to attend to their culture, go and
+return morning and evening. Around the village they have buffalo robes
+stuck up on high poles. I saw one so arranged as to bear a resemblance
+to the human figure, the hip bone of the buffaloe represented the head,
+the sockets of the thigh bones looked like eyes." (Op. cit., pp.
+247-248.)
+
+On June 14 they walked together to the upper of the two villages, which
+were separated by a narrow stream. They entered several lodges and were
+always pleasantly received by the occupants and offered food, which
+included fresh buffalo meat served in wooden dishes or bowls, and
+"homony made of corn dried in the milk, mixed with beans, which was
+prepared with buffalo marrow." This latter, according to Bradbury, was
+"warmed on the fire in an earthen vessel of their own manufacture."
+Later, when he returned to the same village, he wrote (p. 158): "I
+noticed over their fires much larger vessels of earthenware than any I
+had before seen, and was permitted to examine them. They were
+sufficiently hardened by the fire to cause them to emit a sonorous tone
+on being struck, and in all I observed impressions on the outside
+seemingly made by wicker work. This led me to enquire of them by signs
+how they were made? when a squaw brought a basket, and taking some clay,
+she began to spread it very evenly within it, shewing me at the same
+time that they were made in that way. From the shape of these vessels,
+they must be under the necessity of burning the basket to disengage
+them, as they are wider at the bottom than at the top. I must here
+remark, that at the Great Salt Lick, or Saline, about twenty miles from
+the mouth of the Wabash, vast quantities of Indian earthenware are
+found, on which I have observed impressions exactly similar to those
+here mentioned. From the situation of these heaps of fragments, and
+their proximity to the salt works, I am decidedly of opinion that the
+Indians practised the art of evaporating the brine, to make salt, before
+the discovery of America."
+
+It was the custom of the people of the village to gather in the evenings
+on the tops of their lodges, there to sit and converse, and "every now
+and then the attention of all was attracted by some old men who rose up
+and declaimed aloud, so as to be heard over the whole village." Within
+the village women were often seen busily engaged in dressing buffalo
+robes, stretched on frames near the lodges. Men, playing at various
+games, or sitting in groups smoking and talking; children and dogs
+innumerable. Such was the appearance of an Arikara village a little more
+than a century ago.
+
+On the 18th of June Bradbury visited the bluffs southwest of the village
+and on one discovered 14 buffalo skulls placed in a row, and in
+describing them said: "The cavities of the eyes and the nostrils were
+filled with a species of _artemisia_ common on the prairies, which
+appears to be a non-descript. On my return I caused our interpreter to
+enquire into the reason for this, and found that it was an honour
+conferred on the buffaloes which they had killed, in order to appease
+their spirits, and prevent them from apprising the living buffaloes of
+the danger they run in approaching the neighbourhood." (Op. cit., p.
+125.)
+
+An interesting observation was made at this time by Brackenridge
+concerning a temporary encampment of a small party of Arikara when away
+from their permanent, well-protected villages. He said (Op. cit., pp.
+254-255): "To avoid surprise, they always encamp at the edge of a wood;
+and when the party is small, they construct a kind of fortress, with
+wonderful expedition, of billets of wood, apparently piled up in a
+careless manner, but so arranged as to be very strong, and are able to
+withstand an assault from a much superior force." Many such inclosures
+were discovered and mentioned by the early explorers of the Upper
+Missouri Valley, and several instances have been cited on the preceding
+pages when treating of the Siouan tribes.
+
+In 1832 Catlin went up the Missouri, and when he arrived at the Arikara
+village he made a sketch of the town as it appeared from the deck of the
+steamboat. The original painting is now in the National Museum,
+Washington, and is reproduced in plate 53. This was engraved and
+presented as plate 80 in his narrative. Writing of this sketch he
+remarked: "Plate 80, gives a view of the Riccaree village, which is
+beautifully situated on the west bank of the river, 200 miles below the
+Mandans; and built very much in the same manner; being constituted of
+150 earth-covered lodges, which are in part surrounded by an imperfect
+and open barrier of piquets set firmly in the ground, and of ten or
+twelve feet in height. This village is built upon an open prairie, and
+the gracefully undulating hills that rise in distance behind it are
+everywhere covered with a verdant green turf, without a tree or a bush
+anywhere to be seen. This view was taken from the deck of the steamer
+when I was on my way up the river." (Catlin, (1), I, p. 204.) At this
+time the Arikara were very hostile to all the traders who passed and
+repassed along the Missouri. They had attacked many canoes and caused
+the death of their occupants. Fearing the outcome of their actions they
+soon left the banks of the Missouri and moved westward. One year after
+Catlin passed the villages Maximilian arrived there while on his way to
+the far upper waters of the Missouri. On June 12, 1833, Maximilian
+wrote: "Moreau's River ... is called the southern boundary of the
+territory of the Arikkaras, though they often make excursions far beyond
+it.... On the morning of the 12th our cannon, muskets and rifles were
+loaded with ball, because we were approaching the village of the hostile
+Arikkaras. We came to Grand River, called in Lewis and Clarke's map
+Wetarko River. As we here touched the bottom, we crossed to the east
+bank, and in half an hour reached Rampart River, which issues from a
+narrow chain of hills, called Les Remparts; and soon afterwards an
+island covered with willows, which, on the large special map of Lewis
+and Clarke, has an Arikkara village, of which there are now no traces.
+From the hills we had a fine prospect over the bend of the river, on
+which the villages of the Arikkaras are situated, and which we reached
+after a short run of only two miles. The two villages of this tribe are
+on the west bank, very near each other, but separated by a small stream.
+They consist of a great number of clay huts, round at the top, with a
+square entrance in front, and the whole surrounded with a fence of
+stakes, which were much decayed, and in many places thrown down. It was
+not quite a year since these villages had been wholly abandoned, because
+their inhabitants, who were extremely hostile to the Whites, killed so
+many Americans, that they themselves foresaw that they would be severely
+chastised by the United States, and therefore preferred to emigrate. To
+this cause was added, a dry, unproductive season, when the crops
+entirely failed; as well as the absence of the herds of buffaloes, which
+hastened their removal.... The principal chief of the Arikkaras, when
+they retired from the Missouri, was called Starapat (the little hawk,
+with bloody claws)." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 166-167.) The Arikara at this
+time appear to have left the banks of the Missouri and removed to the
+vicinity of the Pawnee.
+
+Fort Clark, on the upper Missouri, at the villages of the Mandan and
+Hidatsa, was erected by the American Fur Company during the year 1829.
+
+In 1837 the Mandans suffered from the dreaded smallpox, losing more than
+90 per cent of their number, and the few who survived abandoned their
+large village below Fort Clark and settled a short distance above. And,
+so wrote Hayden in 1855, "About the time that the Mandans left the lower
+village, the Arikaras came and took possession, the former readily
+consenting to this arrangement, because it placed a large body of
+strangers between them and the Dakotas, with whom, in their now feeble
+state, they were unable to contend." (Hayden, (1), p. 434.)
+
+A brief description of the Arikara village as it appeared early in June,
+1850, is to be found in Culbertson's journal. On the 12th of that month
+the steamboat, ascending the Missouri, reached Fort Clark, "a small
+fort, about one hundred feet in length on each side." Just above the
+fort was the village of the Arikara. "The village is composed of two
+hundred lodges, as near as I could learn from the interpreter, and is
+built upon the top of a bluff bank rising about seventy-five feet
+perpendicular from the water. The huts are placed very irregularly,
+sometimes with very narrow, and sometimes with quite broad spaces
+between them. A number of platforms of poles, as high as the lodges
+themselves, are interspersed among them for the convenience of drying
+meat and dressing robes. I noticed a number of squaws busily employed in
+dressing robes." (Culbertson, (1), p. 117.) The typical earth lodge is
+described, one similar to those mentioned on other pages of this sketch,
+but his account of the interior of a habitation is most interesting. He,
+with others, stopped at a large lodge, when, so he wrote: "We were
+conducted to the place of honor, opposite to and facing the door. To our
+right, along the wall, were arranged several bedsteads, rudely made,
+while to the left, a part was cut off by a couple of poles, for the
+accommodation of the horses; the chickens had a coop in one corner, but
+roam at large on most occasions, and the centre is used for a fireplace.
+The lodge was clean, airy, light and comfortable, and there was plenty
+of room for more than those, who I suppose, inhabit it. Behind us were
+hung bows with spears on the ends, and two rude instruments of music,
+made of a number of pumpkins.... Near the fireplace a small wooden
+mortar was sunk in the ground, for pounding corn. The large and high
+room appeared rather scarce of furniture." Many burials were encountered
+when passing between the village and Fort Clark, and there "were little
+patches of corn and pumpkins, generally enclosed by a slight bush
+fence," these probably being the gardens belonging to the people of the
+near-by town. The mortar, "sunk in the ground," as mentioned by
+Culbertson, was evidently similar to the example shown in plate 52, _b_,
+a form which was indicated by Bodmer in his sketch of the interior of a
+Mandan lodge, plate 40.
+
+It will be recalled that the village mentioned in the preceding notes
+was the home of the Mandan during the memorable winter of 1804-05, when
+the expedition of Lewis and Clark encamped a few miles below, and there
+the Mandan continued to dwell until after the epidemic of 1837.
+
+In later years the three tribes, Arikara, Hidatsa, and Mandan, were
+closely associated, living in the vicinity of Fort Berthold, on the left
+bank of the Missouri and about 60 miles above Fort Clark, the Arikara
+having arrived at Fort Berthold, during the month of August, 1862.
+Evidently their ways of life and customs were quite similar, and
+Matthews, in his work on the Hidatsa in particular, but in which he
+treats of the three tribes in general, said: "For cleaning the
+village-grounds, they had rakes made of a few osiers tied together, the
+ends curved and spreading. Their most important agricultural implement
+was the hoe. Before they obtained iron utensils of the white traders,
+their only hoes were made of the shoulder-blades of elk or buffalo,
+attached to wooden handles of suitable length ... as late as 1867, I saw
+a great number in use at Fort Berthold, and purchased two or three, one
+of which was sent to Washington, and, I presume, is now on exhibition in
+the museum of the Smithsonian Institution." (Matthews, (1), p. 19.)
+Several rakes of this description are in the collection of the National
+Museum, Washington. One, bearing the legend "Arickaree," which was
+obtained at Fort Berthold, is shown in plate 54, _a_ (U.S.N.M. 6353). It
+measures 4 feet 10 inches in length and is formed of six pieces bound
+together. It is also of great interest to know that the hoe which was
+sent by Dr. Matthews to the museum is perfectly preserved. It is here
+reproduced in plate 54, _b_ (U.S.N.M. 6326). Written on it is this
+legend: "Ree Indians. Ft Berthold Dacotah Ter. Drs Gray and Matthews."
+The length of the scapula, that of a buffalo, is about 14 inches. Both
+handle and blade are worn smooth from use. The specimen is one of much
+importance.
+
+It will be recalled that Bradbury in 1811 referred to the "medicine
+lodge," then standing in the center of the large Arikara village.
+Matthews, more than 60 years later, mentioned a similar structure then
+standing at the village near Fort Berthold, and said concerning it: "The
+medicine-lodge of the Arickarees is larger than that of the Mandans, and
+is used for a greater variety of ceremonies. Some of these performances,
+consisting of ingenious tricks of jugglery and dances, representative of
+various hunts, we might be inclined to call theatrical rather than
+religious. Probably these Indians consider them both worshipful and
+entertaining. It is often hard to tell how much of a religious ceremony
+is intended to propitiate the unknown powers, and how much to please the
+spectators." (Matthews, (1), p. 10.)
+
+From the various quotations given on the preceding pages it is possible
+to form a good idea of the appearance of an ancient Arikara village. A
+large number of earth-covered lodges, of varying sizes, were placed
+without order but rather close together, often with a "medicine lodge"
+in the center of the group. All were surrounded by a palisade, often
+reared in connection with a ditch and embankment. The village at Fort
+Berthold was thus protected until the winter of 1865, at which time the
+stockade was cut down and used as fuel, and it was never replaced.
+
+As late as 1872 there were 43 earth-covered lodges standing at the
+Arikara village near Fort Berthold, together with 28 log cabins.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 54
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Rake marked "Arickaree." Collected at Fort Berthold.
+Length 4 feet 10 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6353)]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Agricultural implement formed of a scapula of a
+buffalo attached to a wooden handle. Marked "Ree Indians. Ft. Berthold,
+Dacotah Ter. Drs. Gray and Matthews." Length of scapula about 14 inches.
+(U.S.N.M. 6326)]
+
+[Illustration: _c._ Parfleche box. "Crows, Montana Ter. J. I. Allen."
+Length 28 inches, width 13-1/2 inches. (U.S.N.M. 130574)]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 55
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Grass-covered structures near Anadarko]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Grass-covered lodge, about 1880
+
+WICHITA HABITATIONS]
+
+In addition to the earth-covered lodges found in the permanent villages,
+they had skin tents which were occupied when away from their towns on
+war or hunting expeditions. Like the great majority of the native
+tribes, the Arikara would move about during certain seasons of the year.
+Hayden, writing about the year 1855, referred to this custom: "At the
+commencement of the winter the Arikaras leave their village in quest of
+buffalo, which seldom approach near enough to be killed in the vicinity
+of their cabins. They then encamp in skin tents, in various directions
+from the Missouri or along its banks, wherever the buffalo may chance to
+range. They pass the winter in hunting, and return to their permanent
+village early in the spring, bringing with them their skins in an
+unprepared state, with a great supply of meat." (Hayden, (1), p. 354.)
+Such were the hunting parties often met by the traders and explorers, as
+that mentioned by Sergeant Gass on October 15, 1804. That they were
+skilled agriculturists is attested by a note referring to the time they
+were still living in the old Mandan village below Fort Clark, October
+11, 1853. In the journal of a party at that time descending the Missouri
+from Fort Benton to St. Louis appears this entry:
+
+"Arrived at Fort Clark, or Aricaree's village. It is situated on the top
+of a very high bluff on the bank of the river.... The Rees are not
+friendly to the whites, and are kept from open hostilities only by fear.
+They are a large tribe, and on the fertile meadows they occupy, raise a
+great amount of corn and pumpkins, which they exchange with the Crows
+and Dacotahs for dried buffalo meat and robes. They exported five
+thousand bushels of excellent corn this year...." (Saxton, (1), p. 265.)
+And it must be remembered that the principal implement was the primitive
+hoe, formed of a scapula of a buffalo attached to a wooden handle.
+
+WICHITA.
+
+Like the other members of this linguistic family, whose villages have
+already been described, the Wichita had two forms of dwellings, which
+they occupied under different conditions. One served as the structure in
+their permanent villages, the other being of a more temporary nature.
+But, instead of the earth-covered lodges used farther north, their fixed
+villages were composed of groups of high circular structures, entirely
+thatched from bottom to top. Their movable camps, when away from home on
+war or hunting expeditions, consisted of the skin-covered tents of the
+plains.
+
+The peculiar thatched structures were first seen and described by
+Europeans in the year 1541, when Coronado crossed the vast rolling
+prairies and reached the Quivira (the Wichita) about the northeastern
+part of the present State of Kansas. Here extensive village sites, with
+innumerable traces of occupancy, undoubtedly indicate the positions of
+the ancient settlements.
+
+In the narrative of the expedition led by Coronado, prepared by one of
+the Spanish officers, Juan Jaramillo, appears an interesting though very
+brief description of the thatched dwellings of the people of Quivira:
+
+"The houses which these Indians have were of straw, and most of them
+round, and the straw reached down to the ground like a wall, so that
+they did not have the symmetry or the style of these here [referring to
+pueblos]; they have something like a chapel or sentry box outside and
+around these, with an entry, where the Indians appear seated or
+reclining." (Winship, (1), p. 591.) Castañeda, writing of the same
+villages, said: "The houses are round, without a wall, and they have one
+story like a loft, under the roof, where they sleep and keep their
+belongings. The roofs are of straw." (Winship, (1), pp. 528-529.) This
+evidently referred to structures similar to that shown on the right of
+the lodge in plate 55, _a_.
+
+A photograph of a large Wichita dwelling, of the form mentioned, is
+reproduced in plate 55, _b_. The picture was probably made about the
+year 1880. The door in front is open, and there appears to be another on
+the extreme left, which would be 90° from the former; therefore there
+were evidently four entrances. This is explained in the following
+account of the construction and arrangement of such a dwelling:
+
+"Its construction was begun by drawing a circle on the ground, and on
+the outline setting a number of crotched posts, in which beams were
+laid. Against these, poles were set very closely in a row so as to lean
+inward; these in turn were laced with willow rods and their tops brought
+together and securely-fastened so as to form a peak. Over this frame a
+heavy thatch of grass was laid and bound down by slender rods, and at
+each point where the rods joined an ornamental tuft of grass was tied.
+Two poles, laid at right angles, jutting out in four projecting points,
+were fastened to the apex of the roof, and over the center, where they
+crossed, rose a spire, 2 ft. high or more, made of bunches of grass.
+Four doors, opening to each point of the compass, were formerly made,
+but now, except when the house is to be used for ceremonial purposes,
+only two are provided, one on the east to serve for the morning, and one
+on the west to go in and out of when the sun is in that quarter. The
+fireplace was a circular excavation in the center of the floor, and the
+smoke found egress through a hole left high up in the roof toward the E.
+The four projecting beams at the peak pointed toward and were symbolic
+of the four points of the compass, where were the paths down which the
+powers descended to help man. The spire typified the abode in the zenith
+of the mysterious permeating force that animates all nature. The
+fireplace was accounted sacred; it was never treated lightly even in the
+daily life of the family. The couches of the occupants were placed
+against the wall. They consisted of a framework on which was fitted a
+woven covering of reeds. Upon this robes or rush mats were spread. The
+grass house is a comely structure. Skill is required to build it, and it
+has an attractive appearance both within and without." (Fletcher, (1).)
+
+An interesting photograph made some 30 or 40 years ago, near Anadarko,
+Caddo County, Oklahoma, is reproduced in plate 55, _a_. This shows a
+grass lodge of the usual form, and to the right of it appears to be an
+arbor or shelter, having a thatched roof but open on the sides. This
+second structure may be of the form which was seen by the Spaniards
+nearly four centuries ago, a place "where the Indians appear seated or
+reclining." It undoubtedly served as a gathering place, out of doors,
+and gave protection from the rays of the sun.
+
+WACO.
+
+On August 23, 1853, the expedition under command of Lieut. A. W. Whipple
+camped at some point in the southwestern portion of the present McClain
+County, Oklahoma, and that evening were visited by two Indians, "the one
+tall and straight, the other ill-looking. Their dress consisted of a
+blue cotton blanket wrapped around the waist, a head-dress of eagles'
+feathers, brass wire bracelets, and moccasins. The outer cartilages of
+their ears were cut through in various places, and short sticks inserted
+in place of rings. They were painted with vermilion, and carried bows of
+bois d'arc three feet long, and cow-skin quivers filled with arrows. The
+latter were about twenty-six inches in length, with very sharp steel
+heads, tastefully and skillfully made. The feathers with which they were
+tipped, and the sinews which bound them, were prettily tinted with red,
+blue, and green. The shafts were colored red, and said to be poisoned."
+(Whipple, (1), p. 22.) Unable to converse with the two strangers, the
+interpreter proceeded to interview them by signs. "The graceful motions
+of the hands seemed to convey ideas faster than words could have done,
+and with the whole operation we were highly amused and interested. Our
+visitors now said that they were not Kichais, but Huécos, and that they
+were upon a hunting expedition." Referring to the same two Indians
+another member of the expedition wrote:
+
+"The newcomers belonged to the tribe of Wakos, or Waekos, neighbours of
+the Witchita Indians, who live to the east of the Witchita Mountains, in
+a village situated on the bank of a small river rising in that
+direction. They were now on a journey to the Canadian, to meet a
+barter-trader there, but having heard of our expedition, had turned out
+of their way to pay us a visit. The Wakos and Witchitas differ only in
+name, and in some slight varieties of dialect; their villages are built
+in the same style, and are only about a thousand yards from one another.
+Their wigwams, of which the Witchitas count forty-two, and the Wakos
+only twenty, look a good deal like haycocks, and are constructed with
+pliable poles, eighteen or twenty feet long, driven into the ground in a
+circle of twenty-five feet diameter; the poles are then bent together
+and fastened to one another at the top, and the spaces between filled
+with plaited willow twigs and turf, a low aperture being left for a
+door, and one above for a chimney. A place is hollowed out in the centre
+for a fireplace, and around this, and a little raised, are placed the
+beds of the inhabitants of the hut; which, when covered with good
+buffalo skins, make tolerable resting-places. Each of these wigwams is
+generally occupied by two families; and the Wako tribe is reckoned at
+about two hundred, that of the Witchitas at not less than eight hundred
+members. These Indians practise agriculture; and beans, peas, maize,
+gourds, and melons are seen prospering very well round their villages."
+(Möllhausen, (1), I, pp. 115-116.)
+
+CADDO.
+
+The "Caddo proper," or Cenis as they were called by Joutel, early
+occupied the southwestern part of the present State of Arkansas, the Red
+River Valley, and adjacent region to the south and west.
+
+La Salle was murdered near the banks of the Trinity, in eastern Texas,
+March 20, 1687. Joutel and several others of the party pushed on, and
+nine days later, when traversing the valley of the Red River, arrived at
+a village of the Cenis. Fortunately a very good account of the people
+and their homes is preserved in Joutel's narrative, and from it the
+following quotations are made:
+
+"The _Indian_ that was with us conducted us to their Chief's Cottage.
+By the Way, we saw many other Cottages, and the Elders coming to meet us
+in their Formalities, which consisted in some Goat Skins dress'd and
+painted of several Colours, which they wore on their Shoulders like
+Belts, and Plumes of Feathers of several Colours, on their Heads, like
+Coronets.... All their Faces were daub'd with black or red. There were
+twelve Elders, who walk'd in the Middle, and the Youth and Warriors in
+Ranks, on the Sides of those old Men." After remaining a short time with
+the chief "They led us to a larger Cottage, a Quarter of a League from
+thence, being the Hut in which they have their public Rejoycings, and
+the great Assemblies. We found it furnish'd with Mats for us to sit on.
+The Elders seated themselves round about us, and they brought us to eat,
+some _Sagamite_, which is their Pottage, little Beans, Bread made of
+_Indian_ Corn, and another Sort they make with boil'd Flower, and at
+last they made us smoke."
+
+They proceeded to another village not far away, and, so the narrative
+continues: "By the Way, we saw several Cottages at certain Distances,
+stragling up and down, as the Ground happens to be fit for Tillage. The
+Field lies about the Cottage, and at other Distances there are other
+large Huts, not inhabited, but only serving for publick Assemblies,
+either upon Occasion of Rejoycing, or to consult about Peace and War.
+
+"The Cottages that are inhabited, are not each of them for a private
+Family, for in some of them are fifteen or twenty, each of which has its
+Nook or Corner, Bed and other Utensils to its self: but without any
+Partition to separate it from the rest: However, they have Nothing in
+Common besides the Fire, which is in the Midst of the Hut, and never
+goes out. It is made of great Trees, the Ends whereof are laid together,
+so that when once lighted, it lasts a long Time, and the first Comer
+takes Care to keep it up." Here follows a brief description of the
+appearance of the structures of the village, the dwellings resembling
+those later mentioned as being typical of the Wichita. "The Cottages are
+round at the Top, after the manner of a Bee-Hive, or a Reek of Hay. Some
+of them are sixty Foot Diameter." There follows a brief account of the
+method of constructing such a house. "In order to build them, they plant
+Trees as thick as a Man's thigh, tall and strait, and placing them in a
+Circle, and joyning the Tops together, from the Dome, or round Top, then
+they lash and cover them with Weeds. When they remove their Dwellings,
+they generally burn the Cottages they leave, and build new on the Ground
+they design to inhabit. Their Moveables are some Bullocks Hides and
+Goats Skins well cur'd, some Mats close wove, wherewith they adorn their
+Huts, and some Earthen Vessels, which they are very skilful at making,
+and wherein they boil their Flesh or Roots, or _Sagamite_, which, as has
+been said, is their Pottage. They have also some small Baskets made of
+Canes, serving to put in their Fruit and other Provisions. Their Beds
+are made of Canes, rais'd two or three Foot above the Ground, handsomely
+fitted with Mats and Bullocks Hides, or Goats Skins well cur'd, which
+serve them for Feather Beds, or Quilts and Blankets; and those Beds are
+parted one from another by Mats hung up." (Joutel, (1), pp. 106-109.)
+
+The preceding is probably the clearest description of the furnishings of
+a native structure standing beyond the Mississippi during the last
+quarter of the seventeenth century that has been preserved. The large
+circular structures served as the dwelling place of many individuals.
+The beds were placed, so it may be assumed, in a line around the wall,
+each separated from its neighbor by a mat. A large fire burned in the
+center of the space. In many respects the large dwellings of the Caddo
+must have closely resembled the great round structures which stood north
+of St. Augustine, Florida, about the year 1700. (Bushnell, (1), pp.
+84-86.)
+
+Brief accounts of the many small tribes living south of the Arkansas
+River soon after the transfer of Louisiana contain references to the
+numerous villages, but fail, unfortunately, to describe the structures
+in detail. (Sibley, (1), pp. 721-725.) The dwellings probably resembled
+those already mentioned as standing a century and more before.
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION.
+
+
+The references brought together and presented on the preceding pages
+will reveal the nature of the dwellings and the appearance of the camps
+and villages which stood, so short a time ago, in the region between the
+Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains. First encountered in the southern
+part of the country by the Spanish expeditions led by De Soto and
+Coronado before the middle of the sixteenth century, and by the French
+who entered the upper and central portions of the Mississippi Valley
+during the latter part of the seventeenth century, all types of
+structures continued to be reared and occupied until the latter half of
+the nineteenth century, while some forms are even now in use, although
+it is highly probable that within another generation these, too, will
+have disappeared.
+
+Various writers during the eighteenth century mentioned the tribes of
+the Upper Missouri Valley, but all accounts prepared at that time are
+rather vague, as was their knowledge of conditions on and in the region
+bordering the Great Plains. And not until after the transfer of
+Louisiana to the United States, and as a result of the several
+expeditions sent out by the Government to explore the newly acquired
+territories, did the various groups of tribes, with their peculiar
+characteristics, become known with a degree of certainty. But with the
+transfer of Louisiana conditions rapidly changed. Hunters and traders
+soon penetrated the wilderness where few had gone before. Fort Crawford,
+at the mouth of the Wisconsin; Fort Snelling, just below the Falls of
+St. Anthony; and Leavenworth, on the Missouri, were established before
+the close of the first quarter of the century. Towns were built farther
+and farther beyond the old frontier, and on April 18, 1851, Kurz wrote
+in his journal:
+
+"St Joseph, formerly the trading post of Joseph Robidoux, is at the foot
+of the Blacksnake hills, on the left bank of the Missouri.... The
+streets are crowded with traders and emigrants on their way to
+California and Oregon. Many Indians of the tribes of the Pottowatomis,
+Foxes (Musquakees), Kikapoos, Iowas, and Otoes are continually in the
+town.... In summer the _Bourgeois_, or Chiefs, the clerks and _Engagés_
+of the fur companies enliven the streets.... St. Joseph is now what St
+Louis was formerly--their gathering place." Thus the Indian in his
+primitive state was doomed, as were the vast herds of buffalo which then
+roamed, unopposed, over the far-reaching prairies.
+
+In studying the various types of structures it is interesting to learn
+how the natural environments influenced the form of dwellings erected by
+the tribes of a particular section. Thus in the densely timbered country
+of the north, about the headwaters of the Mississippi and far beyond,
+the mat and bark covered wigwams were developed and employed practically
+to the exclusion of all other forms of habitations. But on the plains,
+and in the regions bordering the great buffalo ranges, the skin-covered
+conical tipis predominated, although other forms were sometimes
+constructed by the same people. The earth lodges as erected by certain
+tribes of the Missouri Valley were the most interesting native
+structures east of the Rocky Mountains, and these at once suggest the
+_Rotundas_, or great council houses once built by the Cherokees and
+Creeks east of the Mississippi.
+
+In treating of the habitations and villages of the several tribes
+references have been made, incidentally, to the manners and ways of life
+of the people who once claimed and occupied so great a part of the
+present United States.
+
+
+
+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
+
+
+
+SYNONYMY
+
+
+  Accancea=Quapaw.
+  Ahnahaways=Amahami.
+  Alkansa=Quapaw.
+  Archithinue=Blackfeet.
+  Aricaree, Arickarees, Arikkaras=Arikara.
+  Arkansa=Quapaw.
+  Arwacahwas=Amahami.
+  Asinepoet, Assinneboins=Assiniboin.
+  Assonis=Caddo.
+  Awachawi=Amahami.
+  Big-bellied Indians=Atsina.
+  Big Bellys=Hidatsa.
+  Canzee=Kansa.
+  Cenis=Caddo.
+  Chayennes=Cheyenne.
+  Chepewyans=Chipewyan.
+  Chippeway=Chippewa.
+  Cristinaux=Cree.
+  Dacotahs=Dakota.
+  Fall Indians=Atsina.
+  Grosventre Indians, Grosventres, Gros Ventres of the Missouri=Hidatsa.
+  Gros Ventres of the Prairie=Atsina.
+  Huecos=Waco.
+  Kansas, Kanzas, Kaws=Kansa.
+  Knistenaux, Knisteneaux=Cree.
+  Konsee, Konza, Konzas=Kansa.
+  Machigamea=Michigamea.
+  Maha=Omaha.
+  Manitaries, Minatarres, Minnetarees=Hidatsa.
+  Minnetarees of Fort de Prairie=Atsina.
+  Naudowessies=Dakota.
+  Nehetheway=Cree.
+  Ogallallaha=Oglala.
+  Ojibway=Chippewa.
+  Omawhaw=Omaha.
+  Osinipoilles=Assiniboin.
+  Otoes, Ottoes=Oto.
+  Ougapa=Quapaw.
+  Pay-gans, Picaneaux, Piekann=Piegan.
+  Poncara, Punca, Punka=Ponca.
+  Quappa=Quapaw.
+  Quivira=Wichita.
+  Rapid Indians=Atsina.
+  Ree, Ricaras, Riccaree, Rickarees, Rus=Arikara.
+  Sak=Sauk.
+  Sarsees=Sarsi.
+  Saulteaux, Sautaux, Sauteaux, Sauteux=Chippewa.
+  Sharha=Cheyenne.
+  Shoe Indians=Amahami.
+  Shoshonees=Shoshoni.
+  Soulier Noir=Amahami.
+  Stone Indians=Assiniboin.
+  Sur-cees=Sarsi.
+  Upsaroka=Crows.
+  Waekoes, Wakos=Waco.
+  Wattasoons=Amahami.
+  Witchita=Wichita.
+  Yanctonies=Yanktonai.
+  Yanctons=Yankton.
+
+
+
+
+EXPLANATION OF PLATES
+
+
+The art of photography has made it possible to preserve a pictorial
+record of the dwellings and other structures of native tribes beyond the
+Mississippi, and many early photographs, together with drawings and
+paintings by various artists, have been selected to illustrate the
+present work.
+
+
+PLATE 1
+
+One of the original drawings by Griset reproduced by woodcuts in Col. R.
+I. Dodge's work _The Plains of the Great West_, 1877. The reproduction
+is now made exact size of the original. Collection of David I. Bushnell,
+jr.
+
+Ernest Henry Griset, born in France, 1844; died March 22, 1907. Lived in
+England, where he did much of his work. In 1871 he exhibited at Suffolk
+Street. Some of his paintings are hung in the Victoria and Albert
+Museum. More than 30 examples of his work belong to the Smithsonian
+Institution, Washington. "His reputation rests on his water-color
+studies of animals, for which he was awarded prizes in London. Two of
+his best-known works are _Cache-cache_, and _Travailleurs de la fôret_."
+
+
+PLATE 2
+
+Reproduction of one of the five paintings by Stanley now in the United
+States National Museum, Washington, D. C.
+
+James M. Stanley, born in Canandaigua, New York, January 17, 1814; died
+April 10, 1872. He moved to Michigan in 1835 and became a portrait
+painter in Detroit; two years later removed to Chicago. About this time
+he visited the "Indian Country" in the vicinity of Fort Snelling, and
+there made many sketches. Returned to the eastern cities, where he spent
+several years, but in 1842 again went west and began his wanderings over
+the prairies far beyond the Mississippi, reaching Texas and New Mexico.
+His _Buffalo Hunt on the Southwestern Prairies_ was made in 1845. From
+1851 to 1863 Stanley lived in Washington, D. C., during which time he
+endeavored to have the Government purchase the many paintings which he
+had made of Indians and of scenes in the Indian country, but
+unfortunately he was not successful. His pictures were hanging in the
+Smithsonian Building, and on January 24, 1865, when a large part of the
+building was ruined by fire, only five of his pictures escaped
+destruction, they being in a different part of the structure. The five
+are now in the National Museum, including the large canvas shown in this
+plate.
+
+
+PLATE 3
+
+This is considered to be one of Wimar's best works. The original is
+owned by the City Art Museum, St. Louis, Missouri. Size of canvas, 36
+inches high, 60 inches long.
+
+Charles Ferdinand Wimar, usually known as Carl Wimar, was born in
+Germany, 1828; died in St. Louis, November, 1862. Came to America and
+settled in St. Louis during the year 1843. A few years later he met the
+French artist Leon de Pomarede, with whom he later studied and made
+several journeys up the Missouri for the purpose of sketching. Went to
+Europe and returned to St. Louis about 1857. His _Buffalo Hunt_, now
+reproduced, was painted in 1860, exhibited at the St. Louis Fair during
+the autumn of that year, when it was seen by the Prince of Wales, later
+Edward VII, for whom a replica was made.
+
+
+PLATE 4
+
+One of four water-color sketches by Peter Rindisbacher secured in London
+some years ago. Size of original 9-1/4 inches high, 17-1/8 inches long.
+Collection of David I. Bushnell, jr. Twenty or more similar sketches are
+in the library of the Military Academy, West Point. One of these was
+used as an illustration by McKenney and Hall in their great work; the
+second used by them is in a private collection in Washington. Another of
+the pictures now at West Point was reproduced by wood cut and appeared
+on page 181 of Burton's Gentleman's Magazine, Philadelphia, April, 1840.
+Rindisbacher may have come to America with the Swiss colonists who
+settled in the Red River Valley in 1821, and in the Public Archives of
+Canada are six small sketches which were probably made by him at that
+time. (See pl. 6, _a_.)
+
+
+PLATE 5
+
+_a._ A scene near Fort Carlton, 1846, showing buffalo approaching a
+pound. Reproduction of a photograph of the painting by Kane, now in the
+Royal Ontario Museum of Archaeology, Toronto, Canada. Size of painting,
+18 inches high, 29 inches long.
+
+Paul Kane, born at York, the present city of Toronto, 1810; died 1871.
+After spending several years in the United States he went to Europe,
+where he studied in various art centers. Returned to Canada, and from
+early in 1845 until the autumn of 1848 traveled among the native tribes
+of the far west, making a large number of paintings of Indians and
+scenes in the Indian country. One hundred or more of his paintings are
+in the Museum at Toronto; others are in the Public Archives of Canada,
+Ottawa. Some of the sketches and paintings were reproduced in his work
+_Wanderings of an Artist_, London, 1859.
+
+_b._ Reproduction of a photograph, probably made in the upper Missouri
+Valley about 1870.
+
+
+PLATE 6
+
+_a._ Reproduction of a water-color sketch now in the collection in
+Public Archives of Canada, Ottawa. It is one of six small sketches "by
+an artist, probably Swiss, who accompanied the European emigrants
+brought by Lord Selkirk's agents to the Red River Settlement in 1821."
+Size of original, 5-5/8 inches high, 7-5/8 inches long. Although not
+signed it suggests and resembles the work of Peter Rindisbacher. (See
+note, pl. 4.)
+
+_b._ Reproduced from an original photograph furnished by the Minnesota
+Historical Society, St. Paul.
+
+
+PLATE 7
+
+_a._ Reproduction of a photograph of a painting by Kane, now in the
+Museum at Toronto. Size of original, 18 inches high, 29 inches long.
+(See note, pl. 5, _a_.) This was engraved and shown on page 7 of his
+work _Wanderings of an Artist_.
+
+_b._ Reproduced from an original photograph made near the Red River
+during the summer of 1858 by Humphrey Lloyd Hime, who was photographer
+with the expedition led by Henry Youle Hind.
+
+
+PLATE 8
+
+_a_ and _b_. Same as _b_, plate 7. Original photographs are in the
+Bureau of American Ethnology.
+
+
+PLATE 9
+
+Both _a_ and _b_ are from original photographs belonging to the
+Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul. The two small prints are mounted
+on similar cards, that of _b_ bearing the name of C. A. Zimmerman,
+photographer. The name has been cut from _a_. Both are attributed to
+Zimmerman, who, in 1869, purchased the studio of Whitney, which had been
+established some years. The negatives may have been made by Whitney, and
+although the prints are catalogued as Ojibway habitations, nevertheless
+_a_ resembles more closely the Siouan type, with an arbor over the
+entrance, and the photograph may have been made in a Sioux village. The
+dwellings are quite similar to the Winnebago structure shown in plate
+36, _a_.
+
+Charles Alfred Zimmerman was born in Strassburg, Alsace, June 21, 1844;
+died in St. Paul, Minnesota, September 23, 1909.
+
+
+PLATE 10
+
+Reproductions of original photographs by David I. Bushnell, jr. October,
+1899.
+
+
+PLATE 11
+
+_a._ This small log structure stood near the southeastern shore of Cass
+Lake, Minnesota. Several Ojibway Indians are in the picture. Original
+photograph by David I. Bushnell, jr. November, 1899.
+
+_b._ The old Ojibway medicine man, Nagwanabe, a name well known in
+Ojibway annals, is shown holding a club of unusual design which he said
+he took from a Sioux warrior many years ago, during a fight between some
+of his people and members of that tribe. Original photograph by David I.
+Bushnell, jr. 1900.
+
+
+PLATE 12
+
+_a._ Objects collected among the Ojibway. At top, a hammer formed of a
+section of a small tree with part of a branch cut to serve as a handle.
+Used in driving plugs in maple trees during the season of sugar making.
+Mille Lac, May, 1900. Bag braided of narrow strips of cedar bark. Size
+about 9-1/2 inches square. From the Ojibway settlement on shore of
+Basswood Lake, north of Ely, Lake County, Minnesota, October, 1899. Two
+tools used in dressing skins. Formed of leg bones of moose, beveled and
+serrated. Length of example on right, 15 inches. Cass Lake, Minnesota,
+1898.
+
+_b._ Section of rush mat.
+
+
+PLATE 13
+
+_a._ Wooden mortar and pestle collected among the Ojibway. Length of
+pestle about 37-1/2 inches. Reproduced from Fourteenth Annual Report
+Bureau of Ethnology, part 1, p. 257.
+
+_b._ Mortar and pestle collected among the Delaware by Dr. E. Palmer and
+acquired by the National Museum November 11, 1868. Length of pestle
+33-1/2 inches. Diameter of mortar 7-1/2 inches, height 15 inches. (U. S.
+N. M. 6900.)
+
+_c._ Birch-bark dish, type used extensively by the Ojibway and other
+northern tribes. Reproduced from Nineteenth Annual Report Bureau of
+American Ethnology, part 2, Pl. LXXIX.
+
+
+PLATE 14
+
+Reproduced from an original negative now in the Bureau of American
+Ethnology.
+
+
+PLATE 15
+
+Reproduced from the engraving of the painting by Bodmer, as used by
+Maximilian.
+
+Karl Bodmer, born in Zurich, Switzerland, 1805; died 1894. Studied under
+Cornu. He accompanied Maximilian, Prince of Wied, on several journeys,
+including that up the Valley of the Missouri. Many of his original
+sketches made during that memorable trip are now in the Edward E. Ayer
+collection, Newberry Library, Chicago. His later works are chiefly of
+wooded landscapes, some being scenes in the valleys of the Missouri and
+Mississippi. Bodmer was a very close friend of the great artist Jean
+François Millet. De Cost Smith, in Century Magazine, May, 1910,
+discussing the close association of the two artists, and referring
+especially to their joint work, wrote: "The two men must have worked
+together from the pure joy of friendship, for it must be confessed that
+the work of neither was very greatly improved by the other's additions.
+Bodmer would put a horse into one of Millet's Indian pictures and add
+some vegetation in the foreground, Millet would return the favor by
+introducing figures into Bodmer's landscapes." But this does not refer
+to the sketches made by Bodmer during his journey up the Missouri in
+1833.
+
+
+PLATE 16
+
+_a._ Reproduction of a wood cut on page 420 of _Wanderings of an
+Artist_. The original painting by Kane is now in the Royal Ontario
+Museum of Archaeology, Toronto, being No. 51 in the catalogue. Size of
+painting, 18 inches high, 29 inches long. (See note, pl. 5, _a_.)
+
+_b._ The original photograph from which this illustration is made is in
+the collection of the United States National Museum, Washington, D. C.
+It is not known by whom the negative was made.
+
+
+PLATE 17
+
+Reproduced from the engraving of the original painting by Bodmer, as
+used by Maximilian. (See note, pl. 15.)
+
+
+PLATE 18
+
+Both _a_ and _b_ are reproductions of photographs furnished by the State
+Historical Society of Iowa.
+
+
+PLATE 19
+
+Reproduction of an original photograph in a scrapbook, which contains
+many manuscript notes, news clippings, etc., prepared by Newton H.
+Chittenden. The book is now in the Manuscript Division, Library of
+Congress, Washington, D. C.
+
+
+PLATE 20
+
+From original photographs by David I. Bushnell, jr. 1900.
+
+
+PLATE 21
+
+Reproduction of an original pencil sketch of the Sioux village of
+Kaposia, made June 19, 1851, by F. B. Mayer. The drawing is now in the
+Edward E. Ayer collection, Newberry Library, Chicago.
+
+Frank Blackwell Mayer, born in Baltimore, Maryland, December 27, 1827;
+died in 1908. Many of his paintings represented scenes in Indian life,
+and in 1886 he completed a canvas entitled _The Treaty of Traverse des
+Sioux_, the treaty having been signed during the summer of 1851, about
+the time the sketch of Kaposia was made.
+
+
+PLATE 22
+
+Both _a_ and _b_ are reproduced from engravings of paintings by Eastman,
+used by Schoolcraft in _Information respecting the History, Conditions,
+and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States, 1851-1857_.
+
+Seth Eastman, born in Brunswick, Maine, January 24, 1808; died in
+Washington, D. C., August 31, 1875. Was appointed to the Military
+Academy, West Point, at the age of 16, and was graduated June, 1829.
+Served at Fort Crawford and Fort Snelling, where he had ample
+opportunities for studying the Indians who frequented the posts. In
+November, 1831, he was detailed for duty at the Academy and retired from
+active service December, 1863. From 1850 to 1855 he was engaged in the
+preparation of the illustrations used in the work mentioned above,
+evidently under the supervision of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs.
+
+
+PLATE 23
+
+_a._ Reproduction of a drawing made by Catlin of one of his oil
+sketches. The original painting is now in the United States National
+Museum, Washington, D. C.
+
+George Catlin, born in Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania, 1796; died in Jersey
+City, New Jersey, December 23, 1872. In the year 1832 he went to the
+then far west, and during the succeeding eight years traveled among
+numerous native tribes, making many paintings portraying the life and
+customs of the people. He went to Europe, taking with him his great
+collection of pictures and objects obtained from the Indians among whom
+he had been for so long a time. One hundred and twenty-six of his
+pictures were shown at the Centennial Exposition, Philadelphia, 1876,
+and now more than 500 of his works, portraits and scenes are preserved
+in the National Museum, forming a collection of inestimable value and
+interest.
+
+_b._ Fort Pierre, after sketch by Kurz, July 4, 1851.
+
+Friedrich Kurz, born in Bern, Switzerland, 1818; died 1871. At the
+suggestion of his friend Karl Bodmer, he came to America in 1846, for
+the purpose of studying the native tribes, intending to prepare a
+well-illustrated account of his travels. He landed at New Orleans and
+reached St. Louis by way of the Mississippi. The trouble with Mexico had
+developed, and for that reason instead of going to the Southwest, to
+endeavor to accomplish among the tribes of that region what Bodmer had
+already done among the people of the Upper Missouri Valley, he decided
+to follow the route of the latter and ascend the Missouri to the Rocky
+Mountains. But although his plans were changed he did not become
+discouraged, and on October 28, 1851, entered in his journal: "My plan
+is still for the gallery.... I shall have lots of correct drawings."
+Cholera raged along the upper Missouri in 1851, and for that reason Kurz
+was unable to remain at Fort Pierre. However, he reached Fort Berthold
+July 9, 1851. Later he continued to Fort Union at the mouth of the
+Yellowstone, where he remained until April 19, 1852. Returning, he
+reached St. Louis May 25, thus covering the distance from the mouth of
+the Yellowstone in five weeks and one day. He arrived in Bern during
+September of that year and was soon appointed drawing master in the
+schools of his native city, a position which he held until his death.
+
+During the winter of 1851-52, while Kurz was at Fort Union, a German
+artist of some ability was with the Oto and Omaha near the banks of the
+Missouri. H. Baldwin Möllhausen, late in the autumn of 1851, became lost
+on the frozen, snow-covered prairies south of the Platte, and was
+rescued by a family of Oto encamped on the bank of a small stream. He
+remained with the Oto and later returned with them to their village near
+the mouth of the Platte. From the Oto village he went up the Missouri to
+the Omaha, with whom he stayed some weeks. While with the two tribes he
+made many sketches of the Indians and scenes depicting the ways of life
+of the people. When he returned to his home in Berlin he carried with
+him the collection of drawings, and these, if found at the present time,
+would probably prove of much interest.
+
+
+PLATE 24
+
+Both _a_ and _b_ are reproductions of photographs made in the vicinity
+of Fort Laramie in 1868, during the visit of the Indian Peace
+Commission. The commission was composed of a number of Army officers who
+went among many of the Plains tribes for the purpose of gaining their
+friendship for the Government. From original prints in the possession of
+Mrs. N. H. Beauregard, St. Louis. The name of the photographer is not
+known.
+
+_c._ From the engraving of the original picture by Bodmer, as used by
+Maximilian. (See note, pl. 15.)
+
+
+PLATE 25
+
+_a._ Reproduced from a photograph of the original painting by Kane, now
+in the Royal Ontario Museum of Archaeology, Toronto. Rocky Mountain Fort
+in the distance on the right. No. 57 in the catalogue. Size of picture,
+18 inches high, 29 inches long. (See note, pl. 5, _a_.)
+
+_b._ From a photograph of a water-color sketch by Kurz. (See note, pl.
+23, _b_.)
+
+
+PLATE 26
+
+_a._ From an original negative now in the Bureau of American Ethnology,
+made by Jackson in 1871. It was probably made at the Omaha village shown
+in plate 27.
+
+_b._ A page of Kurz's sketchbook. (See note, pl. 23, _b_.)
+
+
+PLATE 27
+
+Omaha village, from an original negative made by Jackson in 1871 and now
+in the Bureau of American Ethnology. According to La Flesche, "The
+location of the Omaha village can best be described as in the southwest
+quarter of Section 30, Township 25, Range 10, in the extreme eastern
+border of Thurston County, Nebraska. The land was allotted in 1883 to
+Pe-de-ga-hi, one of the Omaha chiefs. It is about three-quarters of a
+mile west of the historic site known as Blackbird Hill, on which the
+great medicine man Blackbird was buried."
+
+
+PLATE 28
+
+Both _a_ and _b_ represent pages in Kurz's sketchbook. (See note, pl. 23,
+_b_.)
+
+
+PLATE 29
+
+Reproduced from the engraving of Bodmer's painting, as illustrated by
+Maximilian. (See note, pl. 15.)
+
+
+PLATE 30
+
+_a._ Reproduction of the illustration in De Smet's work, where the
+picture is signed _Geo. Lehman, del._
+
+_b._ Reproduced from the engraving after a drawing by Samuel Seymour.
+
+In the instructions issued to members of the expedition, dated
+"Pittsburgh, March 31, 1819," Major Long stated: "Mr. Seymour, as
+painter for the expedition, will furnish sketches of landscapes,
+whenever we meet with any distinguished for their beauty and grandeur.
+He will also paint miniature likenesses, or portraits if required, of
+distinguished Indians, and exhibit groups of savages engaged in
+celebrating their festivals or sitting in council, and in general
+illustrate any subject, that may be deemed appropriate in his art."
+
+
+PLATE 31
+
+Reproduced from a photograph in the Chittenden scrapbook. (See note, pl.
+19.)
+
+
+PLATE 32
+
+_a._ From an original photograph furnished by Francis La Flesche.
+
+_b._ Reproduced from an illustration in Transactions of the Kansas State
+Historical Society, 1907-1908, Vol. X. Topeka, 1908.
+
+
+PLATE 33
+
+Reproduced from an engraving of the original drawing by Samuel Seymour.
+(See note, pl. 30, _b_.)
+
+
+PLATE 34
+
+Specimens in the United States National Museum.
+
+
+PLATE 35
+
+_a._ After original drawing by Friedrich Kurz. (See note, pl. 23, _b_.)
+
+_b._ Photograph of specimen now in the United States National Museum.
+
+
+PLATE 36
+
+Both _a_ and _b_ are reproduced from original photographs in the United
+States National Museum, Washington. It is not known by whom the
+negatives were made.
+
+
+PLATE 37
+
+From a photograph made about the year 1900, furnished by Miss Alice C.
+Fletcher. The structures stood near the bank of the Missouri, north of
+the Omahas. The photograph was reproduced as plate 18 in the
+Twenty-seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology.
+
+
+PLATE 38
+
+_a._ From the drawing by Catlin of the original painting. This is No.
+503 in Catlin's Catalogue (London, 1848), where it is described as "The
+Interior of a Mandan Lodge, showing the manner in which it is
+constructed of poles and covered with dirt. The chief is seen smoking
+his pipe, and his family grouped around him."
+
+_b._ After the original painting in the National Museum, Washington.
+This is the fourth and last of Catlin's paintings representing different
+scenes during the remarkable ceremony by the Mandan. No. 507 in the
+Catalogue, where it is referred to as "The Last Race."
+
+George Catlin. (See note, pl. 23, _a_.)
+
+
+PLATE 39
+
+From the engraving of Bodmer's painting used by Maximilian. (See note,
+pl. 15.)
+
+
+PLATE 40
+
+Reproduced from the engraving of Bodmer's painting as used by
+Maximilian. (See note, pl. 15.)
+
+
+PLATE 41
+
+Two wooden bowls and a pottery vessel collected among the Mandan.
+Specimens in the United States National Museum.
+
+
+PLATE 42
+
+Examples of spoons, one made of a buffalo horn, the other formed from a
+horn of a mountain sheep, now in the United States National Museum.
+
+
+PLATE 43
+
+Reproduction of the original painting by Catlin, now in the United
+States National Museum, Washington. It is No. 383 in Catlin's Catalogue,
+described as "Minatarree Village, earth-covered lodges, on Knife River,
+1,810 miles above St. Louis."
+
+George Catlin. (See note, pl. 23, _a_.)
+
+
+PLATE 44
+
+_a._ Original pencil sketch by Bodmer of the finished picture shown in
+_b_. The sketch is now in the Edward E. Ayer collection, Newberry
+Library, Chicago.
+
+_b._ Reproduction of a photograph of the engraving as used by
+Maximilian.
+
+
+PLATE 45
+
+After original sketches by Friedrich Kurz. (See note, pl. 23, _b_.)
+
+
+PLATE 46
+
+_a._ Reproduction of the original painting by Catlin, now in the United
+States National Museum, Washington. It is mentioned as No. 491 in
+Catlin's Catalogue and described as a "Crow Lodge, of twenty-five
+buffalo-skins." A drawing made from the painting appeared as plate 20 in
+Vol. I of Catlin's work.
+
+_b._ From the original negative by Jackson now in the Bureau of American
+Ethnology.
+
+
+PLATE 47
+
+A rather crude woodcut, made from this photograph, was used in
+Dunraven's book, _The Great Divide_. Unfortunately it is not known when
+or by whom this most interesting negative was made, but it was probably
+the work of J. D. Hutton, a member of the Raynolds party during the
+exploration of the Yellowstone Valley, 1859-1860. Although the Raynolds
+journal is in the War Department in Washington, there is no record or
+list of the photographs, many of which are known to have been made
+during the journey. A number of Hutton's photographs were reproduced by
+Hayden in his work _Contributions to the Ethnography and Philology of
+the Indian Tribes of the Missouri Valley_, Philadelphia, 1862.
+
+
+PLATE 48
+
+A page from Kurz's sketchbook, carried by him during his travels through
+the Upper Missouri Valley. This shows several traders approaching Fort
+Union and a herd of buffalo in the distance on the right. (See note, pl.
+23, _b_.)
+
+
+PLATE 49
+
+Two negatives were made by Jackson, evidently without moving the camera.
+One was reproduced in Bulletin 69 of this Bureau's publications; the
+second is now shown. The first negative now belongs to the Bureau, but
+the present plate is a reproduction of a photograph furnished by the
+Peabody Museum, Harvard University.
+
+Concerning the photographs now reproduced in plates 49, 50, and 51, Mr.
+W. H. Jackson, now of Detroit, wrote to the Bureau, April 28, 1921, and
+said in part: "Negatives to which you refer, viz, of Pawnee village
+scenes, were made by myself in 1871 on my return from the first
+Yellowstone expedition of the Survey, this trip also including a visit
+to the Omaha Agency."
+
+
+PLATE 50
+
+Earth lodges standing in the Pawnee village. From original negative by
+W. H. Jackson, 1871. Negative now in the Bureau of American Ethnology.
+
+
+PLATE 51
+
+Views in the Pawnee village, after photographs by Jackson, 1871.
+Original photographs belonging to the Bureau of American Ethnology.
+
+
+PLATE 52
+
+Specimens in the United States National Museum.
+
+
+PLATE 53
+
+Reproduction of a photograph of the original painting by Catlin, now in
+the United States National Museum. It is No. 386 in Catlin's Catalogue,
+described as "Riccaree Village, with earth-covered lodges, 1,600 miles
+above St. Louis."
+
+George Catlin. (See note, pl. 23, _a_.)
+
+
+PLATE 54
+
+Specimens in the United States National Museum.
+
+
+PLATE 55
+
+_a._ From a photograph in the Chittenden scrapbook. (See note, pl. 19.)
+
+_b._ After a photograph in the collection of the United States National
+Museum.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  ACCANCEA. _See_ Quapaw.
+
+  AGRICULTURE--
+    among Sauk and Foxes, 40
+    of the Arikara, 179
+    of the Mandan, 127
+    of the Osage, 106
+
+  ALGONQUIAN FAMILY--
+    characteristics of villages of, 7
+    general movement of groups of, 3
+    groups comprising western division of, 1
+    largest north of Mexico, 43
+    villages of, described, 1
+
+  AL-LE-GA-WA-HO'S VILLAGE, 97
+
+  ALLEN, J.A., book by, on the buffalo, 7
+
+  ALLOUEZ, PÈRE, mission conducted by, 122
+
+  AMAHAMI--
+    once united with the Hidatsa and Crow, 140
+    village of, on Knife River, 125, 141
+
+  AMERICAN FUR COMPANY--
+    post of, 75
+    trade of, with Sioux, 61
+
+  ANIMALS--
+    domestic, lack of, among the Iowa, 114
+    domestic, of the Kansa, 90
+    of the Dakota country, 4
+    _See_ Buffalo, Dogs, Game.
+
+  ARAPAHO--
+    an Algonquian group, 1
+    country occupied by, 33-34
+    habitations of, 34
+
+  ARAPAHO VILLAGE--
+    described by Fremont, 36-37
+    photograph of, 37
+
+  ARBOR ENTRANCE, a Siouan feature, 122
+
+  ARCHITHINUE NATIVES, name applied to Blackfeet, 25, 26
+
+  ARIKARA--
+    a Caddoan group, 2
+    encampments of, visited by Lewis and Clark, 23
+    hostility of, to whites, 176, 179
+    Mandan village occupied by, 139
+    migration of, 167, 169-170
+    pottery of, 174
+    settlement of, near Fort Berthold, 147
+    skilled agriculturists, 179
+    warfare of, with Sioux, 70
+
+  AKIKARA VILLAGES--
+    described by Brackenridge, 172, 173
+    described by Bradbury, 172
+    described by Maximilian, 175-176
+    on the Missouri, 168
+    sites of, 168-169
+    sketched by Catlin, 175
+
+  ARK OF THE FIRST MAN, 129, 132
+
+  ARKANSA. _See_ Quapaw.
+
+  ARKANSAS BAND, a division of the Osage, 98
+
+  ASSINIBOIN, a Missouri River steamboat 130
+    trip of, to the Yellowstone River, 142
+
+  ASSINIBOIN TRIBE--
+    alliance of, with Cree, 71
+    camp of, described by Maximilian, 75-76
+    country occupied by, 71
+    location and number of, 32
+    of the Dakota-Assiniboin group, 2
+    on the march, 73, 74
+    relation of, to other tribes, 44
+    separated from Yanktonai, 71
+    structures of, 71, 72, 73, 76-77
+    with Cree, at Mandan village, 74
+
+  ASSINIBOIN VILLAGE--
+    size of, 73, 74
+    movement of, 73, 74
+
+  ATSINA, a division of the Arapaho, 1, 25
+    allied with tribes of the Blackfeet confederacy, 25, 34
+    fortified camps of, 34
+    incorporated with the Assiniboin, 25
+    various names for, 34
+
+  ATSINA VILLAGE, described by Maximilian, 35
+
+  AVENUE, pottery on site of, 112
+
+  AWACHAWI, an Hidatsa village, 142
+
+  AWATICHAY, an Hidatsa village, 142
+
+  AYAUWAYS, excursions of, against the Osage, 98
+
+  BARK-COVERED LODGES--
+    as summer habitations, 38, 51, 84
+    as winter habitations, 51
+    employed in timber country, 184-185
+    erected by the Dakota, 44
+    of the Kansa, 95
+    of the Mdewakanton, 50
+    of the Ojibway, 9-13, 16, 17, 56
+    of the Osage, 98
+    of the Oto, 120
+    of the Quapaw, 109
+    of the Sauk and Foxes, 39
+
+  BASKETRY--
+    of the Arikara, 169
+    of the Osage, 103
+
+  BEAUREGARD, MRS. N.H., copy by, of manuscript, 90
+
+  BEDS--
+    of the Caddo, 183
+    of the Kansa, 92
+    of the Mandan, 133, 134
+
+  BELLEVUE, a trading post on the Missouri, 81
+
+  BIG-BELLIED INDIANS. _See_ Atsina.
+
+  BIG KAW, an Oto Indian, 117
+
+  BIG KNIVES, Kansa name for the whites, 89
+
+  BIG TRACK, an Osage chief, 98
+
+  BIRCH BARK STRUCTURES, 9-13
+    _See_ Bark-covered lodges.
+
+  BLACKFEET CONFEDERACY, tribes composing, 1, 25
+
+  BLACKFEET INDIANS--
+    camps of, described by Maximilian, 28
+    ceremonial lodges of, 33
+    country inhabited by, 27, 32
+    descriptions of, 25-28
+    manner of living, 33
+    number of, 32
+    warlike nature of, 28
+    war party of, 31
+    _See_ Siksika.
+
+  BLACK HAWK, birthplace of, 38
+
+  BLACK HILLS, no permanent Indian settlement in, 70
+
+  BLOOD INDIANS--
+    country occupied by, 27, 32
+    number of, 32
+    _See_ Kainah.
+
+  BODMER--
+    painting by, of Atsina village, 35
+    painting by, of chief's lodge, 76
+    painting by, of Mandan village, 133
+    drawing by, of tipis, 58
+    sketch by, in Newberry Library, 143
+
+  BOWLS, WOODEN, of the Mandan, 137
+
+  BRADBURY, visit of, to Omaha village, 78
+
+  BRULÉS, a Teton band, 2
+
+  BRUSH SHELTERS OF THE ASSINIBOIN, 75
+
+  BUFFALO--
+    Arikara offering to, 174
+    hunting of, 4-7
+    importance of, to the Indian, 3-4
+    manner of traveling, 72
+
+  BUFFALO HUNT--
+    described by Fremont, 35-36
+    of the Oglala, 68
+
+  BUFFALO POUNDS, 5-6
+    use of, by Blackfeet, 26
+
+  BUFFALO SKULLS, a charm to entice buffaloes, 62-63
+
+  BUFFALO SOCIETY, Omaha, dance given by, 82
+
+  BUFFALO TRAILS, followed by Indians, 7
+
+  BULL-BOAT--
+    characteristic of upper Missouri, 129
+    of the Hidatsa, 146-147
+
+  BURIALS--
+    Omaha, 78
+    Oto, 120
+    scaffold, mention of, 50-51
+
+  CACHES--
+    described by Fletcher and La Flesche, 80
+    described by Matthews, 150
+    exposed by railroad cut, 82
+    for storage of corn, 126
+    Omaha, described by Gilden, 83, 84
+    on elevated stage, 12
+
+  CADDO--
+    a tribe of the Caddoan family, 2
+    country occupied by, 155, 182
+    described by Joutel, 182-183
+
+  CADDOAN FAMILY--
+    confederacies of, 2
+    country occupied by, 1
+    earth lodge characteristic of, 7-8
+    general movement of, 3
+    tribes composing, 2
+
+  CAHOKIA TRIBE, village of, 41
+
+  CANNON RIVER, village near mouth of, 50
+
+  CANOES--
+    birch-bark, 15-16
+    made of buffalo skins, 94
+    of the Arikara, 172
+    of the Hidatsa, 141
+    Oto, 121
+    _See_ Bull-boat.
+
+  CAPPA, a Quapaw village, 109
+
+  CASTAÑEDA, thatched houses mentioned by, 179
+
+  CATLIN, GEORGE--
+    among the Mandan, 128
+    among the Teton, 61
+    Arikara village sketched by, 175
+    collection of paintings by, in National Museum, 15, 129, 141, 175
+    incorrect drawings by, of earth lodges, 149
+    Indian portraits painted by, 62
+    Ojibway camp described by, 15
+
+  CAVES, in the Ozarks, occupied by Indians, 107
+
+  CEREMONIAL LODGE--
+    of the Crows, 155
+    of the Hidatsa, 144
+    of the Ojibway, 13
+    of the Quapaw, 111
+    of the Sun dance, 63
+    _See_ Medicine lodge.
+
+  CEREMONIAL SHELTER, temporary, of the Cree and Ojibway, 18-19
+
+  CEREMONIES, Arikara, in medicine lodge, 178
+
+  CHATIQUE, an Assiniboin chief, 71
+
+  CHAUI, a tribe of the Pawnee confederacy, 2
+
+  CHEROKEES, migration of remnant of, 2
+
+  CHEYENNE INDIANS--
+    an Algonquian group, 1
+    described by Lewis and Clark, 24
+    in Arapaho village, 36
+    lodges of, for special purposes, 25
+    lodges of, like Pawnee, 24, 25
+    territory occupied by, 21
+    various habitations of, 22
+
+  CHEYENNE VILLAGE SITES--
+    described by Grinnell, 22-23
+    mentioned by Lewis and Clark, 23
+
+  CHIEFS, decorations on lodges of, 67, 76
+
+  CHILDS POINT, ruins on, 82
+
+  CHIPPEWAY--
+    treaty of, with Sioux, 15
+    _See_ Ojibway.
+
+  CHIWERE GROUP OF SIOUAN TRIBES, 2
+    habitations of, 113
+    tribes composing, 112
+
+  CHOCTAW, temporary village of, 110
+
+  CHOLERA AMONG THE OGLALA, 64
+
+  CHOTE, town house at, 118
+
+  CIRCLES--
+    of earth, 21, 28, 30
+    of stone, 20, 21
+
+  CLARMONT, French name of Osage chief, 103
+
+  CLOTHING--
+    made of buffalo hides, 3, 4
+    of the Kansa, 94
+
+  CLUB, wooden, of the Mandan, 138
+
+  COCKING, MATTHEW, journey of, 26-27
+
+  COLBERT, first name of Mississippi River, 109
+
+  CORN, cultivation of, 39, 40, 106, 127, 179
+
+  CORONADO EXPEDITION, thatched houses seen by, 179
+
+  COUNCIL BLUFFS, origin of the name, 115, 157
+
+  COUNCIL HOUSE--
+    of the Kansa, 92-93
+    of the Ojibway, 16
+    of the Oto, 117
+    of the Teton, 60
+
+  CREE INDIANS--
+    habitations of, 17-21
+    language of, 17
+    population of, 18, 19
+    related to Ojibway, 17
+    loving disposition of, 19
+    territory inhabited by, 1, 18, 19
+    with Assiniboin at Mandan village, 74
+    _See_ Knistenaux.
+
+  CROW INDIANS--
+    a tribe of the Hidatsa group, 2
+    arrangement of camps of, 154
+    ceremonial lodge of, 154-155
+    country inhabited by, 151, 152-153
+    described by Larocque, 151
+    lodges of, described, 152-154
+    separation of, from the Hidatsa, 150
+    wandering habits of, 153
+
+  CUSTER, GENERAL, mention of, 70
+
+  CUSTOMS--
+    of the Blackfeet, 26-27
+    of the Cree, 18-19
+    of the Ojibway, 8-11, 13, 17
+    of the Omaha, 85-87
+    of the Osage, 105-106
+    of the Pawnee, 163-165
+    of the Sauk and Foxes, 39-41
+    of the Teton, 60-61
+    of the Wahpeton, 53
+    of the Yanktonai, 54-57
+
+  DAKOTA-ASSINIBOIN GROUP, 2
+    country occupied by, 44
+    habitations of, 44-45
+    tribes composing, 44
+
+  DANCE--
+    of the Teton, 60
+    _See_ Dog dance, Sacred dance, Sun dance, War dance.
+
+  DE SMET, FATHER, at the Kansa villages, 95-96
+
+  DECORATION OF LODGES, 28, 67, 75-76, 78, 85
+
+  DELAWARE INDIANS--
+    abandoned settlement of, 42-43
+    log cabins built by, 42
+    migration of remnant of, 2, 3
+
+  DHEGIHA GROUP, 2
+    migration of, 77
+
+  DODGE, COL. R. I., with expedition into Black Hills, 70
+
+  DOG DANCE OF THE KANSA, 93
+
+  DOG FEAST, painting of, 15
+
+  DOG TRAVOIS, 19-20, 55, 65, 76
+
+  DOGS--
+    as a sacrifice, 52, 61
+    as beasts of burden, 28
+    as food, 28, 53, 54
+    as sacred animals, 53
+    use of, for transportation, 72, 73
+    _See_ Dog travois.
+
+  DORSEY, J. O., Omaha structures described by, 85
+
+  DOUAY, PÈRE ANASTASIUS, Quapaw villages mentioned by, 110
+
+  DWELLINGS. _See_ Lodges, Tipi, Wigwam.
+
+  EARTH CIRCLES--
+    explanations of, 21
+    noticed by Maximilian, 28, 30
+
+  EARTH LODGE--
+    Arikara, 170, 173, 176
+    characteristic of Missouri River tribes, 185
+    Cheyenne, no pictures of, 24
+    erected by Caddoan tribes, 8
+    Gros Ventres, 148
+    Hidatsa, 142
+    interior of, 81, 161-162
+    Mandan, 128, 130, 132, 133
+    most accurate drawing of, 143
+    not in tribal circle, 84
+    Omaha, 79-80, 82-83
+    Oto, 115, 116, 117
+    Pawnee, 156, 161-162
+    suggestive of Creek and Cherokee council house, 185
+    used by Dhegiha group, 77
+
+  EARTHENWARE--
+    in the Ozark country, 107
+    _See_ Pottery.
+
+  EARTHWORKS, attributed to Dhegiha group, 77
+
+  EASTMAN, CAPT., painting by, 51, 54
+
+  ELAH-SA, an Hidatsa village, 142
+
+  ELLSWORTH, H. L., expedition led by, 116, 159-161
+
+  ELM BARK, structures of, 16, 17, 39
+    _See_ Bark-covered lodges.
+
+  ENGINEER CANTONMENT, winter quarters of Long expedition, 157
+
+  ENTRANCE--
+    to earth lodge, 149
+    to Winnebago dwelling, 122
+
+  ENVIRONMENT, influence of--
+    on form of dwelling, 184
+    on manners and customs, 8
+
+  FALL INDIANS, location and number of, 32
+    _See_ Atsina.
+
+  FALL OF THE RAPID INDIANS, a name for the Atsina, 34
+
+  FALLS OF ST. ANTHONY--
+    Indian camp at, 15
+    named by Father Hennepin, 45
+
+  FEASTS--
+    given by Blackfoot chief, 29
+    of the Cree, 18-19
+    of the Teton Sioux, 61-62
+
+  FISH, method of curing, 10
+
+  FLOOR MATS, method of making, 41
+
+  FOOD--
+    method of cooking illustrated, 10
+    of the Mandan, 127, 136
+    of the Ojibway, 8-9
+    of the Osage, 104, 105-106
+    _See_ Agriculture, Buffalo, Corn, Dogs, Fish, Game.
+
+  FOOL CHIEF, a Kansa chief, 96
+    village of, 97
+
+  FORT BERTHOLD, tribes near, 147
+
+  FORT CLARK--
+    erection of, 176
+    Mandan village near, 130, 139, 140
+    _See_ Fort Osage.
+
+  FORT CRAWFORD, establishment of, 184
+
+  FORT DE BOURBON--
+    location of, 72
+    mention of, 71
+
+  FORT DES PRAIRIES, mention of, 72
+
+  FORT JOHN, destroyed by North American Fur Company, 69
+
+  FORT LARAMIE, description of, 69
+
+  FORT LEAVENWORTH, early description of, 116
+
+  FORT LOOKOUT, treaty concluded at, 57
+
+  FORT OSAGE--
+    later named Fort Clark, 99
+    village near, 100
+
+  FORT PIERRE--
+    gathering of Yankton near, 57, 59
+    sketch of, 63
+
+  FORT SNELLING--
+    encampment at, 15
+    establishment of, 184
+
+  FORT UNION--
+    Assiniboin camp at, 75
+    stay at, of Friedrich Kurz, 76
+    visit at, of Maximilian, 142
+
+  FORT YATES, villages near, 22
+
+  FORTIFIED VILLAGES--
+    Arikara, 168, 171, 172
+    Hidatsa, 147
+    Mandan, 123, 131
+
+  FORTS BUILT BY INDIANS, 34, 35
+
+  FOX INDIANS--
+    habitat of, 1
+    present location of, 38
+    visited by Long, 38
+    _See_ Sauk and Foxes.
+
+  FREMONT, arrival of, at Kansa towns, 96
+
+  FUR TRADE OF THE TETON, 61
+
+  FURS, huge quantities of, collected by Sauk and Foxes, 40
+
+  GAME--
+    abundance of, at Isle au Vache, 91
+    _See_ Animals, Buffalo, Hunting.
+
+  GAMES--
+    played by the Omaha, 81
+    space for playing, 129
+
+  GILDER, R. F., village site identified by, 82
+
+  GILFILLAN, DR. J. A., missionary among the Ojibway, 11
+
+  GRAND PAWNEE--
+    visit to, of Long expedition, 158
+    _See_ Chaui.
+
+  GRANT, PETER, Ojibway dwellings described by, 9-10
+
+  GRASS LODGE--
+    as temporary shelter, 13-14
+    of the Caddo, 183
+    of the Wichita, 179-180
+    photograph of, 180
+
+  GREAT OSAGE, an Osage band, 98
+
+  GRINNELL, GEORGE B., erection of medicine lodge described by, 33
+
+  GROS VENTRES. _See_ Hidatsa.
+
+  GROS VENTRES OF THE MISSOURI, a name applied to the Hidatsa, 141
+
+  GROS VENTRES OF THE PRAIRIE, a name applied to the Atsina, 34, 141
+    _See_ Atsina.
+
+  HABITATIONS. _See_ Lodges, Tipi, Wigwam.
+
+  HA-WON-JE-TAH, a Teton Sioux chief, 61, 62
+
+  HENDRY, ANTHONY, Journal of, 25
+
+  HENRY, ALEXANDER, travels of, through Assiniboin country, 71-73
+
+  HIDATSA GROUP, tribes composing, 2, 140
+
+  HIDATSA TRIBE--
+    ceremonial lodge of, 144
+    creation myth of, 143
+    temporary lodge of, 147
+    winter village of, 143, 149
+    _See_ Minnetarees.
+
+  HIDATSA VILLAGES--
+    descriptions of, 142-143, 145-146, 148-150
+    Indian drawings of, 139
+    location of, 141
+    near Fort Berthold, 147
+    painting of, by Catlin, 141
+    plan of, 145
+    sites of, compared with Mandan, 146
+    temporary, for winter use, 149
+
+  HIME, HUMPHREY LLOYD, photographs made by, 12
+
+  HIND EXPEDITION--
+    camp sites observed by, 20-21
+    Ojibway structures encountered by, 12
+
+  HOE, made by Arikara, 177
+
+  HORSE TRAVOIS, 30, 65, 66
+
+  HORSERACING of the Blackfeet, 31
+
+  HORSES, housed in lodges of the Mandan, 126
+
+  HOUSE RINGS, 20, 21, 22, 28, 30
+
+  HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY--
+    journals of traders of, 25
+    trade of, with the Blackfeet, 27
+    trading post of, 76
+
+  HUNKPAPA, a Teton band, 2
+
+  HUNTING--
+    customs of the Osage, 103, 106
+    customs of the Sauk and Foxes, 40
+    excursions of the Mandan, 126
+    excursions of the Omaha, 85-87
+    grounds used for, by Oto, 116
+    of antelope, a method of, 6
+    of buffalo, 4-7
+    parties of the Mandan, 136
+    trips of the Pawnee, 166-167
+
+  ILLINOIS CONFEDERACY, villages of, 41-43
+
+  ILLINOIS INDIANS--
+    village of, 41
+    west of the Mississippi, 1
+
+  IMPLEMENTS--
+    agricultural, of the Arikara, 177
+    flint, on Omaha village site, 82, 83
+    for skin dressing, 138
+    stone, found on White River, 108
+
+  INDIAN PEACE COMMISSION, visit of, to Fort Laramie, 69
+
+  IOTAN, an Oto chief, 117
+
+  IOWA TRIBE--
+    appearance of villages of, 113
+    belonging to Chiwere group, 2
+    brief description of, 114
+    closely connected with Winnebago, 122
+    habitations of, 114
+    migration of, 113
+
+  IRON BIRD, an Osage chief, 103
+
+  IRVIN, SAMUEL M., missionary among the Iowa, 114
+
+  IRVING, WASHINGTON--
+    deserted village described by, 105
+    Indian symbols mentioned by, 43
+
+  ISH-TAL-A-SA'S VILLAGE, 97
+
+  ISLE AU VACHE--
+    brief history of, by Remsburg, 94
+    council at, between Kansa and Long party, 91
+    location of, 94
+    remains near, 91
+
+  ISSATI VILLAGE, site of, 45
+
+  ITAZIPCHO, a Teton band, 2
+    _See_ Sans Arcs.
+
+  JACKSON, W. H., photographs made by, 162
+
+  JARAMILLO, JUAN, an officer of the Coronado expedition, 179
+
+  JONGLERIE, or medicine lodge, 16-17
+
+  JOURNALS OF TRADERS, Blackfeet described in, 25
+
+  JOUTEL--
+    account by, of Quapaw villages, 109
+    Caddo tribe described by, 182-183
+
+  KAINAH, a tribe of the Blackfeet confederacy, 1, 25
+
+  KANE, PAUL--
+    Ojibway wigwam described by, 10
+    paintings by, 20, 77
+
+  KANSA INDIANS--
+    a tribe of the Dhegiha group, 2, 77
+    attack on, by Pawnee, 96
+    dress of, 94
+    migration of, 89
+    population of, 89, 95
+    variety of dwellings of, 97
+    villages of, described, 90, 92, 95-96, 97
+    visit of, to the Oto, 121
+
+  KAPOSIA, village of, 50, 51
+
+  KINGFISHER, an old Ojibway, 12
+
+  KITKEHAHKI, a tribe of the Pawnee confederacy, 2
+
+  KNISTENAUX--
+    at Mandan village, 74
+    language spoken by, 74
+    location and number of, 32
+    _See_ Cree.
+
+  KURZ, FRIEDRICH--
+    among the Omaha, 81
+    at Fort Union, 76
+    sketches by, 20, 63, 121
+
+  LA FLESCHE, JOSEPH, an Omaha chief, 82
+
+  LA HARPE, meeting of, with the Quapaw, 110
+
+  LA PETIT CORBEAU, a Sioux chief, village of, 38
+
+  LA SALLE EXPEDITION, 109, 182
+
+  LA VERENDRYE EXPEDITION, 73-74, 122
+
+  LAC DE L'ISLE CROIX, Cree bands along, 18
+
+  LAHCOCAT, an Arikara village, 169
+
+  LAKE HURON, encampment on islands of, 10
+
+  LAKE SUPERIOR, structures on shores of, 9
+
+  LAROCQUE, ANTOINE, visit of, among the Crows, 151
+
+  LE RAYE, references in journal of, to the Arikara, 168
+
+  LEAVENWORTH, establishment of, 184
+
+  LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION, villages visited by, 23, 34, 60, 74,
+        75, 78, 89, 90, 114-115, 124-126
+
+  LINDENWOOD COLLEGE, manuscript journal in possession of, 90
+
+  LIQUOR, use of, among Indians, 75
+
+  LITTLE DOG, a Piegan Indian, 30
+
+  LITTLE OSAGE, an Osage band, 98
+
+  LITTLE OSAGE RIVER, Osage villages in valley of, 99
+
+  LITTLE RAVEN, village of, 48, 49, 50
+
+  LODGES. _See_ Bark-covered lodges, Ceremonial lodge, Earth lodge,
+        Grass lodge, Log houses, Mat-covered lodge, Skin lodge,
+        Thatched lodge, Tipi, Traders lodge, Wigwam.
+
+  LOG CABINS--
+    built by Cree, 18
+    of the Delaware, 42
+    _See_ Log houses.
+
+  LOG HOUSES--
+    construction of, 48
+    of Fox Indians, 38
+    of Sioux chief, 39
+    of upright posts, 48, 49, 50
+
+  LONG, MAJ. STEPHEN H., expedition under command of, 47, 157
+
+  LOUISIANA PURCHASE, change of conditions due to, 184
+
+  LOW HORN, a Piegan chief, 30
+
+  LUDLOW EXPLORING PARTY, 70
+
+  MAHAWHA, village of the Amahami, 125
+
+  MALTA, MO., former Osage village near, 99
+
+  MANDAN--
+    a Siouan tribe, 2
+    history of, 125
+    settled near Fort Berthold, 147
+    village sites of, compared with Hidatsa, 146
+
+  MANDAN VILLAGES--
+    described by Catlin, 128, 129-130
+    described by Maximilian, 130-132
+    deserted, 124
+    French expedition to, 122-123
+    Indian drawings of, 139
+    occupied by Arikaras, 176
+    plan of, 131
+
+  MANITOBAH HOUSE, wigwam near, 12
+
+  MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. _See_ Customs.
+
+  MARQUETTE, PÈRE--
+    Illinois tribes visited by, 41
+    Osage villages listed by, 98
+    Quapaw villages reached by, 108
+
+  MARSTON, MAJOR M., life of Sauk and Foxes described by, 39-41
+
+  MARTIN, CAPTAIN, stay of detachment of, at Isle au Vache, 91
+
+  MAT-COVERED LODGE--
+    as winter habitation, 38
+    of the Kansa, 91, 92
+    of the Osage, 98, 99, 100
+    used by Dhegiha group, 77
+
+  MATOOTONHA, a Mandan village, 125
+
+  MATS, rush, method of making, 41
+
+  MATTHEWS, description by, of Hidatsa villages, 148-150
+
+  MAXIMILIAN, villages visited by, 19, 28, 29, 35, 88, 130-136, 175-176
+
+  MDEWAKANTON TRIBE--
+    a division of the Dakota, 2, 44
+    sites of settlements of, 15
+    villages of, 45-52
+
+  MEDICINE, meaning of the term, 164
+
+  MEDICINE BAG OF THE DAKOTAS, 55
+
+  MEDICINE FEAST--
+    of the Hidatsa, 143-145
+    of the Mandan, 135, 136
+
+  MEDICINE LODGE--
+    Arikara, 172-173, 178
+    ceremony of erecting, 33
+    of the Blackfeet, 33
+    of the Mandan, 129
+    Ojibway, 12, 13, 16-17
+
+  METAHARTA, a Minnetaree village, 125, 126
+
+  MICHIGAMEA--
+    an Illinois tribe, 41
+    position of village of, not determined, 112
+    visited by Marquette, 41
+
+  M[)I]DÉ LODGE OF THE OJIBWAY, 13, 19
+
+  MIH-TUTTA-HANGUSCH, a Mandan village, 128, 130, 131
+
+  MILLE LAC, village sites on, 45-46
+
+  MINICONJOU, a Teton band, 2
+
+  MINNETAREES--
+    intrenchments made by, 34
+    population of village of, 126
+    winter village of, 143
+    _See_ Hidatsa.
+
+  MINNETAREES OF FORT DE PRAIRIE, a name for the Atsina, 34
+
+  MISSISSIPPI RIVER, first name of, 109
+
+  MISSOURI TRIBE--
+    ancient village of, 121
+    connected with Winnebago, 122
+    of the Chiwere group, 2
+    remnants of, with the Oto, 114
+
+  MORTARS--
+    stone, in the Ozark country, 107, 108
+    wooden, of the Arikara, 177
+
+  NATIONAL MUSEUM--
+    bone scrapers in, 59
+    collection in, of paintings by Catlin, 15, 129, 141, 175
+    Oto specimens in, 121
+
+  NEWBERRY LIBRARY, sketch in, by Bodmer, 143
+
+  NICOLLET, visit of, to the Winnebago, 122
+
+  NIOBRARA RIVER, early name of, 88
+
+  NUTTALL, THOMAS, journey of, 103, 110, 111
+
+  OCHKIH-HADDA, the evil spirit of the Mandan, 132, 142
+
+  O'FALLON, MAJ., commissioner with Long expedition, 157
+
+  OGLALA--
+    a Teton band, 2
+    country occupied by, 63
+    epidemic of cholera among, 64
+    log lodges of, 67
+    moving of village of, 64-65
+    skin lodges of, 68
+    wanderings of, 44
+
+  OHIO VALLEY, ancient village sites of, 102
+
+  OJIBWAY--
+    ceremonial structures of, 18-19
+    habitations of, 8-17
+    location of villages of, 1
+    meeting of, with Sioux, to establish peace, 15
+    territory claimed by, 8
+    village sites of, 15
+    _See_ Chippeway.
+
+  OMAHA TRIBE--
+    manners and customs of, 85-87
+    meaning of the name, 108
+    migration of, 77
+    of the Dhegiha group, 2, 77
+
+  OMAHA VILLAGES, 77-87
+    destroyed by fire, 78
+
+  ONE STAB, an Oglala head-man, 70
+
+  OOHENONPA, a Teton band, 2
+
+  OSAGE INDIANS--
+    a tribe of the Dhegiha group, 2, 77
+    habitat of, 98
+    industry of women, 103
+    life of, described by Morse, 106
+    structures of, 99, 101-104
+    villages of, described, 100, 103-104
+    villages of, listed by Père Marquette, 98
+
+  OTO TRIBE--
+    a tribe of the Chiwere group, 2
+    closely connected with Winnebago, 122
+    councils with, 115, 117-118
+    country occupied by, 114
+    habitation of, described by Bradbury, 115
+    temporary camp of, described by James, 120
+    winter camp of, described by Mölhausen, 118
+
+  OTSOTCHOVE, a Quapaw village, 109
+
+  OZARKS--
+    caves of, 107
+    habitat of the Osage, 98
+    hunting ground of the Osage, 107
+
+  PAHATSI, an Osage band, 2, 98
+
+  PALISADES. _See_ Fortified villages.
+
+  PALMER, DR., missionary to the Osage, 104
+
+  PAPILLION CREEK, Omaha village on, 81
+
+  PASQUAYAH VILLAGE, 71
+
+  PAWNEE CONFEDERACY, tribes composing, 2
+
+  PAWNEE INDIANS--
+    abandoned camp of, 165
+    attack by, on Kansa village, 96
+    council held with, 160-161
+    country occupied by, 159
+    customs of, 163-165
+    habitations of, 156, 158, 161-162
+    manner of moving, 163
+    migration of, 156
+    temporary camp of, 164
+
+  PAWNEE VILLAGES--
+    description of, 157, 162
+    orderly removal of, 65
+    photographs of, 162
+
+  PELICAN, THE, an Assiniboin chief, 71
+
+  PEMBINA, native habitations at, 55
+
+  PEMMICAN MAUL, of the Oto, 121
+
+  PEORIA, VILLAGE OF, visited by Marquette, 41
+
+  PERSIMMON PULP, bread made of, 100
+
+  PETIT CORBEAU, village of, 48, 49, 50
+
+  PICANEAUX, location and number of, 32
+    _See_ Piegan.
+
+  PIEGAN INDIANS--
+    a tribe of the Blackfeet confederacy, 1, 25
+    camp of, described, 30-31
+    camp of, painted by Bodmer, 29
+    country occupied by, 27
+    population of, 31, 32
+    _See_ Picaneaux.
+
+  PIKE, LIEUT. Z. M., exploring expedition of, 99, 155
+
+  PILLAGERS, gathering place of, 15
+
+  PIPES--
+    ceremonial use of, 172
+    from Omaha cache, 83
+    of peace, smoking of, 61
+
+  PIPESTONE QUARRY, tribes ranging near, 77
+
+  PIS-KA-KAU-A-KIS, a band of Cree, 18
+
+  PITAHAUERAT, a tribe of the Pawnee confederacy, 2
+
+  "PLATTE PURCHASE," Iowa living in, 114
+
+  PLATTE RIVER, Oto village on, 116
+
+  PONCA INDIANS--
+    a tribe of the Dhegiha group, 2, 77
+    habitations of, 87-88
+    migration of, 77
+    separation of, from the Omaha, 87
+
+  POPULATION--
+    of Arikara villages, 170
+    of Assiniboin, 76
+    of Atsina or Fall Indians, 32
+    of Cheyenne, 24
+    of Cree, 19
+    of Crow, 19
+    of Kansa, 89, 93
+    of Mandan, 139
+    of Minnetaree villages, 126
+    of Osage, 104
+    of Piegan, 31
+    of Sarsees, 32
+    of village of Sotoüis, 110
+    of Waco, 182
+    of Wichita, 182
+    of Yankton, 56
+
+  PORCUPINE CREEK, village on, 22
+
+  POTTERY--
+    Arikara, 174
+    fragments of, in Ozark caves, 107
+    fragments of, on village site, 46
+    of the Mandan, 137-138
+    of the Quapaw, 112
+    _See_ Earthenware.
+
+  POUNDS, BUFFALO, 5-6, 26
+
+  QUAPAW--
+    a tribe of the Dhegiha group, 2, 77
+    country occupied by, 108
+    decrease in population of, 111
+    meaning of the name, 108
+    migration of, 77, 112
+    remnants of, 111
+
+  QUIVIRA, reached by Coronado, 179
+
+  RADIN, PAUL, list of Winnebago structures given by, 122
+
+  RAKES, made by Arikara, 177
+
+  RAYNOLDS EXPLORING PARTY, sacred structure discovered by, 63
+
+  RED CLOUD, an Oglala chief, 70, 71
+
+  RED RIVER, structures in valley of, 9, 12
+
+  RED WING, MINN., origin of the name, 47
+
+  RED WING, village of--
+    described by Schoolcraft, 49
+    described by Seymour, 50
+
+  REES, warfare of, with Sioux, 70
+
+  REPUBLICAN PAWNEE--
+    described by Irving, 161
+    visited by Long expedition, 159
+    _See_ Kitkehahki.
+
+  REQUA, W. C., Osage described by, 104
+
+  RINGS--
+    of earth, 21, 28, 30
+    of stone, 20, 21
+
+  ROCKY MOUNTAIN FORT, Assiniboin camp near, 77
+
+  ROOPTAHEE, a Mandan winter village, 125, 134
+
+  ROTUNDAS OF THE CHEROKEE, 118
+
+  RUNNING-WATER RIVER, early name of the Niobrara, 88
+
+  RUSH MATS--
+    for seats and sleeping places, 11
+    method of making, 41
+    used for covering dwellings, 10
+
+  SACRED DANCE--
+    for benefit of sick, 82
+    of the Dakotas, 55
+
+  SACRED ISLAND IN MILLE LAC, described, 46
+
+  ST. JOSEPH, a trading post, 184
+
+  ST. PAUL, former Indian village near, 38
+
+  ST. PETERS RIVER, exploration of, 47
+
+  SALT, making of, by Indians, 42, 174
+
+  SANDY CREEK, Oto encampment on, 120
+
+  SANS ARCS, a Teton band, 2
+    _See_ Itazipcho.
+
+  SANS OREILLE, an Osage chief, 100
+
+  SANTEE--
+    eastern division of the Dakota, 45
+    tribes forming, 2
+    use of the name, 45
+
+  SANTSUKHDHI an Osage band, 2, 98
+
+  SARSEES, number and location of, 32
+
+  SASKATCHEWAN VALLEY, tribes inhabiting, 32
+
+  SAUK AND FOXES--
+    agriculture of, 40
+    living as one tribe, 38
+    manners and ways of life, 39-41
+    summer and winter habitations of, 38
+    villages of, similar in appearance, 38
+    _See_ Fox Indians, Sauk Indians.
+
+  SAUK INDIANS--
+    excursions of, against the Osage and Missouris, 98
+    Missouri driven out by, 121
+    removal of, to Indian Territory, 38
+    territory of, 1
+    village of, visited by Long, 38
+    _See_ Sauk and Foxes.
+
+  SAUTEUX. _See_ Ojibway.
+
+  SCHOOLCRAFT, H. R.--
+    deserted Osage villages encountered by, 101
+    journey of, down the Mississippi, 49
+    Sioux settlements described by, 49
+
+  SEVEN COUNCIL FIRES OF THE DAKOTA, 44
+
+  SEYMOUR, E. S.--
+    Kaposia described by, 50
+    sketches by, 55, 93, 95, 121
+
+  SHAKOPEE'S VILLAGE, described by Keating, 52
+
+  SHAWANESE, migration of remnant of, 2, 3
+
+  SHAWNEE, villages of, west of the Mississippi, 42
+
+  SHIELDS--
+    Arapaho, affixed to tripods, 36, 37
+    of the Pawnee, 157
+
+  SIBLEY, GEORGE C., Kansa village described by, 90
+
+  SICHANGU, a Teton band, 2
+
+  SICK AND AGED--
+    dance for benefit of, 82
+    treatment of, 165
+
+  SIHASAPA, a Teton band, 2
+
+  SIKSIKA, a tribe of the Blackfeet confederacy, 1, 25
+
+  SIOUAN TRIBES--
+    classification of  2
+    general movement of  3
+    in the East  44
+    second largest stock north of Mexico  43
+    skin tipi typical of  7
+    various habitations of  44
+    villages of, described  1
+    westward migration of  43
+
+  SIOUX--
+    excursions of, against the Osage  98
+    gathering of, with Ojibway, to establish peace  15
+
+  SISSETON, a division of the Dakota  2, 44
+
+  SKIDI, a tribe of the Pawnee Confederacy  2
+
+  SKIN DRESSING, implements for  58, 59, 138
+
+  SKIN LODGE--
+    Arapaho  37
+    Assiniboin  71, 76
+    Blackfoot  28
+    Cheyenne  24
+    construction of  56
+    Cree  18, 20
+    Crow  150, 152, 153
+    decorations on  28, 67, 76, 78, 85
+    descriptions of  50, 51
+    drawings of  56
+    erected by the Dakota  45
+    Hidatsa  146
+    Kansa  94
+    Omaha, construction of  80-81, 85
+    Pawnee  162, 164, 165-166
+    predominance of, on the plains  185
+    sketched by Kurz  76
+    Teton  61
+    used by roving tribes  32
+    used by the Dhegiha  77
+    used by the Oto  118
+
+  SKIN SCRAPER, bone, described  58, 59
+
+  SKIN TIPI--
+    when used by Omaha  84-85
+    Yankton, described by Maximilian  57-58
+
+  SLEDGES OF THE MANDAN  134
+
+  SMALLPOX EPIDEMIC--
+    among the Mandan  139
+    among the Omaha  78
+
+  SMOKING CUSTOM OF THE BLACKFEET  26, 27
+    _See_ Pipes.
+
+  SOTOÜIS, population of village of  110
+
+  SOULIER NOIR, French name for the Amahami  126
+
+  SPEARS, ARAPAHO, affixed to tripods  36, 37
+
+  SPOONS, HORN--
+    of the Mandan  137
+    of the Pawnee  158
+
+  STANLEY, paintings by, in National Museum  31
+
+  STANSBURY EXPEDITION, narrative of  64, 66-68
+
+  STARAPAT, an Arikara chief  176
+
+  STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF NORTH DAKOTA, surveys made by  139, 145
+
+  STOCKADE BUILDINGS, mentioned by Long  50
+
+  STOCKADES, remains of  67
+    _See_ Fortified villages.
+
+  STONE CIRCLES, explanation of  20, 21
+
+  STONE INDIANS. _See_ Assiniboins.
+
+  SUN DANCE, lodges erected for  63, 85
+
+  SUNFLOWER SEED, cakes made of  136
+
+  SWEAT HOUSE--
+    of the Crows  155
+    of the Ojibway  12, 16
+
+  SYMBOLS, cut on trees by Indians  43
+
+  TALANGAMANE, a Sioux chief  49
+
+  TAOAPA, description of village of  52
+
+  TAPAGE PAWNEE. _See_ Pitahauerat.
+
+  TATANKA WECHACHETA, a Wahpeton chief  53
+
+  TATUNKAMANE, son of a Dakota chief  48
+
+  TCHAN-DEE, a Teton Sioux chief  62
+
+  TETON--
+    a division of the Dakota  2, 44
+    bands composing  2
+    customs of  60
+    great village of, visited by Lewis and Clark  59-60
+
+  TETON RIVER, village near mouth of  62
+
+  THATCHED LODGES, of the Wichita  179-180
+
+  THIEF, THE, an Oto Indian  117
+
+  TINDER MOUNTAIN, Cree band at  18
+
+  TIPI--
+    drawing of, by Bodmer  58, 59
+    of the plains tribes, fine example of  68
+    typical of Siouan tribes  7
+    _See_ Skin lodges.
+
+  TONGINGA, a Quapaw village  109
+
+  TORIMAN, a Quapaw village  109
+
+  TOTEM POSTS, not used by Omaha  85
+
+  TRADERS LODGE, of the Oglala  68
+
+  TRAILS--
+    across the prairie  88
+    buffalo  7
+    in the Black Hills  70, 71
+    made by travois  66
+
+  TRANSPORTATION--
+    among the Oglala  65
+    among the Piegan  30
+    _See_ Dog travois, Horse travois.
+
+  TRAVOIS. See Dog travois, Horse travois.
+
+  TREATIES--
+    of Greenville, westward migration following  42
+    of peace between Sioux and Chippewas  15
+    place of, between Ojibway and U. S. Government  16
+    with Tetons, Yankton and Yanktonai  57
+
+  TWENTY-FOUR, VILLAGE OF THE, a former Kansa town  94
+
+  TWO KETTLES. _See_ Oohenonpa.
+
+  TYPHA PALUSTRIS, mats made of leaves of  100
+
+  UNION AGENCY, location of  104-105
+
+  UTENSILS OF THE MANDAN  136-137
+
+  UTSEHTA, an Osage band  2, 98
+
+  VILLAGE OF THE TWENTY-FOUR  94
+
+  VILLAGE SITES, not contemporaneous  127
+
+  WABASHAW, a Sioux village visited by Schoolcraft  49
+
+  WACO INDIANS--
+    a tribe of the Wichita confederacy  2
+    appearance of  181
+    grass lodge of  181
+    population of  182
+
+  WAHKTAGELI, a Yankton chief  58
+
+  WAHPEKUTE, a division of the Dakota  2, 44
+
+  WAHPETON TRIBE--
+    a division of the Dakota  2, 44, 52
+    country occupied by  52
+    village of, described  53
+
+  WAH-TOH-TA-NA, name for the Oto, 116
+
+  WAKAN WACHEPE, a Dakota society, 55
+
+  WA-KI-TA-MO-NEE, an Oto chief, 118
+
+  WANOTAN, a Yanktonai chief, 54
+
+  WAPASHA, a Dakota chief, 47
+
+  WAPASHA'S PRAIRIE, mentioned by Seymour, 50
+
+  WAPASHA VILLAGE, description of, 47, 48
+
+  WAR DANCE, OSAGE, account of, 105
+
+  WARRIORS, special lodges for use of, 25
+
+  WATTASOONS, Mandan name for the Amahami, 126
+
+  WATTLEWORK STRUCTURES OF THE OSAGE, 101-102, 105
+
+  WAUBUSCHON, an Osage chief, 100
+
+  WAYONDOTT, migration of band of, 3
+
+  WEAPONS OF THE MANDAN, 138
+
+  WESTERN ENGINEER, a steamboat of 1819 on Missouri River, 91-93
+
+  WETARKO, Indian name for Grand River, 169
+
+  WHITE HAIR, an Osage chief, 103
+
+  WHITE RIVER, village site on, 108
+
+  WICHITA CONFEDERACY--
+    a Caddoan group, 2
+    thatched dwellings of, 179-180
+
+  WICKIUP, a temporary shelter, 70
+
+  WIGWAMS--
+    construction of, 11
+    dome-shaped, of the Ojibway, 14
+    mat and bark covered, 7
+    _See_ Lodges.
+
+  WINNEBAGO--
+    a Siouan tribe, 2
+    country occupied by, 122
+    villages of, 122
+
+  WOLF PAWNEE. _See_ Skidi.
+
+  WOMEN--
+    custom concerning, 19
+    industry of, 103
+    labor of, 65
+
+  YANKTON TRIBE--
+    a division of the Dakota, 2, 44
+    described by General Atkinson, 57
+    population of, 57
+    structures of, 57-58
+
+  YANKTONAI--
+    a division of the Dakota, 2, 44
+    country inhabited by, 54
+    described by Keating, 54, 55
+    habitations of, 56-57
+    village of, near Lake Traverse, 54
+
+  YELLOW BEAR, an Hidatsa chief, 145
+
+  YELLOW STONE, a Missouri River steamboat, 130
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan,
+and Caddoan Tribes West of the Mississippi, by David Ives Bushnell
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan, and
+Caddoan Tribes West of the Mississippi, by David Ives Bushnell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan, and Caddoan Tribes West of the Mississippi
+
+Author: David Ives Bushnell
+
+Release Date: November 1, 2011 [EBook #37897]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VILLAGES OF THE ALGONQUIAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Julia Neufeld and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<a name="Frontispiece." id="Frontispiece."></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"></span></p>
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 1</b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Plate_1"></a>
+<img src="images/p001.png" width="500" height="326" alt="DRYING BUFFALO MEAT&mdash;A TYPICAL CAMP SCENE
+
+Ernest Henry Griset" title="DRYING BUFFALO MEAT&mdash;A TYPICAL CAMP SCENE
+
+Ernest Henry Griset" />
+<span class="caption">DRYING BUFFALO MEAT&mdash;A TYPICAL CAMP SCENE
+<br />
+Ernest Henry Griset</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="center">
+SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION<br />
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY<br />
+BULLETIN 77<br />
+</div>
+
+<h1>VILLAGES OF THE ALGONQUIAN, SIOUAN,<br />
+AND CADDOAN TRIBES WEST OF<br />
+THE MISSISSIPPI</h1>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+<h2>DAVID I. BUSHNELL, <span class="smcap">Jr.</span></h2>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 133px;">
+<img src="images/t_page.png" width="133" height="150" alt="Decoration" title="Decoration" />
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="center"><br /><br />
+WASHINGTON<br />
+GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE<br />
+1922<br />
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL</h4>
+
+
+<div class="signature"><span class="smcap">Smithsonian Institution</span>,<br />
+<span class="smcap">Bureau of American Ethnology</span>,<br />
+<i>Washington, D. C., January 4, 1921</i>.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sir:</span> I have the honor to transmit the accompanying manuscript,
+entitled "Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan, and Caddoan Tribes
+West of the Mississippi," by David I. Bushnell, jr., and to recommend
+its publication, subject to your approval, as a bulletin of this Bureau.</p>
+
+<p>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Very respectfully,
+</p>
+<div class="signature2"><span class="smcap">J. Walter Fewkes</span>,</div>
+<div class="signature"><i>Chief</i>.</div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="smcap">Dr. Charles D. Walcott</span>,<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;<i>Secretary of the Smithsonian institution</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>When Louisiana became a part of the United States the great
+wilderness to the westward of the Mississippi was the home of
+many native tribes, or groups of tribes, retaining their primitive
+manners and customs, little influenced by contact with Europeans.
+Their villages were scattered along the water courses or skirted the
+prairies, over which roamed vast herds of buffalo, these serving to
+attract the Indians and to supply many of their wants&mdash;food, raiment,
+and covering for their shelters. But so great are the changes
+wrought within a century that now few buffalo remain, the Indian
+in his primitive state has all but vanished, and even the prairies have
+been altered in appearance. The early accounts of the region contain
+references to the native camps and villages, their forms and
+extent, tell of the manner in which the habitations were constructed,
+and relate how some were often removed from place to place. Extracts
+from the various narratives are now brought together, thus
+to describe the homes and ways of life of the people who once
+claimed and occupied a large section of the present United States.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="CONTENTS">
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">Page</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">The tribes and their habitat</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">The buffalo (<i>Bison americanus</i>)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Villages and forms of structures</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Algonquian tribes</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ojibway</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cree</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cheyenne</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Blackfoot confederacy</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arapaho</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sauk and Foxes</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Illinois</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Siouan tribes</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dakota-Assiniboin group</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Mdewakanton</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Wahpeton</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Yanktonai</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Yankton</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Teton</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Oglala</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Assiniboin</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dhegiha group</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Omaha</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Ponca</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Kansa</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Osage</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Quapaw</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chiwere group</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Iowa</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Oto</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Missouri</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Winnebago</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mandan</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hidatsa group</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Hidatsa</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Crows</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caddoan tribes</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pawnee</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arikara</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Wichita</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Waco</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Caddo</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Conclusion</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Authorities cited</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Synonymy</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Explanation of plates</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Index</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p>
+<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="PLATES">
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='2'>PLATES</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">Page</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1. Drying buffalo meat. Griset</td><td align="right"><a href="#Frontispiece.">Frontispiece.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">2. "A buffalo hunt on the southwestern prairies." Stanley</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">3. "Buffalo hunt." Wimar</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">4. "Buffalo hunting on the frozen snow." Rindisbacher</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">5. <i>a</i>, "A buffalo pound." Kane. <i>b</i>, Scene in a Sioux village, about 1870</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">6. <i>a</i>, Camp of "Sautaux Indians on the Red River." <i>b</i>, Ojibway wigwam</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;at Leech Lake, Minnesota</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">7. <i>a</i>, "Encampment among the islands of Lake Huron." Kane. <i>b</i>, Ojibway</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;camp on bank of Red River</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">8. <i>a</i>, Ojibway camp west of Red River. <i>b</i>, Ojibway camp on bank of</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;Red River</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">9. Ojibway habitations. <i>a</i>, Wigwams covered with elm bark. <i>b</i>, Wigwams</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;covered with birch bark</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">10. <i>a</i>, Ojibway birch bark canoe. <i>b</i>, Ojibway Indians with birch bark</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;canoes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">11. <i>a</i>, Trader's store near Cass Lake. <i>b</i>, Outside an elm bark covered</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;structure</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">12. Objects of Ojibway make. <i>a</i>, Hammer, bag, and two skin-dressing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;tools. <i>b</i>, Section of a rush mat</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">13. <i>a</i>, Ojibway mortar and pestle. <i>b</i>, Delaware mortar and pestle. <i>c</i>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;Ojibway birch bark dish</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">14. Cheyenne family</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">15. Piegan camp. Bodmer</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">16. <i>a</i>, Blackfoot camp. Kane. <i>b</i>, Arapaho village</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">17. Atsina camp. Bodmer</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">18. Sauk and Fox habitations. <i>a</i>, Frames of structures. <i>b</i>, Mat-covered</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;lodges</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">19. Sauk and Fox habitation covered with elm bark</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">20. <i>a</i>, Northwest shore of Mille Lac, 1900. <i>b</i>, The Sacred Island in Mille</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;Lac</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">21. "Kaposia, June 19th, 1851." Mayer</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">22. <i>a</i>, "Dakotah village." Eastman. <i>b</i>, "Dakotah encampment." Eastman</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">23. <i>a</i>, Council at the mouth of the Teton. Catlin. <i>b</i>, Fort Pierre, July 4,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;1851. Kurz</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">24. <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, Near Fort Laramie, 1868. <i>c</i>, "A skin lodge of an Assiniboin</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;chief." Bodmer</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">25. <i>a</i>, Assiniboin lodges formed of pine boughs. Kane. <i>b</i>, "Horse camp</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;of the Assiniboins, March 21, 1852." Kurz</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">26. <i>a</i>, Tipi of an Omaha chief. <i>b</i>, Page of Kurz's sketchbook</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">27. "The village of the Omahas." 1871</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">28. <i>a</i>, Page of Kurz's sketchbook, showing Omaha village. <i>b</i>, Page of</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;Kurz's sketchbook, showing interior of an Omaha lodge</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">29. "Punka Indians encamped on the banks of the Missouri." Bodmer</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">30. <i>a</i>, Kansa village, 1841. Lehman. <i>b</i>, Dog dance within a Kansa lodge,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;1819. Seymour</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">31. Kansa habitation</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">32. <i>a</i>, Frame of an Osage habitation. <i>b</i>, An Iowa structure</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">33. "Oto encampment, near the Platte, 1819." Seymour</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">34. <i>a</i>, Oto pemmican maul. <i>b</i>, Heavy stone maul. <i>c</i>, Mandan implement</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;for dressing hides</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">35. <i>a</i>, Oto dugout canoe, from Kurz's sketchbook. <i>b</i>, Hidatsa bull-boat</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;and paddle</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">36. Winnebago habitations, about 1870. <i>a</i>, Structure with arbor. <i>b</i>, Showing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;entrance on side</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">37. Winnebago structures</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">38. <i>a</i>, Interior of a Mandan lodge. Catlin. <i>b</i>, Scene in a Mandan village.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;Catlin</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">39. "Mih-tutta-hangkusch," a Mandan village. Bodmer</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">40. Interior of a Mandan lodge. Bodmer</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">41. <i>a</i>, <i>c</i>, Mandan wooden bowls. <i>b</i>, Mandan earthenware jar</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">42. <i>a</i>, Buffalo horn spoon. <i>b</i>, Spoon made of horn of mountain sheep.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;Mandan</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">43. "Miniatarree village." Catlin</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">44. "Winter village of the Minatarres." <i>a</i>, Original pencil sketch. <i>b</i>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;Finished picture of same. Bodmer</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">45. From Kurz's sketchbook. <i>a</i>, Use of a carrying basket. <i>b</i>, The ring-and-pole game. <i>c</i>, Hidatsa with bull-boats</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">46. Crow tipis. <i>a</i>, "Crow lodge." Catlin. <i>b</i>, Camp at the old agency,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;1871</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">47. A camp in a cottonwood grove</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">48. Trader crossing the prairies. Page of Kurz's sketchbook</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">49. Pawnee village, 1871</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">50. Pawnee earth lodges, 1871</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">51. In a Pawnee village, 1871. <i>a</i>, Children at lodge entrance. <i>b</i>, Showing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;screen near same entrance</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">52. <i>a</i>, Arikara carrying basket. <i>b</i>, Wichita mortar</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">53. "Riccaree village." Catlin</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">54. <i>a</i>, Arikara rake. <i>b</i>, Arikara hoe. <i>c</i>, Crow parfleche box</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">55. Wichita habitations. <i>a</i>, Near Anadarko. <i>b</i>, Lodge standing about</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;1880</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<h2>
+TEXT FIGURES</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Text Figures">
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;1. The buffalo of Gomara, 1554</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;2. Tipis</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;3. Horse travois</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;4. Plan of the large Mandan village, 1833</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;5. "The ark of the first man"</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;6. Typical earth lodges</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;7. Inclosed bed</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;8. Plan of the interior of a Mandan lodge</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;9. Wooden club</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">10. Plan of the Mandan village at Fort Clark</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">11. Plan of a ceremonial lodge</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">12. Plan of the large Hidatsa village</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+<h2>VILLAGES OF THE ALGONQUIAN, SIOUAN, AND CADDOAN<br />
+TRIBES WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI.</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">By David I. Bushnell, Jr.</span></h3>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>THE TRIBES AND THEIR HABITAT.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The country occupied by the tribes belonging to the three linguistic
+groups whose villages are now to be described extended from
+south of the Arkansas northward to and beyond the Canadian
+boundary, and from the Mississippi across the Great Plains to the
+Rocky Mountains. It thus embraced the western section of the valley
+of the Mississippi, including the entire course of the Missouri,
+the hilly regions bordering the rivers, and the vast rolling prairies.
+The climatic conditions were as varied as were the physiographical
+features, for, although the winters in the south were comparatively
+mild, in the north they were long and severe.</p>
+
+<p>The three linguistic families to be considered are the Algonquian,
+Siouan, and Caddoan. Many Algonquian and Siouan tribes formerly
+lived east of the Mississippi, and their villages have already
+been described (Bushnell, (1)),<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> but within historic times all Caddoan
+tribes appear to have occupied country to the westward of the
+river, although it is not improbable that during earlier days they
+may have had villages beyond the eastern bank of the stream, the
+remains of which exist.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> For citation of references throughout this bulletin, <i>see</i> "Authorities cited," p. 186.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Algonquians included in this account comprise principally
+the three groups which may be termed the western division of the
+great linguistic family. These are: (1) The Blackfoot confederacy,
+composed of three confederated tribes, the Siksika or
+Blackfeet proper, the Piegan, and the Kainah or Bloods; (2) the
+Arapaho, including several distinct divisions, of which the Atsina,
+or Gros Ventres of the Prairie, who were closely allied with the
+Blackfeet, were often mentioned; (3) the Cheyenne, likewise forming
+various groups or divisions. Belonging to the same great family
+were the Cree or Kristinaux, whose habitat was farther north,
+few living south of the Canadian boundary; also the Ojibway, whose
+villages were scattered northward from the upper waters of the
+Mississippi. Some Sauk later lived west of the Mississippi, as did
+bands of the Foxes and some of the Illinois tribes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>The Siouan tribes were among the most numerous and powerful
+on the continent, and those to be mentioned on the following pages
+belonged to several clearly defined groups. As classified in the
+Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> these include:</p>
+
+<p>I. Dakota-Assiniboin group: 1, Mdewakanton; 2, Wahpekute
+(forming, with the Mdewakanton, the Santee); 3, Sisseton; 4, Wahpeton;
+5, Yankton; 6, Yanktonai; 7, Teton&mdash;(a) Sichangu or Brulés,
+(b) Itazipcho or Sans Arcs, (c) Sihasapa or Blackfeet, (d) Miniconjou,
+(e) Oohenonpa or Two Kettles, (f) Oglala, (g) Hunkpapa;
+8, Assiniboin.</p>
+
+<p>II. Dhegiha group: 1, Omaha; 2, Ponca; 3, Quapaw; 4, Osage&mdash;(a)
+Pahatsi, (b) Utschta, (c) Santsukhdhi; 5, Kansa.</p>
+
+<p>III. Chiwere group: 1, Iowa; 2, Oto; 3, Missouri.</p>
+
+<p>IV. Winnebago.</p>
+
+<p>V. Mandan.</p>
+
+<p>VI. Hidatsa group: 1, Hidatsa; 2, Crows.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Bull. 30, Bur. Amer. Ethn., part 2, p. 579.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Caddoan family is less clearly defined than either of the preceding,
+but evidently consisted of many small tribes grouped, and
+forming confederacies. Those to be mentioned later include: (1)
+The Arikara; (2) the Pawnee confederacy, composed of four tribes&mdash;(a)
+Chaui or Grand Pawnee, (b) Kitkehahki or Republican Pawnee,
+(c) Pitahauerat or Tapage Pawnee, (d) Skidi or Wolf Pawnee; (3)
+the Wichita confederacy, including the Waco and various small
+tribes; (4) the Caddo proper.</p>
+
+<p>Although the latter are included in the same linguistic group
+with the Arikara, Pawnee, and others as mentioned above, they are
+regarded by some as constituting a distinct linguistic stock.</p>
+
+<p>During the years following the close of the Revolution, the latter
+part of the eighteenth century, many tribes, or rather the remnants
+of tribes, then living east of the Mississippi, sought a refuge in the
+West beyond the river. Many settled on the streams in the southern
+part of the present State of Missouri and northern Arkansas, and, as
+stated by Stoddard when writing about the year 1810: "A considerable
+number of Delawares, Shawanese, and Cherokees, have built
+some villages on the waters of the St. Francis and White Rivers.
+Their removal into these quarters was authorized by the Spanish
+government, and they have generally conducted themselves to the
+satisfaction of the whites. Some stragglers from the Creeks, Chocktaws,
+and Chickasaws, who are considered as outlaws by their respective
+nations, have also established themselves on the same waters;
+and their disorders and depredations among the white settlers are
+not unfrequent." (Stoddard, (1), pp. 210-211.) And at about the
+same time another writer, referring to the same region, said: "Below<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+the Great Osage, on the waters of the Little Osage, Saint Francis,
+and other streams, are a number of scattered bands of Indians, and
+two or three considerable villages. These bands were principally
+Indians, who were formerly outcasts from the tribes east of the Mississippi.
+Numbers have since joined from the Delawares, Shawanoes,
+Wayondott, and other tribes towards the lakes. Their warriors
+are said to be five or six hundred. They have sometimes made excursions
+and done mischief on the Ohio river, but the settlements on
+the Mississippi have suffered the most severely by their depredations."
+(Cutler, (1), p. 120.)</p>
+
+<p>No attempt will be made in the present work to describe the habitations
+or settlements occupied by the scattered bands just mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite evident that during the past two or three centuries great
+changes have taken place in the locations of the tribes which were
+discovered occupying the region west of the Mississippi by the first
+Europeans to penetrate the vast wilderness. Thus the general movement
+of many Siouan tribes has been westward, that of some Algonquian
+groups southward from their earlier habitats, and the Caddoan
+appear to have gradually gone northward. It resulted in the converging
+of the tribes in the direction of the great prairies occupied by
+the vast herds of buffalo which served to attract the Indian. Until
+the beginning of this tribal movement it would seem that a great
+region eastward from the base of the Rocky Mountains, the rolling
+prairie lands, was not the home of any tribes but was solely the range
+of the buffalo and other wild beasts, which existed in numbers now
+difficult to conceive.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>THE BUFFALO.</h2>
+
+<h3>(<i>Bison americanus</i>.)</h3>
+
+
+<p>With the practical extermination of the buffalo in recent years,
+and the rapid changes which have taken place in the general appearance
+of the country, it is difficult to picture it as it was two or more
+centuries ago. While the country continued to be the home of the
+native tribes game was abundant, and the buffalo, in prodigious
+numbers, roamed over the wide region from the Rocky Mountains to
+near the Atlantic. It is quite evident, and easily conceivable, that
+wherever the buffalo was to be found it was hunted by the people of
+the neighboring villages, principally to serve as food. But the different
+parts of the animal were made use of for many purposes, and,
+as related in an early Spanish narrative, one prepared nearly four
+centuries ago, when referring to "the oxen of Quivira ... Their
+masters have no other riches nor substance: of them they eat, they
+drink, they apparel, they shooe themselves: and of their hides they
+make many things, as houses, shooes, apparell and ropes: of their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+bones they make bodkins: of their sinews and haire, threed: of their
+hornes, maws, and bladders, vessels: of their dung, fire: and of their
+calves-skinnes, budgets, wherein they drawe and keepe water. To bee
+short, they make so many things of them as they neede of, or as many
+as suffice them in the use of this life." (Gomara, (1), p. 382.) A
+crude engraving of a buffalo made at that time is reproduced in figure
+<a href="#figure_1">1</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"><a name="figure_1"></a>
+<img src="images/f001.png" width="500" height="378" alt="Fig. 1.&mdash;The buffalo of Gomara, 1554" title="Fig. 1.&mdash;The buffalo of Gomara, 1554" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;The buffalo of Gomara, 1554</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The preceding account describes the customs of the people then
+living in the southern part of the region treated in the present
+sketch, either a Caddoan or a neighboring tribe or group, and it
+suggests another reference to the great importance of the buffalo,
+but applying to the
+tribes of the north more
+than three centuries
+later.</p>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 2<a name="Plate_2"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/p002.png" width="500" height="294" alt="&quot;A BUFFALO HUNT ON THE SOUTHWESTERN PRAIRIES&quot;
+
+J. M. Stanley, 1845" title="&quot;A BUFFALO HUNT ON THE SOUTHWESTERN PRAIRIES&quot;
+
+J. M. Stanley, 1845" />
+<span class="caption">&quot;A BUFFALO HUNT ON THE SOUTHWESTERN PRAIRIES&quot;
+
+J. M. Stanley, 1845</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 3<a name="Plate_3" id="Plate_3"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/p003.png" width="500" height="289" alt="&quot;BUFFALO HUNT&quot;
+
+Carl Wimar, 1860" title="&quot;BUFFALO HUNT&quot;
+
+Carl Wimar, 1860" />
+<span class="caption">&quot;BUFFALO HUNT&quot;
+
+Carl Wimar, 1860</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 4<a name="Plate_4"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/p004.png" width="500" height="270" alt="&quot;BUFFALO HUNTING ON THE FROZEN SNOW&quot;
+
+Peter Rindisbacher, about 1825" title="&quot;BUFFALO HUNTING ON THE FROZEN SNOW&quot;
+Peter Rindisbacher, about 1825
+" />
+<span class="caption">&quot;BUFFALO HUNTING ON THE FROZEN SNOW&quot;<br />
+
+Peter Rindisbacher, about 1825</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 5<a name="Plate_5"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p005a.png" width="300" height="182" alt="a. &quot;A Buffalo Pound.&quot; Paul Kane, 1845" title="a. &quot;A Buffalo Pound.&quot; Paul Kane, 1845" />
+<span class="caption">a. &quot;A Buffalo Pound.&quot; Paul Kane, 1845</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p005b.png" width="300" height="321" alt="b. Scene in a Sioux village, about 1870. Photograph by S. J. Morrow" title="b. Scene in a Sioux village, about 1870. Photograph by S. J. Morrow" />
+<span class="caption">b. Scene in a Sioux village, about 1870. Photograph by S. J. Morrow</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>"The animals inhabiting
+the Dakota country,
+and hunted more or less
+by them for clothing,
+food, or for the purposes
+of barter, are buffalo,
+elk, black- and
+white-tailed deer, big-horn,
+antelope, wolves
+of several kinds, red and
+gray foxes, a few beaver
+and otter, grizzly bear, badger, skunk, porcupine, rabbits, muskrats,
+and a few panthers in the mountainous parts. Of all those just mentioned
+the buffalo is most numerous and most necessary to their
+support. Every part of this animal is eaten by the Indian except
+the horns, hoofs, and hair, even the skin being made to sustain life
+in times of great scarcity. The skin is used to make their lodges
+and clothes, the sinews for bowstrings, the horns to contain powder,
+and the bones are wrought into various domestic implements, or
+pounded up and boiled to extract the fatty matter. In the proper
+season, from the beginning of October until the 1st of March, the
+skins are dressed with the hair remaining on them, and are either
+worn by themselves or exchanged with the traders." (Hayden, (1),
+p. 371.)</p>
+
+<p>In the early days the tribes who occupied a region frequented by
+or in the vicinity of the range of the buffalo could and undoubtedly
+did kill sufficient numbers to satisfy their various wants and requirements,
+but hunting was made more easy in later times when horses
+were possessed by the Indian. Then it became possible for the bands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+of hunters, or even the entire village, to follow the vast herds, to
+surround and kill as many as they desired, and to carry away great
+quantities of meat to be "jerked," or dried, for future use. So intimately
+connected were the buffalo with the life of the tribes of the
+plains and the circumjacent country that frequent allusions will be
+made to the former when describing the camps and villages of the
+latter.</p>
+
+
+<p>The various ways of hunting the buffalo and other wild beasts of the
+plains and mountainous country, as practiced by the different tribes,
+have been described by many writers. The several methods of hunting
+the buffalo were often forced through natural conditions, but
+nothing could have exceeded the excitement produced during the
+chase by well-mounted Indian hunters. This was the usual custom
+of the tribes of the plains after horses had become plentiful and the
+buffalo continued numerous. The paintings reproduced in plates <a href="#Plate_2">2</a>
+and <a href="#Plate_3">3</a> vividly portray this phase of the hunt. In the north the
+hunters were compelled during the long winters to attack the herds
+on the frozen, snow-covered prairies, and plate <a href="#Plate_4">4</a> shows a party of
+hunters, wearing snowshoes, mingled with the buffalo. This sketch,
+made about the year 1825, bears the legend: "Indian Hunters pursuing
+the Buffalo early in the spring when the snow is sufficiently
+frozen to bear the men but the Animal breaks through and cannot
+run." This graphic sketch may represent a party of Cree or Assiniboin
+hunters, probably the latter, and it will be noticed that they are
+using bows and arrows, not firearms, although other drawings by the
+same artist representing a summer hunt shows them having guns.</p>
+
+<p>Another custom in the North was that of constructing inclosures
+of logs and branches of trees, leaving one opening through which
+the buffalo were driven, and when thus secured were killed. Such
+an inclosure, or pound, is shown in plate <a href="#Plate_5">5</a>, <i>a</i>. This is a reproduction
+of the original painting made by Paul Kane, September, 1845. In
+describing it he wrote: "These pounds can only be made in the
+vicinity of forests, as they are composed of logs piled up roughly,
+five feet high, and enclose about two acres. At one side an entrance
+is left, about ten feet wide, and from each side of this, to the distance
+of half a mile, a row of posts or short stumps, called dead men, are
+planted, at the distance of twenty feet each, gradually widening out
+into the plain from the entrance. When we arrived at the pound we
+found a party there anxiously awaiting the arrival of the buffaloes,
+which their companions were driving in. This is accomplished as
+follows:&mdash;A man, mounted on a fleet horse, usually rides forward
+till he sees a band of buffaloes. This may be sixteen or eighteen miles
+distant from the ground, but of course the nearer to it the better.
+The hunter immediately strikes a light with a flint and steel, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+places the lighted spunk in a handful of dried grass, the smoke arising
+from which the buffaloes soon smell and start away from it at
+the top of their speed. The man now rides up alongside of the herd,
+which, from some unaccountable propensity, invariably endeavour to
+cross in front of his horse. I have had them follow me for miles in
+order to do so. The hunter thus possesses an unfailing means, wherever
+the pound may be situated, of conducting them to it by the
+dexterous management of his horse. Indians are stationed at intervals
+behind the posts, or dead men, provided with buffalo robes, who,
+when the herd are once in the avenue, rise up and shake the robes,
+yelling and urging them on until they get into the enclosure, the spot
+usually selected for which is one with a tree in the centre. On this
+they hang offerings to propitiate the Great Spirit to direct the herd
+towards it. A man is also placed in the tree with a medicine pipestem
+in his hand, which he waves continually, chaunting a sort of
+prayer to the Great Spirit, the burden of which is that the buffaloes
+may be numerous and fat." (Kane, (1), pp. 117-119.) Quite similar
+to this is the description of a pound constructed by the Cree a few
+years later. This was some 120 feet across, "constructed of the
+trunks of trees, laced with withes together, and braced by outside
+supports," and within "lay tossed in every conceivable position over
+two hundred dead buffalo." Another pound erected at this time had
+the "dead men" extending for a distance of 4 miles from the entrance.
+(Hind, (1), I, pp. 356-359.) Maximilian, Lewis and Clark, and
+other explorers of the upper Missouri Valley refer to enclosures into
+which the Indians drove antelope. And that the custom was followed
+by the tribes far east of the Mississippi is proved by the writings of
+early explorers. Champlain in 1615 gave an account, accompanied
+by an interesting drawing, of such a hunt, and Lahontan nearly a
+century later presented an illustration bearing the legend: "Stags
+block'd up in a park, after being pursued by y<sup>e</sup> Savages." Many
+other references could be quoted, as the ways of hunting followed by
+the Indians have always been of interest to the many writers who
+have described the manners and customs of the people.</p>
+
+<p>What was probably a characteristic view in a Sioux village of half
+a century ago, after a successful hunt, is shown in the old photograph
+reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_5">5</a>, <i>b</i>. Here, in front of the group of skin tipis,
+are quantities of meat suspended and being "jerked" or dried in the
+air. Buffalo skins are stretched on the ground, and in the immediate
+foreground are two women scraping a skin. This is a picture of the
+greatest interest and rarity.</p>
+
+<p>The sight of the great herds roaming unmolested over the far-reaching
+prairies proved of interest to all who saw them, and many
+accounts are left by the early travelers. One brief description of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+such a scene may be quoted. It refers to a place in the upper Missouri
+Valley, not far from a Mandan village, and was written June
+22, 1811:</p>
+
+<p>"We arrived on the summit of a ridge more elevated than any we
+had yet passed. From thence we saw before us a beautiful plain, as
+we judged, about four miles across, in the direction of our course,
+and of similar dimensions from east to west. It was bounded on all
+sides by long ridges, similar to that which we had ascended. The
+scene exhibited in this valley was sufficiently interesting to excite
+even in our Canadians a wish to stop a few minutes and contemplate
+it. The whole of the plain was perfectly level, and, like the rest of
+the country, without a single shrub. It was covered with the finest
+verdure, and in every part herds of buffaloes were feeding. I counted
+seventeen herds, but the aggregate number of the animals it was
+difficult even to guess at: some thought upwards of 10,000." (Bradbury,
+(1), pp. 134-135.) And this was but one of innumerable similar
+scenes to have been witnessed throughout the wide range of the vast
+herds.</p>
+
+<p>"The Indians say ... that in travelling over a country with
+which they are unacquainted they always follow the buffalo trail, for
+this animal always selects the most practicable route for his road."
+(Warren, (1), p. 74.) This is a well-known fact, and many roads
+both east and west of the Mississippi which have now developed into
+important highways owe their origin to this cause.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the buffalo will ever be one of interest, becoming more
+and more so as the years pass; and so it is gratifying to know that
+nearly all the available information bearing on the customs of the
+animal, the migration of the herds, their ancient habitat, and their
+rapid reduction in numbers was some years ago brought together and
+preserved in a single volume. (Allen, (1).) This was done while
+the buffalo were still quite numerous, and many facts recorded were
+derived from hunters or others acquainted with the customs of the
+times.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>VILLAGES AND FORMS OF STRUCTURES.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The villages as well as the separate structures reared by the many
+tribes who formerly occupied the region treated in the present work
+presented marked characteristics, causing them to be easily identified
+by the early travelers through the wilderness of a century ago. The
+mat and bark covered wigwam predominated among the Algonquian
+tribes of the north, although certain members of this great linguistic
+family also used the skin tipi so typical of the Siouan tribes of the
+plains, while some of the latter stock constructed the earth lodge<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+similar to that erected by the Caddoan tribes. Thus, it will be understood
+no one group occupied habitations of a single form to the exclusion
+of all others, and again practically all the tribes had two or
+more types of dwellings which were reared and used under different
+conditions, some forming their permanent villages, others, being
+easily removed and transported, serving as their shelters during long
+journeys in search of the buffalo. The villages of the several groups
+will now be mentioned in detail.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Algonquian Tribes.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The numerous tribes and the many confederated groups belonging
+to the great Algonquian linguistic family extended over the continent
+from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic coast, and from
+Labrador on the north southward to Carolina. They surrounded
+the Iroquoian tribes of the north, and, at various places came in contact
+with members of other stocks. The combined population of the
+widely scattered Algonquian tribes was greater than that of any other
+linguistic family in North America.</p>
+
+<p>The native tribes of tidewater Virginia and those who were encountered
+by the New England colonists, tribes so intimately associated
+with the early history of the Colonies, belonged to this stock, as
+did the later occupants of the Ohio Valley and of the "country of
+Illinois." In the present work the villages of other members of the
+linguistic group will be considered, including those of the Ojibway
+and the related Cree, and of the Blackfoot confederacy, Arapaho, and
+Cheyenne, usually termed the western division of the stock. Several
+tribes whose villages stood east of the Mississippi in early historic
+times will also be mentioned.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">ojibway.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The Ojibway (the Sauteux of many writers) formed the connecting
+link between the tribes living east of the Mississippi and those
+whose homes were across the "Great River." A century ago their
+lands extended from the shores of Lake Superior westward, beyond
+the headwaters of the Mississippi to the vicinity of the Turtle Mountains,
+in the present State of North Dakota. Thus they claimed the
+magnificent lakes of northern and central Minnesota&mdash;Mille Lac,
+Leech Lake, Cass Lake, and Red Lake&mdash;on the shores of which stood
+many of their camps and villages, serving as barriers against invasions
+and attacks by their inveterate enemies, the Sioux. The
+Ojibway are essentially a timber people, whose manners and customs
+were formed and governed by the environment of lakes and streams,
+and who were ever surrounded by the vast virgin forests of pine.
+While game, fish, and wild fowl were abundant and easily obtained,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+yet during the long winters when the lakes were frozen and the land
+was covered by several feet of snow there were periods of want when
+food was scarce.</p>
+
+<p>The habitations and other structures of the Ojibway, which have
+already been described and figured (Bushnell, (2)), were of various
+forms, constructed of several materials, and varying in different
+localities, according to the nature of the available supply of barks
+or rushes.</p>
+
+<p>In the north, on the shores of Lake Superior and westward along
+the lakes and streams, as in the valley of Red River and the adjacent
+region, the majority of structures were covered with sheets of birch
+bark, secured to frames of small saplings.</p>
+
+<p>About the year 1804 Peter Grant, a member of the old North-West
+Company, and for a long period at the head of the Red River Department
+of the company, prepared an account of the Sauteux Indians,
+and when describing the habitations of the people, wrote:
+"Their tents are constructed with slender long poles, erected in the
+form of a cone and covered with the rind of the birch tree. The
+general diameter of the base is about fifteen feet, the fire place
+exactly in the middle, and the remainder of the area, with the exception
+of a small place for the hearth, is carefully covered with the
+branches of the pine or cedar tree, over which some bear skins and
+old blankets are spread, for sitting and sleeping. A small aperture
+is left in which a bear skin is hung in lieu of a door, and a space is
+left open at the top, which answers the purpose of window and
+chimney. In stormy weather the smoke would be intolerable, but
+this inconvenience is easily removed by contracting or shifting the
+aperture at top according to the point from which the wind blows.
+It is impossible to walk, or even to stand upright, in their miserable
+habitations, except directly around the fire place. The men sit
+generally with their legs stretched before them, but the women have
+theirs folded backwards, inclined a little to the left side, and can
+comfortably remain the whole day in those attitudes, when the
+weather is too bad for remaining out of doors. In fine weather they
+are very fond of basking in the sun.</p>
+
+<p>"When the family is very large, or when several families live
+together, the dimensions of their tents are, of course, in proportion
+and of different forms. Some of these spacious habitations resemble
+the roof of a barn, with small openings at each end for doors, and
+the whole length of the ridge is left uncovered at top for the smoke
+and light." (Grant, (1), pp. 329-330.) And referring briefly to
+the ways of life of the people: "In the spring, when the hunting
+season is over, they generally assemble in small villages, either at
+the trader's establishment, or in places where fish or wild fowl<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+abound; sturgeon and white fish are most common, though they
+have abundance of pike, trout, suckers, and pickerel. They sometimes
+have the precaution to preserve some for the summer consumption,
+this is done by opening and cleaning the fish, and then
+carefully drying it in the smoke or sun, after which it is tied up very
+tight in large parcels, wrapped up in bark and kept for use; their
+meat, in summer, is cured in the same manner.... Their meat is
+either boiled in a kettle, or roasted by means of a sharp stick, fixed
+in the ground at a convenient distance from the fire, and on which
+the meat is fixed and turned occasionally towards the fire, until the
+whole is thoroughly done; their fish is dressed in the same manner."
+(Op. cit., pp. 330-331.)</p>
+
+<p>The method of cooking food, as mentioned in the preceding paragraph,
+is graphically illustrated in the old sketch made a century
+ago, now reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_6">6</a>, <i>a</i>. This shows a family gathered
+about a small fire where food is being prepared, and beyond is a
+bark-covered wigwam. The sketch bears the legend, "A family
+from the tribe of the wild Sautaux Indians on the Red River.
+Drawn from nature." It indicates the primitive dress and appearance
+of the people, and it is of interest to compare this with the
+photograph which is reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_6">6</a>, <i>b</i>, showing another small
+group of the people three-quarters of a century later. Such were the
+changes within that period.</p>
+
+<p>Similar to the preceding were the habitations shown by Kane in
+a sketch made during the early summer of 1845, the original painting
+being reproduced as plate <a href="#Plate_7">7</a>, <i>a</i>. This was described as "an
+Indian encampment amongst the islands of Lake Huron; the wigwams
+are made of birch-bark, stripped from the trees in large pieces
+and sewed together with long fibrous roots; when the birch tree cannot
+be conveniently had, they weave rushes into mats ... for covering,
+which are stretched round in the same manner as the bark, upon
+eight or ten poles tied together at the top, and stuck in the ground
+at the required circle of the tent, a hole being left at the top to
+permit the smoke to go out. The fire is made in the centre of the
+lodge, and the inmates sleep all round with their feet towards it."
+(Kane, (1), pp. 6-7.) The interesting painting could well have
+been made among the Ojibway camps or settlements of northern
+Minnesota instead of representing a group of wigwams located
+many miles eastward, but this tends to prove the similarity of the
+small villages in the region where large sheets of birch bark were
+to be obtained.</p>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 6<a name="Plate_6"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p006a.png" width="300" height="209" alt="a. &quot;A family from the tribe of the wild Sautaux Indians on the Red River.&quot; Drawn from
+nature, 1821" title="a. &quot;A family from the tribe of the wild Sautaux Indians on the Red River.&quot; Drawn from
+nature, 1821" />
+<span class="caption">a. &quot;A family from the tribe of the wild Sautaux Indians on the Red River.&quot; Drawn from
+nature, 1821</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p006b.png" width="300" height="234" alt="b. Ojibway wigwam. Leech Lake, Minnesota, 1896" title="b. Ojibway wigwam. Leech Lake, Minnesota, 1896" />
+<span class="caption">b. Ojibway wigwam. Leech Lake, Minnesota, 1896</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 7<a name="Plate_7"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p007a.png" width="300" height="183" alt="a. &quot;Encampment among the Islands of Lake Huron.&quot; Paul Kane, 1845" title="a. &quot;Encampment among the Islands of Lake Huron.&quot; Paul Kane, 1845" />
+<span class="caption">a. &quot;Encampment among the Islands of Lake Huron.&quot; Paul Kane, 1845</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p007b.png" width="300" height="220" alt="b. Ojibway camp on bank of Red River. Photograph by H. L. Hime, 1858" title="b. Ojibway camp on bank of Red River. Photograph by H. L. Hime, 1858" />
+<span class="caption">b. Ojibway camp on bank of Red River. Photograph by H. L. Hime, 1858</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Between the loosely placed sheets of bark were necessarily many
+openings through which the wind could enter, and in addition was
+the open space at the top intentionally left as a vent through which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+the smoke could escape from the inside. In describing the appearance
+of the interior of such a structure it was told how&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Around the fire in the centre, and at a distance of perhaps 2 feet
+from it, are placed sticks as large as one's arm, in a square form,
+guarding the fire; and it is a matter of etiquette not to put one's
+feet nearer the fire than that boundary. One or more pots or
+kettles are hung over the fire on the crotch of a sapling. In the
+sides of the wigwam are stowed all clothing, food, cooking utensils,
+and other property of the family." When referring to the great
+feeling of relief on arriving at such a shelter in the frozen wilderness
+the same writer continued:</p>
+
+<p>"When one has been traveling all day through the virgin forest,
+in a temperature far below zero, and has not seen a house nor a
+human being and knows not where or how he is to pass the night,
+it is the most comforting sight in the whole world to see the glowing
+column of light from the top of the wigwam of some wandering
+family out hunting, and to look in and see that happy group bathed
+in the light and warmth of the life-giving fire ... and no one,
+Ojibway or white, is ever refused admission; on the contrary,
+they are made heartily welcome, as long as there is an inch of
+space." (Gilfillan, (1), pp. 68-69.) As a missionary among the
+Ojibway of northern Minnesota for a quarter of a century, Dr.
+Gilfillan learned to know and love the forests and lakes in the
+changing seasons of the year and to know the ways of life of the
+Ojibway as few have ever known them.</p>
+
+<p>The structures just mentioned were of a circular form, with the
+ends of the poles which supported the bark describing a circle on
+the ground. Of quite similar construction were the larger oval
+wigwams, where two groups of poles were arranged at the ends in
+the form of semicircles, with a ridgepole extending between the tops
+of the two groups. Other poles rested against the ridgepole and so
+formed the sloping supports upon which the strips of bark were
+placed. One most interesting example of this form of primitive
+habitation was visited by the writer during the month of October,
+1899. It formed one of a small group of wigwams which at that
+time stood near the Canadian boundary, north of Ely, Minnesota.
+It was about 18 feet in length and between 8 and 9 feet in width.
+There were two entrances, one at each end, with hanging blankets
+to cover the openings. Within, along the median line on the ground,
+burned four small fires. Beautiful examples of rush mats, made
+by the women, were spread upon the ground near the sloping walls,
+these serving as seats during the day and sleeping places at night.
+Many articles hung from the poles which sustained the bark covering,
+as small bags and baskets, and many bunches of herbs. In one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+corner was a large covered <i>mokak</i>, and on the opposite side was a
+carefully wrapped drum, owned by the old Ojibway, <i>Ahgishkemunsit</i>,
+the Kingfisher, who was sitting on the ground near by.</p>
+
+<p>Quite similar to the preceding must have been the wigwam visited
+by Hind in 1858. This stood a short distance from Manitobah
+House, of the Hudson's Bay Company, and belonged to an Ojibway
+hunter. As Hind wrote: "His birch-bark tent was roomy and clean.
+Thirteen persons including children squatted round the fire in the
+centre. On the floor some excellent matting was laid upon spruce
+boughs for the strangers; the squaws squatted on the bare ground,
+the father of the family on an old buffalo robe. Attached to the
+poles of the tent were a gun, bows and arrows, a spear, and some
+mink skins. Suspended on cross pieces over the fire were fishing
+nets and floats, clothes, and a bunch of the bearberry to mix with
+tobacco for the manufacture of kinni-kinnik." (Hind, (1), II, p. 63.)
+Hind was accompanied on his second journey, in 1858, by a photographer,
+Humphrey Lloyd Hime, who made many interesting negatives
+while in the Indian country. Among the photographs made at
+this time are three views of bark wigwams of the Ojibway which
+stood near the banks of Red River. These are now reproduced in
+plates <a href="#Plate_7">7</a>, <i>b</i>, and <a href="#Plate_8">8</a> <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 8<a name="Plate_8"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p008a.png" width="300" height="202" alt="a. Ojibway camp west of Red River. Photograph by H. L. Hime, 1858" title="a. Ojibway camp west of Red River. Photograph by H. L. Hime, 1858" />
+<span class="caption">a. Ojibway camp west of Red River. Photograph by H. L. Hime, 1858</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p008b.png" width="300" height="200" alt="b. Ojibway camp on bank of Red River. Photograph by H. L. Hime, 1858" title="b. Ojibway camp on bank of Red River. Photograph by H. L. Hime, 1858" />
+<span class="caption">b. Ojibway camp on bank of Red River. Photograph by H. L. Hime, 1858</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 9<a name="Plate_9"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p009a.png" width="300" height="199" alt="a. Wigwams covered with elm bark" title="a. Wigwams covered with elm bark" />
+<span class="caption">a. Wigwams covered with elm bark</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p009b.png" width="300" height="208" alt="b. Two types of wigwams covered with birch bark
+
+OJIBWAY HABITATIONS, ABOUT 1865" title="b. Two types of wigwams covered with birch bark
+
+OJIBWAY HABITATIONS, ABOUT 1865" />
+<span class="caption">b. Two types of wigwams covered with birch bark<br />
+
+OJIBWAY HABITATIONS, ABOUT 1865</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>While in the vicinity of Red River the year before (1857) Hind
+encountered several interesting Ojibway structures. At a point not
+far north of the Minnesota boundary his party crossed the Roseau
+a few miles east of Red River, and there "on the bank at the crossing
+place the skeletons of Indian wigwams and sweating-houses were
+grouped in a prominent position, just above a fishing weir where
+the Ojibways of this region take large quantities of fish in the spring.
+The framework of a large medicine wigwam measured twenty-five
+feet in length by fifteen in breadth; the sweating-houses were large
+enough to hold one man in a sitting position, and differed in no
+respect from those frequently seen on the canoe route between Lakes
+Superior and Winnipeg, and which have been often described by
+travelers." (Hind, (1), I, p. 163.) During the journey, when camping
+on an island in Bonnet Lake, the party encountered "an Indian
+cache elevated on a stage in the centre of the island. The stage was
+about seven feet above the ground, and nine feet long by four broad.
+It was covered with birch bark, and the treasures it held consisted
+of rabbit-skin robes, rolls of birch bark, a ragged blanket, leather
+leggings, and other articles of winter apparel, probably the greater
+part of the worldly wealth of an Indian family." (Op. cit., p. 120.)</p>
+
+<p>The canoe route between the lakes mentioned by Hind was often
+broken by dangerous rapids, around which it was necessary to carry
+the canoes, as Catlin described the Ojibway party doing at the Falls
+of St. Anthony.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>The ceremonial lodge of the Ojibway, where the M&#301;dé rites were
+enacted, was often 100 feet or more in length and about 12 feet in
+width. The frame was made of small saplings, bent and fastened
+by cords, similar to the frames of wigwams which were to be covered
+with mats or sheets of bark, but the coverings of the ceremonial
+lodges were usually of a more temporary nature, boughs and branches
+of the pine and spruce being sometimes used, which would soon
+fall away, although the rigid frame would stand from year to year,
+to be covered when required. Somewhat of this form was the
+"medicine lodge," described by Kane. This stood in the center of
+a large camp of the "Saulteaux" or Ojibway, not far from Fort
+Alexander, which was about 3 miles above Lake Winnipeg, on the
+bank of Winnipeg River. The camp was visited June 11, 1846, and
+in referring to the lodge: "It was rather an oblong structure, composed
+of poles bent in the form of an arch, and both ends forced into
+the ground, so as to form, when completed, a long arched chamber,
+protected from the weather by a covering of birch bark....
+On my first entrance into the medicine lodge ... I found four
+men, who appeared to be chiefs, sitting upon mats spread upon
+the ground gesticulating with great violence, and keeping time to
+the beating of a drum. Something, apparently of a sacred nature
+was covered up in the centre of the group, which I was not allowed
+to see.... The interior of their lodge or sanctuary was hung
+round with mats constructed with rushes, to which were attached
+various offerings consisting principally of bits of red and blue cloth,
+calico, &amp;c., strings of beads, scalps of enemies, and sundry other
+articles beyond my comprehension." (Kane, (1), pp. 68-71.)</p>
+
+<p>It is quite evident the frame of the large lodge encountered by
+Hind was similar to the structure described by Kane a few years
+before. Both stood in the northern part of the Ojibway country,
+a region where birch bark was extensively used as covering for the
+wigwams, and where it was easily obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The temporary, quickly raised shelters of the Ojibway were described
+by Tanner, who learned to make them from the people with
+whom he remained many years. Referring to a journey up the valley
+of the Assiniboin, he wrote: "In bad weather we used to make a
+little lodge, and cover it with three or four fresh buffaloe hides, and
+these being soon frozen, made a strong shelter from wind and snow.
+In calm weather, we commonly encamped with no other covering
+than our blankets." (Tanner, (1) p. 55.) On another occasion fire
+destroyed the wigwam and all the possessions of the family with
+whom he lived, and then, so he said: "We commenced to repair our
+loss, by building a small grass lodge, in which to shelter ourselves
+while we should prepare the pukkwi for a new wigwam. The women<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+were very industrious in making these.... At night, also, when it
+was too dark to hunt, Wa-me-gon-a-biew and myself assisted at this
+labour. In a few days our lodge was completed." (Op. cit., p. 85.)
+And again when near Rainy Lake, "I had no pukkwi, or mats, for
+a lodge and therefore had to build one of poles and long grass."
+(p. 214.) It is quite evident the shelters of poles and grass, as mentioned
+by Tanner, were similar to those erected by the Assiniboin as
+described on another page, and as indicated in the painting by Paul
+Kane, which is reproduced as plate <a href="#Plate_25">25</a>, <i>a</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Two very interesting old photographs, made more than half a
+century ago, are shown in plate <a href="#Plate_9">9</a>. One, <i>a</i>, represents clearly the
+elm-bark covering of the wigwams, and in this picture the arbor
+suggests a Siouan rather than an Ojibway encampment; <i>b</i> is more
+characteristic of the Ojibway.</p>
+
+<p>The structures encountered in the Ojibway country farther south
+differed from those already mentioned, the majority of which were
+covered with sheets of birch bark, a form which must necessarily have
+been restricted to the northern country. But the type was widely
+scattered northward, and undoubtedly extended eastward to the
+Atlantic, especially down the valley of the St. Lawrence into northern
+Maine and the neighboring Provinces. South of this zone were
+the dome-shaped mat or bark covered wigwams, varying in different
+localities according to the available supply of barks, or of rushes to
+be made into mats, which served to cover the rigid, oval-topped
+frame. Most interesting examples were standing in the Ojibway
+settlements on the shore of Mille Lac, Minnesota, during the spring
+of 1900. One, which may be accepted as a type specimen, was of a
+quadrilateral rather than oval outline of base, and measured about
+14 feet each way, with a maximum height of 6 feet or more. The
+saplings which formed the frame were seldom more than 2 inches in
+diameter, one end being set firmly in the ground, the top being bent
+over and attached to similar pieces coming from the opposite side.
+Other small saplings or branches were tied firmly to these in a horizontal
+position about 2 feet apart, thus forming a rigid frame, over
+which was spread the covering of mats and sheets of bark, the latter
+serving as the roof. In this particular example the covering was
+held in place by cords which passed over the top and were attached
+to poles which hung horizontally about a foot above the ground. A
+second row of mats was fastened to the inside of the frame and
+others were spread on the ground near the walls. A small fire
+burned within near the center of the open space, although the cooking
+was often done outside, just beyond the single entrance.</p>
+
+<p>Although the Ojibway were numerous, they had few large villages
+or settlements. They lived for the most part in small, scattered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+groups, and often moved from place to place. However, there
+were some long-occupied sites, as at Red Lake, Sandy Lake, on the
+shores of Leech Lake, where the Pillagers gathered, and the more
+recently occupied villages at Mille Lac, sites once covered by the
+settlements of the Mdewakanton. These villages, which should more
+properly be termed "gathering places," at once suggest the various
+descriptions and accounts of the great village of the Illinois, which
+stood on the banks of the upper Illinois during the latter part of
+the seventeenth century and was many times visited by the French.</p>
+
+<p>When the Ojibway and Sioux gathered at Fort Snelling, at the
+mouth of the Minnesota River, during the summer of 1835 in the
+endeavor to establish peace between the two tribes or groups, they
+were encamped on opposite sides of the fort. Catlin, who was there
+at the time, wrote of the temporary camp of the Ojibway: "their
+wigwams made of birch bark, covering the frame work, which was
+of slight poles stuck in the ground, and bent over at the top, so as
+to give a rooflike shape to the lodge, best calculated to ward off
+rain and winds." (Catlin, (1), II, p. 137.) Unfortunately, the
+original painting of the camp does not exist in the great collection of
+Catlin paintings now belonging to the National Museum, Washington.
+In the catalogue of the collection printed in London, 1848, it
+appears as "334, Chippeway Village and Dog Feast at the Falls of
+St. Anthony; lodges built with birch-bark; Upper Mississippi."</p>
+
+<p>An outline drawing of the picture was given as plate 238 to illustrate
+the account quoted above, but how accurate either description
+or sketch may be is now quite difficult to determine. However, it is
+doubtful if the structures had flat ends, as indicated, and mats may
+have formed part of the covering. Catlin continued his narrative
+and told of the removal of the camp (p. 138): "After the business
+and amusements of this great Treaty between the Chippeways and
+Sioux were all over, the Chippeways struck their tents by taking
+them down and rolling up their bark coverings, which, with their
+bark canoes seen in the picture, turned up amongst their wigwams,
+were carried to the water's edge; and all things being packed in,
+men, women, dogs, and all, were swiftly propelled by paddles to the
+Falls of St Anthony." They reached "an eddy below the Falls, and
+as near as they could get by paddling." Here the canoes were unloaded
+and the canoes and all else carried about one-half mile above
+the Falls, where they again embarked and continued on their way.
+It is interesting to contemplate this scene and to realize it was enacted
+within the limits of the present city of Minneapolis so short a
+time ago. A beautiful example of the light birch-bark canoe of the
+Ojibway is shown in plate <a href="#Plate_10">10</a>, <i>a</i>, and a photograph of two old Ojibway
+Indians with similar canoes is reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_10">10</a>, <i>b</i>. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+canoes indicated by Kane in his painting (pl. <a href="#Plate_7">7</a>, <i>a</i>) were of this form,
+probably the most graceful and easiest propelled craft ever devised.</p>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 10<a name="Plate_10"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p010a.png" width="300" height="214" alt="a. Ojibway birch bark canoe. Northern Minnesota, 1899" title="a. Ojibway birch bark canoe. Northern Minnesota, 1899" />
+<span class="caption">a. Ojibway birch bark canoe. Northern Minnesota, 1899</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p010b.png" width="300" height="189" alt="b. Ojibway Indians with birch bark canoes. North of Ely, Minn., 1899" title="b. Ojibway Indians with birch bark canoes. North of Ely, Minn., 1899" />
+<span class="caption">b. Ojibway Indians with birch bark canoes. North of Ely, Minn., 1899</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 11<a name="Plate_11"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p011a.png" width="300" height="212" alt="a. Trader&#39;s store at the village of the Pillagers, Cass Lake in the distance on the right.
+November 26, 1899" title="a. Trader&#39;s store at the village of the Pillagers, Cass Lake in the distance on the right.
+November 26, 1899" />
+<span class="caption">a. Trader&#39;s store at the village of the Pillagers, Cass Lake in the distance on the right.
+November 26, 1899</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p011b.png" width="300" height="228" alt="b. Outside an elm-bark structure. At the Ojibway village of Sagawamick, on south shore of
+Mille Lac, Minnesota. May 21, 1900" title="b. Outside an elm-bark structure. At the Ojibway village of Sagawamick, on south shore of
+Mille Lac, Minnesota. May 21, 1900" />
+<span class="caption">b. Outside an elm-bark structure. At the Ojibway village of Sagawamick, on south shore of
+Mille Lac, Minnesota. May 21, 1900</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 12<a name="Plate_12"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p012a.png" width="300" height="302" alt="a. Hammer, bag, and two skin-dressing tools" title="a. Hammer, bag, and two skin-dressing tools" />
+<span class="caption">a. Hammer, bag, and two skin-dressing tools</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p012b.png" width="300" height="222" alt="b. Section of a rush mat, as used to form covering for a wigwam
+
+OBJECTS OF OJIBWAY MAKE" title="b. Section of a rush mat, as used to form covering for a wigwam
+
+OBJECTS OF OJIBWAY MAKE" />
+<span class="caption">b. Section of a rush mat, as used to form covering for a wigwam<br />
+
+OBJECTS OF OJIBWAY MAKE</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 13<a name="Plate_13"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/p013a.png" width="250" height="109" alt="a. Ojibway mortar and pestle" title="a. Ojibway mortar and pestle" />
+<span class="caption">a. Ojibway mortar and pestle</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/p013b.png" width="200" height="329" alt="b. Delaware mortar and pestle" title="b. Delaware mortar and pestle" />
+<span class="caption">b. Delaware mortar and pestle</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p013c.png" width="300" height="117" alt="c. Ojibway birch bark dish" title="c. Ojibway birch bark dish" />
+<span class="caption">c. Ojibway birch bark dish</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The various structures in an Ojibway village do not appear to have
+been erected or placed with any degree of order. Certainly this is
+true of conditions in recent times, and whether any accepted or
+recognized plan was followed in the past is not known. The small
+wigwams formed an irregular group on the shore of a lake or the
+bank of a stream surrounded by the primeval forest.</p>
+
+<p>In the month of May, 1900, a council house which had been erected
+by the Ojibway some years before stood on a high point of land in
+the midst of dense woods, about 1 mile north of the outlet of Mille
+Lac&mdash;the beginning of Rum River&mdash;and about 200 yards from the
+lake shore. It was oriented with its sides facing the cardinal points,
+about 20 feet square, with walls 6 feet in height and the peak of the
+roof twice that distance above the ground. The heavy frame was
+covered with large sheets of elm bark, which had evidently been renewed
+from time to time during the preceding years. No traces of
+seats remained and grass was again growing on the ground which
+had served as the floor. This was the scene of the treaty of October
+5, 1889, between the Ojibway of Mille Lac and the United States
+Government. Within a short time this very interesting primitive
+structure had disappeared and two years later no trace of it remained.
+Whether this represented an ancient type of building could not be
+ascertained.</p>
+
+<p>The Ojibway villages were supplied with the usual sweat houses,
+a small frame covered with blankets or other material, so often described.
+Resembling these were the shelters prepared for the use of
+certain old men who were believed to possess the power of telling of
+future events and happenings. Such a lodge was seen standing on
+the shore of Lake Superior, about 18 miles from Fond du Lac, July
+27, 1826. As described by McKenney: "At this place, Burnt river
+is a place of divination, the seat of a <i>jongleur's</i> incantations. It is a
+circle, made of eight poles, twelve feet high, and crossing at the top,
+which being covered in with mats, or bark, he enters, and foretells
+future events." (McKenney, (1), p. 269.) Interesting, indeed, are
+the many accounts of the predictions believed to have been made by
+these old men.</p>
+
+<p>A remarkable performance of this nature was witnessed by Paul
+Kane. When returning from the far West during the summer of
+1848 the small party of which he was one arrived at Lake Winnipeg
+and on July 28 had advanced about midway down the eastern shore.
+On that day Kane made this entry in his journal:
+"<i>July 28th.</i>&mdash;About
+2 o'clock P.M., we endeavoured to proceed, but got only as
+far as the Dog's Head, the wind being so strong and unfavourable,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+that it was thought useless to run any risk for the short distance we
+would be able to make against it. In the evening our Indians constructed
+a jonglerie, or medicine lodge, the main object of which
+was to procure a fair wind for next day. For this purpose they
+first drive ten or twelve poles, nine or ten feet long, into the ground,
+enclosing a circular area of about three feet in diameter, with a boat
+sail open at the top. The medicine-man, one of which is generally
+found in every brigade, gets inside and commences shaking the poles
+violently, rattling his medicinal rattle, and singing hoarse incantations
+to the Great Spirit for a fair wind. Being unable to sleep on
+account of the discordant noises, I wrapped a blanket round me, and
+went out into the woods, where they were holding their midnight
+orgies, and lay down amongst those on the outside of the medicine
+lodge, to witness the proceedings. I had no sooner done so than the
+incantations at once ceased, and the performer exclaimed that a white
+man was present. How he ascertained this fact I am at a loss to
+surmise ... The Major, [M'Kenzie] ... with many other intelligent
+persons, is a firm believer in their medicine." (Kane, (1), pp.
+439-441.)</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the several forms of structures erected by the Ojibway,
+as already described, they reared the elm-bark lodge which resembled
+in form the log cabin of the early settlers. Three of these
+were standing on the south shore of Mille Lac, Minnesota, during the
+spring of 1900, and the outside of one, showing the manner in which
+the bark covering was placed, is indicated in plate <a href="#Plate_11">11</a>, <i>b</i>. This was
+similar in shape to the Sauk and Fox habitation reproduced in plate
+<a href="#Plate_19">19</a>, although the Ojibway structure was more skillfully constructed.
+Habitations of a like nature were found among the Sioux villages
+on the banks of the Mississippi in the vicinity of Fort Snelling, and
+others were erected within a generation by the Menomini in northern
+Wisconsin, but whether this may be considered a primitive form
+of structure has not been determined.</p>
+
+<p>A trader's store standing near the Ojibway village on the shore
+of Cass Lake, Minnesota, during the late autumn of 1899 is shown
+in plate <a href="#Plate_11">11</a>, <i>a</i>. Similar cabins were occupied by some of the Indian
+families, these having taken the place of the native wigwams.</p>
+
+<p>Various objects of primitive forms, made and used by the Ojibway
+within a generation, are shown in plates <a href="#Plate_12">12</a> and <a href="#Plate_13">13</a>.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">cree.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The Cree (the Knisteneaux of Mackenzie) were closely related to
+the Ojibway; they spoke the same language, and had many customs
+in common. As Hayden wrote: "The Cree nation was originally a
+portion of the Chippewa, as the similarity of language proves; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+even now they are so mingled with the latter people as with difficulty
+to be considered a distinct tribe, further than a slight difference
+in language and their local position." (Hayden, (1), p. 235.) Formerly
+they occupied the forest region to the eastward of the country
+which they later claimed. There they were probably accustomed to
+the mat or bark covered structures, similar to those of the neighboring
+Ojibway, but in more recent times, after having been attracted to
+the prairies by the buffalo, they followed the customs of the prairie
+tribes and for the most part made and used the typical conical skin-covered
+lodge.</p>
+
+<p>After reaching the open country, and becoming more accustomed
+to the life of roving hunters, they were necessarily less sedentary in
+their habits than formerly, and their camps probably seldom remained
+long in any one place. They became scattered over a wide
+region, and in 1856 it was said: "They number about ten or eleven
+hundred persons. Like most of the tribes in the Northwest Territory,
+they are separated into clans or bands, and live in different districts
+for greater advantages in hunting." Here is given a list of the
+several bands, with the number of skin lodges claimed by each group,
+but the "Pis-ka-kau-a-kis, or 'Magpies,' are about thirty lodges; are
+stationed at Tinder Mountain; live in dirt lodges and log-cabins;
+cultivate the soil to some extent, and raise considerable quantities of
+corn and potatoes; hunt buffalo during the winter, and trade also with
+the Hudson's Bay Company." (Hayden, (1), p. 237.) The same
+writer continues (p. 238): "Besides the foregoing there are about
+two hundred lodges more who are not formed into bands, but scattered
+along Lac de L'Isle Croix, and live by hunting reindeer, moose,
+fish, and wild fowl. They live in skin tents in the summer, but sometimes
+build log and bark huts in winter, and seldom more than one
+cabin is found in the same place. These are the poorest of the Crees."</p>
+
+<p>Thus it will be understood how scattered bands of the same tribe
+often reared and occupied several forms of habitations, influenced
+by their natural surroundings and requirements. And here are references
+to the use of the bark-covered lodge, the skin-covered lodge
+of probably a different shape, the structure covered with earth or sod,
+and, lastly, the log cabin, by widely dispersed bands of the Cree.</p>
+
+<p>A simple form of temporary shelter was constructed by the Cree
+and Ojibway to serve during certain ceremonies. This was described
+about a century ago when recounting the customs of the "Sauteaux
+and the Crees." It was told that in public feasts "Several chiefs
+unite in preparing a suitable place, and in collecting sufficient provisions,
+for the accommodation of a numerous assemblage. To provide
+a place, poles are fixed obliquely into the ground, enclosing a sufficient
+space to hold several hundred, and at times, nearly a thousand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+people. On these poles, skins are laid, at the height of twelve or
+fifteen feet, thus forming a spacious court, or tent. The provisions
+consist both of dried and of fresh meat, as it would not be practicable
+to prepare a sufficient quantity of fresh meat, for such a multitude,
+which, however, consists only of men. At these feasts, the guests
+converse only on elevated topics, such as the public interests of the
+tribe, and the noble exploits of their progenitors, that they may
+infuse a publick and an heroic spirit, into their young men. Dancing
+always forms the concluding ceremony, at these festivals; and the
+women, who are not permitted to enter the place where they are celebrated,
+dance and sing around them, often keeping time with the
+music within." (Harmon, (1), p. 362.) It is to be regretted that
+these early accounts are often so lacking in detail, and that so much
+is left to imagination. In this instance the form of the large structure
+was not mentioned, but it was probably extended, resembling to
+some degree the M&#301;dé lodge of the Ojibway. Among the latter the
+large ceremonial lodge was covered with mats, sheets of bark, or
+sometimes with skins or boughs of pine or spruce. Like customs may
+have prevailed among the Cree.</p>
+
+<p>Proving the wandering, roving disposition of the Cree, and the consequent
+lack of permanent villages, Maximilian wrote from Fort
+Union, at the mouth of the Yellowstone, during the latter part of
+June, 1833: "The Crees live in the same territory as the Assiniboins,
+that is, between the Saskatschawan, the Assiniboin, and the Missouri.
+They ramble about in small bands with the others, are poor,
+have many dogs, which carry their baggage, but only a few horses.
+They live, like the Assiniboins, in leather tents, follow the herds of
+buffaloes, of which they sometimes kill great numbers in their parks.
+The Crees are reckoned at 600 or 800 tents." (Maximilian, (1), pp.
+199-200.)</p>
+
+<p>The dog travois, such as was used by the Cree and mentioned in the
+preceding account, was of very ancient origin, having been seen and
+described by the first Spanish explorers to traverse the prairie lands
+of the Southwest. In <i>Relacion Postrera de Sivola</i>, prepared in the
+year 1541, appears this interesting note:</p>
+
+<p>"These people have dogs like those in this country, except that
+they are somewhat larger, and they load these dogs like beasts of
+burden, and make saddles for them like our pack saddles, and they
+fasten them with their leather thongs, and these make their backs
+sore on the withers like pack animals. When they go hunting, they
+load these with their necessities, and when they move&mdash;for these Indians
+are not settled in one place, since they travel wherever the cows
+[buffalo] move, to support themselves&mdash;these dogs carry their houses,
+and they have the sticks of their houses dragging along tied on to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+the pack-saddles, besides the load which they carry on top, and the
+load may be, according to the dog, from 35 to 50 pounds." (Winship,
+(1), pp. 510-571.) This description could easily refer to conditions
+and customs among the tribes three centuries and more later.</p>
+
+<p>A very graphic sketch of a dog travois was made at Fort Union,
+October 10, 1851, by the Swiss artist, Friedrich Kurz, and is now reproduced
+in plate <a href="#Plate_26">26</a>, <i>b</i>, showing the method of attaching the poles,
+and how the load was rolled and placed upon the latter. The use
+of the horse for a similar purpose in later years followed as a
+natural sequence.</p>
+
+<p>Among the many paintings by Paul Kane, now preserved in the
+Royal Ontario Museum of Archæology, at Toronto, is one bearing
+the legend: "Cree Indians Travelling." It represents a small party
+of Indians, some walking, others mounted on horses, with several
+horse and dog travois. The latter show long poles attached to the
+sides of the dogs, one end of the poles dragging on the ground, while
+about midway of their length is a small pack upon which a child
+is seated. The broken, rolling land of the north is represented with
+a few clumps of small trees. The picture is one of much beauty
+and interest, depicting as it does some of the primitive customs of
+the Cree.</p>
+
+<p>During the summer of 1858 the Hind expedition into the region
+far west of the Red River encountered many small groups of Cree
+hunters and also observed the ancient camp sites of the same tribe.
+They wrote in part: "Immediately on the banks of the Qu'appelle
+Valley near the 'Round Hill' opposite Moose Jaws Forks, are the
+remains of ancient encampments, where the Plain Crees, in the
+day of their power and pride, had erected large skin tents, and
+strengthened them with rings of stones placed round the base. These
+circular remains were twenty-five feet in diameter, the stones or
+boulders being about one foot in circumference. They wore the
+aspect of great antiquity, being partially covered with soil and grass.
+When this camp ground was occupied by the Crees, timber no doubt
+grew in the valley below, or on the prairie and ravines in detached
+groves, for their permanent camping grounds are always placed near
+a supply of fuel.</p>
+
+<p>"Making an early start in search of wood, we came suddenly upon
+four Cree tents, whose inmates were still fast asleep; about three
+hundred yards west of them we found ten more tents, with over
+fifty or sixty Indians in all. They were preparing to cross the
+valley in the direction of the Grand Coteau, following the buffalo.
+Their provisions for trade, such as dried meat and pemmican, were
+drawn by dogs, each bag of pemmican being supported upon two
+long poles, which are shaft, body, and wheels in one. Buffalo Pound<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+Hill Lake, sixteen miles long, begins near Moose Jaws Forks, and
+on the opposite or south side of this long sheet of water, we saw
+eighteen tents and a large number of horses. The women in those
+we visited on our side of the valley and lake, had collected a great
+quantity of the mesaskatomina berry which they were drying."
+And not far beyond we "began to find the fresh bones of buffalo
+very numerous on the ground, and here and there startled a pack of
+wolves feeding on a carcas which had been deprived of its tongue
+and hump only by the careless, thriftless Crees. On the high banks
+of the valley the remains of ancient encampments in the form of
+rings of stones to hold down the skin tents are everywhere visible,
+and testify to the former numbers of the Plain Crees.... The
+largest ancient encampment we saw lies near a shallow lake in the
+prairie about a mile from the Qu'appelle valley. It is surrounded
+by a few low sandy and gravelly hills, and is quite screened from
+observation. It may have been a camping ground for centuries, as
+some circles of stones are partially covered with grass and embedded
+in the soil." (Hind, (1), I, pp. 338-341.)</p>
+
+<p>This is a simple explanation of the origin of small circles of stones
+now encountered in different parts of the country, but in other
+localities, where stones were not obtainable, masses of sod were used
+for the same purpose, and these in turn may have caused the small
+earth circles which are now discovered in the lower Mississippi
+Valley and elsewhere.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">cheyenne.</span></h4>
+
+<p>As has been remarked by the most observant student of this tribe:
+"Information as to the region occupied by the Cheyenne in early
+days is limited and for the most part traditional. Some ethnologists
+declare that Indian tradition has no historical value, but other
+students of Indians decline to assent to this dictum. If it is to be
+accepted, we can know little of the Cheyenne until they are found
+as nomads following the buffalo over the plains. There is, however,
+a mass of traditionary data which points back to conditions at a
+much earlier date quite different from these. In primitive times
+they occupied permanent earth lodges and raised crops of corn,
+beans, and squashes, on which they largely depended for subsistence."
+(Grinnell, (1), p. 359.)</p>
+
+<p>According to tradition, which in part is verified by the accounts
+of early explorations, the Cheyenne at one time lived in the valley
+of the Minnesota, whence they gradually moved westward. Thus at
+least a part of the tribe removed from the edge of the timbered
+region to the plains, a movement which probably took place during
+the latter part of the eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>While living in the vicinity of the Minnesota the villages and
+camps of the Cheyenne undoubtedly resembled those of the Sioux
+of later days; the conical skin-covered lodge, or possibly the mat or
+bark structure of the timber people, as used by the Ojibway and
+others. But during the same period it is evident other bands of the
+tribe lived quite a distance westward, probably on the banks of the
+Missouri, and there the habitations were the permanent earth lodge,
+similar to those of the Pawnee, Mandan, and other Missouri Valley
+tribes. Sioux traditions refer to Cheyenne villages on the banks of
+the Missouri near Fort Yates, Sioux County, North Dakota. These
+were visited and described by Dr. Grinnell, during the spring of 1918,
+who wrote: "The Teton Sioux, now allotted and scattered over the
+Standing Rock Indian reservation, declare that on the west bank of
+the Missouri river, not far from Fort Yates, there were formerly two
+Cheyenne villages.... I visited the two sites. The most northerly
+one is situated on a bluff above the Missouri river on the south
+side of Porcupine creek, less than five miles north of Ft. Yates. The
+village has been partly destroyed by the Missouri river, which has
+undermined the bank and carried away some of the house rings reported
+to have been well preserved, but a number remain. Of these
+a few are still seen as the raised borders of considerable earth lodges,
+the rings about the central hollow being from twelve to fifteen inches
+above the surrounding soil, and the hollows noticeably deep. In
+most cases, however, the situation of the house is indicated merely by
+a slight hollow and especially by the peculiar character of the grass
+growing on the house site. The eye recognizes the different vegetation,
+and as soon as the foot is set on the soil within a house site, the
+difference is felt between that and the ground immediately without
+the site. The houses nearest both Porcupine creek and the Missouri
+river stand on the bank immediately above the water, and it is possible
+that some of those on the Porcupine have been undermined and
+carried away by that stream when in flood. This settlement must
+have been large. It stands on a flat, now bisected by a railroad embankment,
+slightly sloping toward the river, and the houses stood
+close together." More than 70 large house sites were counted, "one
+at least being 60 feet in diameter," and in addition to these were a
+large number of smaller ones. "On the gently rising land to the
+west of the Porcupine village the Cheyenne are said to have planted
+their corn, as also on the flats on the north side of the Porcupine
+river. The village site now stands on the farm of Yellow Lodge, a
+Yankton Sioux, who stated that he had always been told by the old
+people that this was a Cheyenne village and that in plowing he had
+often turned up pottery from the ground." And in reference to the
+age of this interesting site: "Sioux tradition declares that the village<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+on the Porcupine river was established about 1733 or a little earlier,
+perhaps 1730; they fix the date as about one hundred years before
+the stars fell, 1833. It was a large village and was occupied for fifty
+years or more and then the people abandoned it and moved over to a
+point on Grand river twenty miles above its mouth. The date of the
+removal is given as about the time of a great flood at this point, which,
+it is said, took place about 1784." (Grinnell, Op. cit.) This later
+village existed until about 1840 and appears to have been composed of
+skin lodges, not the permanent earth structures. Sioux tradition
+also places the earlier home of the people who erected the village on
+the Porcupine at some point in the Valley of the Minnesota.</p>
+
+<p>The second of the two sites mentioned stood some 2 miles below
+Porcupine Creek, and it is the belief of Dr. Grinnell that these were
+the villages to which Lewis and Clark referred in their journals as
+having been passed by the expedition on the 15th and 16th of October,
+1804. At that time game was abundant and several hunting
+parties of the Arikara were encountered, and an entry in the journal
+dated October 15, 1804, reads: "We stopped at three miles on the
+north a little above a camp of Ricaras who are hunting, where we
+were visited by about thirty Indians. They came over in their skin
+canoes, bringing us meat, for which we returned them beads and
+fishhooks. About a mile higher we found another encampment of
+Ricaras on the south, consisting of eight lodges: here we again ate
+and exchanged a few presents. As we went we discerned numbers
+of other Indians on both sides of the river; and at about nine miles
+we came to a creek on the south, where we saw many high hills resembling
+a house with a slanting roof; and a little below the creek
+an old village of the Sharha or Cheyenne Indians.... At sunset we
+halted, after coming ten miles over several sandbars and points,
+above a camp of ten Ricara lodges on the north side." (Lewis and
+Clark, (1), pp. 108-109.) Such was the nature of the country a
+little more than a century ago.</p>
+
+<p>Another ancient village site presenting many interesting features
+stands on the bank of an old bed of the Sheyenne River, near Lisbon,
+Ransom County, N. Dak. This would have been about midway
+between the Minnesota River and the village on the Missouri near
+Porcupine Creek. A plan of this village made a few years ago is
+now preserved in the Historical Society of North Dakota and was
+reproduced by Dr. Grinnell in the article cited. It shows a large
+number&mdash;70 or more&mdash;earth-lodge sites, varying in size, but closely
+grouped, and protected by a ditch except on the river side. There
+is a remarkable similarity between this site and others east of the
+Mississippi, where structures of a like form evidently stood in the
+centuries before the coming of Europeans. The ditch may have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+been accompanied by an embankment, in turn surmounted by palisades.
+The river served to protect the settlement on the north, the
+encircling embankment and ditch reaching the bank of the stream
+both above and below the occupied area.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately no sketch or picture of any sort of a Cheyenne
+earth lodge is known to exist, but the villages just mentioned must
+necessarily have resembled in appearance those of the Pawnee of a
+later generation, remarkable photographs of which have been preserved
+and which are shown in the present work. And as Dr. Grinnell
+has said in a recent communication (February 2, 1920) when
+referring to the places long ago occupied by the camps of the
+Cheyenne: "I have walked about on the sites of these old villages,
+and the grandmother of a woman of my acquaintance, and probably
+the father of that woman, lived in earth-lodge houses, presumably
+very similar to those occupied in my time by the Pawnees and the
+Mandans. I have never seen one, however, and do not know anyone
+who has seen one. Many years ago, I might have procured from old
+Elk River a description of such houses, though he was even then very
+old and growing feeble. It is too late to lament that now."</p>
+
+<p>The conical skin lodge of the Cheyenne resembled that of other
+plains tribes, and they must in earlier times, when buffalo were so
+numerous and easily secured, have been rather large and commodious
+structures. When Lewis and Clark descended the Missouri, on their
+return from the far west, they reached on August 21, 1806, an encampment
+of the Cheyenne on the bank of the Missouri, opposite the
+upper village of the Arikara, not far below the old Cheyenne village
+mentioned in the journal of the expedition on October 15, 1804. To
+quote from the entry made August 21, 1806: "... arrived opposite
+to the upper Ricara villages. We saluted them with the discharge
+of four guns, which they answered in the same manner; and
+on our landing we were met by the greater part of the inhabitants
+of each village, and also by a band of Chayennes, who were encamped
+on a hill in the neighbourhood...." After conversing with all
+concerning the Mandans, "The sun being now very hot, the chief of
+the Chayennes invited us to his lodge, which was at no great distance
+from the river. We followed him, and found a very large lodge,
+made of twenty buffaloe skins, surrounded by eighteen or twenty
+lodges, nearly equal in size. The rest of the nation are expected to-morrow,
+and will make the number of one hundred and thirty or
+fifty lodges, containing from three hundred and fifty to four hundred
+men, at which the men of the nation may be computed. These
+Chayennes are a fine looking people, of a large stature, straight
+limbs, high cheek-bones and noses, and of a complexion similar to
+that of the Ricaras." (Lewis and Clark, (1), II, pp. 413-414.)</p>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 14<a name="Plate_14"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/p014.png" width="500" height="317" alt="CHEYENNE. STUMP HORSE AND FAMILY" title="CHEYENNE. STUMP HORSE AND FAMILY" />
+<span class="caption">CHEYENNE. STUMP HORSE AND FAMILY</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 15<a name="Plate_15"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/p015.png" width="500" height="272" alt="&quot;ENCAMPMENT OF THE PIEKANN INDIANS&quot;
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833" title="&quot;ENCAMPMENT OF THE PIEKANN INDIANS&quot;
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833" />
+<span class="caption">&quot;ENCAMPMENT OF THE PIEKANN INDIANS&quot;<br />
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The photograph reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_14">14</a> shows a Cheyenne family
+group, an interesting example of a travois, and part of a lodge.
+The latter differs from all described on the preceding pages and
+evidently resembles those erected by the Pawnee in their temporary
+camps. This form may have been used in later times in the place
+of the conical skin lodge, although the latter was not abandoned, but,
+as among other tribes, the Cheyenne appear to have erected several
+types of shelters or habitations, governed by the available supply of
+materials necessary for their construction.</p>
+
+<p>Large lodges, evidently tipis, set up for special purposes by the
+Cheyenne, are mentioned by Grinnell. In the spring of 1853 the
+main village of that tribe, so he wrote, stood "at the mouth of
+Beaver Creek on the South Platte. There a large lodge was set up
+as a meeting-place for each of the soldier bands. To each such place
+came the relations of those killed the year before to implore the soldier
+bands to take pity on them and to help to revenge their injuries."
+And at this time many presents were given the warriors. (Grinnell,
+(2), p. 80.)</p>
+
+<p>This was before many of the primitive customs of the tribe had
+been changed through contact with the whites.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">blackfoot confederacy.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The tribes forming this group are the Siksika, or Blackfeet proper,
+the Piegan, and the Kainah, or Bloods. Closely allied and associated
+with these were the Atsina, a branch of the Arapaho, but who
+later became incorporated with the Assiniboin. These tribes roamed
+over a wide territory of mountains, plains, and valleys.</p>
+
+<p>Early accounts of the manners and ways of life of the Blackfeet
+are to be found in the journals kept by traders belonging to the
+Hudson's Bay Company, who penetrated the vast, unknown wilderness
+southwestward from York Factory during the eighteenth century.
+Although the records are all too brief and leave much to be
+desired, nevertheless they are of the greatest interest, referring as
+they do to the people while yet in a primitive state, with no knowledge
+of the customs of Europeans.</p>
+
+<p>The first of the journals to be mentioned is that of Anthony
+Hendry, who left York Factory June 26, 1754. He ascended Hayes
+River many miles, thence, after crossing numerous lakes and streams
+and traversing forests and plains, arrived on Monday, October 14,
+1754, at a point not far northeastward from the present city of
+Calgary, Alberta. This was in the country of the Blackfeet, mentioned
+in the journal as the Archithinue Natives. That same day,
+so the narrative continues: "Came to 200 tents of Archithinue Natives,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+pitched in two rows, and an opening in the middle; where we
+were conducted to the Leader's tent; which was at one end, large
+enough to contain fifty persons; where he received us seated on a
+clear [white] Buffalo skin, attended by 20 elderly men. He made
+signs for me to sit down on his right hand: which I did. Our Leader
+set on several grand-pipes, and smoked all round, according to their
+usual custom: not a word was yet spoke on either side. Smoking
+being over, Buffalo flesh boiled was served round in baskets of a
+species of bent, and I was presented with 10 Buffalo tongues." The
+following day he again visited the lodge of the chief, where he received
+as a gift "a handsome Bow &amp; Arrows," and the journal continues:
+"I departed and took a view of the camp. Their tents were
+pitched close to one another in two regular lines, which formed a
+broad street open at both ends. Their horses are turned out to
+grass, their legs being fettered: and when wanted, are fastened to
+lines cut of Buffalo skin, that stretches along &amp; is fastened to stakes
+drove in the ground. They have hair halters, Buffalo skin pads, &amp;
+stirrups of the same."</p>
+
+<p>Although Hendry mentioned the encampment to consist of 200
+lodges it is quite evident others were in the vicinity, or came soon
+after his arrival, for three days later, on October 17, he noted in his
+journal "322 tents of Archithinue Natives unpitched and moved
+Westward." (Hendry, (1), pp. 337-340.) They did not have permanent
+villages, and "never wanted food, as they followed the
+Buffalo &amp; killed them with the Bows and Arrows. They were unacquainted
+with the canoe, would not eat fish, and their garments
+were finely painted with red paint." Such were the Blackfeet about
+the middle of the eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>On June 27, 1772, Matthew Cocking, second factor at York Factory,
+started on a journey quite similar to that performed by Hendry
+just eighteen years earlier. He ascended Hayes River, passed north
+of Lake Winnipeg, and continued in a southwestwardly direction to
+some point not far north of the South Saskatchewan River in the
+extreme western part of the present Province of Saskatchewan.
+When near this position on December 1, 1772, they encamped not far
+from a "Beast pound," which had probably stood from year to year.
+That day, so he entered in his journal, "our Archithinue friends
+came to us and pitched a small distance from us; on one side the
+pound 21 tents of them, the other seven are pitched another way."
+And the following day, "the Archithinue Natives repairing the
+pound, the repair we gave it on our arrival not being sufficient."
+Two days later "the Archithinue Natives drove into the pound 3
+male &amp; one female Buffalo, &amp; brought several considerable droves
+very near. They set off in the Evening; &amp; drive the Cattle all night.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+Indeed not only at this Game, but in all their actions they far excell
+the other Natives. They are all well mounted.... Their Weapons,
+Bows &amp; Arrows. Several have on Jackets of Moose leather six fold,
+quilted, &amp; without sleeves." Cocking evidently visited many of the
+tents, and on December 5 wrote: "Our Archithinue Friends are
+very Hospitable, continually inviting us to partake of their best
+fare; generally berries infused in water with fat, very agreeable
+eating. Their manner of showing respect to strangers is, in holding
+the pipe while they smoke: this is done three times. Afterwards
+every person smokes in common; the Women excepted.... The
+tobacco they use is of their own planting.... These people are much
+more cleanly in their cloathing, &amp; food, than my companions: Their
+Victuals are dressed in earthen pots, of their own Manufacturing;
+much in the same form as Newcastle pots, but without feet: their
+fire tackling a black stone used as flint, &amp; a kind of Ore as a steel,
+using tuss balls as tinder, (i. e.) a kind of moss." December 6, 1772:
+"No success in pounding: the Strangers say the season is past." On
+December 21 "we were joined by ten tents of Asinepoet Indians,"
+and the following day "by five tents of Nehetheway Indians." The
+former were Assiniboin and the latter Cree. (Cocking, (1), pp.
+110-112.)</p>
+
+<p>One of the reasons which inspired Cocking to undertake the long
+journey into the wilderness was the desire to win the Blackfeet away
+from the French interests, and to persuade them to carry their furs
+to the posts of the Hudson's Bay Company. Soon the English were
+successful in their endeavors, and for several generations secured
+the furs and robes collected by the people of the ever-shifting camps,
+who followed the buffalo as the vast herds moved from place to
+place with the changing seasons of the year. Later, traders from
+another people penetrated the country to the upper waters of the
+Missouri, and certain of the Blackfeet began trading at the posts
+erected by these newcomers. The various tribes wandered over a
+wide region, and 60 years ago it was said:</p>
+
+<p>"The Blood Indians range through the district along Maria,
+Teton, and Belly Rivers, inclining west and northwest far into the
+interior. In this section, wood is more abundant, pasturage excellent,
+and, consequently, buffalo almost always abound there. The
+Blackfeet inhabit a portion of country farther north than the Bloods,
+extending to the banks of the Saskatchewan, along which they often
+reside. They have never altogether abandoned their English friends,
+and more frequently dispose of their furs to them than to the American
+traders on the head branches of the Missouri. The Piegans
+roam through the Rocky Mountains on the south side of Maria River,
+on both banks of the Missouri.... They also hunt as far down the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+Missouri as the Mussel-shell River, and up that stream to the borders
+of the Crow country. The three divisions ... constitute the Blackfoot
+nation proper, whose name has become notorious for their fierce
+and deadly struggles with all the neighboring tribes, and in former
+times struck terror to all white men who travelled in any district
+from the Saskatchewan to the Yellowstone, and from the Yellowstone
+to the Columbia.... These bands all live in skin tents, like
+the rest of the prairie tribes, follow the chase for a subsistence, and
+in former years were famous for their war excursions against neighboring
+tribes." (Hayden, (1), pp. 249-250.)</p>
+
+<p>The region mentioned would have included the central portion of
+the present State of Montana and northward. Marias River flows
+into the Missouri just below Fort Benton.</p>
+
+<p>Maximilian, who visited the Blackfeet during the summer of 1833,
+has left a very concise and interesting account of the appearance of
+their camps:</p>
+
+<p>"The leather tents of the Blackfeet, their internal arrangement,
+and the manner of loading their dogs and horses, agree, in every
+respect, with those of the Sioux and Assiniboins, and all the wandering
+tribes of hunters of the upper Missouri. The tents, made of
+tanned buffalo skin, last only for one year; they are, at first, neat and
+white, afterwards brownish, and at the top, where the smoke issues,
+black, and, at last, transparent, like parchment, and very light inside.
+Painted tents, adorned with figures, are very seldom seen, and only a
+few chiefs possess them. When these tents are taken down, they leave
+a circle of sods, exactly as in the dwellings of the Esquimaux. They
+are often surrounded by fifteen or twenty dogs, which serve, not for
+food, but only for drawing and carrying their baggage. Some Blackfeet,
+who have visited the Sioux, have imitated them in eating dogs,
+but this is rare. Near the tents they keep their dog sledges, with
+which they form conical piles resembling the tents themselves, but
+differing from them in not being covered with leather. On these they
+hang their shields, travelling bags, saddles and bridles; and at some
+height, out of the reach of the hungry dogs, they hang the meat, which
+is cut into long strips, their skins, &amp;c. The medicine bag or bundle,
+the conjuring apparatus, is often hung and fastened to a separate
+pole, or over the door of the tent. Their household goods consist
+of buffalo robes and blankets, many kinds of painted parchment bags,
+some of them in a semicircular form, with leather strings and fringes;
+wooden dishes, large spoons made of the horn of the mountain sheep,
+which are very wide and deep.... In the center of the tent there
+is a small fire in a circle composed of stones, over which the kettle
+for cooking is suspended." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 250-251.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>A painting of a Piegan camp was made at that time by Bodmer,
+who accompanied Maximilian, and served as an illustration in the
+latter's work. It is here reproduced as plate <a href="#Plate_15">15</a>. It shows clearly
+the many skin lodges forming the encampment, the numerous dogs
+and horses, with some of the Indians wrapped in highly decorated
+buffalo robes. Some of the lodges are decorated, but the great
+majority are plain, thus conforming with the description.</p>
+
+<p>Maximilian again wrote while at Fort McKenzie, in August, 1833:</p>
+
+<p>"Having made our arrangements on the first day of our arrival,
+and viewed the Indian camp, with its many dogs, and old dirty
+leather tents, we were invited, on the following day, together with
+Mr Mitchell, to a feast, given by the Blackfoot chief, Mehkskehme-Sukahs
+(the iron shirt). We proceeded to a large circle in the
+middle of the camp, enclosed with a kind of fence of boughs of
+trees, which contained part of the tents, and was designed to confine
+the horses during the night, for the Indians are so addicted to horse
+stealing that they do not trust each other. The hut of the chief
+was spacious; we had never before seen so handsome a one; it was
+full fifteen paces in diameter, and was very clean and tastefully
+decorated. We took our seats, without ceremony, on buffalo skins,
+spread out on the left hand of the chief, round the fire, in the
+centre of the tent, which was enclosed in a circle of stones, and
+a dead silence prevailed. Our host was a tall, robust man, who at
+this time had no other clothes than his breechcloth; neither women
+nor children were visible. A tin dish was set before us, which contained
+dry grated meat, mixed with sweet berries, which we ate
+with our fingers, and found very palatable. After we had finished,
+the chief ate what was left in the dish, and took out of a bag a
+chief's scarlet uniform, with blue facings and yellow lace, which he
+had received from the English, six red and black plumes of feathers,
+a dagger with its sheath, a coloured pocket-handkerchief, and two
+beaver skins, all of which he laid before Mr Mitchell as a present,
+who was obliged to accept these things whether he liked or not,
+thereby laying himself under the obligation of making presents in
+return, and especially a new uniform. When the chief began to
+fill his pipe, made of green talc, we rose and retired (quite in Indian
+fashion) in silence, and without making any salutations." (Op. cit.,
+pp. 261-262.)</p>
+
+<p>As Maximilian had already visited and seen many skin lodges
+as he ascended the Missouri, his remarks concerning this one which
+belonged to the Blackfeet chief are most interesting. It was between
+40 and 50 feet in diameter, very clean and well decorated,
+probably a remarkable example.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>The circles of earth which indicated the former positions of lodges
+were noticed by Maximilian, and he again mentioned them while at
+Fort Union, at the mouth of the Yellowstone, October 16, 1833. He
+said (p. 305): "The little prairie fox was so hungry, and, therefore
+so tame, that it often visited the environs of the fort, and we found
+these pretty little animals among the circles of turf which were left
+on the removal of the Indian tents."</p>
+
+<p>Another visit to the Piegan, in the same region, was made just
+20 years later, during the month of September, 1853. J. M. Stanley,
+who accompanied Gov. Stevens as the artist of the expedition, left
+camp on the banks of Marias River and three days later, September
+14, 1853, reached the divide between Milk and Bow Rivers: "From
+this divide I had a view of the Bull's Head, forming the base of
+Cypress mountain.... At 1 o'clock I descended to a deep valley, in
+which flows an affluent of Beaver river. Here was the Piegan camp,
+of ninety lodges, under their chief Low Horn, one hundred and
+sixty-three miles north, 20° west, of Fort Benton.</p>
+
+<p>"Little Dog conducted me, with my party, to his lodge, and immediately
+the chief and braves collected in the 'council Lodge,' to
+receive my message...." This was conducted with customary formality,
+and the next day, September 15, "At an early hour a town
+crier announced the intention of the chief to move camp. The
+horses were immediately brought in and secured around their respective
+lodges, and in less than one hour the whole encampment
+was drawn out in two parallel lines on the plains, forming one of
+the most picturesque scenes I have ever witnessed.</p>
+
+<p>"Preparation for their transportation is made in the following
+manner: The poles of the lodges, which are from twenty to thirty-five
+feet in length, are divided, the small ends being lashed together
+and secured to the shoulders of the horse, allowing the butt-ends to
+drag upon the ground on either side; just behind the horse are secured
+to cross-pieces, to keep the poles in their respective places, and
+upon which are placed the lodge and domestic furniture. This also
+serves for the safe transportation of the children and infirm unable
+to ride on horseback&mdash;the lodge being folded so as to allow two or
+more to ride securely. The horses dragging this burden&mdash;often of
+three hundred pounds are also ridden by the squaws, with a child
+astride behind, and one in her arms, embracing a favorite young
+pup.</p>
+
+<p>"Their dogs (of which they have a large number) are also used in
+transporting their effects in the same manner as the horses, making,
+with ease, twenty miles a day, dragging forty pounds. In this way
+this heterogeneous caravan, comprising of a thousand souls, fell into
+line and trotted quietly until night, while the chiefs and braves rode<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+in front, flank, or rear, ever ready for the chase or defence against a
+foe.... Like other tribes in this region, the Piegans retain all their
+primitive customs, adhering with faithful pertinacity to the ceremonies
+of their forefathers." (Stanley, (1), pp. 448-449.) At that
+time the Piegan were estimated to have had 430 lodges, the average
+number of persons occupying each being 10.</p>
+
+<p>During this brief but interesting journey Stanley made many
+sketches of the Indians with whom he came in contact, but not one of
+the drawings is known to exist at the present time. His beautiful
+painting of a buffalo hunt, shown in plate <a href="#Plate_2">2</a>, is one of his five pictures
+now in the National Museum at Washington.</p>
+
+<p>The Blackfeet allies often moved in great numbers from place to
+place when searching for the herds of buffalo or tracking some enemy
+tribe. Such a war party was encountered on the banks of the River
+Saskatchewan, two days' journey below Fort Pitt, about the present
+town of Battleford, Saskatchewan, on June 1, 1848. Among the
+party then going from Fort Pitt to Norway House, the Hudson's Bay
+Company's post on the northeast shore of Lake Winnipeg, was the
+Canadian artist Kane, who entered in his journal: "We saw a large
+party of mounted Indians, riding furiously towards us. On their
+nearer approach they proved to be a large war party, consisting of
+Blackfoot Indians, Blood Indians, Sur-cees, Gros Ventres, and Paygans....
+We instantly put ashore to meet them.... They told
+us they were a party of 1,500 warriors, from 1,200 lodges, who were
+then 'pitching on' towards Fort Edmonton; that is, they were making
+short journeys, and pitching their tents on towards Edmonton,
+leaving few behind capable of bearing arms. They were in pursuit
+of the Crees and Assiniboines, whom they threatened totally to annihilate,
+boasting that they themselves were as numerous as the grass
+on the plains. They were the best mounted, the best looking, the
+most warlike in appearance, and the best accoutred of any tribe I
+had ever seen on the continent during my route.... After our
+smoke several of the young Braves engaged in a horse race, to which
+sport they are very partial, and at which they bet heavily; they generally
+ride on those occasions stark naked, without a saddle, and with
+only a lasso fastened to the lower jaw of the horse as represented in
+Sketch No. 16." (Kane, (1), pp. 417-420.) The "sketch No. 16" is
+here reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_16">16</a>, <i>a</i>. It shows, in addition to the horses,
+several conical skin-covered lodges, the one on the right being highly
+decorated.</p>
+
+<p>The valley of the Saskatchewan and southward to the waters of
+the Missouri was a region frequented by many tribes, rich in game,
+and one from which the Hudson's Bay Company derived quantities
+of furs. The Blackfeet, who, as already mentioned, occupied in recent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+years the country about the headwaters of the Missouri, formerly
+lived farther north, and about the close of the eighteenth century were
+encountered near the Saskatchewan, neighbors of the Assiniboin and
+Cree. About the year 1790 Mackenzie traversed the country, and
+wrote, regarding the number and distribution of the tribes then claiming
+that northern region: "At Nepawi, and South-Branch House,
+about thirty tents of Knisteneaux, or ninety warriors; and sixty tents
+of Stone-Indians, or Assiniboins, who are their neighbors, and are
+equal to two hundred men; their hunting ground extends upwards
+to about Eagle Hills. Next to them are those who trade at Forts
+George and Augustus, and are about eighty tents or upwards of
+Knisteneaux: on either side of the river, their number may be two
+hundred. In the same country are one hundred and forty tents of
+Stone-Indians; not quite half of them inhabit the West woody country;
+the others never leave the plains, and their numbers cannot be
+less than four hundred and fifty men. At the Southern headwaters
+of the North branch dwells a tribe called Sarsees, consisting of about
+thirty-five tents, or one hundred and twenty men. Opposite to those
+Eastward, on the head-waters of the South Branch, are the Picaneaux,
+to the number of from twelve to fifteen hundred men. Next to them,
+on the same water, are the Blood-Indians, of the same nation as the
+last, to the number of about fifty tents, or two hundred and fifty men.
+From them downwards extend the Black-Feet Indians, of the same
+nation as the two last tribes; their number may be eight hundred
+men. Next to them, and who extend to the confluence of the South
+and North branch, are the Fall, or Big-bellied Indians, who may
+amount to about six hundred warriors." (Mackenzie, (1), p. lxx.)
+"South-Branch House" of this narrative stood between the north
+and south branches of the Saskatchewan, near the present town of
+Dalmeny, in the Province of Saskatchewan. The Picaneaux, who
+probably possessed from 200 to 300 skin-covered lodges, were the
+Piegan, the Piekann Indians of Maximilian, whose village as it
+appeared in 1833 was painted by Bodmer. Likewise the Fall or Big-bellied
+Indians, whose habitat about the year 1790 was near the junction
+of the two branches of the Saskatchewan, were the Atsina, the
+Gros Ventres of the Prairie, and their village or camp in 1790 was
+probably quite similar to the one visited by Maximilian 43 years
+later, when it was sketched by Bodmer.</p>
+
+<p>By reason of the roving disposition of the northern tribes, those
+mentioned in the preceding quotations and their neighbors, it was
+not possible for them to erect and maintain permanent villages. The
+skin-covered lodge served as a shelter easily and quickly raised and
+readily transported from place to place as requirements and desires
+made necessary. But many bark-covered structures were probably
+to have been found scattered throughout the wooded sections.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>Something of the manners and ways of life of these people may be
+gathered from another passage in Mackenzie's narrative: "In the fall
+of the year the natives meet the traders at the forts, where they barter
+the furs or provisions which they may have procured; then they obtain
+credit, and proceed to hunt the beavers, and do not return till the
+beginning of the year; when they are again fitted out in the same
+manner and come back the latter end of March, or the beginning of
+April. They are now unwilling to repair to the beaver hunt until the
+waters are clear of ice, that they may kill them with fire-arms, which
+the Chepewyans are averse to employ. The major part of the latter
+return to the barren grounds, and live during the summer with their
+relations and friends in the enjoyment of that plenty which is derived
+from numerous herds of deer. But those of that tribe who are
+most partial to these desarts, cannot remain there in winter, and they
+are obliged, with the deer, to take shelter in the woods during that
+rigorous season, when they contrive to kill a few beavers, and send
+them by young men, to exchange for iron utensils and ammunition."
+(Mackenzie, (1), pp. xc-xci.)</p>
+
+<p>The large ceremonial lodges erected by the Blackfeet were among
+the most interesting structures reared by the tribes of the Northwest.
+A remarkable example was encountered by the Fisk party September
+1, 1862, near the banks of Milk River, a short distance from Fort
+Benton. As described in the journal: "We passed this afternoon
+an abandoned camp of some three thousand or four thousand Blackfeet
+Indians. A large 'medicine lodge,' in which they had celebrated
+their superstitious rites, was left standing, although its covering
+had been mostly stripped from its frame-work. It was circular,
+and about one hundred feet in diameter and forty feet high
+in the centre, the roof poles running from the top down to and
+around a tree, which was erected for a centre pole. This, in time of
+occupancy, is covered with dressed buffalo skins, and constitutes the
+Indian's highest achievement in the architectural line." (Fisk, (1),
+p. 24.) The entire ceremony attending the selection of a site for
+the structure, the cutting of the poles, the erection of the associated
+sweat lodges, and the final raising of the medicine lodge, has been
+recorded by Grinnell, (3), pages 263-267, and is one of the most complete
+accounts of a native ceremony ever prepared.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">arapaho.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The ancient habitat of the Arapaho, according to tradition, was
+once far northeast of the country which they later occupied. It
+may have been among the forests of the region about the headwaters
+of the Mississippi, the present State of Minnesota, where their
+villages would have stood on the shores of lakes and streams. But<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+later, like the related Cheyenne, with whom they have been closely
+allied during recent generations and probably for a long period, they
+reached the prairies, through what causes may never be known,
+and there, with different environments, their manners and ways of
+life changed. While a people of the timbered country, they undoubtedly
+reared and occupied the forms of habitations so characteristic
+of the forests, as exemplified by the wigwams of the Ojibway
+and other tribes in recent times, but after reaching the prairie country,
+where buffalo were obtained in such vast numbers, their villages
+or camps assumed the appearance of those of the Siouan tribes,
+conical skin lodges taking the place of the mat or bark covered
+structures.</p>
+
+<p>The Atsina, a detached division of the Arapaho, closely associated
+with the Blackfeet, were often mentioned by the early writers as
+the Gros Ventres of the Prairie, and in certain English narratives
+as the Fall or Rapid Indians. In other journals they were mentioned
+under the name Minnetarees of Fort de Prairie. Thus they
+were called by the early American explorers.</p>
+
+<p>On May 29, 1805, just two weeks before arriving at the Great
+Falls of the Missouri, the Lewis and Clark party reached Judith
+River, and a short distance above its junction with the Missouri "We
+saw the fires of one hundred and twenty-six lodges, which appeared
+to have been deserted about twelve or fifteen days, and on the other
+side of the Missouri a large encampment, apparently made by the
+same nation. On examining some moccasins which we found there,
+our Indian woman said that they did not belong to her own nation
+the Snake Indians, but she thought that they indicated a tribe on this
+side of the Rocky mountains, and to the north of the Missouri;
+indeed it is probable that these are the Minnetarees of fort de
+Prairie." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, p. 234.) The following year,
+when the expedition was returning from the west, the tribe was again
+mentioned. On July 15, 1806, the expedition passed Shields River,
+and two days later reached Brattons River (now Bridger Creek), a
+tributary of the Yellowstone in the present Sweetgrass County,
+Montana. Here, "In one of the low bottoms of the river was an
+Indian fort, which seems to have been built during the last summer.
+It was built in the form of a circle, about fifty feet in diameter,
+five feet high, and formed of logs, lapping over each other, and covered
+on the outside with bark set up on end, the entrance also
+was guarded by a work on each side of it, facing the river. These
+intrenchments, the squaw informs us, are frequently made by the
+Minnetarees and other Indians at war with the Shoshonees, when
+pursued by their enemies on horseback." Another similar work was
+encountered the next day. (Lewis and Clark, (1), II, pp. 379-380.)</p>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 16<a name="Plate_16"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p016a.png" width="300" height="213" alt="a. Blackfoot camp. Paul Kane, 1848" title="a. Blackfoot camp. Paul Kane, 1848" />
+<span class="caption">a. Blackfoot camp. Paul Kane, 1848</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p016b.png" width="300" height="223" alt="b. Arapaho village, Whitewood Canyon, Wyoming, about 1870" title="b. Arapaho village, Whitewood Canyon, Wyoming, about 1870" />
+<span class="caption">b. Arapaho village, Whitewood Canyon, Wyoming, about 1870</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 17<a name="Plate_17"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/p017.png" width="500" height="284" alt="&quot;CAMP OF THE GROS VENTRES OF THE PRAIRIES&quot; ON THE UPPER MISSOURI
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833" title="&quot;CAMP OF THE GROS VENTRES OF THE PRAIRIES&quot; ON THE UPPER MISSOURI
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833" />
+<span class="caption">&quot;CAMP OF THE GROS VENTRES OF THE PRAIRIES&quot; ON THE UPPER MISSOURI
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The preceding references to fortified camps are of great interest,
+but similar works were mentioned by other explorers of the upper
+Missouri Valley. During the summer of 1833 several were encountered
+by Maximilian, and on July 18 of that year he wrote: "On
+this day at noon, we reached, on the south bank, an Indian fort ...
+it is a kind of breastwork, which Indian war-parties construct in
+haste of dry trunks of trees.... This fort consisted of a fence,
+and several angles, enclosing a rather small space, with the open
+side towards the river. In the center of the space there was a
+conical hut, composed of wood. Near this fort, on the same bank of
+the river, there was a beaver's den made of a heap of brushwood."
+(Maximilian, (1), p. 216.) Six days before, on July 12, they had
+encountered several huts probably similar to that which stood within
+the "fort." In the narrative it is said: "Just at the place where our
+vessel lay, were four old Indian huts, of some war or hunting party,
+composed of trunks and boughs of trees piled together in a square,
+in which some of our party made a fire to cook their meat. Scarcely
+100 paces above these huts, was the Indian Fort Creek of Lewis and
+Clark." (Op. cit., p. 212.)</p>
+
+<p>Elsewhere in this sketch other native "forts" will be mentioned.
+The erection of such works appears to have been quite common
+among the widely scattered tribes.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately, a very interesting picture of a skin lodge village or
+camp of the Atsina has been preserved, a painting made by Bodmer
+during the summer of 1833, when it was visited by Maximilian. It
+stood on the bank of the Yellowstone, at the mouth of the Big Horn,
+near the dividing line between Rosebud and Yellowstone Counties,
+Montana. Describing the settlement as it appeared on the evening
+of August 3, 1833. Maximilian wrote: "On the left was the mouth
+of Bighorn River, between considerable hills, on which numbers of
+Indians had collected. In the front of the eminence the prairie declined
+gently towards the river, where above 260 leather tents of the
+Indians were set up; the tent of the principal chief was in the foreground,
+and, near it, a high pole, with the American flag. The
+whole prairie was covered with Indians, in various groups, and with
+numerous dogs; horses of every colour were grazing round, and
+horsemen galloping backwards and forwards, among whom was a
+celebrated chief, who made a good figure on his light bay horse."
+These were the Gros Ventres, "called by the English, Fall Indians."
+(Maximilian, (1), pp. 231-232.) Bodmer's painting, or more correctly,
+an engraving made from the painting, is reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_17">17</a>.</p>
+
+<p>On July 8, 1842, Fremont, while on his journey to the Rocky Mountains,
+reached a village of the Arapaho and Cheyenne. But before
+arriving at the village the party came in contact with a large number<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+of Indians belonging to the two tribes, who were chasing a herd of
+buffalo. Of the exciting scene presented by these many mounted
+Indians and the rushing buffalo, he left a vivid account: "We were
+too far to hear the report of the guns, or any sound; and at every
+instant, through the clouds of dust, which the sun made luminous,
+we could see for a moment two or three buffalo dashing along, and
+close behind them an Indian with his long spear, or other weapon,
+and instantly again they disappeared. The apparent silence, and
+the dimly seen figures flitting by with such rapidity, gave it a kind
+of dreamy effect, and seemed more like a picture than a scene of real
+life. It had been a large herd when the <i>cerne</i> commenced, probably
+three or four hundred in number; but, though I watched them
+closely, I did not see one emerge from the fatal cloud where the work
+of destruction was going on. After remaining here about an hour,
+we resumed our journey in the direction of the village.</p>
+
+<p>"Gradually, as we rode on, Indian after Indian came dropping
+along, laden with meat; and by the time we had neared the lodges,
+the backward road was covered with the returning horsemen. It
+was a pleasant contrast with the desert road we had been traveling.
+Several had joined company with us, and one of the chiefs invited
+us to his lodge. The village consisted of about one hundred and
+twenty-five lodges, of which twenty were Cheyennes; the latter
+pitched a little apart from the Arapahoes. They were disposed in a
+scattering manner on both sides of a broad, irregular street, about
+one hundred and fifty feet wide, and running along the river. As
+we rode along, I remarked near some of the lodges a kind of tripod
+frame, formed of three slender poles of birch, scraped very clean,
+to which were affixed the shield and spear, with some other weapons
+of a chief. All were scrupulously clean, the spear-head was burnished
+bright, and the shield white and stainless. It reminded me of
+the days of feudal chivalry; and when, as I rode by, I yielded to the
+passing impulse, and touched one of the spotless shields with the
+muzzle of my gun, I almost expected a grim warrior to start from the
+lodge and resent my challenge. The master of the lodge spread out
+a robe for me to sit upon, and the squaws set before us a large
+wooden dish of buffalo meat. He had lit his pipe in the mean while,
+and when it had been passed around, we commenced our dinner while
+he continued to smoke. Gradually, five or six other chiefs came in,
+and took their seats in silence. When we had finished, our host
+asked a number of questions.... A storm had been gathering for
+the past hour, and some pattering drops on the lodge warned us that
+we had some miles to our camp.... We found our companions
+under some densely foliaged old trees, about three miles up the
+river.... Nearly opposite was the mouth of one of the most considerable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+affluents of the South fork, <i>la Fourche aux Castors</i>, (Beaver
+fork,) heading off in the ridge to the southeast." (Fremont, (1), pp.
+29-30.) This would have been near the eastern boundary of the
+present Morgan County, Colorado, a region approaching the western
+edge of the great prairie, in the midst of the range of vast herds of
+buffalo. The entire description of the events of the day as prepared
+by Fremont reads more like fiction than fact and is one of the clearest
+and most concise accounts extant of a buffalo hunt by native
+tribes under such conditions. The paintings by Stanley and Wimar,
+as reproduced in plates <a href="#Plate_2">2</a> and <a href="#Plate_3">3</a>, would serve to illustrate Fremont's
+narrative.</p>
+
+<p>The following year (1843) Fremont, on his second expedition,
+reached St. Vrain's Fort; thence continuing up the South Fork of
+the Platte he soon arrived in the vicinity of the present city of Denver,
+and at some point not far below the mouth of Cherry Creek
+discovered a large Arapaho village. This was on July 7, 1843, and
+to quote from his journal: "We made this morning an early start,
+continuing to travel up the Platte; and in a few miles frequent
+bands of horses and mules, scattered for several miles round about,
+indicated our approach to the Arapaho village, which we found
+encamped in a beautiful bottom, and consisting of about 160 lodges.
+It appeared extremely populous, with a great number of children;
+a circumstance which indicated a regular supply of the means of
+subsistence. The chiefs, who were gathered together at the farther
+end of the village, received us (as probably strangers are always
+received to whom they desire to show respect or regard) by throwing
+their arms around our necks and embracing us.... I saw
+here, as I had remarked in an Arapaho village the preceding year,
+near the lodges of the chiefs, tall tripods of white poles supporting
+their spears and shields, which showed it to be a regular custom....
+Though disappointed in obtaining the presents which had been evidently
+expected, they behaved very courteously, and after a little
+conversation, I left them, and, continuing up the river, halted to
+noon on the bluff, as the bottoms are almost inundated; continuing
+in the afternoon our route along the mountains, which are dark,
+misty, and shrouded." (Fremont, (1), pp. 111-112.)</p>
+
+<p>A photograph of a small Arapaho village, standing in Whitewood
+Canyon, Wyoming, about the year 1870, is reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_16">16</a>, b.
+The skin-covered lodges shown in this photograph were probably
+similar to those sketched by Bodmer a generation before.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">sauk and foxes.</span></h4>
+
+<p>It is not the purpose of the present sketch to trace the early
+migrations of the two related tribes, or to refer to their connection,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+linguistically or socially. However, it is evident their villages were
+similar in appearance, and both had two distinct forms of habitations
+which were occupied during different seasons of the year. The
+summer villages of both tribes consisted of bark houses, and near
+by were gardens in which they raised corn, squashes, beans, and
+some tobacco, but with the coming of autumn the families scattered
+and sought the more protected localities where game was to be secured,
+and there erected the dome-shaped, mat-covered lodge, resembling
+the structures of other tribes of the region.</p>
+
+<p>The middle of the eighteenth century found the two tribes established
+in villages near the mouth of Rock River, on the left bank
+of the Mississippi, in the present Rock Island County, Illinois.
+Here they were visited by Long and his small party August 1, 1817,
+at which time the Fox settlement "containing about thirty cabins,
+with two fires each," stood on the left bank of Rock River, at its
+junction with the Mississippi. The Sauk village was 2 miles up
+Rock River and consisted "of about one hundred cabins, of two,
+three, and in some instances, four fires each," and it was, so Long
+wrote, "by far the largest Indian village situated in the neighborhood
+of the Mississippi between St. Louis and the Falls of St.
+Anthony." (Long, (1), pp. 68-69.) This was the birthplace, in
+the year 1767, of the great Sauk leader Black Hawk. At the time
+of Long's visit the people of the two villages had several hundred
+acres of corn, "partly in the low ground and extended up the slopes
+of the bluffs," and were in a very prosperous condition.</p>
+
+<p>The village was destroyed by the militia June 15, 1831, and those
+who escaped soon after crossed the Mississippi. In 1837, having
+ceded their hunting grounds in Iowa to the Government, they removed
+to a tract in Kansas beyond the Missouri, where they continued
+to reside for some 20 years as practically one tribe. Later
+the majority of the Foxes returned to Iowa and secured a small
+tract of land near Tama, in Tama County, on the left bank of Iowa
+River, where a mixed group continues to dwell. In 1867 the remaining
+Sauk ceded their lands in Kansas and removed to the Indian
+Territory.</p>
+
+<p>As already mentioned, the tribes erected two distinct types of
+habitations. The mat-covered lodge is shown in plate <a href="#Plate_18">18</a>. The bare
+frames, ready for the mat coverings, are indicated in <i>a</i>, while the
+completed structure is represented in <i>b</i> of the same plate. Both
+photographs were made near Tama within the past few years.</p>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 18<a name="Plate_18"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p018a.png" width="300" height="200" alt="a. Frames of structures ready to be covered with mats or sheets of bark" title="a. Frames of structures ready to be covered with mats or sheets of bark" />
+<span class="caption">a. Frames of structures ready to be covered with mats or sheets of bark</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p018b.png" width="300" height="233" alt="b. Mat-covered lodges
+
+SAUK AND FOX HABITATIONS" title="b. Mat-covered lodges
+
+SAUK AND FOX HABITATIONS" />
+<span class="caption">b. Mat-covered lodges<br />
+
+SAUK AND FOX HABITATIONS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 19<a name="Plate_19"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/p019.png" width="500" height="311" alt="SAUK AND FOX HABITATION COVERED WITH ELM BARK" title="SAUK AND FOX HABITATION COVERED WITH ELM BARK" />
+<span class="caption">SAUK AND FOX HABITATION COVERED WITH ELM BARK</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>During the summer of 1820 Schoolcraft was on the upper Mississippi
+and stopped at the village of the Sioux chief "La Petit Corbeau,"
+which stood on the bank of the river a few miles below the
+present city of St. Paul. He was conducted to the lodge of the chief,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>which, so he wrote, "is spacious, being about sixty feet in length by
+thirty in width&mdash;built in a permanent manner of logs, and covered
+with bark." (Schoolcraft, (2), p. 318.) A few days later, on
+August 6, 1820, he left the mouth of the Wisconsin, passed the mouth
+of Turkey River, which joins the Mississippi from the west, and 1
+mile below the mouth of Turkey River arrived at a Fox village
+which stood on the left bank of the Mississippi. This would have
+been near the present village of Cassville, Grant County, Wisconsin.
+Here were twelve lodges, "large, and built of logs, in the same substantial
+manner practised among the Narcotah bands." This refers
+to the village of La Petit Corbeau and others which he had recently
+visited. And continuing the narrative, "The cause of their being
+now deserted, is the fear entertained of an attack from the Sioux,
+in retaliation for the massacre lately perpetrated upon the banks of
+the St. Peter's. The desertion appears to have taken place after
+they had planted their corn, and from the order in which the village
+is left, it may be concluded that its re-occupation is kept in
+view. I found several small gardens and corn fields adjoining the
+village, in which squashes, beans, and pumpkins were abundant, but
+the corn had been nearly all destroyed, probably by wild animals.
+Walking back from the river half a mile ... I was surprised to
+find an extensive field of water- and musk-melons, situated in the
+midst of a grove of small, scattering trees, but without any inclosure.
+Some of the fruit had been destroyed by animals, but a great abundance
+still remained." (Op. cit., pp. 340-341.)</p>
+
+<p>The preceding references would seem to apply to summer habitations,
+as distinguished from the mat-covered structures already mentioned.
+The descriptions are rather vague, and the lodges encountered
+by Schoolcraft may have been similar in form to that
+shown in plate <a href="#Plate_19">19</a>. This most interesting and valuable photograph
+was made in the Indian Territory probably 40 years or more ago,
+and represents a rather large dwelling. It shows clearly the manner
+in which sheets of bark were placed and secured to serve as roof and
+sides, and in this instance the bark appears to be that of the elm.</p>
+
+<p>Interesting notes on the manners and ways of life of the Sauk
+and Foxes just a century ago are to be found in a communication
+from Maj. M. Marston, of the Fifth Infantry, to Morse. Marston
+was commanding officer at Fort Armstrong, from which place the
+letter was written during the month of November, 1820. At that
+time the Fox village standing on the bank of the Mississippi, opposite
+Fort Armstrong, consisted of "thirty-five permanent lodges,"
+and this may refer to the type of structures shown in plate <a href="#Plate_19">19</a>. As
+Marston then wrote: "There is also a small Sauk village of five or six
+lodges on the west bank of the Mississippi, near the mouth of Des<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+Moin river, and below Fort Edwards; and a Fox village near the
+lead mines (about a hundred miles above this place,) of about twenty
+lodges; and another near the mouth of the Wapsipinica of about ten
+lodges." Thus the villages and camps of the two tribes were to have
+been seen on both banks of the Mississippi, but undoubtedly the
+greater part of their hunting was done westward from the river,
+within the present State of Iowa. A century ago the people of the
+village would leave "as soon as their corn, beans, &amp;c., are ripe and
+taken care of, and their traders arrive and give out their credit, (or
+their outfits on credit,) and go to their wintering grounds; it being
+previously determined in council, on what particular ground each
+party shall hunt. The old men, women, and children, embark in
+canoes; the young men go by land with their horses; on their arrival,
+they immediately commence their winter's hunt, which lasts about
+three months." The traders would follow and remain in convenient
+places. During the winter most of the Indians would pay their
+debts, get many necessary articles, and at the same time reserve the
+more valuable skins. These, "such as beaver, otter, &amp;c., they take
+home with them to their villages, and dispose of for such articles as
+they may afterwards find necessary." The winter of 1819-20 was
+evidently a very prosperous one for the two tribes as well as for the
+traders, and Marston wrote: "These traders, including the peltries
+received at the United States Factory, near Fort Edwards, collected
+of the Sauk and Fox Indians during this season, <i>nine hundred and
+eighty packs</i>. They consisted of 2,760 beaver skins; 922 Otter;
+13,440 Raccoon; 12,900 Musk Rat; 500 Mink; 200 Wild Cat; 680 Bear
+Skins; 28,600 Deer. Whole number, 60,082."</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the winter hunt "they return to their villages, in
+the month of April, and after putting their lodges in order, commence
+preparing the ground to receive the seed. The number of
+acres cultivated by that part of the two nations, who reside at their
+villages in this vicinity, is supposed to be upwards of <i>three hundred</i>.
+They usually raise from seven to eight thousand bushels of corn,
+besides beans, pumpkins, melons, &amp;c. About one thousand bushels
+of the corn they annually sell to traders and others; the remainder
+(except about five bushels for each family, which is taken with them,)
+they put into bags, and bury in holes dug in the ground, for their
+use in the spring and summer. The labor of agriculture is confined
+principally to the women, and this is done altogether with a hoe.
+In June, the greatest part of the young men go out on a summer
+hunt, and return in August. While they are absent the old men and
+women are collecting rushes for mats, and bark to make into bags
+for their corn, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>"The women usually make about three hundred floor mats every
+summer.... The twine which connects the rushes together, is made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+either of basswood bark, after being boiled and hammered, or the
+bark of the nettle; the women twist or spin it by rolling it on the
+knee with the hand." (Morse, (1), App., pp. 124-127.) Some men,
+as well as women, of these tribes are often employed in and about the
+lead mines on the Mississippi, not far from their villages.</p>
+
+<p>The customs of the tribes, as related in the preceding notes, their
+hunts away from the villages during certain seasons of the year,
+their return to plant and care for their fields and gardens, and the
+placing of the surplus grain in caches, had probably been followed
+by native tribes of the Mississippi Valley and adjacent regions for
+generations before the coming of the Europeans.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">illinois.</span></h4>
+
+<p>Although the tribes of the loosely constituted Illinois confederacy
+claimed and occupied a wide region east of the Mississippi, in later
+years centering in the valley of the Illinois River, nevertheless certain
+villages are known to have crossed and recrossed the great river.
+Thus, in the early summer of 1673, Père Marquette arrived at a
+village of the Peoria then standing on the right or west bank of the
+Mississippi, at or near the mouth of the Des Moines. Two months
+later it had removed to the upper Illinois. A few weeks after passing
+the Peoria Marquette discovered another of the Illinois tribes,
+the Michigamea, living near the northeastern corner of the present
+State of Arkansas, and consequently west of the Mississippi. On
+the map of Pierre van der Aa, <i>circa</i> 1720, two small streams are
+shown flowing into the Mississippi from the west, a short distance
+south of the Missouri. The more northerly of the two is probably
+intended to represent the Meramec and a dot at the north side of
+the mouth of the stream bears the legend: "<i>Village des</i> Ilinois <i>et des</i>
+Caskoukia," probably the Cahokia. This stream forms the boundary
+between Jefferson and St. Louis Counties, Missouri, and a short distance
+above its junction with the Mississippi are traces of a large
+village, with many stone-lined graves, probably indicating the position
+of the Illinois village of two centuries ago. Also, on the
+d'Anville map, issued in the year 1755, an "Ancien Village Cahokias"
+is shown at a point corresponding with the mouth of the small
+Rivière des Pères, a stream which joins the Mississippi and there
+forms the southern boundary of the city of St. Louis. Until covered
+by railroad embankments many small mounds were visible near
+the mouth of the Rivière des Pères, indications of the old settlement
+were numerous, and graves were encountered on the neighboring
+hills. These were evidently the remains of the "Ancien Village
+Cahokias." The many salt springs found on the Missouri side of
+the Mississippi served to attract the Indians from the eastern shore.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+Establishing their camps in the vicinity of the springs, they would
+evaporate the waters and so obtain a supply of salt, a process which
+continued long after the French had settled in this part of upper
+Louisiana.</p>
+
+<p>The villages of the Illinois tribes have been described in a former
+publication (Bushnell, (1)).</p>
+
+<p>About the close of the eighteenth century many scattered bands
+of various tribes whose habitat was east of the Mississippi sought
+new homes to the westward. Especially was this true after the signing
+of the treaty of Greenville, Ohio, August 3, 1795. But two years
+before the signing of this important treaty small groups of Shawnee
+and Delaware crossed the river, and by the year 1793 had established
+a village on Apple Creek, near the Mississippi and some 40 miles
+south of the French settlement of Ste. Genevieve. A few years later
+these, or others of the same tribes, had small towns not far west
+of St. Louis and only a short distance south of the Missouri. Within
+another generation many of the remaining tribes were removed from
+east of the Mississippi by the Government to lands set apart for
+them just west of the western boundary of Missouri. But for many
+years after the beginning of the nineteenth century the western
+part of the Ozarks was occupied, or frequented, by bands of several
+tribes.</p>
+
+<p>It seems quite evident that with the removal of the tribes from the
+east came certain changes in their customs and ways of life. And
+it is doubtful whether all attempted to erect their native form of
+habitations. Again, before leaving the east they had seen and constructed
+the log cabin of the pioneers, and it is evident similar structures
+were reared by them in their new homes, or at least by some of
+the tribes, among them the Delaware. An interesting account of one
+of these later settlements has been preserved, but it is very brief. It
+was mentioned in the journal of a dragoon, one of the command then
+crossing the wilderness from St. Louis to the valley of the Arkansas,
+and was prepared about the beginning of December, in the year 1833:
+"It was drawing towards the close of the day, when at a little distance
+we descried a cluster of huts that we imagined might be a
+squatter settlement, but upon a nearer approach, found it to be the
+remains of a log-town long since evacuated, that had formerly been
+the settlement of a tribe of the Delawares.... The site was a beautiful
+one; and the associations that were connected with it, as well
+as the many vestiges of rude art that remained about it, invested this
+spot with many pleasing sources of reflection. As we entered the
+town, our regiment slackened their pace, and slowly rode through
+this now silent ruin. A small space of cleared land encompassed the
+settlement, but scarce large enough to relieve it from the deep gloom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+of the lofty and surrounding forest of aged oaks.... The huts
+were small, containing but one apartment, built of logs, many of
+which had become so decayed as to have fallen to the ground, and the
+whole was covered with a rich coat of moss." (Hildreth, (1), pp.
+70-71.) Scattered throughout the settlement, near and between the
+ruined houses, stood many large oaks. On the trunks of some of
+these had been cut various figures and symbols by the Indians.</p>
+
+<p>This Delaware village evidently stood not far from the present
+town of Springfield, Green County, Missouri. Just beyond it began
+the "Kickapoo prairie, which is the commencement of that immense
+chain of prairie land that extends in broken patches to the Rocky
+Mountains." (Op. cit., p. 70.)</p>
+
+<p>The preceding reference to various figures cut on the trees near
+the deserted village tends to recall a somewhat similar allusion by
+Irving. On November 2, 1832, during his "Tour on the Prairies,"
+so he wrote: "We came out upon an extensive prairie, and about six
+miles to our left beheld a long line of green forest, marking the course
+of the north fork of the Arkansas. On the edge of the prairie, and
+in a spacious grove of noble trees which overshadowed a small brook,
+were traces of an old Creek hunting camp. On the bark of the trees
+were rude delineations of hunters and squaws, scrawled with charcoal;
+together with various signs and hieroglyphics, which our half-breeds
+interpreted as indicating that from this encampment the
+hunters had returned home." (Irving, Washington. (1), p. 187.)</p>
+
+<p>It is to be regretted that all such figures should so soon have disappeared,
+as did the frail structures of the native villages, leaving only
+fragments of pottery and bits of stone, ashes, and occasional animal
+bones to indicate where they had once stood.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Siouan Tribes.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The numerous and widely scattered tribes belonging to the Siouan
+linguistic family formerly had a combined population which caused
+this to rank as the second largest stock north of Mexico, being exceeded
+only by the Algonquian.</p>
+
+<p>All evidence tends to prove that during past centuries the many
+tribes who were found living west of the Mississippi when the great
+central valley of the continent first became known to Europeans had,
+within a few generations, migrated from the eastward. This is likewise
+indicated by certain tribal traditions. Many had undoubtedly
+occupied the upper parts of the Ohio Valley, and were probably the
+builders of the great earthworks discovered in that region. What
+impelled the westward movement of the tribes may never be determined.
+Whether they were forced to abandon their early habitat
+by stronger forces, by the lack of food which made it necessary for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+them to seek a more plentiful supply, or by reason of causes distinct
+from either of these can never be definitely known.</p>
+
+<p>But some remained in the east; all did not join in the migration,
+and the native tribes encountered by the colonists living in the piedmont
+region of Virginia and extending southward into Carolina
+belonged to this linguistic family. Their villages have been mentioned
+in a former publication. (Bushnell, (1), pp. 92-94.)</p>
+
+<p>It is more than probable that while living east of the Mississippi
+all reared and occupied structures similar to those of the Algonquian
+tribes of later generations, mat and bark covered lodges, such as
+continued in use by the Osage, Quapaw, and others even after they
+had reached their new homes, but some through necessity were compelled
+to adopt other forms of dwellings. Thus many were found
+occupying the conical skin tipi, while some had learned the art of
+building the large earth-covered lodges, an art which had evidently
+been derived from the Caddoan tribes coming from the Southwest.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">dakota-assiniboin group.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The Dakota constitute the largest division of the great Siouan
+linguistic family. To quote from the Handbook, this group includes
+the following tribes, a classification which is recognized by the people
+themselves: "1. Mdewakanton; 2. Wahpeton; 3. Wahpekute; 4. Sisseton;
+5. Yankton; 6. Yanktonai; 7. Teton, each of which is again subdivided
+into bands and subbands." These seven principal divisions
+are often referred to as the Seven Council Fires of the Dakota. The
+first four groups as given in this classification formed the eastern
+division, and their home, when first encountered by Europeans, was
+in the densely forested region about the headwaters of the Mississippi.
+The others lived westward, reaching far into the plains. The Assiniboin,
+in historic times a separate tribe, was originally a part of the
+Yanktonai, from whom they separated and became closely allied
+with the Algonquian Cree. Thus some of the Dakota as first known
+to history were a timber people, others lived where the forest and
+prairie joined, with a mingling of the fauna and flora of the two
+regions, and in later years the Oglala, the principal division of the
+Teton, extended their wanderings to and beyond the Black Hills,
+crossing the great buffalo range.</p>
+
+<p>As will be shown in the sketches of the dwellings and other structures
+of the Dakota tribes, those who lived in the timbered region,
+occupying much of the present State of Minnesota, erected the type
+of habitation characteristic of the region, but in the villages along
+the Minnesota both bark and skin covered lodges were in use, and the
+more western villages were formed exclusively of the latter type, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+conical skin tipi of the plains. There appears to have been very little
+variation in the form of structure as erected by the widely scattered
+bands.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Mdewakanton.</span></h5>
+
+<p>When preparing a sketch of the villages and village sites of the
+Mdewakanton, it is quite natural to begin with a brief description of
+the site of the village to which Father Hennepin was led captive,
+during the early spring of the year 1680. On the afternoon of April
+11 of that year, while ascending the Mississippi with two companions,
+he was taken by a war party of the Sioux, and after much anxiety
+and suffering reached the Falls of St. Anthony, which he so named.
+Thence, going overland through the endless forests, they arrived at
+the village of their captors. Soon Indians were seen running from
+the village to meet them, and then it was that "One of the principal
+Issati chiefs gave us his peace-calumet to smoke, and accepted the
+one we had brought. He then gave us some wild rice to eat, presenting
+it to us in large bark dishes." From this place they were later taken
+in bark canoes "a short league ... to an island where their cabins
+were." (Shea, (1), pp. 224-225.)</p>
+
+<p>The Mdewakanton "mystery lake village," of the Santee or eastern
+division of the Dakota, were considered by some as "the only
+Dakota entitled to the name Isanyati (`Santee'), given them from
+their old home on Mille Lac, Minnesota, called by them Isantamde,
+'Knife Lake.'" There is no doubt of the Mdewakanton being the
+Issati of Hennepin, to whose principal village he was taken, and
+where he remained for some weeks during the year 1680. It has
+always been acknowledged that the village stood on or near the shore
+of Mille Lac, but not until 1900 was a site discovered which appears
+without doubt to indicate the position of that ancient settlement.
+The outlet of Mille Lac is Rum River, which enters the Mississippi
+at Anoka. The stream soon after leaving the lake expands into a
+series of small lakes, usually designated as the First, Second, and
+Third Lake, from the outlet at Mille Lac. Rum River leaves Mille
+Lac near the southwest corner, but soon turns eastward, therefore
+the three lakes are rather parallel with the south shore of the great
+lake. At the upper end of Third Lake is an isolated mass, rising
+some feet above the highest stage of water, and having a superficial
+area of several acres. On May 29, 1900, this spot was surrounded by
+a marsh, in places overgrown with rushes, with pools of water, more
+numerous on the north side. But a short time has elapsed since all
+the lakes were somewhat deeper and more water flowed in Rum
+River. And at that time the waters surrounded this elevated mass
+and it stood as an island at the head of Third Lake. When the surface<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+of this island was examined it was found to be strewn with innumerable
+fragments of pottery, some fractured stones, and a few
+stone implements. The amount of pottery was greater than is often
+found on any site, in any part of the country, and it was quite evident
+this island was once occupied by a large, permanent native settlement.
+Without doubt this was the site of the village to which
+Hennepin was taken in a bark canoe, "an island where their cabins
+were." At present this is in Sec. 25, T. 42, R. 27, Mille Lacs County,
+Minnesota.</p>
+
+<p>No description of the ancient village has been preserved, but it
+undoubtedly resembled the settlements of other tribes living in the
+midst of the great forests. The structures were probably bark or
+mat covered, many of an oval form quite similar to those of the Ojibway,
+who later occupied the near-by sites on the shores of Mille Lac.
+And like the Ojibway, the Mdewakanton may have had more than
+one type of dwelling in the same village, or structures of different
+forms may have served different purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The shores of Mille Lac, one of the most beautiful sheets of water
+in Minnesota, abound in traces of the ancient settlements which
+stood generations or centuries ago. Near several of the sites are
+groups of a hundred or more burial mounds, all of which may be attributed
+to the Siouan tribes. One village, the site of which is marked
+by a large number of mounds, stood on the shore of the bay in the
+northwestern part of the lake, shown in the photograph reproduced
+in plate <a href="#Plate_20">20</a>, <i>a</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The sacred or mysterious island, known as such to the Sioux and
+later to the Ojibway, is in the southern part of the lake, several miles
+from the south shore. It is a remarkable spot, one to be looked upon
+by the Indian as a place of mystery. So small that often it is not
+visible from the shore, it consists of a great quantity of blocks of
+granitic formation which are piled to a height of 20 feet or more upon
+a ledge which comes to within a foot or less of the surface of the
+lake. The island is about 250 feet in length from east to west, the
+width from north to south being about one-half the length. Some of
+the great blocks are 10 or 12 feet in length, 4 or 5 feet in thickness
+and width, and would weigh many tons. The ledge extends for a
+distance of about 150 feet to the north and east of the island, covered
+by a foot or more of water. There is no soil on the island, no vegetation,
+and its only occupants are numbers of gulls. A photograph of
+this most interesting spot, made by the writer May 20, 1900, is reproduced
+as plate <a href="#Plate_20">20</a>, <i>b</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 20<a name="Plate_20"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p020a.png" width="300" height="229" alt="a. Northwest shore of Mille Lac, 1900. Site of an ancient Sioux settlement" title="a. Northwest shore of Mille Lac, 1900. Site of an ancient Sioux settlement" />
+<span class="caption">a. Northwest shore of Mille Lac, 1900. Site of an ancient Sioux settlement</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p020b.png" width="300" height="228" alt="b. The Sacred Island in the southern part of Mille Lac. May, 1900" title="b. The Sacred Island in the southern part of Mille Lac. May, 1900" />
+<span class="caption">b. The Sacred Island in the southern part of Mille Lac. May, 1900</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 21<a name="Plate_21"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/p021.png" width="500" height="297" alt="&quot;KAPOSIA, JUNE 19TH, 1851&quot;
+
+F. B. Mayer" title="&quot;KAPOSIA, JUNE 19TH, 1851&quot;
+
+F. B. Mayer" />
+<span class="caption">&quot;KAPOSIA, JUNE 19TH, 1851&quot;
+
+F. B. Mayer</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>According to the stories of the old Ojibway who were still living
+on the shore of Mille Lac during the spring of 1900, the Mdewakanton
+were driven from that region about the middle of the eighteenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+century, and moving southward settled along the banks of the Mississippi.
+Descendants of these were occupying well-known villages
+on the Mississippi and Minnesota during the summer of 1823, when
+Major Long and his party ascended the rivers from Prairie du
+Chien.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving Prairie du Chien to discover the course of the
+Minnesota, or St. Peters, as it was then designated, the members of
+the expedition were divided into two groups, one to go overland to
+the mouth of the St. Peters, the other to convey the supplies by boat
+to that point. Both parties visited the principal villages on the way.
+First following the route of those who went overland, on June 26,
+1823, they encountered a village of five lodges, evidently on the
+Iowa River, in the present Winneshiek County, Iowa. Two days
+later, June 28, they arrived at the more important village of Wapasha,
+in the present Wabasha County, Minnesota, and as told in
+the narrative: "Whatever might be the reveries in which the party
+were indulging, they were soon recalled to the dull realities of
+travelling, by the howling and barking of a band of dogs, that announced
+their approach to an Indian village consisting of twenty
+fixed lodges and cabins. It is controlled by Wa-pa-sha, an Indian
+chief of considerable distinction. In his language, (Dacota,) his
+name signifies <i>the red leaf</i>. A number of young men fantastically
+decorated with many and variously coloured feathers, and their faces
+as oddly painted, advanced to greet the party. One of them, the son
+of the chief, was remarkable for the gaudiness and display of his
+dress, which from its showy appearance imparted to his character
+foppishness.... The chief is about fifty years of age, but appears
+older.... His disposition to the Americans has generally been a
+friendly one." (Keating, (1), I, pp. 249-250.) Hennepin's reception
+by the ancestors of the same people, in their ancient village near
+Mille Lac, about a century and a half earlier, may have been quite
+similar to this accorded the members of the Long expedition in
+1823.</p>
+
+<p>On the evening of June 30 the party going by land arrived "at
+an Indian village, which is under the direction of Shakea, (<i>the man
+that paints himself red</i>;) the village has retained the appellation
+of Redwing, (<i>aile rouge</i>,) by which the chief was formerly distinguished."
+This was on the site of the present Red Wing, Goodhue
+County, Minnesota. There the party remained overnight, and on
+the following morning, July 1, 1823, the boat bearing the supplies
+belonging to the expedition, on its way from Prairie du Chien to
+Fort St. Anthony, reached the village, and "The whole party being
+again united, the chief invited them to his lodge, with a view to have
+a formal conversation with them.... As a compliment to the party,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+the United States' flag was hoisted over his cabin, and a deputation
+of some of his warriors waited at our encampment to invite us to
+his lodge. We were received in due ceremony; the chief and his
+son, Tatunkamane, (the walking buffalo,) were seated next to the
+entrance. We took our stations near them, on the same bed-frame,
+while his warriors seated themselves on the frame opposite to us."
+This was followed by handshaking, and the smoking of the pipe of
+peace. (Op. cit., pp. 251-252.) The two parties again separated
+and those passing overland arrived at the fort the following evening.</p>
+
+<p>The boat party, ascending the Mississippi, arrived at "Wapasha's
+village" on June 29, soon after the departure of the others who
+were going overland. They left Redwing early in the afternoon of
+July 1, and on the following day passed the St. Croix. Continuing,
+they "passed an Indian village consisting of ten or twelve huts,
+situated at a handsome turn on the river, about ten miles below the
+mouth of the St. Peter; the village is generally known by the name
+of the <i>Petit Corbeau</i>, or Little Raven, which was the appellation of
+the father and grandfather of the present chief.... As the village
+was abandoned for the season, we proceeded without stopping. The
+houses which we saw here were differently constructed from those
+which we had previously observed. They are formed by upright
+flattened posts, implanted in the ground, without any interval except
+here and there some small loopholes for defence; these posts support
+the roof, which presents a surface of bark. Before and behind
+each hut, there is a scaffold used for the purpose of drying maize,
+pumpkins, &amp;c." Late in the same day they arrived at the fort.
+(Keating, (1), I, pp. 288-289.) Whether the method of constructing
+lodges by forming the walls of upright posts or logs was of native
+conception or was derived from the French is now difficult to determine.
+In referring to the customs prevailing in the Mississippi
+Valley, particularly the French portions, about the year 1810, Brackenridge
+said: "In building their houses, the logs, instead of being
+laid horizontally, as ours, are placed in a perpendicular position,
+the interstices closed with earth or stone, as with us." (Brackenridge,
+(1), p. 119.) The old courthouse at St. Louis was built after
+this method. Again, among some tribes along the eastern slopes of
+the Rocky Mountains, as will be told on another page, were to have
+been found small, well-protected lodges formed of upright poles, and
+in this instance there is no reason to suspect European influence.
+Therefore it is not possible to say definitely whether the structures
+standing on the banks of the Mississippi during the summer of
+1823 were of a primitive, native form, or if they represented the
+influence of the early French who had penetrated the region many
+years before.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>Just three years before the Long expedition passed up the Mississippi
+and prepared the preceding descriptions of the Sioux settlements
+Schoolcraft went down the river, and in his journal are to be
+found brief references to the same villages. To quote from the
+journal, August 2, 1820: "Four miles below Carver's cave, we landed
+at the village of Le Petit Corbeau, or the Little Raven. Here is a
+Sioux band of twelve lodges, and consisting of about two hundred
+souls, who plant corn upon the adjoining plain, and cultivate the
+cucumber, and pumpkin. They sallied from their lodges on seeing
+us approach, and gathering upon the bank of the river fired a kind
+of <i>feu-de-joie</i>, and manifested the utmost satisfaction on our landing....
+We were conducted into his cabin which is spacious, being
+about sixty feet in length by thirty in width&mdash;built in a permanent
+manner of logs, and covered with bark." (Schoolcraft, (2),
+pp. 317-318.) The following day at noon the party arrived "at
+the Sioux village of Talangamane, or the Red wing, which is handsomely
+situated on the west banks of the river, six miles above Lake
+Pepin. It consists of four large, and several small lodges, built of
+logs in the manner of the little Raven's village. Talangamane is
+now considered the first chief of his nation.... Very few of his
+people were at home, being engaged in hunting or fishing. We observed
+several fine corn fields near the village, but they subsist chiefly
+by taking sturgeon in the neighbouring lake, and by hunting the
+deer. The buffalo is also occasionally killed, but they are obliged
+to go two days journey west of the Mississippi, before this animal
+is found in plenty. We observed several buffalo skins which were
+undergoing the Indian process of tanning." (Op. cit., p. 323.)
+The third settlement was reached during the afternoon of August 4,
+1820, at which time, to quote from the journal, "we made a short
+halt at the Sioux village of Wabashaw, which is eligibly situated
+on the west bank of the Mississippi, sixty miles below Lake Pepin.
+It consists of four large lodges, with a population of, probably,
+sixty souls. A present of tobacco and whiskey was given, and we
+again embarked at twenty minutes before five o'clock." (Op, cit.,
+p. 334.) The question now arises, Were the various structures seen
+by Schoolcraft, those "built in a permanent manner of logs," constructed
+of "upright flattened posts," as mentioned in the Long
+narrative? If so, it is evident similar habitations were reared by the
+Foxes and were encountered by Schoolcraft at the Fox village standing
+on the left bank of the Mississippi, below the mouth of the
+Wisconsin, August 6, 1820. However, the statements are rather
+vague, and the various dwellings may have been quite similar to the
+bark houses more clearly described in later narratives. But it is
+beyond question that some of the structures were strongly built, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+Long on July 16, 1817, wrote: "Passed a Sioux village on our right
+containing fourteen cabins. The name of the chief is the Petit Corbeau,
+or Little Raven.... One of their cabins is furnished with
+loop holes, and is situated so near the water that the opposite side of
+the river is within musket-shot range from the building.... The
+cabins are a kind of stockade buildings, and of a better appearance
+than any Indian dwellings I have before met with." (Long,
+(1), p. 31.)</p>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting accounts of the villages just mentioned
+is contained in the journal of a traveler who visited them in 1849, the
+year the Territory of Minnesota was created. On May 16 of that
+year he "passed Wapasha's Prairie ... a beautiful prairie in Minnesota,
+about nine miles long and three miles wide, occupied by
+the chief Wapasha (or Red-Leaf) and his band of Sioux, whose
+bark lodges are seen at the upper end of the prairie." (Seymour, (1),
+p. 75.) And later in the day, after leaving Lake Pepin, "an Indian
+village, called Red Wing, inhabited by a tribe of Sioux is seen on the
+Minnesota shore. It appears to contain about one dozen bark lodges,
+and half as many conical lodges, covered with buffalo skins; also, a
+log or frame house, occupied by a missionary. Indian children were
+seen running, in frolicsome mood, over the green prairie, and Indian
+females were paddling their canoes along the shore. This village is
+near the mouth of Cannon River." On the following day, May 17,
+1849, Seymour passed the village of Kaposia, occupied by the chief
+Little Crow, or Little Raven. It stood on the west bank of the river
+about 5 miles below the then small town of St. Paul. The Indian village
+at that time consisted of about 40 lodges, having a population of
+some 300. A few days later he went to the village, and regarding
+the visit wrote: "During the time I visited them, the Indians were
+living in skin lodges, such as they use during the winter, and when
+traveling. These are formed of long, slender poles, stuck in the
+ground, in a circle of about eight feet in diameter, and united at the
+top, and covered with the raw hide of the buffalo, having the hair
+scraped off. They are in the form of a cone, and can be distinguished
+from those of the Winnebagos and other Indians as far as they can
+be seen. During the summer they live in bark houses, which are
+more spacious, and when seen from a distance, resemble, in form
+and appearance, the log cabins of the whites. When passing in sight
+of the village, a few days afterward, I noticed that they had removed
+their skin lodges, and erected their bark houses. The population of
+this village, as I before remarked, is from 250 to 300 souls." He entered
+one of the small skin-covered lodges. "An iron kettle, suspended
+in the center, over a fire, forms the principal cooking utensil.
+Blankets spread around on the ground, were used as seats and beds."
+(Op. cit., pp. 137-138.) A cemetery, with its scaffold burials, stood
+on the bluffs in the rear of the village. There is reason to believe
+these were the first skin-covered tipis encountered by Seymour while
+ascending the Mississippi.</p>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 22<a name="Plate_22"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p022a.png" width="300" height="207" alt="a. &quot;Dakotah Village.&quot; Seth Eastman" title="a. &quot;Dakotah Village.&quot; Seth Eastman" />
+<span class="caption">a. &quot;Dakotah Village.&quot; Seth Eastman</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p022b.png" width="300" height="197" alt="b. &quot;Dakotah Encampment.&quot; Seth Eastman" title="b. &quot;Dakotah Encampment.&quot; Seth Eastman" />
+<span class="caption">b. &quot;Dakotah Encampment.&quot; Seth Eastman</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 23<a name="Plate_23"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p023a.png" width="300" height="203" alt="a. Council at the mouth of the Teton. George Catlin" title="a. Council at the mouth of the Teton. George Catlin" />
+<span class="caption">a. Council at the mouth of the Teton. George Catlin</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p023b.png" width="300" height="222" alt="b. Page of Kurz&#39;s Sketchbook, showing Fort Pierre and the Indian encampment, July 4, 1851" title="b. Page of Kurz&#39;s Sketchbook, showing Fort Pierre and the Indian encampment, July 4, 1851" />
+<span class="caption">b. Page of Kurz&#39;s Sketchbook, showing Fort Pierre and the Indian encampment, July 4, 1851</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that in the preceding description of Kaposia no
+mention is made of log structures, such as were alluded to by Long
+and Schoolcraft. Only the typical bark house and the conical skin-covered
+tipi were seen by Seymour. Fortunately a most valuable
+and interesting picture of the village, as it appeared on June 19,
+1851, is preserved and is now reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_21">21</a>. Both forms of
+habitations are shown, and in the distance, on the left, are indicated
+the scaffold burials standing on the bluffs in the rear of the settlement.
+On the extreme right is the prow of a canoe, evidently on the
+immediate bank of the Mississippi. Having this remarkable sketch,
+it is gratifying to find a brief description of the two forms of lodges,
+and also to know that the notes may have referred to Kaposia in
+particular. It tells that "the lodges are from eight to fifteen feet
+in diameter, about ten to fifteen feet high and made of buffalo-skins
+tanned. Elk skins are used for this purpose also. The summer house
+is built of wood, or perches set upright, twenty or thirty feet long,
+by fifteen or twenty wide. The perches are set in the ground about
+one foot, and are about six feet out of the ground. Over this is put
+a roof of elm bark. They are very comfortable for summer use.
+The lodge of skin lasts three or four years; the lodge of wood seven
+or eight years." (Prescott, (1), p. 67.)</p>
+
+<p>The bark houses, which resembled "the log cabins of the whites,"
+were shown by Capt. Eastman in one of his paintings. It was used
+as an illustration by Schoolcraft, and is here reproduced as plate
+<a href="#Plate_22">22</a>, <i>a</i>. It is less interesting than the sketch of Kaposia, but in many
+respects the two are quite similar.</p>
+
+<p>Several bark houses of the form just mentioned stood on the shore
+of Mille Lac, forming part of the Ojibway village visited in 1900,
+and similar to these were the "winter habitations," occasionally
+erected by the Menominee, as mentioned and figured by Hoffman as
+plate xviii in his work on that tribe. (Hoffman, (1), p. 255.) It is
+rather curious that these should be described as "winter habitations"
+among that Algonquian tribe, and as being occupied during the summer
+by the Siouan people. As a matter of fact this strong distinction
+may not have existed. The use of this type of house by the Foxes
+has already been mentioned. Whether these may be regarded as representing
+a purely aboriginal form of structure is not easily determined,
+but they will at once recall the unit of the long communal
+dwellings of the Iroquois. The slanting roof, the flat front and back,
+and the upright walls, all covered with large sheets of bark, were the
+same.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>Again returning to the narrative of the Long expedition. Early
+in July, 1823, the party having rested at the mouth of the Minnesota,
+or St. Peters River, began ascending that stream. Having advanced
+a short distance they arrived at the village of Taoapa, better known
+as "Shakopee's Village," from the name of the chief of this band
+of the Mdewakanton. It stood in the present Scott County, Minnesota,
+and in the summer of 1823 "consisted of fifteen large bark
+lodges, in good order; they were arranged along the river. Some of
+them were large enough to hold from thirty to fifty persons, accommodated
+as the Indians usually are in their lodges. The ground near
+it is neatly laid out, and some fine corn-fields were observed in the
+vicinity. There were scaffolds annexed to the houses, for the purpose
+of drying maize, etc.; upon these we were told that the Indians
+sleep during very hot nights." Near the village were seen various
+scaffold burials, while "In the midst of the corn-fields a dog was
+suspended, his head decorated with feathers, and with horse-hair
+stained red; it was probably a sacrifice for the protection of the corn-fields
+during the absence of the Indians." Six miles above the village
+was Little Prairie. (Keating, (1), pp. 329-330.) Quite likely the
+structures at this village were similar to those described above, which
+resembled in outline the log cabins of the white settlers.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Wahpeton.</span></h5>
+
+<p>The Wahpeton, "dwellers among leaves," constitute one of the
+seven great divisions of the Dakota, and to quote from the Handbook:
+"Historic and linguistic evidence proves the affinity of this
+tribe with the Sisseton, Wahpekute, and Mdewakanton. Hennepin
+(1680) mentions them as living in the vicinity of Mille Lac, Minn.,
+near the Mdewakanton, Sisseton, and Teton. On his map they are
+placed a little to the N. E. of the lake." While living in the seclusion
+of the vast forests which surrounded the great lakes of central
+Minnesota, the villages of the Wahpeton were probably formed of
+groups of bark or mat covered structures so typical of the region at
+a later day. Gradually they left the timbered regions, and about the
+first years of the last century were living near the mouth of the
+Minnesota River. Thence they appear to have moved up the stream,
+and during the summer of 1823 were encountered by the Long expedition
+in the vicinity of Big Stone Lake, in the present Lac qui Parle
+County, Minnesota. The account of the meeting with the Indians
+on the prairie, and later of their visit to the village, by the members
+of the expedition, is most interesting. On July 21, 1823, "While
+traveling over the prairie which borders upon this part of the St.
+Peter, that connects Lake qui Parle with Big Stone Lake, our attention
+was aroused by the sight of what appeared to be buffaloes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+chased across the prairie. They, however, soon proved to be Indians;
+their number, at first limited to two, gradually increased to near one
+hundred; they were seen rising from every part of the prairie, and
+after those in advance had reconnoitered us, and made signals that
+we were friends, by discharging their guns, they all came running
+towards us, and in a few minutes we found ourselves surrounded by
+a numerous band.... Some of them were mounted on horseback,
+and were constantly drumming upon the sides of their horses with
+their heels, being destitute both of whip and spur. Many of them
+came and shook hands with us, while the rest were riding all round
+us in different directions. They belonged, as we were told, to the
+Wahkpatoan, [Wahpeton] one of the tribes of the Dacotas.... As
+we rode towards their lodges, we were met by a large party of squaws
+and children, who formed a very motly group.... The village, to
+which they directed us, consisted of thirty skin lodges, situated on a
+fine meadow on the bank of the lake. Their permanent residence,
+or at least that which they have occupied as such for the last five
+years, is on a rocky island, (Big Island), in the lake, nearly opposite
+to, and within a quarter of a mile of, their present encampment.
+Upon the island they cultivate their cornfields, secure against the
+aggressions of their enemies. They had been lately engaged in hunting
+buffalo, apparently with much success. The principal man led
+us to his lodge, wherein a number of the influential men were admitted,
+the women being excluded; but we observed that they, with the
+children, went about the lodge, peeping through all the crevices, and
+not unfrequently raising the skins to observe our motion. They soon
+brought in a couple of large wooden dishes, filled with pounded
+buffalo meat boiled, and covered with the marrow of the same
+animal; of this we partook with great delight." This was followed
+by another feast, in a near-by tent, and still a third where a dog had
+been killed and prepared, "which is considered not only as the greatest
+delicacy, but also as a sacred animal, of which they eat only on
+great occasions." The party did not remain long at the village, but
+continued on up the lake shore, and soon encountered on a bluff "two
+Indian lodges, in one of which was Tatanka Wechacheta, (the buffalo
+man,) an Indian who claims the command of the Wahkpatoans."
+Later in the day the party returned to these lodges, where "the chief,
+and his principal men, were in waiting. We entered the skin lodge,
+and were seated on fine buffalo robes, spread all round; on the fire,
+which was in the centre of the lodge, two large iron kettles, filled
+with choicest pieces of buffalo, were placed.... Our hosts were gratified
+and flattered at the quantity which we ate; the residue of the
+feast was sent to our soldiers. In this, and every other instance
+where we have been invited to a feast by Indians, we observed that
+they never eat with their guests." (Keating, (1), I, pp. 367-373.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>The village of skin-covered tipis standing on the shore of the lake,
+as seen by members of the expedition on that July day nearly a century
+ago, must have resembled the painting later made by Capt.
+Eastman, which is reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_22">22</a>, <i>b</i>, taken from Schoolcraft.
+In the painting the tipis are undoubtedly too closely placed, but
+otherwise they are quite accurately shown. This illustration as used
+in Schoolcraft bears the legend "Dakotah Encampment."</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Yanktonai.</span></h5>
+
+<p>Like other divisions of the Dakota, the Yanktonai formerly lived
+in the thickly timbered region surrounding the headwaters of the
+Mississippi, in the central portion of the present State of Minnesota,
+and, like them, moved southward and westward until they reached
+the plains and the habitat of the buffalo. Although in their earlier
+home they undoubtedly reared the mat-covered structures, nevertheless
+when they reached the open country they constructed the conical
+skin lodge.</p>
+
+<p>During the latter part of July, 1823, the Long expedition reached
+a village of this tribe then standing in the vicinity of Lake Traverse,
+in the present Traverse County, Minnesota. In the narrative of the
+expedition very little is said regarding the appearance of the encampment,
+which may not have offered any peculiar features, but much
+was said concerning the dress and ways of the inhabitants. In part
+the narrative states: "The principal interest which we experienced in
+the neighbourhood of Lake Traverse, was from an acquaintance with
+Wanotan, (the Charger,) the most distinguished chief of the Yanktoanan
+tribe, which, as we were informed, is subdivided into six
+bands. He is one of the greatest men of the Dacota nation, and
+although but twenty-eight years of age, he has already acquired
+great renown as a warrior." As the party neared the establishment
+of the Columbia Fur Company, on the border of the lake, "a salute
+was fired from a number of Indian tents which were pitched in the
+vicinity, from the largest of which the American colours were flying.
+And as soon as we had dismounted from our horses, we received an
+invitation to a feast which Wanotan had prepared for us." Three
+dogs had been killed and prepared for the great occasion. "We repaired
+to a sort of pavilion which they had erected by the union of
+several large skin lodges. Fine Buffalo robes were spread all around,
+and the air was perfumed by the odour of sweet scenting grass which
+had been burned in it. On entering the lodge we saw the chief
+seated near the further end of it, and one of his principal men pointed
+out to us the place which was destined for our accommodation; it
+was at the upper end of the lodge." (Keating, (1), I, pp. 429-432.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>Arranging the skin covers of several large tipis in such a way as
+to form a single shelter, to serve as a ceremonial "lodge," was the
+custom of many tribes, and other instances will be mentioned. But
+another and more elaborate form of structure was used by the tribes
+just mentioned. In 1858, when describing certain customs of the
+people then living along the course of the Minnesota and in the
+vicinity of Lake Traverse, Riggs referred to the sacred dance and
+said: "Among the Dakotas a most remarkable society exists which
+is called <i>Wakan wachepe</i>, or Sacred Dance, of which the medicine
+sack is the badge. It may be regarded as the depository and guardian
+of whatever they esteem as <i>wakan</i>, or sacred." He then related the
+contents of the bag and the meaning of the ceremony, and continues:
+"A large skin lodge is usually occupied as the center of operations,
+the door of which is made wide by throwing up the corners. From
+this, on each hand, extends a kind of railing, some thirty or forty
+feet, on which skins are thrown. The entrance is at the farther end.
+All around the inside of this sanctum sanctorum and along the extended
+sides sit those who are called to the dance. Beyond this and
+near the place of entrance is a fire, with great kettles hanging over it,
+which are filled with dried buffalo meat or other food; and near by
+lay several packs or bags of the same, which are consecrated to the
+feast. The whole village are gathered around and are looking over
+or peeping through the holes in the barricades." Much was then
+told about the strange and curious ceremonies enacted within the
+lodge. (Riggs, (1), pp. 505-506.)</p>
+
+<p>Leaving the encampment in the vicinity of the post of the Columbia
+Fur Company, the Long expedition moved northward, and when
+just beyond Lake Traverse, while traversing the prairies on July 27,
+1823, "passed a party of squaws engaged in conveying to their camp
+some slices of fresh meat to jerk; their fellow labourers were dogs.
+Each of the dogs had the ends of two poles crossed and fastened
+over the shoulders, with a piece of hide underneath to prevent chafing.
+The other extremities dragged on the ground. This sort of vehicle
+was secured to the animal by a string passing round the breast, and
+another under the abdomen; transverse sticks, the ends of which
+were fastened in the poles, kept these at a proper distance, and supported
+the meat. This seems to be the only mode of harnessing dogs,
+practised among the Sioux; we believe, they never use them in teams,
+as is customary with the traders." (Keating, (1), II, pp. 9-10.)</p>
+
+<p>The expedition soon arrived at Pembina, near the international
+boundary, where it would appear they found the two characteristic
+forms of native habitations in use by the Indians. A drawing was
+at that time made by Seymour and used as an illustration in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+narrative, showing the "two different kind of lodges used by the
+northwest Indians," the first being the skin lodge of the prairie
+tribes, and "of this nature are all the lodges used by the Dacotas;"
+the second were the bark-covered structures of the Ojibway, "who
+for the most part live to the north-east of the buffalo regions." To
+this latter class must have belonged the habitations of the Siouan
+tribes before they were forced from their early homes among the
+forests and lakes to the eastward.</p>
+
+<p>When referring to the two characteristic forms of habitations it
+will be of interest to quote from the writings of one who traversed
+the country more than a century and a half ago, when all was in its
+primitive condition, but, like many writers of that period, he failed
+to give details which at the present time would prove of the greatest
+value. He wrote: "The Indians, in general, pay a greater attention
+to their dress and to the ornaments with which they decorate their
+persons, than to the accommodation of their huts or tents. They
+construct the latter in the following simple and expeditious manner.</p>
+
+<p>"Being provided with poles of a proper length, they fasten two
+of them across, near their ends, with bands made of bark. Having
+done this, they raise them up, and extend the bottom of each as wide
+as they purpose to make the area of the tent: they then erect others
+of an equal height, and fix them so as to support the two principal
+ones. On the whole they lay skins of the elk or deer, sewed together,
+in quantity sufficient to cover the poles, and by lapping over
+to form the door. A great number of skins are sometimes required
+for this purpose, as some of their tents are very capacious. That of
+the chief warrior of the Naudowessies was at least forty feet in circumference,
+and very commodious.</p>
+
+<p>"They observe no regularity in fixing their tents when they
+encamp, but place them just as it suits their conveniency.</p>
+
+<p>"The huts also, which those who use no tents erect when they
+travel, for very few tribes have fixed abodes or regular towns or
+villages, are equally simple, and almost as soon constructed.</p>
+
+<p>"They fix small pliable poles in the ground, by bending them till
+they meet at the top and form a semi-circle, then lash them together.
+These they cover with mats made of rushes platted, or with birch
+bark, which they carry with them in their canoes for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>"These cabins have neither chimnies nor windows; there is only
+a small aperture left in the middle of the roofs through which the
+smoke is discharged, but as this is obliged to be stopped up when it
+rains or snows violently, the smoke then proves exceedingly troublesome.</p>
+
+<p>"They lie on skins, generally those of the bear, which are placed
+in rows on the ground; and if the floor is not large enough to contain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+beds sufficient for the accommodation of the whole family, a frame
+is erected about four or five feet from the ground, in which the
+younger part of it sleep." (Carver, (1), pp. 152-154.) Though
+lacking much in detail, nevertheless the preceding notes are of historical
+interest and value, describing as they do the primitive habitations
+which were reared and occupied by the native tribes living in
+the upper Mississippi Valley about the middle of the eighteenth
+century. Skins of the elk and deer were evidently used as coverings
+for the conical tipi, which seems to prove the lack of a sufficient
+number of buffalo skins to serve the purpose, although farther west,
+beyond the timbered country, where buffalo were more easily obtained,
+their skins were made use of and covered the shelters of tribes
+by whom they were hunted.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Yankton.</span></h5>
+
+<p>When the expedition under the leadership of General Atkinson
+ascended the Missouri, during the summer of 1825, he wrote regarding
+the Yankton: "The Yanctons are a band of the Sioux, and rove
+in the plains north of the Missouri, from near the Great Bend, down
+as far as the Sioux river. They do not cultivate, but live by the chase
+alone, subsisting principally upon buffalo. They cover themselves
+with leather tents, or lodges, which they move about from place to
+place, as the buffalo may chance to range. They are pretty well supplied
+with fusees, and with horses, and a few mules. They are estimated
+at 3,000 souls, of which 600 are warriors. They are comfortably
+habited in frocks, or shirts of dressed skins, and leggings, reaching
+to the waist, of the same; they use besides, robes of buffalo skins,
+which are frequently beautifully wrought with porcupine quills, or
+painted tastefully; are friendly to the whites, but make war upon
+almost all other tribes, except those of their own nation. Their
+trading ground is on the river Jaques." (Atkinson, (1), pp. 8-9.)
+On June 17 the party arrived at Fort Lookout, a post of the
+American Fur Company, and four days later, "on the 21st, the
+Tetons, Yanctons, and Yanctonies, three distinct bands of the Sioux
+Nation, having arrived, a council was opened, and, on the 22d, a
+treaty concluded with them." This great gathering of the tribes,
+with their numerous skin-covered tipis, would have presented a sight
+similar to that witnessed and described by Catlin just seven years
+later, in the vicinity of Fort Pierre.</p>
+
+<p>An excellent description of the skin-covered tipi of the Sioux, but
+of the structures of the Yankton in particular, is contained in Maximilian's
+narrative. Writing on May 25, 1833, he said the "Sioux
+Agency, or, as it is now usually called, Fort Lookout, is a square,
+of about sixty paces, surrounded by pickets, twenty or thirty feet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+high, made of squared trunks of trees placed close to each other,
+within which the dwellings are built close to the palisades.... About
+ten leather tents or huts of the Sioux, of the branch of the Yanktons
+or Yanktoans, were set up near the fort.... All these Dacotas of
+the Missouri, as well as most of those of the Mississippi, are only
+hunters, and, in their excursions, always live in portable leather
+tents.... The tents of the Sioux are high pointed cones, made of
+strong poles, covered with buffalo skins, closely sewed together.
+These skins are scraped on both sides, so that they become as transparent
+as parchment, and give free admission to the light. At the
+top, where the poles meet, or cross each other, there is an opening,
+to let out the smoke, which they endeavor to close by a piece of the
+skin covering of the tent, fixed to a separate pole standing upright,
+and fastened to the upper part of the covering on the side from
+which the wind blows. The door is a slit, in the front of the tent,
+which is generally closed by another piece of buffalo hide, stretched
+upon a frame. A small fire is kept up in the centre of the tent.
+Poles are stuck in the ground, near the tent, and utensils of various
+kinds are suspended from them. There are, likewise, stages, on which
+to hang the newly-tanned hides; others, with gaily-painted parchment
+pouches and bags, on some of which they hang their bows,
+arrows, quivers, leather shields, spears, and war clubs.</p>
+
+<p>"We paid a visit to Wahktageli in his tent, and had some difficulty
+in creeping into the narrow, low entrance, after pulling aside the
+skin that covered it. The inside of this tent was light, and it was
+about ten paces in diameter. Buffalo skins were spread on the
+ground, upon which we sat down. Between us and the side of the
+tent were a variety of articles, such as pouches, boxes, saddles, arms,
+&amp;c. A relation of the chief was employed in making arrows, which
+were finished very neatly, and with great care. Wahktageli immediately,
+with much gravity, handed the tobacco-pipe round, and seemed
+to inhale the precious smoke with great delight.... The conversation
+was carried on by Cephier, the interpreter kept by the Agency,
+who accompanied us on this visit.... The owner of a neighbouring
+tent had killed a large elk, the skin of which the women
+were then busily employed in dressing. They had stretched it out,
+by means of leather straps, on the ground near the tent, and the
+women were scraping off the particles of flesh and fat with a very
+well-contrived instrument. It is made of bone, sharpened at one
+end, and furnished with little teeth like a saw, and, at the other end,
+a strap, which is fastened round the wrist." (Maximilian, (1), pp.
+148-152.) A drawing by Bodmer, reproduced by Maximilian on
+page 151 of the work cited, is here shown as figure <a href="#figure_2">2</a>. It represents
+a small group of tipis, of the type mentioned in the narrative, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+on the right, in the rear, is a tripod with what appears to be a
+shield suspended from it. The bone implement mentioned as being
+used by the women to remove particles of flesh from the skin of
+the recently killed elk belonged to a well-known type which was
+extensively used throughout the region. It was formed of the large
+bones of the leg of the buffalo, elk, or moose. Many old examples
+are preserved in the National Museum, Washington.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"><a name="figure_2"></a>
+<img src="images/f002.png" width="500" height="342" alt="Fig. 2.&mdash;Tipis." title="Fig. 2.&mdash;Tipis." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;Tipis.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When dealing with the agents of the Government the Yankton
+would gather on the plains around Fort Pierre. Just 20 years after
+Maximilian's visit to the upper Missouri a small party passed down
+the river, and on October 18, 1853, entered in their journal: "We
+reached Fort Pierre about 12 o'clock m.... Two days before our
+arrival at this place, the main body of the Yankton Sioux, in number
+some twenty-five hundred, had left for the buffalo country. They
+have been here to receive their presents from the government. Two
+more bands are expected in a few days." (Saxton, (1), p. 267.) And
+some days later, while continuing down the Missouri: "The prairies
+are burning in every direction, and the smoke is almost stifling."</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Teton.</span></h5>
+
+<p>The Teton, moving westward from their early habitat to the east
+and north of the Minnesota, were encountered on the banks of the
+Missouri by Captains Lewis and Clark when they ascended the river,
+during the early autumn of 1804. On September 26 of that year<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+the expedition reached the mouth of Teton River (the present Bad
+River), which enters the Missouri from the west at Pierre, Stanley
+County, South Dakota. Here stood the great village of the Teton,
+concerning which Sergeant Gass gave a very interesting account in
+his journal: "We remained here all day. Capt. Lewis, myself and
+some of the men, went over to the Indian camp. Their lodges are
+about eighty in number, and contain about ten persons each; the
+greater part women and children. The women were employed in
+dressing buffaloe skins, for clothing for themselves and for covering
+their lodges. They are the most friendly people I ever saw; but will
+pilfer if they have an opportunity. They are also very dirty: the
+water they make use of, is carried in the paunches of the animals
+they kill, just as they are emptied, without being cleaned.... About
+3 o'clock we went aboard the boat accompanied with the old chief
+and his little son. In the evening captain Clarke and some of the
+men went over, and the Indians made preparations for a dance. At
+dark it commenced. Captain Lewis, myself and some of our party
+went up to see them perform. Their band of music, or orchestra,
+was composed of about twelve persons beating on a buffalo hide, and
+shaking small bags that made a rattling noise. They had a large fire
+in the centre of their camp; on one side the women, about 80 in number,
+formed a solid column round the fire, with sticks in their hands,
+and the scalps of the Mahas they had killed, tied on them. They
+kept moving, or jumping round the fire, rising and falling on both
+feet at once; keeping a continual noise, singing and yelling. In this
+manner they continued till 1 o'clock at night, when we returned to
+the boat with two of the chiefs." (Gass, (1), pp. 45-46.)</p>
+
+<p>In the journal of the expedition is a very full account of the events
+which transpired during the two days spent at the Teton camp,
+but only part will now be quoted, sufficient to describe the place
+of meeting: "Captain Lewis went on shore and remained several
+hours, and observing that their disposition was friendly we resolved
+to remain during the night to a dance, which they were preparing
+for us. Captains Lewis and Clark, who went on shore one after the
+other, were met on landing by ten well dressed young men, who took
+them up in a robe highly decorated and carried them to a large
+council house, where they were placed on a dressed buffaloe skin
+by the side of the grand chief. The hall or council-room was in the
+shape of three quarters of a circle, covered at the top and sides with
+skins well dressed and sewed together. Under this shelter sat about
+seventy men, forming a circle round the chief, before whom were
+placed a Spanish flag and the one we had given them yesterday.
+This left a vacant circle of about six feet diameter, in which the
+pipe of peace was raised on two forked sticks, about six or eight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+inches from the ground, and under it the down of the swan was
+scattered: a large fire, in which they were cooking provisions, stood
+near, and in the centre about four hundred pounds of excellent
+buffaloe meat as a present for us." Then followed several addresses
+by the chiefs; offerings of dog meat to the flag "by way of sacrifice,"
+and the smoking of the pipe of peace. (Lewis and Clark,
+(1), I, pp. 84-86.) The entire ceremony proved of the greatest
+interest. Then followed an account of the habitations standing in
+the village: "Their lodges are very neatly constructed, in the same
+form as those of the Yanktons; they consist of about one hundred
+cabins, made of white buffaloe hide dressed, with a larger one in
+the centre for holding councils and dances. They are built round
+with poles about fifteen or twenty feet high, covered with white
+skins; these lodges may be taken to pieces, packed up, and carried
+with the nation wherever they go, by dogs which bear great burdens.
+The women are chiefly employed in dressing buffaloe skins: they
+seem perfectly well disposed, but are addicted to stealing any thing
+which they can take without being observed." (Op. cit., pp. 88-89.)</p>
+
+<p>During the year 1832 George Catlin remained for some time at
+and near the mouth of the Teton, where a few years before had
+been erected a station of the American Fur Company, which was
+soon given the name Fort Pierre. "The country about this Fort
+is almost entirely prairie, producing along the banks of the river
+and streams only, slight skirtings of timber.... On my way up
+the river I made a painting of this lovely spot, taken from the
+summit of the bluffs, a mile or two distant, showing an encampment
+of Sioux, of six hundred tents of skin lodges, around the
+Fort, where they had concentrated to make their spring trade;
+exchanging their furs and peltries for articles and luxuries of civilized
+manufactures." (Catlin, (1), I, p. 209.) And he continued
+(p. 211): "I mentioned that this is the nucleus or place of concentration
+of the numerous tribe of the Sioux, who often congregate
+here in great masses to make their trades with the American Fur
+Company; and that on my way up the river, some months since, I
+found here encamped, six hundred families of Sioux, living in tents
+covered with buffalo hides. Amongst these there were twenty or
+more of the different bands, each one with their chief at their head,
+over whom was a <i>superior chief</i> and leader, a middle-aged man, of
+middling stature, with a noble countenance.... The name of this
+chief is Ha-won-je-tah (the one horn) of the Mee-ne-cow-e-gee band,
+who has risen rapidly to the highest honours in the tribe."</p>
+
+<p>About this time a "grand feast" was prepared by the Indians in
+honor of the Indian agent and the several Americans who were then
+at Fort Pierre, including Catlin. A sketch of the gathering is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+shown in plate <a href="#Plate_23">23</a>, <i>a</i>, after the illustration in Catlin's narrative, but
+it may be of interest to know that the original painting is now in
+the National Museum, Washington. Describing this scene, Catlin
+wrote:</p>
+
+<p>"The two chiefs, Ha-wan-je-tah and Tchan-dee ... brought their
+two tents together, forming the two into a semi-circle, enclosing a
+space sufficiently large to accommodate 150 men; and sat down with
+that number of the principal chiefs and warriors of the Sioux nation."
+The several Americans were "placed on elevated seats in
+the centre of the crescent; while the rest of the company all sat
+upon the ground, and mostly cross-legged, preparatory to the feast
+being dealt out. In the centre of the semi-circle was erected a flag-staff,
+on which was waving a white flag, and to which also was tied
+the calumet, both expressive of their friendly feelings towards us.
+Near the foot of the flag-staff were placed in a row on the ground,
+six or eight kettles, with iron covers on them, shutting them tight,
+in which were prepared the viands for our <i>voluptuous</i> feast. Near
+the kettles, and on the ground also, bottomside upwards, were a
+number of wooden bowls, in which the meat was to be served out.
+And in front, two or three men, who were there placed as waiters,
+to light the pipes for smoking, and also to deal out the food." (Op.
+cit., p. 228.) The account of the ceremony which soon followed
+proves the gathering to have been one of much interest, and to the
+Indians one of great moment. The arrangement of the two large
+tipis so as to form a single shelter recalls the site of the gathering
+near the shore of Lake Traverse only a few years before. It is to
+be regretted that Catlin did not leave a more detailed description
+of the appearance of the great encampment as it was at the time of
+his visit, but he devoted much of his time to painting portraits of
+the Indians, of which he prepared a large number.</p>
+
+<p>Although Catlin found representatives of many bands of Sioux
+gathered about on the plain surrounding Fort Pierre, nevertheless
+the comparatively permanent village of the Teton was near the mouth
+of the stream of that name. Maximilian, who ascended the Missouri
+during the spring of 1833, arrived at Fort Pierre late in May, and
+in his journal said: "The Sioux, who live on Teton River, near
+Fort Pierre, are mostly of the branch of the Tetons; though there are
+some Yanktons here." (Maximilian, (1), p. 150.) He elsewhere
+mentioned that "the tents are generally composed of fourteen skins,"
+therefore consider the great number of buffalo required to furnish
+coverings for the lodges mentioned by Catlin. Maximilian wrote
+on May 30, 1833, near Fort Pierre: "Round an isolated tree in the
+prairie I observed a circle of holes in the ground, in which thick
+poles had stood. A number of buffalo skulls were piled up there;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+and we were told that this was a medicine, or charm, contrived by
+the Indians in order to entice the herds of buffaloes. Everywhere
+in the plain we saw circles of clods of earth, with a small circular
+ditch, where the tents of many Indians had stood." (Op. cit., p.
+157.) These were evidently the remains of the encampment seen
+by Catlin the preceding year.</p>
+
+<p>A sketch of Fort Pierre as it appeared July 4, 1851, is given in
+plate <a href="#Plate_23">23</a>, <i>b</i>. This was the work of the young Swiss artist, Friedrich
+Kurz, and is now reproduced for the first time. The small groups
+of Indians, the tipis standing near the fort, and the rolling prairie
+in the distance are all graphically shown.</p>
+
+<p>The several divisions of the Teton performed the sun dance, at
+which time a large ceremonial lodge would be erected, which stood
+alone in the camp circle, formed of the numerous skin tipis. The
+lodge as reared at different times and by the various tribes varied
+in form and method of construction, but it seems to have been the
+custom of all the tribes to abandon the structure at the termination
+of the ceremonies. It was regarded as a sacred place and one not
+to be destroyed by man. Large structures of this sort were often
+encountered by parties traversing the plains and adjacent regions,
+and one, probably erected by a tribe of the Teton, was discovered
+by the Raynolds party, July 16, 1859, in the extreme eastern part
+of the present Crook County, Wyoming. In the journal of the
+expedition it was written on that day, "We have not yet met any
+Indians, nor any indications of their recent presence. The site of
+our camp is, however, marked by the remains of an immense Indian
+lodge, the frame of which consists of large poles, over thirty feet
+in length. Close by is also a high post, around which a perfect
+circle of buffalo skulls has been arranged." (Raynolds, (1), p. 31.)
+This may have been used during the preceding year, at which time the
+skin tipis of the people enacting the sacred ceremonies were pitched
+in the form of a circle with the great lodge standing in the center.
+But with the completion of the annual dance the participants removed,
+with their skin tipis, to other localities, allowing the sacred
+structure to be destroyed by the elements.</p>
+
+<h6>OGLALA.</h6>
+
+<p>Of the early history of this, the principal division of the Teton,
+nothing is known. During the first years of the last century they
+were discovered by Lewis and Clark on the banks of the upper Missouri,
+south of the Cheyenne River, in the present Stanley County,
+South Dakota. They hunted and roamed over a wide region, and by
+the middle of the century occupied the country between the Forks of
+the Platte and beyond to the Black Hills. While living on the banks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+of the Missouri their villages undoubtedly resembled the skin-covered
+tipi settlements of the other kindred tribes, and later, when they had
+pushed farther into the prairie country, there was probably no change
+in the appearance of their structures. A very interesting account of
+the villages of this tribe, with reference to their ways of life, after
+they had arrived on the banks of the Platte, is to be found in the
+narrative of Stansbury's expedition, during the years 1849 and 1850.</p>
+
+<p>July 2, 1849, the expedition crossed the South Fork of the Platte,
+evidently at some point in the western part of the present Keith
+County, Nebraska, and on the following day "crossed the ridge between
+the North and South Forks of the Platte, a distance of eighteen
+and a half miles." On July 5 the expedition began moving up the
+right bank of the North Fork, and after advancing 23 miles encamped
+on the bank of the river. They had arrived in the region dominated
+by the Oglala. "Just above us, was a village of Sioux, consisting of
+ten lodges. They were accompanied by Mr. Badeau, a trader; and
+having been driven from the South Fork by the cholera, had fled
+to the emigrant-road, in the hope of obtaining medical aid from the
+whites. As soon as it was dark, the chief and a dozen of the braves
+of the village came and sat down in a semicircle around the front
+of my tent, and, by means of an interpreter, informed me that they
+would be very glad of a little coffee, sugar, or biscuit. I gave them
+what we could spare." This particular band had not suffered very
+severely from the ailment, but were greatly heartened to receive
+medicines from the doctor, or "medicine-man," of the expedition,
+and when they returned to their village "the sound of the drum and
+the song, expressive of the revival of hope, which had almost departed,
+resounded from the 'medicine lodge,' and continued until a
+late hour of the night." (Stansbury, (1), pp. 44-45.) During this
+visit some of the Indians told of a larger camp about 2 miles distant,
+where many were ill with the dreaded malady.</p>
+
+<p>The following morning, July 6, 1849, the expedition resumed its
+advance up the valley, and soon reached the "upper village," of
+which an interesting account is given in the journal. It "contained
+about two hundred and fifty souls. They were in the act of breaking
+up their encampment, being obliged to move farther up the river
+to obtain fresh grass for their animals. A more curious, animated,
+and novel scene I never witnessed. Squaws, papooses, dogs, puppies,
+mules, and ponies, all in busy motion, while the lordly, lazy men
+lounged about with an air of listless indifference, too proud to render
+the slightest aid to their faithful drudges. Before the lodge of each
+brave was erected a tripod of thin slender poles about ten feet in
+length, upon which was suspended his round white shield, with some
+device painted upon it, his spear, and a buckskin sack containing
+his 'medicine' bag.... We continued our journey, accompanied for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+several miles by the people of both villages. The whole scene was
+unique in the highest degree. The road was strewn for miles with
+the most motley assemblage I ever beheld, each lodge moving off
+from the village as soon as its inhabitants were ready, without waiting
+for the others. The means of transportation were horses, mules,
+and dogs. Four or five lodge-poles are fastened on each side of the
+animal, the ends of which trail on the ground behind, like the shafts
+of a truck or dray. On these, behind the horse, is fastened a light
+framework, the outside of which consists of a strong hoop bent into
+an oval form, and interlaced with a sort of network of rawhide.
+Most of these are surmounted by a light wicker canopy, very like our
+covers for children's wagons, except that it extends the whole length
+and is open only at one side. Over the canopy is spread a blanket,
+shawl, or buffalo-robe, so as to form a protection from the sun or
+rain. Upon this light but strong trellice-work, they place the lighter
+articles, such as clothing, robes, &amp;c., and then pack away among
+these their puppies and papooses, (of both which they seem to have
+a goodly number;) the women, when tired of walking, get upon them
+to rest and take care of their babies.... The dogs also are made to
+perform an important part in this shifting of quarters. Two short,
+light lodge-poles are fastened together at the small end, and made
+to rest at the angle upon the animal's back, the other end of course,
+trailing upon the ground. Over his shoulders is placed a sort of
+pad, or small saddle, the girth of which fastens the poles to his sides,
+and connects with a little collar or breast-strap. Behind the dog, a
+small platform or frame is fastened to the poles, similar to that used
+for the horses, upon which are placed lighter articles, generally puppies,
+which are considered quite valuable, being raised for beasts
+of burden as well as for food and the chase.... The whole duty of
+taking down and putting up the lodges, packing up, loading the
+horses, arranging the lodge-poles, and leading or driving the animals,
+devolves upon the squaws, while the men stalk along at their
+leisure; even the boys of larger growth deeming it beneath their
+dignity to lighten the toils of their own mothers." (Op. cit., pp.
+45-47.)</p>
+
+<p>From the preceding account of the movement of a village of the
+Oglala it is quite apparent they did not advance in the orderly manner
+followed by the Pawnee, as described by Murray in 1835, but
+the dreaded illness from which many were then suffering may have
+caused the rather demoralized condition of the band. The travois
+as used at that time was similar to the example shown in plate <a href="#Plate_14">14</a>,
+although the latter was in use by the Cheyenne a generation later.
+But the frame was not always utilized, and often the tipi, folded
+and rolled, with other possessions of the family, rested upon the
+poles or upon the back of the horse.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>Horses thus laden, and with trailing poles on either side, left a
+very distinctive trail as they crossed the prairie, and as described:
+"The trail of the Plain Indians consists usually of three paths, close
+together, yet at fixed distances apart. They are produced as follows:
+The framework of their lodges or tents are made of long poles
+which, on a journey, are tied to each side of a pony, and allowed to
+trail upon the ground. The result is that a long string of ponies,
+thus laden and following each other, will wear a triple path&mdash;the
+central one being caused by the tread of the ponies, the two outer
+by the trailing of the lodge-poles." (Bell, (1), pp. 25-26.) An
+illustration of a horse so loaded is given on page 26 and is here reproduced
+as figure <a href="#figure_3">3</a>. It bears the legend "Sioux Indian Lodges or
+Tents; one packed for a journey, the other standing," and, although
+crude, conveys a clear conception of the subject.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"><a name="figure_3"></a>
+<img src="images/f003.png" width="500" height="421" alt="Fig. 3.&mdash;Horse travois." title="Fig. 3.&mdash;Horse travois." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 3.&mdash;Horse travois.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To continue the narrative of the Stansbury expedition. The party
+advanced up the river and pursued their journey to the Great Salt
+Lake and there wintered. The following year they returned to the
+east and on September 21, 1850, reached the left bank of the North
+Fork of the Platte, at a point near the center of the present Carbon
+County, Wyoming. Describing the site of their encampment that
+night, near the bank of the Platte: "The place we now occupy has
+long been a favorite camp-ground for the numerous war-parties<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+which annually meet in this region to hunt buffalo and one another.
+Remains of old Indian stockades are met with scattered about among
+the thickets; and the guide informed us, that four years since there
+were at one and the same time, upon this one bottom, fifteen or
+twenty of these forts, constructed by different tribes. Most of them
+have since been destroyed by fire. As this was the season of the year
+when we might expect to find them upon their expeditions, we were
+on the <i>qui vive</i>, lest we should be surprised." They remained in
+camp the following day, Sunday, and that evening entered in the
+journal: "Several herds of buffalo were seen during the day."</p>
+
+<p>The morning of the 23d was warm and cloudy, and the party soon
+after leaving their camp forded the river "on a ripple, with a depth
+of eighteen inches." The water was clear, with a pebbly bottom.
+That this location was frequented by Indians was again indicated
+by the discovery of another great group of "forts," as told in the
+narrative: "Immediately above where we crossed, were about twenty
+Indian forts, or lodges constructed of logs set up endwise, somewhat
+in the form of an ordinary skin lodge, which had been erected among
+the timber by different war-parties: they appeared to be very strong,
+and were ball-proof." (Stansbury, (1), pp. 243-246.) These
+strongly constructed lodges will at once recall the rather similar
+structures which stood at some of the Siouan villages, on the Mississippi
+below the mouth of the Minnesota, during the early years
+of the last century.</p>
+
+<p>On September 27, when about midway across the present Albany
+County, Wyoming, the expedition encountered a large number of Indians
+belonging to a village a short distance beyond. These proved
+to be the Oglala, and during the following day the village was visited
+by Stansbury, who wrote in the journal: "This village was the
+largest and by far the best-looking of any I had ever seen. It consisted
+of nearly one hundred lodges, most of which were entirely
+new, pitched upon the level prairie which borders on the verdant
+banks of the Laramie. No regular order seemed to be observed in
+their position, but each builder appeared to have selected the site for
+his habitation according to his own fancy.</p>
+
+<p>"We rode at once to the lodge of the chief, which was painted in
+broad horizontal stripes of alternate black and white, and, on the side
+opposite to the entrance, was ornamented with large black crosses on
+a white ground. We found the old fellow sitting on the floor of his
+lodge, and his squaw busily engaged over a few coals, endeavouring to
+fry, or rather boil, in a pan nearly filled with grease, some very
+suspicious-looking lumps of dough, made doubtless from the flour
+they had received from us yesterday.... After some further conversation,
+another chief, named the 'Iron Heart,' rose up and invited<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+us to a feast at his lodge: we accordingly accompanied him,
+and found him occupying the largest and most complete structure in
+the village, although I was assured that the Sioux frequently make
+them much larger. It was intended to be used whenever required,
+for the accommodation of any casual trader that might come among
+them for the purpose of traffic, and was accordingly called 'The
+Trader's Lodge.' It was made of twenty-six buffalo-hides, perfectly
+new, and white as snow, which, being sewed together without a
+wrinkle, were stretched over twenty-four new poles, and formed a
+conical tent of thirty feet diameter upon the ground, and thirty-five
+feet in height." This must have been a magnificent example of the
+tipi of the plains tribes, and is one of the largest of which any record
+has been preserved.</p>
+
+<p>Moving in a southeastwardly direction from the great village, they
+passed many mounted Indians killing buffalo, and later in the day
+passed another Oglala village of some 50 lodges, moving southward.
+The surface of the prairie for many miles was strewn with the remains
+of buffalo, which had been killed by the Indians and from which
+only choice pieces had been removed. (Op. cit., pp. 254-257.) They
+were now ascending the western slopes of the Black Hills, and approaching
+the region dominated by the Cheyenne, and two days later,
+September 29, 1850, were a short distance south of a village of the
+latter tribe.</p>
+
+<p>The region just mentioned, the southeastern part of Wyoming,
+was traversed by a missionary who, July 24, 1835, encountered a
+party of 30 or 40 mounted Indians. "They were Ogallallahs, headed
+by eight of their chiefs, clad in their war habiliments, and presenting
+somewhat of a terrific appearance.... They told us their whole
+village was only a few hours' travel ahead of us, going to the
+Black Hills for the purpose of trading." Late the following day the
+party overtook the Indians, "consisting of more than two thousand
+persons. These villages are not stationary, but move from place to
+place, as inclination or convenience may dictate. Their lodges are
+comfortable, and easily transported. They are constructed of eight
+or ten poles about eighteen feet long, set up in a circular form, the
+small ends fastened together, making an apex, and the large ends are
+spread out so as to enclose an area of about twenty feet in diameter.
+The whole is covered with their coarse skins, which are elk, or buffalo,
+taken when they are not good for robes. A fire is made in the centre,
+a hole being left in the top of the lodge for the smoke to pass out.
+All that they have for household furniture, clothing, and skins for
+beds, is deposited around according to their ideas of propriety and
+convenience. Generally not more than one family occupies a lodge."
+(Parker, (1), pp. 66-67.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>Fort Laramie was reached by the Stansbury expedition on July
+12, 1849, after advancing about 100 miles beyond the Oglala villages
+passed six days before. The fort stood on the emigrant road, and
+was likewise a great gathering place of the neighboring Indians.
+An interesting account of the visit of a party of emigrants just four
+years before is preserved: "Our camp is stationary to-day; part of
+the emigrants are shoeing their horses and oxen; others are trading
+at the fort and with the Indians.... In the afternoon we gave the
+Indians a feast, and held a long <i>talk</i> with them. Each family, as
+they could best spare it, contributed a portion of bread, meat, coffee
+or sugar, which being cooked, a table was set by spreading buffalo
+skins upon the ground, and arranging the provisions upon them.
+Around this attractive board, the Indian chiefs and their principal
+men seated themselves, occupying one fourth of the circle; the remainder
+of the male Indians made out the semi-circle; the rest of
+the circle was completed by the whites. The squaws and younger
+Indians formed an outer semi-circular row immediately behind their
+dusky lords and fathers." (Palmer, (1), pp. 25-26.) This was
+June 25, 1845, and the account of the gathering of emigrants and
+Indians is followed by a brief description of the fort itself which
+is of equal interest; "Here are two forts. Fort Laramie, situated
+upon the west side of Laramie's fork, two miles from Platte river,
+belongs to the North American Fur Company. The fort is built of
+<i>adobes</i>. The walls are about two feet thick, and twelve or fourteen
+feet high, the tops being picketed or spiked. Posts are planted in
+these walls, and support the timber for the roof. They are then
+covered with mud. In the centre is an open square, perhaps twenty-five
+yards each way, along the sides of which are ranged the dwellings,
+store rooms, smith shop, carpenter's shop, offices, &amp;c., all fronting
+upon the inner area. There are two principal entrances; one at
+the north, the other at the south." (Op. cit., pp. 27-28.) Outside
+the fort proper, on the eastern side, stood the stables, and a short
+distance away was a field of about 4 acres where corn was planted,
+"by way of experiment." About 1 mile distant was a similar though
+smaller structure called Fort John. It was then owned and occupied
+by a company from St. Louis, but a few months later it was purchased
+by the North American Fur Company and destroyed. Such
+were the typical "forts," on and beyond the frontier during the
+past century.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians would gather about the fort, their skin tipis standing
+in clusters over the surrounding prairie. Such groups are shown
+in plate <a href="#Plate_24">24</a>, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>. These two very interesting photographs were made
+during the visit of the Indian Peace Commission to Fort Laramie in
+1868, and it is highly probable the tipis shown in the pictures were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+occupied by some of the Indians with whom the commissioners
+treated.</p>
+
+<p>The Black Hills lay north and west of the region then occupied
+by the Oglala, and although it is known that the broken country
+was often visited and frequented by parties of Indians in quest of
+poles for their tipis, yet it seems doubtful if any permanent settlements
+ever stood within the region. Dodge, in discussing this question,
+said:</p>
+
+<p>"My opinion is, that the Black Hills have never been a permanent
+home for any Indians. Even now small parties go a little way into
+the Hills to cut spruce lodge-poles, but all the signs indicate that
+these are mere sojourns of the most temporary character.</p>
+
+<p>"The 'teepe,' or lodge, may be regarded as the Indian's house, the
+wickup as his tent. One is his permanent residence, the other the
+make-shift shelter for a night. Except in one single spot, near the
+head of Castle Creek, I saw nowhere any evidence whatever of a
+lodge having been set up, while old wickups were not unfrequent in
+the edge of the Hills. There is not one single teepe or lodge-pole
+trail, from side to side of the Hills, in any direction, and these poles,
+when dragged in the usual way by ponies, soon make a trail as difficult
+to obliterate as a wagon road, visible for many years, even
+though not used." (Dodge, (1), pp. 136-137.)</p>
+
+<p>Col. R. I. Dodge, from whose work the preceding quotation has
+been made, was in command of the military escort which formed
+part of the expedition into the Black Hills during the summer of
+1875. The traces of the lodges which had stood near the head of
+Castle Creek, as mentioned in 1875, undoubtedly marked the position
+of the small encampment encountered by the Ludlow party the
+previous year. In the journal of that expedition, dated July 26, 1874,
+is to be found this brief mention: "In the afternoon occurred the
+first rencontre with Indians. A village of seven lodges, containing
+twenty-seven souls, was found in the valley. The men were away
+peacefully engaged in hunting; the squaws in camp drying meat,
+cooking, and other camp avocations. Red Cloud's daughter was the
+wife of the head-man, whose name was One Stab. General Custer
+was desirous they should remain and introduce us to the hills, but the
+presence among our scouts of a party of Rees, with whom the Sioux
+wage constant war, rendered them very uneasy, and toward night-fall,
+abandoning their camp, they made the escape. Old One Stab
+was at headquarters when the flight was discovered, and retained both
+as guide and hostage.... The high limestone ridges surrounding
+the camp had weathered into castellated forms of considerable grandeur
+and beauty and suggested the name of Castle Valley." (Ludlow,
+(1), p. 13.) Red Cloud, whose daughter is mentioned above,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+was one of the greatest chiefs and warriors of the Oglala; born in
+1822 near the forks of the Platte, and lived until December, 1909.</p>
+
+<p>Although there may never have been any large permanent camps
+within the Black Hills district, nevertheless it is quite evident the
+region was frequented and traversed by bands of Indians, who left
+well-defined trails. Such were discovered by an expedition in 1875,
+and after referring to small trees which had been bent down by the
+weight of snow the narrative continued: "The snow must be sometimes
+deep enough to hide trails and landmarks, as the main Indian
+trails leading through the Hills were marked by stones placed in
+the forks of the trees or by one or more sets of blazes, the oldest
+almost overgrown by the bark." (Newton and Jenney, (1), p. 302.)
+And in the same work (p. 323), when treating of the timber of the
+Hills, it was said: "The small slender spruce-trees are much sought
+after by the Indians, who visit the Hills in the spring for the purpose
+of procuring them for lodge-poles."</p>
+
+<p>In another work Dodge described the customs of the tribes with
+whom he had been in close contact for many years. The book is
+illustrated with engravings made from original drawings by the
+French artist Griset, and one sketch shows a few Indians, several
+tipis, and frames from which are hanging quantities of buffalo meat
+in the process of being dried. (Dodge, (2), p. 353.) This suggests
+the scene at Red Cloud's camp. The original drawing is now reproduced
+as plate <a href="#Plate_1">1</a>, the frontispiece.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Assiniboin.</span></h5>
+
+<p>The Assiniboin were, until comparatively recent times, a part of
+the Yanktonai, from whom they may have separated while living in
+the forest region of the northern section of the present State of
+Minnesota. Leaving the parent stock, they joined the Cree, then
+living to the northward, with whom they remained in close alliance.
+Gradually they moved to the valleys of the Saskatchewan and Assiniboin
+Rivers and here were encountered by Alexander Henry in 1775.
+Interesting though brief notes on the structures of the Assiniboin
+as they appeared in 1775 and 1776 are contained in the narrative of
+Henry's travels through the great northern country. In 1775, when
+west of Lake Winnipeg, Henry wrote: "At eighty leagues above
+Fort de Bourbon, at the head of a stream which falls into the Sascatchiwaine,
+and into which we had turned, we found the Pasquayah
+village. It consisted of thirty families, lodged in tents of a circular
+form, and composed of dressed ox-skins, stretched upon poles twelve
+feet in length, and leaning against a stake driven into the ground in
+the centre. On our arrival, the chief, named Chatique, or the Pelican,
+came down upon the beach, attended by thirty followers, all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+armed with bows and arrows and with spears." (Henry, (1), pp.
+256-257.) Fort de Bourbon stood at the northwest corner of Lake
+Winnipeg, and the Assiniboin village of Pasquayah was on the present
+Carrot River, which flows parallel with the Saskatchewan before
+joining the larger stream. This was in the eastern part of the province
+of Saskatchewan.</p>
+
+<p>Early the following year Henry made a visit to an Assiniboin
+village, to reach which he crossed many miles of the frozen wilderness.
+He was accompanied by a party of Indians and the short account
+of the journey contains much of interest. They left Fort des
+Prairies, "built on the margin of the Pasquayah, or Sascatchiwaine,"
+February 5, 1776, and, as is recorded in the journal, "At noon, we
+crossed a small river, called Moose-river, flowing at the feet of very
+lofty banks. Moose-river is said to fall into Lake Dauphin. Beyond
+this stream, the wood grows still more scanty, and the land more
+and more level. Our course was southerly. The snow lay four
+feet deep. The Indians travelled swiftly; and, in keeping pace with
+them, my companions and myself had too much exercise, to suffer
+from the coldness of the atmosphere; but, our snow-shoes being of a
+broader make than those of the Indians, we had much fatigue in
+following their track. The women led, and we marched till sunset,
+when we reached a small coppice of wood, under the protection of
+which we encamped. The baggage of the Indians was drawn by
+dogs, who kept pace with the women, and appeared to be under their
+command. As soon as we halted, the women set up the tents, which
+were constructed, and covered, like those of the Cristinaux.</p>
+
+<p>"The tent, in which I slept, contained fourteen persons, each of
+whom lay with his feet to the fire, which was in the middle; but, the
+night was so cold, that even this precaution, with the assistance of
+our <i>buffalo-robes</i> was insufficient to keep us warm. Our supper was
+made on the tongues of the wild ox, or buffalo, boiled in my kettle,
+which was the only one in the camp."</p>
+
+<p>On the morning of February 7, "I was still asleep, when the
+women began their noisy preparations for our march. The striking
+of the tents, the tongues of the women, and the cries of the dogs,
+were all heard at once. At the first dawn of day, we commenced our
+journey. Nothing was visible but the snow and sky; and the snow
+was drifted into ridges, resembling waves.</p>
+
+<p>"Soon after sunrise, we descried a herd of oxen, extending a mile
+and a half in length, and too numerous to be counted. They travelled,
+not one after another, as, in the snow, other animals usually
+do, but, in a broad phalanx, slowly, and sometimes stopping to feed."</p>
+
+<p>One week was required to reach their destination, and during the
+morning of the 12th of February the party arrived at a small wood,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+in which the Assiniboin village stood. And "at the entrance of
+the wood, we were met by a large band of Indians, having the appearance
+of a guard; each man being armed with his bow and spear,
+and having his quiver filled with arrows.... Forming themselves in
+regular file, on either side of us, they escorted us to the lodge, or tent,
+which was assigned us. It was of a circular form, covered with
+leather, and not less than twenty feet in diameter. On the ground
+within, ox-skins were spread, for beds and seats."</p>
+
+<p>Later, the same day of their arrival, they were invited to a feast in
+the tent of the chief. An Indian appeared. "We followed him accordingly,
+and he carried us to the tent of the great chief, which we
+found neither more ornamented, nor better furnished, than the rest."
+And another feast followed in the evening, "Every thing was nearly
+as before, except that in the morning all the guests were men, and
+now half were women. All the women were seated on one side of the
+floor of the tent, and all the men on the other, with a fire placed between
+them."</p>
+
+<p>The village consisted of about 200 tents, "each tent containing
+from two to four families." And here "I saw, for the first time, one
+of those herds of horses which the Osinipoilles possess in numbers.
+It was feeding on the skirts of the plain." (Henry, (1), pp. 275-289.)
+Such was a great Assiniboin village nearly a century and a half ago.</p>
+
+<p>The entire village was to return to Fort des Prairies, and so, on
+the morning of February 20, 1776, the tents were struck, and "Soon
+after sunrise, the march began. In the van were twenty-five soldiers,
+who were to beat the path, so that the dogs might walk. They were
+followed by about twenty men, apparently in readiness for contingent
+services; and after these went the women, each driving one
+or two, and some, five loaded dogs. The number of these animals,
+actually drawing loads, exceeded five hundred. After the baggage,
+marched the main body of men, carrying only their arms. The
+rear was guarded by about forty soldiers. The line of march certainly
+exceeded three miles in length." (Op. cit., p. 309.)</p>
+
+<p>It is easy to visualize this great body of Indians passing over the
+frozen plain, camping at night under the scant protection of a small
+cluster of trees. The hundreds of dogs carrying the skin lodges of
+the villages, the men and women moving forward on snowshoes,
+undoubtedly stopping to kill buffalo and thus to obtain food for all.
+An exciting and animated scene it must have been, but only typical
+and characteristic, not unusual.</p>
+
+<p>The preceding description of the movement of an entire village
+suggests a passage in the journal of La Verendrye, treating of the
+same people a generation earlier. Late in the autumn of 1738 a
+small party of French, accompanied by a numerous band of Assiniboin,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+set out from the village of the latter to visit the Mandan,
+who lived many leagues distant. La Verendrye, the leader of the
+expedition, wrote: "I observed to M. de la Marque the good order
+in which the Assiniboins march to prevent surprise, marching always
+on the prairies, the hillsides and valleys from the first mountain,
+which did not make them fatigued by mounting and descending
+often in their march during the day. There are magnificent plains
+of three or four leagues. The march of the Assiniboins, especially
+when they are numerous, is in three columns, having skirmishers in
+front, with a good rear guard, the old and lame march in the middle,
+forming the central column.... If the skirmishers discovered herds
+of cattle on the road, as often happens, they raise a cry which is
+soon returned by the rear guard, and all the most active men in
+the columns join the vanguard to hem in the cattle, of which they
+secure a number, and each takes what flesh he wants. Since that
+stops the march, the vanguard marks out the encampment which
+is not to be passed; the women and dogs carry all the baggage, the
+men are burdened only with their arms; they make the dogs even
+carry wood to make the fires, being often obliged to encamp in the
+open prairie, from which the clumps of wood may be at a great distance."
+(La Verendrye, (1), p. 13.)</p>
+
+<p>The Assiniboin appear to have possessed a great fondness for
+visiting other tribes, and many narratives of journeys in the upper
+Missouri Valley contain references to meeting with such parties.</p>
+
+<p>The size of the Assiniboin camps was often mentioned by the early
+writers. Thus Tanner wrote: "When we came from the Little Saskawjawun
+into the Assinneboin river, we came to the rapids, where
+was a village of one hundred and fifty lodges of Assinneboins, and
+some Crees." (James, (2), p. 57.) This was a century ago, when
+the villages retained their primitive appearance, and so it is to be
+regretted that no detailed description was prepared of this large
+group of skin-covered tipis.</p>
+
+<p>The two associated tribes extended their wanderings to the southward,
+reaching the Missouri, a large gathering of the allies being encountered
+by Lewis and Clark at the Mandan towns in November,
+1804. In their journal, on November 14, appears this entry: "The
+river rose last night half an inch, and is now filled with floating ice.
+This morning was cloudy with some snow: about seventy lodges of
+Assiniboins and some Knistenaux are at the Mandan village, and this
+being the day of adoption and exchange of property between them
+all, it is accompanied by a dance, which prevents our seeing more
+than two Indians to-day: these Knistenaux are a band of Chippeways
+whose language they speak; they live on the Assiniboin and Saskashawan
+rivers, and are about two hundred and forty men...."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+And on the following day: "The ceremony of yesterday seem to continue
+still, for we were not visited by a single Indian. The swan are
+still passing to the south." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, p. 127.)</p>
+
+<p>As will be recalled, the expedition under command of Lewis and
+Clark wintered near the Mandan towns, and on April 7, 1805, proceeded
+on their journey up the Missouri. On the 13th of April they
+arrived at a small creek which entered the Missouri about 20 miles
+above the mouth of the Little Missouri. They ascended the creek
+and at a distance of about 1&frac12; miles reached a pond "which seemed to
+have been once the bed of the Missouri: near this lake were the remains
+of forty-three temporary lodges which seem to belong to the
+Assiniboins, who are now on the river of the same name." The following
+day, April 14, 1805, after advancing about 15 miles beyond
+the creek entered on the 13th, "we passed timbered low grounds and
+a small creek: in these low grounds are several uninhabited lodges
+built with the boughs of the elm, and the remains of two recent
+encampments, which from the hoops of small kegs found in them we
+judged could belong to Assiniboins only, as they are the only Missouri
+Indians who use spirituous liquors: of these they are so passionately
+fond that it forms their chief inducement to visit the British
+on the Assiniboin." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 185-186.)</p>
+
+<p>During the days following many Assiniboin camps were discovered.</p>
+
+<p>From these brief statements recorded in 1804 and 1805 it will be
+understood that when a large party of the Assiniboin moved, or
+when on a visit to another tribe, they carried with them their skin
+lodges, but when on a hunting trip they raised temporary shelters of
+brush and boughs, and the same custom was undoubtedly followed by
+war parties.</p>
+
+<p>Evidently the establishment in after years of posts of the American
+Fur Company at certain points along the course of the upper Missouri
+served to attract bands of the Assiniboin as well as representatives
+of other tribes. Several interesting accounts of the arrival of
+such parties at Fort Union, near the mouth of the Yellowstone, are
+preserved. Thus Maximilian wrote when at the fort, June 29, 1833:
+"The expected arrival of more Assiniboins was delayed; they do not
+willingly travel with their leather tents in wet weather, because their
+baggage then becomes very heavy.... On the 30th of June, at noon,
+a band of Indians had arrived, and twenty-five tents were set up near
+the fort. The women, who were short, and mostly stout, with faces
+painted red, soon finished this work, and dug up with their instruments
+the clods of turf, which they lay round the lower part of the
+hut. One of these tents, the dwelling of a chief, was distinguished
+from the rest. It was painted of the colour of yellow ochre, had a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+broad reddish-brown border below, and on each of its sides a large
+black bear was painted (something of a caricature it must be confessed),
+to the head of which, just above the nose, a piece of red
+cloth, that fluttered in the wind, was fastened, doubtless a medicine."
+Continuing, the narrative recorded the arrival of others. "Another
+band of Assiniboins appeared at a distance. To the west, along the
+wood by the river-side, the prairie was suddenly covered with red
+men, most of whom went singly, with their dogs drawing the loaded
+sledges. The warriors, about sixty in number, formed a close
+column.... The whole column entered the fort, where they smoked,
+ate, and drank: and, meantime, forty-two tents were set up. The new
+camp had a very pretty appearance; the tents stood in a semicircle,
+and all the fires were smoking, while all around was life and activity."
+(Maximilian, (1), pp. 202-204.)</p>
+
+<p>A painting of the dwelling of the chief, with a broad border at the
+bottom, "and on each of its sides a large black bear," was made by
+Bodmer and reproduced by Maximilian. It is here shown in plate
+<a href="#Plate_24">24</a>, <i>c.</i> Several interesting details are represented in this graphic
+sketch. The dog travois is well shown, both the manner in which a
+dog appeared when the frame was attached, and the several pairs of
+poles with the small net-covered frames, standing together to the left
+of the principal tipi.</p>
+
+<p>The preceding quotation from Maximilian is suggestive of an
+entry in the journal of the Swiss artist Friedrich Kurz, made some
+years later. Kurz wrote while at Fort Union: "October 13, 1851.
+As we were weighing and hanging up dried meat, a lot of Assiniboins
+came to the fort with squaws and many horse and dog travois. As
+a whole these trading parties do not show much of interest, but there
+are always many details to be picked up, of great value to a painter."
+(Bushnell, (3), p. 15.) Kurz remained at Fort Union until April
+19, 1852, when he descended the Missouri to St. Louis, and thence
+returned to his native city of Bern. While still at Fort Union on
+March 21, 1852, he made the sketch now reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_25">25</a>, <i>b</i>,
+which bears the legend, "Horse camp of the Assiniboins." It shows
+a group of skin-covered lodges in the midst of a grove of cottonwoods,
+and evidently the Missouri is in the distance on the right.
+At that time (1851-52), according to Kurz, the Assiniboin then
+living in the vicinity of Fort Union numbered 420 lodges, with 1,050
+men, but "from 2-3000 Assiniboins live far above, near lake Winnibeg."</p>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 24<a name="Plate_24"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p024a.png" width="300" height="124" alt="a. Near Fort Laramie, 1868" title="a. Near Fort Laramie, 1868" />
+<span class="caption">a. Near Fort Laramie, 1868</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p024b.png" width="300" height="123" alt="b. Near Fort Laramie, 1868" title="b. Near Fort Laramie, 1868" />
+<span class="caption">b. Near Fort Laramie, 1868</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p024c.png" width="300" height="209" alt="c. &quot;A skin lodge of an Assiniboin chief.&quot; Karl Bodmer" title="c. &quot;A skin lodge of an Assiniboin chief.&quot; Karl Bodmer" />
+<span class="caption">c. &quot;A skin lodge of an Assiniboin chief.&quot; Karl Bodmer</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 25<a name="Plate_25"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p025a.png" width="300" height="185" alt="a. Assiniboin lodges &quot;formed entirely of pine branches.&quot; Paul Kane, 1848" title="a. Assiniboin lodges &quot;formed entirely of pine branches.&quot; Paul Kane, 1848" />
+<span class="caption">a. Assiniboin lodges &quot;formed entirely of pine branches.&quot; Paul Kane, 1848</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p025b.png" width="300" height="203" alt="b. &quot;Horse camp of the Assiniboins, March 21, 1852.&quot; Friedrich Kurz" title="b. &quot;Horse camp of the Assiniboins, March 21, 1852.&quot; Friedrich Kurz" />
+<span class="caption">b. &quot;Horse camp of the Assiniboins, March 21, 1852.&quot; Friedrich Kurz</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 26<a name="Plate_26"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p026a.png" width="300" height="265" alt="a. Tipi of Gi-he-ga, an Omaha chief. Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871" title="a. Tipi of Gi-he-ga, an Omaha chief. Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871" />
+<span class="caption">a. Tipi of Gi-he-ga, an Omaha chief. Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p026b.png" width="300" height="185" alt="b. Page of Kurz&#39;s Sketchbook" title="b. Page of Kurz&#39;s Sketchbook" />
+<span class="caption">b. Page of Kurz&#39;s Sketchbook</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 27<a name="Plate_27"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/p027.png" width="500" height="303" alt="&quot;THE VILLAGE OF THE OMAHAS&quot;
+
+Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871" title="&quot;THE VILLAGE OF THE OMAHAS&quot;
+
+Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871" />
+<span class="caption">&quot;THE VILLAGE OF THE OMAHAS&quot;
+
+Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Assiniboin living in the far northwest had another and simpler
+form of temporary structure, as mentioned by Kane. He wrote,
+when arriving at Rocky Mountain Fort, a post of the Hudson's
+Bay Company, April 21, 1848: "This fort is beautifully situated on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>the banks of the Saskatchewan, in a small prairie, backed by the
+Rocky Mountains in the distance. In the vicinity was a camp of
+Assiniboine lodges, formed entirely of pine branches." (Kane, (1),
+p. 408.) The painting made by him showing the fort and lodges is
+reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_25">25</a>, <i>a</i>.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">dhegiha group.</span></h4>
+
+<p>Five tribes are considered as belonging to this group of the Siouan
+linguistic family: Omaha, Ponca, Quapaw, Osage, and Kansa. Distinct
+from the Dakota-Assiniboin tribes already mentioned, these
+undoubtedly some centuries ago lived in the central and upper
+Ohio valleys, whence they moved westward to and beyond the Mississippi.
+To these tribes may be attributed the great earthworks
+of the southern portion of Ohio and the adjacent regions bordering
+the Ohio River. To quote from the Handbook: "Hale and Dorsey
+concluded from a study of the languages and traditions that, in the
+westward migration of the Dhegiha from their seat on Ohio and
+Wabash rivers, after the separation, at least as early as 1500, of the
+Quapaw, who went down the Mississippi from the mouth of the
+Ohio, the Omaha branch moved up the great river, remaining awhile
+near the mouth of the Missouri while war and hunting parties explored
+the country to the northwest. The Osage remained on Osage
+River, and the Kansa continued up the Missouri, while the Omaha,
+still including the Ponca, crossed the latter stream and remained
+for a period in Iowa, ranging as far as the Pipestone quarry at the
+present Pipestone, Minnesota."</p>
+
+<p>While living in the heavily timbered valleys reaching to the Ohio
+the several tribes now being considered unquestionably occupied villages
+consisting of groups of mat-covered lodges of the type erected
+by the Osage and Quapaw until the present time. But with the
+Omaha, Ponca, and Kansa, it was different, and when they reached
+the intermediate region, where forest and prairie joined, they were
+compelled to adopt a new form of structure, one suited to the natural
+environments, and thus they began to make use of the earth-covered
+lodge, and the conical skin tipi, with certain variations in form.
+The characteristic structures of the five tribes will now be briefly
+described, beginning with those of the Omaha.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Omaha.</span></h5>
+
+<p>When Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri in 1804 they found
+the Omaha village not far from the Missouri, in the present Dakota
+County, Nebraska. On the 13th of August the expedition reached
+the mouth of a creek entering the right bank of the Missouri. Just
+beyond they encamped on a sandbar, "opposite the lower point of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+large island." From here Sergeant Ordway and four men were sent
+to the Omaha village and returned the following day. "After crossing
+a prairie covered with high grass, they reached the Maha creek,
+along which they proceeded to its three forks, which join near the
+village: they crossed the north branch and went along the south; the
+walk was very fatiguing, as they were forced to break their way
+through grass, sunflowers, and thistles, all above ten feet high, and
+interspersed with wild pea. Five miles from our camp they reached
+the position of the ancient Maha village: it had once consisted of
+three hundred cabins, but was burnt about four years ago, soon after
+the smallpox had destroyed four hundred men, and a proportion of
+women and children. On a hill, in the rear of the village, are the
+graves of the nation." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 44-45.)</p>
+
+<p>Seven years after Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri the
+traveler Bradbury visited the Omaha village standing on or near
+the site of the one mentioned in the earlier narrative. May 12, 1811,
+while away from the boat and traversing the country in search of
+botanical specimens, he arrived on the summit of the bluffs, and, to
+quote from his journal: "I had a fine view of the town below. It
+had a singular appearance; the framework of the lodges consists of
+ten or twelve long poles, placed in the periphery of a circle of about
+sixteen feet in diameter, and are inclined towards each other, so as
+to cross at a little more than half their length from the bottom; and
+the tops diverging with the same angle, exhibit the appearance of one
+cone inverted on the apex of another. The lower cone is covered with
+dressed buffalo skins, sewed together, and fancifully painted; some
+with an undulating red or yellow band of ten or twelve inches in
+breadth, surrounding the lodge at half its height; on others, rude
+figures of horses, buffaloes, or deer were painted; others again with
+attempts at the human face, in a circle, as the moon is sometimes
+painted; these were not less than four feet in diameter. I judged
+there were not fewer than eighty lodges. I did not remain long on
+the summit of the bluffs, as I perceived, from the heaps of earth, some
+of these recent, that it was a burial ground, and I knew the veneration
+they have for the graves of their ancestors." (Bradbury, (1),
+pp. 65-67.)</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to read of the number of decorated lodges then
+standing in an Omaha village, but in later years fewer structures
+were so ornamented. A typical example of a tipi of half a century
+ago is shown in plate <a href="#Plate_26">26</a>, <i>a</i>, from a photograph made by Jackson in
+1871.</p>
+
+<p>According to the best authorities on the Omaha, from whose monographs
+much of the following information has been gleaned, the
+earth lodge and the skin tipi are the only forms of habitations made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+use of by the Omaha in recent generations. The earth lodge resembled
+those of other tribes of the upper Missouri, and among the
+Omaha the work of erecting such a structure was shared in by both
+man and woman.</p>
+
+<p>"The marking out of the site and the cutting of the heavy logs
+were done by the men. When the location was chosen, a stick was
+thrust in the spot where the fireplace was to be, one end of a rawhide
+rope was fastened to the stick and a circle 20 to 60 feet in diameter
+was drawn on the earth to mark where the wall was to be
+erected. The sod within the circle was removed, the ground excavated
+about a foot in depth, and the earth thrown around the circle
+like an embankment. Small crotched posts about 10 feet high were
+set 8 or 10 feet apart and 1&frac12; feet within the circle, and on these
+were laid beams. Outside this frame split posts were set close together,
+having one end braced against the bottom of the bank and
+the other end leaning against the beams, thus forming a wall of
+timber. The opening generally, though not always, faced the east.
+Midway between the central fireplace and the wall were planted 4
+to 8 large crotched posts about 10 feet in height, on which heavy
+beams rested, these serving to support the roof. This was made of
+long, slender, tapering trees stripped of their bark. These were tied
+at their large ends with cords (made from the inner bark of the
+linden) to the beams at the top of the stockade and at the middle
+to those resting in the crotches of the large posts forming the inner
+circle about the fireplace. The slender ends were cut so as to form
+the circular opening for the smoke, the edges being woven together
+with elm twine, so as to be firm. Outside the woodwork of the walls
+and roof, branches of willow were laid crosswise and bound tight
+to each slab and pole. Over the willows a heavy thatch of coarse grass
+was arranged so as to shed water. On the grass was placed a thick
+coating of sod. The sods were cut to lap and be laid like shingles.
+Finally they were tamped with earth and made impervious to rain.
+The entrance way, 6 to 10 feet long, projected from the door and
+was built in the same manner as the lodge and formed a part of it.
+A curtain of skin hung at the inner and one at the outer door of
+this entrance way. Much labor was expended on the floor of the
+lodge. The loose earth was carefully removed and the ground then
+tamped. It was next flooded with water, after which dried grass
+was spread over it and set on fire. Then the ground was tamped
+once again. This wetting and heating was repeated two or three
+times, until the floor became hard and level and could be easily
+swept and kept clean. Brooms were made of brush or twigs tied
+together. Couches were arranged around the wall in the spaces between
+the posts of the framework. These were provided with skins<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+and pillows, and served as seats by day and as beds by night. In
+the building of an earth lodge the cutting and putting on of the
+sods was always done by women, and as this part of the task had to
+be accomplished rapidly to prevent the drying out of the sods, which
+must hold well together, kindred helped one another. The erection
+of this class of dwelling required considerable labor, hence only the
+industrious and thrifty possessed these lodges." (Fletcher and
+La Flesche, (1), pp. 97-98.)</p>
+
+<p>Although the earth-covered lodge, as just described, was used in
+the permanent villages, nevertheless in the same villages were to
+have been seen many of the conical skin tipis. Both types of habitation
+were standing at the Omaha village in 1871 when the photograph,
+now reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_27">27</a>, was made by W. H. Jackson.</p>
+
+<p>Near each earth lodge, "generally to the left of the entrance, the
+cache was built. This consisted of a hole in the ground about 8 feet
+deep, rounded at the bottom and sides, provided with a neck just
+large enough to admit the body of a person. The whole was lined
+with split posts, to which was tied an inner lining of bunches of
+dried grass. The opening was protected by grass, over which sod
+was placed. In these caches the winter supply of food was stored;
+the shelled corn was put into skin bags, long strings of corn on the
+cob were made by braiding the outer husks, while the jerked meat
+was packed in parfleche cases. Pelts, regalia, and extra clothing
+were generally kept in the cache; but these were laid in ornamented
+parfleche cases, never used but for this purpose." (Op. cit., p. 98.)</p>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 28<a name="Plate_28"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p028a.png" width="300" height="226" alt="a. Page of Kurz&#39;s Sketchbook showing Omaha village, May 20, 1851" title="a. Page of Kurz&#39;s Sketchbook showing Omaha village, May 20, 1851" />
+<span class="caption">a. Page of Kurz&#39;s Sketchbook showing Omaha village, May 20, 1851</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p028b.png" width="300" height="223" alt="b. Page of Kurz&#39;s Sketchbook showing interior of an Omaha lodge, May 16, 1851" title="b. Page of Kurz&#39;s Sketchbook showing interior of an Omaha lodge, May 16, 1851" />
+<span class="caption">b. Page of Kurz&#39;s Sketchbook showing interior of an Omaha lodge, May 16, 1851</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 29<a name="Plate_29"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/p029.png" width="500" height="306" alt="&quot;PUNKA INDIANS ENCAMPED ON THE BANKS OF THE MISSOURI&quot;
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833" title="&quot;PUNKA INDIANS ENCAMPED ON THE BANKS OF THE MISSOURI&quot;
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833" />
+<span class="caption">&quot;PUNKA INDIANS ENCAMPED ON THE BANKS OF THE MISSOURI&quot;
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>On pages 95 and 96 of the work just cited appears a very interesting
+description of the making and raising of a skin tipi. "Formerly
+the cover was made of 9 to 12 buffalo skins tanned on both
+sides. To cut and sew this cover so that it would fit well and be
+shapely when stretched over the circular framework of poles required
+skilful workmanship, the result of training and of accurate measurements....
+The tent poles were 14 to 16 feet long. Straight young
+cedar poles were preferred. The bark was removed and the poles
+were rubbed smooth. The setting up of a tent was always a woman's
+task. She first took four poles, laid them together on the ground,
+and then tied them firmly with a thong about 3 feet from one
+end. She then raised the poles and spread their free ends apart and
+thrust them firmly into the ground. These four tied poles formed the
+true framework of the tent. Other poles&mdash;10 to 20 in number, according
+to the size of the tent&mdash;were arranged in a circle, one end
+pressed well into the ground, the other end laid in the forks made
+by the tied ends of the four poles. There was a definite order in
+setting up the poles so that they would lock one another, and when
+they were all in place they constituted an elastic but firm frame,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+which could resist a fairly heavy wind." There was probably very
+little variation in the ways and customs of the different members of
+the tribe, and the tents of an entire village would have been raised
+after the same, long-established manner. But the structures in an
+Omaha village did not surround an open space, "nor were they set so
+the people could live in the order of their gentes, an order observed
+when they were on the hunt and during their tribal ceremonies. Yet
+each family knew to what gens it belonged, observed its rites, and
+obeyed strictly the rule of exogamy. To the outward appearance a
+village presented a motley group of tribesmen. The dwellings and
+their different corrals were huddled together; the passageways between
+the lodges were narrow and tortuous. There was little of the
+picturesque. The grass and weeds that grew over the earth lodges
+while the people were off on their summer buffalo hunt were all cut
+away when the tribe returned. So, except for the decorations on the
+skin tents, there was nothing to relieve the dun-colored aspect."
+(Op. cit., p. 99.) Such was the appearance of an Omaha village in
+the valley of the Missouri.</p>
+
+<p>In 1847 the Omaha erected a village on the banks of Papillon
+Creek, near the line between Sarpy and Douglas Counties, Nebraska.
+Four years later it was visited by Kurz during his journey up the
+Missouri. Kurz was camped near Council Bluffs, on the left bank
+of the Missouri. Opposite was Bellevue, the trading post of Peter
+A. Sarpy, and while at the latter place, May 16, 1851, Kurz entered
+in his journal: "In Bellevue I have drawn an Indian winter house
+made of earth, and also a Pawnee girl." And on May 20 he wrote:
+"Again crossed the river to Bellevue in order to visit the Omaha village
+some six miles distant; went over the bluffs, as being the shortest
+way, then crossed the high prairie ... to the <i>Papillon</i> creek
+which partly surrounds the village of the Omahas. The village itself
+is built on a hill.... The camp or village is composed of leather
+tents and earth-covered lodges. Between the tents and lodges are
+scaffolds for drying meat and also an enclosure for the horses....
+I walked into the village and watched a group of young men endeavoring
+to throw lances through rolling rings, the others being
+gathered on top the earth lodges, [pl. <a href="#Plate_26">26</a> <i>b</i>] as spectators."  (Bushnell, (3), p. 11.) Sketches made by Kurz at that time are reproduced
+in plate <a href="#Plate_28">28</a>. The interior of an earth lodge, drawn at Bellevue
+May 16, 1851, is shown in <i>b</i>; the couches extending along the
+wall are clearly indicated, also the fireplace in the center of the lodge,
+over which is hanging a hook for the suspension of a kettle. The village,
+which stood on the banks of Papillion Creek, is shown in the
+lower part of <i>a</i>, of the same plate. Both forms of dwellings are represented
+in the sketch; also the scaffolds for drying meat and other
+purposes, and several inclosures in which their horses were confined.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>On June 12 Kurz attended a sacred dance performed for the benefit
+of a wounded man. He referred to it in his journal as being
+given by the Buffalo Society, where all wore buffalo masks. It was
+held in a large earth lodge, and he was accompanied by the chief,
+Joseph La Flesche.</p>
+
+<p>The site of the small village mentioned by Kurz was identified a
+few years ago by Gilder, and some of the ruins were examined. It
+stood in the forks of the Papillion, about 4 miles in a direct line west
+of the Missouri. To quote from the brief narrative: "It was here
+the Omaha lived last before going on a reservation, and where they
+were visited by the Swiss artist, Kurz.... It was found that the
+ruins were quite shallow and had left but slight depressions, while
+others left small circular mounds above the surrounding level. The
+Rock Island Railroad has cut through the village, and at least one
+cache was exposed from top to bottom&mdash;about fifteen feet. In all
+instances the caches were outside the lodge sites.</p>
+
+<p>"The surface yielded fractured iron pots, delft or figured china
+of white man's manufacture, and rusty iron objects, besides flint
+scrapers and chips, potsherds, and the usual accumulations of a village
+prior to contact with white people. The writer cannot attribute
+the flint implements to the Omaha, but considers the favorable
+site on a plateau at the junction of two streams to have been used by
+another people long before the Omaha erected their lodges there."
+(Gilder, (1), p. 75.)</p>
+
+<p>Innumerable ruins of earth lodges were to have been found in the
+vicinity of the present city of Omaha, the great majority of which
+stood in early days before the arrival of Europeans in the valley of
+the Missouri, and it is not possible to say by which tribe the villages
+were erected. Many large ruins were discovered on Childs Point, in
+the extreme northeastern corner of Sarpy County, just south of
+Omaha, and some 4 miles northeast of the small village visited by
+Kurz. Some of the ruins were carefully examined by Gilder. One,
+which appears to have been considered as possessing the typical characteristics
+of the group, was described by Gilder, who wrote: "In all
+house ruins similar to the one here described, the main fireplace, four
+or five feet in diameter, is situated near the exact center. From this
+fireplace the floor extends, nearly flat, to within ten feet of the extreme
+outer edge or periphery of the ruin. Here a platform, or step,
+twelve to fourteen inches high and almost vertical, rose from the
+floor and sloped rather sharply to the outer rim.... Around the
+line of the inner circumference of the platform, at distances of approximately
+five feet, the remains of posts six or seven inches in
+diameter were discovered. These were either in the form of charcoal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+or of wood dust. Sometimes bowlders lay about the remains of the
+posts, as if designed to aid in holding them in position. The grain
+of the charcoal posts indicated the wood to have been oak. About
+the posts, under the floor, and also under the platform, objects were
+more numerous than at other points in the ruin. The charred remains
+of four posts about eight feet apart surrounded the central
+fireplace. There were two features of house construction that stand
+out conspicuously: (1) the floor was approximately six to eight feet
+lower than the level of the surrounding ridge; (2) the angle at which
+the slabs, logs, or paling probably leaned inward from the periphery
+seems to indicate the highest part of the roof at about the same distance
+above the surrounding level as the floor was below, making the
+highest part of the roof about fifteen feet above the fireplace in the
+center of the dwelling.... Little besides broken flint instruments,
+flint chips, shells, potsherds, and fractured drift bowlders were found
+upon the floor itself; the major number of objects was beneath the
+floor surface, very often covered with bowlders, as if the latter had
+been placed to mark the spot. Small fireplaces were of frequent
+occurrence on all parts of the floor.</p>
+
+<p>"Three caches were found in the first ruin.... In one, fifteen feet
+west of the center of the dwelling were found flint blades, a score
+of Unio shells, a mano or muller made from a rounded drift
+bowlder ... and a pottery pipe in form of a soaring bird....
+The bottom of this cache was six feet from the surface. The second
+cache lay at the southeastern side of the ruin. Its bottom was eight
+feet from the surface of the ground. It contained thirty shells, several
+large flint blades, other large flint implements of unknown
+use ... animal bones, projectile points, and a small piece of galena.
+The third cache, in the northeastern part of the ruin, was the largest
+and deepest of the three, its bottom being nine feet and a half from
+the surface. On a small shelf, or niche, at its eastern side, two feet
+from the bottom, lay, a small image of a human face carved from
+pink soapstone, a number of animal bones and skulls, fish bones and
+scales, and Unio shells.</p>
+
+<p>"So many and varied were the objects found in the ruin, so
+abundant the charred sticks and grasses, that the impression is conveyed
+that the dwelling had been abandoned in haste and that it
+had burned to the ground." (Gilder, (1), pp. 58-61.) The objects
+discovered in this ancient ruin were truly varied, as the discoverer
+remarked, and likewise of the greatest interest, including specimens
+of stone, bone, and pottery, with bones of animals which had probably
+served as food. But how interesting it would be to know the
+date of the construction of this large lodge, and the tribe to which
+its occupants belonged&mdash;questions which may never be determined.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+However, it unquestionably belonged to people of a tribe who reared
+and occupied similar structures in the valley of the Missouri as late
+as the latter half of the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Other quite similar ruins a short distance north of the city of
+Omaha were examined by Gilder. Many objects of bone, stone, and
+pottery were discovered. Caches were encountered, and to quote
+from his account of the work: "The caches within the house sites
+are smaller in diameter near the top than at the bottom, the latter
+part flaring out somewhat in the manner of a large earthen pot.
+The bottom of the caches are rounded, and the walls are almost as
+hard as fired clay. In the very bottom of each cache was a quantity
+of dust, or earth as fine as dust (not compact as at other points),
+in which were found small arrowpoints, flint blades, shell beads, and
+flint flakes. In each case where the cache was found within the
+house circle it occurred close under the western wall, back of the
+fireplace and exactly opposite the entrance to the lodge, the latter
+in every instance facing the east." (Gilder, (2), p. 716.)</p>
+
+<p>Before closing this brief sketch of the Omaha villages and forms
+of structures, it will be of interest to quote from the writings of one
+who was intimately acquainted with the people of whom he wrote.
+Referring to their various types of habitations, he says:</p>
+
+<p>"The primitive domiciles of the Omaha were chiefly (1) lodges
+of earth or, more rarely, of bark or mats, and (2) skin lodges or
+tents. It may be observed that there were no sacred rites connected
+with the earth lodge-building or tent-making among the
+Omaha and Ponka. When earth lodges were built, the people did
+not make them in a tribal circle, each man erecting his lodge where
+he wished; yet kindred commonly built near one another. The
+earth lodges were made by the women, and were intended principally
+for summer use, when the people were not migrating or going on the
+hunt.... Earth lodges were generally used for large gatherings, such
+as feasts, councils, or dances.... On a bluff near the Omaha agency
+I found the remains of several ancient earth lodges, with entrances
+on the southern sides. Two of these were 75 feet and one was 100
+feet in diameter. In the center of the largest there was a hollow
+about 3 feet deep and nearly 4 feet below the surface outside the
+lodge.</p>
+
+<p>"The Omaha sometimes make bark lodges for summer occupancy,
+as did the Iowa and Sak." (Dorsey, (1), pp. 269-271.)</p>
+
+<p>Referring to the more temporary structure, the skin tipi: "The
+tent was used when the people were migrating, and also when they
+were traveling in search of the buffalo. It was also the favorite
+abode of a household during the winter season, as the earth lodge was
+generally erected in an exposed situation, selected on account of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+comfort in the summer. The tent could be pitched in the timber or
+brush, or down in wooded ravines, where the cold winds never had
+full sweep. Hence, many Indians abandoned their houses in winter
+and went into their tents, even when they were of canvas.</p>
+
+<p>"The tent was commonly made of ten or a dozen dressed or tanned
+buffalo skins. It was in the shape of a sugar loaf, and was from 10
+to 12 feet high, 10 or 15 feet in diameter at the bottom, and about a
+foot and a half in diameter at the top, which served as a smoke-hole....
+No totem posts were in use among the Omaha. The tent
+of the principal man of each gens was decorated on the outside with
+his gentile badge, which was painted on each side of the entrance as
+well as on the back of the tent." (Op. cit., pp. 271-274.)</p>
+
+<p>In an earlier work, "A Study of Siouan Cults," Dr. Dorsey showed
+the varied designs on ceremonial tipis of the different Siouan tribes.
+Among other interesting illustrations are pictures of lodges erected
+at the time of the Sun dance, with the great camp circle as formed at
+that time. (Dorsey, (2).)</p>
+
+<p>A clear insight into the ways of life of the primitive Omaha of
+a century ago, before their native manners and customs had been
+changed through influence with the whites, may be obtained from
+the narrative of the Long expedition. A great part of the recorded
+information was imparted by John Dougherty, at that time deputy
+Indian agent for the tribes of the Missouri.</p>
+
+<p>In 1819 and 1820, the period of the narrative, the permanent village
+of the tribe stood on the banks of Omaha Creek, about 2&frac12; miles
+from the right bank of the Missouri, in the present Dakota County,
+Nebraska. As told on preceding pages, this was the large, permanent
+village of the tribe, but nevertheless it was occupied for less
+than half the year, and as related by Dougherty: "The inhabitants
+occupy their village not longer than five months in the year. In
+April they arrive from their hunting excursions, and in the month
+of May they attend to their horticultural interests, and plant maize,
+beans, pumpkins, and watermelons, besides which they cultivate no
+other vegetable. They also, at this season, dress the bison skins,
+which have been procured during the winter hunt, for the traders,
+who generally appear for the purpose of obtaining them. The
+young men, in the mean time, are employed in hunting within the
+distance of seventy or eighty miles around, for beaver, otter, deer,
+muskrat, elk, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>"When the trading and planting occupations of the people are
+terminated, and provisions begin to fail them, which occurs generally
+in June, the chiefs assemble a council for the purpose of deliberating
+upon the further arrangements necessary to be made...." A feast
+is prepared, and all gather to determine where and when the next<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+hunt shall take place. These important questions being settled, all
+are in readiness, and "The day assigned for their departure having
+arrived, the squaws load their horses and dogs, and take as great a
+weight upon their own backs, as they can conveniently transport, and,
+after having closed the entrances to their several habitations, by
+placing a considerable quantity of brushwood before them, the whole
+nation departs from the village." And thus they continue to move
+until word is brought that herds of buffalo are near, then they
+encamp at the nearest watercourse. The skin lodges, having been
+conveyed by means of the travois, are soon set up, to be occupied
+during the period of the hunt. These "are often fancifully ornamented
+on the exterior, with figures, in blue and red paint, rudely
+executed, though sometimes depicted with no small degree of taste."
+The buffalo skins obtained during the summer hunt were known as
+<i>summer skins</i>, and were used especially for the covering of their
+lodges and also for their garments. After a successful hunt all parts
+of the buffalo were carried to the camp and the vertebrae were
+crushed "by means of stone axes, similar to those which are not unfrequently
+ploughed up out of the earth in the Atlantic states."</p>
+
+<p>After the summer hunt "The nation return towards their village
+in the month of August, having visited for a short time the Pawnee
+villages for the purpose of trading their guns for horses. They
+are sometimes so successful, in their expedition, in the accumulation
+of meat, as to be obliged to make double trips, returning about mid-day
+for half the whole quantity, which was left in the morning.
+When within two or three days journey of their own village, runners
+are dispatched to it, charged with the duty of ascertaining the safety
+of it, and the state of the maize.</p>
+
+<p>"On the return of the nation, which is generally early in September,
+a different kind of employment awaits the ever industrious
+squaws. The property buried in the earth is to be taken up and
+arranged in the lodges, which are cleaned out, and put in order. The
+weeds which during their absence had grown up, in every direction
+through the village, are cut down and removed. A sufficient quantity
+of <i>sweet corn</i> is next to be prepared, for present and future use."</p>
+
+<p>Being now plentifully supplied with food, unless for some unforeseen
+cause having an ample quantity of buffalo meat and corn,
+together with the other products of the gardens, they would "content
+themselves in their village until the latter part of October, when,
+without the formality of a council, or other ceremony, they again
+depart from the village, and move in separate parties to various
+situations on both sides of the Missouri, and its tributaries, as far
+down as the Platte. Their primary object at this time, is to obtain,
+on credit from the traders, various articles, indispensably necessary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+to their fall, winter, and spring hunts; such as guns, particularly
+those of <i>Mackinaw</i>, powder, ball, and flints, beaver traps, brass, tin,
+and camp-kettles, knives, hoes, squaw-axes and tomahawks.</p>
+
+<p>"Having obtained these implements, they go in pursuit of deer, or
+apply themselves to trapping for beaver and otter. Elk was some
+time since an object of pursuit, but these animals are now rather rare,
+in the Omawhaw territories.</p>
+
+<p>"This hunt continues until towards the close of December, and
+during the rigours of the season they experience an alternation of
+abundance and scarcity of food."</p>
+
+<p>The skins secured during the late autumn hunt would be carried
+to the traders and left as payment for the goods previously obtained
+on credit, and also given in exchange for blankets, wampum, and
+various other articles. Thence they would return to their permanent
+village "in order to procure a supply of maize from their places of
+concealment, after which they continue their journey, in pursuit of
+bisons.... This expedition continues until the month of April,
+when they return to their village as before stated, loaded with provisions.
+It is during this expedition that they procure all the skins,
+of which the bison robes of commerce are made; the animals at this
+season having their perfect winter dress, the hair and wool of which
+are long and dense." (James, (1), I, pp. 200-221.)</p>
+
+<p>Such was the life of the Omaha a hundred years ago, and it may
+have been quite the same for many generations, omitting, of course,
+the visits made to the traders. But their systematic hunts had probably
+been performed ever since the Omaha reached the valley of the
+Missouri, and possibly long before.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Ponca.</span></h5>
+
+<p>That the Ponca and Omaha were formerly a single tribe is accepted
+without question, and that the separation took place long after
+they crossed the Mississippi from their ancient habitat is established
+by the traditions of the two tribes. Probably the two tribes in later
+years, after the separation, continued to resemble one another to such
+a degree that the villages of one could not have been distinguished
+from those of the other.</p>
+
+<p>A deserted village of the Ponca was discovered by members of the
+Lewis and Clark expedition in 1804, and according to the narrative
+of the expedition on September 5 they arrived at the "river Poncara,"
+which entered the Missouri from the south, and at its mouth
+was 30 yards in width. "Two men whom we despatched to the village
+of the same name, returned with information that they had
+found it on the lower side of the creek; but as this is the hunting
+season, the town was so completely deserted that they had killed a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+buffaloe in the village itself." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 66-67.)
+The "river Poncara," later to be known as Ponca Creek, enters the
+right bank of the Missouri in the western part of the present Knox
+County, Nebraska. Here they continued to live for some years, and
+during the spring of 1833 Maximilian said they "dwell on both sides
+of Running-water River, and on Ponca Creek, which Lewis and
+Clark call Poncara." Running-water River was the earlier name
+of the Niobrara. "The band of them, which we met with here, has
+set up eight or nine leather tents, at the mouth of Basil Creek, on a
+fine forest." On May 12, 1833, appears this note in the narrative:
+Arrived "opposite the huts of the Punca Indians. They lay in the
+shade of a forest, like white cones, and, in front of them, a sand bank
+extended into the river, which was separated from the land by a
+narrow channel. The whole troop was assembled on the edge of the
+bank, and it was amusing to see how the motley group crowded together,
+wrapped in brown buffalo skins, white and red blankets&mdash;some
+naked, of a deep brown colour." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 137-139.)
+A sketch made at that time by Bodmer and reproduced by
+Maximilian is here shown in plate <a href="#Plate_29">29</a>. It bears the legend "Punka
+Indians Encamped on the Banks of the Missouri."</p>
+
+<p>Although at that time living in the typical skin tipi, Maximilian
+stated (p. 137), "They formerly lived, like the Omahas, in clay huts
+at the mouth of the river, but their powerful enemies, the Sioux and
+the Pawnees, destroyed their villages, and they have since adopted
+the mode of life of the former, living more generally in tents made
+of skins, and changing their place from time to time." The village
+visited by members of the Lewis and Clark expedition, September 5,
+1804, when they "killed a buffaloe in the village itself," was probably
+composed of earth-covered lodges.</p>
+
+<p>When discovering a trail, or rather tracks made by a number
+of Indians crossing the prairie, it was often possible to determine
+the nature of the party. The Ponca, who often moved from place to
+place, setting up their tipis in various localities during the course of
+the year, could have been held in mind by Gregg when he wrote:
+"These lodges are always pitched or set up by the squaws, and with
+such expedition, that, upon the stopping of an itinerant band, a town
+springs up in a desert valley in a few minutes, as if by enchantment.
+The lodge-poles are often neatly prepared, and carried along from
+camp to camp. In conveying them one end frequently drags on the
+ground, whereby the trail is known to be that of a band with
+families, as war parties never carry lodge-poles." (Gregg, (1), II,
+pp. 286-288.) The rapidity and skill with which the squaws set up
+and arranged the tipis, when the site of the camp had been selected,
+was commented on by many writers, and what an interesting and
+animated scene it must have been.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p>
+<h5><span class="smcap">Kansa.</span></h5>
+
+<p>To quote from the Handbook: "Their linguistic relations are
+closest with the Osage, and are close with the Quapaw. In the traditional
+migration of the group, after the Quapaw had first separated
+therefrom, the main body divided at the mouth of Osage River, the
+Osage moving up that stream and the Omaha and Ponca crossing
+Missouri River and proceeding northward, while the Kansa ascended
+the Missouri on the south side to the mouth of Kansa River. Here
+a brief halt was made, after which they ascended the Missouri on
+the south side until they reached the present north boundary of
+Kansas, where they were attacked by the Cheyenne and compelled
+to retrace their steps. They settled again at the mouth of Kansas
+River, where the Big Knives, as they called the whites, came with
+gifts and induced them to go farther west. The native narrators
+of this tradition give an account of about 20 villages occupied successively
+along Kansas River before the settlement at Council Grove,
+Kansas, whence they were finally removed to their reservation in
+Indian Ter. Marquette's autograph map, drawn probably as early
+as 1674, places the Kansas a considerable distance directly west
+of the Osage and some distance south of the Omaha, indicating that
+they were then on Kansas River.... It is known that the Kansa
+moved up Kansas River in historic times as far as Big Blue River,
+and thence went to Council Grove in 1847. The move to the Big
+Blue must have taken place after 1723."</p>
+
+<p>Thus it would appear that for many generations the villages of
+the Kansa had stood near the eastern boundary of the great plains,
+a region where buffalo were plentiful, one suited to the wants and
+requirements of the native tribes.</p>
+
+<p>On June 26, 1804, the Lewis and Clark expedition reached the
+mouth of the Kansas and encamped on the north side, where they
+remained two days. In the journal of those days they referred to
+the Kansa, and said: "On the banks of the Kanzas reside the Indians
+of the same name, consisting of two villages, one at about twenty,
+the other forty leagues from its mouth, and amounting to about three
+hundred men. They once lived twenty-four leagues higher than the
+Kanzas [river], on the south bank of the Missouri.... This nation
+is now hunting in the plains for the buffaloe which our hunters have
+seen for the first time." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 18-19.) A
+few days later, July 2, after advancing a short distance up the
+Missouri, above the mouth of the Kansas, they arrived at the site of
+an ancient village of the tribe. In the journal (p. 20) is this account:
+"Opposite our camp is a valley, in which was situated an
+old village of the Kansas, between two high points of land, and on
+the bank of the river. About a mile in the rear of the village was a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+small fort, built by the French on an elevation. There are now no
+traces of the village, but the situation of the fort may be recognized
+by some remains of chimnies, and the general outline of the fortification,
+as well as by the fine spring which supplied it with water."
+Three days later, July 5, 1804, while on the right bank of the Missouri,
+they "came along the bank of an extensive and beautiful prairie,
+interspersed with copses of timber, and watered by Independence
+creek. On this bank formerly stood the second village of the Kanzas;
+from the remains it must have been once a large town." (Op. cit.,
+pp. 21-22.)</p>
+
+<p>The village mentioned by Lewis and Clark as standing on the
+banks of the Kansas River some 40 league above its confluence with
+the Missouri may have been the one visited and described by Maj.
+George C. Sibley during the summer of 1811. Sibley wrote in his
+journal: "The Konsee town is seated immediately on the north bank
+of the Konsee River, about one hundred miles by its course above
+its junction with the Missouri; in a beautiful prairie of moderate
+extent, which is nearly encircled by the River; one of its Northern
+branches (commonly called the Republican fork, which falls in a
+few hundred paces above the village) and a small creek that flows
+into the north branch. On the north and southwest it is overhung
+by a chain of high prairie hills which give a very pleasing effect to
+the whole scene.</p>
+
+<p>"The town contains one hundred and twenty-eight houses or
+lodges which are generally about 60 feet long and 25 feet wide,
+constructed of stout poles and saplings arranged in form of an
+arbour and covered with skins, bark and mats; they are commodious
+and quite comfortable. The place for fire is simply a hole in the
+earth, under the ridge pole of the roof, where an opening is left
+for the smoke to pass off. All the larger lodges have two, sometimes
+three, fire places; one for each family dwelling in it. The
+town is built without much regard to order; there are no regular
+streets or avenues. The lodges are erected pretty compactly together
+in crooked rows, allowing barely space sufficient to admit a
+man to pass between them. The avenues between these crooked rows
+are kept in tolerable decent order and the village is on the whole
+rather neat and cleanly than otherwise. Their little fields or patches
+of corn, beans and pumpkins, which they had just finished planting,
+and which constitute their whole variety, are seen in various directions,
+at convenient distances around the village. The prairie was
+covered with their horses and mules (they have no other domestic
+animals except dogs)."</p>
+
+<p>The manuscript journal from which the preceding quotation is
+made is now in the possession of Lindenwood College, St. Charles,
+Mo., the copy having been made by Mrs. N. H. Beauregard.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>The preceding is a clear though all too brief account of a native
+village, prepared at a time when it continued in a primitive condition.
+The site, on the left bank of Kansas River just below the
+mouth of the Republican, would have been about the present Fort
+Riley, near the northern line of Geary County. In some respects this
+is the most interesting description of a Kansa village given in the
+present work. The habitations&mdash;long mat-covered lodges&mdash;were of
+the type erected by the Osage and Quapaw, kindred tribes of the
+Kansa, and it is highly probable they represented the form of dwellings
+reared by the same tribes many generations before in their
+ancient villages which then stood in the valley of the Ohio, far east
+of the Mississippi.</p>
+
+<p>Just 15 years elapsed between the time of the Lewis and Clark
+expedition and the arrival of the Long party in the country of the
+Kansa. In August, 1819, to those aboard the steamboat <i>Western
+Engineer</i>, "The site of an old village of the Konzas, and the remains
+of a fortification erected by the French, were pointed out a few
+miles below Isle au Vache. This island, which lies about one hundred
+miles above Fort Osage, was the wintering post of Capt. Martin's
+detachment, destined to proceed in advance of the troops ordered
+to the Missouri." And nothing shows more clearly the changed conditions
+in that region during the past century than the continuation
+of this narrative: "Captain Martin, with three companies of the
+rifle regiment, left Bellefontain in September 1818, and arrived at
+Isle au Vache in October, with the expectation of resuming his march,
+as early in the following spring as the weather would permit. But
+not having received the necessary supplies of provisions as anticipated,
+they had been compelled to remain till the time of our arrival,
+subsisting themselves principally by hunting.... Between
+two and three thousand deer, besides great numbers of bears, turkies,
+&amp;c. had been taken." On August 23, 1819, a large number of Kansa
+Indians, from their villages on the river bearing their tribal name,
+gathered at Isle au Vache to meet members of the Long party in
+council. "There were present at this council, one hundred and sixty-one
+Konzas, including chiefs and warriors, and thirteen Osages."
+(James, (1), I, pp. 110-112.)</p>
+
+<p>While at Fort Osage members of the Long expedition left for an
+overland journey to the Kansa towns. The party was led by Say,
+and left the fort August 6, arriving at the villages just two weeks
+later. The Kansa town then stood in the extreme southwestern corner
+of the present Pottawatomie County, Kansas, at the mouth of the
+Big Blue. And "as they approached the village, they perceived the
+tops of the lodges red with the crowds of natives; the chiefs and
+warriors came rushing out on horseback, painted and decorated, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+followed by great numbers on foot ... the village was in confusion,
+the hunters having lately returned; and being then engaged
+in preparations for the journey to Isle au Vache." The journey was
+that mentioned above, when the Indians arrived at Isle au Vache
+to hold council with Long. Continuing the narrative: "The approach
+to the village is over a fine level prairie of considerable extent;
+passing which, you ascend an abrupt bank of the height of ten
+feet, to a second level, on which the village is situate in the distance,
+within about &frac14; of a mile of the river. It consists of about 120 lodges,
+placed as closely together as convenient, and destitute of any regularity
+of arrangement. The ground area of each lodge is circular,
+and is excavated to the depth of from one to three feet, and the
+general form of the exterior may be denominated hemispheric.</p>
+
+<p>"The lodge, in which we reside, is larger than any other in the
+town, and being that of the grand chief, it serves as a council house
+for the nation. The roof is supported by two series of pillars, or
+rough vertical posts, forked at top for the reception of the transverse
+connecting pieces of each series; twelve of these pillars form the outer
+series, placed in a circle; and eight longer ones, the inner series, also
+describing a circle; the outer wall, of rude frame work, placed at a
+proper distance from the exterior series of pillars, is five or six feet
+high. Poles, as thick as the leg at base, rest with their butts upon the
+wall, extending on the cross pieces, which are upheld by the pillars
+of the two series, and are of sufficient length to reach nearly to the
+summit. These poles are very numerous, and, agreeable to the position
+which we have indicated, they are placed all around in a radiating
+manner, and support the roof like rafters. Across these are laid
+long and slender sticks or twigs, attached parallel to each other by
+means of bark cord; these are covered by mats made of long grass, or
+reeds, or with the bark of trees; the whole is then covered completely
+over with earth, which, near the ground, is banked up to the eaves. A
+hole is permitted to remain in the middle of the roof to give exit to
+the smoke. Around the walls of the interior, a continuous series of
+mats are suspended; these are of neat workmanship, composed of a
+soft reed, united by bark cord, in straight or undulated lines, between
+which, lines of black paint sometimes occur. The bedsteads are elevated
+to the height of a common seat from the ground, and are about
+six feet wide; they extend in an uninterrupted line around three-fourths
+of the circumference of the apartment, and are formed in the
+simplest manner of numerous sticks, or slender pieces of wood resting
+at their ends on cross pieces, which are supported by short notched
+or forked posts, driven into the ground; bison skins supply them
+with a comfortable bedding. Several medicine or mystic bags are
+carefully attached to the mats of the wall, these are cylindrical, and
+neatly bound up; several reeds are usually placed upon them, and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+human scalp serves for the fringe and tassels. Of their contents we
+know nothing. The fireplace is a simple shallow cavity, in the center
+of the apartment, with an upright and a projecting arm for the support
+of the culinary apparatus." (Op. cit., pp. 120-121.)</p>
+
+<p>Say and his associates left the Kansa village to rejoin the main
+party aboard the steamboat <i>Western Engineer</i>, then waiting near Isle
+au Vache, but soon after starting on the journey were attacked by
+some wandering Pawnee and forced to return to seek refuge among
+those whom they had just left. And as told in the narrative, they
+were, as a consequence, able to witness an interesting ceremony in
+one of the large earth lodges. This was August 23, 1819. "Mr. Say's
+party were kindly received at the village they had left on the preceding
+day. In the evening they had retired to rest in the lodge set
+apart for their accommodation, when they were alarmed by a party
+of savages, rushing in armed with bows, arrows and lances, shouting
+and yelling in a most frightful manner. The gentlemen of the
+party had immediate recourse to their arms, but observing that some
+squaws, who were in the lodge, appeared unmoved, they began to
+suspect that no molestation to them was intended. The Indians collected
+around the fire in the centre of the lodge, yelling incessantly;
+at length their howlings assumed something of a measured tone, and
+they began to accompany their voices with a sort of drum and rattles.
+After singing for some time, one who appeared to be their leader,
+struck the post over the fire with his lance, and they all began to
+dance, keeping very exact time with the music. Each warrior had,
+besides his arms, and rattles made of strings of deer's hoof, some
+part of the intestines of an animal inflated, and inclosing a few small
+stones, which produced a sound like pebbles in a gourd shell. After
+dancing round the fire for some time, without appearing to notice
+the strangers, they departed, raising the same wolfish howl, with
+which they had entered; but their music and their yelling continued
+to be heard about the village during the night.</p>
+
+<p>"This ceremony, called the <i>dog dance</i>, was performed by the Konzas
+for the entertainment of their guests. Mr. Seymour took an opportunity
+to sketch the attitudes and dresses of the principal figures."
+(Op. cit., p. 135.) The sketch made by Seymour was engraved and
+served as an illustration in the narrative of the expedition prepared
+by James. It is here reproduced as plate <a href="#Plate_30">30</a>, <i>b</i>. The interior of the
+large earth lodge is clearly shown. The "continuous series of mats"
+are suspended around the wall, and the "bedsteads," as described,
+serve as seats for the guests. Mats are also represented as spread
+over the floor in the foreground.</p>
+
+<p>On August 25, 1819, the steamboat <i>Western Engineer</i> steamed away
+from Isle au Vache, and that night, after having advanced about
+23 miles up the Missouri, stopped at the mouth of Independence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+Creek, and a little above the creek, on the right bank of the Missouri,
+was "the site of an old Konza town, called formerly the village of
+the Twenty Four." This was evidently the same site as mentioned by
+Lewis and Clark, July 5, 1804. Ruins of the earth lodges had undoubtedly
+remained quite distinct, being overgrown with the grass
+of the prairie.</p>
+
+<p>Isle au Vache, in the Missouri, faces Oak Mills, Atchison County,
+Kansas, and Iatan, Platte County, Missouri. A brief history of the
+island was prepared a few years ago. (Remsburg, (1), pp. 436-443.)</p>
+
+<p>Interesting notes on the habitations of the Kansa Indians are contained
+in a narrative prepared by one who passed through their
+country during the month of May, 1834.</p>
+
+<p>On the night of May 1 the party encamped on a small branch of
+the Kansas River, where they were joined by some members of the
+Kansa tribe who occupied six lodges in a near-by woods. "This
+party is a small division of a portion of this tribe, who are constantly
+wandering; but although their journeys are sometimes pretty extensive,
+they seldom approach nearer to the settlements than they
+are at present." Later they arrived at the banks of the Kansas
+River, and as it was approached, so the narrative continues, "we saw
+a number of Indian lodges, made of saplings driven into the ground,
+bent over and tied at top, and covered with bark and buffalo skins.
+These lodges, or wigwams, are numerous on both sides of the river.
+As we passed them, the inhabitants, men, women, and children,
+flocked out to see us, and almost prevented our progress by their
+eager greetings. Our party stopped on the bank of the river, and
+the horses were unloaded and driven into the water." They crossed
+the river by means of a large flat-bottomed boat, and reaching the
+opposite bank saw many Indian lodges with some frame houses occupied
+by whites. "The canoes used by the Indians are mostly made
+of buffalo skins, stretched, while recent, over a light frame work of
+wood, the seams sewed with sinews, and so closely, as to be wholly
+impervious to water. These light vessels are remarkably buoyant,
+and capable of sustaining very heavy burthens." That evening they
+were visited by the Kansa chief who lived near by, a "young man
+about twenty-five years of age, straight as a poplar, and with a
+noble countenance and bearing.... The Kaws living here appear to
+be much more wealthy than those who joined our camp on the prairie
+below.... Their dress consists, universally of deer skin leggings,
+belted around the loins, and over the upper part of the body a buffalo
+robe or blanket." (Townsend, (1), pp. 30-33.)</p>
+
+<p>During the morning of May 20, 1834, the party departed from
+the Kansa settlement on or near the banks of the Kansas River,
+"leaving the river immediately, and making a N. W. by W. course&mdash;and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+the next day came to another village of the same tribe, consisting
+of about thirty lodges, and situated in the midst of a beautiful level
+prairie.... The lodges here are constructed very differently from
+those of the lower village. They are made of large and strong timbers,
+a ridge Pole runs along the top, and the different pieces are
+fastened together by leathern thongs. The roofs, which are single,
+make but one angle, are of stout poplar bark, and forms an excellent
+defence, both against rain and the rays of the sun, which must be
+intense during midsummer in this region. These prairies are often
+visited by heavy gales of wind, which would probably demolish the
+huts, were they built of frail materials like those below. We encamped
+in the evening on a small stream called Little Vermillion
+creek...." (Op. cit., pp. 33-34.)</p>
+
+<p>The sketch by Seymour conveys a very good idea of the general
+appearance of the interior of a Kansa lodge, and an equally interesting
+picture of the village, as it was just 22 years later, is to be
+found in one of Father de Smet's works. He arrived at the first
+of the villages May 19, 1841, and in describing it said: "At the
+first sight of their wigwams, we were struck at the resemblance they
+bore to the large stacks of wheat which cover our fields in harvest-time.
+There were of these in all no more than about twenty, grouped
+together without order, but each covering a space about one hundred
+and twenty feet in circumference, and sufficient to shelter from thirty
+to forty persons. The entire village appeared to us to consist of
+from seven to eight hundred souls,&mdash;an approximation which is
+justified by the fact that the total population of the tribe is confined
+to two villages, together numbering 1900 inhabitants. These
+cabins, however humble they may appear, are solidly built and convenient.
+From the top of the wall, which is about six feet in height,
+rise inclined poles, which terminate round an opening above, serving
+at once for a chimney and window. The door of the edifice consists
+of an undressed hide on the most sheltered side, the hearth occupies
+the centre and is in the midst of four upright posts destined to
+support the <i>rotunda</i>; the beds are ranged round the wall and the
+space between the beds and the hearth is occupied by the members of
+the family, some standing, others sitting or lying on skins, or yellow
+colored mats. It would seem that this last named article is regarded
+as a piece of extra finery, for the lodge assigned to us had one of
+them." (De Smet, (1), pp. 65-66.) Following this description of a
+lodge is an account of its occupants. He refers to the women busily
+engaged at various occupations, and the men, some eating or smoking,
+and others plucking the hair from their brows and beard. The brief
+description of the interior of the lodge conforms with those of the
+earlier writers, but it is to be regretted that more was not said about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+the outside of the structure. Were they covered with earth or thatch?
+The village visited by Say in 1819 was composed of earth-covered
+lodges, clearly described, but the drawing made by one of Father
+de Smet's associates (it is marked <i>Geo. Lehman, del.</i>) represents
+the large circular houses with overhanging roofs, more closely resembling
+thatch than the usual covering of earth and sod. This
+drawing, which was reproduced in the work cited, is here shown in
+plate <a href="#Plate_30">30</a>, <i>a</i>. The structures standing in the village visited by Father
+de Smet may have resembled the bark-covered house illustrated in
+plate <a href="#Plate_31">31</a>. This most interesting photograph was probably made
+about 40 years ago, and at once suggests the frame, covered with
+bark, and ready for the final covering of earth; in other words, an
+unfinished earth lodge. However, it was probably a complete and
+finished structure.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding the large village visited by De Smet as mentioned above,
+one historian of the tribe has written: "An important village, and the
+largest of the tribe at that time, was that of old Kah-he-gah-wa-ti-an-gah,
+known as Fool Chief, which from about 1830 to 1846 was
+located on the north side of the Kansas river, just north of the present
+Union Pacific station of Menoken.... Until recent years the lodge-circle
+marks were visible and its exact location easy to be found."
+(Morehouse, (1), p. 348.)</p>
+
+<p>A year passed between the visit of Father de Smet to the Kansa
+towns and the arrival of Fremont in the same locality, but it had
+been a period of trouble for the tribe and they had suffered greatly.
+On June 18, 1842, Fremont wrote in his journal: "We left our camp
+seven, journeying along the foot of the hills which border the Kansas
+valley.... I rode off some miles to the left, attracted by the appearance
+of a cluster of huts near the mouth of the Vermillion. It
+was a large but deserted Kansas village, scattered in an open wood,
+along the margin of the stream, chosen with the customary Indian
+fondness for beauty of scenery. The Pawnees had attacked it in the
+early spring. Some of the houses were burnt, and others blackened
+with smoke, and weeds were already getting possession of the cleared
+places." (Fremont, (1), pp. 12-13.)</p>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77   PLATE 30<a name="Plate_30"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p030a.png" width="300" height="155" alt="a. Kansa village, 1841. George Lehman" title="a. Kansa village, 1841. George Lehman" />
+<span class="caption">a. Kansa village, 1841. George Lehman</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p030b.png" width="300" height="185" alt="b. Dog dance within a Kansa lodge, August 23, 1819. Samuel Seymour" title="b. Dog dance within a Kansa lodge, August 23, 1819. Samuel Seymour" />
+<span class="caption">b. Dog dance within a Kansa lodge, August 23, 1819. Samuel Seymour</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 31<a name="Plate_31"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/p031.png" width="500" height="292" alt="KANSA HABITATION" title="KANSA HABITATION" />
+<span class="caption">KANSA HABITATION</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is quite probable that during their journeys away from the permanent
+villages the Kansa, like other tribes of the Missouri Valley,
+made use of skin tipis as being easily transported from one place to
+another. It would also appear that in later years the earth and bark
+covered lodge ceased to be used, and that skin tipis were constructed
+to the exclusion of other forms of dwellings. A missionary who resided
+at the Kansa agency from 1865 to 1868 wrote: "The tribe at
+that time was divided into three bands, or villages, as they were generally
+called. Ish-tal-a-sa's village occupied the northern part of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>the reserve. He was not only village chief, but head chief of the
+whole tribe also. Fool Chief's village occupied the central part of
+the reserve, and Al-le-ga-wa-ho's the southern portion. The latter
+became head chief after Ish-tal-a-sa's death. There were probably
+about 300 in each band. Their custom was for the entire band to
+camp together in some desirable locality, where wood, water and
+grass for their ponies were accessible, and remain until the pasture
+was eaten down, and then move to another site. Another reason for
+moving was to get away from the filth that always accumulated in
+an Indian village. Their tents, or tepees, were made of buffalo
+skins.... The lodge, as they usually designated their tepees, was
+easily taken down and removed to another place." (Spencer, (1),
+p. 373.)</p>
+
+<p>Of the numerous tribes mentioned at the present time no one
+appears to have erected a greater variety of dwellings than did the
+Kansa, whose habitations were of several distinct forms and were
+constructed of various materials.</p>
+
+<p>The long mat-covered lodges described by Sibley in 1811, as at that
+time standing in the village at the mouth of the Republican, on the
+left bank of the Kansas River, may be accepted as being the typical
+or primitive form of structure erected by the tribe. Eight years
+later Say and his companions reached another village, a few miles
+eastward from the one preceding, and there found the circular earth
+lodges. Evidently the ruined towns mentioned by Lewis and Clark
+as being visible from the Missouri River were once groups of similar
+earth lodges. But all circular lodges were not covered with earth
+and sod; in some instances the walls and roofs were formed of
+sheets of bark.</p>
+
+<p>During the month of May, 1834, many small dwellings were
+standing on both banks of the Kansas River which were formed by
+covering a frame composed "of saplings driven into the ground, bent
+over and tied at top," with sheets of bark and buffalo skins. And not
+far away was another village of the same tribe but presenting a very
+different appearance. The structures were described as being "made
+of large and strong timbers, a ridge pole runs along the top, and
+the different pieces are fastened together by leathern thongs. The
+roofs, which are single, make but one angle, are of stout poplar
+bark." Whether this was of circular or quadrangular base is difficult
+to determine, but probably the latter, resembling the example
+shown in plate <a href="#Plate_19">19</a>. And in addition to the various structures already
+noted, the conical skin tipis were extensively used by the Kansa,
+probably serving in early days when the people were away from
+their more permanent villages, but later they were more generally
+utilized.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span></p>
+<h5><span class="smcap">Osage.</span></h5>
+
+<p>From the earliest historical times the habitat of the Osage was
+among the hills and valleys of the Ozarks, south of the Missouri, in
+the present State of Missouri, and here they continued to dwell until
+their removal during the early part of the last century.</p>
+
+<p>When Père Marquette passed down the Mississippi, late in the
+month of June, 1673, he learned of the Osage, and on his map,
+prepared soon afterwards, indicated the villages of that tribe near a
+stream which was evidently the river bearing their tribal name.
+They continued to occupy rather permanent villages until the beginning
+of the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The tribe included three bands, two of which may be rather old;
+the third more recently created. These are: (1) Pahatsi or Great
+Osage, (2) Utsehta or Little Osage, (3) Santsukhdhi or Arkansas
+band. The latter dates from the year 1802 or thereabouts, when a
+large part of the Great Osage, under the leadership of the chief Big
+Track, removed to the vicinity of the Arkansas.</p>
+
+<p>The Osage, unlike certain other members of the Siouan group to
+which they belong, continued to erect and occupy the mat or bark
+covered habitations so characteristic of the forest tribes. Their villages
+which stood among the Ozarks were probably similar in appearance
+to the ancient settlements of their ancestors which once
+occupied a part of the upper valley of the Ohio, whence they migrated
+to the region beyond the Mississippi. But the country which
+served as their new home was one well suited to the wants and requirements
+of the tribe. Game was plentiful, the streams teemed
+with fish, and wild fruits were to be had in vast quantities. Thus
+food was easily obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The expedition under the command of Captains Lewis and Clark
+began ascending the Missouri May 14, 1804, and just one month later,
+on June 15, arrived at the site of an earlier settlement of the Little
+Osage. In the journal the entry for that day states that: "We
+passed several islands and one creek on the south side, and encamped
+on the north opposite a beautiful plain, which extends as
+far back as the Osage river, and some miles up the Missouri. In
+front of our encampment are the remains of an old village of the
+Little Osage, situated at some distance from the river, and at the
+foot of a small hill. About three miles above them, in view of our
+camp is the situation of the old village of the Missouris after they
+fled from the Sauks. The inroads of the same tribe compelled the
+Little Osage to retire from the Missouri a few years ago, and establish
+themselves near the Great Osages." And two days later, at a
+place about 20 miles above their camp, on the 15th, they reached
+"the crossing place for the Sauks, Ayauways, and Sioux, in their
+excursions against the Osage." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, p. 15.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>The ruined or deserted village of the Little Osage seen by the
+party stood on the right or south bank of the Missouri, in the western
+part of the present Saline County, Missouri, not far from the
+village of Malta. The structures which had stood at this old site
+were probably similar to those later erected by the people in their
+new village near the town of the Great Osage, both of which were
+visited two years later. They were situated far south of the Missouri,
+in the northern part of the present Vernon County, in the
+valley of the Little Osage River.</p>
+
+<p>During the latter part of August, 1806, Pike arrived at the two
+villages of the Osage, having departed from Fort Bellefontain a
+short time before on his journey to the far west. But, unfortunately,
+his accounts of the native tribes and their villages which
+he encountered during his travels are neither full nor clear, and so
+it is with the description of the habitations of the Osage. To quote
+from the narrative: "The Osage lodges are generally constructed
+with upright posts, put firmly in the ground, of about 20 feet in
+height, with a crotch at the top; they are generally about 12 feet distant
+from each other; in the crotch of those posts, are put the ridge
+poles, over which are bent small poles, the ends of which are brought
+down and fastened to a row of stakes of about 5 feet in height;
+these stakes are fastened together with three horizontal bars, and
+form the flank walls of the lodge. The gable ends are generally
+broad slabs and rounded off to the ridge pole. The whole of the
+building and sides are covered with matting made of rushes, of two
+or three feet in length, and four feet in width, which are joined
+together, and entirely exclude the rain. The doors are in the side
+of the building, and generally are one on each side. The fires are
+made in holes in the centre of the lodge; the smoke ascending through
+apertures left in the roof for the purpose; at one end of the dwelling
+is a raised platform, about three feet from the ground, which is
+covered with bear skins, and generally holds all the little choice
+furniture of the master, and on which repose his honorable guests....
+They vary in length from 36 to 100 feet." (Pike, (1), App.,
+pp. 11-12.)</p>
+
+<p>Fort Osage, soon to be named Fort Clark, stood on the right
+bank of the Missouri, a short distance northeast of Independence, in
+Jackson County, Missouri. During the early years of the last century
+it was a gathering place for the Osage and neighboring tribes, and
+several interesting accounts are preserved of the appearance of the
+Indian lodges clustered about the post. Both Bradbury and Brackenridge
+made mention of the fort in their journals. The former
+wrote on April 8, 1811, and told of his arrival: "About ten o'clock
+we came in sight of the fort, about six miles distant. We had not
+been long in sight before we saw the flag was hoisted, and at noon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+we arrived, saluting with a volley as we passed on to the landing
+place, where we met Mr. Crooks, who had come down from the
+wintering station at the mouth of the river Naduet to meet us.
+There were also collected at the landing place about 200 Indians,
+men, women, and children, of the Petit Osage nation, whose village
+was then about 300 yards from the fort." And continuing: "At
+evening Dr. Murray proposed that we should walk into the village,
+and I found it to consist of about one hundred lodges of an oblong
+form, the frame of timber, and the covering mats, made of the
+leaves of flag, or <i>Typha palustris</i>. On our return through the town,
+we called at the lodge belonging to a chief named Waubuschon,
+with whom Dr. Murray was particularly acquainted. The floor was
+covered with mats, on which they sat; but as I was a stranger, I
+was offered a cushion. A wooden bowl was now handed round, containing
+square pieces of cake, in taste resembling ginger-bread. On
+enquiry I found it was made of the pulp of the persimon, mixed
+with pounded corn. This bread they called staninca." (Bradbury,
+(1), pp. 35-37.)</p>
+
+<p>Less than three weeks elapsed before Brackenridge reached the
+fort in the company of Manuel Lisa. April 25, 1811, "About eleven,
+came in sight of Fort Osage, situate on a bluff, three miles off, on a
+commanding eminence.... A number of Indians of the Osage
+nation, of all ages, and sexes, were scattered along the bank, attracted
+by curiosity, some with old buffalo robes thrown over their shoulders,
+others dressed out in the gayest manner.... On landing at the
+fort, on a very rocky shore, a soldier under arms, who waited for
+us at the water's side, escorted Mr. Lisa and myself to the fort,
+where we were politely received by the commanding officer. While
+Mr. Lisa was transacting some business, accompanied by Mr. Sibley,
+the factor, and an interpreter, I went to deliver a pipe to <i>Sans
+Oreille</i>, (a warrior, and head man of this tribe) sent to him by
+gen. Clark....</p>
+
+<p>"The lodges of the Little Osage, are sixty in number, and within
+gun shot of the fort; but they are about to remove their village to
+a prairie, three miles off. Their lodges are of a circular form, not
+more than ten or fifteen feet in diameter, constructed by placing
+mats, made of coarse rushes, over forks and poles.</p>
+
+<p>"All three of the Osage bands, together with some Kansas, were
+lately encamped here for the purpose of trading, to the number of
+fifteen hundred warriors." (Brackenridge, (1), pp. 216-217.)</p>
+
+<p>It is more than probable the Little Osage were then returning to
+their distant villages. Within less than three weeks the group of
+dwellings in the vicinity of the post had been reduced in number
+from about 100 to 60, and undoubtedly before the lapse of many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+days all would have begun their homeward journey. But the structures
+as described would have resembled the dwellings in their
+permanent villages, differing from the more temporary lodges discovered
+by Schoolcraft a few years later.</p>
+
+<p>When Schoolcraft traversed the southern part of the State of Missouri
+a century ago, crossing the Ozarks and following the deep
+valleys which separated the ridges, he encountered many deserted
+camps of the Osages and frames of one or more habitations, the mat
+or bark covers often having been removed, thus allowing the bare
+frames to remain. These had been the temporary shelters occupied
+by small parties hunting away from their home villages. On November
+27, 1818, so he wrote, "night overtook us, and we encamped
+in an Indian bark tent on the bank of the river, which had not been
+occupied for one or two years." (Schoolcraft, (1), p. 28.) The
+river mentioned was the Great North Fork of White River, and the
+latter was soon reached. Continuing their journey over the rough
+and rugged hills, through tangled masses of vegetation, often advancing
+only a few miles each day, and that with the greatest exertion,
+they arrived December 30, 1818, in the region a short distance east of
+James River, possibly in the present Christian County, Missouri.
+Here they encountered several deserted camps, of which, fortunately,
+interesting accounts are preserved in the narrative: "In pursuing
+up the valley of Swan Creek, about nine miles, we fell into the Osage
+trace, a horse-path beaten by the Osages in their hunting excursions
+along this river, and passing successively three of their camps, now
+deserted, all very large, arranged with much order and neatness, and
+capable of quartering probably 100 men each. Both the method of
+building camps, and the order of encampment observed by this singular
+nation of savages, are different from any thing of the kind I
+have noticed among the various tribes of aboriginal Americans,
+through whose territories I have had occasion to travel. The form of
+the tent or camp may be compared to an inverted bird's nest, or
+hemisphere, with a small aperture left in the top, for the escape of
+smoke; and a similar, but larger one, at one side, for passing in and
+out. It is formed by cutting a number of slender flexible green-poles
+of equal length, sharpened at each end, stuck in the ground like
+a bow, and, crossing at right angles at the top, the points of entrance
+into the ground forming a circle. Small twigs are then wove in,
+mixed with the leaves of cane, moss, and grass, until it is perfectly
+tight and warm. These tents are arranged in large circles, one
+within another, according to the number of men intended to be
+accommodated. In the centre is a scaffolding for meat, from which
+all are supplied every morning, under the inspection of a chief, whose
+tent is conspicuously situated at the head of the encampment, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+differs from all the rest, resembling a half cylinder inverted. Their
+women and children generally accompany them on these excursions,
+which often occupy three months." Schoolcraft soon crossed the ridge
+separating Swan Creek from Findley's River, the latter "running
+from the north-east, and tributary to James' river, the main north-western
+branch of White River." (Op. cit., pp. 52-53.)</p>
+
+<p>It must be understood that this description applies to a temporary
+encampment of the Osage, not to a permanent village, although they
+would probably not have differed greatly in appearance. The structures
+in a camp were rather smaller than those in the villages, and
+the latter were covered with mats or sheets of bark instead of the
+walls being composed of the crude wattlework, as mentioned in the
+preceding account.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the region traversed by Schoolcraft are to be found
+traces of ancient camps, some quite large, others small. The innumerable
+caves and caverns occurring in the limestone formations
+through which the many streams have cut deep valleys show evidence
+of long occupancy by the natives. Great masses of wood ashes, intermingled
+with broken and lost implements of bone and stone, fragments
+of pottery vessels, and charred or broken bones of animals
+which had served as food, are to be found accumulated near the
+opening, beneath the overhanging strata. The great majority of
+such material should undoubtedly be attributed to the Osage, whose
+hunters penetrated all parts of the Ozarks.</p>
+
+<p>A beautiful example of a frame for an Osage habitation is shown
+in plate <a href="#Plate_32">32</a>, <i>a</i>, a reproduction of a photograph made near Hominy,
+Oklahoma, in 1911. This was probably the form of structure seen
+by the early travelers, which is more clearly described on the following
+pages. It is interesting, showing as it does the manner in
+which the uprights were placed in the ground, then bent over and
+bound in place. As the Osage undoubtedly lived, generations ago,
+in the Ohio Valley, it is possible the ancient village sites discovered
+in Ross County, Ohio, belonged either to this or a related tribe,
+and the ground plan of the structures revealed during the exploration
+of a certain site would agree with the typical Osage habitation
+of recent years. A ground plan was prepared by the discoverer of
+the ancient village site (Mills, (1)) and was reproduced on page 139,
+Bulletin 71, of this Bureau.</p>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 32<a name="Plate_32"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p032a.png" width="300" height="200" alt="a. Frame of an Osage habitation, near Hominy, Okla., 1911" title="a. Frame of an Osage habitation, near Hominy, Okla., 1911" />
+<span class="caption">a. Frame of an Osage habitation, near Hominy, Okla., 1911</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p032b.png" width="300" height="229" alt="b. An Iowa structure" title="b. An Iowa structure" />
+<span class="caption">b. An Iowa structure</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 33<a name="Plate_33"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/p033.png" width="500" height="290" alt="&quot;OTO ENCAMPMENT, NEAR THE PLATTE, 1819&quot;
+
+Samuel Seymour" title="&quot;OTO ENCAMPMENT, NEAR THE PLATTE, 1819&quot;
+
+Samuel Seymour" />
+<span class="caption">&quot;OTO ENCAMPMENT, NEAR THE PLATTE, 1819&quot;
+
+Samuel Seymour</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the plan of the ancient settlement which stood many generations
+ago are several interesting features in addition to the outline
+of the oval habitation. North of the space once occupied by the
+dwelling are many comparatively large caches, with fireplaces between.
+On the opposite side of the structure were encountered 30
+burials, representing children and adults. It would be of the greatest
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>interest at the present time to discover the exact location of one of
+the Osage villages of a century ago, and to determine the position
+of the caches and burials, if any exist, in relation to the sites of the
+habitations.</p>
+
+<p>About the time of Schoolcraft's journey through the Ozarks another
+traveler went up the valley of the Arkansas, and when far
+west of the Mississippi came in contact with the Osage. Nuttall,
+on July 15, 1819, wrote: "The first village of the Osages lies about
+60 miles from the mouth of the Verdigris, and is said to contain 7
+or 800 men and their families. About 60 miles further, on the
+Osage River, is situated the village of the chief called White Hair.
+The whole of the Osages are now, by governor Clark, enumerated at
+about 8000 souls. At this time nearly the whole town, men, and
+women, were engaged in their summer hunt, collecting bison tallow
+and meat. The principal chief is called by the French Clarmont,
+although his proper name is the Iron bird, a species of Eagle."
+(Nuttall, (1), p. 173.) Under date of August 5, 1819, he referred
+to the women of the tribe, saying: "It is to their industry and ingenuity,
+that the men owe every manufactured article of their dress,
+as well as every utensil in their huts. The Osage women appear to
+excel in these employments. Before the Cherokees burnt down their
+town on the Verdigris, their houses were chiefly covered with hand-wove
+matts of bulrushes. Their baskets and bed matts of this material
+were parti-coloured and very handsome. This manufacture, I
+am told, is done with the assistance of three sticks, arranged in some
+way so as to answer the purpose of a loom, and the strands are
+inlaid diagonally. They, as well as the Cherokees and others, frequently
+take the pains to unravel old blankets and cloths, and reweave
+the yarn into belts and garters." (Op. cit., pp. 192-193.)</p>
+
+<p>Evidently it was not the custom of the Osage to entirely abandon
+their villages when they went on their periodical hunts. Some remained,
+either through choice or necessity. In the above quotation
+Nuttall spoke of "nearly the whole town" being absent on their
+summer hunt, and one very familiar with the habits of the tribe
+said: "The Osages and Kansas live in villages, which, even during
+the hunting seasons, are never wholly abandoned, as in the case
+with several tribes settled on the Missouri." (Hunter, (1), p. 334.)
+Regarding the general appearance of the villages: "Their lodges
+are built promiscuously, in situations to please their respective proprietors:
+they are arranged to neither streets nor alleys, and are
+sometimes so crowded, as to render the passage between them difficult."</p>
+
+<p>That some of the Osage constructed very long structures is told
+by Morse, but if the dimensions given in his account are accurate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+they refer to the unusual rather than to the usual form of habitation
+erected by members of that tribe. He said: "The Osages of the
+Arkansaw occupy several villages. The principal village contains
+about three hundred lodges or huts, and about three thousand souls.
+The lodges are generally from fifty to a hundred feet in length;
+and irregularly arranged, they cover a surface of about half a mile
+square. They are constructed of posts, matting, bark and skins.
+They have neither floors nor chimneys. The fire is built on the
+ground, in the centre of the lodge, and the family, and the guests,
+sit around in a circle, upon skins or mats." (Morse, (1), p. 219.)
+These various statements appear grossly exaggerated, and on page
+225 of the same work appears the statement that "Their villages
+are nothing more than what they can remove on the shortest notice,
+one horse being capable of carrying house, household furniture, and
+children all at one load." Morse included in his notes on the Osage
+several letters written by missionaries then working among the
+tribe. One communication from Dr. Palmer, dated at Union, March
+18, 1820, contained a note on their habitations: "Their houses are
+made of poles, arched from fifteen to twenty feet, covered by
+matting made of flags. At the sides they set up rived planks, lining
+the inside with neatly made flagg matting. They build several fires
+in the lodge, according to its size, or the number of wives the owner
+has. For a fire-place, they dig a hole about as big as a bushel-basket,
+leaving the smoke to ascend through a hole in the roof.
+Around the fire they spread their mats to sit or eat." And when
+visiting the settlement, "Having entered the lodge, and had our
+horses turned out, we took a humble seat around the fire. Presently
+there was brought to us a wooden bowl, filled with food made of
+corn. In a short time we were invited to eat at another lodge, and
+before we had finished, at another, and another." And another
+letter, from W. C. Requa, dated February 3, 1822, told of the native
+dwellings. He wrote at that time: "I live at present among the
+Osages, at one of their villages about fifty miles from Union. This
+unhappy people live in low huts, covered with long grass or flag,
+but so badly put together that they leak considerably in a storm of
+rain. They have very little furniture, merely a few pots or kettles
+in which they boil their provisions. The art of cooking their meat
+in any other way than boiling is unknown among them, except
+roasting it on a stick before the fire. They have very little variety
+in their food. Wild game, corn, dried pumpkins, and beans constitute
+about all on which they subsist. With this, however, they
+are contented. They have wooden bowls, out of which they eat,
+drink, wash themselves." (Op. cit., pp. 227-233.) Union, where the
+two communications were written, was probably Union Agency,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+which stood on the right bank of the Arkansas River, just southwest
+of Fort Gibson, in the present Muskogee County, Oklahoma. The
+settlement "about fifty miles from Union" may have been on the
+Verdigris, near the center of the present Rogers County, Oklahoma.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting description of a deserted camp of the Osage was
+prepared by Irving, as it appeared, standing near the banks of the
+Arkansas, October 11, 1832. On that day, so he wrote: "We came
+in sight of the Arkansas. It presented a broad and rapid stream,
+bordered by a beach of fine sand, overgrown with willows and
+cotton-wood trees. Beyond the river, the eye wandered over a beautiful
+champaign country, of flowery plains and sloping uplands.... Not
+far from the river, on an open eminence, we passed through the
+recently deserted camping place of an Osage war party. The frames
+of their tents or wigwams remained, consisting of poles bent into an
+arch, with each end stuck into the ground; these are intertwined
+with twigs and branches, and covered with bark and skins. Those
+experienced in Indian lore, can ascertain the tribe, and whether on
+a hunting or warlike expedition, by the shape and disposition of the
+wigwams. Beatte pointed out to us, in the present skeleton camp,
+the wigwam in which the chiefs had held their consultations round
+the council fire; and an open area, well trampled down, on which
+the grand war-dance had been performed." (Irving, W., (1), pp.
+38-39.) The frames probably resembled the example shown in
+plate <a href="#Plate_32">32</a>, <i>a</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This mention of a dance by Irving suggests the description of a
+ceremony witnessed at the village of the Little Osage during the
+same year. The account of a "war-dance" was prepared July 25,
+1832: "Much of the ceremony consisted in a sort of dancing march
+round the streets of the village between their lodges.... In their
+marching round the settlement, the warriors were followed by a
+band of musicians, some drumming on a piece of deer skin, stretched
+over the head of a keg, and others singing their wild songs. Among
+the retinue I observed a great many youths, who appeared to be
+young disciples, catching the spirit of their seniors and fathers.
+Another group followed, who appeared to be mourners, crying for
+vengeance on their enemies, to reward them for the death of some
+relative." (Colton, (1), pp. 299-300.)</p>
+
+<p>A brief but interesting sketch of the manners and ways of life of
+the Osage of a century ago is to be found in Morse's work already
+quoted. Although the notes were prepared to apply to several
+neighboring tribes, they referred primarily to the tribe now being
+discussed. First speaking of their gardens: "They raise annually
+small crops of corn, beans, and pumpkins, these they cultivate entirely
+with the hoe, in the simplest manner. Their crops are usually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+planted in April, and receive one dressing before they leave their
+villages for the summer hunt, in May. About the first week in
+August they return to their villages and gather their crops, which
+have been left unhoed and unfenced all the season. Each family, if
+lucky, can save from ten to twenty bags of corn and beans, of a
+bushel and a half each; besides a quantity of dried pumpkins. On
+this they feast, with the dried meat saved in the summer, till September,
+when what remains is <i>cashed</i>, and they set out on the fall
+hunt, from which they return about Christmas. From that time,
+till some time in February or March, as the season happens to be
+mild or severe, they stay pretty much in their villages, making only
+short hunting excursions occasionally, and during that time they
+consume the greater part of their <i>cashes</i>. In February or March
+the spring hunt commences; first the bear, and then the beaver hunt.
+This they pursue till planting time, when they again return to their
+village, pitch their crops, and in May set out for the summer hunt,
+taking with them their residue, if any, of their corn, &amp;c. This is
+the circle of an Osage life, here and there indented with war and
+trading expeditions; and thus it has been, with very little variation,
+these twelve years past." (Morse, (1), pp. 203-205.)</p>
+
+<p>The cornfields were left without watchers and were probably often
+destroyed by roving parties of the enemy or by wild beasts. On
+August 18, 1820, a hunter belonging to a division of the Long expedition
+"returned with the information of his having discovered a
+small field of maize, occupying a fertile spot at no great distance
+from the camp, it exhibited proofs of having been lately visited by
+the cultivators; a circumstance which leads us to believe that an ascending
+column of smoke seen at a distance this afternoon, proceeded
+from an encampment of Indians, whom, if not a war party, we
+should now rejoice to meet. We took the liberty, agreeable to the
+custom of the Indians, of procuring a mess of corn, and some small
+but nearly ripe watermelons, that were also found growing there,
+intending to recompense the Osages for them, to whom we supposed
+them to belong." The following morning, August 19, they encountered
+several small cornfields near a creek along which they were
+passing, and that day discovered "an Indian camp, that had a more
+permanent aspect than any we had before seen near this river. The
+boweries were more completely covered, and a greater proportion of
+bark was used in the construction of them. They are between sixty
+and seventy in number. Well worn traces or paths lead in various
+directions from this spot, and the vicinity of the cornfields induce
+the belief that it is occasionally occupied by a tribe of Indians, for
+the purpose of cultivation as well as of hunting." (James, (1), II,
+pp. 220-221.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>The encampment just mentioned may have resembled the one described
+by Schoolcraft the preceding year, though many miles away
+in the heart of the Ozarks.</p>
+
+<p>Although it is quite probable that hunting parties of the Osage,
+during their wanderings, reached all parts of the Ozarks, and occupied
+camps on banks of many streams in distant regions far away
+from their more permanent villages, nevertheless all sites do not
+present the same characteristic features. Thus in the central and
+eastern sections of the hill country, as in the valleys of the Gasconade
+and its tributary, the Piney, and along the courses of the streams
+farther eastward quantities of fragmentary pottery are to be found
+scattered over the surface of the many village and camp sites, and
+here it may be remarked that seldom are traces of a settlement not
+to be discovered at the junction of two streams, however small or
+large they may be.</p>
+
+<p>A great many caves, some rather large, occur in the limestone
+formation, often in the cliffs facing or near the streams. As previously
+mentioned, these show evidence of long or frequent occupancy
+by the Indians. At the openings are masses of wood ashes
+and charcoal, filling the space between the sides to a depth of several
+feet, and in the caves encountered in the vicinity of the Gasconade
+quantities of broken pottery are found, with bones of animals which
+served as food, various implements, shells, etc., all intermingled with
+the accumulated ashes. A short distance from the bank of the Piney,
+several miles above its junction with the Gasconade, a cave of more
+than usual interest is met with in the high cliff. This is in Pulaski
+County. Flowing from the cave is a small stream of clear, very cold
+water. It enters the main chamber through an opening not more
+than 4 feet in height and about the same in width, the stream, when
+the cave was visited some years ago, being 3 or 4 inches in depth.
+A few yards up the watercourse the channel widens several feet and
+so continues for a short distance. This widening was caused by
+pieces of chert having been removed from the mass, this evidently
+having been one of the sources whence the Indians secured material
+for the making of their implements. The bed of the stream was
+strewn with flakes and roughly formed rejected pieces of stone.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, as has been shown, vessels of earthenware were made and
+used by the people who occupied or frequented this part of the
+Ozark country, but conditions appear to have been different in the
+western sections. Bits of pottery do not occur on the surface of the
+camp sites, and it is evident it was neither made nor used by the
+occupants of certain settlements. Fragments of pottery are not encountered
+on these particular sites, but large stone mortars are often
+found, objects which do not seem to have been very frequently used
+farther east.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>The valleys of the James and White Rivers, in Stone and Taney
+Counties, Missouri, were visited some years ago and many interesting
+sites were discovered. Traces of a comparatively extensive village
+were encountered on the E. &frac12; of lot 1, S. W. &frac14; of Sec. 9, T. 22,
+R. 23, Stone County, on the left bank of White River. Within a
+radius of a few feet, on a level spot near the center of the once occupied
+area, were found four large sandstone mortars, the concavity
+of the largest being about 15 inches in diameter and 6 inches in
+depth, while the entire block of stone was more than 2 feet in thickness.
+When discovered, June 11, 1901, the mortars gave the impression
+of not having been touched since they were last used by some of
+the inhabitants of the ancient village, and from the surrounding surface,
+an acre or more in extent, were collected several hundred stone
+implements, but not a fragment of pottery was encountered. This
+site, although rather larger and more extensive than the majority,
+was, nevertheless, typical of the 20 or more which were discovered
+during that interesting journey through the valleys mentioned.
+Quantities of stone implements were gathered from the surface of
+the sites, and many mortars were found, but no pottery.</p>
+
+<p>While the material recovered from the sites in the valley of the
+Gasconade is similar to that found to the eastward, the finding of
+mortars and the lack of pottery on the James and White River Valley
+sites suggests a different culture, and it is possible the latter owe
+their origin to parties of the Wichita or neighboring tribes who entered
+the western valleys of the Ozarks from the prairie lands.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Quapaw.</span></h5>
+
+<p>This, the southernmost tribe of the Dhegiha group, occupied several
+villages west of the Mississippi, near the mouth of the Arkansas.
+When the closely allied tribes had removed from their ancient
+habitat in the upper valley of the Ohio, and had arrived at the
+mouth of that stream, the Quapaw are believed to have turned southward
+while the others went northward. The name of the tribe,
+Quapaw, signifies "downstream people;" Omaha being translated
+"those going against the wind or current." As a people they seem to
+have been known to the members of the De Soto expedition about
+1541, probably occupying villages on or near the sites of the settlements
+visited by the French during the latter part of the next
+century.</p>
+
+<p>Père Marquette, while on his memorable journey down the Mississippi,
+in the year 1673, went as far as the mouth of the Arkansas,
+where he lingered a few days before returning northward on July
+17. The villages of the Quapaw, designated the Arkansa, were
+reached, but the habitations were only briefly described: "Their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+cabins, which are long and wide, are made of bark; they sleep at the
+two extremities, which are raised about two feet from the ground.
+They keep their corn in large baskets, made of cane, or in gourds,
+as large as half barrels." They used both wooden dishes and "plates
+of baked earth. Their cooking was done in large earthen pots, of
+their own make." (Shea, (2), p. 48.) But the most interesting
+early account of the villages is contained in Joutel's narrative of La
+Salle's last expedition, when he attempted to reach the Illinois
+country overland from the Gulf coast. Through jealousy and
+intrigue of members of the expedition he was murdered by one of
+their number, March 20, 1687; but others continued eastward, and on
+July 24, 1687, arrived at the four villages of the Quapaw, and to
+quote from the narrative of the expedition: "The Nation of the
+<i>Accancea's</i> consists of four Villages. The first is call'd <i>Otsotchove</i>,
+near which we were; the second <i>Toriman</i>, both of them seated on the
+River; the third <i>Tonginga</i>; and the fourth <i>Cappa</i>, on the Bank of
+the <i>Missisipi</i>. These Villages are built after a different Manner
+from the others we had seen before, in this Point, that the Cottages,
+which are alike as to their Materials and Rounding at the Top, are
+long, and cover'd with the Bark of Trees, and so very large, that several
+of them can hold two hundred Persons, belonging to several
+Families. The People are not so neat as the <i>Cenis</i> [Caddo], or the
+<i>Assonis</i> [Caddo], in their Houses, for some of them lie on the
+Ground, without any Thing under them but some Mats, or dress'd
+Hide. How ever, some of them have more Conveniencies, but the
+Generality has not. All their Movables consist in some Earthen
+Vessels and oval wooden Platters, which are neatly made, and with
+which they drive a Trade."</p>
+
+<p>The expedition was then resting at the village standing on the
+banks of the Arkansas, not far above its junction with the Mississippi.
+Here they remained three days, departing on July 27. On
+that day "We imbark'd on a Canoe belonging to one of the Chiefs,
+being at least twenty Persons, as well Women as Men, and arriv'd
+safe, without any Trouble, at a Village call'd <i>Toriman</i>, for we were
+going down the River." The river was the Arkansas. Later in the
+day they reached the "fatal River, so much sought after by us, called
+<i>Colbert</i>, when first discover'd, and <i>Missisipi</i>, or <i>Mechassipi</i> by the
+Natives that were near us." The party lingered at Toriman during
+the twenty-eighth, and on the following day arrived at "the next
+Village call'd <i>Tonningua</i>, seated on the Bank of that River [the
+Mississippi], where we were receiv'd in the Chief's Cottage, as we
+had been in the others." On July 30, "We set out for Cappa, the
+last Village of the <i>Accancea's</i>, eight Leagues distant from the Place
+we had left." (Joutel, (1), pp. 155-161.) Passing up the Mississippi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+from the Quapaw towns, they encamped during the night of
+August 2 on an island, "for our greater Safety, for we were then
+come into an Enemy's Nation, call'd <i>Machigamea</i>, which put our
+Indians into great Frights."</p>
+
+<p>Père Anastasius Douay, also a member of the party, had very little
+to say about their stop among the Quapaw, only that "We visited
+three of these villages, the Torimans, the Doginga, and the Kappa;
+everywhere we had feasts, harangues, calumet-dances, with every
+mark of joy." (Shea, (2), p. 220.) Evidently his notes were faulty,
+as no mention was made of the fourth town.</p>
+
+<p>When La Harpe made his journey into the region bordering the
+Mississippi some distance above New Orleans he encountered the
+Quapaw, and in his journal referred to them as the Alkansa, and
+said: "La nation Alkansa, ainsi nommée parce qu'elle sort des
+Canzés [Kansa] etablis sur le Missouri, est situé sur le bord du
+Mississipi dans un terrein isolé par les ruisseaux qui l'environnent;
+elle se divise en trois villages, Ougapa, Torisna et Tonginga, éloignés
+d'une lieue les uns les autres, et renfermant ensemble quatre cents
+habitans; leur principal chef est celui des Ougapas; les Sotoüis le
+reconnaissent aussi pour le leur; ils Sotoüis le reconnaissent aussi
+pour le leur; ils sont tous sortis de la même nation et parlent le
+même langue." (La Harpe, (1), p. 317.) Elsewhere he referred to
+reaching the "rivière Blanche, qui court dans le nord-ouest du coté
+des Osages," which entered the "rivière des Sotoüis," or Arkansas,
+4 leagues from the Mississippi. Here stood a village of the Sotoüis,
+consisting of 40 habitations and having a population of 330.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly a century elapsed between the time of La Harpe's visit to
+the country occupied by the Quapaw and the journey performed by
+Nuttall. On February 27, 1819, when the latter was ascending the
+Arkansas River, he wrote: "In the course of the day we passed the
+outlet of the bayou, or rather river, Meta, which diagonally traverses
+the Great Prairie, also two Indian villages on the south bank [of the
+Arkansas].... The first was the periodical residence of a handful of
+Choctaws, the other was occupied by the Quapaws." (Nuttall, (1),
+p. 91.) This was near the line between Lincoln and Desha Counties,
+Arkansas. Some distance beyond, apparently at some point in the
+present Jefferson County, on March 11, 1819, he saw other native
+villages, but whether occupied by Quapaw or some other tribe was
+not told. However, they were probably Quapaw settlements. On
+that day: "Passed Mr. Embree's, and arrived at Mr. Lewismore's.
+Six miles above, we also saw two Indian villages, opposite each of
+those settlements.... The Indians, unfortunately, are here, as usual,
+both poor and indolent, and alive to wants which they have not the
+power of gratifying. The younger ones are extremely foppish in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+their dress; covered with feathers, blazing calicoes, scarlet blankets,
+and silver pendants. Their houses, sufficiently convenient with their
+habits, are oblong square, and without any other furniture than
+baskets and benches, spread with skins for the purpose of rest and
+repose. The fire, as usual, is in the middle of the hut, which is constructed
+of strips of bark and cane, with doors also of the latter
+split and plaited together." (Op. cit., pp. 97-98.)</p>
+
+<p>When returning down the Arkansas, on January 18, 1820, Nuttall
+evidently reached the Quapaw village which he had passed when
+ascending the stream during the preceding February. He wrote:
+"About noon we landed at one of the Quapaw or Osark villages, but
+found only three houses constructed of bark, and those unoccupied.
+In the largest of them, apparently appropriated to amusement and
+superstition, we found two gigantic painted wooden masks of
+Indians, and a considerable number of conic pelt caps, also painted.
+These, as we learnt from an Indian who came up to us from some
+houses below, were employed at festivals, and worn by the dancers....
+At the entrance of the cabin, and suspended from the wall,
+there was a female figure, with a rudely carved head of wood painted
+with vermillion. Being hollow, and made of leather, we supposed it
+to be employed as a mask for one of the musicians, having in one
+hand a pendent ferule, as if for the purpose of beating a drum. In
+the spring and autumn the Quapaws have a custom of making a
+contribution dance, in which they visit also the whites, who live in
+the vicinity, and the chief alms which they crave is salt or articles
+of diet." The following day the party reached Arkansas Post.
+(Nuttall, (1), p. 223.)</p>
+
+<p>This account of the ceremonial lodge, for such it undoubtedly was,
+of the Quapaw of a century ago, is most interesting, as it proves how
+the rapidly diminishing tribe held to their old customs. The tribe
+gradually disappeared from the lower Arkansas. The remnants of
+this once large body moved westward, and on August 11, 1853, some
+were encountered by the Whipple expedition in the extreme north
+west corner of the Choctaw Nation, on the right bank of the Canadian,
+where the Shawnee Hills reach to the river bank. There, on
+the "high bank of the Canadian, stand still some wigwams or rather
+log-houses of Quappa Indians, who may boast of not having yet
+quitted the land of their forefathers. But they have shrunk to a
+small band that cannot furnish above twenty-five warriors, and it
+would scarcely be supposed that they are all who are left of the once
+powerful tribe of the Arkansas, whose hunting grounds extended
+from the Canadian to the Mississippi." (Möllhausen, (1), I, p. 74.)</p>
+
+<p>Probably no section of the country has revealed more traces of
+the period of aboriginal occupancy than has that part of the Mississippi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+Valley which extends southward from the Ohio to the Arkansas.
+This was the region traversed by the Quapaw during the
+latter part of their migration from their earlier habitat east of the
+Mississippi, and may have been occupied by them since the fifteenth
+century, or before. Many of the mound groups, village sites, and
+burial places occurring within this area may undoubtedly be justly
+attributed to the Quapaw. Vast quantities of earthenware vessels,
+of great variety of forms and sizes, have been recovered from the
+sites north of the Arkansas, and these often present marked characteristics
+differing from the ware found farther south. The Quapaw
+are known to have been skilled pottery makers. As already mentioned,
+Marquette, in 1673, referred to their "plates of baked earth,"
+and also to the large earthen cooking vessels "of their own make."
+And in 1687 Joutel wrote of their earthen vessels "with which they
+drive a Trade." Therefore it is more than probable that much of
+the ancient pottery encountered in this part of the Mississippi Valley
+was made by this southern Siouan tribe. Many of the village sites
+discovered near the Mississippi, north of the Arkansas, were probably
+once occupied by the Quapaw who, by the latter part of the seventeenth
+century, had moved as far south as the mouth of the Arkansas
+River, in the present Desha County. The earlier references to the
+tribe, those contained in the narratives of the De Soto expedition,
+1541, mention the towns being protected by encircling embankments
+and ditches. The former were probably surmounted by palisades.
+The village or villages of this period probably stood on the bank of
+the Mississippi, and one may have occupied the interesting site at
+Avenue, in Phillips County, where some remarkable pottery vessels
+have been discovered. Other ancient sites in Lee and Crittenden
+Counties, north of Phillips, were possibly occupied by the same
+people at different times.</p>
+
+<p>The position of the village of the Algonquian Michigamea, who
+lived north of the Quapaw, has not been determined.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">chiwere group.</span></h4>
+
+<p>This group, so designated by the late Dr. J. O. Dorsey, includes
+three tribes, the Iowa, Oto, and Missouri, who spoke slightly different
+dialects of the same language. According to tribal traditions,
+they were, generations ago, allied and associated with the Winnebago,
+from whom they separated and scattered while living in the
+vicinity of the Great Lakes east of the Mississippi, where the Winnebago
+continued to dwell. It is not the purpose of the present sketch
+to trace the movements of the three tribes from their ancient habitat
+to the banks of the Mississippi, thence westward to the Missouri and
+beyond, but the routes followed in their migrations can be fairly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+accurately determined by comparing their own statements and traditions
+with early historical records, and it is quite probable that many
+village sites now discovered within this region were once occupied
+by some members of these tribes.</p>
+
+<p>While living east of the Mississippi in a region of lakes and
+streams surrounded by vast forests, their habitations were undoubtedly
+the bark or mat covered structures, but when some moved far
+west and came in contact with tribes beyond the Missouri they evidently
+learned the art of constructing the earth-covered lodge which
+they soon began to occupy. Likewise when and where the skin tipi
+first became known to them is not possible to determine, but probably
+not until they had reached the valley of the Missouri and were nearing
+the banks of that stream north of the Kansas.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Iowa.</span></h5>
+
+<p>On September 15, 1819, the expedition under command of Maj.
+Stephen H. Long arrived at the mouth of Papillion Creek, on the
+right bank of the Missouri a few miles above the Platte, a site now
+covered by the city of Omaha, Nebraska. In the narrative of the
+expedition it is said that at the mouth of the Papillion "we found
+two boats belonging to the Indian traders at St Louis. They had
+passed us some days before, and were to remain for the winter at the
+mouth of the Papillion, to trade with the Otoes, Missouries, and other
+Indians.</p>
+
+<p>"The banks of the Missouri above the Platte, have long been frequented
+by the Indians, either as places of permanent or occasional
+residence. Deserted encampments are often seen. On the northeast
+side, near the mouth of Mosquito river, are the remains of an
+old Ioway village. Four miles above, on the opposite side, was formerly
+a village of the Otoes." (James, (1), I, pp. 144-145.)</p>
+
+<p>As mentioned elsewhere, the Iowa and their kindred tribes had
+migrated from their ancient habitat in the vicinity of the Great
+Lakes to the Missouri Valley, and in 1848 a map was prepared by
+an Iowa Indian showing the route of the tribe from the mouth of
+Rock River, Illinois, to the banks of the Missouri, across the State
+which perpetuates the tribal name. The map was reproduced by
+Schoolcraft. (Schoolcraft, (3), III, pp. 256-257.)</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately very little is to be found in the early writings
+regarding the appearance of the Iowa villages, but they probably
+did not differ from those of the tribes with whom they were so closely
+associated, and the primitive village, composed of a group of mat or
+bark covered structures, must have resembled the towns of the
+Osage. But in addition to the usual habitation the Iowa evidently
+erected a larger, longer structure. Maximilian on April 25, 1833,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+when in the region then occupied by the Iowa, wrote: "The canal
+between Nadaway Island and the cantonment is called Nadaway
+Slew, at the end of which we saw the remains of some Indian huts.
+In a dark glen in the forest, we observed a long Indian hut, which
+occupied almost its whole breadth, and must have served for a great
+number of persons." (Maximilian, (1), p. 124.) It is to be
+regretted that a full description of this "long Indian hut" was not
+preserved. It may have been a ceremonial lodge rather than a large
+dwelling.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting though brief account of the Iowa as they were at
+this time is preserved. It was related by a missionary, Samuel M.
+Irvin, who arrived among the Iowa April 10, 1837. They were living
+in the northwestern part of Missouri, the "Platte purchase," but
+were soon to be removed to lands west of the Missouri. At that time,
+the spring of 1837, so the narrative continues: "They numbered in
+all 830. They were a wild, warlike, roving people, and in a most
+wretched condition, depending mainly on the chase for a subsistence.
+Their habitations were of the most frail and temporary kind. They
+were shelters in the form of huts or houses made of the bark of trees
+stretched over slender poles and tied together with bark strings, or
+they were tents or lodges made of the skins of the buffalo or elk, and
+sewed together with the sinews of these animals. These bark houses
+were mainly for summer shelter, and would in a few years yield to
+the wear of time, when they would be abandoned and a new location
+sought. The skin tents were carried with them, and made their
+habitations wherever they chanced to stop. They were strictly a
+migratory and unsettled people." (Plank, (1), p. 312.) And "domestic
+animals, excepting ponies and dogs, were not among them.
+Indeed, to some of them, such things as cattle, hogs, sheep and
+poultry were almost unknown, and did such animals happen their
+way they would pounce upon them for present food as quickly as
+upon a buffalo or wild turkey."</p>
+
+<p>An excellent picture of an Iowa habitation accompanied the article
+from which the preceding quotations have been made and is now
+reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_32">32</a>, <i>b</i>.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Oto.</span></h5>
+
+<p>When Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri during the summer of
+1804 they reached the mouth of the Platte July 21. At that time, so
+they entered in their journal, the Oto were living on the south side of
+the Platte 10 leagues above its junction with the Missouri, and 5
+leagues beyond, on the same bank, were the Pawnee. Living with
+the Oto were the remnants of the Missouri who had, a few years
+before, joined them. On August 3, 1804, the expedition having
+ascended the Missouri to about the location of the present city of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+Council Bluffs, Iowa, held a council with representatives of the two
+tribes, Oto and Missouri, an event which has been perpetuated in the
+name of the city. A majority of the two tribes were then absent from
+their village on their summer buffalo hunt, consequently few were
+present at the council.</p>
+
+<p>On May 3, 1811, Bradbury arrived at the Oto village, but it was
+deserted. All were probably some miles away hunting the buffalo.
+However, a very interesting description of the habitations in the deserted
+village is preserved. First referring to the Platte: "The southern
+bank is wholly divested of timber, and as the village is situated on
+a declivity near the river, we could see the lodges very distinctly, but
+there was no appearance of Indians." (p. 54.) On the following day,
+May 4, 1811, he visited the village and found it "to consist of about
+fifty-four lodges, of a circular form, and about forty feet in diameter,
+with a projecting part at the entrance, of ten or twelve feet in length,
+in the form of a porch. At almost every lodge, the door or entrance
+was closed after the manner which is customary with Indians when
+they go on hunting parties and take their squaws and children with
+them. It consists in putting a few sticks across, in a particular manner,
+which they so exactly note and remember, as to be able to discover
+the least change in their position. Although anxious to examine
+the internal structure of the lodges, I did not violate the injunction
+conveyed by this slight obstruction, and after searching some time
+found a few that were left entirely open. On entering one, I found
+the length of the porch to be an inclined plane to the level of the floor,
+about two and a half or three feet below the surface of the ground;
+round the area of the lodge are placed from fifteen to eighteen posts,
+forked at the top, and about seven feet high from the floor. In the
+centre, a circular space of about eight feet in diameter is dug, to the
+depth of two feet; four strong posts are placed in the form of a
+square, about twelve feet asunder, and at equal distances from this
+space these posts are about twenty feet high, and cross pieces are laid
+on the tops. The rafters are laid from the forked tops of the outside
+posts over these cross pieces, and reach nearly to the centre, where a
+small hole is left for the smoke to escape; across the rafters small
+pieces of timber are laid; over these, sticks and a covering of sods, and
+lastly earth. The fire is made in the middle of the central space,
+round the edges of which they sit, and the beds are fixed between the
+outer posts. The door is placed at the immediate entrance into the
+lodge; it is made of a buffalo skin, stretched in a frame of wood, and
+is suspended from the top. On entering, it swings forward, and when
+let go, it falls to its former position." (Bradbury, (1), pp. 56-57.)</p>
+
+<p>It is to be regretted that Bradbury did not give a more detailed
+account of the general appearance of the village; that he did not tell
+of the placing of the lodges, and of the other structures, if any stood<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+within the village. But this large group of earth-covered lodges
+undoubtedly resembled the village of the Republican Pawnee, as
+shown in the photograph made by Jackson more than half a century
+later.</p>
+
+<p>In the narrative of the Long expedition, during the spring of 1820,
+more than a century ago, is a brief note on the Oto. It reads: "The
+Oto nation of Indians is distinguished by the name of <i>Wah-toh-ta-na</i>.
+The permanent village of this nation is composed of large dirt lodges,
+similar to those of the Konzas and Omawhaws, and is situate on the
+left bank of the river Platte, or Nebreska, about forty miles above
+it confluence with the Missouri." (James, (1), I, p. 338.) On the
+map which accompanies the narrative the village is indicated on the
+south or right bank of the Platte, in the eastern part of the present
+Saunders County, Nebraska. Continuing, the journal states (p. 342):
+"The hunting grounds of the Oto nation, extend from the Little
+Platte up to the Boyer creek, on the north side of the Missouri, and
+from Independence creek to about forty miles above the Platte, on
+the south side of that river. They hunt the bison, between the Platte
+and the sources of the Konzas rivers." Thus their hunting grounds
+included one of the richest and most fertile sections of the valley of
+the Missouri, now occupied by many towns and villages.</p>
+
+<p>Much of interest respecting the manners and ways of life of the
+Oto when they occupied their village near the mouth of the Platte
+is to be found in Irving's narrative of the expedition of which he was
+a member. During the summer of 1833 the small party under the
+leadership of Commissioner H. L. Ellsworth left St. Louis and, with
+several teams, proceeded up the Valley of the Missouri. They traversed
+the vast rolling prairie: "Hour after hour passed on; the
+prospect was still the same. At last a loud cry from our guide announced
+that we had come in sight of the cantonment. There was
+a snowy speck resting upon the distant green; behind it rose a forest
+of lofty timber which shadowed the Missouri. This was Leavenworth....
+It was mid day when we first caught sight of Leavenworth,
+but it was near sunset before we arrived there. About a dozen
+white-washed cottage-looking houses, composed the barracks and the
+abodes of the officers. They are so arranged as to form the three sides
+of a hollow square; the fourth is open, and looks out into a wide but
+broken prairie. It is a rural looking spot&mdash;a speck of civilization
+dropped in the heart of a wilderness." (Irving, J. T., (1), I, pp.
+46-47.) From Fort Leavenworth they continued up the valley, soon
+reaching the village of the Oto, near the banks of the Platte. After
+describing the reception accorded the party by the people of the
+town Irving wrote: "The village of the Otoe Indians is situated
+upon a ridge of swelling hills overlooking the darkly wooded banks
+of the Platte river, about a quarter of a mile distant. There is but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+little beauty or neatness about an Indian town. The lodges are built
+in the shape of a half egg. They frequently are twenty feet in height,
+and sometimes sixty in diameter. The roofs are formed of long poles,
+which diverge like the radii of a circle, from one common centre.
+The ring of the circle is formed of upright posts, driven closely together
+in the ground, and projecting upward about five feet. These
+are interwoven with brushwood and the smaller branches of trees,
+and form the support of the outer end of the poles composing the
+roof, the interstices of which are also interwoven with twigs and
+brushwood. The whole is then covered with earth, and when finished
+resembles a large hillock. The town contained about seventy of these
+lodges, standing singly or in groups, without any attention to order
+or regularity. Within, they are capacious, but dark, being lighted
+merely by a small aperture at the top, which serves both as window
+and chimney. The fire is built in a cavity in the centre, directly under
+the hole in the roof, by which the smoke escapes after floating in easy
+wreaths about the interior.</p>
+
+<p>"As the lodges are very spacious, a little back from the fire there
+is a circular range of tree trunks standing like columns, and connected
+by timber laid in their forks, forming a support for the roof,
+which otherwise, from the great length of the poles that form it, and
+the heavy mass of superincumbent earth, might fall in, and bury the
+inhabitants. Around the wall of the building, are ranged cribs or
+berths for sleeping, screened from view by heavy mats of grass and
+rushes. Over the fire is inclined a forked stake, in the hook of
+which hangs a large kettle, generally filled with buffalo flesh and
+corn. This, to judge from its looks, is never removed from the fire,
+even for the purpose of cleaning it." (Op. cit., pp. 158-160.)</p>
+
+<p>A week or more passed after the arrival of the party at the Oto
+village before a council was held with the chief men of the tribe,
+"for the purpose of forming a treaty, with respect to the lands lying
+in the neighbourhood of the Nemahaw river." The time for holding
+the council having arrived, the commissioner and his party proceeded
+from their camp to the earth-covered lodge in which the ceremony
+was to be enacted. They entered and "found nearly the whole tribe
+assembled, and seated in circles, in the large lodge of the Iotan chief.
+At the far end of the building was the Iotan; and by his side were
+stationed those two worthies, the Big Kaw and the Thief. Next
+them were the stern forms of the older warriors and braves....
+The lodge was excessively crowded. One ring was formed beyond
+another; one dark head rose behind another; until the dim, dusk outlines
+of the more distant were lost in shadow, and their glistening
+eyes alone could be seen. The passage which led to the air was completely
+crowded with women and children; and half a dozen curious
+faces were peering down through the round hole in the roof.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>"The most of them had adorned themselves for the occasion.
+Plumes were floating from their scalp-locks; their heads and breasts
+were painted with vermilion, and long strings of wampum hung
+from their necks and mutilated ears. But at the present moment
+there appeared to be no thought of their appearance. Every sense
+was wrapped up in an intense interest in the approaching council;
+every breath was held; and every eye fixed with eagerness upon the
+face of the Commissioner, as he arose to address the meeting." (Op.
+cit., pp. 233-235.) This vivid description of the gathering of the
+Oto in a great earth-covered structure near the banks of the Missouri
+during the summer of 1833 tends to recall Lieut. Timberlake's meeting
+with the head men of the Cherokee, when they came together
+in the townhouse at Chote late in the year 1761. The two structures
+were of similar appearance and probably did not differ greatly in
+size, although at Chote there were several tiers of seats surrounding
+the central space within the house which were lacking in the Oto
+lodge, but the two gatherings were evidently quite similar, although
+belonging to different generations and being in regions separated by
+many hundreds of miles of forest and plain. The great rotundas,
+or townhouses of the Cherokee, were the most interesting of the
+various native structures which formerly stood east of the Mississippi.
+(Bushnell, (1), pp. 59-63.)</p>
+
+<p>The preceding notes on the Oto refer to their permanent earth-lodge
+villages, which were occupied only part of each year. When
+away from the village they would make use of the skin-covered
+tipi, although the temporary shelter of the Pawnee may have been
+copied by some members of the tribe. Fortunately a very good description
+of the appearance of a winter encampment of several
+families, at some point far west of the Missouri on the prairie of
+Nebraska, during the winter of 1851-52, has been preserved. The
+account was prepared by a traveler who became separated from his
+companions and reached the camp unexpectedly while traversing
+the snow-covered wilderness. The "little camp consisted of two
+large tents, which stood in a deep ravine, overgrown with stunted
+oaks, and on the banks of a deep stream, whose waters were hidden
+beneath a thick covering of ice." One tent belonged to the chief
+Wa-ki-ta-mo-nee, the other to a half-breed named Louis Farfar.
+Arriving at the camp, so the narrative continues, I "crawled into
+the tent of the medicine-man, and took my place by his blazing
+fire, while the other occupants lay or crouched around. The old
+mother was busy in the preparation of the meat, and by her side,
+next the opening, were two daughters; the older about eighteen, the
+younger about two years old. The father of the family, his son, and
+Schin-ges-in-ki-nee had, according to Indian custom, kept the best<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+places for themselves, which was so much the better for me as I
+was placed between them. The medicine pipe, with a bowl cut out
+of some red stone, went round briskly, and the time that was employed
+in distributing the meat intended for the meal I spent in
+taking a good view of the Indian dwelling. Sixteen long poles,
+made of slender pine trees, were so placed as to form a circle of
+sixteen or eighteen feet in diameter, their tops being bent over and
+fastened together. Around this framework was thrown, like a
+mantle, the tent leather, consisting of a great number of buffalo-hides,
+tanned white, and neatly sewed together for the purpose
+with sinews. The leather did not reach quite to the top, but left
+an opening, by which the smoke could escape; but there were two
+prolongations of the tent leather, something like flags, which were
+supported by particular poles, so as, in stormy weather or contrary
+winds, to form a very tolerable chimney. The tent was fixed so
+firmly to the ground with pegs that the tightly stretched sides would
+admit neither the rain nor the snow, when it melted from the heat
+of the fire; and the inhabitants had not only a secure refuge, but
+a tolerably comfortable dwelling. The various possessions of the
+Indians were hung round on the tent poles, where they only took up
+room that could easily be dispensed with, and kept out the cold
+that could have most readily found an entrance at those places. On
+the space round the fire, buffalo-hides were spread for beds at night,
+and when rolled up in the day made convenient seats; the fire, in
+a kind of pit half a foot deep, and two and a half in diameter, was
+a mass of glowing embers, with a number of logs blazing on the
+top, and diffused a most pleasant warmth over the small space.
+Near the fire a branch of a tree was stuck into the ground, and
+another placed horizontally across it, and running the whole breadth
+of the tent, from which hung the most indispensable of household
+utensils in the form of a great kettle, whilst the rest of the pole
+was covered with wet and torn mocassins and gaiters, in a manner
+that was certainly more convenient than ornamental.... Besides the
+wild half-naked forms of the Indians, a number of dogs, young and
+old, made part of the company assembled in Wa-ki-ta-mo-nee's tent.
+The attention of the mistress of the family, a very dirty old squaw,
+was exclusively devoted to the vast kettle and its bubbling contents;
+a row of roughly-cut wooden platters stood before her, and by
+means of a pointed stick she fished up from the cauldron large joints
+of bear and half turkeys, and loaded each of the platters with a huge
+portion of the savoury smelling food." (Möllhausen, (1), I, pp.
+171-175.) The second tent, so he wrote, "was more spacious" than
+the one which he had entered, and described. This is an interesting
+description of a small winter camp of the Oto as it stood in the midst<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+of the snow-covered prairie, near a stream "whose waters were
+hidden beneath a thick covering of ice." The scene could undoubtedly
+have been repeated in many localities in the vast region west of
+the Missouri. The identity of the stream near which the two tents
+stood during the winter of 1851-52 is suggested by a note in Fremont's
+journal, written 10 years earlier. On June 22, 1842, when
+traversing the prairies, soon to reach the right bank of the Platte,
+he wrote: "Made our bivouac in the midst of some well-timbered
+ravines near the Little Blue.... Crossing the next morning a number
+of handsome creeks, with clear water and sandy beds, we reached
+at 10 A. M., a very beautiful wooded stream, about thirty-five feet
+wide, called Sandy creek, and sometimes, as the Ottoes frequently
+winter there, Otto fork." (Fremont, (1), p. 14.) The greater part
+of the course of Sandy Creek is through the present Clay and
+Thayer Counties, Nebraska, a hundred miles or more south of west
+from the Oto village then situated near the mouth of the Platte.</p>
+
+<p>Möllhausen remained with the Oto until the temporary camp was
+abandoned, then returned with them to their permanent village.
+The journey required several weeks but in time they approached the
+Missouri, and as they neared their destination: "We passed the
+burial place of the Ottoes just before we descended into the valley,
+and shortly afterwards came to the village. The first consisted of a
+number of hillocks inclosed by rough palings, and decorated with
+sticks with little bits of coloured stuff and feathers fluttering from
+them. The village, which lay not many hundred yards farther was
+a group of about sixty huts of various construction, some of clay,
+shaped like haycocks or baking ovens, others like small houses, built
+of thick oak bark. These dwellings stood mostly empty, as the inhabitants
+had pitched their tents just now in the angle formed by
+the Nebrasca and Missouri, on account of the rich grass to be found
+in these bottom lands under the protecting snow, and because they
+and their cattle were in that situation more sheltered from the violent
+gales of wind." (Möllhausen, (1), I, pp. 210-211.) Here is a
+reference to a third form of habitation known to the Oto. In addition
+to the earth-covered lodge and the skin tipi, both of which were
+characteristic of the time and place, they appear to have reared
+structures similar to the habitation of the Sauk and Fox, as shown
+in plate <a href="#Plate_19">19</a>, a type of dwelling known to several neighboring tribes
+in the upper Mississippi Valley.</p>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 34<a name="Plate_34"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p034a.png" width="300" height="83" alt="a. &quot;Pemmican maul, Oto Agency, Nebrasca, J. W. Griest.&quot; Formed of one piece of wood.
+Extreme length, 39 inches. (U.S.N.M. 22437)" title="a. &quot;Pemmican maul, Oto Agency, Nebrasca, J. W. Griest.&quot; Formed of one piece of wood.
+Extreme length, 39 inches. (U.S.N.M. 22437)" />
+<span class="caption">a. &quot;Pemmican maul, Oto Agency, Nebrasca, J. W. Griest.&quot; Formed of one piece of wood.
+Extreme length, 39 inches. (U.S.N.M. 22437)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p034b.png" width="300" height="113" alt="b. Heavy stone maul with handle attached. &quot;Yankton Sioux. Fort Berthold. Drs. Gray and
+Matthews, U. S. A.&quot; Extreme length about 2 feet 2 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6325)" title="b. Heavy stone maul with handle attached. &quot;Yankton Sioux. Fort Berthold. Drs. Gray and
+Matthews, U. S. A.&quot; Extreme length about 2 feet 2 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6325)" />
+<span class="caption">b. Heavy stone maul with handle attached. &quot;Yankton Sioux. Fort Berthold. Drs. Gray and
+Matthews, U. S. A.&quot; Extreme length about 2 feet 2 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6325)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p034c.png" width="300" height="141" alt="c. &quot;Tools of the Mandans for dressing leather, Dakota. Drs. Gray and Matthews, U. S. A.&quot; Handle
+of antler, with flint blade attached. Extreme length of handle about 11 inches. (U.S.N.M. 8409)" title="c. &quot;Tools of the Mandans for dressing leather, Dakota. Drs. Gray and Matthews, U. S. A.&quot; Handle
+of antler, with flint blade attached. Extreme length of handle about 11 inches. (U.S.N.M. 8409)" />
+<span class="caption">c. &quot;Tools of the Mandans for dressing leather, Dakota. Drs. Gray and Matthews, U. S. A.&quot; Handle
+of antler, with flint blade attached. Extreme length of handle about 11 inches. (U.S.N.M. 8409)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 35<a name="Plate_35"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p035a.png" width="300" height="162" alt="a. Oto dugout canoe, from Kurz&#39;s Sketchbook, May 15, 1851" title="a. Oto dugout canoe, from Kurz&#39;s Sketchbook, May 15, 1851" />
+<span class="caption">a. Oto dugout canoe, from Kurz&#39;s Sketchbook, May 15, 1851</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p035b.png" width="300" height="258" alt="b. Bull-boat and paddle, obtained from the Hidatsa. Marked &quot;Fort Buford, Dak. Ter. Grosventres
+Tribe. Drs. Gray and Matthews.&quot; (U.S.N.M. 9785)" title="b. Bull-boat and paddle, obtained from the Hidatsa. Marked &quot;Fort Buford, Dak. Ter. Grosventres
+Tribe. Drs. Gray and Matthews.&quot; (U.S.N.M. 9785)" />
+<span class="caption">b. Bull-boat and paddle, obtained from the Hidatsa. Marked &quot;Fort Buford, Dak. Ter. Grosventres
+Tribe. Drs. Gray and Matthews.&quot; (U.S.N.M. 9785)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 36<a name="Plate_36"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p036a.png" width="300" height="238" alt="a. Structure showing arbor over entrance" title="a. Structure showing arbor over entrance" />
+<span class="caption">a. Structure showing arbor over entrance</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p036b.png" width="300" height="239" alt="b. Long structure with entrance on one side
+
+WINNEBAGO HABITATIONS, ABOUT 1870" title="b. Long structure with entrance on one side
+
+WINNEBAGO HABITATIONS, ABOUT 1870" />
+<span class="caption">b. Long structure with entrance on one side
+
+WINNEBAGO HABITATIONS, ABOUT 1870</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 37<a name="Plate_37"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/p037.png" width="500" height="291" alt="WINNEBAGO STRUCTURES" title="WINNEBAGO STRUCTURES" />
+<span class="caption">WINNEBAGO STRUCTURES</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is quite evident that after leaving the permanent earth-lodge
+village of the Oto the Long party just a century ago passed one of
+the temporary camps of the same people. This, fortunately, was
+sketched by the artist of the expedition and reproduced in the narrative
+of the journey, and is now shown in plate <a href="#Plate_33">33</a>. To quote from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>the narrative: "For the elucidation of what we have said respecting
+the form and arrangement of the skin, or travelling lodges of the Indians,
+we subjoin an engraving, representing an encampment of Oto
+Indians, which Mr. Seymour sketched near the Platte river. In this
+plate, the group of Indians on the left is intended to represent a
+party of Konza Indians approaching to perform the calumet dance
+in the Oto village. It may be proper to remark, that this party
+when still distant from the Otoes, had sent forward a messenger,
+with the offer of a prize to the first Oto that should meet them. This
+circumstance was productive of much bustle and activity among the
+warriors and young men, who eagerly mounted their horses, and exerted
+their utmost speed." (James. (1), II, pp. 188-189.)</p>
+
+<p>Various ethnological specimens collected among the Oto a generation
+or more ago are in the collections of the National Museum.
+One quite rare object, a "pemmican maul," formed of a single piece
+of wood, is figured in plate <a href="#Plate_34">34</a>, <i>a</i>.</p>
+
+<p>An original sketch by Kurz in May, 1851, representing a group of
+Oto with a dugout canoe, is reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_35">35</a>, <i>a</i>.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Missouri.</span></h5>
+
+<p>In the narrative of the Lewis and Clark expedition appears this
+record: "June 13, 1804. We passed ... a bend of the river, Missouri
+and two creeks on the north, called the Round Bend creeks.
+Between these two creeks is the prairie, in which once stood the
+ancient village of the Missouris. Of this village there remains no
+vestige, nor is there any thing to recall this great and numerous
+nation, except a feeble remnant of about thirty families. They were
+driven from their original seats by the invasions of the Sauks and
+other Indians from the Mississippi, who destroyed at this village
+two hundred of them in one contest." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, p.
+13.) About 5 miles beyond they reached the mouth of Grand River
+which flows from the northwest, serves as the boundary between Carroll
+and Chariton Counties, Missouri, and enters the left bank of the
+Missouri River. Therefore the old village of the Missouri evidently
+stood at some point in the latter county. It was probably composed
+of a number of mat and bark covered lodges resembling the village
+of the Osage which stood a few miles farther up the river. Two days
+later, June 15, the party identified the site or remains of the former
+village of the Little Osage, and, so the narrative continues: "About
+three miles above them, in view of our camp is the situation of the
+old village of the Missouris after they fled from the Sauks." (Op.
+cit., p. 15.) From this village the few Missouri Indians appear to
+have sought refuge among the Oto, then living on the banks of the
+Platte.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p>
+<h4><span class="smcap">winnebago.</span></h4>
+
+<p>When first known to Europeans the Winnebago occupied the region
+west of Green Bay, west of Lake Michigan, where, according to
+the Jesuit missionaries, they had resided for many generations.
+There they were living in the year 1634 when visited by Nicollet,
+and just 35 years later, during the winter of 1669-70, a mission on
+the shore of the same bay was conducted by Père Allouez, which
+proved a gathering place for various tribes, including the Winnebago,
+Sauk and Foxes, Menominee, and Potawatomi. These, with
+the exception of the Winnebago, were Algonquian tribes.</p>
+
+<p>As already mentioned, the Oto, Iowa, and Missouri appear to have
+been closely connected with the Winnebago, all speaking dialects
+understood by one another. And it is also evident that when the
+Oto, Iowa, and Missouri began their movement westward to the
+Mississippi and beyond the Winnebago remained behind. However,
+about the beginning of the last century they reached the banks of
+the Mississippi, and by successive moves during the next 50 years
+some arrived in western Minnesota, soon to be removed to lands beyond
+the Missouri, adjoining the Omaha, in the northeastern part of
+Nebraska.</p>
+
+<p>While living in the vicinity of Green Bay their villages were
+groups of mat and bark-covered lodges, typical of the tribes of the
+wooded country which abounded in lakes and streams. And it is
+quite evident that during their migration westward, when they made
+long stops before finally reaching the banks of the Missouri, they
+continued to erect and occupy structures similar to those which had
+stood in their old villages generations before.</p>
+
+<p>Typical examples of Winnebago dwellings are shown in plates <a href="#Plate_36">36</a>
+and <a href="#Plate_37">37</a>. The arbor over the entrance is an interesting feature, seldom
+appearing in the Algonquian villages, although often shown in
+front of Siouan lodges.</p>
+
+<p>In a forthcoming publication Radin has given a list of the various
+forms of structures erected by the Winnebago, some of which existed
+until very recent years. (Radin, (1).)</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">mandan.</span></h4>
+
+<p>As mentioned in the sketch of the Assiniboin, a small party of
+French accompanied by members of that tribe during the autumn of
+1738 went southward from the Assiniboin country to the Mandan
+towns, where the French remained several weeks. The leader of the
+expedition, La Verendrye, prepared an account of the journey, this
+being the earliest record of a visit by Europeans to the Mandans
+known to exist, although it is easily conceived that French trappers
+may have been among the tribe earlier in the century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>The expedition arrived among the Mandan November 28, 1738,
+after a journey of 46 days, but soon pushed forward to a larger
+village. Fortunately the journal contains references to the ways of
+life of the Mandan and a brief description of their fortified or protected
+settlements. At that time the tribe was said to have had six
+villages, and evidently all were protected by encircling palisades.
+The village in which the French then rested consisted of 130 lodges,
+and "all the streets, squares and huts resembled each other." The
+French were particularly interested in the manner in which the town
+was protected, but the account in the journal must exaggerate the
+strength, or rather the size, of the ditch. The palisade was described
+as being 15 feet in height, and "At fifteen points doubled
+are green skins which are put for sheathing when required, fastened
+only above in the places needed, as in the bastion there are
+four at each curtain well flanked. The fort is built on a height in
+the open prairie with a ditch upwards of fifteen feet deep by fifteen
+to eighteen feet wide. Their fort can only be gained by steps or
+posts which can be removed when threatened by an enemy. If all
+their forts are alike, they may be called impregnable to Indians....
+Both men and women of this nation are very laborious; their
+huts are large and spacious, separated into several apartments by
+thick planks; nothing is left lying about; all their baggage is in
+large bags hung on posts; their beds made like tombs surrounded
+by skins.... Their fort is full of caves, in which are stored such
+articles as grain, food, fat, dressed robes, bear skins. They are
+well supplied with these; it is the money of the country.... They
+make wicker work very neatly, flat and in baskets. They make use
+of earthen pots, which they use like many other nations for cooking
+their food." (La Verendrye, (1), p. 21.) In addition to the six
+more important villages there appear to have been others, similar
+but smaller. Referring to these La Verendrye wrote (p. 23): "We
+noticed that in the plain there were several small forts, of forty or
+fifty huts, built like the large ones, but no one was there at the time.
+They made us understand that they came inside for the summer to
+work their fields and that there was a large reserve of grain in their
+cellars." Evidently these were nearer their cornfields, away from
+the river banks, and were occupied only parts of each year.</p>
+
+<p>From this all too brief account of the Mandan it is quite evident
+that when they were first encountered by the French, living in their
+earth lodges, their villages strongly palisaded, their caches filled
+with corn and other food supplies, buffalo robes and bear skins,
+they were in their most powerful and prosperous state. But what
+great changes they were destined to undergo during the next hundred
+years!</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>On October 19, 1804, the Lewis and Clark party discovered the
+first of the ruined villages of the Mandan, evidently standing on the
+left bank of the Missouri, in the southern part of the present Burleigh
+County, North Dakota. It proved an interesting day. "In
+walking along the shore we counted fifty-two herds of buffaloe and
+three of elk, at a single view. Besides these we also observed elk,
+deer, pelicans, and wolves." The ruined village had been protected
+by palisades and, according to the Arikara chief, who accompanied
+them, had been occupied by the Mandan. These, so they wrote, "are
+the first ruins which we have seen of that nation in ascending the
+Missouri." During the night of October 19 the expedition encamped
+on the south, i. e., right, bank of the Missouri, evidently about 2 miles
+below the mouth of Little Heart River, which flows from the westward
+and joins the Missouri in the present Morton County, North
+Dakota. The following day they advanced 12 miles up the Missouri.</p>
+
+<p>October 21, 1804, was cold and bleak. Snow and ice covered the
+ground, and the wind blew strong from the northeast. That day
+the expedition advanced only 7 miles. They passed the mouth of
+Big Heart River and the site of Bismarck, the present capital of
+the State. Two miles above their camp of the night previous, about
+opposite the mouth of the Big Heart, they reached "the ruins of a
+second Mandan village, which was in existence at the same time with
+that just mentioned. It is situated on the north at the foot of a
+hill in a beautiful and extensive plain, which is now covered with
+herds of buffaloes; nearly opposite are remains of a third village on
+the south of the Missouri, and there is another also about two miles
+further on the north, a little off the river. At the distance of seven
+miles we encamped on the south, and spent a cold night." The next
+day, October 22, they discovered other ruined towns of the Mandan.
+"In the morning we passed an old Mandan village on the south,
+near our camp; at four miles another on the same side.... At six
+we reached an island about one mile in length, at the head of which
+is a Mandan village on the north in ruins, and two miles beyond a
+bad sandbar. At eight miles are remains of another Mandan village
+on the south; and at twelve miles encamped on the south....
+These villages, which are nine in number, are scattered along each
+side of the river within a space of twenty miles; almost all that
+remains of them is the wall which surrounds them, the fallen heaps
+of earth which covered the houses, and occasionally human skulls
+and the teeth and bones of men, and different animals, which are
+scattered on the surface of the ground." (Lewis and Clark, (1),
+I, pp. 112-114.) Other deserted villages were passed as they continued
+ascending the Missouri, to arrive late on the 26th of October,
+at an old field of the Mandan, about one-half mile below the first of
+their then occupied villages.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>The winter encampment of the expedition, Fort Mandan, was
+situated on the left bank of the Missouri, about opposite the future
+Fort Clark, and some 7 or 8 miles below the mouth of Knife River,
+and consequently several miles from the first Mandan village. Here
+the expedition remained until April 7, 1805. The lower of the
+Mandan villages was "Matootonha," the second and smaller was
+"Rooptahee." The list continues and refers to "the third village
+which is called Mahawha, and where the Arwacahwas reside." "The
+fourth village where the Minnetarees live, and which is called Metaharta."
+A fifth village is mentioned but its name is not given. (Op.
+cit., pp. 120-121.) Referring to these more in detail the narrative
+tells something of their origin: November 21, 1804, "The villages
+near which we are established are five in number, and are the residence
+of three distinct nations: the Mandans, the Ahnahaways, and
+the Minnetarees. The history of the Mandans, as we received it from
+our interpreters and from the chiefs themselves, and as it is attested
+by existing monuments, illustrates more than that of any other
+nation the unsteady movements and the tottering fortunes of the
+American nations. Within the recollection of living witnesses, the
+Mandans were settled forty years ago in nine villages, the ruins of
+which we passed about eighty miles below, and situated seven on the
+west and two on the east side of the Missouri. The two finding themselves
+wasting away before the small-pox and the Sioux, united into
+one village, and moved up the river opposite to the Ricaras. The
+same causes reduced the remaining seven to five villages, till at length
+they emigrated in a body to the Ricara nation, where they formed
+themselves into two villages, and joined those of their countrymen
+who had gone before them. In their new residence they were still
+insecure, and at length the three villages ascended the Missouri
+to their present position. The two who had emigrated together still
+settled in the two villages on the northwest side of the Missouri,
+while the single village took a position on the southeast side. In
+this situation they were found by those who visited them in 1796;
+since which the two villages have united into one. They are now in
+two villages, one on the southeast of the Missouri, the other on the
+opposite side, and at the distance of three miles across. The first,
+in an open plain, contains about forty or fifty lodges, built in the
+same way as those of the Ricaras: the second, the same number, and
+both may raise about three hundred and fifty men.</p>
+
+<p>"On the same side of the river, and at the distance of four miles
+from the lower Mandan village, is another called Mahaha. It is
+situated in a high plain at the mouth of the Knife river, and is the
+residence of the Ahnahaways. This nation, whose name indicated
+that they were 'people whose village is on a hill,' formerly resided<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+on the Missouri, about thirty miles below where they now live. The
+Assiniboins and Sioux forced them to a spot five miles higher, where
+the greatest part of them were put to death, and the rest emigrated
+to their present situation, in order to obtain an asylum near the
+Minnetarees. They are called by the French, Soulier Noir or Shoe
+Indians; by the Mandans, Wattasoons, and their whole force is about
+fifty men.</p>
+
+<p>"On the south side of the same Knife river, half a mile above the
+Mahaha and in the same open plain with it, is a village of the Minnetarees
+surnamed Metaharta, who are about one hundred and fifty men
+in number. On the opposite side of Knife river, and one and a
+half mile above this village is a second of Minnetarees, who may be
+considered as the proper Minnetaree nation. It is situated in a
+beautiful low plain, and contains four hundred and fifty warriors."
+(Op. cit., pp. 129-131.)</p>
+
+<p>In their journal, kept while in winter quarters at Fort Mandan,
+are to be found many interesting references to the Mandan. To
+quote several of these will tend to shed light on the ways of life in
+the native village. On November 22, 1804, the Mandan sold to the
+members of the expedition "a quantity of corn of a mixed colour,
+which they dug up in ears from the holes made near the front of their
+lodges, in which it is buried during the winter." This had probably
+been gathered only a few weeks before the arrival of the party at
+the village, then deposited in the caches for future use. December
+19 the weather had moderated, and the Indians were seen playing a
+game on the level space between the lodges of the first and second
+chiefs, a distance of about 50 yards. The entry for January 13,
+1805, contains an interesting note: "We have a continuation of clear
+weather, and the cold has increased, the mercury having sunk to
+34 below 0. Nearly one half of the Mandan nation passed down the
+river to hunt for several days; in these excursions men, women and
+children, with their dogs, all leave the village together, and after
+discovering a spot convenient for the game, fix their tents; all the
+family bear their part in the labour, and the game is equally divided
+among the families of the tribe." And on February 12, it was told
+how "The horses of the Mandans are so often stolen by the Sioux,
+Ricaras, and Assiniboins, that the invariable rule now is to put the
+horses every night in the same lodge with the family. In the summer
+they ramble in the plains in the vicinity of the camp, and feed
+on the grass, but during cold weather the squaws cut down the cottonwood
+trees as they are wanted, and the horses feed on the boughs
+and bark of the tender branches, which are also brought into the
+lodges at night and placed near them."</p>
+
+<p>About the year 1797, and consequently a few years before the arrival
+of the Lewis and Clark expedition at the Mandan villages, John<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+McDonnell, a partner of the North-West Company, made brief mention
+of the Mandan in his journal. He wrote: "These Indians live in
+settled villages, fortified with palisades, which they seldom ever
+abandon, and they are the best husbandman in the whole Northwest.
+They raise indian corn or maize, beans, pumpkins, squashes in considerable
+quantity, not only sufficient to supply their own wants, with
+the help of the buffalo, but also to sell and give away to all strangers
+that enter their villages." (McDonnell, (1), pp. 272-273.) And in
+1804 another representative of the old North-West Company referred
+to the gardens of the Mandans and said in part:</p>
+
+<p>"In the spring, as soon as the weather and the state of the ground
+will permit, the women repair to the fields, when they cut the stalks
+of the Indian corn of the preceding year and drop new seed into the
+socket of the remaining roots. A small kind of pumpkins which
+are very productive they plant with a dibble, and raise the ground
+into hillocks the same as those about Indian corn. Their kidney
+beans they plant in the same manner. They cultivate a tall kind of
+sunflower, the seed of which is reckoned good eating dry and pounded
+with fat and made into balls of three or four ounces; they are found
+excellent for long journeys." (Mackenzie, Charles, (1), pp. 338-339.)
+And the narrative continued: "The only implement used
+among the Mandanes for the purpose of agriculture is a hoe made
+from the shoulder blade of a buffalo and which is ingrafted upon a
+short crooked handle. With this crooked instrument they work very
+expeditiously, and soon do all that is required for their supplies."</p>
+
+<p>As already mentioned, the Lewis and Clark party departed from
+their winter quarters April 7, 1805, to pursue their journey westward.
+The next year, on August 14, 1806, when returning, they again arrived
+at the Mandan villages. They reached Rooptahee, where they
+were kindly received by the people, but it is interesting to know that
+during the 16 months which had intervened between the departure
+and return of the Lewis and Clark party a great change had taken
+place in the appearance of the native village. As mentioned in the
+journal, "This village has been rebuilt since our departure, and was
+now much smaller; a quarrel having arisen among the Indians, in
+consequence of which a number of families had removed to the
+opposite side of the river." Such were the changes ever occurring
+among the people of the upper Missouri. Old villages were abandoned
+and new ones built, some to be divided and others united,
+consequently very few of the ruined sites discovered along the course
+of the river represent towns which were occupied at the same time.</p>
+
+<p>Although the work just quoted contains much of interest pertaining
+to the Mandan and neighboring tribes, subsequent writers described
+the appearance of the villages and separate structures more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+in detail, and from the narratives of Catlin and Maximilian, supplemented
+by many sketches, it is possible to visualize the primitive
+earth-lodge villages with their many peculiar features.</p>
+
+<p>Catlin remained among the Mandan for some weeks during the
+year 1832 and wrote at that time: "They have two villages only,
+which are about two miles distant from each other.... Their
+present villages are beautifully located, and judiciously also, for defence
+against the assaults of their enemies. The site of the lower
+(or principal) town, in particular is one of the most beautiful and
+pleasing that can be seen in the world, and even more beautiful than
+imagination could ever create. In the very midst of an extensive
+valley (embraced within a thousand graceful swells and parapets or
+mounds of interminable green, changing to blue, as they vanish in
+distance) is built the city, or principal town of the Mandans." This
+was evidently the lower village, the first encountered when ascending
+the Missouri, the Matootonha of Lewis and Clark, and Mihtutta-hangusch
+of Maximilian. Describing the position of this town,
+Catlin continued: "The ground on which the Mandan village is at
+present built, was admirably selected for defence; being on a bank
+forty or fifty feet above the bed of the river. The greater part of
+this bank is nearly perpendicular and of solid rock. The river, suddenly
+changing its course to a right-angle, protects two sides of the
+village, which is built upon this promontory or angle; they have
+therefore but one side to protect, which is effectually done by a strong
+piquet, and a ditch inside of it, of three or four feet in depth. The
+piquet is composed of timbers of a foot or more in diameter, and
+eighteen feet high, set firmly in the ground at sufficient distances
+from each other to admit of guns and other missiles to be fired between
+them. The ditch ... is inside of the piquet, in which
+their warriors screen their bodies from the view and weapons of their
+enemies." (Catlin, (1), I, pp. 80-81.) This is followed by a description
+of the earth-covered lodges, "closely grouped together,
+leaving but just room enough for walking and riding between them."
+Outside they appeared to be made entirely of earth, but entering he
+was surprised "to see the neatness, comfort, and spacious dimensions
+of these earth-covered dwellings." The structures varied in size,
+some being 40, others 60 feet in diameter. All were of a circular
+form with the floors 2 feet or more below the original surface. "In
+the centre, and immediately under the sky-light is the fire-place, a
+hole of four or five feet in diameter, of a circular form, sunk a foot
+or more below the surface, and curbed around with stone. Over the
+fire-place, and suspended from the apex of diverging props or poles,
+is generally seen the pot or kettle, filled with buffalo meat; and
+around it are the family, reclining in all the most picturesque attitudes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+and groups, resting on their buffalo-robes and beautiful mats of
+rushes." Their beds, or sleeping places, stood against the wall and
+were formed of poles lashed together and covered with buffalo skins.
+Each such bed was screened by skins of the buffalo or elk, arranged as
+curtains, with a hole in front to serve as an entrance. "Some of
+these coverings or curtains are exceedingly beautiful, being cut tastefully
+into fringe, and handsomely ornamented with porcupine's quills
+and picture writings or hieroglyphics." Catlin's sketch of the interior
+of a lodge, as just described, is reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_38">38</a>, <i>a</i>. In
+this picture the beds resting against the wall are clearly shown, the
+sunken fireplace is surrounded by the occupants of the lodge, and on
+the extreme right are two pottery vessels and a bull-boat, so characteristic
+of the upper Missouri.</p>
+
+<p>Near the center of the large village, surrounded by the lodges, was
+the open space where games were played and their various ceremonies
+enacted. Referring to this, Catlin wrote (Op. cit., p. 88): "In the
+centre of the village is an open space, or public area, of 150 feet in
+diameter, and circular in form, which is used for all public games
+and festivals, shows and exhibitions and also for their 'annual
+religious ceremonies.'... The lodges around this open space front
+in, with their doors towards the centre; and in the middle of
+this circle stands an object of great religious veneration.... This
+object is in form of a large hogshead, some eight or ten feet high,
+made of planks and hoops.... One of the lodges fronting on this
+circular area, and facing this strange object of their superstition,
+is called the 'Medicine Lodge,' or council house. It is in this
+sacred building that these wonderful ceremonies, in commemoration
+of the flood, take place." Later Catlin witnessed the remarkable
+ceremony, as enacted by the Mandan in the midst of their large
+village, and prepared a series of paintings showing the various
+phases. The original pictures are in the collection belonging to the
+United States National Museum, and one, the last, showing what they
+termed the "last race," is now reproduced as plate <a href="#Plate_38">38</a>, <i>b</i>. In the
+center of the open space stands the sacred object, "in form of a large
+hogshead." An outline drawing of this painting was reproduced
+as plate 69 in Catlin's work.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting and vivid passages in Catlin's writings
+is his description of this village as it impressed him. To quote (Op.
+cit., pp. 88-89): "In ranging the eye over the village from where
+I am writing, there is presented to the view the strangest mixture and
+medley of unintelligible trash (independent of the living beings that
+are in motion), that can possibly be imagined. On the roofs of the
+lodges, besides the groups of living, are buffaloes' skulls, skin canoes,
+pots and pottery; sleds and sledges&mdash;and suspended on poles, erected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+some twenty feet above the doors of their wigwams, are displayed
+in a pleasant day, the scalps of warriors, preserved as trophies; and
+thus proudly exposed as evidence of their warlike deeds. In other
+parts are raised on poles the warriors' pure and whitened shields and
+quivers, with medicine-bags attached; and here and there a sacrifice
+of red cloth, or other costly stuff, offered up to the Great Spirit, over
+the door of some benignant chief, in humble gratitude for the blessings
+which he is enjoying. Such is a part of the strange medley that
+is before and around me; and amidst them ... can be seen in
+distance, the green and boundless, treeless, bushless prairie; and on
+it, and contiguous to the piquet which encloses the village, a hundred
+scaffolds on which their 'dead live,' as they term it." Such was
+the appearance of the great Mandan town in the year 1832, and this
+description would probably have applied to many of the ruined villages
+which stood on the banks of the Missouri farther down the
+river, which were occupied during past generations by the ancestors
+of those whom Catlin met and whose portraits have been preserved.</p>
+
+<p>Maximilian, accompanied by the artist Karl Bodmer, left St. Louis
+April 10, 1833, on board the steamboat <i>Yellow Stone</i>, bound for the
+upper Missouri. Arriving at Fort Pierre they boarded the <i>Assiniboin</i>.
+The <i>Yellow Stone</i> being loaded with "7,000 buffalo skins and
+other furs," was to return to St. Louis. Starting from Fort Pierre
+June 5, they arrived at Fort Clark, among the Mandan, just two
+weeks later. Maximilian wrote on June 18: "At half-past seven we
+passed a roundish island covered with willows, and reached then the
+wood on the western bank, in which the winter dwellings of part of
+the Mandan Indian are situated; and saw, at a distance, the largest
+village of this tribe, Mih-Tutta-Hang-Kush, in the vicinity of which
+the whole prairie was covered with riders and pedestrians. As we
+drew nearer the huts of that village, Fort Clarke, lying before it,
+relieved by the background of the blue prairie hills, came in sight,
+with the gay American banner waving from the flag-staff.... The
+<i>Assiniboin</i> soon lay to before the fort, against the gently sloping
+shore, where above 600 Indians were waiting for us." (Maximilian,
+(1), p. 171.) They departed from Fort Clark the following day
+and on June 24, "the seventy-fifth day since our departure from St.
+Louis," arrived at Fort Union, near the mouth of the Yellowstone.
+Returning to Fort Clark November 8, they remained throughout the
+winter, departing April 18, 1834.</p>
+
+<p>During the long winter months Maximilian learned much of the
+manners and ways of life of the Mandan, and his records are, in
+many respects, to be preferred to those of Catlin. To quote his
+description of the Mandan towns: "Their villages are assemblages
+of clay huts, of greater or less extent, placed close to each other,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+without regard to order. Mih-Tutta-Hang-Kush, the largest of the
+Mandan villages, was about 150 or 200 paces in diameter, the second
+was much smaller. The circumference forms an irregular circle, and
+was anciently surrounded with strong posts, or palisades, which have,
+however, gradually disappeared as the natives used them for fuel in
+the cold winters. At four places, at nearly equal distances from
+each other, is a bastion built of clay, furnished with loop-holes, and
+lined both within and without with basket-work of willow branches.
+They form an angle, and are open towards the village; the earth is
+filled in between the basket-work and it is said that these bulwarks,
+which are now in a state of decay, were erected for the Indians by
+the Whites." It is curious and interesting that a similar observation
+should have been made by La Verendrye nearly a century before,
+and so the question arises, If made by Europeans, who were they?
+No protection or fortification of this sort was at the second and
+smaller village. A plan of the larger village, indicating its position
+on the right bank of the Missouri a short distance above Fort Clark,
+is given by Maximilian on page 394 and is here reproduced in figure
+<a href="#figure_4">4</a>. This would probably have been near the southern line of the
+present Mercer County, North Dakota.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"><a name="figure_4"></a>
+<img src="images/f004.png" width="500" height="368" alt="Fig. 4.&mdash;Plan of the large Mandan village, 1833." title="Fig. 4.&mdash;Plan of the large Mandan village, 1833." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 4.&mdash;Plan of the large Mandan village, 1833.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Continuing the description of the large village, Maximilian
+wrote: "The huts, as I have before remarked, stand close to each
+other, leaving, in the centre, an open circular space, about sixty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+paces in diameter, in the centre of which (among the Mandans) the
+ark of the first man is set up, of which we shall speak in the sequel.
+It is a small cylinder, open above, made of planks, about four or
+five feet high, fixed in the ground, and bound with climbing plants,
+or pliable boughs, to hold them together (see the woodcut, p. 342
+[fig. <a href="#figure_5">5</a>]).</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 492px;"><a name="figure_5"></a>
+<img src="images/f005.png" width="492" height="500" alt="Fig. 5.&mdash;&quot;The ark of the first man.&quot;" title="Fig. 5.&mdash;&quot;The ark of the first man.&quot;" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 5.&mdash;&quot;The ark of the first man.&quot;</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>"At the north end of this circular space is the medicine lodge, in
+which festivals are celebrated, and certain customs practised, which
+are connected with the religious notions of this people.... At the
+top of a high pole, a figure is here placed, made of skins, with a
+wooden head, the face painted black, and wearing a fur cap and
+feathers, which is intended to represent the evil spirit Ochkih-Hadda.... Other
+grotesque figures, made of skins and bundles
+of twigs, we saw hanging on high
+poles, most of them being offerings
+to the deity. Among the huts
+are many stages of several stories,
+supported by poles, on which they
+dry the maize. The huts themselves
+are of a circular form,
+slightly vaulted, having a sort of
+portico entrance. When the inmates
+are absent the entrance is
+shut up with twigs and thorns; and
+if they wish merely to close the door
+they put up a skin stretched out
+on a frame, which is shoved aside
+on entering. In the centre of the roof is a square opening for the
+smoke to find vent, over which is a circular sort of screen made of
+twigs, as a protection against the wind and rain, and which, when
+necessary, is covered with skins (see woodcut [fig. <a href="#figure_6">6</a>]).</p>
+
+
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 38<a name="Plate_38"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p038a.png" width="300" height="204" alt="a. Interior of a Mandan lodge. George Catlin" title="a. Interior of a Mandan lodge. George Catlin" />
+<span class="caption">a. Interior of a Mandan lodge. George Catlin</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p038b.png" width="300" height="244" alt="b. Scene in a Mandan village. George Catlin" title="b. Scene in a Mandan village. George Catlin" />
+<span class="caption">b. Scene in a Mandan village. George Catlin</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 39<a name="Plate_39"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/p039.png" width="500" height="304" alt="&quot;MIH-TUTTA-HANG-KUSCH,&quot; A MANDAN VILLAGE
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833" title="&quot;MIH-TUTTA-HANG-KUSCH,&quot; A MANDAN VILLAGE
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833" />
+<span class="caption">&quot;MIH-TUTTA-HANG-KUSCH,&quot; A MANDAN VILLAGE
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>"The interior of the hut is spacious, tolerably light, and cleanly.
+Four strong pillars towards the middle, with several cross beams,
+support the roof. The inner circumference of the hut is formed by
+eleven or fifteen thick posts, four or five feet in height, between
+which other rather shorter ones are placed close to each other. On
+these shorter posts, which are all of an equal height, are long rafters,
+inclining to the centre; they are placed near each other, and bear the
+roof. On the outside the huts are covered with a kind of mat, made
+of osiers, joined together with bark, and now the skeleton of the hut
+is finished. Over this hay is spread, and the outer covering is of
+earth. The men and women work together in erecting these huts,
+and the relations, neighbours, and friends, assist them in the
+work.... In the centre of the hut a circular place is dug for the
+fire, over which the kettle is suspended. This fire-place, or hearth,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>is often enclosed with a ledge of stones. The fuel is laid, in moderately
+thick pieces, on the external edge of the hearth, crossing each
+other in the middle, when it is kindled, and the pieces gradually
+pushed in as they burn away. The Indians are not fond of large
+fires. The inmates sit round it, on low seats, made of peeled osiers,
+covered with buffalo or bear skin. Round the inner circumference
+of the hut lie or hang the baggage, the furniture, and other property,
+in leather bags, the painted parchment travelling bags, and the
+harness of the horses; and on separate stages there are arms, sledges,
+and snow-shoes, while meat and maize, piled up, complete the motley
+assemblage." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 342-344.)</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"><a name="figure_6"></a>
+<img src="images/f006.png" width="500" height="262" alt="Fig. 6.&mdash;Typical earth lodges." title="Fig. 6.&mdash;Typical earth lodges." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 6.&mdash;Typical earth lodges.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the many interesting paintings made by Bodmer during
+his journey with Maximilian is one of the large Mandan village,
+plate <a href="#Plate_39">39</a>, looking down the Missouri, showing the cluster of earth
+lodges on the summit of the cliff which terminates abruptly at the
+river. A structure rather lower than the others, on the immediate
+edge of the level area, is probably the "bastion," as represented in
+the plan, figure <a href="#figure_4">4</a>, pointing out over the cliff. Beyond the village,
+but evidently screened from view by the high cliff upon which the
+latter stood, was Fort Clark, near the mouth of a small stream which
+flowed into the Missouri.</p>
+
+<p>In these large circular structures the beds stood against the wall
+and the single opening faced inward. These were described by Catlin
+and clearly indicated in his drawing of an interior of a lodge, plate
+<a href="#Plate_38">38</a>, <i>a</i>. In Maximilian's work (p. 344) is a sketch of such a bed which
+shows it as a unit, not attached to the wall, and capable of being
+moved about. The sketch is reproduced in figure <a href="#figure_7">7</a>. These were so
+formed and inclosed in skins as to protect the occupants from the
+cold blasts of air which must have circulated about in the interior of
+the lodge during certain seasons of the year. And as additional<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+protection "In the winter huts they place, at the inside of the door,
+a high screen of willow boughs, covered with hides, which keeps off
+the draught of air from without, and especially protects the fire."
+And Maximilian related how, about the middle of November or before,
+the Indians removed to their winter huts which were in a timbered
+area, and thus more protected from the winds and storms of
+winter. There they remained until the latter part of February, or
+the beginning of March, being governed by the climatic conditions.
+Thus about four months of the year would be spent in their winter
+village. As the greater part of their possessions would be deposited
+in underground caches they made frequent trips between their villages
+to get what was desired&mdash;food, clothing, skins, and other supplies.
+In the winter, when the frozen prairie was covered with ice
+and snow, they made use of sledges drawn by dogs to transport their
+goods from place to place. The sledges were "made of a couple of
+thin, narrow boards,
+nine or ten feet in
+length, fastened together
+with leather
+straps, and with four
+cross-pieces, by way
+of giving them firmness."</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"><a name="figure_7"></a>
+<img src="images/f007.png" width="500" height="262" alt="Fig. 7.&mdash;Inclosed bed." title="Fig. 7.&mdash;Inclosed bed." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 7.&mdash;Inclosed bed.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the evening of
+November 30, 1833,
+Maximilian returned
+to Fort Clark from a visit of a few days to the villages a short distance
+above. They passed through "the forest-village belonging to
+the inhabitants of Ruhptare," referring to the winter village of the
+people of the smaller Mandan town. They entered one of the winter
+lodges, and "there was an abundance of meat hanging up in this hut,
+as they had had a very successful buffalo hunt." After returning to
+Fort Clark Maximilian wrote: "The Mandan village near the fort
+was now entirely forsaken by the inhabitants. The entrances to
+the huts were blocked with bundles of thorns; a couple of families
+only still remained, one of which was that of Dipauch, whom Mr
+Bodmer visited every day, in order to make a drawing of the interior
+of the hut. Instead of the numerous inhabitants, magpies
+were flying about, and flocks of snow buntings were seen in the
+neighbourhood about the dry plants of the prairie, where the Indian
+children set long rows of snares, made of horsehair, to catch
+them alive." (Op. cit., p. 425.) The drawing made by Bodmer of
+the interior of the lodge proves to be one of his most interesting
+pictures. It was reproduced as plate <span class="smcap">xix</span>, and is here shown in
+plate <a href="#Plate_40">40</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>The people of Mih-tutta-hang-kusch having removed to their
+winter settlement, prepared to have "a great medicine feast," and
+Maximilian was invited to be present, and so, as he recorded in his
+narrative, "we proceeded thither, on the 3rd of December, in the
+afternoon. Mr. Kipp took his family with him, and Mato-Topé
+and several other Indians accompanied us. We were all well armed,
+because it was asserted that a band of hostile Indians had been seen
+among the prairie hills on the preceding day. Our beds, blankets,
+and buffalo skins were laid on a horse, on which Mr Kipp's wife, a
+Mandan Indian, rode. Thus we passed, at a rapid pace, through the
+prairie, along the Missouri, then below the hills, which are pretty
+high.... After proceeding
+about an hour and a half we
+reached the village in the
+wood, which is the winter
+residence of the inhabitants
+of Mih-Tutta-Hang-Kush.
+We stopped at the hut of
+Mr. Kipp's father-in-law,
+Mandeek-Suck-Choppenik
+(the medicine bird), who accommodated
+us with a night's
+lodging. The description of
+this hut may serve for all the
+winter huts of these Indians.
+It was about twenty paces in
+diameter, and circular; <i>h</i> is
+the fence or wall of the hut,
+supported inside by strong,
+low posts, on which rests the
+vaulted roof, which has a
+square hole to let the smoke escape; <i>g</i> is the entrance, protected
+by two projecting walls covered above. At <i>f</i> is the door, consisting
+of a piece of leather stretched on a frame. At <i>d d</i> there is a
+cross wall of considerable height, made of reeds and osier twigs
+woven together, to keep off the draught of air. At <i>e e e</i> there is
+another cross wall, only three feet high, behind which the horses
+stand; <i>a</i> is the fireplace, round which, at <i>c c c c</i>, are the seats of
+the inmates, consisting of benches formed of basket-work, covered
+with skins; <i>b b b b</i> are four strong pillars which bear the roof,
+and are very well united above by cross beams. At <i>i</i> there was a
+large leather case for the beds in which the family slept. A chain,
+with a large kettle, was suspended from the roof over the fire, to
+cook our supper, consisting of very pleasant flavoured sweet maize."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+(Op. cit., pp. 425-426.) A plan of the lodge is given on page 426,
+here reproduced as figure <a href="#figure_8">8</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 420px;"><a name="figure_8"></a>
+<img src="images/f008.png" width="420" height="500" alt="Fig. 8.&mdash;Plan of the interior of a Mandan lodge." title="Fig. 8.&mdash;Plan of the interior of a Mandan lodge." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 8.&mdash;Plan of the interior of a Mandan lodge.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The "great medicine feast" was to begin the evening of their
+arrival at the winter village and to last 40 nights. That evening
+"after seven o'clock we repaired to the medicine lodge; it was entirely
+cleared, except that some women sat along the walls; the fire
+burned in the centre, before which we took our seats, near the partition
+<i>d d</i>, with several distinguished men of the band of soldiers. At
+our left hand, the other soldiers, about twenty-five in number, were
+seated in a row; some of them were handsomely dressed, though the
+majority were in plain clothes. They had their arms in their hands,
+and in the centre were three men who beat the drum." (Op. cit., pp.
+426-427.) The lengthy detailed account of what followed during
+the course of the "feast" is most interesting, but will not be mentioned
+in this sketch.</p>
+
+<p>As among the many neighboring tribes of the Missouri Valley,
+the buffalo served as the principal source of food for the Mandan.
+Often sufficient meat could be secured very near the towns; again it
+would be necessary to undertake long journeys in search of the moving
+herds. It will be recalled that on January 13, 1805, when the
+mercury stood 34° below zero, Lewis and Clark saw "nearly one half
+of the Mandan nation" pass down the frozen Missouri on a hunt to
+last several days. And a few years later, just at the beginning of
+summer, June 25, 1811, Brackenridge wrote: "At ten, passed an old
+Mandan village; and at some distance above, saw a great number of
+Mandan Indians on their march along the prairie. They sometimes
+go on hunting parties by whole villages, which is the case at present;
+they are about five hundred in number, some on horseback, some on
+foot, their tents and baggage drawn by dogs. On these great hunting
+parties, the women are employed in preserving the hides, drying
+the meat, and making a provision to keep. Very little of the buffalo
+is lost, for after taking the marrow, they pound the bones, boil them,
+and preserve the oil." (Brackenridge, (1), p. 260.) On such trips
+away from their permanent earth-lodge villages the Mandan made
+use of the skin-covered tipi.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the food supplied by the chase the people of the
+permanent villages had large gardens in which they raised quantities
+of corn and beans of various sorts, gourds and sunflowers of
+several varieties, and of the seeds of the latter "very nice cakes are
+made." Many animals in addition to the buffalo, and various plants
+besides those cultivated in the gardens, served the Mandan for food.</p>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 40<a name="Plate_40"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/p040.png" width="500" height="325" alt="&quot;THE INTERIOR OF THE HUT OF A MANDAN CHIEF&quot;
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833" title="&quot;THE INTERIOR OF THE HUT OF A MANDAN CHIEF&quot;
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833" />
+<span class="caption">&quot;THE INTERIOR OF THE HUT OF A MANDAN CHIEF&quot;
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 41<a name="Plate_41"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/p041a.png" width="250" height="141" alt="a. Mandan wooden bowl. Marked &quot;Ft. Berthold, Dacotah Ter.
+Drs. Gray and Matthews.&quot; Diameter 7¼ &frac14; inches, depth 2 inches.
+(U.S.N.M. 6341)" title="a. Mandan wooden bowl. Marked &quot;Ft. Berthold, Dacotah Ter.
+Drs. Gray and Matthews.&quot; Diameter 7¼ &frac14; inches, depth 2 inches.
+(U.S.N.M. 6341)" />
+<span class="caption">a. Mandan wooden bowl. Marked &quot;Ft. Berthold, Dacotah Ter.
+Drs. Gray and Matthews.&quot; Diameter 7¼ &frac14; inches, depth 2 inches.
+(U.S.N.M. 6341)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 235px;">
+<img src="images/p041b.png" width="235" height="283" alt="b. Mandan earthenware jar, collected by Drs. Gray
+and Matthews. (U.S.N.M. 8407)" title="b. Mandan earthenware jar, collected by Drs. Gray
+and Matthews. (U.S.N.M. 8407)" />
+<span class="caption">b. Mandan earthenware jar, collected by Drs. Gray
+and Matthews. (U.S.N.M. 8407)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p041c.png" width="300" height="148" alt="c. Wooden bowl. Marked &quot;Bowl of Mandan Indians, Dakota T. Drs. Gray and Matthews&mdash;U. S. A.&quot;
+Diameters 10&frac34; and 9&frac14; inches, depth 3&frac12; inches. (U.S.N.M. 8406)" title="c. Wooden bowl. Marked &quot;Bowl of Mandan Indians, Dakota T. Drs. Gray and Matthews&mdash;U. S. A.&quot;
+Diameters 10&frac34; and 9&frac14; inches, depth 3&frac12; inches. (U.S.N.M. 8406)" />
+<span class="caption">c. Wooden bowl. Marked &quot;Bowl of Mandan Indians, Dakota T. Drs. Gray and Matthews&mdash;U. S. A.&quot;
+Diameters 10&frac34; and 9&frac14; inches, depth 3&frac12; inches. (U.S.N.M. 8406)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 42<a name="Plate_42"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p042a.png" width="300" height="137" alt="a. Spoon, marked &quot;Buffalo horn spoon, presented by Gen. T. Duncan.&quot; Length about 10 inches.
+(U.S.N.M. 12259)" title="a. Spoon, marked &quot;Buffalo horn spoon, presented by Gen. T. Duncan.&quot; Length about 10 inches.
+(U.S.N.M. 12259)" />
+<span class="caption">a. Spoon, marked &quot;Buffalo horn spoon, presented by Gen. T. Duncan.&quot; Length about 10 inches.
+(U.S.N.M. 12259)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p042b.png" width="300" height="142" alt="b. Spoon made of horn of mountain sheep. &quot;Mandan Indians, Dacotah Ter. Drs. Gray and
+Matthews.&quot; Extreme length 16&frac12; inches. (U.S.N.M. 6333)" title="b. Spoon made of horn of mountain sheep. &quot;Mandan Indians, Dacotah Ter. Drs. Gray and
+Matthews.&quot; Extreme length 16&frac12; inches. (U.S.N.M. 6333)" />
+<span class="caption">b. Spoon made of horn of mountain sheep. &quot;Mandan Indians, Dacotah Ter. Drs. Gray and
+Matthews.&quot; Extreme length 16&frac12; inches. (U.S.N.M. 6333)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 43<a name="Plate_43"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/p043.png" width="500" height="288" alt="&quot;MINATARREE VILLAGE&quot;
+
+George Catlin" title="&quot;MINATARREE VILLAGE&quot;
+
+George Catlin" />
+<span class="caption">&quot;MINATARREE VILLAGE&quot;
+
+George Catlin</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>At the time of Catlin's and Maximilian's visits to the Mandan
+the latter were making and using their primitive forms of utensils
+such as had been in use for generations. Wooden mortars, bowls<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+hollowed out of hard knots, spoons made of the horn of buffalo
+and mountain sheep, and, most interesting of all, dishes and vessels
+made of pottery&mdash;all these were used in the preparation or serving
+of food. Some remarkable examples of wooden bowls made by
+the Mandan are now preserved in the collection of the United States
+National Museum, Washington. One of the most interesting is shown
+in plate <a href="#Plate_41">41</a>, <i>c</i> (U.S.N.M. 8406), and another, of simpler form but
+equally well made, in plate <a href="#Plate_41">41</a>, <i>a</i> (U.S.N.M. 6341). Both examples
+were evidently quite old even when collected. They are fashioned
+out of maple knots, worked thin and smooth, and are beautiful
+specimens. Large spoons, often termed "drinking cups," were, as
+already mentioned, made of the horns of buffalo and mountain
+sheep. The former were extensively used by many tribes, and usually
+resembled the one shown in plate <a href="#Plate_42">42</a>, <i>a</i>. The spoons made of
+mountain-sheep horns were often much larger and thinner, of a
+yellowish hue, and the handles were frequently bent into form or
+decorated. A very beautiful spoon of this sort is shown in plate
+<a href="#Plate_42">42</a>, <i>b</i>. (U.S.N.M. 6333.)</p>
+
+<p>Pottery dishes and vessels, so Catlin wrote, "are a familiar part
+of the culinary furniture of every Mandan lodge, and are manufactured
+by the women of this tribe in great quantities, and modelled
+into a thousand forms and tastes. They are made by the hands
+of the women, from a tough black clay, and baked in kilns which
+are made for the purpose, and are nearly equal in hardness to our
+own manufacture of pottery; though they have not yet got the art
+of glazing, which would be to them a most valuable secret. They
+make them so strong and serviceable, however, that they hang them
+over the fire as we do our iron pots, and boil their meat in them
+with perfect success." (Op. cit., p. 116.) Maximilian described the
+art of pottery making among the Mandan as exactly like that of
+the two associated tribes, the Hidatsa and Arikara. He wrote
+regarding the three tribes that they "understand the manufacture
+of earthen pots and vessels, of various forms and sizes. The clay is
+of a dark slate colour, and burns a yellowish-red, very similar to
+what is seen in the burnt tops of the Missouri hills. This clay is
+mixed with flint or granite reduced to powder by the action of
+fire. The workwoman forms the hollow inside of the vessel by means
+of a round stone which she holds in her hand while she works and
+smooths the outside with a piece of poplar bark. When the pot is
+made, it is filled and surrounded with dry shavings, and then burnt,
+when it is ready for use. They know nothing of glazing." (Op. cit.,
+p. 348.) This was probably the simple process of manufacture followed
+by the widely scattered tribes, and the apparent ease with
+which the vessels were made accounts for the great quantities of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+fragments now discovered scattered over ancient village sites. Two
+small vessels made by the Mandan, and collected by Dr. Matthews
+half a century ago, are in the National Museum collection, and one
+is shown in plate <a href="#Plate_41">41</a>, <i>b</i>. Very few perfect specimens exist, several
+being in the collection of the State Historical Society of North
+Dakota. The specimens in the National Museum are rather small,
+but some very large vessels were made and used
+in boiling their food.</p>
+
+<p>Bows and arrows were the principal weapons
+of the Mandan. The heads of the arrows, at
+the time of Maximilian's stay among the people,
+were made of thin bits of iron, although persons
+then living remembered the use of stone. Lances
+and clubs were likewise made and used, and
+when mentioning the latter Maximilian said,
+"a simple, knotty, wooden club is called mauna-panischa,"
+and gives, on page 390, a woodcut
+of such a weapon. It is of interest to know
+that an example of this peculiar form of weapon,
+which at once suggests the traditional club of
+Hercules, is preserved in the Museo Kircheriana,
+in Rome. It is one of four specimens
+now belonging to the museum which were collected
+by Maximilian, the other three being a
+knife sheath, a horse bridle, and a saddle
+blanket, all being beautifully decorated with
+colored quillwork. The club is shown in figure
+<a href="#figure_9">9</a>, after a drawing made for the writer in 1905
+by Dr. Paribeni, of the museum. The smaller
+end is bound or braided with tanned skin, to
+serve as a handle, and around the upper end of
+the wrapping is a band of quillwork similar in
+workmanship to that on the other objects. All
+are remarkably well preserved, and several
+specimens in the Ethnological Museum in Florence may have belonged
+to the Maximilian collection.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 135px;"><a name="figure_9"></a>
+<img src="images/f009.png" width="135" height="500" alt="Fig. 9.&mdash;Wooden club." title="Fig. 9.&mdash;Wooden club." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 9.&mdash;Wooden club.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Mandans, like other tribes of the upper Missouri Valley, were
+very expert in the art of dressing skins, especially those of the buffalo.
+They used two forms of implements, one of which is similar to those
+shown in plate <a href="#Plate_12">12</a>, <i>a</i>; the second, rather more complicated, is represented
+in plate <a href="#Plate_34">34</a>, <i>c</i>. This is a beautiful old specimen now in the
+National Museum. The handle is formed of a piece of elk antler; the
+blade is of clear, brownish flint, well chipped. Other similar objects
+are preserved in the collection.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>How fortunate it was that Catlin and Maximilian chose to spend
+much time among the Mandan during the years 1832, 1833, and 1834.
+A few years later, in the spring of 1837, the dreaded smallpox swept
+away the greater part of this most interesting nation, and "when the
+disease had abated, and when the remnant of this once powerful
+nation had recovered sufficiently to remove the decaying bodies from
+their cabins, the total number of grown men was twenty-three, of
+women forty, and of young persons sixty or seventy. These were all
+that were left of the eighteen hundred souls that composed the nation
+prior to the advent of that terrific disease, and even those that recovered
+were so disfigured as scarcely to be recognized." (Hayden,
+(1), p. 433.) Soon those who survived deserted their old village near
+Fort Clark and removed a few miles above, and the town was, about
+this time, occupied by the Arikara. It is interesting to know that
+the small remnant of the Mandan continued to follow their own
+peculiar customs and to maintain their tribal unity although so
+reduced in numbers. It will not be necessary in the present sketch to
+trace the later history of the tribe.</p>
+
+<p>In recent years the State Historical Society of North Dakota has
+caused surveys to be made of the more important village sites in that
+State. In addition to the plans of the sites, showing the position of
+the earth lodges, they have been fortunate in obtaining drawings of
+the Mandan and Hidatsa villages, made by a Mandan living on the
+Fort Berthold Reservation. In writing of the picture and plan of
+the "most important historical site of the Mandan tribe in the state,
+the one visited and described by Lewis and Clark, Catlin, and Maximilian,"
+Libby said: "The Indian chart and the map of the village
+as it appears to-day are here shown. It is seen that the two representations
+are not essentially unlike. The grouping of the houses
+about a common center, at one side of which is the holy tepee, is the
+predominating characteristic of each." The Indian drawing, although
+crude, shows some details omitted by Catlin in his many
+sketches; but the map (fig. <a href="#figure_10">10</a>) is of the greatest interest. It shows
+the site near Fort Clark as it appeared about the year 1908, and to
+quote from the description: "In the center of the tepees, on the space
+devoted by the old Mandans to the 'big canoe' and cedar post of the
+'elder man,' stands now a large tepee (shown in dotted outline)
+which was placed there by the Arikara who occupied the village after
+the small-pox scourge of 1837 had killed or driven away the original
+inhabitants." The structures surrounding the open space were occupied
+by the principal men of the village, and the names as given by
+Libby were secured by him from "Bad Gun, Rushing War Eagle,
+son of the Ma-ta-to-pe or Four Bears, whose portrait Catlin painted."
+In the list of names "Tepee No. 1 was the holy tepee and was also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+used by Lance Shoulder," and "No. 2 was occupied by Four Bears."
+The list includes fifteen names. At the time the survey was made
+the entire ditch could not be traced, but its general course could be
+followed, thus indicating the approximate boundary of the town,
+"beyond which only a few tepees are located." (Libby, (1), pp.
+498-499.)</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"><a name="figure_10"></a>
+<img src="images/f010.png" width="500" height="315" alt="Fig. 10.&mdash;Plan of the Mandan village at Fort Clark." title="Fig. 10.&mdash;Plan of the Mandan village at Fort Clark." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 10.&mdash;Plan of the Mandan village at Fort Clark.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When it is realized how little is known regarding the arrangement
+of the many ancient villages which once stood in the country east of
+the Mississippi, villages which in their time were probably as
+large and important as those of the Mandan of the last century, it
+is not possible to overestimate the value of the work of the Historical
+Society in causing to be made an accurate survey of the sites
+and in securing descriptions of the villages from some who remember
+them. A generation later this would not have been possible.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">hidatsa group.</span></h4>
+
+<p>Two tribes are regarded as constituting this group: The Hidatsa
+proper, known to the earlier writers as the Minnetarees, and to
+others as the Gros Ventres of the Missouri; and the Crows. The
+Hidatsa and the Crows were, until a few generations ago, one people,
+but trouble developed and the latter moved farther up the Missouri
+to the Rocky Mountains, and there they were discovered by the early
+explorers of the region.</p>
+
+<p>The Amahami may have been a distinct tribe, and as such were
+recognized by Lewis and Clark, but according to their own traditions
+they, together with the Hidatsa and Crows, once formed a single<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+tribe. Their language differs only slightly from that of the Hidatsa.
+During the early years of the last century their one village stood at
+the mouth of Knife River. Already greatly reduced in numbers,
+they suffered during the epidemic of 1837, and later the majority of
+those who had survived became more closely associated with the
+Hidatsa.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Hidatsa.</span></h5>
+
+<p>The Hidatsa, also known as the Minnetarees and designated by
+some writers the Gros Ventres of the Missouri, a name which must
+not be confused with Gros Ventres of the Prairie often applied to
+the Atsina, lived when first known to Europeans near the junction
+of the Knife and Missouri Rivers, in the eastern part of the present
+Mercer County, North Dakota. Some are of the belief that it was
+the Hidatsa and not the Mandan whom the French, under La Verendrye,
+visited during the autumn and winter of 1738, but in the
+present sketch the Mandan are accepted as undoubtedly being the
+tribe at whose villages the French remained.</p>
+
+<p>The Hidatsa villages as seen by Catlin and Maximilian during the
+years 1832, 1833, and 1834 had probably changed little since the
+winter of 1804-05, when Lewis and Clark occupied Fort Mandan,
+their winter quarters, some 8 miles below the mouth of Knife River.
+Describing the villages, Catlin said the principal one stood on the
+bank of Knife River and consisted of 40 or 50 earth-covered lodges,
+each from 40 to 50 feet in diameter, and this town being on an elevated
+bank overlooked the other two which were on lower ground
+"and almost lost amidst their numerous corn fields and other profuse
+vegetation which cover the earth with their luxuriant growth.</p>
+
+<p>"The scenery along the banks of this little river, from village to
+village, is quite peculiar and curious; rendered extremely so by the
+continual wild and garrulous groups of men, women, and children,
+who are wending their way along its winding shores, or dashing and
+plunging through its blue waves, enjoying the luxury of swimming,
+of which both sexes seem to be passionately fond. Others are paddling
+about in their tub-like canoes, made of the skins of buffaloes."
+(Catlin, (1), I, p. 186.) Among the great collection of Catlin's
+paintings belonging to the United States National Museum, in Washington,
+is one of the large village. The original painting is reproduced
+in plate <a href="#Plate_43">43</a>. A drawing of the same was shown as plate in
+Catlin's work cited above. The work is crude but interesting historically,
+and conveys some idea of the appearance of the town,
+although in this, as in other paintings by the same artist, the earth
+lodges are very poorly drawn, failing to show the projection which
+served as the entrance and having the roofs too rounded and dome-shaped.
+Bodmer's sketches are far superior.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>On June 19, 1833, Maximilian, aboard the steamboat <i>Assiniboin</i>,
+left Fort Clark bound for Fort Union at the mouth of the Yellowstone.
+Soon after passing the Mandan village of Ruhptare, so Maximilian
+wrote: "We saw before us the fine broad mirror of the
+river, and, at a distance on the southern bank, the red mass of the
+clay huts of the lower village of the Manitaries, which we reached
+in half an hour. The Missouri is joined by the Knife River, on
+which the three villages of the Manitaries are built. The largest,
+which is the furthest from the Missouri, is called Elah-Sa (the village
+of the great willows); the middle one, Awatichay (the little
+village), where Charbonneau, the interpreter, lives; and the third,
+Awachawi (le village des souliers), which is the smallest, consisting
+of only eighteen huts, situated at the mouth of Knife River....
+The south bank of the river was now animated by a crowd of Indians,
+both on foot and on horseback; they were the Manitaries,
+who had flocked from their villages to see the steamer and to welcome
+us. The appearance of this vessel of the Company, which
+comes up, once in two years, to the Yellow Stone River, is an event
+of the greatest importance to the Indians.... The sight of the red
+brown crowd collected on the river side, for even their buffalo skins
+were mostly of this colour, was, in the highest degree, striking. We
+already saw above a hundred of them, with many dogs, some of
+which drew sledges, and others, wooden boards fastened to their
+backs, and the ends trailing on the ground, to which the baggage
+was attached with leather straps." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 178-179.)</p>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 44<a name="Plate_44"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p044a.png" width="300" height="183" alt="a. Original pencil sketch" title="a. Original pencil sketch" />
+<span class="caption">a. Original pencil sketch</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p044b.png" width="300" height="236" alt="b. Finished picture of the same
+
+&quot;WINTER PICTURE OF THE MINATARRES
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833" title="b. Finished picture of the same
+
+&quot;WINTER PICTURE OF THE MINATARRES
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833" />
+<span class="caption">b. Finished picture of the same
+
+&quot;WINTER PICTURE OF THE MINATARRES
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 45<a name="Plate_45"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 175px;">
+<img src="images/p045a.png" width="175" height="176" alt="a. Manner of carrying basket similar to that
+shown in plate 52, a" title="a. Manner of carrying basket similar to that
+shown in plate 52, a" />
+<span class="caption">a. Manner of carrying basket similar to that
+shown in plate <a href="#Plate_52">52</a>, a</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p045b.png" width="300" height="86" alt="The ring-and-pole game." title="The ring-and-pole game." />
+<span class="caption">The ring-and-pole game.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p045c.png" width="300" height="221" alt="c. Hidatsa group with bull-boats. At Fort Berthold, July 13, 1851
+
+FROM KURZ&#39;S SKETCHBOOK" title="c. Hidatsa group with bull-boats. At Fort Berthold, July 13, 1851
+
+FROM KURZ&#39;S SKETCHBOOK" />
+<span class="caption">c. Hidatsa group with bull-boats. At Fort Berthold, July 13, 1851
+
+FROM KURZ&#39;S SKETCHBOOK</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As told in the preceding section, Maximilian returned from Fort
+Union to Fort Clark, where, with the artist Bodmer, he spent the
+long winter. While near the Mandan towns he made several visits
+to the Hidatsa villages a few miles above, and learned much of the
+manners and ways of life of the people. He again spoke of the three
+villages on the banks of Knife River, "two on the left bank, and
+the third, which is much the largest, on the right bank." He continued:
+"At present the Manitaries live constantly in their villages,
+and do not roam about as they formerly did, when, like the Pawnees
+and other nations, they went in pursuit of the herds of buffaloes as
+soon as their fields were sown, returned in the autumn for the harvest,
+after which they again went into the prairie. In these wanderings
+they made use of leather tents, some of which are still standing
+by the side of their permanent dwellings" (p. 395). He then described
+the dress and general appearance of the people and continued:
+"The Manitari villages are similarly arranged as those of
+the Mandans, except that they have no ark placed in the central
+space, and the figure of Ochkih-Hadda is not there. In the principal
+village, however, is the figure of a woman placed on a long pole,
+doubtless representing the grandmother, who presented them with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+the pots, of which I shall speak more hereafter. A bundle of brushwood
+is hung on this pole, to which are attached the leathern dress
+and leggins of a woman. The head is made of wormwood, and has
+a cap with feathers. The interior of their huts is arranged as among
+the Mandans: like them the Manitaries go, in winter, into the forests
+on both banks of the Missouri, where they find fuel, and, at the same
+time, protection against the inclement weather. Their winter villages
+are in the thickest of the forest, and the huts are built near to each
+other, promiscuously, and without any attempt at order or regularity.
+They have about 250 or 300 horses in their three villages, and a considerable
+number of dogs" (pp. 396-397). Bodmer's picture of the
+"Winter Village of the Minatarres," made during the winter of
+1833, is probably the most accurate drawing of an earth-lodge village
+in existence. It was given as plate xxvi by Maximilian, which is
+here reproduced as plate <a href="#Plate_44">44</a>, <i>b</i>. A pencil sketch which may be considered
+as the original sketch made by Bodmer, and from which the
+finished picture was made, is now in the E. E. Ayer collection preserved
+in the Newberry Library. Unfortunately the drawing is unfinished
+but is very interesting historically. It is shown in plate <a href="#Plate_44">44</a>, <i>a</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Maximilian then referred briefly to the creation myth of the people
+with whom he was then resting. The entire surface was once
+covered with water. There were two beings: one a man who lived in
+the far Rocky Mountains who made all; the other was the old woman
+called grandmother by the members of the tribe. "She gave the
+Manitaries a couple of pots, which they still preserve as a sacred
+treasure," and "When their fields are threatened with a great drought
+they are to celebrate a medicine feast with the old grandmother's
+pots, in order to beg for rain: this is, properly, the destination of
+the pots. The medicine men are still paid, on such occasions, to sing
+for four days together in the huts, while the pots remain filled with
+water." Such were the superstitious beliefs of these strange people.</p>
+
+<p>November 26, 1833, Maximilian, Bodmer, and several others went
+from Fort Clark to the winter village to attend "a great medicine
+feast among the Manitaries." They passed the two Mandan towns
+and during the journey saw a large stone, "undoubtedly one of those
+isolated blocks of granite which are scattered over the whole prairie,
+and which the Indians, from some superstitious notion, paint with
+vermilion, and surround with little sticks, or rods, to which were
+attached some feathers." The little party had seen much of interest
+on the way, and it was late in the day when they arrived at the village,
+"the large huts of which were built so close to each other that
+it was sometimes difficult to pass between them." Herds of buffalo
+having been reported in the vicinity of the village, a party of Indians
+had decided to start after them the following day, and planned "to
+implore the blessings of heaven upon their undertaking by a great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+medicine feast." This appears to have been a ceremony arranged by
+the women of the village. The structure in which the dance took
+place was not one of the earth-covered lodges of the town, but a rather
+temporary shelter of unusual shape. As described by Maximilian:
+"Between the huts, in the centre of the village, an elliptical space,
+forty paces or more in length, was enclosed in a fence, ten or twelve
+feet high, consisting of reeds and willow twigs inclining inwards.
+(See the woodcut.) [Fig. <a href="#figure_11">11</a>.] An entrance was left at <i>a</i>; <i>b</i> represents
+the fence; <i>d</i> are the four fires, burning in the medicine lodge,
+which were kept up the whole time. At <i>e</i> the elder and principal
+men had taken their seats; to the right sat the old chief, Lachpitzi-Sihrisch
+(the yellow bear); some parts of his face were painted red,
+and a bandage of yellow skin encircled his head. Places were assigned
+to us on the right hand of the yellow bear. At <i>f</i>, close to the
+fence, the spectators, especially the women, were seated: the men
+walked about, some of them handsomely dressed, others quite simply;
+children were seated round the fires, which they kept alive by throwing
+twigs of willow trees into them." Here follows a description of
+the ceremony, and it is related how six elderly men who had been
+chosen by the younger ones to represent buffalo bulls, entered the inclosure.
+They came from the hut opposite and when they were within,
+and after certain formalities, were seated at <i>c</i>. The ceremony was
+attended by smoking, the pipes were "brought first to the old men
+and the visitors; they presented the mouth-piece of the pipe to us in
+succession, going from right to left: we each took a few whiffs,
+uttered, as before, a wish or prayer, and passed the pipe to our next
+neighbours.... The six buffalo bulls, meantime, sitting behind the
+fire, sang, and rattled the medicine sticks, while one of them constantly
+beat the badger skin. After a while they all stood up, bent
+forward, and danced; that is, they leaped as high as they could with
+both their feet together, continuing to sing and rattle their sticks,
+one of them beating time on the badger. Their song was invariably
+the same, consisting of loud, broken notes and exclamations. When
+they had danced for some time, they resumed their seats.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"><a name="figure_11"></a>
+<img src="images/f011.png" width="500" height="217" alt="Fig. 11.&mdash;Plan of a ceremonial lodge." title="Fig. 11.&mdash;Plan of a ceremonial lodge." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 11.&mdash;Plan of a ceremonial lodge.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>"The whole was extremely interesting. The great number of red
+men, in a variety of costumes, the singing, dancing, beating the
+drum, &amp;c., while the lofty trees of the forest, illumed by the fires,
+spread their branches against the dark sky, formed a <i>tout ensemble</i>
+so striking and original, that I regretted the impracticability of
+taking a sketch of it on the spot."</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 403px;"><a name="figure_12"></a>
+<img src="images/f012.png" width="403" height="500" alt="Fig. 12.&mdash;Plan of the large Hidatsa village." title="Fig. 12.&mdash;Plan of the large Hidatsa village." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 12.&mdash;Plan of the large Hidatsa village.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Two days after the dance, on November 28, 1833, Maximilian
+visited the chief Yellow Bear in his lodge. The interior presents an
+interesting appearance: "The beds, consisting of square leathern
+cases, were placed along
+the sides of the spacious
+hut, and the inmates sat
+round the fire variously
+occupied. The Yellow
+Bear, wearing only his
+breech-cloth, sat upon
+a bench made of willow
+boughs, covered with
+skins, and was painting
+a new buffalo robe with
+figures in vermillion
+and black, having his
+colours standing by him,
+ready mixed, in old potsherds.
+In lieu of a
+pencil he was using the
+more inartificial substitute
+of a sharp-pointed
+piece of wood. The
+robe was ornamented
+with the symbols of
+valuable presents which he had made, and which had gained the Yellow
+Bear much reputation, and made him a man of distinction."
+(Maximilian, (1), pp. 419-423.)</p>
+
+<p>Among the historic village sites which have been studied and surveyed
+by the State Historical Society of North Dakota, as mentioned
+in the preceding sketch of the Mandan, was that "of the
+largest Hidatsa village on Knife river." The map made for the
+society is here reproduced in figure <a href="#figure_12">12</a>. This, to quote Libby, "shows
+the present appearance of the ... largest Hidatsa village site,
+located just north of the mouth of Knife river. From the position
+and direction of the doorways, it is seen that these villages show no
+such large grouping as is characteristic of the Mandan village...."
+It was observed that the circles marking the positions of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+the earth lodges were much deeper in the Hidatsa villages than in
+the two Mandan sites. In the former the extreme depth below the
+"highest part of the rim was often three feet and very commonly
+over two feet," but on the Mandan sites the depressions were quite
+shallow. And "in many cases it was observed that in and near the
+Hidatsa villages were mounds of debris of varying heights, while
+nothing of the kind was seen on or near Mandan sites." (Libby,
+(1), p. 500.) Noting these characteristic features of the two groups
+of villages, or rather of the villages of the two tribes, should reduce
+the difficulty of identifying other ancient sites in the upper Missouri
+Valley.</p>
+
+<p>The several quotations already made refer to the earth-covered
+lodges of the Hidatsa, but the same people also made use of the
+typical skin tipi, although less often mentioned by the early writers.
+They probably resembled the structures used by the Crow. On
+November 8, 1833, when Maximilian was returning to Fort Clark
+from the mouth of the Yellowstone, he wrote: "At twelve o'clock we
+were opposite the first Manitari summer village, and saw, on the other
+side, many Indians.... The invitations to land became more vociferous
+and numerous." Going ashore "we were immediately conducted,
+by a distinguished man, Ita-Widahki-Hisha (the red shield), to his
+tent, which stood apart on the prairie, on the summit of the bank.
+The white leather tent was new, spacious, and handsomely ornamented
+with tufts of hair of various colours, and at each side of the
+entrance, finished with a stripe and rosettes of dyed porcupine quills,
+very neatly executed. It had been well warmed by a good fire, a most
+refreshing sight to us. We took our seats around it, with the numerous
+family, the brother and uncle of the chief, young men, women,
+and children. The chief had rather a long beard, like the Punca
+chief, Shudegacheh, and his right breast was tattooed with black
+stripes.... A large dish of boiled maize and beans was immediately
+set before us; it was very tender and well dressed, and three of us
+eat out of the dish with spoons made of the horn of buffalo, or bighorn;
+after which the red Dacota pipe went round." (Maximilian;
+(1), p. 316.) This must have been a beautiful example of the buffalo-skin
+tipi, new and white, decorated with quillwork and tufts of hair.</p>
+
+<p>Continuing down the Missouri to Fort Clark they passed women
+in their "round leather boats," and saw others, "proceeding towards
+the river, with their boats hanging on their heads and down their
+backs."</p>
+
+<p>An example of a "bull-boat" and paddle is shown in plate <a href="#Plate_35">35</a>, <i>b</i>.
+It was collected among the Hidatsa and is now preserved in the
+collection of the National Museum. It is a specimen of great interest
+and rarity, though once so extensively used by the tribes of the Missouri<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+Valley. Several boats of this sort are shown by Bodmer in his
+picture of the Mandan village (pl. <a href="#Plate_39">39</a>), and Kurz likewise left many
+drawings of these peculiar craft (pl. <a href="#Plate_45">45</a>, <i>c</i>).</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the several forms of structures already mentioned,
+the Hidatsa evidently erected a very secure temporary lodge when
+away from their villages on hunting trips. On November 7, 1833,
+when descending the Missouri, and just before arriving at Fort Clark,
+Maximilian wrote: "Our breakfast was prepared at nine o'clock,
+when we lay to on the north bank, in a narrow strip of forest, where
+we found some old Indian hunting lodges, built, in a conical form,
+of dry timber. They had, doubtless, been left by the Manitaries, who
+had come thus far on their hunting excursions. The lower part of
+the huts, or lodges, was covered with the bark of trees; the entrance
+was square, and bones were scattered in all directions. We proceeded
+with a bleak, high wind, saw the singular clay tops of the hills, and,
+in the forest, the stages made of poles, where the Indian hunters dry
+the flesh of the animals they have taken in the chase. About twelve
+o'clock we came to the spot where some stakes indicated the former
+site of a Mandan village.... We are now in the centre of the territory
+of the Manitaries." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 314-315.) Probably
+the danger of attack by their enemies made necessary the erection of
+these comparatively secure shelters.</p>
+
+<p>About the year 1845 many Hidatsa removed from the vicinity of
+Knife River and reared a new village not far from Fort Berthold,
+some 60 miles up the Missouri from old Fort Clark. They were
+joined from time to time by other members of their tribe, and also
+by many of the remaining Mandan. In 1862 the Arikara became the
+third tribe to settle near Fort Berthold. But in 1850 the Arikara
+continued to occupy the old Mandan town just below Fort Clark, the
+large village of earth lodges so often visited and mentioned by the
+explorers and traders during the early years of the last century.
+It is quite evident the new settlement of the Hidatsa did not differ
+in appearance from the old Mandan town, the later home of the Arikara,
+and on June 13, 1850, Culbertson wrote from Fort Berthold:
+"The village, with its mud lodges, differs nothing in looks from the
+Ree village described yesterday, except in one particular, that is,
+the inhabitants are now engaged in surrounding it with pickets. The
+logs are well prepared and are all up except on the west side; a
+bastion with loop holes is placed in the middle of each side. This
+picket is of course to protect the inmates against enemies by whom
+they are frequently attacked." (Culbertson, (1), pp. 118-119.) This
+is a most interesting reference. Could this palisade have been the
+one to which Matthews alluded as having stood until 1865? The
+manner of constructing the palisade, with "a bastion ... in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+the middle of each side," will tend to recall the similar arrangement
+as indicated on the drawing of the ancient Mahican village about
+two centuries before. (Bushnell, (1), p. 26.)</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn of 1853, just 20 years after Maximilian was
+among the Hidatsa, an officer passed down the Missouri from Fort
+Benton to St. Louis, thence to continue to Washington, where he
+arrived November 21. In his journal are several brief references to
+the Hidatsa, or, as he designated the tribe, the Gros Ventres. To
+quote from the journal: "October 8 ... a fine region, full of
+game, and occasionally speaking a hunting party of Gros Ventres
+out after buffalo." The next day the small party arrived at Fort
+Berthold, late in the afternoon. Then, so the journal continues: "We
+received many visits from the Gros Ventres, and gave them a few
+presents. The Gros Ventres have a large village of mud houses&mdash;very
+unsightly outside, but within warm and comfortable." The following
+morning, October 10, 1853, "I visited some of the lodges of
+the Gros Ventres, and found them exceedingly comfortable and capable
+of accommodating comfortably a hundred persons. One part
+of the lodge is appropriated to the horses, dogs, cattle, and chickens,
+and another to their own sleeping apartments. They all seemed to
+live sociably and comfortable together during the long cold winters
+of this cold latitude.... We left Fort Berthold early; but, before
+we had advanced far, were driven ashore by a strong wind, which
+continued throughout the day. The smoke from the burning prairies
+is so dense as to almost hide the sun. The fires, burning in every
+direction, present at night a beautiful and magnificent, though terrible
+appearance." (Saxton, (1), pp. 264-265.) What a vivid,
+though brief, description of conditions in the Upper Missouri Valley
+when all was in a primitive state.</p>
+
+<p>During the years following the visits of Catlin and Maximilian
+many changes took place in the native villages standing on the banks
+of the upper Missouri and its tributaries. Writing of a period about
+40 years after Maximilian's stay among the Mandan and Hidatsa,
+the winter of 1833-34, Dr. Matthews said: "The Hidatsa, Minnetaree,
+or Grosventre Indians, are one of the three tribes which at
+present inhabit the permanent village at Fort Berthold, Dakota
+Territory, and hunt on the waters of the Upper Missouri and Yellowstone
+Rivers, in Northwestern Dakota and Eastern Montana." Describing
+the village, he continued: "The village consists of a number
+of houses built very closely together, without any attempt at regularity
+of position. The doors face in every possible direction; and
+there is great uniformity in the appearance of the lodges; so it is a
+very difficult matter to find one's way among them." In a footnote
+to this paragraph is given the number of structures standing there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+in the year 1872. The note reads: In the fall of 1872, Dr. C. E.
+McChesney, then physician at the Berthold agency, counted, with
+great care, the buildings in the village and, in a letter, gave me
+the following results:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Total Houses">
+<tr><td align="left">Old-style (round) lodges of Rees</td><td align="right">43</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Log-cabins of Rees</td><td align="right">28</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Total number of houses of Rees</span></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">71</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">Old-style lodges of Grosventres and Mandans</td><td align="right">35</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Log-cabins of Grosventres and Mandans</td><td align="right">69</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Total number of houses of Grosventres and Mandans&nbsp;</span></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">104</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Total of houses in village</span></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">175</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The note states that "owing to the stupidity of the interpreter"
+it was not possible to separate the Grosventres from the Mandans,
+which was to be regretted.</p>
+
+<p>The "old-style lodges" were the earth-covered lodges, and Matthews
+follows with an excellent description of how they were constructed.
+He tells of the building of the frame, "covered with
+willows, hay, and earth," and over the opening in the center of the
+top "of many of the lodges are placed frames of wicker-work, on
+which skins are spread to the windward in stormy weather to keep
+the lodges from getting smoky. Sometimes bull-boats are used for
+this purpose." (Matthews, (1), pp. 3-6.) A comment on the work
+of the early artists is worthy of being mentioned at this time: "Prince
+Maximilian's artist [Karl Bodmer] usually sketches the lodge very
+correctly; but Mr. Catlin invariably gives an incorrect representation
+of its exterior. Whenever he depicts a Mandan, Arickaree, or
+Minnetaree lodge, he makes it appear as an almost exact hemisphere,
+and always omits the entry." (Op. cit., p. 6.)</p>
+
+<p>Game, especially the buffalo, was becoming less plentiful in the
+vicinity of the villages, and Matthews told how, "Every winter, until
+1866, the Indians left their permanent village, and, moving some distance
+up the Missouri Valley, built temporary quarters, usually in
+the center of heavy forests and in the neighborhood of buffalo....
+The houses of the winter-villages resembled much the log-cabins of
+our own western pioneers. They were neatly built, very warm, had
+regular fire-places and chimneys built of sticks and mud, and square
+holes in the roofs for the admission of light." About that time some
+cabins of this sort were erected "in the permanent village at Fort
+Berthold; every year since, they are becoming gradually more numerous
+and threaten to eventually supplant the original earth-covered
+lodges." And in 1877 "game has recently become very scarce in their
+country, they are obliged to travel immense distances, and almost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+constantly, when they go out on their winter-hunts. Requiring,
+therefore, movable habitations, they take with them, on their journeys,
+the ordinary skin-lodges, or 'tepees,' such as are used by the
+Dakotas, Assiniboines, and other nomadic tribes of the region." (Op.
+cit., pp. 6-7.)</p>
+
+<p>Matthews's description of the caches prepared by the tribes with
+whom he was so closely associated is most interesting, and it tends to
+explain the origin and use of the numerous pits often discovered in
+the vicinity of ancient village sites east of the Mississippi. He wrote:
+"The numerous <i>caches</i>, or pits, for storing grain, are noteworthy
+objects in the village. In summer, when they are not in use, they are
+often left open, or are carelessly covered, and may entrap the unwary
+stroller. When these Indians have harvested their crops, and before
+they start on their winter-hunt, they dig their <i>caches</i>, or clear out
+those dug in previous years. A <i>cache</i> is a cellar, usually round,
+with a small opening above, barely large enough to allow a person to
+descend; when finished, it looks much like an ordinary round cistern.
+Reserving a small portion of corn, dried squash, etc., for winter use,
+they deposit the remainder in these subterranean store-houses, along
+with household-utensils, and other articles of value which they wish
+to leave behind. They then fill up the orifices with earth, which
+they trample down and rake over; thus obliterating every trace of the
+excavation. Some <i>caches</i> are made under the floors of the houses,
+others outside, in various parts of the village-grounds; in each case,
+the distance and direction from some door, post, bedstead, fire-place,
+or other object is noted, so that the stores may be found on the return
+of the owners in the spring. Should an enemy enter the village while
+it is temporarily deserted, the goods are safe from fire and theft.
+This method of secreting property has been in use among many tribes,
+has been adopted by whites living on the plains, and is referred to
+in the works of many travelers." (Op. cit., pp. 8-9.)</p>
+
+<p>Such were the characteristic features of the Hidatsa villages.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Crows.</span></h5>
+
+<p>Before the separation of the Crows from the Hidatsa they may have
+occupied permanent villages of earth-covered lodges, such as the latter
+continued to erect and use until very recent years. But after the
+separation the Crows moved into the mountains, the region drained
+by the upper tributaries of the Missouri, and there no longer built
+permanent structures but adopted the skin tipi, so easily erected and
+transported from place to place. Many of their tipis were very large,
+beautifully made and decorated, and were evidently not surpassed in
+any manner by the similar structures constructed by other tribes of
+the Upper Missouri Valley.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>During the summer of 1805 François Antoine Larocque, a clerk attached
+to the Upper Red River Department of the Compagnie du
+Nord-Ouest, visited the Crows and in his journal recorded much of
+interest respecting the manners of the people. Larocque had, during
+the winter of 1804-05, remained near the Mandan and Hidatsa villages,
+and thus met Captains Lewis and Clark in their winter encampment.
+A large party of the Crows, the Rocky Mountain Indians of
+the journal, came to the Hidatsa villages on Knife River. There they
+were met by Larocque, with whom they departed for their distant
+country, on Saturday, June 29, 1805. His narrative contains a brief
+reference to the people. He wrote: "This nation known among the
+Sioux by the name of Crow Indians inhabit the eastern part of the
+Rocky Mountains at the head of the River aux Roches Jaunes (which
+is Known by the Kinistinaux and Assiniboines by the name of River
+a la Biche, from the great number of elks with which all the Country
+along it abounds) and its Branches and Close to the head of the
+Missouri.</p>
+
+<p>"There are three principal tribes of them whose names in their
+own language are <i>Apsarechas</i>, <i>Keetheresas</i> and <i>Ashcabcaber</i>, and
+these tribes are again divided into many other small ones which at
+present consist but of a few people each, as they are the remainder
+of a numerous people who were reduced to their present number by
+the ravage of the Small Pox, which raged among them for many
+years successively and as late as three years ago. They told me
+they counted 2000 Lodges or tents in their Camp when all together
+before the Small Pox had infected them. At present their whole
+number consist of about 2400 persons dwelling in 300 tents and are
+able to raise 600 Wariors like the Sioux and Assiniboines. They
+wander about in Leather tents and remain where there are Buffaloes
+and Elks. After having remained a few days in one place so that
+game is not more so plentiful as it was they flit to another place where
+there are Buffaloes or deers and so on all the year around. Since the
+great decrease of their numbers they generally dwell all together
+and flit at the same time and as long as it is possible for them to live
+when together they seldom part." (Larocque, (1), pp. 55-56.) The
+narrative continues: "They live upon Buffaloes &amp; Deer, a very few
+of them eat Bears or Beaver flesh, but when compelled by hunger;
+they eat no fish." The Crows were at that time in their primitive
+condition. "They have never had any traders with them, they get their
+battle Guns, ammunitions etc. from the Mandans &amp; Big Bellys in
+exchange for horses, Robes, Leggings &amp; shirts, they likewise purchase
+corn, Pumpkins &amp; tobacco from the Big Bellys as they do not
+cultivate the ground."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>Unfortunately, Larocque did not describe the appearance of the
+tipis, but such information was supplied by later writers.</p>
+
+<p>Catlin visited the Crows during the summer of 1832 and saw many
+who frequented Fort Union, at the mouth of the Yellowstone, during
+his stay at that post. He wrote at that time: "The Crows who live
+on the head waters of Yellow Stone, and extend from this neighborhood
+also to the base of the Rocky Mountains, are similar ... to the
+Blackfeet: roaming about a great part of the year." And describing
+their habitations, he said: "The Crows, of all the tribes in this region,
+or on the Continent, make the most beautiful lodge ... they
+construct them as the Sioux do, and make them of the same material;
+yet they oftentimes dress the skins of which they are composed almost
+as white as linen, and beautifully garnish them with porcupine quills,
+and paint and ornament them in such a variety of ways, as renders
+them exceedingly picturesque and agreeable to the eye. I have procured
+a very beautiful one of this description, highly ornamented,
+and fringed with scalp-locks and sufficiently large for forty men to
+dine under. The poles which support it are about thirty in number,
+of pine, and all cut in the Rocky Mountains.... This tent, when
+erected, is about twenty-five feet high." (Catlin, (1), I, pp. 43-44.)
+Catlin's original painting of this most interesting tipi is in the
+National Museum, Washington, and is here reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_46">46</a>, <i>a</i>.
+The same was drawn and given by Catlin as plate 20 in his work.</p>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 46<a name="Plate_46"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p046a.png" width="300" height="250" alt="a. &quot;Crow lodge.&quot; George Catlin" title="a. &quot;Crow lodge.&quot; George Catlin" />
+<span class="caption">a. &quot;Crow lodge.&quot; George Catlin</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p046b.png" width="300" height="223" alt="b. Crow camp at the old agency on the Yellowstone, near Shields River. Photograph by W. H.
+Jackson, 1871
+
+CROW TIPIS" title="b. Crow camp at the old agency on the Yellowstone, near Shields River. Photograph by W. H.
+Jackson, 1871 />
+
+CROW TIPIS" />
+<span class="caption">b. Crow camp at the old agency on the Yellowstone, near Shields River. Photograph by W. H.
+Jackson, 1871<br />
+
+CROW TIPIS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 47<a name="Plate_47"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/p047.png" width="500" height="295" alt="A CAMP IN A COTTONWOOD GROVE
+
+Photograph not identified, but probably made by J. D. Hutton" title="A CAMP IN A COTTONWOOD GROVE
+
+Photograph not identified, but probably made by J. D. Hutton" />
+<span class="caption">A CAMP IN A COTTONWOOD GROVE
+
+Photograph not identified, but probably made by J. D. Hutton</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As told elsewhere in this work, Maximilian, on June 18, 1833,
+arrived at Fort Clark. At that time representatives of several tribes
+were gathered in the vicinity of the fort. These included Crows,
+"of which tribe there were now seventy tents about the fort." Referring
+to these in particular, he remarked: "The tents of the Crows
+are exactly like those of the Sioux, and are set up without any regular
+order. On the poles, instead of scalps, there were small pieces
+of coloured cloth, chiefly red, floating like streamers in the wind."
+(Maximilian, (1), p. 172.) Later in the day Maximilian accompanied
+the Indian agent to the tipi occupied by the Crow chief Eripuass.
+This he found to be of much interest. "The interior of the tent itself
+had a striking effect. A small fire in the centre gave sufficient light;
+the chief sat opposite the entrance, and round him many fine tall
+men, placed according to their rank, all with no other covering than
+a breech-cloth. Places were assigned to us on buffalo hides near the
+chief, who then lighted his Sioux pipe, which had a long flat tube,
+ornamented with bright yellow nails, made each of us take a few
+puffs, holding the pipe in his hand, and then passed it round to the
+left hand." And speaking of the tribe as a whole he wrote: "The
+territory in which they move about is bounded, to the north or
+north-west, by the Yellow Stone River, and extends round Bighorn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+River, towards the sources of Chayenne River and the Rocky Mountains.
+These Indians are a wandering tribe of hunters, who neither
+dwell in fixed villages, like the Mandans, Manitaries, and Arikkaras,
+nor make any plantations except of tobacco, which, however, are very
+small.... They roam about with their leather tents, hunt the buffalo,
+and other wild animals, and have many horses and dogs, which, however,
+they never use for food.... The Crow women are very skilful in
+various kinds of work, and their shirts and dresses of bighorn leather,
+embroidered and ornamented with dyed porcupine quills, are particularly
+handsome, as well as their buffalo robes, which are painted and
+embroidered in the same manner." (Op. cit., pp. 174-175.)</p>
+
+<p>During the spring of 1863 a peculiar type of log house was discovered
+in the Crow country which had probably been erected by
+members of that tribe. They may have resembled the cabins mentioned
+by Matthews as standing at the Fort Berthold Reservation
+nine years later. On May 2, 1863, a member of the Yellowstone expedition
+entered in his journal: "In the timber along the river, we
+saw many houses built of dry logs and bark; some are built like
+lodges, but the most of them are either square or oblong, and among
+them were many large and strong corrals of dry logs. The Crows
+evidently winter along here, and, from the sign, they are very numerous."
+The following day, "We camped three miles below Pompey's
+Pillar, on which we found the names of Captain Clark and two
+of his men cut in the rock, with the date July 25, 1806.... Buffalo
+to be seen in every direction, and very tame.... No wonder the
+Crows like their country; it is a perfect paradise for a hunter....
+About sundown a large band of buffalo came in to drink at a water-hole
+about two hundred yards in front of our camp." (Stuart, (1),
+pp. 176-178.) This may have represented a winter camp ground,
+with permanent huts to which the Crows returned from year to year.
+It was in the northeastern part of the present Yellowstone County,
+Montana.</p>
+
+<p>A very interesting description of a Crow camp is to be found in
+Lord Dunraven's narrative of his hunting trip to the Yellowstone
+region performed during the year 1874. The particular camp stood
+not far from the present Livingston, Montana. In describing the
+camp he wrote: "The lodges are tall, circular dwellings, composed of
+long fir-poles planted on a circle in the ground. These slope inwards
+and form a cone, meeting and leaning against each other at the apex;
+and upon them is stretched a covering of buffalo hides. They make
+very comfortable, clean and airy houses, and are far preferable to
+any tent, being much warmer in winter and cooler in summer. A
+tepee will hold from twelve to fifteen or even twenty individuals;
+several families, therefore, generally occupy one in common. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+earth is beaten down hard, forming a smooth floor, and in the middle
+burns the fire, the smoke finding an exit through an aperture
+at the top. The portions of the tepee assigned to each family or
+couple are divided by a kind of wicker-work screen at the head and
+foot, separating a segment of a circle of about eight or ten feet in
+length and five or six in breadth, closed by the screen at either end,
+and at the outer side by the wall of the lodge, but being open towards
+the interior. The fire is common property, and has a certain
+amount of reverence paid to it. It is considered very bad manners,
+for instance, to step between the fire and the place where the head
+man sits. All round, on the lodge poles and on the screens, are suspended
+the arms, clothing, finery, and equipment of the men and
+their horses. Each lodge forms a little community in itself.</p>
+
+<p>"The tepees are pitched with all the regularity of an organized
+camp, in a large circle, inside which the stock is driven at night or
+on an alarm or occasion of danger. Outside the door is struck a
+spear or pole, on which is suspended the shield of the chief and a
+mysterious something tied up in a bundle, which is great medicine."
+(Dunraven, (1), pp. 94-95.)</p>
+
+<p>A white shield supported outside a tipi is visible in the photograph
+reproduced as plate <a href="#Plate_47">47</a>. This remarkable picture has not, unfortunately,
+been identified, but it was undoubtedly made in the Upper
+Missouri Valley, and from the nature of the tipis, many appearing
+to be quite small, it may be assumed that it was a party of
+Indians who had come on a trading trip, rather than that it represented
+a regular village.</p>
+
+<p>Several accounts are preserved of large structures discovered in
+the region frequented by the Crows which, although not positively
+identified, were possibly erected by members of that tribe. Thus
+Lewis and Clark on July 24, 1806, arrived at an island in the Yellowstone
+River between 5 and 6 miles below the mouth of Clark's Fork,
+and wrote: "It is a beautiful spot with a rich soil, covered with wild
+rye, and a species of grass like the blue-grass, and some of another
+kind, which the Indians wear in plaits round the neck, on account
+of a strong scent resembling that of vanilla. There is also a thin
+growth of cottonwood scattered over the island. In the centre is a
+large Indian lodge which seems to have been built during the last
+summer. It is in the form of a cone, sixty feet in diameter at the
+base, composed of twenty poles, each forty-five feet long, and two
+and a half in circumference, and the whole structure covered with
+bushes. The interior was curiously ornamented. On the tops of the
+poles were feathers of eagles, and circular pieces of wood, with sticks
+across them in the form of a girdle: from the centre was suspended
+a stuffed buffaloe skin; on the side fronting the door was hung a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+cedar bush: on one side of the lodge a buffaloe's head; on the other
+several pieces of wood stuck in the ground. From its whole appearance,
+it was more like a lodge for holding councils, than an ordinary
+dwelling house." (Lewis and Clark, (1), II, p. 386.) This was undoubtedly
+a ceremonial lodge, and it was probably quite similar to
+another observed a few years later. To quote the description of the
+second example: "In the country of the Crow Indians, (Up-sa-ro-ka,)
+Mr. Dougherty saw a singular arrangement of the magi.
+The upper portion of a cotton-wood tree was implanted, with its
+base in the earth, and around it was a sweat house, the upper part
+of the top of the tree arising through the roof. A gray bison skin,
+extended with oziers on the inside so as to exhibit a natural appearance,
+was suspended above the house, and on the branches were attached
+several pairs of children's mockasins and leggings, and from
+one of the limbs of the tree, a very large fan made of war eagle's
+feathers was dependent." (James, (1), I, p. 272.)</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Caddoan tribes.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The ancient habitat of the many small tribes which evidently later
+became confederated, thus forming the principal groups of this linguistic
+stock, was in the southwest, whence the Pawnee and Arikara,
+and those gathered under the name of the Wichita, moved northward.</p>
+
+<p>The Caddo proper, the name of a tribe later applied to the confederated
+group of which they formed the principal member, formerly
+occupied the valley of the Red River of Louisiana, the many
+villages of the several tribes being scattered along the banks of that
+stream and of its tributaries in northern Louisiana, southwestern
+Arkansas, and eastern Texas. Although usually included in the
+same linguistic group with the Pawnee, Arikara, Wichita, and others,
+several notable authorities are inclined to regard the Caddo as constituting
+a separate and distinct linguistic group. This may be
+established and recognized in the future.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">pawnee.</span></h4>
+
+<p>Soon after the transfer of Louisiana to the United States Government
+several expeditions were sent out to explore the newly acquired
+domains and to discover the native tribes who claimed and
+occupied parts of the vast territory. Of these parties, that led by
+Capts. Lewis and Clark was the most important, but of great interest
+was the second expedition under command of Lieut. Z. M. Pike,
+which traversed the country extending from the Mississippi to the
+Rocky Mountains, and reached the Pawnee villages near the North
+Platte during the month of September, 1806. How long the Pawnee<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+had occupied that region may never be determined, but they had evidently
+migrated from the southwest, probably moving slowly, making
+long stops on the way. As a tribe they were known to the Spaniards
+as early as the first half of the sixteenth century, and appear
+to have been among the first of the plains tribes to be visited by
+French and Spanish traders.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately Pike did not prepare a very extensive account of
+the Pawnee as they appeared during the autumn of 1806, but wrote
+in part: "Their houses are a perfect circle, (except where the door
+enters) from whence there is a projection of about 15 feet; the
+whole being constructed after the following manner, Viz: 1st. there
+is an excavation of a circular form, made in the ground, of about
+4 feet deep and 60 diameter, where there is a row of posts about 5
+feet high, with crotches at the top, set firmly in all round, and
+horizontal poles from one to the other. There is then a row of
+posts, forming a circle of about 10 feet width in the diameter of the
+others, and 10 feet in height; the crotches of those are so directed,
+that horizontal poles are also laid from one to the other; long poles
+are then laid slanting, perpendicularly from the lower poles over the
+upper, and meeting nearly at the top, leaving only a small aperture
+for the smoke of the fire to pass out, which is made on the ground
+in the middle of the lodge. There is then a number of small poles
+put up round the circle, so as to form the wall, and wicker work
+run through the whole. The roof is then thatched with grass, and
+earth thrown up against the wall until a bank is made to the eves
+of the thatch; and that is also covered with earth one or two feet
+thick, and rendered so tight, as entirely to exclude any storm whatsoever,
+and make them extremely warm. The entrance is about 6
+feet wide, with walls on each side, and roofed like our houses in
+shape, but of the same materials as the main building. Inside there
+are numerous little apartments constructed of wicker work against
+the wall with small doors; they have a great appearance of neatness
+and in them the members of the family sleep and have their little deposits.
+Their towns are by no means so much crowded as the Osage,
+giving much more space, but they have the same mode of introducing
+all their horses into the village at night, which makes it extremely
+crowded. They keep guards with the horses during the day. They
+are extremely addicted to gaming, and have for that purpose a
+smooth piece of ground cleared out on each side of the village for
+about 150 yards in length." (Pike, (1), Appendix, p. 15.)</p>
+
+<p>Although Pike's account of this interesting tribe is very brief and
+unsatisfactory, it was soon to be followed by a more complete and
+comprehensive description. This refers to the notes prepared by
+members of the Long expedition, 14 years later.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>The expedition under command of Maj. Stephen H. Long arrived
+at Council Bluff, "so called by Lewis and Clark, from a council
+with the Otoes and Missouries held there, on the 3rd of August, 1804,"
+during the early autumn of 1819. Winter quarters were established
+at a point about 5 miles lower down the Missouri and at a short distance
+north of the present city of Omaha, Nebr. This was called
+Engineer Cantonment, and during the ensuing months many Indians
+visited the encampment to treat with Maj. O'Fallon, the commissioner.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving the majority of the party in quarters at the cantonment,
+Maj. Long and others of the expedition, on October 11, "began to
+descend the Missouri in a canoe, on their way towards Washington
+and Philadelphia." Returning from the east they reached Engineer
+Cantonment May 28, 1820, having arrived at St. Louis April 24,
+"from Philadelphia to Council Bluff, to rejoin the party."</p>
+
+<p>During the absence of the commanding officers some members of
+the expedition made a short trip to the Pawnee villages, and the
+following brief account appears in the narrative on May 1, 1820:</p>
+
+<p>"At each of the villages, we observed small sticks of the length of
+eighteen inches or two feet, painted red, stuck in the earth in various
+situations, but chiefly on the roofs of the houses, each bearing the
+fragment of a human scalp, the hair of which streamed in the wind.
+Before the entrance to some of the lodges were small frames, like
+painter's easels, supporting each a shield, and generally a large
+painted cylindrical case of skin, prepared like parchment, in which
+a war dress is deposited. The shield is circular, made of bison skin,
+and thick enough to ward off an arrow, but not to arrest the flight of
+a rifle ball at close quarters.... The lodges, or houses, of these
+three villages, are similar in structure, but differ in size. The description
+of those of the Konzas will apply to them, excepting that
+the beds are all concealed by a mat partition, which extends parallel
+to the walls of the lodge, and from the floor to the roof. Small apertures,
+or doors, at intervals in this partition, are left for the different
+families, that inhabit a lodge, to enter their respective bed
+chambers." (James, (1), pp. 367-368.)</p>
+
+<p>After the return of Maj. Long the reunited party left Engineer
+Cantonment, June 6, 1820, and soon reached the Pawnee villages,
+situated about 100 miles westward, on the Loup River, a branch of
+the Platte. The narrative of this part of the journey is most interesting:
+"The path leading to the Pawnee villages runs in a direction
+a little south of west from the cantonment, and lies across a
+tract of high and barren prairie for the first ten miles. At this distance
+it crosses the Papillon, or Butterfly creek, a small stream discharging
+into the Missouri, three miles above the confluence of the
+Platte."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>After advancing for several days over the prairie, on June 10, "At
+sunset we arrived at a small creek, eleven miles distant from the village
+of the Grand Pawnees, where we encamped. On the following
+morning, having arranged the party according to rank, and given
+the necessary instructions for the preservation of order, we proceeded
+forward and in a short time came in sight of the first of the Pawnee
+villages. The trace on which we had travelled since we left the Missouri,
+had the appearance of being more and more frequented as we
+approached the Pawnee towns; and here, instead of a single footway,
+it consisted of more than twenty parallel paths, of similar size and
+appearance.... After a ride of about three hours, we arrived
+before the village, and despatched a messenger to inform the chief
+of our approach. Answer was returned that he was engaged with
+his chiefs and warriors at a medicine feast, and could not, therefore,
+come out to meet us.... The party which accompanied Major
+Long, after groping about some time, and traversing a considerable
+part of the village, arrived at the lodge of the principal chief. Here
+we were again informed that <i>Tarrarecawaho</i>, with all the principal
+men of the village, were engaged at a medicine feast.</p>
+
+<p>"Notwithstanding his absence, some mats were spread for us upon
+the ground, in the back part of the lodge. Upon these we sat down,
+and after waiting some time, were presented with a large wooden
+dish of hominy, or boiled maize. In this was a single spoon of the
+horn of a bison, large enough to hold half a pint, which, being used
+alternately by each of the party, soon emptied the dish of its contents."</p>
+
+<p>An excellent example of an old spoon similar to the one mentioned
+in the preceding paragraph is shown in plate <a href="#Plate_42">42</a>, <i>a</i> (U.S.N.M.
+12259). It is about 10 inches in length and much worn from long
+use. Unfortunately it is not known when or where it was collected,
+but without doubt it came from the Upper Missouri Valley.</p>
+
+<p>Continuing the narrative: "The interior of this capacious dwelling
+was dimly lighted from a hole at the top, through which the sun's
+rays, in a defined column, fell upon the earthen floor. Immediately
+under this hole, which is both window and chimney, is a small depression
+in the centre of the floor, where the fire is made; but the upper
+parts of the lodge are constantly filled with smoke; adding much to
+the air of gloominess and obscurity, which prevail within. The furniture
+of Long-hair's lodge consisted of mats, ingeniously woven of
+grass or rushes, bison robes, wooden dishes, and one or two small
+brass kettles. In the part of the lodge immediately opposite the
+entrance, we observed a rude niche in the wall, which was occupied
+by a bison skull. It appeared to have been exposed to the weather,
+until the flesh and periosteum had decayed, and the bones had become
+white....</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>"Our visit to this village seemed to excite no great degree of attention.
+Among the crowd, who surrounded us before we entered the
+village, we observed several young squaws rather gaily dressed, being
+wrapped in clean and new blankets, and having their heads ornamented
+with wreaths of gnaphalium and the silvery leaves of the
+prosalea canescens. On the tops of the lodges we also saw some display
+of finery, which we supposed to have been made on account of
+our visit. Flags were hoisted, shields, and bows, and quivers, were
+suspended in conspicuous places, scalps were hung out; in short, the
+people appeared to have exposed whatever they possessed, in the
+exhibition of which, they could find any gratification of the vanity.
+Aside from this, we received no distinguished marks of attention
+from the Grand Pawnees." (James, (1), I, pp. 427-437.)</p>
+
+<p>The camp of the expedition was a little more than a mile from the
+village of the Grand Pawnee, and the intervening prairie must have
+presented an animated sight, being "covered with great numbers of
+horses, intermixed with men, women, and children." Nearer the
+village were groups of squaws "busily engaged in dressing the skins
+of the bison for robes." During the afternoon many Indians arrived
+at the camp, men wishing to trade horses, the women endeavoring to
+trade various articles. And on the following morning, June 11, 1820,
+many groups of women were seen leaving the village, accompanied by
+their dogs, bound for their fields of corn situated a few miles away.</p>
+
+<p>The expedition next arrived at the village of the Republican
+Pawnee, 4 miles from that of the Grand Pawnee. Both villages stood
+on the immediate bank of the stream. Remaining there but a short
+time, they continued on to the Loup village. Here they encamped
+during the night of June 12, leaving early on the following morning.
+On the morning of the 13th many squaws were again observed making
+their way to the cornfields, with their small children. Some
+stopped to admire the "novel appearance" of the members of the
+expedition, many brought various vegetables, jerked buffalo meat and
+tallow to exchange for whatever they could obtain.</p>
+
+<p>"The three Pawnee villages, with their pasture grounds, and insignificant
+enclosures, occupy about ten miles in length of the fertile
+valley of the Wolf river. The surface is wholly naked of timber,
+rising gradually to the river hills, which are broad and low, and from
+a mile to a mile and a half distant." (James, (1), I, p. 447.)</p>
+
+<p>During the latter part of the summer of 1833 the small party
+under the leadership of Commissioner Henry L. Ellsworth reached
+the Pawnee towns, and in the narrative of the expedition are to be
+found many references to the customs of the people whose habitations
+were the primitive earth-covered lodges. The second morning
+after arriving at the village of the Grand Pawnee several members<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+of the party walked about among the lodges, and at that time, so
+wrote Irving: "The warriors were collected in small knots of five
+or six, and by their vehement gestures, were apparently engaged in
+earnest conversation. The children were rolling and tumbling in
+the dirt; the squaws were busily engaged. Some were bringing from
+their lodges large leather sacks of shelled corn; others were spreading
+it out to dry, upon the leather of their buffalo-skin tents, which
+had been stretched out upon the ground. Others were cleansing
+from it the decayed kernels and packing it up in small sacks of
+whitish undressed leather, resembling parchment. These were then
+deposited in cache-holes for a winter's store.</p>
+
+<p>"At a distance from the village, a band of females were slowly
+wending along the top of the low prairie ridges, to their daily
+labour in the small plantations of corn. These are scattered in every
+direction round the village, wherever a spot of rich, black soil, gives
+promise of a bountiful harvest. Some of them are as much as eight
+miles distant from the town." (Irving, J. T., (1), II, pp. 44-45.)</p>
+
+<p>Later the same day a council was held at the lodge of the chief,
+attended by the principal men of the village, and it is interesting
+to read the description of the gathering of those who were to participate:
+"The lodge had been swept clean; a large cheery fire was
+crackling in the centre. The rabble crowd of loungers and hangers-on
+had been routed; and besides the family of the chief, we were
+the only occupants of the spacious building.</p>
+
+<p>"At mid-day the chiefs and braves began to assemble. They were
+full dressed; many of the young warriors had spent the whole morning
+in preparation, and now presented themselves, fully ornamented
+for the meeting.</p>
+
+<p>"As the hour for the opening of the council grew nearer, the tall,
+muffled warriors poured in, in one continuous stream. They moved
+quietly to the places allotted them, and seating themselves in silence
+round the chief, according to their rank.... The crowd continued
+flowing in until the lodge was filled almost to suffocation. As they
+came in, they seated themselves, until five or six circles were formed,
+one beyond the other, the last ranging against the wall of the building.
+In the ring nearest the chiefs, sat the principal braves, or those
+warriors whose deeds of blood entitled them to a high rank in the
+councils of the nation. The more distant circles were filled by such
+young men of the village as were admitted to its councils. The passage
+leading to the open air, was completely blocked up with a tight
+wedged mass of women and children, who dared venture no nearer
+to the deliberations of the tribe." (Op. cit., pp. 48-50.) When all
+had gathered the chief filled a large stone pipe, took a few puffs,
+then handed it to the members of the commissioner's party, who in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+turn passed it to the other Indians. The addresses were then made
+and the council deliberated on the several questions presented.</p>
+
+<p>The expedition moved on from the Grand Pawnee to the village
+of the Republican Pawnee, which stood on the bank of the Loup
+Fork of the Platte, some 20 miles distant from the former, with the
+rolling prairie between. Approaching the river they could see, on
+the far side, "a high bluff, on which was situated the dingy lodges
+of the Republican village." They were welcomed by the people of
+the village, and soon reached the lodge of the principal chief, Blue
+Coat, which they entered. Then "it was not long before the lodge
+became crowded. The old warriors moved with a hushed step
+across the building, and listened to our conversation." Soon an invitation
+was received to attend a feast at the lodge of the second
+chief. Entering that lodge, he was seen seated upon "a small leather
+mat.... Around him were lounging about a dozen Indians. Some,
+reclining with their backs against the pillars supporting the roof,
+with their eyes half closed, were smoking their stone pipes. Some
+were lying half asleep upon the clay floor, with their feet within a
+few inches of the fire; and others were keeping up a sleepy song.</p>
+
+<p>"At a short distance from the fire, half a dozen squaws were
+pounding corn, in large mortars, and chattering vociferously at the
+same time. In the farther part of the building, about a dozen naked
+children, with faces almost hid by their bushy, tangled hair, were
+rolling and wrestling upon the floor, occasionally causing the lodge
+to echo to their childish glee. In the back ground, we could perceive
+some half dozen shaggy, thievish-looking wolf dogs, skulking among
+the hides and bundles, in search of food, and gliding about with the
+air of dogs, who knew that they had no business there." (Op. cit.,
+pp. 96-99.) Such was a domestic scene within a Pawnee lodge.</p>
+
+<p>A very clear and concise description of the interior arrangement
+and fittings of an earth lodge, one standing in the village of the
+Grand Pawnee during the autumn of 1835, has been preserved in
+Dunbar's journal. On October 22, after referring to the construction
+of the lodge itself, he wrote: "Within these buildings the earth
+is beat down hard, and forms the floor. In the center a circular
+place is dug about 8 inches deep, and 3 feet in diameter. This is the
+fireplace. The earth that is taken from this place is spatted down
+around it, and forms the hearth. Near the fireplace a stake is firmly
+fixed in the earth in an inclined position, and serves all the purposes
+of a crane. Mats made of rushes are spread down round the fire on
+which they sit. Back next the walls are the sleeping apartments.
+A frame work is raised about two feet from the floor, on this are
+placed small rods, interwoven with slips of elm bark. On these
+rods a rush mat is spread. At proper distances partitions are set<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+up, composed of small willow rods interwoven with slips of bark.
+In front of these apartments, either a partition of willow rods is
+erected, or rush mats are hung up as curtains. But this is not always
+the case. In some lodges the simple platform alone is to be seen,
+without either partitions, or curtains. In others there is not even
+the platform, and the inmates sleep on the ground.</p>
+
+<p>"In these lodges several families frequently live together. I believe
+there are as many as three different families in the lodge
+where I stop. Each family has its particular portion of the dwelling,
+and the furniture of each is kept separate." (Dunbar, (2), p.
+600.) Comparing the two preceding accounts it is easy to visualize
+the interior of Pawnee earth lodges as they were nearly a century
+ago.</p>
+
+<p>The preceding references to the women of the villages going early
+in the morning to their fields of corn recall a note in Fremont's journal
+a few years later. He wrote when returning from the mountains,
+on September 22, 1842, "We arrived at the village of the Grand
+Pawnees, on the right bank of the river [the Platte] about thirty
+miles above the mouth of the Loup fork. They were gathering in
+their corn, and we obtained from them a very welcome supply of
+vegetables." (Fremont, (1), p. 78.)</p>
+
+<p>The villages described in the accounts already quoted were the
+permanent settlements of the tribe, groups of earth-covered lodges
+quite similar to those erected by other tribes in the Upper Missouri
+Valley. Fortunately several remarkable photographs of the villages
+and of the separate structures are in existence, having been made by
+W. H. Jackson in 1871. The most valuable of the early pictures is
+reproduced as plate <a href="#Plate_49">49</a>. And here it may be remarked that this is
+a different photograph from the one which was presented as plate 12
+in Bulletin 69 of this bureau's publications, and although both were
+made at the same time, nevertheless they differ in minor details. It
+is therefore of interest to know two negatives were made at that time.
+This was the village of the Republican Pawnee. In plate <a href="#Plate_50">50</a> are two
+of the large earth-covered lodges, showing the tunnel-like entrances,
+and with many persons sitting on the tops of the structures. The entrance
+is more clearly shown in plate <a href="#Plate_51">51</a>, where a brush mat protects
+the side. This may be part of a small inclosure.</p>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 48<a name="Plate_48"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/p048.png" width="500" height="296" alt="TRADER CROSSING THE PRAIRIES
+
+Page of Kurz&#39;s Sketchbook, August 28, 1851" title="TRADER CROSSING THE PRAIRIES
+
+Page of Kurz&#39;s Sketchbook, August 28, 1851" />
+<span class="caption">TRADER CROSSING THE PRAIRIES
+
+Page of Kurz&#39;s Sketchbook, August 28, 1851</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 49<a name="Plate_49"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p049.png" width="300" height="167" alt="PAWNEE-VILLAGE WHICH STOOD ON THE LOUPE FORK OF THE PLATTE RIVER
+
+Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871" title="PAWNEE-VILLAGE WHICH STOOD ON THE LOUPE FORK OF THE PLATTE RIVER
+
+Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871" />
+<span class="caption">PAWNEE-VILLAGE WHICH STOOD ON THE LOUPE FORK OF THE PLATTE RIVER
+
+Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 50<a name="Plate_50"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/p050.png" width="500" height="277" alt="LODGES IN THE PAWNEE VILLAGE WHICH STOOD ON THE LOUPE FORK OF THE PLATTE RIVER
+
+Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871" title="LODGES IN THE PAWNEE VILLAGE WHICH STOOD ON THE LOUPE FORK OF THE PLATTE RIVER
+
+Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871" />
+<span class="caption">LODGES IN THE PAWNEE VILLAGE WHICH STOOD ON THE LOUPE FORK OF THE PLATTE RIVER
+
+Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 51<a name="Plate_51"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/p051a.png" width="250" height="298" alt="a. Children at lodge entrance" title="a. Children at lodge entrance" />
+<span class="caption">a. Children at lodge entrance</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/p051b.png" width="250" height="298" alt="b. Showing screen near same entrance
+
+IN A PAWNEE VILLAGE
+
+Photographs by W. H. Jackson, 1871" title="b. Showing screen near same entrance
+
+IN A PAWNEE VILLAGE
+
+Photographs by W. H. Jackson, 1871" />
+<span class="caption">b. Showing screen near same entrance<br />
+
+IN A PAWNEE VILLAGE
+
+Photographs by W. H. Jackson, 1871</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In addition to the permanent earth-covered lodges the Pawnee
+made extensive use of temporary skin-covered shelters, unlike the
+conical lodge of the plains tribes. These served as their habitations
+during the hunting season, when away from their villages. A most
+valuable and interesting description of the ways and customs of the
+Pawnee while occupying their movable villages was prepared by one
+who, during the summer and autumn of 1835, lived among the people,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+sharing their primitive ways of life and thereby learning many of
+their peculiar traits. The English traveler, Charles A. Murray,
+whose narrative is quoted in part on the following pages, left Fort
+Leavenworth July 7, 1835, and two weeks later reached the summer
+camp of the Pawnee: "and a more interesting or picturesque scene
+I never beheld. Upon an extensive prairie gently sloping down to a
+creek, the winding course of which marked a broken line of wood
+here and there interspersed with a fine clump of trees, were about five
+thousand savages, inclusive of women and children; some were sitting
+under their buffalo-skin lodges lazily smoking their pipes; while
+the women were stooping over their fires busily employed in preparing
+meat and maize for these indolent lords of the creation. Far as
+the eye could reach, were scattered herds of horses, watched (or as
+we should say in Scotland, 'tented') by urchins, whose whole dress
+and equipment was the slight bow and arrow, with which they exercised
+their infant archery upon the heads of the taller flowers, or
+upon the luckless blackbird perched near them. Here and there might
+be seen some gay young warrior ambling along the heights, his painted
+form partially exposed to view as his bright scarlet blanket waved in
+the breeze." (Murray, (1), I, pp. 277-278.) Later he described the
+manner of moving and pitching their large temporary camps: "On
+reaching the camping-place, which is selected by the grand chief (or,
+in his absence, by the next in rank), the senior squaw chooses the
+spot most agreeable to her fancy, and orders the younger women and
+children, who lead the pack-horses and mules (generally from five to
+ten in number, according to the size or wealth of the family), to
+halt; but in making this choice of ground, she is restricted within
+certain limits, and those of no great extent, as the Pawnees observe
+great regularity both in their line of march and encampment. I
+could not ascertain whether these regulations were invariable, or
+made at the pleasure of the chief; but I believe the latter; and that
+on leaving their winter, or stationary, villages, he issues the general
+orders on this subject, which are observed during the season or the
+expedition; at any rate, they never varied during my stay among
+them.</p>
+
+<p>"They move in three parallel bodies; the left wing consisting of
+part of the Grand Pawnees and the Tapages; the centre of the remaining
+Grand Pawnees; and the right of the Republicans....
+All these bodies move in 'Indian file,' though of course in the mingled
+mass of men, women, children, and pack-horses, it was not very
+regularly observed; nevertheless, on arriving at the halting-place,
+the party to which I belonged invariably camped at the eastern
+extremity of the village, the great chief in the centre, and the
+<i>Républiques</i> on the western side; and this arrangement was kept so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+well, that, after I had been a few days with them, I could generally
+find our lodge in a new encampment with very little trouble, although
+the village consisted of about six hundred of them, all nearly
+similar in appearance.</p>
+
+<p>"They first unpack and unsaddle the horses, which are given to a
+boy to drive off to their grass and water; they then arrange all their
+bales, saddles, &amp;c. in a semi-circular form, and pile them from two
+to three feet high. Around the exterior of these they drive into the
+ground eight or ten curved willow rods, from two to three feet distant
+from each other, but all firmly bound by leather thongs to four
+large upright poles, that form the front of the lodge, and along
+which run transverse willow rods, to which the extremities of the
+curved ones are fastened. When the frame, or skeleton, is thus
+finished, they stretch the cover (made of buffalo hides, sewed together)
+tight over the whole, leaving an aperture for entrance and
+egress in the centre of the front; and in fine weather, the whole
+front open.</p>
+
+<p>"This is an accurate description of a Pawnee summer-lodge; but,
+of course, the dimensions vary according to the number and wealth
+of the families residing therein; in some tents I have observed the
+front consisting of six or eight upright poles, to which were fixed
+more skins, for additional shelter or shade. On the grass, in the
+interior, are spread mats, made by the squaws from reeds, and skins
+of buffalo or bear.</p>
+
+<p>"From the foregoing it will be easily understood that the bales
+of cloth, maize, skins, and whatever other property they possess,
+form the back of the tent. Each occupant, from the chief to the
+lowest in rank, has his assigned place; sleeps upon his own blanket,
+or buffalo robe; has his bow and quiver suspended over his head;
+his saddle, bridle, and laryettes, &amp;c. behind his back: and thus little
+confusion prevails, although each individual has only just room to
+sit or lie at full length.</p>
+
+<p>"Before the tent a kind of shield is raised, upon three poles pyramidically
+placed, on which is the device of the chief, by which his
+tent is to be recognised.... In the interior of the tent, and generally
+about the centre of its concave, is suspended the 'medicine,'
+which is most carefully and religiously preserved.... Under the
+head of 'medicine,' the Indians comprise not only its own healing
+department, but everything connected with religion of superstition;
+all omens, all relics, and everything extraordinary or supernatural."
+(Murray (1), I, pp. 282-286.)</p>
+
+<p>Late in the year 1835 Murray left the Pawnee encampment to
+return to Fort Leavenworth, but, meeting with an accident, was not
+able to proceed on his way. The Pawnee were likewise moving, and
+in moving over the prairie made a well-defined trail. Retracing his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+way, and seeking the Pawnee, he wrote: "About ten o'clock on the
+following day we found the great Pawnee trail, and, following it,
+came at mid-day to the place where they had camped the night
+before, and a most hideous spectacle did it present; the grass was
+all trodden into mud&mdash;hundreds of circular heaps of charred wood
+attested the number of fires that had been used; and the whole plain
+was strewed with split heads, bare skeletons, and scattered entrails
+of buffalo; while some hundreds of the half-starved Pawnee dogs
+who had lingered behind the village were endeavoring to dispute
+some morsels of the carcasses with the gaunt snarling wolves, who
+were stripping the scanty relics of skin and sinew which are left by
+Indian butchery attached to the bone." (Op. cit., p. 438.) This
+vivid description of the appearance of an abandoned camp site quite
+agrees with a reference made by Dr. Grinnell a few years ago.
+Writing of events during the year 1853, and alluding to an
+abandoned camp of the Pawnee that year discovered by the
+Cheyenne, he said: "It was a big camp; and there were many fires.
+It seemed as if the Pawnees had been camped there killing buffalo
+for a long time. There were still many dogs in the camp. On one
+side was a well-beaten trail which led to another camp two hundred
+yards off where a number of people had been camped, not in lodges
+but in shelters made of willows bent over, after the fashion of a
+sweat-house." (Grinnell, (2), p. 86.)</p>
+
+<p>These temporary and easily erected structures of the Pawnee were
+probably quite similar in form and appearance to that of the
+Cheyenne, part of which is shown in plate <a href="#Plate_14">14</a>. But in the latter
+instance the cover is not formed of the primitive buffalo skin, but
+of canvas, or some other material obtained from the trader.</p>
+
+<p>The Pawnee had a strange method of dealing with their sick or
+wounded during the movement of a village from place to place,
+and, so wrote Father De Smet, "if, in the long journeys which they
+undertake in search of game, any should be impeded, either by age
+or sickness, their children or relations make a small hut of dried
+grass to shelter them from the heat of the sun or from the weather,
+leaving as much provision as they are able to spare, and thus abandon
+them to their destiny.... If, some days after, they are successful
+in the chase, they return as quickly as possible to render assistance
+and consolation. These practices are common to all the nomadic
+tribes of the mountains." (De Smet, (2), pp. 356-357.) It is more
+than probable that similar grass shelters were constructed and used
+by small parties when away from the villages, but such structures
+would necessarily have been of only temporary use.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the semicircular skin-covered lodge mentioned by
+Murray, the Pawnee evidently made use of the conical tipi. This
+was described by Dunbar when he wrote: "Their movable dwellings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+consist of from 12 to 20 poles (the number varying with the size)
+about 16 feet long, and a covering. Three of these poles are tied
+together near the top and set up. The string, with which these poles
+are tied together, is so long that one end of it reaches to the ground,
+when the poles are set up. The other poles are now successively
+set up save one, the top of each leaning against the three, first set
+up, and forming with them a circle. The string is then wound
+round them all at the top several times and fastened. The cover is
+tied to the top of the remaining pole by which it is raised up, then
+is spread round them all and tied together on the opposite side, where
+is the entrance formed by leaving the cover untied about three feet
+from the ground. Over the entrance the skin of a bear or some other
+animal is suspended. The tents are always set up with their entrances
+toward the east. At the top the smoke passes out among
+the poles, a place being left for that purpose. The fire place, crane
+and hearth are similar to those in their fixed habitations. The furniture
+is placed back next the cover. Rush mats are then spread
+down forming a sort of floor. On these they sit, eat and sleep. The
+large tents are about 18 feet in diameter at the base. The tent covers
+are made of buffalo skins, scraped so thin as to transmit light, and
+sewed together. These when new are quite white, and a village of
+them presents a beautiful appearance. Some of them are painted
+according to Pawnee fancy. They carry their tent poles with them
+during their whole journey. From three to six of them, as the case
+may be, are tied together at the larger end, and made fast to the
+saddle, an equal number on each side, the other end drags on the
+ground." (Dunbar, (2), pp. 602-603.)</p>
+
+<p>From these various records it will be understood the Pawnee made
+use of several forms of temporary and comparatively easily transported
+and erected structures when away from their permanent villages
+of earth-covered lodges. And what is true of the Pawnee
+would probably apply to other tribes of the upper Missouri Valley.</p>
+
+<p>The Pawnee, as did other tribes of the region, made long journeys
+away from their villages in quest of the buffalo, and an interesting
+account of their annual hunts, as conducted about the year 1835, has
+been preserved. Then it was told how "The Pawnees make two hunts
+each year, the summer and winter hunt. To perform the winter hunt
+they leave their villages usually in the last week of October, and do
+not return to them again till about the first of April. They now prepare
+their cornfields for the ensuing season. The ground is dug up
+with the hoe, the corn is planted and well tended. When it has attained
+to a certain height they leave it, and go out to their summer
+hunt. This is done near the last of June. About the first of September
+they return to their villages. Formerly the buffalo came<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+down to and far below their villages. Now they are obliged to travel
+out from ten to twenty days to reach them. The buffalo are rapidly
+diminishing and will in time become extinct.</p>
+
+<p>"When they leave their villages to hunt the buffalo, they take
+every man and beast with them, and the place of their habitations is
+as desolate and solitary during their absence as any other spot on
+the prairie. When the time of departure arrives all the furniture
+and provisions they wish to carry with them are packed on the horses.
+The residue of their scant furniture and provisions are concealed in
+the earth till their return. As each family gets ready they fall into
+the train, which frequently extends some miles." (Dunbar, (1), pp.
+329-330.) The narrative continues and relates many of the mannerisms
+of the people, and tells of their peculiar traits. And it is difficult
+to realize the great distance traveled during the hunting trips
+away from the permanent earth-lodge villages. Dunbar accompanied
+them on several of their hunts and wrote (Op. cit., p. 331): "The first
+hunting tour I performed with them they traveled, from the time they
+left their village till they returned to it again in the spring, about
+400 miles. During the first summer hunt I was with them they traveled
+700 miles before returning to their village. During my second
+winter hunt they traveled 900 miles, second summer hunt 800 miles."</p>
+
+<p>The moving about over the vast rolling prairies of the people of
+an entire village, while on their distant hunts, covering many hundreds
+of miles, and carrying with them practically all of their belongings,
+with innumerable dogs and horses, stopping now to kill
+the buffalo and again pushing on in quest of more, constituted one
+of the most interesting and characteristic phases of primitive life on
+the prairies. But within a few decades all has changed, and now
+many towns and villages occupy the region once traversed by the
+roving bands.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">arikara.</span></h4>
+
+<p>When or where the Arikara separated from their kindred tribe,
+the Pawnee, may never be determined, but during the years which
+followed the separation they continued moving northward, leaving
+ruined villages to mark the line of their migration. Sixty years ago
+it was said: "That they migrated upward, along the Missouri, from
+their friends below is established by the remains of their dirt villages,
+which are yet seen along that river, though at this time mostly overgrown
+with grass. At what time they separated from the parent
+stock is not now correctly known, though some of their locations
+appear to have been of very ancient date, at least previous to the
+commencement of the fur trade on the Upper Missouri. At the time
+when the old French and Spanish traders began their dealings with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+the Indians of the Upper Missouri, the Arikara village was situated
+a little above the mouth of Grand River, since which time they have
+made several removals and are now located at Fort Clark, the former
+village of the Mandans." (Hayden, (1), pp. 351-352.)</p>
+
+<p>The beginning of the last century found the Arikara living in three
+villages, all on the right bank of the Missouri. In the journal of the
+French trader Le Raye are brief references to the villages, together
+with some notes on the manners and customs of the inhabitants.
+April 22, 1802, he wrote: "The <i>Ricaras</i> or <i>Rus</i> have three villages,
+situated on the south bank of the Missouri, in the great bend of the
+river. The lower village is on a large bottom covered with cotton
+wood, and contains about fifty huts." He then describes the manner
+in which the earth-covered lodges were built and refers to the structures
+being "placed with great regularity," a statement which does
+not seem to have been borne out by later writers. Continuing, he
+said: "The town is picketed with pickets twelve feet high and set
+very close, to prevent firing between them. There is one gate way,
+which is shut at night." On May 27, 1802, he left the lower village,
+"crossed Missouri, and arrived the same evening at the upper village.
+This village is situated on an Island in the Missouri, and is fortified
+in the same manner as the lower village, containing about sixty huts....
+The next morning we proceeded, and soon left the Missouri,
+travelling a northwest course, in a well beaten path." (Le Raye, (1),
+pp. 171-180.)</p>
+
+<p>Although the preceding notes may not be very accurate, nevertheless
+they are of interest on account of the period they cover, just
+before the transfer of Louisiana to the United States, and two years
+before the most important expedition ascended the Missouri.</p>
+
+<p>To trace the sites of early Arikara villages as mentioned by Lewis
+and Clark, and as seen by them when the expedition under their
+command passed up the Missouri during the early autumn of 1804,
+is most interesting. On September 29 of that year they reached the
+mouth of a small creek which entered the Missouri from the south,
+"which we called Notimber creek from its bare appearance. Above
+the mouth of this stream, a Ricara band of Pawnees had a village
+five years ago: but there are no remains of it except the mound
+which encircled the town." This would have been in the present
+Stanley County, South Dakota. Two days later, on October 1,
+they "passed a large island in the middle of the river, opposite
+the lower end of which the Ricaras once had a village on the south
+side of the river: there are, however, no remnants of it now, except
+a circular wall three or four feet in height, which encompassed the
+town." Two miles beyond was the mouth of the Cheyenne River.</p>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 52<a name="Plate_52"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/p052a.png" width="250" height="373" alt="a. Arikara carrying basket. (U.S.N.M. 8430)" title="a. Arikara carrying basket. (U.S.N.M. 8430)" />
+<span class="caption">a. Arikara carrying basket. (U.S.N.M. 8430)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/p052b.png" width="250" height="358" alt="b. Wooden mortar. &quot;Witchata Inds. Dr. E. Palmer.&quot; Height
+of body 13&frac12; inches. (U.S.N.M. 6899)" title="b. Wooden mortar. &quot;Witchata Inds. Dr. E. Palmer.&quot; Height
+of body 13&frac12; inches. (U.S.N.M. 6899)" />
+<span class="caption">b. Wooden mortar. &quot;Witchata Inds. Dr. E. Palmer.&quot; Height
+of body 13&frac12; inches. (U.S.N.M. 6899)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 53<a name="Plate_53"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/p053.png" width="500" height="318" alt="&quot;RICCAREE VILLAGE&quot;
+
+George Catlin" title="&quot;RICCAREE VILLAGE&quot;
+
+George Catlin" />
+<span class="caption">&quot;RICCAREE VILLAGE&quot;
+
+George Catlin</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>On the third day after passing the mouth of the Cheyenne they
+reached "Teal creek," and "A little above this is an island on the
+north side of the current, about one and a half mile in length and
+three quarters of a mile in breadth. In the centre of this island is
+an old village of the Ricaras, called Lahoocat; it was surrounded
+by a circular wall, containing seventeen lodges. The Ricaras are
+known to have lived there in 1797, and the village seems to have
+been deserted about five years since: it does not contain much timber."</p>
+
+<p>On October 6, two days' travel beyond Teal Creek, and at a distance
+of about 32 miles above it, "We halted for dinner at a village
+which we suppose to have belonged to the Ricaras: it is situated
+in a low plain on the river, and consists of about eighty lodges,
+of an octagonal form, neatly covered with earth, and placed as
+close to each other as possible, and picketed round. The skin canoes,
+mats, buckets, and articles of furniture found in the lodges, induce
+us to suppose that it had been left in the spring. We found three
+different sorts of squashes growing in the village; we also killed
+an elk near it, and saw two wolves." On the following day, after
+advancing about 4 or 5 miles, they encountered "another village or
+wintering camp of the Ricaras, composed of about sixty lodges, built
+in the same form as those passed yesterday, with willow and straw
+mats, baskets, buffalo-skin canoes, remaining entire in the camp."</p>
+
+<p>The baskets may have included many similar to two rare examples
+now in the National Museum, Washington, one of which is
+shown in plate <a href="#Plate_52">52</a>, <i>a</i> (U.S.N.M. 8430).</p>
+
+<p>On October 9, 1804, after passing the mouth of the river called
+by them the Wetawhoo or Wetarko, soon to be known as Grand
+River, which flows into the Missouri from the west in the present
+Corson County, South Dakota, the expedition stopped and held a
+council with the Indians. There they remained until October 11,
+when "At one o'clock we left our camp with the grand chief and
+his nephew on board, and at about two miles anchored below a
+creek on the south, separating the second and third village of the
+Ricaras, which are about half a mile distant from each other....
+These two villages are placed near each other in a high smooth
+prairie; a fine situation, except that having no wood the inhabitants
+are obliged to go for it across the river to a timbered lowland
+opposite to them."</p>
+
+<p>The expedition left the Arikara during the afternoon of October
+12, and on that date in the narrative appears an interesting account
+of the then recent migrations of the tribe: "They were originally
+colonies of Pawnees, who established themselves on the Missouri, below
+Chayenne, where the traders still remember that twenty years
+ago they occupied a number of villages. From that situation a part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+of the Ricaras emigrated to the neighborhood of the Mandans, with
+whom they were then in alliance. The rest of the nation continued
+near the Chayenne till the year 1797, in the course of which, distressed
+by their wars with the Sioux, they joined their countrymen
+near the Mandans. Soon after a new war arose between the Ricaras
+and the Mandans, in consequence of which the former came down
+the river to their present position. In this migration those who had
+first gone to the Mandans kept together, and now live in the two
+lower villages, which may be considered as the Ricaras proper. The
+third village was composed of such remnants of the villages as had
+survived the wars, and as these were nine in number a difference of
+pronunciation and some difference of language may be observed between
+them and the Ricaras proper, who do not understand all the
+words of these wanderers. The villages are within the distance of
+four miles of each other, the two lower ones consist of between one
+hundred and fifty and two hundred men each, the third of three
+hundred." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 92-104.) Following this, on
+page 106, is a brief description of the earth-covered lodges of the
+Arikara, which were of "a circular or octagonal form, and generally
+about thirty or forty feet in diameter," but a rather better description
+was prepared by one of the members of the expedition, Patrick
+Gass, who wrote on October 10: "This day I went with some of
+the men to the lodges, about 60 in number. The following is a
+description of the form of these lodges and the manner of building
+them.</p>
+
+<p>"In a circle of a size suited to the dimensions of the intended lodge
+they set up 16 forked posts five or six feet high, and lay poles from
+one fork to another. Against these poles they lean other poles,
+slanting from the ground, and extending about four inches above
+the cross poles; these are to receive the ends of the upper poles that
+support the roof. They next set up four large forks, fifteen feet
+high, and about ten feet apart, in the middle of the area; and poles
+or beams between these. The roof poles are then laid on extending
+from the lower poles across the beams which rest on the middle forks,
+of such a length as to leave a hole at the top for a chimney. The
+whole is then covered with willow branches, except the chimney and
+a hole below to pass through. On the willow branches they lay
+grass and lastly clay. At the hole below they build a pen about
+four feet wide and projecting ten feet from the hut; and hang a
+buffalo skin at the entrance of the hut for a door. This labour
+like every other kind is chiefly performed by the squaws. They
+raise corn, beans and tobacco." (Gass, (1), p. 52.) And five days
+later Gass entered in his journal: "At 7 we saw a hunting party
+of the Rickarees, on their way down to the villages. They had 12<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+buffalo-skin canoes or boats laden with meat and skins; beside some
+horses that were going down the bank by land. They gave us a part
+of their meat. The party consisted of men, women, and children."
+(Op. cit., p. 54.)</p>
+
+<p>Two years later, on the return of the expedition, they again passed
+the villages of the Arikara, arriving opposite the upper village August
+21, 1806, at which time there was an exchange of salutes of four
+guns each.</p>
+
+<p>In 1812 Cutler wrote regarding the Arikara: "They live in fortified
+villages, claim no land, except that on which their villages stand,
+and the fields they improve." (Cutler, (1), p. 125.)</p>
+
+<p>It is quite evident, from the preceding references as well as from
+the observations of later travelers, that the Arikara villages were
+usually, if not always, surrounded by palisades. But to have surrounded
+the area occupied by the lodges by stout posts placed
+close together would have required some time and, with the primitive
+implements and methods of collecting the necessary number of
+timbers, would have been a laborious undertaking. However, they
+appear to have had another way of protecting their towns. This
+was told by a French trader who was at the Arikara village in 1795.
+During the early part of June of that year several Indians arrived
+among the Arikara and told that three Sioux villages "had assembled
+and formed an army of five hundred warriors, intending to
+attack the village of the Ricaras." Fearing this attack, the narrative
+continues: "The Ricaras have fortified their village by placing
+palisades five feet high which they have reinforced with earth. The
+fort is constructed in the following manner: All around their village
+they drive into the ground heavy forked stakes, standing from
+four to five feet high and from fifteen to twenty feet apart. Upon
+these are placed cross-pieces as thick as one's thigh; next they place
+poles of willow or cottonwood, as thick as one's leg, resting on the
+cross-pieces and very close together. Against these poles which are
+five feet high they pile fascines of brush which they cover with an
+embankment of earth two feet thick; in this way, the height of the
+poles would prevent the scaling of the fort by the enemy, while the
+well-packed earth protects those within from their balls and arrows."
+(Trudeau, (1), pp. 454-455.) Undoubtedly many embankments
+found east of the Mississippi owe their origin to this method
+of protecting the villages which they once surrounded.</p>
+
+<p>The most interesting and comprehensible accounts of the Arikara
+villages were prepared during the month of June, 1811. Two travelers
+that spring ascended the Missouri with rival parties of traders,
+but they were acquainted and again met on the upper Missouri on
+June 3. Brackenridge arrived at the village on June 12, and wrote:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>"The village appeared to occupy about three quarters of a mile
+along the river bank, on a level plain, the country behind it rising
+into hills of considerable height. There are little or no woods anywhere
+to be seen. The lodges are of a conical shape, and look like
+heaps of earth. A great number of horses are seen feeding in the
+plains around, and on the sides of the hills. I espied a number of
+squaws, in canoes, descending the river and landing at the village.
+The interpreter informed me, that they were returning home with
+wood. These canoes are made of a single buffalo hide, stretched
+over osiers, and are of a circular form. There was but one woman
+in each canoe, who kneeled down, and instead of paddling sideways,
+placed the paddle before; the load is fastened to the canoe....
+About two o'clock fourteen of us crossed over, and accompanied the
+chief to his lodge. Mats were laid around for us to sit on, while
+he placed himself on a kind of stool or bench. The pipe was handed
+around, and smoked; after which, the herald, (every chief or great
+man, has one of them) ascended the top of the lodge and seated
+himself near an open place, and began to bawl out like one of our
+town criers; the chief every now and then addressing something to
+him through the aperture before mentioned. We soon discovered
+the object of this, by the arrival of the other chiefs, who seemed to
+drop in, one after the other, as their names were called.</p>
+
+<p>"When all were seated, the pipe was handed to the chief, who
+began as is usual on solemn occasions, by blowing a whiff upwards as
+it were to the sky, then to the earth, and after to the east and west,
+after which the pipe was sent round. A mark of respect in handing
+the pipe to another, is to hold it until the person has taken several
+whiffs." (Brackenridge, (1), pp. 245-246.)</p>
+
+<p>Bradbury, who was also present at the gathering on June 12,
+entered in his journal:</p>
+
+<p>"I quitted the feast, in order to examine the town, which I found
+to be fortified all round with a ditch, and with pickets or pallisadoes,
+of about nine feet high. The lodges are placed without any regard
+to regularity, which renders it difficult to count them, but there
+appears to be from 150 to 160, and they are constructed in the same
+manner as those of the Ottoes, with the additional convenience of a
+railing on the eaves: behind this railing they sit at their ease and
+smoke. There is scarcely any declivity in the scite of the town, and
+as little regard is paid to cleanliness, it is very dirty in wet weather."
+(Bradbury, (1), pp. 114-115.) Later he wrote (pp. 165-166): "I
+am not acquainted with any customs peculiar to this nation, save that
+of having a sacred lodge in the centre of the largest village. This is
+called the <i>Medicine lodge</i>, and in one particular, corresponds with
+the sanctuary of the Jews, as no blood is on any account whatsoever
+to be spilled within it, not even that of an enemy; nor is any one,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+having taken refuge there, to be forced from it. This lodge is also
+the general place of deposit for such things as they devote to the
+<i>Father of Life</i>."</p>
+
+<p>On the following day, June 13, 1811, Brackenridge "rambled
+through the village," which he found "excessively filthy," with innumerable
+dogs running about. Then he proceeded to describe the
+habitations: "The lodges are constructed in the following manner:
+Four large forks of about fifteen feet in height, are placed in the
+ground, usually about twenty feet from each other, with hewn logs,
+or beams across; from these beams, other pieces of wood are placed
+slanting; smaller pieces are placed above, leaving an aperture at
+the top, to admit the light, and to give vent to the smoke. These
+upright pieces are interwoven with osiers, after which, the whole is
+covered with earth, though not sodded. An opening is left at one
+side, for a door, which is secured by a kind of projection of ten or
+twelve feet, enclosed on all sides, and forming a narrow entrance,
+which might be easily defended. A buffalo robe suspended at the
+entrance, answers as a door. The fire is made in a hole in the
+ground, directly under the aperture at the top. Their beds elevated
+a few feet, are placed around the lodge, and enclosed with curtains
+of dressed elk skins. At the upper end of the lodge, there is a kind
+of trophy erected; two buffalo heads, fantastically painted, are placed
+on a little elevation; over them are placed, a variety of consecrated
+things, such as shields, skins of a rare or valuable kind, and quivers
+of arrows. The lodges seem placed at random, without any regularity
+or design, and are so much alike, that it was for some time
+before I could learn to return to the same one. The village is surrounded
+by a palisade of cedar poles, but in a very bad state. Around
+the village, there are little plats enclosed by stakes, intwined with
+osiers, in which they cultivate maize, tobacco, and beans; but their
+principal field is at the distance of a mile from the village, to which,
+such of the females whose duty it is to attend to their culture, go
+and return morning and evening. Around the village they have
+buffalo robes stuck up on high poles. I saw one so arranged as to
+bear a resemblance to the human figure, the hip bone of the buffaloe
+represented the head, the sockets of the thigh bones looked like eyes."
+(Op. cit., pp. 247-248.)</p>
+
+<p>On June 14 they walked together to the upper of the two villages,
+which were separated by a narrow stream. They entered several
+lodges and were always pleasantly received by the occupants and
+offered food, which included fresh buffalo meat served in wooden
+dishes or bowls, and "homony made of corn dried in the milk, mixed
+with beans, which was prepared with buffalo marrow." This latter,
+according to Bradbury, was "warmed on the fire in an earthen vessel<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+of their own manufacture." Later, when he returned to the same
+village, he wrote (p. 158): "I noticed over their fires much larger
+vessels of earthenware than any I had before seen, and was permitted
+to examine them. They were sufficiently hardened by the
+fire to cause them to emit a sonorous tone on being struck, and in all
+I observed impressions on the outside seemingly made by wicker
+work. This led me to enquire of them by signs how they were
+made? when a squaw brought a basket, and taking some clay, she
+began to spread it very evenly within it, shewing me at the same
+time that they were made in that way. From the shape of these
+vessels, they must be under the necessity of burning the basket to
+disengage them, as they are wider at the bottom than at the top. I
+must here remark, that at the Great Salt Lick, or Saline, about twenty
+miles from the mouth of the Wabash, vast quantities of Indian
+earthenware are found, on which I have observed impressions exactly
+similar to those here mentioned. From the situation of these
+heaps of fragments, and their proximity to the salt works, I am
+decidedly of opinion that the Indians practised the art of evaporating
+the brine, to make salt, before the discovery of America."</p>
+
+<p>It was the custom of the people of the village to gather in the
+evenings on the tops of their lodges, there to sit and converse, and
+"every now and then the attention of all was attracted by some old
+men who rose up and declaimed aloud, so as to be heard over the
+whole village." Within the village women were often seen busily
+engaged in dressing buffalo robes, stretched on frames near the
+lodges. Men, playing at various games, or sitting in groups smoking
+and talking; children and dogs innumerable. Such was the appearance
+of an Arikara village a little more than a century ago.</p>
+
+<p>On the 18th of June Bradbury visited the bluffs southwest of
+the village and on one discovered 14 buffalo skulls placed in a row,
+and in describing them said: "The cavities of the eyes and the
+nostrils were filled with a species of <i>artemisia</i> common on the
+prairies, which appears to be a non-descript. On my return I caused
+our interpreter to enquire into the reason for this, and found that it
+was an honour conferred on the buffaloes which they had killed, in
+order to appease their spirits, and prevent them from apprising
+the living buffaloes of the danger they run in approaching the
+neighbourhood." (Op. cit., p. 125.)</p>
+
+<p>An interesting observation was made at this time by Brackenridge
+concerning a temporary encampment of a small party of Arikara
+when away from their permanent, well-protected villages. He said
+(Op. cit., pp. 254-255): "To avoid surprise, they always encamp at
+the edge of a wood; and when the party is small, they construct a
+kind of fortress, with wonderful expedition, of billets of wood, apparently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+piled up in a careless manner, but so arranged as to be
+very strong, and are able to withstand an assault from a much
+superior force." Many such inclosures were discovered and mentioned
+by the early explorers of the Upper Missouri Valley, and
+several instances have been cited on the preceding pages when treating
+of the Siouan tribes.</p>
+
+<p>In 1832 Catlin went up the Missouri, and when he arrived at the
+Arikara village he made a sketch of the town as it appeared from the
+deck of the steamboat. The original painting is now in the National
+Museum, Washington, and is reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_53">53</a>. This was engraved
+and presented as plate 80 in his narrative. Writing of this
+sketch he remarked: "Plate 80, gives a view of the Riccaree village,
+which is beautifully situated on the west bank of the river, 200 miles
+below the Mandans; and built very much in the same manner; being
+constituted of 150 earth-covered lodges, which are in part surrounded
+by an imperfect and open barrier of piquets set firmly in the ground,
+and of ten or twelve feet in height. This village is built upon an
+open prairie, and the gracefully undulating hills that rise in distance
+behind it are everywhere covered with a verdant green turf, without
+a tree or a bush anywhere to be seen. This view was taken from
+the deck of the steamer when I was on my way up the river." (Catlin,
+(1), I, p. 204.) At this time the Arikara were very hostile to all
+the traders who passed and repassed along the Missouri. They had
+attacked many canoes and caused the death of their occupants. Fearing
+the outcome of their actions they soon left the banks of the Missouri
+and moved westward. One year after Catlin passed the villages
+Maximilian arrived there while on his way to the far upper
+waters of the Missouri. On June 12, 1833, Maximilian wrote: "Moreau's
+River ... is called the southern boundary of the territory
+of the Arikkaras, though they often make excursions far beyond it....
+On the morning of the 12th our cannon, muskets and rifles were
+loaded with ball, because we were approaching the village of the hostile
+Arikkaras. We came to Grand River, called in Lewis and
+Clarke's map Wetarko River. As we here touched the bottom, we
+crossed to the east bank, and in half an hour reached Rampart River,
+which issues from a narrow chain of hills, called Les Remparts; and
+soon afterwards an island covered with willows, which, on the large
+special map of Lewis and Clarke, has an Arikkara village, of which
+there are now no traces. From the hills we had a fine prospect over
+the bend of the river, on which the villages of the Arikkaras are situated,
+and which we reached after a short run of only two miles.
+The two villages of this tribe are on the west bank, very near each
+other, but separated by a small stream. They consist of a great number
+of clay huts, round at the top, with a square entrance in front,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+and the whole surrounded with a fence of stakes, which were much
+decayed, and in many places thrown down. It was not quite a year
+since these villages had been wholly abandoned, because their inhabitants,
+who were extremely hostile to the Whites, killed so many
+Americans, that they themselves foresaw that they would be severely
+chastised by the United States, and therefore preferred to emigrate.
+To this cause was added, a dry, unproductive season, when the crops
+entirely failed; as well as the absence of the herds of buffaloes, which
+hastened their removal.... The principal chief of the Arikkaras,
+when they retired from the Missouri, was called Starapat (the little
+hawk, with bloody claws)." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 166-167.) The
+Arikara at this time appear to have left the banks of the Missouri
+and removed to the vicinity of the Pawnee.</p>
+
+<p>Fort Clark, on the upper Missouri, at the villages of the Mandan
+and Hidatsa, was erected by the American Fur Company during the
+year 1829.</p>
+
+<p>In 1837 the Mandans suffered from the dreaded smallpox, losing
+more than 90 per cent of their number, and the few who survived
+abandoned their large village below Fort Clark and settled a short
+distance above. And, so wrote Hayden in 1855, "About the time that
+the Mandans left the lower village, the Arikaras came and took possession,
+the former readily consenting to this arrangement, because
+it placed a large body of strangers between them and the Dakotas,
+with whom, in their now feeble state, they were unable to contend."
+(Hayden, (1), p. 434.)</p>
+
+<p>A brief description of the Arikara village as it appeared early in
+June, 1850, is to be found in Culbertson's journal. On the 12th of
+that month the steamboat, ascending the Missouri, reached Fort
+Clark, "a small fort, about one hundred feet in length on each side."
+Just above the fort was the village of the Arikara. "The village is
+composed of two hundred lodges, as near as I could learn from the
+interpreter, and is built upon the top of a bluff bank rising about
+seventy-five feet perpendicular from the water. The huts are placed
+very irregularly, sometimes with very narrow, and sometimes with
+quite broad spaces between them. A number of platforms of poles,
+as high as the lodges themselves, are interspersed among them for
+the convenience of drying meat and dressing robes. I noticed a number
+of squaws busily employed in dressing robes." (Culbertson,
+(1), p. 117.) The typical earth lodge is described, one similar to
+those mentioned on other pages of this sketch, but his account of the
+interior of a habitation is most interesting. He, with others, stopped
+at a large lodge, when, so he wrote: "We were conducted to the
+place of honor, opposite to and facing the door. To our right, along
+the wall, were arranged several bedsteads, rudely made, while to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+left, a part was cut off by a couple of poles, for the accommodation
+of the horses; the chickens had a coop in one corner, but roam at
+large on most occasions, and the centre is used for a fireplace. The
+lodge was clean, airy, light and comfortable, and there was plenty
+of room for more than those, who I suppose, inhabit it. Behind us
+were hung bows with spears on the ends, and two rude instruments
+of music, made of a number of pumpkins.... Near the fireplace a
+small wooden mortar was sunk in the ground, for pounding corn.
+The large and high room appeared rather scarce of furniture." Many
+burials were encountered when passing between the village and Fort
+Clark, and there "were little patches of corn and pumpkins, generally
+enclosed by a slight bush fence," these probably being the
+gardens belonging to the people of the near-by town. The mortar,
+"sunk in the ground," as mentioned by Culbertson, was evidently
+similar to the example shown in plate <a href="#Plate_52">52</a>, <i>b</i>, a form which was indicated
+by Bodmer in his sketch of the interior of a Mandan lodge,
+plate <a href="#Plate_40">40</a>.</p>
+
+<p>It will be recalled that the village mentioned in the preceding notes
+was the home of the Mandan during the memorable winter of 1804-05,
+when the expedition of Lewis and Clark encamped a few miles below,
+and there the Mandan continued to dwell until after the epidemic of
+1837.</p>
+
+<p>In later years the three tribes, Arikara, Hidatsa, and Mandan, were
+closely associated, living in the vicinity of Fort Berthold, on the
+left bank of the Missouri and about 60 miles above Fort Clark, the
+Arikara having arrived at Fort Berthold, during the month of August,
+1862. Evidently their ways of life and customs were quite
+similar, and Matthews, in his work on the Hidatsa in particular, but
+in which he treats of the three tribes in general, said: "For cleaning
+the village-grounds, they had rakes made of a few osiers tied together,
+the ends curved and spreading. Their most important agricultural
+implement was the hoe. Before they obtained iron utensils of the
+white traders, their only hoes were made of the shoulder-blades of
+elk or buffalo, attached to wooden handles of suitable length ... as
+late as 1867, I saw a great number in use at Fort Berthold, and purchased
+two or three, one of which was sent to Washington, and, I
+presume, is now on exhibition in the museum of the Smithsonian Institution."
+(Matthews, (1), p. 19.) Several rakes of this description
+are in the collection of the National Museum, Washington. One,
+bearing the legend "Arickaree," which was obtained at Fort Berthold,
+is shown in plate <a href="#Plate_54">54</a>, <i>a</i> (U.S.N.M. 6353). It measures 4 feet
+10 inches in length and is formed of six pieces bound together. It is
+also of great interest to know that the hoe which was sent by Dr.
+Matthews to the museum is perfectly preserved. It is here reproduced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+in plate <a href="#Plate_54">54</a>, <i>b</i> (U.S.N.M. 6326). Written on it is this legend: "Ree
+Indians. Ft Berthold Dacotah Ter. Drs Gray and Matthews."
+The length of the scapula, that of a buffalo, is about 14 inches. Both
+handle and blade are worn smooth from use. The specimen is one of
+much importance.</p>
+
+<p>It will be recalled that Bradbury in 1811 referred to the "medicine
+lodge," then standing in the center of the large Arikara village.
+Matthews, more than 60 years later, mentioned a similar structure
+then standing at the village near Fort Berthold, and said concerning
+it: "The medicine-lodge of the Arickarees is larger than that of the
+Mandans, and is used for a greater variety of ceremonies. Some of
+these performances, consisting of ingenious tricks of jugglery and
+dances, representative of various hunts, we might be inclined to call
+theatrical rather than religious. Probably these Indians consider
+them both worshipful and entertaining. It is often hard to tell how
+much of a religious ceremony is intended to propitiate the unknown
+powers, and how much to please the spectators." (Matthews, (1),
+p. 10.)</p>
+
+<p>From the various quotations given on the preceding pages it is
+possible to form a good idea of the appearance of an ancient Arikara
+village. A large number of earth-covered lodges, of varying sizes,
+were placed without order but rather close together, often with a
+"medicine lodge" in the center of the group. All were surrounded
+by a palisade, often reared in connection with a ditch and embankment.
+The village at Fort Berthold was thus protected until the
+winter of 1865, at which time the stockade was cut down and used
+as fuel, and it was never replaced.</p>
+
+<p>As late as 1872 there were 43 earth-covered lodges standing at the
+Arikara village near Fort Berthold, together with 28 log cabins.</p>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 54<a name="Plate_54"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p054a.png" width="300" height="93" alt="a. Rake marked &quot;Arickaree.&quot; Collected at Fort Berthold. Length 4 feet 10 inches.
+(U.S.N.M. 6353)" title="a. Rake marked &quot;Arickaree.&quot; Collected at Fort Berthold. Length 4 feet 10 inches.
+(U.S.N.M. 6353)" />
+<span class="caption">a. Rake marked &quot;Arickaree.&quot; Collected at Fort Berthold. Length 4 feet 10 inches.
+(U.S.N.M. 6353)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p054b.png" width="300" height="147" alt="b. Agricultural implement formed of a scapula of a buffalo attached to a wooden handle. Marked
+&quot;Ree Indians. Ft. Berthold, Dacotah Ter. Drs. Gray and Matthews.&quot; Length of scapula
+about 14 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6326)" title="b. Agricultural implement formed of a scapula of a buffalo attached to a wooden handle. Marked
+&quot;Ree Indians. Ft. Berthold, Dacotah Ter. Drs. Gray and Matthews.&quot; Length of scapula
+about 14 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6326)" />
+<span class="caption">b. Agricultural implement formed of a scapula of a buffalo attached to a wooden handle. Marked
+&quot;Ree Indians. Ft. Berthold, Dacotah Ter. Drs. Gray and Matthews.&quot; Length of scapula
+about 14 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6326)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p054c.png" width="300" height="153" alt="c. Parfleche box. &quot;Crows, Montana Ter. J. I. Allen.&quot; Length 28 inches, width 13&frac12; inches.
+(U.S.N.M. 130574)" title="c. Parfleche box. &quot;Crows, Montana Ter. J. I. Allen.&quot; Length 28 inches, width 13&frac12; inches.
+(U.S.N.M. 130574)" />
+<span class="caption">c. Parfleche box. &quot;Crows, Montana Ter. J. I. Allen.&quot; Length 28 inches, width 13&frac12; inches.
+(U.S.N.M. 130574)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 55<a name="Plate_55"></a></b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p055a.png" width="300" height="220" alt="a. Grass-covered structures near Anadarko" title="a. Grass-covered structures near Anadarko" />
+<span class="caption">a. Grass-covered structures near Anadarko</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/p055b.png" width="300" height="226" alt="b. Grass-covered lodge, about 1880
+
+WICHITA HABITATIONS" title="b. Grass-covered lodge, about 1880
+
+WICHITA HABITATIONS" />
+<span class="caption">b. Grass-covered lodge, about 1880
+
+WICHITA HABITATIONS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In addition to the earth-covered lodges found in the permanent
+villages, they had skin tents which were occupied when away from
+their towns on war or hunting expeditions. Like the great majority
+of the native tribes, the Arikara would move about during certain
+seasons of the year. Hayden, writing about the year 1855, referred
+to this custom: "At the commencement of the winter the Arikaras
+leave their village in quest of buffalo, which seldom approach near
+enough to be killed in the vicinity of their cabins. They then encamp
+in skin tents, in various directions from the Missouri or along its
+banks, wherever the buffalo may chance to range. They pass the
+winter in hunting, and return to their permanent village early in
+the spring, bringing with them their skins in an unprepared state,
+with a great supply of meat." (Hayden, (1), p. 354.) Such were
+the hunting parties often met by the traders and explorers, as that
+mentioned by Sergeant Gass on October 15, 1804. That they were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+skilled agriculturists is attested by a note referring to the time
+they were still living in the old Mandan village below Fort Clark,
+October 11, 1853. In the journal of a party at that time descending
+the Missouri from Fort Benton to St. Louis appears this entry:</p>
+
+<p>"Arrived at Fort Clark, or Aricaree's village. It is situated on
+the top of a very high bluff on the bank of the river.... The Rees
+are not friendly to the whites, and are kept from open hostilities
+only by fear. They are a large tribe, and on the fertile meadows
+they occupy, raise a great amount of corn and pumpkins, which they
+exchange with the Crows and Dacotahs for dried buffalo meat and
+robes. They exported five thousand bushels of excellent corn this
+year...." (Saxton, (1), p. 265.) And it must be remembered that
+the principal implement was the primitive hoe, formed of a scapula
+of a buffalo attached to a wooden handle.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">wichita.</span></h4>
+
+<p>Like the other members of this linguistic family, whose villages
+have already been described, the Wichita had two forms of dwellings,
+which they occupied under different conditions. One served
+as the structure in their permanent villages, the other being of a
+more temporary nature. But, instead of the earth-covered lodges
+used farther north, their fixed villages were composed of groups
+of high circular structures, entirely thatched from bottom to top.
+Their movable camps, when away from home on war or hunting
+expeditions, consisted of the skin-covered tents of the plains.</p>
+
+<p>The peculiar thatched structures were first seen and described
+by Europeans in the year 1541, when Coronado crossed the vast
+rolling prairies and reached the Quivira (the Wichita) about the
+northeastern part of the present State of Kansas. Here extensive
+village sites, with innumerable traces of occupancy, undoubtedly
+indicate the positions of the ancient settlements.</p>
+
+<p>In the narrative of the expedition led by Coronado, prepared by
+one of the Spanish officers, Juan Jaramillo, appears an interesting
+though very brief description of the thatched dwellings of the people
+of Quivira:</p>
+
+<p>"The houses which these Indians have were of straw, and most
+of them round, and the straw reached down to the ground like a wall,
+so that they did not have the symmetry or the style of these here
+[referring to pueblos]; they have something like a chapel or sentry
+box outside and around these, with an entry, where the Indians
+appear seated or reclining." (Winship, (1), p. 591.) Castañeda,
+writing of the same villages, said: "The houses are round, without
+a wall, and they have one story like a loft, under the roof, where
+they sleep and keep their belongings. The roofs are of straw."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+(Winship, (1), pp. 528-529.) This evidently referred to structures
+similar to that shown on the right of the lodge in plate <a href="#Plate_55">55</a>, <i>a</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A photograph of a large Wichita dwelling, of the form mentioned,
+is reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_55">55</a>, <i>b</i>. The picture was probably made about
+the year 1880. The door in front is open, and there appears to be
+another on the extreme left, which would be 90° from the former;
+therefore there were evidently four entrances. This is explained in
+the following account of the construction and arrangement of such
+a dwelling:</p>
+
+<p>"Its construction was begun by drawing a circle on the ground,
+and on the outline setting a number of crotched posts, in which
+beams were laid. Against these, poles were set very closely in a row
+so as to lean inward; these in turn were laced with willow rods
+and their tops brought together and securely-fastened so as to form
+a peak. Over this frame a heavy thatch of grass was laid and
+bound down by slender rods, and at each point where the rods
+joined an ornamental tuft of grass was tied. Two poles, laid at
+right angles, jutting out in four projecting points, were fastened
+to the apex of the roof, and over the center, where they crossed,
+rose a spire, 2 ft. high or more, made of bunches of grass. Four
+doors, opening to each point of the compass, were formerly made,
+but now, except when the house is to be used for ceremonial purposes,
+only two are provided, one on the east to serve for the morning,
+and one on the west to go in and out of when the sun is in that
+quarter. The fireplace was a circular excavation in the center of
+the floor, and the smoke found egress through a hole left high up
+in the roof toward the E. The four projecting beams at the peak
+pointed toward and were symbolic of the four points of the compass,
+where were the paths down which the powers descended to help
+man. The spire typified the abode in the zenith of the mysterious
+permeating force that animates all nature. The fireplace was accounted
+sacred; it was never treated lightly even in the daily life
+of the family. The couches of the occupants were placed against
+the wall. They consisted of a framework on which was fitted a
+woven covering of reeds. Upon this robes or rush mats were spread.
+The grass house is a comely structure. Skill is required to build it,
+and it has an attractive appearance both within and without."
+(Fletcher, (1).)</p>
+
+<p>An interesting photograph made some 30 or 40 years ago, near
+Anadarko, Caddo County, Oklahoma, is reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_55">55</a>, <i>a</i>.
+This shows a grass lodge of the usual form, and to the right of it
+appears to be an arbor or shelter, having a thatched roof but open
+on the sides. This second structure may be of the form which was
+seen by the Spaniards nearly four centuries ago, a place "where the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+Indians appear seated or reclining." It undoubtedly served as a
+gathering place, out of doors, and gave protection from the rays
+of the sun.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Waco.</span></h5>
+
+<p>On August 23, 1853, the expedition under command of Lieut.
+A. W. Whipple camped at some point in the southwestern portion
+of the present McClain County, Oklahoma, and that evening were
+visited by two Indians, "the one tall and straight, the other ill-looking.
+Their dress consisted of a blue cotton blanket wrapped
+around the waist, a head-dress of eagles' feathers, brass wire bracelets,
+and moccasins. The outer cartilages of their ears were cut
+through in various places, and short sticks inserted in place of rings.
+They were painted with vermilion, and carried bows of bois d'arc
+three feet long, and cow-skin quivers filled with arrows. The latter
+were about twenty-six inches in length, with very sharp steel heads,
+tastefully and skillfully made. The feathers with which they
+were tipped, and the sinews which bound them, were prettily tinted
+with red, blue, and green. The shafts were colored red, and said to
+be poisoned." (Whipple, (1), p. 22.) Unable to converse with the
+two strangers, the interpreter proceeded to interview them by signs.
+"The graceful motions of the hands seemed to convey ideas faster
+than words could have done, and with the whole operation we were
+highly amused and interested. Our visitors now said that they
+were not Kichais, but Huécos, and that they were upon a hunting
+expedition." Referring to the same two Indians another member
+of the expedition wrote:</p>
+
+<p>"The newcomers belonged to the tribe of Wakos, or Waekos,
+neighbours of the Witchita Indians, who live to the east of the
+Witchita Mountains, in a village situated on the bank of a small
+river rising in that direction. They were now on a journey to the
+Canadian, to meet a barter-trader there, but having heard of our
+expedition, had turned out of their way to pay us a visit. The
+Wakos and Witchitas differ only in name, and in some slight varieties
+of dialect; their villages are built in the same style, and are
+only about a thousand yards from one another. Their wigwams, of
+which the Witchitas count forty-two, and the Wakos only twenty,
+look a good deal like haycocks, and are constructed with pliable
+poles, eighteen or twenty feet long, driven into the ground in a
+circle of twenty-five feet diameter; the poles are then bent together
+and fastened to one another at the top, and the spaces between filled
+with plaited willow twigs and turf, a low aperture being left for a
+door, and one above for a chimney. A place is hollowed out in the
+centre for a fireplace, and around this, and a little raised, are
+placed the beds of the inhabitants of the hut; which, when covered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+with good buffalo skins, make tolerable resting-places. Each of
+these wigwams is generally occupied by two families; and the Wako
+tribe is reckoned at about two hundred, that of the Witchitas at
+not less than eight hundred members. These Indians practise agriculture;
+and beans, peas, maize, gourds, and melons are seen prospering
+very well round their villages." (Möllhausen, (1), I, pp.
+115-116.)</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">caddo.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The "Caddo proper," or Cenis as they were called by Joutel, early
+occupied the southwestern part of the present State of Arkansas, the
+Red River Valley, and adjacent region to the south and west.</p>
+
+<p>La Salle was murdered near the banks of the Trinity, in eastern
+Texas, March 20, 1687. Joutel and several others of the party pushed
+on, and nine days later, when traversing the valley of the Red River,
+arrived at a village of the Cenis. Fortunately a very good account
+of the people and their homes is preserved in Joutel's narrative, and
+from it the following quotations are made:</p>
+
+<p>"The <i>Indian</i> that was with us conducted us to their Chief's
+Cottage. By the Way, we saw many other Cottages, and the Elders
+coming to meet us in their Formalities, which consisted in some
+Goat Skins dress'd and painted of several Colours, which they wore
+on their Shoulders like Belts, and Plumes of Feathers of several
+Colours, on their Heads, like Coronets.... All their Faces were
+daub'd with black or red. There were twelve Elders, who walk'd in
+the Middle, and the Youth and Warriors in Ranks, on the Sides of
+those old Men." After remaining a short time with the chief "They
+led us to a larger Cottage, a Quarter of a League from thence, being
+the Hut in which they have their public Rejoycings, and the great
+Assemblies. We found it furnish'd with Mats for us to sit on. The
+Elders seated themselves round about us, and they brought us to eat,
+some <i>Sagamite</i>, which is their Pottage, little Beans, Bread made of
+<i>Indian</i> Corn, and another Sort they make with boil'd Flower, and at
+last they made us smoke."</p>
+
+<p>They proceeded to another village not far away, and, so the narrative
+continues: "By the Way, we saw several Cottages at certain
+Distances, stragling up and down, as the Ground happens to be fit
+for Tillage. The Field lies about the Cottage, and at other Distances
+there are other large Huts, not inhabited, but only serving for
+publick Assemblies, either upon Occasion of Rejoycing, or to consult
+about Peace and War.</p>
+
+<p>"The Cottages that are inhabited, are not each of them for a
+private Family, for in some of them are fifteen or twenty, each of
+which has its Nook or Corner, Bed and other Utensils to its self: but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+without any Partition to separate it from the rest: However, they
+have Nothing in Common besides the Fire, which is in the Midst of
+the Hut, and never goes out. It is made of great Trees, the Ends
+whereof are laid together, so that when once lighted, it lasts a long
+Time, and the first Comer takes Care to keep it up." Here follows
+a brief description of the appearance of the structures of the
+village, the dwellings resembling those later mentioned as being
+typical of the Wichita. "The Cottages are round at the Top, after
+the manner of a Bee-Hive, or a Reek of Hay. Some of them are
+sixty Foot Diameter." There follows a brief account of the method
+of constructing such a house. "In order to build them, they plant
+Trees as thick as a Man's thigh, tall and strait, and placing them
+in a Circle, and joyning the Tops together, from the Dome, or
+round Top, then they lash and cover them with Weeds. When
+they remove their Dwellings, they generally burn the Cottages
+they leave, and build new on the Ground they design to inhabit.
+Their Moveables are some Bullocks Hides and Goats Skins well
+cur'd, some Mats close wove, wherewith they adorn their Huts, and
+some Earthen Vessels, which they are very skilful at making, and
+wherein they boil their Flesh or Roots, or <i>Sagamise</i>, which, as has
+been said, is their Pottage. They have also some small Baskets made
+of Canes, serving to put in their Fruit and other Provisions. Their
+Beds are made of Canes, rais'd two or three Foot above the Ground,
+handsomely fitted with Mats and Bullocks Hides, or Goats Skins well
+cur'd, which serve them for Feather Beds, or Quilts and Blankets;
+and those Beds are parted one from another by Mats hung up."
+(Joutel, (1), pp. 106-109.)</p>
+
+<p>The preceding is probably the clearest description of the furnishings
+of a native structure standing beyond the Mississippi during the
+last quarter of the seventeenth century that has been preserved. The
+large circular structures served as the dwelling place of many individuals.
+The beds were placed, so it may be assumed, in a line around
+the wall, each separated from its neighbor by a mat. A large fire
+burned in the center of the space. In many respects the large dwellings
+of the Caddo must have closely resembled the great round structures
+which stood north of St. Augustine, Florida, about the year
+1700. (Bushnell, (1), pp. 84-86.)</p>
+
+<p>Brief accounts of the many small tribes living south of the Arkansas
+River soon after the transfer of Louisiana contain references to
+the numerous villages, but fail, unfortunately, to describe the structures
+in detail. (Sibley, (1), pp. 721-725.) The dwellings probably
+resembled those already mentioned as standing a century and more
+before.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONCLUSION.</h2>
+
+<p>The references brought together and presented on the preceding
+pages will reveal the nature of the dwellings and the appearance of
+the camps and villages which stood, so short a time ago, in the region
+between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains. First encountered
+in the southern part of the country by the Spanish expeditions
+led by De Soto and Coronado before the middle of the sixteenth century,
+and by the French who entered the upper and central portions
+of the Mississippi Valley during the latter part of the seventeenth
+century, all types of structures continued to be reared and occupied
+until the latter half of the nineteenth century, while some forms
+are even now in use, although it is highly probable that within another
+generation these, too, will have disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>Various writers during the eighteenth century mentioned the tribes
+of the Upper Missouri Valley, but all accounts prepared at that
+time are rather vague, as was their knowledge of conditions on and
+in the region bordering the Great Plains. And not until after the
+transfer of Louisiana to the United States, and as a result of the
+several expeditions sent out by the Government to explore the newly
+acquired territories, did the various groups of tribes, with their
+peculiar characteristics, become known with a degree of certainty.
+But with the transfer of Louisiana conditions rapidly changed.
+Hunters and traders soon penetrated the wilderness where few had
+gone before. Fort Crawford, at the mouth of the Wisconsin; Fort
+Snelling, just below the Falls of St. Anthony; and Leavenworth, on
+the Missouri, were established before the close of the first quarter
+of the century. Towns were built farther and farther beyond the
+old frontier, and on April 18, 1851, Kurz wrote in his journal:</p>
+
+<p>"St Joseph, formerly the trading post of Joseph Robidoux, is at
+the foot of the Blacksnake hills, on the left bank of the Missouri....
+The streets are crowded with traders and emigrants on their way
+to California and Oregon. Many Indians of the tribes of the Pottowatomis,
+Foxes (Musquakees), Kikapoos, Iowas, and Otoes are continually
+in the town.... In summer the <i>Bourgeois</i>, or Chiefs, the
+clerks and <i>Engagés</i> of the fur companies enliven the streets.... St.
+Joseph is now what St Louis was formerly&mdash;their gathering place."
+Thus the Indian in his primitive state was doomed, as were the vast
+herds of buffalo which then roamed, unopposed, over the far-reaching
+prairies.</p>
+
+<p>In studying the various types of structures it is interesting to
+learn how the natural environments influenced the form of dwellings
+erected by the tribes of a particular section. Thus in the densely
+timbered country of the north, about the headwaters of the Mississippi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+and far beyond, the mat and bark covered wigwams were developed
+and employed practically to the exclusion of all other forms
+of habitations. But on the plains, and in the regions bordering the
+great buffalo ranges, the skin-covered conical tipis predominated,
+although other forms were sometimes constructed by the same people.
+The earth lodges as erected by certain tribes of the Missouri Valley
+were the most interesting native structures east of the Rocky Mountains,
+and these at once suggest the <i>Rotundas</i>, or great council houses
+once built by the Cherokees and Creeks east of the Mississippi.</p>
+
+<p>In treating of the habitations and villages of the several tribes
+references have been made, incidentally, to the manners and ways
+of life of the people who once claimed and occupied so great a part
+of the present United States.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span></p>
+<h2>AUTHORITIES CITED.</h2>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Allen, Joel Asaph.</span></p>
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) History of the American Bison, Bison americanus. <i>In</i> Ninth Annual
+Report of the United States Geological Survey, for the year 1875.
+Washington, 1877.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Atkinson, Henry.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Expedition up the Missouri, 1825. Doc. 117, 19th Congress, 1st
+session, House of Rep. War Department. Washington, 1826.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bell, William A.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) New Tracks in North America. London, 1870.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Brackenridge, H. M.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Views of Louisiana; together with a Journal of a Voyage up the
+Missouri River, in 1811. Pittsburgh, 1814.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bradbury, John.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Travels in the Interior of America, in the years 1809, 1810, and 1811.
+Liverpool, 1817.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bushnell, D. I., Jr.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Native Villages and Village Sites East of the Mississippi. Bulletin
+69, Bureau of American Ethnology. Washington, 1919.</p></blockquote>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) Ojibway Habitations and other Structures. <i>In</i> Report of the Smithsonian
+Institution for the year ending June 30, 1917. Washington,
+1919.</p></blockquote>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(3) Ethnographical Material from North America in Swiss Collections.
+<i>In</i> American Anthropologist, Vol. 10, No. 1, Jan.-Mar. 1908.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Carver, Jonathan.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Travels through the Interior parts of North America, in the years
+1766, 1767, and 1768. London, 1781. Reprint New York, 1838.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Catlin, George.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the
+North American Indians. London, 1844. 2 vols.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cocking, Matthew.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of ... 1772-1773. <i>In</i> Proceedings and Transactions of the
+Royal Society of Canada. Vol. II, Third series. 1908.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Colton, C.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Tour of the American Lakes ... in 1830. London. 1833. 2 vols.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Culbertson, Thaddeus A.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of an Expedition to the Mauvaises Terres and the Upper
+Missouri in 1850. <i>In</i> Fifth Annual Report of the Smithsonian
+Institution. Washington, 1851.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cutler, Jervis.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory,
+and Louisiana. Boston, 1812.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">De Smet.</span></p>
+
+<p><i>See</i> Smet.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dodge, Richard Irving.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Black Hills. New York, 1876.</p></blockquote>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) The Plains of the Great West. New York, 1877.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span><span class="smcap">Dorsey, James Owen.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Omaha dwellings, furniture, and implements. <i>In</i> Thirteenth Annual
+Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. Washington, 1896.</p></blockquote>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) A Study of Siouan Cults. <i>In</i> Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau
+of Ethnology. Washington, 1894.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Douay, Anastasius.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journey of 1687. <i>In</i> Shea (2).</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dunbar, John.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Presbyterian Mission among the Pawnee Indians in Nebraska,
+1834 to 1836. <i>In</i> Collections of the Kansas State Historical
+Society, 1909-10. Vol. XI. Topeka, 1910.</p></blockquote>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) Journal of. <i>In</i> Collections of the Kansas State Historical Society,
+1915-1918, Vol. XIV. Topeka, 1918.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dunraven, Earl of.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Great Divide: Travels in the Upper Yellowstone in the Summer
+of 1874. London, 1876.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fisk, J. L.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) North overland expedition for protection of emigrants from Fort
+Abercrombie to Fort Benton, 1862. Ex. Doc. No. 80, 37th Cong., 3d
+session. Washington, 1863.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fletcher, Alice C.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Grass Houses. <i>In</i> Handbook of American Indians, Bulletin 30,
+Bureau of American Ethnology, pt. 1. Washington, 1907.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fletcher, Alice C.</span>, and <span class="smcap">La Flesche, Francis</span>.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Omaha Tribe. <i>In</i> Twenty-seventh Annual Report Bureau of
+American Ethnology, 1905-1906. Washington, 1911.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fremont, J. C.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains in the
+year 1842, and to Oregon and North California in the years 1843-44.
+Washington, 1845.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gass, Patrick.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of the Voyage and Travels of a Corps of Discovery. Philadelphia,
+1811.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gilder, R. F.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Excavation of Earth-Lodge Ruins in Eastern Nebraska. <i>In</i> American
+Anthropologist, vol. 11, No. 1, Jan.-Mar. 1909.</p></blockquote>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) Archeology of the Ponca Creek District, Eastern Nebraska. <i>In</i>
+American Anthropologist, vol. 9, No. 4, Oct.-Dec. 1907.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gilfillan, J. A.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Ojibways in Minnesota. <i>In</i> Collections of the Minnesota Historical
+Society, Vol. IX. St. Paul, 1901.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gomara, F. L. de.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) <i>In</i> Hakluyt, Vol. III. London, 1600.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grant, Peter.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Sauteux Indians. <i>In</i> Masson (2).</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gregg, Josiah.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Commerce of the Prairies. New York, 1844. 2 vols.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grinnell, George Bird.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Early Cheyenne Villages. <i>In</i> American Anthropologist, vol. 20, No. 4,
+Oct.-Dec., 1918.</p></blockquote>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) The Fighting Cheyennes. New York, 1915.</p></blockquote>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(3) Blackfoot Lodge Tales. New York, 1892.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span><span class="smcap">Handbook of American Indians.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">Bulletin 30, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington. Part 1, 1907;
+Part 2, 1910.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Harmon, D. W.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) A Journal of Voyages and Travels in the Interiour of North America.
+Andover, 1820.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hayden, F. V.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Contributions to the Ethnography and Philology of the Indian
+Tribes of the Missouri Valley. <i>In</i> Transactions of the American
+Philosophical Society, Vol. XII. Philadelphia, 1862.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hendry, Anthony.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of ... 1754-1755. <i>In</i> Proceedings and Transactions of the
+Royal Society of Canada. Vol. I, Third series, 1907.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hennepin, Louis.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journey of 1680. <i>In</i> Shea (1).</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Henry, Alexander.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories, between
+the years 1760 and 1776. New York, 1809.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hildreth, James.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Dragoon Campaigns to the Rocky Mountains. New York, 1836.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hind, Henry Youle.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Narrative of the Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition of
+1857 and of the Assinniboine and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedition
+of 1858. London, 1860. 2 vols.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hoffman, Walter James.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Menomini Indians. <i>In</i> Fourteenth Annual Report Bureau of
+Ethnology. Washington, 1896.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hunter, John D.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Memoirs of a Captivity among the Indians of North America.
+London, 1823.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Irving, John T., Jr.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Indian Sketches, taken during an Expedition to the Pawnee Tribes.
+Philadelphia, 1836. 2 vols.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Irving, Washington.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) A Tour on the Prairies. New York, 1856.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">James, Edwin.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains,
+performed in the years 1819 and 1820. Philadelphia, 1823. 2 vols.</p></blockquote>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) A Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner ...
+during thirty years residence among the Indians. New York, 1830.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Joutel.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of his voyage to Mexico: His Travels Eight hundred
+Leagues through Forty Nations of Indians in Louisiana to Canada:
+His Account of the great River Missasipi. London, 1719.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Kane, Paul.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Wanderings of an Artist among the Indians of North America.
+London, 1859.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Keating, William H.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River ...
+under command of Stephen H. Long. Philadelphia, 1824. 2 vols.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">La Harpe, Bernard de.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal Historique de l'établissement des Francais a la Louisiane.
+Nouvelle-Orleans, 1831.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span><span class="smcap">Larocque, François Antoine.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of ... from the Assiniboine to the Yellowstone, 1805. Publications
+of the Canadian Archives, No. 3, Ottawa, 1910.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">La Verendrye.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of ... 1738-1739. <i>In</i> Report on Canadian Archives ...
+1889. Ottawa, 1890.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Le Raye, Charles.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of. <i>In</i> Cutler (1).</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lewis, M.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Clark, W.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) History of the Expedition under the command of Captains Lewis
+and Clark.... Prepared for the press by Paul Allen. Philadelphia,
+1814. 2 vols.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Libby, O. G.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Typical Villages of the Mandans, Arikara, and Hidatsa in the
+Missouri Valley, North Dakota. <i>In</i> Collections of the State Historical
+Society of North Dakota. Vol. II. Bismarck, 1908.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Long, Stephen H.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Voyage in a Six-Oared skiff to the Falls of Saint Anthony in 1817.
+<i>In</i> Collections Minnesota Historical Society, Vol. II, pt. 1. 1860.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>First Expedition. <i>See</i> James, Edwin. (1).</p>
+
+<p>Second Expedition. <i>See</i> Keating, W. H. (1).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ludlow, William.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Report of a Reconnaissance of the Black Hills of Dakota, made in
+the Summer of 1874. Washington, 1875.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mackenzie, Alexander.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Voyages from Montreal, on the River St. Laurence, through the
+Continent of North America, to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans, in
+the years 1789 and 1793. London, 1801.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mackenzie, Charles.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Mississouri Indians, a narrative of four trading expeditions to
+the Mississouri, 1804-1805-1806. <i>In</i> Masson (1).</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Marquette, Père Jacques.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journey of 1673. <i>In</i> Shea (2).</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Masson, L. R.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Les Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest. Premiere serie.
+Quebec, 1889.</p></blockquote>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) Les Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest. Deuxieme serie.
+Quebec, 1890.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Matthews, Washington.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Ethnography and Philology of the Hidatsa Indians. <i>In</i> Miscellaneous
+Publications, No. 7, United States Geological and Geographical
+Survey. Washington, 1877.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Maximilian, Prince of Wied.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Travels in the Interior of North America. London, 1843.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">McDonnell, John.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Red River. <i>In</i> Masson (1).</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">McKenney, Thomas L.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Sketches of a Tour to the Lakes. Baltimore, 1827.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mills, William C.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Explorations of the Baum Prehistoric Village Site. <i>In</i> Ohio Archaeological
+and Historical Quarterly, Vol. XV, No. 1. Columbus,
+1906.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span><span class="smcap">Möllhausen, Baldwin.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Diary of a Journey from the Mississippi to the Coasts of the Pacific.
+London, 1858. 2 vols.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Morehouse, George P.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) History of the Kansa or Kaw Indians. <i>In</i> Transactions of the
+Kansas State Historical Society, 1907-1908. Vol X. Topeka,
+1908.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Morse, Jedidiah.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) A Report to the Secretary of War of the United States, on Indian
+Affairs. New Haven, 1822.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Murray, Charles Augustus.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Travels in North America during the years 1834, 1835, and 1836.
+London, 1839. 2 vols.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Newton, Henry</span>, and <span class="smcap">Jenney, Walter P.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Report on the Geology and Resources of the Black Hills of Dakota.
+Washington, 1880.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Nuttall, Thomas.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) A Journal of Travels into the Arkansa Territory during the year
+1819. Philadelphia, 1821.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Palmer, Joel.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of Travels over the Rocky Mountains to the Mouth of the
+Columbia River ... 1845 and 1846. Cincinnati, 1847.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Parker, Samuel.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of an Exploring Tour Beyond the Rocky Mountains ... in
+the years 1835, 36, and 37. Ithaca, N. Y., 1842.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pike, Z. M.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi, and
+Through the Western Parts of Louisiana. Philadelphia, 1810.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plank, Pryor.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Iowa, Sac and Fox Indian Mission. <i>In</i> Transactions of the
+Kansas State Historical Society, 1907-1908. Vol. X. Topeka,
+1908.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Prescott, P.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Manners, Customs and Opinions of the Dacotahs. <i>In</i> Schoolcraft, (3), IV.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Radin, Paul.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Winnebago Tribe. <i>In</i> Thirty-seventh Annual Report of the
+Bureau of American Ethnology. Washington.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Raynolds, W. F.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Report on the Exploration of the Yellowstone River. Washington,
+1868.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Remsburg, G. J.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Isle au Vache. <i>In</i> Transactions of the Kansas State Historical Society,
+1903-1904. Vol. VIII. Topeka, 1904.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Riggs, Stephen R.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Dakota Portraits. <i>In</i> Minnesota Historical Society Bulletin, Vol.
+II, No. 8, Nov., 1918.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Saxton, Rufus.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal. <i>In</i> Reports of Explorations and Surveys to Ascertain the
+Most Practicable and Economical Route for a Railroad from the
+Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean ... 1853-1854. Vol. I.
+Washington, 1855.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span><span class="smcap">Schoolcraft, Henry R.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of a Tour into the Interior of Missouri and Arkansaw ...
+in the years 1818-1819. London, 1821.</p></blockquote>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) Narrative Journal of Travels ... in the year 1820. Albany, 1821.</p></blockquote>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(3) Information Respecting the History, Conditions and Prospects of the
+Indian Tribes of the United States. Philadelphia, 1851-1857. 6
+vols.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Seymour, E. S.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Sketches of Minnesota. New York, 1850.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shea, John Gilmary.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) A Description of Louisiana, by Father Louis Hennepin. New York,
+1880.</p></blockquote>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley. New York,
+1852.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sibley, John.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Historical Sketches of the Several Indian Tribes in Louisiana, south
+of the Arkansa River, and Between the Mississippi and River
+Grand. <i>In</i> American State Papers. Vol. IV. Washington, 1832.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Smet, P. J. de.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Letters and Sketches with a Narrative of a Year's Residence Among
+the Indian Tribes of the Rocky Mountains. Philadelphia, 1843.</p></blockquote>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) Oregon Missions and Travels over the Rocky Mountains, in 1845,
+'46. New York, 1847.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Spencer, Joab.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Kaw or Kansas Indians: Their Customs, Manners, and Folk-Lore.
+<i>In</i> Transactions of the Kansas State Historical Society,
+1907-1908. Vol. X. Topeka, 1908.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stanley, J. M.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Visit to the Piegan Camp. <i>In</i> Reports of Explorations and Surveys
+to Ascertain the Most Practicable and Economical Route for a
+Railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean ... 1853-1854.
+Vol. 1. Washington, 1855.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stansbury, Howard.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) An Expedition to the Valley of the Great Salt Lake of Utah. Philadelphia,
+1855.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stoddard, Amos.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Sketches ... of Louisiana. Philadelphia, 1812.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stuart, James.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Yellowstone Expedition of 1863. <i>In</i> Contributions to the Historical
+Society of Montana. Vol. I. Helena, 1876.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tanner, John.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Narrative of the Captivity of. <i>See</i> James, Edwin. (2).</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Townsend, John K.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Narrative of a Journey Across the Rocky Mountains. Philadelphia,
+1839.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Trudeau.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of ... 1794-1795. <i>In</i> South Dakota Historical Collections.
+Vol. VII, 1914. Pierre, S. D.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Warren, G. K.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Explorations in the Dacota Country, in the Year 1855. Washington,
+1856.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span><span class="smcap">Whipple, A. W.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Itinerary. <i>In</i> Reports of Explorations and Surveys to Ascertain the
+Most Practicable and Economical Route for a Railroad from the
+Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean ... 1853-1854. Vol. III.
+Washington, 1856.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Winship, George P.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Coronado Expedition, 1540-1542. <i>In</i> Fourteenth Annual Report
+Bureau of Ethnology. Pt. 1. Washington, 1896.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span></p>
+<h2>SYNONYMY</h2>
+
+
+<p>
+Accancea=Quapaw.<br />
+Ahnahaways=Amahami.<br />
+Alkansa=Quapaw.<br />
+Archithinue=Blackfeet.<br />
+Aricaree, Arickarees, Arikkaras=Arikara.<br />
+Arkansa=Quapaw.<br />
+Arwacahwas=Amahami.<br />
+Asinepoet, Assinneboins=Assiniboin.<br />
+Assonis=Caddo.<br />
+Awachawi=Amahami.<br />
+Big-bellied Indians=Atsina.<br />
+Big Bellys=Hidatsa.<br />
+Canzee=Kansa.<br />
+Cenis=Caddo.<br />
+Chayennes=Cheyenne.<br />
+Chepewyans=Chipewyan.<br />
+Chippeway=Chippewa.<br />
+Cristinaux=Cree.<br />
+Dacotahs=Dakota.<br />
+Fall Indians=Atsina.<br />
+Grosventre Indians, Grosventres, Gros Ventres of the Missouri=Hidatsa.<br />
+Gros Ventres of the Prairie=Atsina.<br />
+Huecos=Waco.<br />
+Kansas, Kanzas, Kaws=Kansa.<br />
+Knistenaux, Knisteneaux=Cree.<br />
+Konsee, Konza, Konzas=Kansa.<br />
+Machigamea=Michigamea.<br />
+Maha=Omaha.<br />
+Manitaries, Minatarres, Minnetarees=Hidatsa.<br />
+Minnetarees of Fort de Prairie=Atsina.<br />
+Naudowessies=Dakota.<br />
+Nehetheway=Cree.<br />
+Ogallallaha=Oglala.<br />
+Ojibway=Chippewa.<br />
+Omawhaw=Omaha.<br />
+Osinipoilles=Assiniboin.<br />
+Otoes, Ottoes=Oto.<br />
+Ougapa=Quapaw.<br />
+Pay-gans, Picaneaux, Piekann=Piegan.<br />
+Poncara, Punca, Punka=Ponca.<br />
+Quappa=Quapaw.<br />
+Quivira=Wichita.<br />
+Rapid Indians=Atsina.<br />
+Ree, Ricaras, Riccaree, Rickarees, Rus=Arikara.<br />
+Sak=Sauk.<br />
+Sarsees=Sarsi.<br />
+Saulteaux, Sautaux, Sauteaux, Sauteux=Chippewa.<br />
+Sharha=Cheyenne.<br />
+Shoe Indians=Amahami.<br />
+Shoshonees=Shoshoni.<br />
+Soulier Noir=Amahami.<br />
+Stone Indians=Assiniboin.<br />
+Sur-cees=Sarsi.<br />
+Upsaroka=Crows.<br />
+Waekoes, Wakos=Waco.<br />
+Wattasoons=Amahami.<br />
+Witchita=Wichita.<br />
+Yanctonies=Yanktonai.<br />
+Yanctons=Yankton.<br />
+</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p>
+<h2>EXPLANATION OF PLATES</h2>
+
+
+<p>The art of photography has made it possible to preserve a pictorial record of
+the dwellings and other structures of native tribes beyond the Mississippi, and
+many early photographs, together with drawings and paintings by various
+artists, have been selected to illustrate the present work.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 1</h4>
+
+<p>One of the original drawings by Griset reproduced by woodcuts in Col. R. I.
+Dodge's work <i>The Plains of the Great West</i>, 1877. The reproduction is now
+made exact size of the original. Collection of David I. Bushnell, jr.</p>
+
+<p>Ernest Henry Griset, born in France, 1844; died March 22, 1907. Lived in
+England, where he did much of his work. In 1871 he exhibited at Suffolk
+Street. Some of his paintings are hung in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
+More than 30 examples of his work belong to the Smithsonian Institution, Washington.
+"His reputation rests on his water-color studies of animals, for which
+he was awarded prizes in London. Two of his best-known works are <i>Cache-cache</i>,
+and <i>Travailleurs de la fôret</i>."</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 2</h4>
+
+<p>Reproduction of one of the five paintings by Stanley now in the United States
+National Museum, Washington, D. C.</p>
+
+<p>James M. Stanley, born in Canandaigua, New York, January 17, 1814; died
+April 10, 1872. He moved to Michigan in 1835 and became a portrait painter
+in Detroit; two years later removed to Chicago. About this time he visited
+the "Indian Country" in the vicinity of Fort Snelling, and there made many
+sketches. Returned to the eastern cities, where he spent several years, but in
+1842 again went west and began his wanderings over the prairies far beyond
+the Mississippi, reaching Texas and New Mexico. His <i>Buffalo Hunt on the
+Southwestern Prairies</i> was made in 1845. From 1851 to 1863 Stanley lived in
+Washington, D. C., during which time he endeavored to have the Government
+purchase the many paintings which he had made of Indians and of scenes in
+the Indian country, but unfortunately he was not successful. His pictures
+were hanging in the Smithsonian Building, and on January 24, 1865, when a
+large part of the building was ruined by fire, only five of his pictures escaped
+destruction, they being in a different part of the structure. The five are now
+in the National Museum, including the large canvas shown in this plate.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 3</h4>
+
+<p>This is considered to be one of Wimar's best works. The original is owned
+by the City Art Museum, St. Louis, Missouri. Size of canvas, 36 inches high,
+60 inches long.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Ferdinand Wimar, usually known as Carl Wimar, was born in
+Germany, 1828; died in St. Louis, November, 1862. Came to America and
+settled in St. Louis during the year 1843. A few years later he met the
+French artist Leon de Pomarede, with whom he later studied and made several
+journeys up the Missouri for the purpose of sketching. Went to Europe and
+returned to St. Louis about 1857. His <i>Buffalo Hunt</i>, now reproduced, was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+painted in 1860, exhibited at the St. Louis Fair during the autumn of that
+year, when it was seen by the Prince of Wales, later Edward VII, for whom
+a replica was made.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 4</h4>
+
+<p>One of four water-color sketches by Peter Rindisbacher secured in London
+some years ago. Size of original 9<small><sup>1</sup></small>&frasl;<small><sub>4</sub></small> inches high, 17<small><sup>1</sup></small>&frasl;<small><sub>8</sub></small>
+inches long. Collection
+of David I. Bushnell, jr. Twenty or more similar sketches are in the library
+of the Military Academy, West Point. One of these was used as an illustration
+by McKenney and Hall in their great work; the second used by them is in a
+private collection in Washington. Another of the pictures now at West Point
+was reproduced by wood cut and appeared on page 181 of Burton's Gentleman's
+Magazine, Philadelphia, April, 1840. Rindisbacher may have come to America
+with the Swiss colonists who settled in the Red River Valley in 1821, and in
+the Public Archives of Canada are six small sketches which were probably
+made by him at that time. (See pl. <a href="#Plate_6">6</a>, <i>a</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 5</h4>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> A scene near Fort Carlton, 1846, showing buffalo approaching a pound.
+Reproduction of a photograph of the painting by Kane, now in the Royal Ontario
+Museum of Archaeology, Toronto, Canada. Size of painting, 18 inches
+high, 29 inches long.</p>
+
+<p>Paul Kane, born at York, the present city of Toronto, 1810; died 1871. After
+spending several years in the United States he went to Europe, where he
+studied in various art centers. Returned to Canada, and from early in 1845
+until the autumn of 1848 traveled among the native tribes of the far west,
+making a large number of paintings of Indians and scenes in the Indian
+country. One hundred or more of his paintings are in the Museum at Toronto;
+others are in the Public Archives of Canada, Ottawa. Some of the sketches and
+paintings were reproduced in his work <i>Wanderings of an Artist</i>, London,
+1859.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Reproduction of a photograph, probably made in the upper Missouri Valley
+about 1870.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 6</h4>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> Reproduction of a water-color sketch now in the collection in Public
+Archives of Canada, Ottawa. It is one of six small sketches "by an artist,
+probably Swiss, who accompanied the European emigrants brought by Lord Selkirk's
+agents to the Red River Settlement in 1821." Size of original, 5<small><sup>5</sup></small>&frasl;<small><sub>8</sub></small>
+inches
+high, 7<small><sup>5</sup></small>&frasl;<small><sub>8</sub></small>
+ inches long. Although not signed it suggests and resembles the work
+of Peter Rindisbacher. (See note, pl. 4.)</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Reproduced from an original photograph furnished by the Minnesota Historical
+Society, St. Paul.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 7</h4>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> Reproduction of a photograph of a painting by Kane, now in the Museum
+at Toronto. Size of original, 18 inches high, 29 inches long. (See note, pl. 5, <i>a</i>.)
+This was engraved and shown on page 7 of his work <i>Wanderings of an Artist</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Reproduced from an original photograph made near the Red River during
+the summer of 1858 by Humphrey Lloyd Hime, who was photographer with the
+expedition led by Henry Youle Hind.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 8</h4>
+
+<p><i>a</i> and <i>b</i>. Same as <i>b</i>, plate 7. Original photographs are in the Bureau of
+American Ethnology.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 9</h4>
+
+<p>Both <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> are from original photographs belonging to the Minnesota Historical
+Society, St. Paul. The two small prints are mounted on similar cards,
+that of <i>b</i> bearing the name of C. A. Zimmerman, photographer. The name has
+been cut from <i>a</i>. Both are attributed to Zimmerman, who, in 1869, purchased
+the studio of Whitney, which had been established some years. The negatives
+may have been made by Whitney, and although the prints are catalogued as
+Ojibway habitations, nevertheless <i>a</i> resembles more closely the Siouan type,
+with an arbor over the entrance, and the photograph may have been made in a
+Sioux village. The dwellings are quite similar to the Winnebago structure
+shown in plate <a href="#Plate_36">36</a>, <i>a</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Alfred Zimmerman was born in Strassburg, Alsace, June 21, 1844;
+died in St. Paul, Minnesota, September 23, 1909.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 10</h4>
+
+<p>Reproductions of original photographs by David I. Bushnell, jr. October,
+1899.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 11</h4>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> This small log structure stood near the southeastern shore of Cass Lake,
+Minnesota. Several Ojibway Indians are in the picture. Original photograph
+by David I. Bushnell, jr. November, 1899.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> The old Ojibway medicine man, Nagwanabe, a name well known in Ojibway
+annals, is shown holding a club of unusual design which he said he took
+from a Sioux warrior many years ago, during a fight between some of his people
+and members of that tribe. Original photograph by David I. Bushnell, jr.
+1900.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 12</h4>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> Objects collected among the Ojibway. At top, a hammer formed of a
+section of a small tree with part of a branch cut to serve as a handle. Used in
+driving plugs in maple trees during the season of sugar making. Mille Lac,
+May, 1900. Bag braided of narrow strips of cedar bark. Size about 9&frac12; inches
+square. From the Ojibway settlement on shore of Basswood Lake, north of
+Ely, Lake County, Minnesota, October, 1899. Two tools used in dressing skins.
+Formed of leg bones of moose, beveled and serrated. Length of example on
+right, 15 inches. Cass Lake, Minnesota, 1898.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Section of rush mat.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 13</h4>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> Wooden mortar and pestle collected among the Ojibway. Length of pestle
+about 37&frac12; inches. Reproduced from Fourteenth Annual Report Bureau of
+Ethnology, part 1, p. 257.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Mortar and pestle collected among the Delaware by Dr. E. Palmer and
+acquired by the National Museum November 11, 1868. Length of pestle 33&frac12;
+inches. Diameter of mortar 7&frac12; inches, height 15 inches. (U. S. N. M. 6900.)</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> Birch-bark dish, type used extensively by the Ojibway and other northern
+tribes. Reproduced from Nineteenth Annual Report Bureau of American
+Ethnology, part 2, Pl. LXXIX.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 14</h4>
+
+<p>Reproduced from an original negative now in the Bureau of American
+Ethnology.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 15</h4>
+
+<p>Reproduced from the engraving of the painting by Bodmer, as used by
+Maximilian.</p>
+
+<p>Karl Bodmer, born in Zurich, Switzerland, 1805; died 1894. Studied under
+Cornu. He accompanied Maximilian, Prince of Wied, on several journeys,
+including that up the Valley of the Missouri. Many of his original sketches
+made during that memorable trip are now in the Edward E. Ayer collection,
+Newberry Library, Chicago. His later works are chiefly of wooded landscapes,
+some being scenes in the valleys of the Missouri and Mississippi. Bodmer was
+a very close friend of the great artist Jean François Millet. De Cost Smith,
+in Century Magazine, May, 1910, discussing the close association of the two
+artists, and referring especially to their joint work, wrote: "The two men must
+have worked together from the pure joy of friendship, for it must be confessed
+that the work of neither was very greatly improved by the other's additions.
+Bodmer would put a horse into one of Millet's Indian pictures and
+add some vegetation in the foreground, Millet would return the favor by introducing
+figures into Bodmer's landscapes." But this does not refer to the
+sketches made by Bodmer during his journey up the Missouri in 1833.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 16</h4>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> Reproduction of a wood cut on page 420 of <i>Wanderings of an Artist</i>.
+The original painting by Kane is now in the Royal Ontario Museum of
+Archaeology, Toronto, being No. 51 in the catalogue. Size of painting, 18
+inches high, 29 inches long. (See note, pl. 5, <i>a</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> The original photograph from which this illustration is made is in
+the collection of the United States National Museum, Washington, D. C. It is
+not known by whom the negative was made.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 17</h4>
+
+<p>Reproduced from the engraving of the original painting by Bodmer, as used
+by Maximilian. (See note, pl. 15.)</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 18</h4>
+
+<p>Both <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> are reproductions of photographs furnished by the State Historical
+Society of Iowa.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 19</h4>
+
+<p>Reproduction of an original photograph in a scrapbook, which contains many
+manuscript notes, news clippings, etc., prepared by Newton H. Chittenden.
+The book is now in the Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D. C.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 20</h4>
+
+<p>From original photographs by David I. Bushnell, jr. 1900.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 21</h4>
+
+<p>Reproduction of an original pencil sketch of the Sioux village of Kaposia,
+made June 19, 1851, by F. B. Mayer. The drawing is now in the Edward
+E. Ayer collection, Newberry Library, Chicago.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>Frank Blackwell Mayer, born in Baltimore, Maryland, December 27, 1827;
+died in 1908. Many of his paintings represented scenes in Indian life, and in
+1886 he completed a canvas entitled <i>The Treaty of Traverse des Sioux</i>, the
+treaty having been signed during the summer of 1851, about the time the
+sketch of Kaposia was made.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 22</h4>
+
+<p>Both <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> are reproduced from engravings of paintings by Eastman,
+used by Schoolcraft in <i>Information respecting the History, Conditions, and
+Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States, 1851-1857</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Seth Eastman, born in Brunswick, Maine, January 24, 1808; died in Washington,
+D. C., August 31, 1875. Was appointed to the Military Academy, West
+Point, at the age of 16, and was graduated June, 1829. Served at Fort Crawford
+and Fort Snelling, where he had ample opportunities for studying the
+Indians who frequented the posts. In November, 1831, he was detailed for
+duty at the Academy and retired from active service December, 1863. From
+1850 to 1855 he was engaged in the preparation of the illustrations used in
+the work mentioned above, evidently under the supervision of the Commissioner
+of Indian Affairs.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 23</h4>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> Reproduction of a drawing made by Catlin of one of his oil sketches. The
+original painting is now in the United States National Museum, Washington, D. C.</p>
+
+<p>George Catlin, born in Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania, 1796; died in Jersey City,
+New Jersey, December 23, 1872. In the year 1832 he went to the then far west,
+and during the succeeding eight years traveled among numerous native tribes,
+making many paintings portraying the life and customs of the people. He
+went to Europe, taking with him his great collection of pictures and objects obtained
+from the Indians among whom he had been for so long a time. One
+hundred and twenty-six of his pictures were shown at the Centennial Exposition,
+Philadelphia, 1876, and now more than 500 of his works, portraits and
+scenes are preserved in the National Museum, forming a collection of inestimable
+value and interest.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Fort Pierre, after sketch by Kurz, July 4, 1851.</p>
+
+<p>Friedrich Kurz, born in Bern, Switzerland, 1818; died 1871. At the suggestion
+of his friend Karl Bodmer, he came to America in 1846, for the purpose of
+studying the native tribes, intending to prepare a well-illustrated account of
+his travels. He landed at New Orleans and reached St. Louis by way of the
+Mississippi. The trouble with Mexico had developed, and for that reason instead
+of going to the Southwest, to endeavor to accomplish among the tribes of
+that region what Bodmer had already done among the people of the Upper
+Missouri Valley, he decided to follow the route of the latter and ascend the
+Missouri to the Rocky Mountains. But although his plans were changed he
+did not become discouraged, and on October 28, 1851, entered in his journal:
+"My plan is still for the gallery.... I shall have lots of correct drawings."
+Cholera raged along the upper Missouri in 1851, and for that reason Kurz was
+unable to remain at Fort Pierre. However, he reached Fort Berthold July 9,
+1851. Later he continued to Fort Union at the mouth of the Yellowstone,
+where he remained until April 19, 1852. Returning, he reached St. Louis May
+25, thus covering the distance from the mouth of the Yellowstone in five weeks
+and one day. He arrived in Bern during September of that year and was soon
+appointed drawing master in the schools of his native city, a position which
+he held until his death.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>During the winter of 1851-52, while Kurz was at Fort Union, a German
+artist of some ability was with the Oto and Omaha near the banks of the
+Missouri. H. Baldwin Möllhausen, late in the autumn of 1851, became lost on
+the frozen, snow-covered prairies south of the Platte, and was rescued by a
+family of Oto encamped on the bank of a small stream. He remained with
+the Oto and later returned with them to their village near the mouth of the
+Platte. From the Oto village he went up the Missouri to the Omaha, with whom
+he stayed some weeks. While with the two tribes he made many sketches of
+the Indians and scenes depicting the ways of life of the people. When he returned
+to his home in Berlin he carried with him the collection of drawings,
+and these, if found at the present time, would probably prove of much interest.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 24</h4>
+
+<p>Both <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> are reproductions of photographs made in the vicinity of Fort
+Laramie in 1868, during the visit of the Indian Peace Commission. The commission
+was composed of a number of Army officers who went among many of
+the Plains tribes for the purpose of gaining their friendship for the Government.
+From original prints in the possession of Mrs. N. H. Beauregard, St.
+Louis. The name of the photographer is not known.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> From the engraving of the original picture by Bodmer, as used by Maximilian. (See note, pl. 15.)</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 25</h4>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> Reproduced from a photograph of the original painting by Kane, now in
+the Royal Ontario Museum of Archaeology, Toronto. Rocky Mountain Fort in
+the distance on the right. No. 57 in the catalogue. Size of picture, 18 inches
+high, 29 inches long. (See note, pl. 5, <i>a</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> From a photograph of a water-color sketch by Kurz. (See note, pl. 23, <i>b</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 26</h4>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> From an original negative now in the Bureau of American Ethnology,
+made by Jackson in 1871. It was probably made at the Omaha village shown
+in plate 27.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> A page of Kurz's sketchbook. (See note, pl. 23, <i>b</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27</h4>
+
+<p>Omaha village, from an original negative made by Jackson in 1871 and now
+in the Bureau of American Ethnology. According to La Flesche, "The location
+of the Omaha village can best be described as in the southwest quarter
+of Section 30, Township 25, Range 10, in the extreme eastern border of
+Thurston County, Nebraska. The land was allotted in 1883 to Pe-de-ga-hi,
+one of the Omaha chiefs. It is about three-quarters of a mile west of the
+historic site known as Blackbird Hill, on which the great medicine man Blackbird
+was buried."</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 28</h4>
+
+<p>Both <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> represent pages in Kurz's sketchbook. (See note, pl. 23, <i>b</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 29</h4>
+
+<p>Reproduced from the engraving of Bodmer's painting, as illustrated by
+Maximilian. (See note, pl. 15.)</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 30</h4>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> Reproduction of the illustration in De Smet's work, where the picture is
+signed <i>Geo. Lehman, del.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Reproduced from the engraving after a drawing by Samuel Seymour.</p>
+
+<p>In the instructions issued to members of the expedition, dated "Pittsburgh,
+March 31, 1819," Major Long stated: "Mr. Seymour, as painter for the expedition,
+will furnish sketches of landscapes, whenever we meet with any distinguished
+for their beauty and grandeur. He will also paint miniature likenesses,
+or portraits if required, of distinguished Indians, and exhibit groups
+of savages engaged in celebrating their festivals or sitting in council, and in
+general illustrate any subject, that may be deemed appropriate in his art."</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 31</h4>
+
+<p>Reproduced from a photograph in the Chittenden scrapbook. (See note,
+pl. 19.)</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 32</h4>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> From an original photograph furnished by Francis La Flesche.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Reproduced from an illustration in Transactions of the Kansas State Historical
+Society, 1907-1908, Vol. X. Topeka, 1908.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 33</h4>
+
+<p>Reproduced from an engraving of the original drawing by Samuel Seymour.
+(See note, pl. 30, <i>b</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 34</h4>
+
+<p>Specimens in the United States National Museum.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 35</h4>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> After original drawing by Friedrich Kurz. (See note, pl. 23, <i>b</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Photograph of specimen now in the United States National Museum.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 36</h4>
+
+<p>Both <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> are reproduced from original photographs in the United States
+National Museum, Washington. It is not known by whom the negatives were
+made.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 37</h4>
+
+<p>From a photograph made about the year 1900, furnished by Miss Alice C.
+Fletcher. The structures stood near the bank of the Missouri, north of the
+Omahas. The photograph was reproduced as plate 18 in the Twenty-seventh
+Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 38</h4>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> From the drawing by Catlin of the original painting. This is No. 503
+in Catlin's Catalogue (London, 1848), where it is described as "The Interior
+of a Mandan Lodge, showing the manner in which it is constructed of poles
+and covered with dirt. The chief is seen smoking his pipe, and his family
+grouped around him."</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> After the original painting in the National Museum, Washington. This is
+the fourth and last of Catlin's paintings representing different scenes during
+the remarkable ceremony by the Mandan. No. 507 in the Catalogue, where it
+is referred to as "The Last Race."</p>
+
+<p>George Catlin. (See note, pl. 23, <i>a</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 39</h4>
+
+<p>From the engraving of Bodmer's painting used by Maximilian. (See note,
+pl. 15.)</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 40</h4>
+
+<p>Reproduced from the engraving of Bodmer's painting as used by Maximilian.
+(See note, pl. 15.)</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 41</h4>
+
+<p>Two wooden bowls and a pottery vessel collected among the Mandan. Specimens
+in the United States National Museum.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 42</h4>
+
+<p>Examples of spoons, one made of a buffalo horn, the other formed from a
+horn of a mountain sheep, now in the United States National Museum.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 43</h4>
+
+<p>Reproduction of the original painting by Catlin, now in the United States
+National Museum, Washington. It is No. 383 in Catlin's Catalogue, described
+as "Minatarree Village, earth-covered lodges, on Knife River, 1,810 miles above
+St. Louis."</p>
+
+<p>George Catlin. (See note, pl. 23, <i>a</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 44</h4>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> Original pencil sketch by Bodmer of the finished picture shown in <i>b</i>. The
+sketch is now in the Edward E. Ayer collection, Newberry Library, Chicago.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Reproduction of a photograph of the engraving as used by Maximilian.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 45</h4>
+
+<p>After original sketches by Friedrich Kurz. (See note, pl. 23, <i>b</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 46</h4>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> Reproduction of the original painting by Catlin, now in the United States
+National Museum, Washington. It is mentioned as No. 491 in Catlin's Catalogue
+and described as a "Crow Lodge, of twenty-five buffalo-skins." A drawing
+made from the painting appeared as plate 20 in Vol. I of Catlin's work.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> From the original negative by Jackson now in the Bureau of American
+Ethnology.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 47</h4>
+
+<p>A rather crude woodcut, made from this photograph, was used in Dunraven's
+book, <i>The Great Divide</i>. Unfortunately it is not known when or by whom this
+most interesting negative was made, but it was probably the work of J. D.
+Hutton, a member of the Raynolds party during the exploration of the Yellowstone
+Valley, 1859-1860. Although the Raynolds journal is in the War Department
+in Washington, there is no record or list of the photographs, many of
+which are known to have been made during the journey. A number of Hutton's
+photographs were reproduced by Hayden in his work <i>Contributions to the
+Ethnography and Philology of the Indian Tribes of the Missouri Valley</i>, Philadelphia,
+1862.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span></p>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 48</h4>
+
+<p>A page from Kurz's sketchbook, carried by him during his travels through
+the Upper Missouri Valley. This shows several traders approaching Fort
+Union and a herd of buffalo in the distance on the right. (See note, pl. 23, <i>b</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 49</h4>
+
+<p>Two negatives were made by Jackson, evidently without moving the camera.
+One was reproduced in Bulletin 69 of this Bureau's publications; the second
+is now shown. The first negative now belongs to the Bureau, but the present
+plate is a reproduction of a photograph furnished by the Peabody Museum,
+Harvard University.</p>
+
+<p>Concerning the photographs now reproduced in plates 49, 50, and 51, Mr.
+W. H. Jackson, now of Detroit, wrote to the Bureau, April 28, 1921, and said
+in part: "Negatives to which you refer, viz, of Pawnee village scenes, were
+made by myself in 1871 on my return from the first Yellowstone expedition
+of the Survey, this trip also including a visit to the Omaha Agency."</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 50</h4>
+
+<p>Earth lodges standing in the Pawnee village. From original negative by
+W. H. Jackson, 1871. Negative now in the Bureau of American Ethnology.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 51</h4>
+
+<p>Views in the Pawnee village, after photographs by Jackson, 1871. Original
+photographs belonging to the Bureau of American Ethnology.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 52</h4>
+
+<p>Specimens in the United States National Museum.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 53</h4>
+
+<p>Reproduction of a photograph of the original painting by Catlin, now in the
+United States National Museum. It is No. 386 in Catlin's Catalogue, described
+as "Riccaree Village, with earth-covered lodges, 1,600 miles above St. Louis."</p>
+
+<p>George Catlin. (See note, pl. 23, <i>a</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 54</h4>
+
+<p>Specimens in the United States National Museum.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 55</h4>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> From a photograph in the Chittenden scrapbook. (See note, pl. 19.)</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> After a photograph in the collection of the United States National
+Museum.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+<div>
+<span class="smcap">Accancea</span>. <i>See</i> Quapaw.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Agriculture</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among Sauk and Foxes, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Arikara, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Osage, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Algonquian family</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristics of villages of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">general movement of groups of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">groups comprising western division of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">largest north of Mexico, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">villages of, described, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Al-le-ga-wa-ho's village</span>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Allen, J.A.</span>, book by, on the buffalo, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Allouez, Père</span>, mission conducted by, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Amahami</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">once united with the Hidatsa and Crow, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">village of, on Knife River, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">American Fur Company</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">post of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trade of, with Sioux, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Animals</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">domestic, lack of, among the Iowa, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">domestic, of the Kansa, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Dakota country, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Buffalo, Dogs, Game.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Arapaho</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">an Algonquian group, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-<a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitations of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Arapaho village</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Fremont, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-<a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">photograph of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Arbor entrance</span>, a Siouan feature, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Archithinue natives</span>, name applied to Blackfeet, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Arikara</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a Caddoan group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">encampments of, visited by Lewis and Clark, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hostility of, to whites, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mandan village occupied by, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migration of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>-<a href="#Page_170">170</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pottery of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settlement of, near Fort Berthold, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">skilled agriculturists, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">warfare of, with Sioux, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Akikara villages</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Brackenridge, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Bradbury, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Maximilian, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Missouri, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sites of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>-<a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketched by Catlin, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ark of the first man</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Arkansa</span>. <i>See</i> Quapaw.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Arkansas band</span>, a division of the Osage, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Assiniboin</span>, a Missouri River steamboat, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trip of, to the Yellowstone River, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Assiniboin tribe</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">alliance of, with Cree, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">camp of, described by Maximilian, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>-<a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">location and number of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Dakota-Assiniboin group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the march, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relation of, to other tribes, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">separated from Yanktonai, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">structures of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>-<a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Cree, at Mandan village, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Assiniboin village</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">size of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">movement of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Atsina</span>, a division of the Arapaho, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">allied with tribes of the Blackfeet confederacy, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fortified camps of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorporated with the Assiniboin, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">various names for, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Atsina village</span>, described by Maximilian, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Avenue</span>, pottery on site of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Awachawi</span>, an Hidatsa village, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Awatichay</span>, an Hidatsa village, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ayauways</span>, excursions of, against the Osage, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Bark-covered lodges</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as summer habitations, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as winter habitations, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">employed in timber country, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>-<a href="#Page_185">185</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">erected by the Dakota, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Kansa, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Mdewakanton, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Ojibway, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>-<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Osage, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Oto, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Quapaw, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Sauk and Foxes, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Basketry</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Arikara, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Osage, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Beauregard, Mrs. N.H.</span>, copy by, of manuscript, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Beds</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Caddo, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Kansa, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Bellevue</span>, a trading post on the Missouri, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Big-bellied Indians</span>. <i>See</i> Atsina.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Big Kaw</span>, an Oto Indian, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Big Knives</span>, Kansa name for the whites, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Big Track</span>, an Osage chief, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Birch bark structures</span>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>-<a href="#Page_13">13</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Bark-covered lodges.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Blackfeet confederacy</span>, tribes composing, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Blackfeet Indians</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">camps of, described by Maximilian, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ceremonial lodges of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country inhabited by, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">descriptions of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-<a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">manner of living, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">warlike nature of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war party of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Siksika.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Black Hawk</span>, birthplace of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Black Hills</span>, no permanent Indian settlement in, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Blood Indians</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Kainah.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Bodmer</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">painting by, of Atsina village, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">painting by, of chief's lodge, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">painting by, of Mandan village, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">drawing by, of tipis, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketch by, in Newberry Library, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Bowls, wooden</span>, of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Bradbury</span>, visit of, to Omaha village, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Brulés</span>, a Teton band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Brush shelters of the Assiniboin</span>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Buffalo</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arikara offering to, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hunting of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>-<a href="#Page_7">7</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">importance of, to the Indian, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>-<a href="#Page_4">4</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manner of traveling, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Buffalo Hunt</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Fremont, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>-<a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Oglala, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Buffalo pounds</span>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>-<a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of, by Blackfeet, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Buffalo skulls</span>, a charm to entice buffaloes, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>-<a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Buffalo Society</span>, Omaha, dance given by, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Buffalo trails</span>, followed by Indians, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Bull-boat</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristic of upper Missouri, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Hidatsa, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>-<a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Burials</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Omaha, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oto, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">scaffold, mention of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Caches</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Fletcher and La Flesche, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Matthews, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exposed by railroad cut, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for storage of corn, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Omaha, described by Gilden, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on elevated stage, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Caddo</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a tribe of the Caddoan family, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Joutel, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>-<a href="#Page_183">183</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Caddoan family</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">confederacies of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earth lodge characteristic of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>-<a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">general movement of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tribes composing, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Cahokia tribe</span>, village of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Cannon River</span>, village near mouth of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Canoes</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">birch-bark, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>-<a href="#Page_16">16</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made of buffalo skins, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Arikara, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Hidatsa, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oto, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Bull-boat.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Cappa</span>, a Quapaw village, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Castañeda</span>, thatched houses mentioned by, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Catlin, George</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among the Mandan, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among the Teton, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arikara village sketched by, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">collection of paintings by, in National Museum, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrect drawings by, of earth lodges, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian portraits painted by, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ojibway camp described by, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Caves</span>, in the Ozarks, occupied by Indians, <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ceremonial lodge</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Crows, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Hidatsa, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Ojibway, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Quapaw, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Sun dance, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Medicine lodge.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ceremonial shelter</span>, temporary, of the Cree and Ojibway, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>-<a href="#Page_19">19</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ceremonies</span>, Arikara, in medicine lodge, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Chatique</span>, an Assiniboin chief, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Chaui</span>, a tribe of the Pawnee confederacy, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Cherokees</span>, migration of remnant of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Cheyenne Indians</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">an Algonquian group, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Lewis and Clark, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Arapaho village, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lodges of, for special purposes, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lodges of, like Pawnee, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">territory occupied by, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">various habitations of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Cheyenne village sites</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Grinnell, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>-<a href="#Page_23">23</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mentioned by Lewis and Clark, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Chiefs</span>, decorations on lodges of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Childs Point</span>, ruins on, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Chippeway</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of, with Sioux, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Ojibway.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Chiwere group of Siouan tribes</span>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitations of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tribes composing, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Choctaw</span>, temporary village of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Cholera among the Oglala</span>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Chote</span>, town house at, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Circles</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of earth, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of stone, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Clarmont</span>, French name of Osage chief, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Clothing</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made of buffalo hides, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Kansa, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Club</span>, wooden, of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Cocking, Matthew</span>, journey of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-<a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Colbert</span>, first name of Mississippi River, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Corn</span>, cultivation of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Coronado expedition</span>, thatched houses seen by, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Council Bluffs</span>, origin of the name, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Council house</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Kansa, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>-<a href="#Page_93">93</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Ojibway, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Oto, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Teton, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cree Indians</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitations of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>-<a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">language of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">related to Ojibway, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">loving disposition of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">territory inhabited by, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Assiniboin at Mandan village, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Knistenaux.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Crow Indians</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a tribe of the Hidatsa group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrangement of camps of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ceremonial lodge of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>-<a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country inhabited by, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_153">153</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Larocque, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lodges of, described, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_154">154</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">separation of, from the Hidatsa, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wandering habits of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Custer, General</span>, mention of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Customs</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Blackfeet, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-<a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Cree, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>-<a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Ojibway, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>-<a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Omaha, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-<a href="#Page_87">87</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Osage, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Pawnee, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>-<a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Sauk and Foxes, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Teton, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>-<a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Wahpeton, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Yanktonai, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Dakota-Assiniboin group</span>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitations of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>-<a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tribes composing, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Dance</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Teton, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Dog dance, Sacred dance, Sun dance, War dance.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">De Smet, Father</span>, at the Kansa villages, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Decoration of lodges</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>-<a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Delaware Indians</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abandoned settlement of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>-<a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">log cabins built by, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migration of remnant of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Dhegiha group</span>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migration of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Dodge, Col. R. I.</span>, with expedition into Black Hills, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Dog dance of the Kansa</span>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Dog feast</span>, painting of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Dog travois</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>-<a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Dogs</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as a sacrifice, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as beasts of burden, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as food, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as sacred animals, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of, for transportation, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Dog travois.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Dorsey, J. O.</span>, Omaha structures described by, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Douay, Père Anastasius</span>, Quapaw villages mentioned by, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Dwellings</span>. <i>See</i> Lodges, Tipi, Wigwam.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Earth circles</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">explanations of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">noticed by Maximilian, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Earth lodge</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arikara, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristic of Missouri River tribes, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cheyenne, no pictures of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">erected by Caddoan tribes, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gros Ventres, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hidatsa, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interior of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-<a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mandan, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">most accurate drawing of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not in tribal circle, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Omaha, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>-<a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>-<a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oto, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pawnee, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-<a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suggestive of Creek and Cherokee council house, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used by Dhegiha group, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Earthenware</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Ozark country, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Pottery.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Earthworks</span>, attributed to Dhegiha group, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Eastman, Capt.</span>, painting by, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Elah-Sa</span>, an Hidatsa village, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ellsworth, H. L.</span>, expedition led by, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>-<a href="#Page_161">161</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Elm bark</span>, structures of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Bark-covered lodges.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Engineer Cantonment</span>, winter quarters of Long expedition, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Entrance</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to earth lodge, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to Winnebago dwelling, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Environment</span>, influence of&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on form of dwelling, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on manners and customs, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fall Indians</span>, location and number of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Atsina.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fall of the Rapid Indians</span>, a name for the Atsina, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Falls of St. Anthony</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian camp at, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">named by Father Hennepin, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Feasts</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">given by Blackfoot chief, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Cree, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>-<a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Teton Sioux, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-<a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fish</span>, method of curing, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Floor mats</span>, method of making, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Food</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">method of cooking illustrated, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Ojibway, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>-<a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Osage, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Agriculture, Buffalo, Corn, Dogs, Fish, Game.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fool Chief</span>, a Kansa chief, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">village of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fort Berthold</span>, tribes near, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fort Clark</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">erection of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mandan village near, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Fort Osage.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fort Crawford</span>, establishment of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fort de Bourbon</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">location of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mention of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fort des Prairies</span>, mention of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fort John</span>, destroyed by North American Fur Company, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fort Laramie</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fort Leavenworth</span>, early description of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fort Lookout</span>, treaty concluded at, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fort Osage</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">later named Fort Clark, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">village near, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fort Pierre</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gathering of Yankton near, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketch of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fort Snelling</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">encampment at, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">establishment of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fort Union</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Assiniboin camp at, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stay at, of Friedrich Kurz, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">visit at, of Maximilian, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fort Yates</span>, villages near, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fortified Villages</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arikara, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hidatsa, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mandan, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Forts built by Indians</span>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fox Indians</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitat of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">present location of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">visited by Long, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Sauk and Foxes.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fremont</span>, arrival of, at Kansa towns, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fur trade of the Teton</span>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Furs</span>, huge quantities of, collected by Sauk and Foxes, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Game</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abundance of, at Isle au Vache, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Animals, Buffalo, Hunting.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Games</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">played by the Omaha, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">space for playing, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Gilder, R. F.</span>, village site identified by, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Gilfillan, Dr. J. A.</span>, missionary among the Ojibway, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Grand Pawnee</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">visit to, of Long expedition, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Chaui.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Grant, Peter</span>, Ojibway dwellings described by, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>-<a href="#Page_10">10</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Grass lodge</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as temporary shelter, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>-<a href="#Page_14">14</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Caddo, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Wichita, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">photograph of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Great Osage</span>, an Osage band, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Grinnell, George B.</span>, erection of medicine lodge described by, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Gros Ventres.</span> <i>See</i> Hidatsa.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Gros Ventres of the Missouri</span>, a name applied to the Hidatsa, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Gros Ventres of the Prairie</span>, a name applied to the Atsina, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Atsina.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Habitations</span>. <i>See</i> Lodges, Tipi, Wigwam.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ha-won-je-tah</span>, a Teton Sioux chief, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Hendry, Anthony</span>, Journal of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Henry, Alexander</span>, travels of, through Assiniboin country, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Hidatsa group</span>, tribes composing, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Hidatsa tribe</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ceremonial lodge of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">creation myth of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">temporary lodge of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">winter village of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Minnetarees.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Hidatsa villages</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">descriptions of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-<a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>-<a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>-<a href="#Page_150">150</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian drawings of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">location of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">near Fort Berthold, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">painting of, by Catlin, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plan of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sites of, compared with Mandan, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">temporary, for winter use, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Hime, Humphrey Lloyd</span>, photographs made by, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Hind Expedition</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">camp sites observed by, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-<a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ojibway structures encountered by, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Hoe</span>, made by Arikara, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Horse travois</span>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Horseracing</span> of the Blackfeet, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Horses</span>, housed in lodges of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">House Rings</span>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Hudson's Bay Company</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">journals of traders of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trade of, with the Blackfeet, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trading post of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Hunkpapa</span>, a Teton band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Hunting</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">customs of the Osage, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">customs of the Sauk and Foxes, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">excursions of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">excursions of the Omaha, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-<a href="#Page_87">87</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">grounds used for, by Oto, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of antelope, a method of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of buffalo, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>-<a href="#Page_7">7</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">parties of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trips of the Pawnee, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>-<a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Illinois confederacy</span>, villages of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>-<a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Illinois Indians</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">village of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">west of the Mississippi, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Implements</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">agricultural, of the Arikara, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">flint, on Omaha village site, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for skin dressing, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stone, found on White River, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Indian Peace Commission</span>, visit of, to Fort Laramie, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Iotan</span>, an Oto chief, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Iowa tribe</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appearance of villages of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">belonging to Chiwere group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">brief description of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">closely connected with Winnebago, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitations of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migration of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Iron Bird</span>, an Osage chief, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Irvin, Samuel M.</span>, missionary among the Iowa, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Irving, Washington</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">deserted village described by, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian symbols mentioned by, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ish-tal-a-sa's village</span>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Isle au Vache</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">brief history of, by Remsburg, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">council at, between Kansa and Long party, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">location of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">remains near, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Issati village</span>, site of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Itazipcho</span>, a Teton band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Sans Arcs.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Jackson, W. H.</span>, photographs made by, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Jaramillo, Juan</span>, an officer of the Coronado expedition, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Jonglerie</span>, or medicine lodge, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>-<a href="#Page_17">17</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Journals of traders</span>, Blackfeet described in, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Joutel</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">account by, of Quapaw villages, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caddo tribe described by, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>-<a href="#Page_183">183</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Kainah</span>, a tribe of the Blackfeet confederacy, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Kane, Paul</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ojibway wigwam described by, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">paintings by, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Kansa Indians</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a tribe of the Dhegiha group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attack on, by Pawnee, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dress of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migration of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">variety of dwellings of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">villages of, described, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">visit of, to the Oto, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Kaposia</span>, village of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Kingfisher</span>, an old Ojibway, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Kitkehahki</span>, a tribe of the Pawnee confederacy, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Knistenaux</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Mandan village, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">language spoken by, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">location and number of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Cree.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Kurz, Friedrich</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among the Omaha, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Fort Union, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketches by, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">La Flesche, Joseph</span>, an Omaha chief, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">La Harpe</span>, meeting of, with the Quapaw, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">La Petit Corbeau</span>, a Sioux chief, village of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">La Salle expedition</span>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">La Verendrye expedition</span>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-<a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Lac de L'Isle Croix</span>, Cree bands along, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Lahcocat</span>, an Arikara village, <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Lake Huron</span>, encampment on islands of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Lake Superior</span>, structures on shores of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Larocque, Antoine</span>, visit of, among the Crows, <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Le Raye</span>, references in journal of, to the Arikara, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Leavenworth</span>, establishment of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Lewis and Clark expedition</span>, villages visited by, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>-<a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>-<a href="#Page_126">126</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Lindenwood College</span>, manuscript journal in possession of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Liquor</span>, use of, among Indians, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Little Dog</span>, a Piegan Indian, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Little Osage</span>, an Osage band, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Little Osage River</span>, Osage villages in valley of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Little Raven</span>, village of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Lodges.</span> <i>See</i> Bark-covered lodges, Ceremonial lodge, Earth lodge, Grass lodge, Log houses, Mat-covered lodge, Skin lodge, Thatched lodge, Tipi, Traders lodge, Wigwam.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Log Cabins</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">built by Cree, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Delaware, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Log houses.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Log Houses</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">construction of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Fox Indians, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Sioux chief, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of upright posts, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Long, Maj. Stephen H.</span>, expedition under command of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Louisiana Purchase</span>, change of conditions due to, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Low Horn</span>, a Piegan chief, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ludlow exploring party</span>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Mahawha</span>, village of the Amahami, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Malta, Mo.</span>, former Osage village near, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Mandan</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a Siouan tribe, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settled near Fort Berthold, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">village sites of, compared with Hidatsa, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Mandan villages</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Catlin, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>-<a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Maximilian, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-<a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">deserted, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French expedition to, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>-<a href="#Page_123">123</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian drawings of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">occupied by Arikaras, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plan of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Manitobah House</span>, wigwam near, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Manners and customs.</span> <i>See</i> Customs.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Marquette, Père</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Illinois tribes visited by, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Osage villages listed by, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Quapaw villages reached by, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Marston, Major M.</span>, life of Sauk and Foxes described by, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Martin, Captain</span>, stay of detachment of, at Isle au Vache, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Mat-covered lodge</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as winter habitation, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Kansa, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Osage, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used by Dhegiha group, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Matootonha</span>, a Mandan village, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Mats</span>, rush, method of making, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Matthews</span>, description by, of Hidatsa villages, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>-<a href="#Page_150">150</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Maximilian</span>, villages visited by, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-<a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Mdewakanton tribe</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a division of the Dakota, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sites of settlements of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">villages of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_52">52</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Medicine</span>, meaning of the term, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Medicine bag of the Dakotas</span>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Medicine feast</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Hidatsa, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Medicine lodge</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arikara, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>-<a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ceremony of erecting, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Blackfeet, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ojibway, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>-<a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Metaharta</span>, a Minnetaree village, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Michigamea</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">an Illinois tribe, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of village of, not determined, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">visited by Marquette, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">M&#301;dé lodge of the Ojibway</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Mih-tutta-hangusch</span>, a Mandan village, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Mille Lac</span>, village sites on, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Miniconjou</span>, a Teton band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Minnetarees</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intrenchments made by, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of village of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">winter village of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Hidatsa.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Minnetarees of Fort de Prairie</span>, a name for the Atsina, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Mississippi River</span>, first name of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Missouri tribe</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ancient village of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">connected with Winnebago, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Chiwere group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">remnants of, with the Oto, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Mortars</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stone, in the Ozark country, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wooden, of the Arikara, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">National Museum</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bone scrapers in, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">collection in, of paintings by Catlin, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oto specimens in, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Newberry Library</span>, sketch in, by Bodmer, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Nicollet</span>, visit of, to the Winnebago, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Niobrara River</span>, early name of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Nuttall, Thomas</span>, journey of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ochkih-Hadda</span>, the evil spirit of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">O'Fallon, Maj.</span>, commissioner with Long expedition, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Oglala</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a Teton band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">epidemic of cholera among, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">log lodges of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">moving of village of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>-<a href="#Page_65">65</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">skin lodges of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wanderings of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ohio Valley</span>, ancient village sites of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ojibway</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ceremonial structures of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>-<a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitations of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>-<a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">location of villages of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meeting of, with Sioux, to establish peace, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">territory claimed by, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">village sites of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Chippeway.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Omaha tribe</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manners and customs of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-<a href="#Page_87">87</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meaning of the name, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migration of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Dhegiha group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Omaha villages</span>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>-<a href="#Page_87">87</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">destroyed by fire, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">One Stab</span>, an Oglala head-man, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Oohenonpa</span>, a Teton band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Osage Indians</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a tribe of the Dhegiha group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitat of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">industry of women, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">life of, described by Morse, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">structures of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">villages of, described, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">villages of, listed by Père Marquette, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Oto tribe</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a tribe of the Chiwere group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">closely connected with Winnebago, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">councils with, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitation of, described by Bradbury, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">temporary camp of, described by James, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">winter camp of, described by Mölhausen, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Otsotchove</span>, a Quapaw village, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ozarks</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">caves of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitat of the Osage, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hunting ground of the Osage, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Pahatsi</span>, an Osage band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Palisades.</span> <i>See</i> Fortified villages.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Palmer, Dr.</span>, missionary to the Osage, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Papillion Creek</span>, Omaha village on, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Pasquayah village</span>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Pawnee confederacy</span>, tribes composing, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Pawnee Indians</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abandoned camp of, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attack by, on Kansa village, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">council held with, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-<a href="#Page_161">161</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">customs of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>-<a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitations of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-<a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manner of moving, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migration of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">temporary camp of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Pawnee villages</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">description of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">orderly removal of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">photographs of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Pelican, The</span>, an Assiniboin chief, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Pembina</span>, native habitations at, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Pemmican maul</span>, of the Oto, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Peoria, village of</span>, visited by Marquette, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Persimmon pulp</span>, bread made of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Petit Corbeau</span>, village of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Picaneaux</span>, location and number of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Piegan.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Piegan Indians</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a tribe of the Blackfeet confederacy, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">camp of, described, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>-<a href="#Page_31">31</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">camp of, painted by Bodmer, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Picaneaux.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Pike, Lieut. Z. M.</span>, exploring expedition of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Pillagers</span>, gathering place of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Pipes</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ceremonial use of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">from Omaha cache, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of peace, smoking of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Pipestone quarry</span>, tribes ranging near, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Pis-ka-kau-a-kis</span>, a band of Cree, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Pitahauerat</span>, a tribe of the Pawnee confederacy, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+"<span class="smcap">Platte purchase</span>," Iowa living in, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Platte River</span>, Oto village on, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ponca Indians</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a tribe of the Dhegiha group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitations of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-<a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migration of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">separation of, from the Omaha, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Population</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Arikara villages, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Assiniboin, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Atsina or Fall Indians, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Cheyenne, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Cree, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Crow, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Kansa, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Mandan, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Minnetaree villages, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Osage, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Piegan, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Sarsees, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of village of Sotoüis, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Waco, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Wichita, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Yankton, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Porcupine Creek</span>, village on, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Pottery</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arikara, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fragments of, in Ozark caves, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fragments of, on village site, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Quapaw, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Earthenware.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Pounds, buffalo</span>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>-<a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Quapaw</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a tribe of the Dhegiha group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decrease in population of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meaning of the name, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migration of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">remnants of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Quivira</span>, reached by Coronado, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Radin, Paul</span>, list of Winnebago structures given by, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Rakes</span>, made by Arikara, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Raynolds exploring party</span>, sacred structure discovered by, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Red Cloud</span>, an Oglala chief, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Red River</span>, structures in valley of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Red Wing, Minn.</span>, origin of the name, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Red Wing</span>, village of&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Schoolcraft, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Seymour, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Rees</span>, warfare of, with Sioux, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Republican Pawnee</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Irving, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">visited by Long expedition, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Kitkehahki.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Requa</span>, W. C., Osage described by, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Rings</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of earth, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of stone, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Rocky Mountain Fort</span>, Assiniboin camp near, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Rooptahee</span>, a Mandan winter village, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Rotundas of the Cherokee</span>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Running-water River</span>, early name of the Niobrara, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Rush mats</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for seats and sleeping places, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">method of making, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used for covering dwellings, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sacred dance</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for benefit of sick, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Dakotas, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sacred island in Mille Lac</span>, described, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">St. Joseph</span>, a trading post, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">St. Paul</span>, former Indian village near, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">St. Peters River</span>, exploration of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Salt</span>, making of, by Indians, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sandy Creek</span>, Oto encampment on, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sans Arcs</span>, a Teton band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Itazipcho.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sans Oreille</span>, an Osage chief, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Santee</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">eastern division of the Dakota, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tribes forming, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of the name, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Santsukhdhi</span> an Osage band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sarsees</span>, number and location of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Saskatchewan Valley</span>, tribes inhabiting, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sauk and Foxes</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">agriculture of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">living as one tribe, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manners and ways of life, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">summer and winter habitations of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">villages of, similar in appearance, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Fox Indians, Sauk Indians.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sauk Indians</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">excursions of, against the Osage and Missouris, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Missouri driven out by, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">removal of, to Indian Territory, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">territory of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">village of, visited by Long, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Sauk and Foxes.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sauteux.</span> <i>See</i> Ojibway.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Schoolcraft, H. R.</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">deserted Osage villages encountered by, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">journey of, down the Mississippi, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sioux settlements described by, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Seven Council Fires of the Dakota</span>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Seymour, E. S.</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kaposia described by, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketches by, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Shakopee's village</span>, described by Keating, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Shawanese</span>, migration of remnant of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Shawnee</span>, villages of, west of the Mississippi, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Shields</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arapaho, affixed to tripods, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Pawnee, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sibley, George C.</span>, Kansa village described by, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sichangu</span>, a Teton band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sick and aged</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dance for benefit of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sihasapa</span>, a Teton band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Siksika</span>, a tribe of the Blackfeet confederacy, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Siouan tribes</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">classification of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">general movement of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the East, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">second largest stock north of Mexico, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">skin tipi typical of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">various habitations of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">villages of, described, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">westward migration of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sioux</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">excursions of, against the Osage, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gathering of, with Ojibway, to establish peace, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sisseton</span>, a division of the Dakota, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Skidi</span>, a tribe of the Pawnee Confederacy, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Skin Dressing</span>, implements for, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Skin Lodge</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arapaho, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Assiniboin, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blackfoot, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cheyenne, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">construction of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cree, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Crow, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decorations on, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">descriptions of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">drawings of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">erected by the Dakota, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hidatsa, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kansa, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Omaha, construction of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pawnee, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>-<a href="#Page_166">166</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">predominance of, on the plains, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketched by Kurz, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Teton, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used by roving tribes, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used by the Dhegiha, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used by the Oto, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Skin scraper</span>, bone, described, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Skin tipi</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">when used by Omaha, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-<a href="#Page_85">85</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yankton, described by Maximilian, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>-<a href="#Page_58">58</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sledges of the Mandan</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Smallpox epidemic</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among the Mandan, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among the Omaha, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Smoking custom of the Blackfeet</span>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Pipes.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sotoüis</span>, population of village of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Soulier Noir</span>, French name for the Amahami, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Spears, Arapaho</span>, affixed to tripods, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Spoons, horn</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Pawnee, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Stanley</span>, paintings by, in National Museum, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Stansbury Expedition</span>, narrative of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>-<a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Starapat</span>, an Arikara chief, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">State Historical Society of North Dakota</span>, surveys made by, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Stockade buildings</span>, mentioned by Long, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Stockades</span>, remains of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Fortified villages.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Stone circles</span>, explanation of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Stone Indians.</span> <i>See</i> Assiniboins.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sun dance</span>, lodges erected for, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sunflower seed</span>, cakes made of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sweat house</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Crows, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Ojibway, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Symbols</span>, cut on trees by Indians, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Talangamane</span>, a Sioux chief, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Taoapa</span>, description of village of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Tapage Pawnee.</span> <i>See</i> Pitahauerat.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Tatanka Wechacheta</span>, a Wahpeton chief, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Tatunkamane</span>, son of a Dakota chief, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Tchan-dee</span>, a Teton Sioux chief, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Teton</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a division of the Dakota, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bands composing, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">customs of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">great village of, visited by Lewis and Clark, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Teton River</span>, village near mouth of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Thatched lodges</span>, of the Wichita, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Thief, The</span>, an Oto Indian, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Tinder Mountain</span>, Cree band at, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Tipi</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">drawing of, by Bodmer, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the plains tribes, fine example of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">typical of Siouan tribes, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Skin lodges.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Tonginga</span>, a Quapaw village, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Toriman</span>, a Quapaw village, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Totem posts</span>, not used by Omaha, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Traders lodge</span>, of the Oglala, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Trails</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">across the prairie, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">buffalo, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Black Hills, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made by travois, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Transportation</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among the Oglala, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among the Piegan, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Dog travois, Horse travois.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Travois.</span> See Dog travois, Horse travois.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Treaties</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Greenville, westward migration following, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of peace between Sioux and Chippewas, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">place of, between Ojibway and U. S. Government, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Tetons, Yankton and Yanktonai, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Twenty-Four, village of the</span>, a former Kansa town, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Two Kettles.</span> <i>See</i> Oohenonpa.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Typha palustris</span>, mats made of leaves of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Union Agency</span>, location of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_105">105</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Utensils of the Mandan</span>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>-<a href="#Page_137">137</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Utsehta</span>, an Osage band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Village of the Twenty-Four</span>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Village sites</span>, not contemporaneous, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Wabashaw</span>, a Sioux village visited by Schoolcraft, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Waco Indians</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a tribe of the Wichita confederacy, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appearance of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">grass lodge of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Wahktageli</span>, a Yankton chief, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Wahpekute</span>, a division of the Dakota, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Wahpeton tribe</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a division of the Dakota, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">village of, described, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Wah-toh-ta-na</span>, name for the Oto, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Wakan wachepe</span>, a Dakota society, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Wa-ki-ta-mo-nee</span>, an Oto chief, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Wanotan</span>, a Yanktonai chief, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Wapasha</span>, a Dakota chief, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Wapasha's Prairie</span>, mentioned by Seymour, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Wapasha village</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">War dance, Osage</span>, account of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Warriors</span>, special lodges for use of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Wattasoons</span>, Mandan name for the Amahami, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Wattlework structures of the Osage</span>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>-<a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Waubuschon</span>, an Osage chief, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Wayondott</span>, migration of band of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Weapons of the Mandan</span>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Western Engineer</span>, a steamboat of 1819 on Missouri River, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>-<a href="#Page_93">93</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Wetarko</span>, Indian name for Grand River, <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">White Hair</span>, an Osage chief, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">White River</span>, village site on, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Wichita confederacy</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a Caddoan group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">thatched dwellings of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Wickiup</span>, a temporary shelter, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Wigwams</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">construction of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dome-shaped, of the Ojibway, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mat and bark covered, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Lodges.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Winnebago</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a Siouan tribe, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">villages of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Wolf Pawnee.</span> <i>See</i> Skidi.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Women</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">custom concerning, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">industry of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">labor of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Yankton tribe</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a division of the Dakota, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by General Atkinson, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">structures of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>-<a href="#Page_58">58</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Yanktonai</span>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a division of the Dakota, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country inhabited by, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Keating, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitations of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-<a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">village of, near Lake Traverse, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Yellow Bear</span>, an Hidatsa chief, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Yellow Stone</span>, a Missouri River steamboat, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="tn">
+<h3>Transcriber's note:</h3>
+<p>Some illustrations were originally located in the middle of paragraphs. These have been adjusted to not interrupt the flow of reading.</p>
+
+<p>Inconsistent spelling is maintained in this document, for example "Chayenne" and "Cheyenne".</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</body>
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@@ -0,0 +1,12002 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan, and
+Caddoan Tribes West of the Mississippi, by David Ives Bushnell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan, and Caddoan Tribes West of the Mississippi
+
+Author: David Ives Bushnell
+
+Release Date: November 1, 2011 [EBook #37897]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VILLAGES OF THE ALGONQUIAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Julia Neufeld and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note: For this text version passages in italics are
+indicated by _underscores_. Small caps have been replaced by ALL
+CAPS and "i" with a breve is shown as [)i].
+
+On page 6 "pursued by y^e Savages", "^e" refers to superscript "e".
+
+Inconsistent spelling is maintained in this document, for example
+"Chayenne" and "Cheyenne".
+
+
+
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 1
+
+[Illustration: DRYING BUFFALO MEAT--A TYPICAL CAMP SCENE
+
+ERNEST HENRY GRISET]
+
+  SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
+  BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+  BULLETIN 77
+
+  VILLAGES OF THE ALGONQUIAN, SIOUAN,
+  AND CADDOAN TRIBES WEST OF
+  THE MISSISSIPPI
+
+  BY
+  DAVID I. BUSHNELL, JR.
+
+  [Illustration: Decoration]
+
+  WASHINGTON
+  GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
+  1922
+
+
+
+
+LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
+
+
+                                       SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
+                                     BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY,
+                                 _Washington, D. C., January 4, 1921_.
+
+SIR: I have the honor to transmit the accompanying manuscript, entitled
+"Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan, and Caddoan Tribes West of the
+Mississippi," by David I. Bushnell, jr., and to recommend its
+publication, subject to your approval, as a bulletin of this Bureau.
+
+      Very respectfully,
+
+                                               J. WALTER FEWKES,
+                                                           _Chief_.
+
+  DR. CHARLES D. WALCOTT,
+      _Secretary of the Smithsonian institution_.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+When Louisiana became a part of the United States the great wilderness
+to the westward of the Mississippi was the home of many native tribes,
+or groups of tribes, retaining their primitive manners and customs,
+little influenced by contact with Europeans. Their villages were
+scattered along the water courses or skirted the prairies, over which
+roamed vast herds of buffalo, these serving to attract the Indians and
+to supply many of their wants--food, raiment, and covering for their
+shelters. But so great are the changes wrought within a century that now
+few buffalo remain, the Indian in his primitive state has all but
+vanished, and even the prairies have been altered in appearance. The
+early accounts of the region contain references to the native camps and
+villages, their forms and extent, tell of the manner in which the
+habitations were constructed, and relate how some were often removed
+from place to place. Extracts from the various narratives are now
+brought together, thus to describe the homes and ways of life of the
+people who once claimed and occupied a large section of the present
+United States.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                               Page
+
+  The tribes and their habitat                    1
+
+  The buffalo (_Bison americanus_)                3
+
+  Villages and forms of structures                7
+
+    Algonquian tribes                             8
+
+      Ojibway                                     8
+
+      Cree                                       17
+
+      Cheyenne                                   21
+
+      Blackfoot confederacy                      25
+
+      Arapaho                                    33
+
+      Sauk and Foxes                             37
+
+      Illinois                                   41
+
+    Siouan tribes                                43
+
+      Dakota-Assiniboin group                    44
+
+        Mdewakanton                              45
+
+        Wahpeton                                 52
+
+        Yanktonai                                54
+
+        Yankton                                  57
+
+        Teton                                    59
+
+          Oglala                                 63
+
+        Assiniboin                               71
+
+      Dhegiha group                              77
+
+        Omaha                                    77
+
+        Ponca                                    87
+
+        Kansa                                    89
+
+        Osage                                    98
+
+        Quapaw                                  108
+
+      Chiwere group                             112
+
+        Iowa                                    113
+
+        Oto                                     114
+
+        Missouri                                121
+
+      Winnebago                                 122
+
+      Mandan                                    122
+
+      Hidatsa group                             140
+
+        Hidatsa                                 141
+
+        Crows                                   150
+
+    Caddoan tribes                              155
+
+      Pawnee                                    155
+
+      Arikara                                   167
+
+      Wichita                                   179
+
+        Waco                                    181
+
+      Caddo                                     182
+
+  Conclusion                                    184
+
+  Authorities cited                             186
+
+  Synonymy                                      193
+
+  Explanation of plates                         194
+
+  Index                                         203
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+PLATES
+
+                                                               Page
+
+  1. Drying buffalo meat. Griset                      Frontispiece.
+
+  2. "A buffalo hunt on the southwestern prairies." Stanley       4
+
+  3. "Buffalo hunt." Wimar                                        4
+
+  4. "Buffalo hunting on the frozen snow." Rindisbacher           4
+
+  5. _a_, "A buffalo pound." Kane. _b_, Scene in a Sioux village,
+           about 1870                                             4
+
+  6. _a_, Camp of "Sautaux Indians on the Red River." _b_,
+           Ojibway wigwam at Leech Lake, Minnesota               10
+
+  7. _a_, "Encampment among the islands of Lake Huron." Kane.
+           _b_, Ojibway camp on bank of Red River                10
+
+  8. _a_, Ojibway camp west of Red River. _b_, Ojibway camp
+           on bank of Red River                                  12
+
+  9. Ojibway habitations. _a_, Wigwams covered with elm bark.
+           _b_, Wigwams covered with birch bark                  12
+
+  10. _a_, Ojibway birch bark canoe. _b_, Ojibway Indians with
+            birch bark canoes                                    16
+
+  11. _a_, Trader's store near Cass Lake. _b_, Outside an elm
+            bark covered structure                               16
+
+  12. Objects of Ojibway make. _a_, Hammer, bag, and two
+            skin-dressing tools. _b_, Section of a rush mat      16
+
+  13. _a_, Ojibway mortar and pestle. _b_, Delaware mortar
+            and pestle. _c_, Ojibway birch bark dish             16
+
+  14. Cheyenne family                                            24
+
+  15. Piegan camp. Bodmer                                        24
+
+  16. _a_, Blackfoot camp. Kane. _b_, Arapaho village            34
+
+  17. Atsina camp. Bodmer                                        34
+
+  18. Sauk and Fox habitations. _a_, Frames of structures.
+            _b_, Mat-covered lodges                              38
+
+  19. Sauk and Fox habitation covered with elm bark              38
+
+  20. _a_, Northwest shore of Mille Lac, 1900. _b_, The
+            Sacred Island in Mille Lac                           46
+
+  21. "Kaposia, June 19th, 1851." Mayer                          46
+
+  22. _a_, "Dakotah village." Eastman. _b_, "Dakotah
+            encampment." Eastman                                 50
+
+  23. _a_, Council at the mouth of the Teton. Catlin.
+            _b_, Fort Pierre, July 4, 1851. Kurz                 50
+
+  24. _a_, _b_, Near Fort Laramie, 1868. _c_, "A skin lodge
+            of an Assiniboin chief." Bodmer                      76
+
+  25. _a_, Assiniboin lodges formed of pine boughs. Kane. _b_,
+            "Horse camp of the Assiniboins, March 21,
+            1852." Kurz                                          76
+
+  26. _a_, Tipi of an Omaha chief. _b_, Page of Kurz's
+            sketchbook                                           76
+
+  27. "The village of the Omahas." 1871                          76
+
+  28. _a_, Page of Kurz's sketchbook, showing Omaha village.
+            _b_, Page of Kurz's sketchbook, showing interior
+            of an Omaha lodge                                    80
+
+  29. "Punka Indians encamped on the banks of the Missouri."
+            Bodmer                                               80
+
+  30. _a_, Kansa village, 1841. Lehman. _b_, Dog dance within
+            a Kansa lodge, 1819. Seymour                         96
+
+  31. Kansa habitation                                           96
+
+  32. _a_, Frame of an Osage habitation. _b_, An Iowa
+            structure                                           102
+
+  33. "Oto encampment, near the Platte, 1819." Seymour          102
+
+  34. _a_, Oto pemmican maul. _b_, Heavy stone maul.
+            _c_, Mandan implement for dressing hides            120
+
+  35. _a_, Oto dugout canoe, from Kurz's sketchbook.
+            _b_, Hidatsa bull-boat and paddle                   120
+
+  36. Winnebago habitations, about 1870. _a_, Structure
+            with arbor. _b_, Showing entrance on side           120
+
+  37. Winnebago structures        120
+
+  38. _a_, Interior of a Mandan lodge. Catlin. _b_, Scene
+            in a Mandan village. Catlin                         132
+
+  39. "Mih-tutta-hangkusch," a Mandan village. Bodmer           132
+
+  40. Interior of a Mandan lodge. Bodmer                        136
+
+  41. _a_, _c_, Mandan wooden bowls. _b_, Mandan
+            earthenware jar                                     136
+
+  42. _a_, Buffalo horn spoon. _b_, Spoon made of horn of
+            mountain sheep. Mandan                              136
+
+  43. "Miniatarree village." Catlin                             136
+
+  44. "Winter village of the Minatarres." _a_, Original pencil
+            sketch. _b_, Finished picture of same. Bodmer       142
+
+  45. From Kurz's sketchbook. _a_, Use of a carrying basket.
+            _b_, The ring-and-pole game. _c_, Hidatsa with
+            bull-boats                                          142
+
+  46. Crow tipis. _a_, "Crow lodge." Catlin. _b_, Camp at
+            the old agency, 1871                                152
+
+  47. A camp in a cottonwood grove                              152
+
+  48. Trader crossing the prairies. Page of Kurz's sketchbook   162
+
+  49. Pawnee village, 1871                                      162
+
+  50. Pawnee earth lodges, 1871                                 162
+
+  51. In a Pawnee village, 1871. _a_, Children at lodge
+            entrance. _b_, Showing screen near same entrance    162
+
+  52. __a, Arikara carrying basket. _b_, Wichita mortar         168
+
+  53. "Riccaree village." Catlin                                168
+
+  54. _a_, Arikara rake. _b_, Arikara hoe. _c_, Crow
+            parfleche box                                       178
+
+  55. Wichita habitations. _a_, Near Anadarko. _b_, Lodge
+            standing about 1880                                 178
+
+
+  TEXT FIGURES
+
+  1. The buffalo of Gomara, 1554                     4
+
+  2. Tipis                                          59
+
+  3. Horse travois                                  66
+
+  4. Plan of the large Mandan village, 1833        131
+
+  5. "The ark of the first man"                    132
+
+  6. Typical earth lodges                          133
+
+  7. Inclosed bed                                  134
+
+  8. Plan of the interior of a Mandan lodge        135
+
+  9. Wooden club                                   138
+
+  10. Plan of the Mandan village at Fort Clark     140
+
+  11. Plan of a ceremonial lodge                   144
+
+  12. Plan of the large Hidatsa village            145
+
+
+
+
+VILLAGES OF THE ALGONQUIAN, SIOUAN, AND CADDOAN TRIBES WEST OF THE
+MISSISSIPPI.
+
+BY DAVID I. BUSHNELL, JR.
+
+
+
+
+THE TRIBES AND THEIR HABITAT.
+
+
+The country occupied by the tribes belonging to the three linguistic
+groups whose villages are now to be described extended from south of the
+Arkansas northward to and beyond the Canadian boundary, and from the
+Mississippi across the Great Plains to the Rocky Mountains. It thus
+embraced the western section of the valley of the Mississippi, including
+the entire course of the Missouri, the hilly regions bordering the
+rivers, and the vast rolling prairies. The climatic conditions were as
+varied as were the physiographical features, for, although the winters
+in the south were comparatively mild, in the north they were long and
+severe.
+
+The three linguistic families to be considered are the Algonquian,
+Siouan, and Caddoan. Many Algonquian and Siouan tribes formerly lived
+east of the Mississippi, and their villages have already been described
+(Bushnell, (1)),[1] but within historic times all Caddoan tribes appear
+to have occupied country to the westward of the river, although it is
+not improbable that during earlier days they may have had villages
+beyond the eastern bank of the stream, the remains of which exist.
+
+[1] For citation of references throughout this bulletin, _see_
+"Authorities cited," p. 186.
+
+The Algonquians included in this account comprise principally the three
+groups which may be termed the western division of the great linguistic
+family. These are: (1) The Blackfoot confederacy, composed of three
+confederated tribes, the Siksika or Blackfeet proper, the Piegan, and
+the Kainah or Bloods; (2) the Arapaho, including several distinct
+divisions, of which the Atsina, or Gros Ventres of the Prairie, who were
+closely allied with the Blackfeet, were often mentioned; (3) the
+Cheyenne, likewise forming various groups or divisions. Belonging to the
+same great family were the Cree or Kristinaux, whose habitat was farther
+north, few living south of the Canadian boundary; also the Ojibway,
+whose villages were scattered northward from the upper waters of the
+Mississippi. Some Sauk later lived west of the Mississippi, as did bands
+of the Foxes and some of the Illinois tribes.
+
+The Siouan tribes were among the most numerous and powerful on the
+continent, and those to be mentioned on the following pages belonged to
+several clearly defined groups. As classified in the Handbook of
+American Indians North of Mexico,[2] these include:
+
+[2] Bull. 30, Bur. Amer. Ethn., part 2, p. 579.
+
+I. Dakota-Assiniboin group: 1, Mdewakanton; 2, Wahpekute (forming, with
+the Mdewakanton, the Santee); 3, Sisseton; 4, Wahpeton; 5, Yankton; 6,
+Yanktonai; 7, Teton--(a) Sichangu or Brules, (b) Itazipcho or Sans Arcs,
+(c) Sihasapa or Blackfeet, (d) Miniconjou, (e) Oohenonpa or Two
+Kettles, (f) Oglala, (g) Hunkpapa; 8, Assiniboin.
+
+II. Dhegiha group: 1, Omaha; 2, Ponca; 3, Quapaw; 4, Osage--(a) Pahatsi,
+(b) Utschta, (c) Santsukhdhi; 5, Kansa.
+
+III. Chiwere group: 1, Iowa; 2, Oto; 3, Missouri.
+
+IV. Winnebago.
+
+V. Mandan.
+
+VI. Hidatsa group: 1, Hidatsa; 2, Crows.
+
+The Caddoan family is less clearly defined than either of the preceding,
+but evidently consisted of many small tribes grouped, and forming
+confederacies. Those to be mentioned later include: (1) The Arikara; (2)
+the Pawnee confederacy, composed of four tribes--(a) Chaui or Grand
+Pawnee, (b) Kitkehahki or Republican Pawnee, (c) Pitahauerat or Tapage
+Pawnee, (d) Skidi or Wolf Pawnee; (3) the Wichita confederacy, including
+the Waco and various small tribes; (4) the Caddo proper.
+
+Although the latter are included in the same linguistic group with the
+Arikara, Pawnee, and others as mentioned above, they are regarded by
+some as constituting a distinct linguistic stock.
+
+During the years following the close of the Revolution, the latter part
+of the eighteenth century, many tribes, or rather the remnants of
+tribes, then living east of the Mississippi, sought a refuge in the West
+beyond the river. Many settled on the streams in the southern part of
+the present State of Missouri and northern Arkansas, and, as stated by
+Stoddard when writing about the year 1810: "A considerable number of
+Delawares, Shawanese, and Cherokees, have built some villages on the
+waters of the St. Francis and White Rivers. Their removal into these
+quarters was authorized by the Spanish government, and they have
+generally conducted themselves to the satisfaction of the whites. Some
+stragglers from the Creeks, Chocktaws, and Chickasaws, who are
+considered as outlaws by their respective nations, have also established
+themselves on the same waters; and their disorders and depredations
+among the white settlers are not unfrequent." (Stoddard, (1), pp.
+210-211.) And at about the same time another writer, referring to the
+same region, said: "Below the Great Osage, on the waters of the Little
+Osage, Saint Francis, and other streams, are a number of scattered bands
+of Indians, and two or three considerable villages. These bands were
+principally Indians, who were formerly outcasts from the tribes east of
+the Mississippi. Numbers have since joined from the Delawares,
+Shawanoes, Wayondott, and other tribes towards the lakes. Their warriors
+are said to be five or six hundred. They have sometimes made excursions
+and done mischief on the Ohio river, but the settlements on the
+Mississippi have suffered the most severely by their depredations."
+(Cutler, (1), p. 120.)
+
+No attempt will be made in the present work to describe the habitations
+or settlements occupied by the scattered bands just mentioned.
+
+It is quite evident that during the past two or three centuries great
+changes have taken place in the locations of the tribes which were
+discovered occupying the region west of the Mississippi by the first
+Europeans to penetrate the vast wilderness. Thus the general movement of
+many Siouan tribes has been westward, that of some Algonquian groups
+southward from their earlier habitats, and the Caddoan appear to have
+gradually gone northward. It resulted in the converging of the tribes in
+the direction of the great prairies occupied by the vast herds of
+buffalo which served to attract the Indian. Until the beginning of this
+tribal movement it would seem that a great region eastward from the base
+of the Rocky Mountains, the rolling prairie lands, was not the home of
+any tribes but was solely the range of the buffalo and other wild
+beasts, which existed in numbers now difficult to conceive.
+
+
+
+
+THE BUFFALO.
+
+(_Bison americanus_.)
+
+
+With the practical extermination of the buffalo in recent years, and the
+rapid changes which have taken place in the general appearance of the
+country, it is difficult to picture it as it was two or more centuries
+ago. While the country continued to be the home of the native tribes
+game was abundant, and the buffalo, in prodigious numbers, roamed over
+the wide region from the Rocky Mountains to near the Atlantic. It is
+quite evident, and easily conceivable, that wherever the buffalo was to
+be found it was hunted by the people of the neighboring villages,
+principally to serve as food. But the different parts of the animal were
+made use of for many purposes, and, as related in an early Spanish
+narrative, one prepared nearly four centuries ago, when referring to
+"the oxen of Quivira ... Their masters have no other riches nor
+substance: of them they eat, they drink, they apparel, they shooe
+themselves: and of their hides they make many things, as houses, shooes,
+apparell and ropes: of their bones they make bodkins: of their sinews
+and haire, threed: of their hornes, maws, and bladders, vessels: of
+their dung, fire: and of their calves-skinnes, budgets, wherein they
+drawe and keepe water. To bee short, they make so many things of them as
+they neede of, or as many as suffice them in the use of this life."
+(Gomara, (1), p. 382.) A crude engraving of a buffalo made at that time
+is reproduced in figure 1.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The buffalo of Gomara, 1554]
+
+The preceding account describes the customs of the people then living in
+the southern part of the region treated in the present sketch, either a
+Caddoan or a neighboring tribe or group, and it suggests another
+reference to the great importance of the buffalo, but applying to the
+tribes of the north more than three centuries later.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 2
+
+[Illustration: "A BUFFALO HUNT ON THE SOUTHWESTERN PRAIRIES"
+
+J. M. Stanley, 1845]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 3
+
+[Illustration: "BUFFALO HUNT"
+
+Carl Wimar, 1860]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 4
+
+[Illustration: "BUFFALO HUNTING ON THE FROZEN SNOW"
+
+Peter Rindisbacher, about 1825]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 5
+
+[Illustration: _a._ "A Buffalo Pound." Paul Kane, 1845]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Scene in a Sioux village, about 1870. Photograph by
+S. J. Morrow]
+
+"The animals inhabiting the Dakota country, and hunted more or less by
+them for clothing, food, or for the purposes of barter, are buffalo,
+elk, black- and white-tailed deer, big-horn, antelope, wolves of several
+kinds, red and gray foxes, a few beaver and otter, grizzly bear, badger,
+skunk, porcupine, rabbits, muskrats, and a few panthers in the
+mountainous parts. Of all those just mentioned the buffalo is most
+numerous and most necessary to their support. Every part of this animal
+is eaten by the Indian except the horns, hoofs, and hair, even the skin
+being made to sustain life in times of great scarcity. The skin is used
+to make their lodges and clothes, the sinews for bowstrings, the horns
+to contain powder, and the bones are wrought into various domestic
+implements, or pounded up and boiled to extract the fatty matter. In the
+proper season, from the beginning of October until the 1st of March, the
+skins are dressed with the hair remaining on them, and are either worn
+by themselves or exchanged with the traders." (Hayden, (1), p. 371.)
+
+In the early days the tribes who occupied a region frequented by or in
+the vicinity of the range of the buffalo could and undoubtedly did kill
+sufficient numbers to satisfy their various wants and requirements, but
+hunting was made more easy in later times when horses were possessed by
+the Indian. Then it became possible for the bands of hunters, or
+even the entire village, to follow the vast herds, to surround and kill
+as many as they desired, and to carry away great quantities of meat to
+be "jerked," or dried, for future use. So intimately connected were the
+buffalo with the life of the tribes of the plains and the circumjacent
+country that frequent allusions will be made to the former when
+describing the camps and villages of the latter.
+
+
+The various ways of hunting the buffalo and other wild beasts of the
+plains and mountainous country, as practiced by the different tribes,
+have been described by many writers. The several methods of hunting the
+buffalo were often forced through natural conditions, but nothing could
+have exceeded the excitement produced during the chase by well-mounted
+Indian hunters. This was the usual custom of the tribes of the plains
+after horses had become plentiful and the buffalo continued numerous.
+The paintings reproduced in plates 2 and 3 vividly portray this phase of
+the hunt. In the north the hunters were compelled during the long
+winters to attack the herds on the frozen, snow-covered prairies, and
+plate 4 shows a party of hunters, wearing snowshoes, mingled with the
+buffalo. This sketch, made about the year 1825, bears the legend:
+"Indian Hunters pursuing the Buffalo early in the spring when the snow
+is sufficiently frozen to bear the men but the Animal breaks through and
+cannot run." This graphic sketch may represent a party of Cree or
+Assiniboin hunters, probably the latter, and it will be noticed that
+they are using bows and arrows, not firearms, although other drawings by
+the same artist representing a summer hunt shows them having guns.
+
+Another custom in the North was that of constructing inclosures of logs
+and branches of trees, leaving one opening through which the buffalo
+were driven, and when thus secured were killed. Such an inclosure, or
+pound, is shown in plate 5, _a_. This is a reproduction of the original
+painting made by Paul Kane, September, 1845. In describing it he wrote:
+"These pounds can only be made in the vicinity of forests, as they are
+composed of logs piled up roughly, five feet high, and enclose about two
+acres. At one side an entrance is left, about ten feet wide, and from
+each side of this, to the distance of half a mile, a row of posts or
+short stumps, called dead men, are planted, at the distance of twenty
+feet each, gradually widening out into the plain from the entrance. When
+we arrived at the pound we found a party there anxiously awaiting the
+arrival of the buffaloes, which their companions were driving in. This
+is accomplished as follows:--A man, mounted on a fleet horse, usually
+rides forward till he sees a band of buffaloes. This may be sixteen or
+eighteen miles distant from the ground, but of course the nearer to it
+the better. The hunter immediately strikes a light with a flint and
+steel, and places the lighted spunk in a handful of dried grass, the
+smoke arising from which the buffaloes soon smell and start away from it
+at the top of their speed. The man now rides up alongside of the herd,
+which, from some unaccountable propensity, invariably endeavour to cross
+in front of his horse. I have had them follow me for miles in order to
+do so. The hunter thus possesses an unfailing means, wherever the pound
+may be situated, of conducting them to it by the dexterous management of
+his horse. Indians are stationed at intervals behind the posts, or dead
+men, provided with buffalo robes, who, when the herd are once in the
+avenue, rise up and shake the robes, yelling and urging them on until
+they get into the enclosure, the spot usually selected for which is one
+with a tree in the centre. On this they hang offerings to propitiate the
+Great Spirit to direct the herd towards it. A man is also placed in the
+tree with a medicine pipestem in his hand, which he waves continually,
+chaunting a sort of prayer to the Great Spirit, the burden of which is
+that the buffaloes may be numerous and fat." (Kane, (1), pp. 117-119.)
+Quite similar to this is the description of a pound constructed by the
+Cree a few years later. This was some 120 feet across, "constructed of
+the trunks of trees, laced with withes together, and braced by outside
+supports," and within "lay tossed in every conceivable position over two
+hundred dead buffalo." Another pound erected at this time had the "dead
+men" extending for a distance of 4 miles from the entrance. (Hind, (1),
+I, pp. 356-359.) Maximilian, Lewis and Clark, and other explorers of the
+upper Missouri Valley refer to enclosures into which the Indians drove
+antelope. And that the custom was followed by the tribes far east of the
+Mississippi is proved by the writings of early explorers. Champlain in
+1615 gave an account, accompanied by an interesting drawing, of such a
+hunt, and Lahontan nearly a century later presented an illustration
+bearing the legend: "Stags block'd up in a park, after being pursued by
+y^e Savages." Many other references could be quoted, as the ways of
+hunting followed by the Indians have always been of interest to the many
+writers who have described the manners and customs of the people.
+
+What was probably a characteristic view in a Sioux village of half a
+century ago, after a successful hunt, is shown in the old photograph
+reproduced in plate 5, _b_. Here, in front of the group of skin tipis,
+are quantities of meat suspended and being "jerked" or dried in the air.
+Buffalo skins are stretched on the ground, and in the immediate
+foreground are two women scraping a skin. This is a picture of the
+greatest interest and rarity.
+
+The sight of the great herds roaming unmolested over the far-reaching
+prairies proved of interest to all who saw them, and many accounts are
+left by the early travelers. One brief description of such a scene may
+be quoted. It refers to a place in the upper Missouri Valley, not far
+from a Mandan village, and was written June 22, 1811:
+
+"We arrived on the summit of a ridge more elevated than any we had yet
+passed. From thence we saw before us a beautiful plain, as we judged,
+about four miles across, in the direction of our course, and of similar
+dimensions from east to west. It was bounded on all sides by long
+ridges, similar to that which we had ascended. The scene exhibited in
+this valley was sufficiently interesting to excite even in our Canadians
+a wish to stop a few minutes and contemplate it. The whole of the plain
+was perfectly level, and, like the rest of the country, without a single
+shrub. It was covered with the finest verdure, and in every part herds
+of buffaloes were feeding. I counted seventeen herds, but the aggregate
+number of the animals it was difficult even to guess at: some thought
+upwards of 10,000." (Bradbury, (1), pp. 134-135.) And this was but one
+of innumerable similar scenes to have been witnessed throughout the wide
+range of the vast herds.
+
+"The Indians say ... that in travelling over a country with which they
+are unacquainted they always follow the buffalo trail, for this animal
+always selects the most practicable route for his road." (Warren, (1),
+p. 74.) This is a well-known fact, and many roads both east and west of
+the Mississippi which have now developed into important highways owe
+their origin to this cause.
+
+The story of the buffalo will ever be one of interest, becoming more and
+more so as the years pass; and so it is gratifying to know that nearly
+all the available information bearing on the customs of the animal, the
+migration of the herds, their ancient habitat, and their rapid reduction
+in numbers was some years ago brought together and preserved in a single
+volume. (Allen, (1).) This was done while the buffalo were still quite
+numerous, and many facts recorded were derived from hunters or others
+acquainted with the customs of the times.
+
+
+
+
+VILLAGES AND FORMS OF STRUCTURES.
+
+
+The villages as well as the separate structures reared by the many
+tribes who formerly occupied the region treated in the present work
+presented marked characteristics, causing them to be easily identified
+by the early travelers through the wilderness of a century ago. The mat
+and bark covered wigwam predominated among the Algonquian tribes of the
+north, although certain members of this great linguistic family also
+used the skin tipi so typical of the Siouan tribes of the plains, while
+some of the latter stock constructed the earth lodge similar to that
+erected by the Caddoan tribes. Thus, it will be understood no one group
+occupied habitations of a single form to the exclusion of all others,
+and again practically all the tribes had two or more types of dwellings
+which were reared and used under different conditions, some forming
+their permanent villages, others, being easily removed and transported,
+serving as their shelters during long journeys in search of the buffalo.
+The villages of the several groups will now be mentioned in detail.
+
+
+ALGONQUIAN TRIBES.
+
+The numerous tribes and the many confederated groups belonging to the
+great Algonquian linguistic family extended over the continent from the
+Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic coast, and from Labrador on the north
+southward to Carolina. They surrounded the Iroquoian tribes of the
+north, and, at various places came in contact with members of other
+stocks. The combined population of the widely scattered Algonquian
+tribes was greater than that of any other linguistic family in North
+America.
+
+The native tribes of tidewater Virginia and those who were encountered
+by the New England colonists, tribes so intimately associated with the
+early history of the Colonies, belonged to this stock, as did the later
+occupants of the Ohio Valley and of the "country of Illinois." In the
+present work the villages of other members of the linguistic group will
+be considered, including those of the Ojibway and the related Cree, and
+of the Blackfoot confederacy, Arapaho, and Cheyenne, usually termed the
+western division of the stock. Several tribes whose villages stood east
+of the Mississippi in early historic times will also be mentioned.
+
+OJIBWAY.
+
+The Ojibway (the Sauteux of many writers) formed the connecting link
+between the tribes living east of the Mississippi and those whose homes
+were across the "Great River." A century ago their lands extended from
+the shores of Lake Superior westward, beyond the headwaters of the
+Mississippi to the vicinity of the Turtle Mountains, in the present
+State of North Dakota. Thus they claimed the magnificent lakes of
+northern and central Minnesota--Mille Lac, Leech Lake, Cass Lake, and
+Red Lake--on the shores of which stood many of their camps and villages,
+serving as barriers against invasions and attacks by their inveterate
+enemies, the Sioux. The Ojibway are essentially a timber people, whose
+manners and customs were formed and governed by the environment of lakes
+and streams, and who were ever surrounded by the vast virgin forests of
+pine. While game, fish, and wild fowl were abundant and easily
+obtained, yet during the long winters when the lakes were frozen and
+the land was covered by several feet of snow there were periods of want
+when food was scarce.
+
+The habitations and other structures of the Ojibway, which have already
+been described and figured (Bushnell, (2)), were of various forms,
+constructed of several materials, and varying in different localities,
+according to the nature of the available supply of barks or rushes.
+
+In the north, on the shores of Lake Superior and westward along the
+lakes and streams, as in the valley of Red River and the adjacent
+region, the majority of structures were covered with sheets of birch
+bark, secured to frames of small saplings.
+
+About the year 1804 Peter Grant, a member of the old North-West Company,
+and for a long period at the head of the Red River Department of the
+company, prepared an account of the Sauteux Indians, and when describing
+the habitations of the people, wrote: "Their tents are constructed with
+slender long poles, erected in the form of a cone and covered with the
+rind of the birch tree. The general diameter of the base is about
+fifteen feet, the fire place exactly in the middle, and the remainder of
+the area, with the exception of a small place for the hearth, is
+carefully covered with the branches of the pine or cedar tree, over
+which some bear skins and old blankets are spread, for sitting and
+sleeping. A small aperture is left in which a bear skin is hung in lieu
+of a door, and a space is left open at the top, which answers the
+purpose of window and chimney. In stormy weather the smoke would be
+intolerable, but this inconvenience is easily removed by contracting or
+shifting the aperture at top according to the point from which the wind
+blows. It is impossible to walk, or even to stand upright, in their
+miserable habitations, except directly around the fire place. The men
+sit generally with their legs stretched before them, but the women have
+theirs folded backwards, inclined a little to the left side, and can
+comfortably remain the whole day in those attitudes, when the weather is
+too bad for remaining out of doors. In fine weather they are very fond
+of basking in the sun.
+
+"When the family is very large, or when several families live together,
+the dimensions of their tents are, of course, in proportion and of
+different forms. Some of these spacious habitations resemble the roof of
+a barn, with small openings at each end for doors, and the whole length
+of the ridge is left uncovered at top for the smoke and light." (Grant,
+(1), pp. 329-330.) And referring briefly to the ways of life of the
+people: "In the spring, when the hunting season is over, they generally
+assemble in small villages, either at the trader's establishment, or in
+places where fish or wild fowl abound; sturgeon and white fish are most
+common, though they have abundance of pike, trout, suckers, and
+pickerel. They sometimes have the precaution to preserve some for the
+summer consumption, this is done by opening and cleaning the fish, and
+then carefully drying it in the smoke or sun, after which it is tied up
+very tight in large parcels, wrapped up in bark and kept for use; their
+meat, in summer, is cured in the same manner.... Their meat is either
+boiled in a kettle, or roasted by means of a sharp stick, fixed in the
+ground at a convenient distance from the fire, and on which the meat is
+fixed and turned occasionally towards the fire, until the whole is
+thoroughly done; their fish is dressed in the same manner." (Op. cit.,
+pp. 330-331.)
+
+The method of cooking food, as mentioned in the preceding paragraph, is
+graphically illustrated in the old sketch made a century ago, now
+reproduced in plate 6, _a_. This shows a family gathered about a small
+fire where food is being prepared, and beyond is a bark-covered wigwam.
+The sketch bears the legend, "A family from the tribe of the wild
+Sautaux Indians on the Red River. Drawn from nature." It indicates the
+primitive dress and appearance of the people, and it is of interest to
+compare this with the photograph which is reproduced in plate 6, _b_,
+showing another small group of the people three-quarters of a century
+later. Such were the changes within that period.
+
+Similar to the preceding were the habitations shown by Kane in a sketch
+made during the early summer of 1845, the original painting being
+reproduced as plate 7, _a_. This was described as an "Indian encampment
+amongst the islands of Lake Huron; the wigwams are made of birch-bark,
+stripped from the trees in large pieces and sewed together with long
+fibrous roots; when the birch tree cannot be conveniently had, they
+weave rushes into mats ... for covering, which are stretched round in
+the same manner as the bark, upon eight or ten poles tied together at
+the top, and stuck in the ground at the required circle of the tent, a
+hole being left at the top to permit the smoke to go out. The fire is
+made in the centre of the lodge, and the inmates sleep all round with
+their feet towards it." (Kane, (1), pp. 6-7.) The interesting painting
+could well have been made among the Ojibway camps or settlements of
+northern Minnesota instead of representing a group of wigwams located
+many miles eastward, but this tends to prove the similarity of the small
+villages in the region where large sheets of birch bark were to be
+obtained.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 6
+
+[Illustration: _a._ "A family from the tribe of the wild Sautaux Indians
+on the Red River." Drawn from nature, 1821]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Ojibway wigwam. Leech Lake, Minnesota, 1896]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 7
+
+[Illustration: _a._ "Encampment among the Islands of Lake Huron." Paul
+Kane, 1845]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Ojibway camp on bank of Red River. Photograph by H.
+L. Hime, 1858]
+
+Between the loosely placed sheets of bark were necessarily many openings
+through which the wind could enter, and in addition was the open space
+at the top intentionally left as a vent through which the smoke could
+escape from the inside. In describing the appearance of the interior of
+such a structure it was told how--
+
+"Around the fire in the centre, and at a distance of perhaps 2 feet from
+it, are placed sticks as large as one's arm, in a square form, guarding
+the fire; and it is a matter of etiquette not to put one's feet nearer
+the fire than that boundary. One or more pots or kettles are hung over
+the fire on the crotch of a sapling. In the sides of the wigwam are
+stowed all clothing, food, cooking utensils, and other property of the
+family." When referring to the great feeling of relief on arriving at
+such a shelter in the frozen wilderness the same writer continued:
+
+"When one has been traveling all day through the virgin forest, in a
+temperature far below zero, and has not seen a house nor a human being
+and knows not where or how he is to pass the night, it is the most
+comforting sight in the whole world to see the glowing column of light
+from the top of the wigwam of some wandering family out hunting, and to
+look in and see that happy group bathed in the light and warmth of the
+life-giving fire ... and no one, Ojibway or white, is ever refused
+admission; on the contrary, they are made heartily welcome, as long as
+there is an inch of space." (Gilfillan, (1), pp. 68-69.) As a missionary
+among the Ojibway of northern Minnesota for a quarter of a century, Dr.
+Gilfillan learned to know and love the forests and lakes in the changing
+seasons of the year and to know the ways of life of the Ojibway as few
+have ever known them.
+
+The structures just mentioned were of a circular form, with the ends of
+the poles which supported the bark describing a circle on the ground. Of
+quite similar construction were the larger oval wigwams, where two
+groups of poles were arranged at the ends in the form of semicircles,
+with a ridgepole extending between the tops of the two groups. Other
+poles rested against the ridgepole and so formed the sloping supports
+upon which the strips of bark were placed. One most interesting example
+of this form of primitive habitation was visited by the writer during
+the month of October, 1899. It formed one of a small group of wigwams
+which at that time stood near the Canadian boundary, north of Ely,
+Minnesota. It was about 18 feet in length and between 8 and 9 feet in
+width. There were two entrances, one at each end, with hanging blankets
+to cover the openings. Within, along the median line on the ground,
+burned four small fires. Beautiful examples of rush mats, made by the
+women, were spread upon the ground near the sloping walls, these serving
+as seats during the day and sleeping places at night. Many articles hung
+from the poles which sustained the bark covering, as small bags and
+baskets, and many bunches of herbs. In one corner was a large covered
+_mokak_, and on the opposite side was a carefully wrapped drum, owned by
+the old Ojibway, _Ahgishkemunsit_, the Kingfisher, who was sitting on
+the ground near by.
+
+Quite similar to the preceding must have been the wigwam visited by Hind
+in 1858. This stood a short distance from Manitobah House, of the
+Hudson's Bay Company, and belonged to an Ojibway hunter. As Hind wrote:
+"His birch-bark tent was roomy and clean. Thirteen persons including
+children squatted round the fire in the centre. On the floor some
+excellent matting was laid upon spruce boughs for the strangers; the
+squaws squatted on the bare ground, the father of the family on an old
+buffalo robe. Attached to the poles of the tent were a gun, bows and
+arrows, a spear, and some mink skins. Suspended on cross pieces over the
+fire were fishing nets and floats, clothes, and a bunch of the bearberry
+to mix with tobacco for the manufacture of kinni-kinnik." (Hind, (1),
+II, p. 63.) Hind was accompanied on his second journey, in 1858, by a
+photographer, Humphrey Lloyd Hime, who made many interesting negatives
+while in the Indian country. Among the photographs made at this time are
+three views of bark wigwams of the Ojibway which stood near the banks of
+Red River. These are now reproduced in plates 7, _b_, and 8 _a_, _b_.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 8
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Ojibway camp west of Red River. Photograph by H. L.
+Hime, 1858]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Ojibway camp on bank of Red River. Photograph by H.
+L. Hime, 1858]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 9
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Wigwams covered with elm bark]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Two types of wigwams covered with birch bark
+
+OJIBWAY HABITATIONS, ABOUT 1865]
+
+While in the vicinity of Red River the year before (1857) Hind
+encountered several interesting Ojibway structures. At a point not far
+north of the Minnesota boundary his party crossed the Roseau a few miles
+east of Red River, and there "on the bank at the crossing place the
+skeletons of Indian wigwams and sweating-houses were grouped in a
+prominent position, just above a fishing weir where the Ojibways of this
+region take large quantities of fish in the spring. The framework of a
+large medicine wigwam measured twenty-five feet in length by fifteen in
+breadth; the sweating-houses were large enough to hold one man in a
+sitting position, and differed in no respect from those frequently seen
+on the canoe route between Lakes Superior and Winnipeg, and which have
+been often described by travelers." (Hind, (1), I, p. 163.) During the
+journey, when camping on an island in Bonnet Lake, the party encountered
+"an Indian cache elevated on a stage in the centre of the island. The
+stage was about seven feet above the ground, and nine feet long by four
+broad. It was covered with birch bark, and the treasures it held
+consisted of rabbit-skin robes, rolls of birch bark, a ragged blanket,
+leather leggings, and other articles of winter apparel, probably the
+greater part of the worldly wealth of an Indian family." (Op. cit., p.
+120.)
+
+The canoe route between the lakes mentioned by Hind was often broken by
+dangerous rapids, around which it was necessary to carry the canoes, as
+Catlin described the Ojibway party doing at the Falls of St. Anthony.
+
+The ceremonial lodge of the Ojibway, where the M[)i]de rites were
+enacted, was often 100 feet or more in length and about 12 feet in
+width. The frame was made of small saplings, bent and fastened by cords,
+similar to the frames of wigwams which were to be covered with mats or
+sheets of bark, but the coverings of the ceremonial lodges were usually
+of a more temporary nature, boughs and branches of the pine and spruce
+being sometimes used, which would soon fall away, although the rigid
+frame would stand from year to year, to be covered when required.
+Somewhat of this form was the "medicine lodge," described by Kane. This
+stood in the center of a large camp of the "Saulteaux" or Ojibway, not
+far from Fort Alexander, which was about 3 miles above Lake Winnipeg, on
+the bank of Winnipeg River. The camp was visited June 11, 1846, and in
+referring to the lodge: "It was rather an oblong structure, composed of
+poles bent in the form of an arch, and both ends forced into the ground,
+so as to form, when completed, a long arched chamber, protected from the
+weather by a covering of birch bark.... On my first entrance into the
+medicine lodge ... I found four men, who appeared to be chiefs, sitting
+upon mats spread upon the ground gesticulating with great violence, and
+keeping time to the beating of a drum. Something, apparently of a sacred
+nature was covered up in the centre of the group, which I was not
+allowed to see.... The interior of their lodge or sanctuary was hung
+round with mats constructed with rushes, to which were attached various
+offerings consisting principally of bits of red and blue cloth, calico,
+&c., strings of beads, scalps of enemies, and sundry other articles
+beyond my comprehension." (Kane, (1), pp. 68-71.)
+
+It is quite evident the frame of the large lodge encountered by Hind was
+similar to the structure described by Kane a few years before. Both
+stood in the northern part of the Ojibway country, a region where birch
+bark was extensively used as covering for the wigwams, and where it was
+easily obtained.
+
+The temporary, quickly raised shelters of the Ojibway were described by
+Tanner, who learned to make them from the people with whom he remained
+many years. Referring to a journey up the valley of the Assiniboin, he
+wrote: "In bad weather we used to make a little lodge, and cover it with
+three or four fresh buffaloe hides, and these being soon frozen, made a
+strong shelter from wind and snow. In calm weather, we commonly encamped
+with no other covering than our blankets." (Tanner, (1) p. 55.) On
+another occasion fire destroyed the wigwam and all the possessions of
+the family with whom he lived, and then, so he said: "We commenced to
+repair our loss, by building a small grass lodge, in which to shelter
+ourselves while we should prepare the pukkwi for a new wigwam. The
+women were very industrious in making these.... At night, also, when it
+was too dark to hunt, Wa-me-gon-a-biew and myself assisted at this
+labour. In a few days our lodge was completed." (Op. cit., p. 85.) And
+again when near Rainy Lake, "I had no pukkwi, or mats, for a lodge and
+therefore had to build one of poles and long grass." (p. 214.) It is
+quite evident the shelters of poles and grass, as mentioned by Tanner,
+were similar to those erected by the Assiniboin as described on another
+page, and as indicated in the painting by Paul Kane, which is reproduced
+as plate 25, _a_.
+
+Two very interesting old photographs, made more than half a century ago,
+are shown in plate 9. One, _a_, represents clearly the elm-bark covering
+of the wigwams, and in this picture the arbor suggests a Siouan rather
+than an Ojibway encampment; _b_ is more characteristic of the Ojibway.
+
+The structures encountered in the Ojibway country farther south differed
+from those already mentioned, the majority of which were covered with
+sheets of birch bark, a form which must necessarily have been restricted
+to the northern country. But the type was widely scattered northward,
+and undoubtedly extended eastward to the Atlantic, especially down the
+valley of the St. Lawrence into northern Maine and the neighboring
+Provinces. South of this zone were the dome-shaped mat or bark covered
+wigwams, varying in different localities according to the available
+supply of barks, or of rushes to be made into mats, which served to
+cover the rigid, oval-topped frame. Most interesting examples were
+standing in the Ojibway settlements on the shore of Mille Lac,
+Minnesota, during the spring of 1900. One, which may be accepted as a
+type specimen, was of a quadrilateral rather than oval outline of base,
+and measured about 14 feet each way, with a maximum height of 6 feet or
+more. The saplings which formed the frame were seldom more than 2 inches
+in diameter, one end being set firmly in the ground, the top being bent
+over and attached to similar pieces coming from the opposite side. Other
+small saplings or branches were tied firmly to these in a horizontal
+position about 2 feet apart, thus forming a rigid frame, over which was
+spread the covering of mats and sheets of bark, the latter serving as
+the roof. In this particular example the covering was held in place by
+cords which passed over the top and were attached to poles which hung
+horizontally about a foot above the ground. A second row of mats was
+fastened to the inside of the frame and others were spread on the ground
+near the walls. A small fire burned within near the center of the open
+space, although the cooking was often done outside, just beyond the
+single entrance.
+
+Although the Ojibway were numerous, they had few large villages or
+settlements. They lived for the most part in small, scattered groups,
+and often moved from place to place. However, there were some
+long-occupied sites, as at Red Lake, Sandy Lake, on the shores of Leech
+Lake, where the Pillagers gathered, and the more recently occupied
+villages at Mille Lac, sites once covered by the settlements of the
+Mdewakanton. These villages, which should more properly be termed
+"gathering places," at once suggest the various descriptions and
+accounts of the great village of the Illinois, which stood on the banks
+of the upper Illinois during the latter part of the seventeenth century
+and was many times visited by the French.
+
+When the Ojibway and Sioux gathered at Fort Snelling, at the mouth of
+the Minnesota River, during the summer of 1835 in the endeavor to
+establish peace between the two tribes or groups, they were encamped on
+opposite sides of the fort. Catlin, who was there at the time, wrote of
+the temporary camp of the Ojibway: "their wigwams made of birch bark,
+covering the frame work, which was of slight poles stuck in the ground,
+and bent over at the top, so as to give a rooflike shape to the lodge,
+best calculated to ward off rain and winds." (Catlin, (1), II, p. 137.)
+Unfortunately, the original painting of the camp does not exist in the
+great collection of Catlin paintings now belonging to the National
+Museum, Washington. In the catalogue of the collection printed in
+London, 1848, it appears as "334, Chippeway Village and Dog Feast at the
+Falls of St. Anthony; lodges built with birch-bark; Upper Mississippi."
+
+An outline drawing of the picture was given as plate 238 to illustrate
+the account quoted above, but how accurate either description or sketch
+may be is now quite difficult to determine. However, it is doubtful if
+the structures had flat ends, as indicated, and mats may have formed
+part of the covering. Catlin continued his narrative and told of the
+removal of the camp (p. 138): "After the business and amusements of this
+great Treaty between the Chippeways and Sioux were all over, the
+Chippeways struck their tents by taking them down and rolling up their
+bark coverings, which, with their bark canoes seen in the picture,
+turned up amongst their wigwams, were carried to the water's edge; and
+all things being packed in, men, women, dogs, and all, were swiftly
+propelled by paddles to the Falls of St Anthony." They reached "an eddy
+below the Falls, and as near as they could get by paddling." Here the
+canoes were unloaded and the canoes and all else carried about one-half
+mile above the Falls, where they again embarked and continued on their
+way. It is interesting to contemplate this scene and to realize it was
+enacted within the limits of the present city of Minneapolis so short a
+time ago. A beautiful example of the light birch-bark canoe of the
+Ojibway is shown in plate 10, _a_, and a photograph of two old Ojibway
+Indians with similar canoes is reproduced in plate 10, _b_. The canoes
+indicated by Kane in his painting (pl. 7, _a_) were of this form,
+probably the most graceful and easiest propelled craft ever devised.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 10
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Ojibway birch bark canoe. Northern Minnesota, 1899]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Ojibway Indians with birch bark canoes. North of
+Ely, Minn., 1899]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 11
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Trader's store at the village of the Pillagers, Cass
+Lake in the distance on the right. November 26, 1899]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Outside an elm-bark structure. At the Ojibway
+village of Sagawamick, on south shore of Mille Lac, Minnesota. May 21,
+1900]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 12
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Hammer, bag, and two skin-dressing tools]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Section of a rush mat, as used to form covering for
+a wigwam
+
+OBJECTS OF OJIBWAY MAKE]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 13
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Ojibway mortar and pestle]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Delaware mortar and pestle]
+
+[Illustration: _c._ Ojibway birch bark dish]
+
+The various structures in an Ojibway village do not appear to have been
+erected or placed with any degree of order. Certainly this is true of
+conditions in recent times, and whether any accepted or recognized plan
+was followed in the past is not known. The small wigwams formed an
+irregular group on the shore of a lake or the bank of a stream
+surrounded by the primeval forest.
+
+In the month of May, 1900, a council house which had been erected by the
+Ojibway some years before stood on a high point of land in the midst of
+dense woods, about 1 mile north of the outlet of Mille Lac--the
+beginning of Rum River--and about 200 yards from the lake shore. It was
+oriented with its sides facing the cardinal points, about 20 feet
+square, with walls 6 feet in height and the peak of the roof twice that
+distance above the ground. The heavy frame was covered with large sheets
+of elm bark, which had evidently been renewed from time to time during
+the preceding years. No traces of seats remained and grass was again
+growing on the ground which had served as the floor. This was the scene
+of the treaty of October 5, 1889, between the Ojibway of Mille Lac and
+the United States Government. Within a short time this very interesting
+primitive structure had disappeared and two years later no trace of it
+remained. Whether this represented an ancient type of building could not
+be ascertained.
+
+The Ojibway villages were supplied with the usual sweat houses, a small
+frame covered with blankets or other material, so often described.
+Resembling these were the shelters prepared for the use of certain old
+men who were believed to possess the power of telling of future events
+and happenings. Such a lodge was seen standing on the shore of Lake
+Superior, about 18 miles from Fond du Lac, July 27, 1826. As described
+by McKenney: "At this place, Burnt river is a place of divination, the
+seat of a _jongleur's_ incantations. It is a circle, made of eight
+poles, twelve feet high, and crossing at the top, which being covered in
+with mats, or bark, he enters, and foretells future events." (McKenney,
+(1), p. 269.) Interesting, indeed, are the many accounts of the
+predictions believed to have been made by these old men.
+
+A remarkable performance of this nature was witnessed by Paul Kane. When
+returning from the far West during the summer of 1848 the small party of
+which he was one arrived at Lake Winnipeg and on July 28 had advanced
+about midway down the eastern shore. On that day Kane made this entry in
+his journal: "_July 28th._--About 2 o'clock P.M., we endeavoured to
+proceed, but got only as far as the Dog's Head, the wind being so strong
+and unfavourable, that it was thought useless to run any risk for
+the short distance we would be able to make against it. In the evening
+our Indians constructed a jonglerie, or medicine lodge, the main object
+of which was to procure a fair wind for next day. For this purpose they
+first drive ten or twelve poles, nine or ten feet long, into the ground,
+enclosing a circular area of about three feet in diameter, with a boat
+sail open at the top. The medicine-man, one of which is generally found
+in every brigade, gets inside and commences shaking the poles violently,
+rattling his medicinal rattle, and singing hoarse incantations to the
+Great Spirit for a fair wind. Being unable to sleep on account of the
+discordant noises, I wrapped a blanket round me, and went out into the
+woods, where they were holding their midnight orgies, and lay down
+amongst those on the outside of the medicine lodge, to witness the
+proceedings. I had no sooner done so than the incantations at once
+ceased, and the performer exclaimed that a white man was present. How he
+ascertained this fact I am at a loss to surmise ... The Major,
+[M'Kenzie] ... with many other intelligent persons, is a firm believer
+in their medicine." (Kane, (1), pp. 439-441.)
+
+In addition to the several forms of structures erected by the Ojibway,
+as already described, they reared the elm-bark lodge which resembled in
+form the log cabin of the early settlers. Three of these were standing
+on the south shore of Mille Lac, Minnesota, during the spring of 1900,
+and the outside of one, showing the manner in which the bark covering
+was placed, is indicated in plate 11, _b_. This was similar in shape to
+the Sauk and Fox habitation reproduced in plate 19, although the Ojibway
+structure was more skillfully constructed. Habitations of a like nature
+were found among the Sioux villages on the banks of the Mississippi in
+the vicinity of Fort Snelling, and others were erected within a
+generation by the Menomini in northern Wisconsin, but whether this may
+be considered a primitive form of structure has not been determined.
+
+A trader's store standing near the Ojibway village on the shore of Cass
+Lake, Minnesota, during the late autumn of 1899 is shown in plate 11,
+_a_. Similar cabins were occupied by some of the Indian families, these
+having taken the place of the native wigwams.
+
+Various objects of primitive forms, made and used by the Ojibway within
+a generation, are shown in plates 12 and 13.
+
+CREE.
+
+The Cree (the Knisteneaux of Mackenzie) were closely related to the
+Ojibway; they spoke the same language, and had many customs in common.
+As Hayden wrote: "The Cree nation was originally a portion of the
+Chippewa, as the similarity of language proves; and even now they are
+so mingled with the latter people as with difficulty to be considered a
+distinct tribe, further than a slight difference in language and their
+local position." (Hayden, (1), p. 235.) Formerly they occupied the
+forest region to the eastward of the country which they later claimed.
+There they were probably accustomed to the mat or bark covered
+structures, similar to those of the neighboring Ojibway, but in more
+recent times, after having been attracted to the prairies by the
+buffalo, they followed the customs of the prairie tribes and for the
+most part made and used the typical conical skin-covered lodge.
+
+After reaching the open country, and becoming more accustomed to the
+life of roving hunters, they were necessarily less sedentary in their
+habits than formerly, and their camps probably seldom remained long in
+any one place. They became scattered over a wide region, and in 1856 it
+was said: "They number about ten or eleven hundred persons. Like most of
+the tribes in the Northwest Territory, they are separated into clans or
+bands, and live in different districts for greater advantages in
+hunting." Here is given a list of the several bands, with the number of
+skin lodges claimed by each group, but the "Pis-ka-kau-a-kis, or
+'Magpies,' are about thirty lodges; are stationed at Tinder Mountain;
+live in dirt lodges and log-cabins; cultivate the soil to some extent,
+and raise considerable quantities of corn and potatoes; hunt buffalo
+during the winter, and trade also with the Hudson's Bay Company."
+(Hayden, (1), p. 237.) The same writer continues (p. 238): "Besides the
+foregoing there are about two hundred lodges more who are not formed
+into bands, but scattered along Lac de L'Isle Croix, and live by hunting
+reindeer, moose, fish, and wild fowl. They live in skin tents in the
+summer, but sometimes build log and bark huts in winter, and seldom more
+than one cabin is found in the same place. These are the poorest of the
+Crees."
+
+Thus it will be understood how scattered bands of the same tribe often
+reared and occupied several forms of habitations, influenced by their
+natural surroundings and requirements. And here are references to the
+use of the bark-covered lodge, the skin-covered lodge of probably a
+different shape, the structure covered with earth or sod, and, lastly,
+the log cabin, by widely dispersed bands of the Cree.
+
+A simple form of temporary shelter was constructed by the Cree and
+Ojibway to serve during certain ceremonies. This was described about a
+century ago when recounting the customs of the "Sauteaux and the Crees."
+It was told that in public feasts "Several chiefs unite in preparing a
+suitable place, and in collecting sufficient provisions, for the
+accommodation of a numerous assemblage. To provide a place, poles are
+fixed obliquely into the ground, enclosing a sufficient space to hold
+several hundred, and at times, nearly a thousand people. On these
+poles, skins are laid, at the height of twelve or fifteen feet, thus
+forming a spacious court, or tent. The provisions consist both of dried
+and of fresh meat, as it would not be practicable to prepare a
+sufficient quantity of fresh meat, for such a multitude, which, however,
+consists only of men. At these feasts, the guests converse only on
+elevated topics, such as the public interests of the tribe, and the
+noble exploits of their progenitors, that they may infuse a publick and
+an heroic spirit, into their young men. Dancing always forms the
+concluding ceremony, at these festivals; and the women, who are not
+permitted to enter the place where they are celebrated, dance and sing
+around them, often keeping time with the music within." (Harmon, (1), p.
+362.) It is to be regretted that these early accounts are often so
+lacking in detail, and that so much is left to imagination. In this
+instance the form of the large structure was not mentioned, but it was
+probably extended, resembling to some degree the M[)i]de lodge of the
+Ojibway. Among the latter the large ceremonial lodge was covered with
+mats, sheets of bark, or sometimes with skins or boughs of pine or
+spruce. Like customs may have prevailed among the Cree.
+
+Proving the wandering, roving disposition of the Cree, and the
+consequent lack of permanent villages, Maximilian wrote from Fort Union,
+at the mouth of the Yellowstone, during the latter part of June, 1833:
+"The Crees live in the same territory as the Assiniboins, that is,
+between the Saskatschawan, the Assiniboin, and the Missouri. They ramble
+about in small bands with the others, are poor, have many dogs, which
+carry their baggage, but only a few horses. They live, like the
+Assiniboins, in leather tents, follow the herds of buffaloes, of which
+they sometimes kill great numbers in their parks. The Crees are reckoned
+at 600 or 800 tents." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 199-200.)
+
+The dog travois, such as was used by the Cree and mentioned in the
+preceding account, was of very ancient origin, having been seen and
+described by the first Spanish explorers to traverse the prairie lands
+of the Southwest. In _Relacion Postrera de Sivola_, prepared in the year
+1541, appears this interesting note:
+
+"These people have dogs like those in this country, except that they are
+somewhat larger, and they load these dogs like beasts of burden, and
+make saddles for them like our pack saddles, and they fasten them with
+their leather thongs, and these make their backs sore on the withers
+like pack animals. When they go hunting, they load these with their
+necessities, and when they move--for these Indians are not settled in
+one place, since they travel wherever the cows [buffalo] move, to
+support themselves--these dogs carry their houses, and they have the
+sticks of their houses dragging along tied on to the pack-saddles,
+besides the load which they carry on top, and the load may be, according
+to the dog, from 35 to 50 pounds." (Winship, (1), pp. 510-571.) This
+description could easily refer to conditions and customs among the
+tribes three centuries and more later.
+
+A very graphic sketch of a dog travois was made at Fort Union, October
+10, 1851, by the Swiss artist, Friedrich Kurz, and is now reproduced in
+plate 26, _b_, showing the method of attaching the poles, and how the
+load was rolled and placed upon the latter. The use of the horse for a
+similar purpose in later years followed as a natural sequence.
+
+Among the many paintings by Paul Kane, now preserved in the Royal
+Ontario Museum of Archaeology, at Toronto, is one bearing the legend:
+"Cree Indians Travelling." It represents a small party of Indians, some
+walking, others mounted on horses, with several horse and dog travois.
+The latter show long poles attached to the sides of the dogs, one end of
+the poles dragging on the ground, while about midway of their length is
+a small pack upon which a child is seated. The broken, rolling land of
+the north is represented with a few clumps of small trees. The picture
+is one of much beauty and interest, depicting as it does some of the
+primitive customs of the Cree.
+
+During the summer of 1858 the Hind expedition into the region far west
+of the Red River encountered many small groups of Cree hunters and also
+observed the ancient camp sites of the same tribe. They wrote in part:
+"Immediately on the banks of the Qu'appelle Valley near the 'Round Hill'
+opposite Moose Jaws Forks, are the remains of ancient encampments, where
+the Plain Crees, in the day of their power and pride, had erected large
+skin tents, and strengthened them with rings of stones placed round the
+base. These circular remains were twenty-five feet in diameter, the
+stones or boulders being about one foot in circumference. They wore the
+aspect of great antiquity, being partially covered with soil and grass.
+When this camp ground was occupied by the Crees, timber no doubt grew in
+the valley below, or on the prairie and ravines in detached groves, for
+their permanent camping grounds are always placed near a supply of fuel.
+
+"Making an early start in search of wood, we came suddenly upon four
+Cree tents, whose inmates were still fast asleep; about three hundred
+yards west of them we found ten more tents, with over fifty or sixty
+Indians in all. They were preparing to cross the valley in the direction
+of the Grand Coteau, following the buffalo. Their provisions for trade,
+such as dried meat and pemmican, were drawn by dogs, each bag of
+pemmican being supported upon two long poles, which are shaft, body, and
+wheels in one. Buffalo Pound Hill Lake, sixteen miles long, begins near
+Moose Jaws Forks, and on the opposite or south side of this long sheet
+of water, we saw eighteen tents and a large number of horses. The women
+in those we visited on our side of the valley and lake, had collected a
+great quantity of the mesaskatomina berry which they were drying." And
+not far beyond we "began to find the fresh bones of buffalo very
+numerous on the ground, and here and there startled a pack of wolves
+feeding on a carcas which had been deprived of its tongue and hump only
+by the careless, thriftless Crees. On the high banks of the valley the
+remains of ancient encampments in the form of rings of stones to hold
+down the skin tents are everywhere visible, and testify to the former
+numbers of the Plain Crees.... The largest ancient encampment we saw
+lies near a shallow lake in the prairie about a mile from the Qu'appelle
+valley. It is surrounded by a few low sandy and gravelly hills, and is
+quite screened from observation. It may have been a camping ground for
+centuries, as some circles of stones are partially covered with grass
+and embedded in the soil." (Hind, (1), I, pp. 338-341.)
+
+This is a simple explanation of the origin of small circles of stones
+now encountered in different parts of the country, but in other
+localities, where stones were not obtainable, masses of sod were used
+for the same purpose, and these in turn may have caused the small earth
+circles which are now discovered in the lower Mississippi Valley and
+elsewhere.
+
+CHEYENNE.
+
+As has been remarked by the most observant student of this tribe:
+"Information as to the region occupied by the Cheyenne in early days is
+limited and for the most part traditional. Some ethnologists declare
+that Indian tradition has no historical value, but other students of
+Indians decline to assent to this dictum. If it is to be accepted, we
+can know little of the Cheyenne until they are found as nomads following
+the buffalo over the plains. There is, however, a mass of traditionary
+data which points back to conditions at a much earlier date quite
+different from these. In primitive times they occupied permanent earth
+lodges and raised crops of corn, beans, and squashes, on which they
+largely depended for subsistence." (Grinnell, (1), p. 359.)
+
+According to tradition, which in part is verified by the accounts of
+early explorations, the Cheyenne at one time lived in the valley of the
+Minnesota, whence they gradually moved westward. Thus at least a part of
+the tribe removed from the edge of the timbered region to the plains, a
+movement which probably took place during the latter part of the
+eighteenth century.
+
+While living in the vicinity of the Minnesota the villages and camps of
+the Cheyenne undoubtedly resembled those of the Sioux of later days; the
+conical skin-covered lodge, or possibly the mat or bark structure of the
+timber people, as used by the Ojibway and others. But during the same
+period it is evident other bands of the tribe lived quite a distance
+westward, probably on the banks of the Missouri, and there the
+habitations were the permanent earth lodge, similar to those of the
+Pawnee, Mandan, and other Missouri Valley tribes. Sioux traditions refer
+to Cheyenne villages on the banks of the Missouri near Fort Yates, Sioux
+County, North Dakota. These were visited and described by Dr. Grinnell,
+during the spring of 1918, who wrote: "The Teton Sioux, now allotted and
+scattered over the Standing Rock Indian reservation, declare that on the
+west bank of the Missouri river, not far from Fort Yates, there were
+formerly two Cheyenne villages.... I visited the two sites. The most
+northerly one is situated on a bluff above the Missouri river on the
+south side of Porcupine creek, less than five miles north of Ft. Yates.
+The village has been partly destroyed by the Missouri river, which has
+undermined the bank and carried away some of the house rings reported to
+have been well preserved, but a number remain. Of these a few are still
+seen as the raised borders of considerable earth lodges, the rings about
+the central hollow being from twelve to fifteen inches above the
+surrounding soil, and the hollows noticeably deep. In most cases,
+however, the situation of the house is indicated merely by a slight
+hollow and especially by the peculiar character of the grass growing on
+the house site. The eye recognizes the different vegetation, and as soon
+as the foot is set on the soil within a house site, the difference is
+felt between that and the ground immediately without the site. The
+houses nearest both Porcupine creek and the Missouri river stand on the
+bank immediately above the water, and it is possible that some of those
+on the Porcupine have been undermined and carried away by that stream
+when in flood. This settlement must have been large. It stands on a
+flat, now bisected by a railroad embankment, slightly sloping toward the
+river, and the houses stood close together." More than 70 large house
+sites were counted, "one at least being 60 feet in diameter," and in
+addition to these were a large number of smaller ones. "On the gently
+rising land to the west of the Porcupine village the Cheyenne are said
+to have planted their corn, as also on the flats on the north side of
+the Porcupine river. The village site now stands on the farm of Yellow
+Lodge, a Yankton Sioux, who stated that he had always been told by the
+old people that this was a Cheyenne village and that in plowing he had
+often turned up pottery from the ground." And in reference to the age of
+this interesting site: "Sioux tradition declares that the village on
+the Porcupine river was established about 1733 or a little earlier,
+perhaps 1730; they fix the date as about one hundred years before the
+stars fell, 1833. It was a large village and was occupied for fifty
+years or more and then the people abandoned it and moved over to a point
+on Grand river twenty miles above its mouth. The date of the removal is
+given as about the time of a great flood at this point, which, it is
+said, took place about 1784." (Grinnell, Op. cit.) This later village
+existed until about 1840 and appears to have been composed of skin
+lodges, not the permanent earth structures. Sioux tradition also places
+the earlier home of the people who erected the village on the Porcupine
+at some point in the Valley of the Minnesota.
+
+The second of the two sites mentioned stood some 2 miles below Porcupine
+Creek, and it is the belief of Dr. Grinnell that these were the villages
+to which Lewis and Clark referred in their journals as having been
+passed by the expedition on the 15th and 16th of October, 1804. At that
+time game was abundant and several hunting parties of the Arikara were
+encountered, and an entry in the journal dated October 15, 1804, reads:
+"We stopped at three miles on the north a little above a camp of Ricaras
+who are hunting, where we were visited by about thirty Indians. They
+came over in their skin canoes, bringing us meat, for which we returned
+them beads and fishhooks. About a mile higher we found another
+encampment of Ricaras on the south, consisting of eight lodges: here we
+again ate and exchanged a few presents. As we went we discerned numbers
+of other Indians on both sides of the river; and at about nine miles we
+came to a creek on the south, where we saw many high hills resembling a
+house with a slanting roof; and a little below the creek an old village
+of the Sharha or Cheyenne Indians.... At sunset we halted, after coming
+ten miles over several sandbars and points, above a camp of ten Ricara
+lodges on the north side." (Lewis and Clark, (1), pp. 108-109.) Such was
+the nature of the country a little more than a century ago.
+
+Another ancient village site presenting many interesting features stands
+on the bank of an old bed of the Sheyenne River, near Lisbon, Ransom
+County, N. Dak. This would have been about midway between the Minnesota
+River and the village on the Missouri near Porcupine Creek. A plan of
+this village made a few years ago is now preserved in the Historical
+Society of North Dakota and was reproduced by Dr. Grinnell in the
+article cited. It shows a large number--70 or more--earth-lodge sites,
+varying in size, but closely grouped, and protected by a ditch except on
+the river side. There is a remarkable similarity between this site and
+others east of the Mississippi, where structures of a like form
+evidently stood in the centuries before the coming of Europeans. The
+ditch may have been accompanied by an embankment, in turn surmounted by
+palisades. The river served to protect the settlement on the north, the
+encircling embankment and ditch reaching the bank of the stream both
+above and below the occupied area.
+
+Unfortunately no sketch or picture of any sort of a Cheyenne earth lodge
+is known to exist, but the villages just mentioned must necessarily have
+resembled in appearance those of the Pawnee of a later generation,
+remarkable photographs of which have been preserved and which are shown
+in the present work. And as Dr. Grinnell has said in a recent
+communication (February 2, 1920) when referring to the places long ago
+occupied by the camps of the Cheyenne: "I have walked about on the sites
+of these old villages, and the grandmother of a woman of my
+acquaintance, and probably the father of that woman, lived in
+earth-lodge houses, presumably very similar to those occupied in my time
+by the Pawnees and the Mandans. I have never seen one, however, and do
+not know anyone who has seen one. Many years ago, I might have procured
+from old Elk River a description of such houses, though he was even then
+very old and growing feeble. It is too late to lament that now."
+
+The conical skin lodge of the Cheyenne resembled that of other plains
+tribes, and they must in earlier times, when buffalo were so numerous
+and easily secured, have been rather large and commodious structures.
+When Lewis and Clark descended the Missouri, on their return from the
+far west, they reached on August 21, 1806, an encampment of the Cheyenne
+on the bank of the Missouri, opposite the upper village of the Arikara,
+not far below the old Cheyenne village mentioned in the journal of the
+expedition on October 15, 1804. To quote from the entry made August 21,
+1806: "... arrived opposite to the upper Ricara villages. We saluted
+them with the discharge of four guns, which they answered in the same
+manner; and on our landing we were met by the greater part of the
+inhabitants of each village, and also by a band of Chayennes, who were
+encamped on a hill in the neighbourhood...." After conversing with all
+concerning the Mandans, "The sun being now very hot, the chief of the
+Chayennes invited us to his lodge, which was at no great distance from
+the river. We followed him, and found a very large lodge, made of twenty
+buffaloe skins, surrounded by eighteen or twenty lodges, nearly equal in
+size. The rest of the nation are expected to-morrow, and will make the
+number of one hundred and thirty or fifty lodges, containing from three
+hundred and fifty to four hundred men, at which the men of the nation
+may be computed. These Chayennes are a fine looking people, of a large
+stature, straight limbs, high cheek-bones and noses, and of a complexion
+similar to that of the Ricaras." (Lewis and Clark, (1), II, pp.
+413-414.)
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 14
+
+[Illustration: CHEYENNE. STUMP HORSE AND FAMILY]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 15
+
+[Illustration: "ENCAMPMENT OF THE PIEKANN INDIANS"
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833]
+
+The photograph reproduced in plate 14 shows a Cheyenne family group, an
+interesting example of a travois, and part of a lodge. The latter
+differs from all described on the preceding pages and evidently
+resembles those erected by the Pawnee in their temporary camps. This
+form may have been used in later times in the place of the conical skin
+lodge, although the latter was not abandoned, but, as among other
+tribes, the Cheyenne appear to have erected several types of shelters or
+habitations, governed by the available supply of materials necessary for
+their construction.
+
+Large lodges, evidently tipis, set up for special purposes by the
+Cheyenne, are mentioned by Grinnell. In the spring of 1853 the main
+village of that tribe, so he wrote, stood "at the mouth of Beaver Creek
+on the South Platte. There a large lodge was set up as a meeting-place
+for each of the soldier bands. To each such place came the relations of
+those killed the year before to implore the soldier bands to take pity
+on them and to help to revenge their injuries." And at this time many
+presents were given the warriors. (Grinnell, (2), p. 80.)
+
+This was before many of the primitive customs of the tribe had been
+changed through contact with the whites.
+
+BLACKFOOT CONFEDERACY.
+
+The tribes forming this group are the Siksika, or Blackfeet proper, the
+Piegan, and the Kainah, or Bloods. Closely allied and associated with
+these were the Atsina, a branch of the Arapaho, but who later became
+incorporated with the Assiniboin. These tribes roamed over a wide
+territory of mountains, plains, and valleys.
+
+Early accounts of the manners and ways of life of the Blackfeet are to
+be found in the journals kept by traders belonging to the Hudson's Bay
+Company, who penetrated the vast, unknown wilderness southwestward from
+York Factory during the eighteenth century. Although the records are all
+too brief and leave much to be desired, nevertheless they are of the
+greatest interest, referring as they do to the people while yet in a
+primitive state, with no knowledge of the customs of Europeans.
+
+The first of the journals to be mentioned is that of Anthony Hendry, who
+left York Factory June 26, 1754. He ascended Hayes River many miles,
+thence, after crossing numerous lakes and streams and traversing forests
+and plains, arrived on Monday, October 14, 1754, at a point not far
+northeastward from the present city of Calgary, Alberta. This was in the
+country of the Blackfeet, mentioned in the journal as the Archithinue
+Natives. That same day, so the narrative continues: "Came to 200 tents
+of Archithinue Natives, pitched in two rows, and an opening in the
+middle; where we were conducted to the Leader's tent; which was at one
+end, large enough to contain fifty persons; where he received us seated
+on a clear [white] Buffalo skin, attended by 20 elderly men. He made
+signs for me to sit down on his right hand: which I did. Our Leader set
+on several grand-pipes, and smoked all round, according to their usual
+custom: not a word was yet spoke on either side. Smoking being over,
+Buffalo flesh boiled was served round in baskets of a species of bent,
+and I was presented with 10 Buffalo tongues." The following day he again
+visited the lodge of the chief, where he received as a gift "a handsome
+Bow & Arrows," and the journal continues: "I departed and took a view of
+the camp. Their tents were pitched close to one another in two regular
+lines, which formed a broad street open at both ends. Their horses are
+turned out to grass, their legs being fettered: and when wanted, are
+fastened to lines cut of Buffalo skin, that stretches along & is
+fastened to stakes drove in the ground. They have hair halters, Buffalo
+skin pads, & stirrups of the same."
+
+Although Hendry mentioned the encampment to consist of 200 lodges it is
+quite evident others were in the vicinity, or came soon after his
+arrival, for three days later, on October 17, he noted in his journal
+"322 tents of Archithinue Natives unpitched and moved Westward."
+(Hendry, (1), pp. 337-340.) They did not have permanent villages, and
+"never wanted food, as they followed the Buffalo & killed them with the
+Bows and Arrows. They were unacquainted with the canoe, would not eat
+fish, and their garments were finely painted with red paint." Such were
+the Blackfeet about the middle of the eighteenth century.
+
+On June 27, 1772, Matthew Cocking, second factor at York Factory,
+started on a journey quite similar to that performed by Hendry just
+eighteen years earlier. He ascended Hayes River, passed north of Lake
+Winnipeg, and continued in a southwestwardly direction to some point not
+far north of the South Saskatchewan River in the extreme western part of
+the present Province of Saskatchewan. When near this position on
+December 1, 1772, they encamped not far from a "Beast pound," which had
+probably stood from year to year. That day, so he entered in his
+journal, "our Archithinue friends came to us and pitched a small
+distance from us; on one side the pound 21 tents of them, the other
+seven are pitched another way." And the following day, "the Archithinue
+Natives repairing the pound, the repair we gave it on our arrival not
+being sufficient." Two days later "the Archithinue Natives drove into
+the pound 3 male & one female Buffalo, & brought several considerable
+droves very near. They set off in the Evening; & drive the Cattle all
+night. Indeed not only at this Game, but in all their actions they far
+excell the other Natives. They are all well mounted.... Their Weapons,
+Bows & Arrows. Several have on Jackets of Moose leather six fold,
+quilted, & without sleeves." Cocking evidently visited many of the
+tents, and on December 5 wrote: "Our Archithinue Friends are very
+Hospitable, continually inviting us to partake of their best fare;
+generally berries infused in water with fat, very agreeable eating.
+Their manner of showing respect to strangers is, in holding the pipe
+while they smoke: this is done three times. Afterwards every person
+smokes in common; the Women excepted.... The tobacco they use is of
+their own planting.... These people are much more cleanly in their
+cloathing, & food, than my companions: Their Victuals are dressed in
+earthen pots, of their own Manufacturing; much in the same form as
+Newcastle pots, but without feet: their fire tackling a black stone used
+as flint, & a kind of Ore as a steel, using tuss balls as tinder, (i.
+e.) a kind of moss." December 6, 1772: "No success in pounding: the
+Strangers say the season is past." On December 21 "we were joined by ten
+tents of Asinepoet Indians," and the following day "by five tents of
+Nehetheway Indians." The former were Assiniboin and the latter Cree.
+(Cocking, (1), pp. 110-112.)
+
+One of the reasons which inspired Cocking to undertake the long journey
+into the wilderness was the desire to win the Blackfeet away from the
+French interests, and to persuade them to carry their furs to the posts
+of the Hudson's Bay Company. Soon the English were successful in their
+endeavors, and for several generations secured the furs and robes
+collected by the people of the ever-shifting camps, who followed the
+buffalo as the vast herds moved from place to place with the changing
+seasons of the year. Later, traders from another people penetrated the
+country to the upper waters of the Missouri, and certain of the
+Blackfeet began trading at the posts erected by these newcomers. The
+various tribes wandered over a wide region, and 60 years ago it was
+said:
+
+"The Blood Indians range through the district along Maria, Teton, and
+Belly Rivers, inclining west and northwest far into the interior. In
+this section, wood is more abundant, pasturage excellent, and,
+consequently, buffalo almost always abound there. The Blackfeet inhabit
+a portion of country farther north than the Bloods, extending to the
+banks of the Saskatchewan, along which they often reside. They have
+never altogether abandoned their English friends, and more frequently
+dispose of their furs to them than to the American traders on the head
+branches of the Missouri. The Piegans roam through the Rocky Mountains
+on the south side of Maria River, on both banks of the Missouri.... They
+also hunt as far down the Missouri as the Mussel-shell River, and up
+that stream to the borders of the Crow country. The three divisions ...
+constitute the Blackfoot nation proper, whose name has become notorious
+for their fierce and deadly struggles with all the neighboring tribes,
+and in former times struck terror to all white men who travelled in any
+district from the Saskatchewan to the Yellowstone, and from the
+Yellowstone to the Columbia.... These bands all live in skin tents, like
+the rest of the prairie tribes, follow the chase for a subsistence, and
+in former years were famous for their war excursions against neighboring
+tribes." (Hayden, (1), pp. 249-250.)
+
+The region mentioned would have included the central portion of the
+present State of Montana and northward. Marias River flows into the
+Missouri just below Fort Benton.
+
+Maximilian, who visited the Blackfeet during the summer of 1833, has
+left a very concise and interesting account of the appearance of their
+camps:
+
+"The leather tents of the Blackfeet, their internal arrangement, and the
+manner of loading their dogs and horses, agree, in every respect, with
+those of the Sioux and Assiniboins, and all the wandering tribes of
+hunters of the upper Missouri. The tents, made of tanned buffalo skin,
+last only for one year; they are, at first, neat and white, afterwards
+brownish, and at the top, where the smoke issues, black, and, at last,
+transparent, like parchment, and very light inside. Painted tents,
+adorned with figures, are very seldom seen, and only a few chiefs
+possess them. When these tents are taken down, they leave a circle of
+sods, exactly as in the dwellings of the Esquimaux. They are often
+surrounded by fifteen or twenty dogs, which serve, not for food, but
+only for drawing and carrying their baggage. Some Blackfeet, who have
+visited the Sioux, have imitated them in eating dogs, but this is rare.
+Near the tents they keep their dog sledges, with which they form conical
+piles resembling the tents themselves, but differing from them in not
+being covered with leather. On these they hang their shields, travelling
+bags, saddles and bridles; and at some height, out of the reach of the
+hungry dogs, they hang the meat, which is cut into long strips, their
+skins, &c. The medicine bag or bundle, the conjuring apparatus, is often
+hung and fastened to a separate pole, or over the door of the tent.
+Their household goods consist of buffalo robes and blankets, many kinds
+of painted parchment bags, some of them in a semicircular form, with
+leather strings and fringes; wooden dishes, large spoons made of the
+horn of the mountain sheep, which are very wide and deep.... In the
+center of the tent there is a small fire in a circle composed of stones,
+over which the kettle for cooking is suspended." (Maximilian, (1), pp.
+250-251.)
+
+A painting of a Piegan camp was made at that time by Bodmer, who
+accompanied Maximilian, and served as an illustration in the latter's
+work. It is here reproduced as plate 15. It shows clearly the many skin
+lodges forming the encampment, the numerous dogs and horses, with some
+of the Indians wrapped in highly decorated buffalo robes. Some of the
+lodges are decorated, but the great majority are plain, thus conforming
+with the description.
+
+Maximilian again wrote while at Fort McKenzie, in August, 1833:
+
+"Having made our arrangements on the first day of our arrival, and
+viewed the Indian camp, with its many dogs, and old dirty leather tents,
+we were invited, on the following day, together with Mr Mitchell, to a
+feast, given by the Blackfoot chief, Mehkskehme-Sukahs (the iron shirt).
+We proceeded to a large circle in the middle of the camp, enclosed with
+a kind of fence of boughs of trees, which contained part of the tents,
+and was designed to confine the horses during the night, for the Indians
+are so addicted to horse stealing that they do not trust each other. The
+hut of the chief was spacious; we had never before seen so handsome a
+one; it was full fifteen paces in diameter, and was very clean and
+tastefully decorated. We took our seats, without ceremony, on buffalo
+skins, spread out on the left hand of the chief, round the fire, in the
+centre of the tent, which was enclosed in a circle of stones, and a dead
+silence prevailed. Our host was a tall, robust man, who at this time had
+no other clothes than his breechcloth; neither women nor children were
+visible. A tin dish was set before us, which contained dry grated meat,
+mixed with sweet berries, which we ate with our fingers, and found very
+palatable. After we had finished, the chief ate what was left in the
+dish, and took out of a bag a chief's scarlet uniform, with blue facings
+and yellow lace, which he had received from the English, six red and
+black plumes of feathers, a dagger with its sheath, a coloured
+pocket-handkerchief, and two beaver skins, all of which he laid before
+Mr Mitchell as a present, who was obliged to accept these things whether
+he liked or not, thereby laying himself under the obligation of making
+presents in return, and especially a new uniform. When the chief began
+to fill his pipe, made of green talc, we rose and retired (quite in
+Indian fashion) in silence, and without making any salutations." (Op.
+cit., pp. 261-262.)
+
+As Maximilian had already visited and seen many skin lodges as he
+ascended the Missouri, his remarks concerning this one which belonged to
+the Blackfeet chief are most interesting. It was between 40 and 50 feet
+in diameter, very clean and well decorated, probably a remarkable
+example.
+
+The circles of earth which indicated the former positions of lodges were
+noticed by Maximilian, and he again mentioned them while at Fort Union,
+at the mouth of the Yellowstone, October 16, 1833. He said (p. 305):
+"The little prairie fox was so hungry, and, therefore so tame, that it
+often visited the environs of the fort, and we found these pretty little
+animals among the circles of turf which were left on the removal of the
+Indian tents."
+
+Another visit to the Piegan, in the same region, was made just 20 years
+later, during the month of September, 1853. J. M. Stanley, who
+accompanied Gov. Stevens as the artist of the expedition, left camp on
+the banks of Marias River and three days later, September 14, 1853,
+reached the divide between Milk and Bow Rivers: "From this divide I had
+a view of the Bull's Head, forming the base of Cypress mountain.... At 1
+o'clock I descended to a deep valley, in which flows an affluent of
+Beaver river. Here was the Piegan camp, of ninety lodges, under their
+chief Low Horn, one hundred and sixty-three miles north, 20 deg. west, of
+Fort Benton.
+
+"Little Dog conducted me, with my party, to his lodge, and immediately
+the chief and braves collected in the 'council Lodge,' to receive my
+message...." This was conducted with customary formality, and the next
+day, September 15, "At an early hour a town crier announced the
+intention of the chief to move camp. The horses were immediately brought
+in and secured around their respective lodges, and in less than one hour
+the whole encampment was drawn out in two parallel lines on the plains,
+forming one of the most picturesque scenes I have ever witnessed.
+
+"Preparation for their transportation is made in the following manner:
+The poles of the lodges, which are from twenty to thirty-five feet in
+length, are divided, the small ends being lashed together and secured to
+the shoulders of the horse, allowing the butt-ends to drag upon the
+ground on either side; just behind the horse are secured to
+cross-pieces, to keep the poles in their respective places, and upon
+which are placed the lodge and domestic furniture. This also serves for
+the safe transportation of the children and infirm unable to ride on
+horseback--the lodge being folded so as to allow two or more to ride
+securely. The horses dragging this burden--often of three hundred pounds
+are also ridden by the squaws, with a child astride behind, and one in
+her arms, embracing a favorite young pup.
+
+"Their dogs (of which they have a large number) are also used in
+transporting their effects in the same manner as the horses, making,
+with ease, twenty miles a day, dragging forty pounds. In this way this
+heterogeneous caravan, comprising of a thousand souls, fell into line
+and trotted quietly until night, while the chiefs and braves rode in
+front, flank, or rear, ever ready for the chase or defence against a
+foe.... Like other tribes in this region, the Piegans retain all their
+primitive customs, adhering with faithful pertinacity to the ceremonies
+of their forefathers." (Stanley, (1), pp. 448-449.) At that time the
+Piegan were estimated to have had 430 lodges, the average number of
+persons occupying each being 10.
+
+During this brief but interesting journey Stanley made many sketches of
+the Indians with whom he came in contact, but not one of the drawings is
+known to exist at the present time. His beautiful painting of a buffalo
+hunt, shown in plate 2, is one of his five pictures now in the National
+Museum at Washington.
+
+The Blackfeet allies often moved in great numbers from place to place
+when searching for the herds of buffalo or tracking some enemy tribe.
+Such a war party was encountered on the banks of the River Saskatchewan,
+two days' journey below Fort Pitt, about the present town of Battleford,
+Saskatchewan, on June 1, 1848. Among the party then going from Fort Pitt
+to Norway House, the Hudson's Bay Company's post on the northeast shore
+of Lake Winnipeg, was the Canadian artist Kane, who entered in his
+journal: "We saw a large party of mounted Indians, riding furiously
+towards us. On their nearer approach they proved to be a large war
+party, consisting of Blackfoot Indians, Blood Indians, Sur-cees, Gros
+Ventres, and Paygans.... We instantly put ashore to meet them.... They
+told us they were a party of 1,500 warriors, from 1,200 lodges, who were
+then 'pitching on' towards Fort Edmonton; that is, they were making
+short journeys, and pitching their tents on towards Edmonton, leaving
+few behind capable of bearing arms. They were in pursuit of the Crees
+and Assiniboines, whom they threatened totally to annihilate, boasting
+that they themselves were as numerous as the grass on the plains. They
+were the best mounted, the best looking, the most warlike in appearance,
+and the best accoutred of any tribe I had ever seen on the continent
+during my route.... After our smoke several of the young Braves engaged
+in a horse race, to which sport they are very partial, and at which they
+bet heavily; they generally ride on those occasions stark naked, without
+a saddle, and with only a lasso fastened to the lower jaw of the horse
+as represented in Sketch No. 16." (Kane, (1), pp. 417-420.) The "sketch
+No. 16" is here reproduced in plate 16, _a_. It shows, in addition to
+the horses, several conical skin-covered lodges, the one on the right
+being highly decorated.
+
+The valley of the Saskatchewan and southward to the waters of the
+Missouri was a region frequented by many tribes, rich in game, and one
+from which the Hudson's Bay Company derived quantities of furs. The
+Blackfeet, who, as already mentioned, occupied in recent years the
+country about the headwaters of the Missouri, formerly lived farther
+north, and about the close of the eighteenth century were encountered
+near the Saskatchewan, neighbors of the Assiniboin and Cree. About the
+year 1790 Mackenzie traversed the country, and wrote, regarding the
+number and distribution of the tribes then claiming that northern
+region: "At Nepawi, and South-Branch House, about thirty tents of
+Knisteneaux, or ninety warriors; and sixty tents of Stone-Indians, or
+Assiniboins, who are their neighbors, and are equal to two hundred men;
+their hunting ground extends upwards to about Eagle Hills. Next to them
+are those who trade at Forts George and Augustus, and are about eighty
+tents or upwards of Knisteneaux: on either side of the river, their
+number may be two hundred. In the same country are one hundred and forty
+tents of Stone-Indians; not quite half of them inhabit the West woody
+country; the others never leave the plains, and their numbers cannot be
+less than four hundred and fifty men. At the Southern headwaters of the
+North branch dwells a tribe called Sarsees, consisting of about
+thirty-five tents, or one hundred and twenty men. Opposite to those
+Eastward, on the head-waters of the South Branch, are the Picaneaux, to
+the number of from twelve to fifteen hundred men. Next to them, on the
+same water, are the Blood-Indians, of the same nation as the last, to
+the number of about fifty tents, or two hundred and fifty men. From them
+downwards extend the Black-Feet Indians, of the same nation as the two
+last tribes; their number may be eight hundred men. Next to them, and
+who extend to the confluence of the South and North branch, are the
+Fall, or Big-bellied Indians, who may amount to about six hundred
+warriors." (Mackenzie, (1), p. lxx.) "South-Branch House" of this
+narrative stood between the north and south branches of the
+Saskatchewan, near the present town of Dalmeny, in the Province of
+Saskatchewan. The Picaneaux, who probably possessed from 200 to 300
+skin-covered lodges, were the Piegan, the Piekann Indians of Maximilian,
+whose village as it appeared in 1833 was painted by Bodmer. Likewise the
+Fall or Big-bellied Indians, whose habitat about the year 1790 was near
+the junction of the two branches of the Saskatchewan, were the Atsina,
+the Gros Ventres of the Prairie, and their village or camp in 1790 was
+probably quite similar to the one visited by Maximilian 43 years later,
+when it was sketched by Bodmer.
+
+By reason of the roving disposition of the northern tribes, those
+mentioned in the preceding quotations and their neighbors, it was not
+possible for them to erect and maintain permanent villages. The
+skin-covered lodge served as a shelter easily and quickly raised and
+readily transported from place to place as requirements and desires made
+necessary. But many bark-covered structures were probably to have been
+found scattered throughout the wooded sections.
+
+Something of the manners and ways of life of these people may be
+gathered from another passage in Mackenzie's narrative: "In the fall of
+the year the natives meet the traders at the forts, where they barter
+the furs or provisions which they may have procured; then they obtain
+credit, and proceed to hunt the beavers, and do not return till the
+beginning of the year; when they are again fitted out in the same manner
+and come back the latter end of March, or the beginning of April. They
+are now unwilling to repair to the beaver hunt until the waters are
+clear of ice, that they may kill them with fire-arms, which the
+Chepewyans are averse to employ. The major part of the latter return to
+the barren grounds, and live during the summer with their relations and
+friends in the enjoyment of that plenty which is derived from numerous
+herds of deer. But those of that tribe who are most partial to these
+desarts, cannot remain there in winter, and they are obliged, with the
+deer, to take shelter in the woods during that rigorous season, when
+they contrive to kill a few beavers, and send them by young men, to
+exchange for iron utensils and ammunition." (Mackenzie, (1), pp.
+xc-xci.)
+
+The large ceremonial lodges erected by the Blackfeet were among the most
+interesting structures reared by the tribes of the Northwest. A
+remarkable example was encountered by the Fisk party September 1, 1862,
+near the banks of Milk River, a short distance from Fort Benton. As
+described in the journal: "We passed this afternoon an abandoned camp of
+some three thousand or four thousand Blackfeet Indians. A large
+'medicine lodge,' in which they had celebrated their superstitious
+rites, was left standing, although its covering had been mostly stripped
+from its frame-work. It was circular, and about one hundred feet in
+diameter and forty feet high in the centre, the roof poles running from
+the top down to and around a tree, which was erected for a centre pole.
+This, in time of occupancy, is covered with dressed buffalo skins, and
+constitutes the Indian's highest achievement in the architectural line."
+(Fisk, (1), p. 24.) The entire ceremony attending the selection of a
+site for the structure, the cutting of the poles, the erection of the
+associated sweat lodges, and the final raising of the medicine lodge,
+has been recorded by Grinnell, (3), pages 263-267, and is one of the
+most complete accounts of a native ceremony ever prepared.
+
+ARAPAHO.
+
+The ancient habitat of the Arapaho, according to tradition, was once far
+northeast of the country which they later occupied. It may have been
+among the forests of the region about the headwaters of the Mississippi,
+the present State of Minnesota, where their villages would have stood on
+the shores of lakes and streams. But later, like the related Cheyenne,
+with whom they have been closely allied during recent generations and
+probably for a long period, they reached the prairies, through what
+causes may never be known, and there, with different environments, their
+manners and ways of life changed. While a people of the timbered
+country, they undoubtedly reared and occupied the forms of habitations
+so characteristic of the forests, as exemplified by the wigwams of the
+Ojibway and other tribes in recent times, but after reaching the prairie
+country, where buffalo were obtained in such vast numbers, their
+villages or camps assumed the appearance of those of the Siouan tribes,
+conical skin lodges taking the place of the mat or bark covered
+structures.
+
+The Atsina, a detached division of the Arapaho, closely associated with
+the Blackfeet, were often mentioned by the early writers as the Gros
+Ventres of the Prairie, and in certain English narratives as the Fall or
+Rapid Indians. In other journals they were mentioned under the name
+Minnetarees of Fort de Prairie. Thus they were called by the early
+American explorers.
+
+On May 29, 1805, just two weeks before arriving at the Great Falls of
+the Missouri, the Lewis and Clark party reached Judith River, and a
+short distance above its junction with the Missouri "We saw the fires of
+one hundred and twenty-six lodges, which appeared to have been deserted
+about twelve or fifteen days, and on the other side of the Missouri a
+large encampment, apparently made by the same nation. On examining some
+moccasins which we found there, our Indian woman said that they did not
+belong to her own nation the Snake Indians, but she thought that they
+indicated a tribe on this side of the Rocky mountains, and to the north
+of the Missouri; indeed it is probable that these are the Minnetarees of
+fort de Prairie." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, p. 234.) The following year,
+when the expedition was returning from the west, the tribe was again
+mentioned. On July 15, 1806, the expedition passed Shields River, and
+two days later reached Brattons River (now Bridger Creek), a tributary
+of the Yellowstone in the present Sweetgrass County, Montana. Here, "In
+one of the low bottoms of the river was an Indian fort, which seems to
+have been built during the last summer. It was built in the form of a
+circle, about fifty feet in diameter, five feet high, and formed of
+logs, lapping over each other, and covered on the outside with bark set
+up on end, the entrance also was guarded by a work on each side of it,
+facing the river. These intrenchments, the squaw informs us, are
+frequently made by the Minnetarees and other Indians at war with the
+Shoshonees, when pursued by their enemies on horseback." Another similar
+work was encountered the next day. (Lewis and Clark, (1), II, pp.
+379-380.)
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 16
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Blackfoot camp. Paul Kane, 1848]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Arapaho village, Whitewood Canyon, Wyoming, about
+1870]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 17
+
+[Illustration: "CAMP OF THE GROS VENTRES OF THE PRAIRIES" ON THE UPPER
+MISSOURI
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833]
+
+The preceding references to fortified camps are of great interest, but
+similar works were mentioned by other explorers of the upper Missouri
+Valley. During the summer of 1833 several were encountered by
+Maximilian, and on July 18 of that year he wrote: "On this day at noon,
+we reached, on the south bank, an Indian fort ... it is a kind of
+breastwork, which Indian war-parties construct in haste of dry trunks of
+trees.... This fort consisted of a fence, and several angles, enclosing
+a rather small space, with the open side towards the river. In the
+center of the space there was a conical hut, composed of wood. Near this
+fort, on the same bank of the river, there was a beaver's den made of a
+heap of brushwood." (Maximilian, (1), p. 216.) Six days before, on July
+12, they had encountered several huts probably similar to that which
+stood within the "fort." In the narrative it is said: "Just at the place
+where our vessel lay, were four old Indian huts, of some war or hunting
+party, composed of trunks and boughs of trees piled together in a
+square, in which some of our party made a fire to cook their meat.
+Scarcely 100 paces above these huts, was the Indian Fort Creek of Lewis
+and Clark." (Op. cit., p. 212.)
+
+Elsewhere in this sketch other native "forts" will be mentioned. The
+erection of such works appears to have been quite common among the
+widely scattered tribes.
+
+Fortunately, a very interesting picture of a skin lodge village or camp
+of the Atsina has been preserved, a painting made by Bodmer during the
+summer of 1833, when it was visited by Maximilian. It stood on the bank
+of the Yellowstone, at the mouth of the Big Horn, near the dividing line
+between Rosebud and Yellowstone Counties, Montana. Describing the
+settlement as it appeared on the evening of August 3, 1833. Maximilian
+wrote: "On the left was the mouth of Bighorn River, between considerable
+hills, on which numbers of Indians had collected. In the front of the
+eminence the prairie declined gently towards the river, where above 260
+leather tents of the Indians were set up; the tent of the principal
+chief was in the foreground, and, near it, a high pole, with the
+American flag. The whole prairie was covered with Indians, in various
+groups, and with numerous dogs; horses of every colour were grazing
+round, and horsemen galloping backwards and forwards, among whom was a
+celebrated chief, who made a good figure on his light bay horse." These
+were the Gros Ventres, "called by the English, Fall Indians."
+(Maximilian, (1), pp. 231-232.) Bodmer's painting, or more correctly, an
+engraving made from the painting, is reproduced in plate 17.
+
+On July 8, 1842, Fremont, while on his journey to the Rocky Mountains,
+reached a village of the Arapaho and Cheyenne. But before arriving at
+the village the party came in contact with a large number of Indians
+belonging to the two tribes, who were chasing a herd of buffalo. Of the
+exciting scene presented by these many mounted Indians and the rushing
+buffalo, he left a vivid account: "We were too far to hear the report of
+the guns, or any sound; and at every instant, through the clouds of
+dust, which the sun made luminous, we could see for a moment two or
+three buffalo dashing along, and close behind them an Indian with his
+long spear, or other weapon, and instantly again they disappeared. The
+apparent silence, and the dimly seen figures flitting by with such
+rapidity, gave it a kind of dreamy effect, and seemed more like a
+picture than a scene of real life. It had been a large herd when the
+_cerne_ commenced, probably three or four hundred in number; but, though
+I watched them closely, I did not see one emerge from the fatal cloud
+where the work of destruction was going on. After remaining here about
+an hour, we resumed our journey in the direction of the village.
+
+"Gradually, as we rode on, Indian after Indian came dropping along,
+laden with meat; and by the time we had neared the lodges, the backward
+road was covered with the returning horsemen. It was a pleasant contrast
+with the desert road we had been traveling. Several had joined company
+with us, and one of the chiefs invited us to his lodge. The village
+consisted of about one hundred and twenty-five lodges, of which twenty
+were Cheyennes; the latter pitched a little apart from the Arapahoes.
+They were disposed in a scattering manner on both sides of a broad,
+irregular street, about one hundred and fifty feet wide, and running
+along the river. As we rode along, I remarked near some of the lodges a
+kind of tripod frame, formed of three slender poles of birch, scraped
+very clean, to which were affixed the shield and spear, with some other
+weapons of a chief. All were scrupulously clean, the spear-head was
+burnished bright, and the shield white and stainless. It reminded me of
+the days of feudal chivalry; and when, as I rode by, I yielded to the
+passing impulse, and touched one of the spotless shields with the muzzle
+of my gun, I almost expected a grim warrior to start from the lodge and
+resent my challenge. The master of the lodge spread out a robe for me to
+sit upon, and the squaws set before us a large wooden dish of buffalo
+meat. He had lit his pipe in the mean while, and when it had been passed
+around, we commenced our dinner while he continued to smoke. Gradually,
+five or six other chiefs came in, and took their seats in silence. When
+we had finished, our host asked a number of questions.... A storm had
+been gathering for the past hour, and some pattering drops on the lodge
+warned us that we had some miles to our camp.... We found our companions
+under some densely foliaged old trees, about three miles up the
+river.... Nearly opposite was the mouth of one of the most considerable
+affluents of the South fork, _la Fourche aux Castors_, (Beaver fork,)
+heading off in the ridge to the southeast." (Fremont, (1), pp. 29-30.)
+This would have been near the eastern boundary of the present Morgan
+County, Colorado, a region approaching the western edge of the great
+prairie, in the midst of the range of vast herds of buffalo. The entire
+description of the events of the day as prepared by Fremont reads more
+like fiction than fact and is one of the clearest and most concise
+accounts extant of a buffalo hunt by native tribes under such
+conditions. The paintings by Stanley and Wimar, as reproduced in plates
+2 and 3, would serve to illustrate Fremont's narrative.
+
+The following year (1843) Fremont, on his second expedition, reached St.
+Vrain's Fort; thence continuing up the South Fork of the Platte he soon
+arrived in the vicinity of the present city of Denver, and at some point
+not far below the mouth of Cherry Creek discovered a large Arapaho
+village. This was on July 7, 1843, and to quote from his journal: "We
+made this morning an early start, continuing to travel up the Platte;
+and in a few miles frequent bands of horses and mules, scattered for
+several miles round about, indicated our approach to the Arapaho
+village, which we found encamped in a beautiful bottom, and consisting
+of about 160 lodges. It appeared extremely populous, with a great number
+of children; a circumstance which indicated a regular supply of the
+means of subsistence. The chiefs, who were gathered together at the
+farther end of the village, received us (as probably strangers are
+always received to whom they desire to show respect or regard) by
+throwing their arms around our necks and embracing us.... I saw here, as
+I had remarked in an Arapaho village the preceding year, near the lodges
+of the chiefs, tall tripods of white poles supporting their spears and
+shields, which showed it to be a regular custom.... Though disappointed
+in obtaining the presents which had been evidently expected, they
+behaved very courteously, and after a little conversation, I left them,
+and, continuing up the river, halted to noon on the bluff, as the
+bottoms are almost inundated; continuing in the afternoon our route
+along the mountains, which are dark, misty, and shrouded." (Fremont,
+(1), pp. 111-112.)
+
+A photograph of a small Arapaho village, standing in Whitewood Canyon,
+Wyoming, about the year 1870, is reproduced in plate 16, b. The
+skin-covered lodges shown in this photograph were probably similar to
+those sketched by Bodmer a generation before.
+
+SAUK AND FOXES.
+
+It is not the purpose of the present sketch to trace the early
+migrations of the two related tribes, or to refer to their connection,
+linguistically or socially. However, it is evident their villages were
+similar in appearance, and both had two distinct forms of habitations
+which were occupied during different seasons of the year. The summer
+villages of both tribes consisted of bark houses, and near by were
+gardens in which they raised corn, squashes, beans, and some tobacco,
+but with the coming of autumn the families scattered and sought the more
+protected localities where game was to be secured, and there erected the
+dome-shaped, mat-covered lodge, resembling the structures of other
+tribes of the region.
+
+The middle of the eighteenth century found the two tribes established in
+villages near the mouth of Rock River, on the left bank of the
+Mississippi, in the present Rock Island County, Illinois. Here they were
+visited by Long and his small party August 1, 1817, at which time the
+Fox settlement "containing about thirty cabins, with two fires each,"
+stood on the left bank of Rock River, at its junction with the
+Mississippi. The Sauk village was 2 miles up Rock River and consisted
+"of about one hundred cabins, of two, three, and in some instances, four
+fires each," and it was, so Long wrote, "by far the largest Indian
+village situated in the neighborhood of the Mississippi between St.
+Louis and the Falls of St. Anthony." (Long, (1), pp. 68-69.) This was
+the birthplace, in the year 1767, of the great Sauk leader Black Hawk.
+At the time of Long's visit the people of the two villages had several
+hundred acres of corn, "partly in the low ground and extended up the
+slopes of the bluffs," and were in a very prosperous condition.
+
+The village was destroyed by the militia June 15, 1831, and those who
+escaped soon after crossed the Mississippi. In 1837, having ceded their
+hunting grounds in Iowa to the Government, they removed to a tract in
+Kansas beyond the Missouri, where they continued to reside for some 20
+years as practically one tribe. Later the majority of the Foxes returned
+to Iowa and secured a small tract of land near Tama, in Tama County, on
+the left bank of Iowa River, where a mixed group continues to dwell. In
+1867 the remaining Sauk ceded their lands in Kansas and removed to the
+Indian Territory.
+
+As already mentioned, the tribes erected two distinct types of
+habitations. The mat-covered lodge is shown in plate 18. The bare
+frames, ready for the mat coverings, are indicated in _a_, while the
+completed structure is represented in _b_ of the same plate. Both
+photographs were made near Tama within the past few years.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 18
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Frames of structures ready to be covered with mats
+or sheets of bark]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Mat-covered lodges
+
+SAUK AND FOX HABITATIONS]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 19
+
+[Illustration: SAUK AND FOX HABITATION COVERED WITH ELM BARK]
+
+During the summer of 1820 Schoolcraft was on the upper Mississippi and
+stopped at the village of the Sioux chief "La Petit Corbeau," which
+stood on the bank of the river a few miles below the present city of St.
+Paul. He was conducted to the lodge of the chief, which, so he wrote,
+"is spacious, being about sixty feet in length by thirty in width--built
+in a permanent manner of logs, and covered with bark." (Schoolcraft,
+(2), p. 318.) A few days later, on August 6, 1820, he left the mouth of
+the Wisconsin, passed the mouth of Turkey River, which joins the
+Mississippi from the west, and 1 mile below the mouth of Turkey River
+arrived at a Fox village which stood on the left bank of the
+Mississippi. This would have been near the present village of Cassville,
+Grant County, Wisconsin. Here were twelve lodges, "large, and built of
+logs, in the same substantial manner practised among the Narcotah
+bands." This refers to the village of La Petit Corbeau and others which
+he had recently visited. And continuing the narrative, "The cause of
+their being now deserted, is the fear entertained of an attack from the
+Sioux, in retaliation for the massacre lately perpetrated upon the banks
+of the St. Peter's. The desertion appears to have taken place after they
+had planted their corn, and from the order in which the village is left,
+it may be concluded that its re-occupation is kept in view. I found
+several small gardens and corn fields adjoining the village, in which
+squashes, beans, and pumpkins were abundant, but the corn had been
+nearly all destroyed, probably by wild animals. Walking back from the
+river half a mile ... I was surprised to find an extensive field of
+water- and musk-melons, situated in the midst of a grove of small,
+scattering trees, but without any inclosure. Some of the fruit had been
+destroyed by animals, but a great abundance still remained." (Op. cit.,
+pp. 340-341.)
+
+The preceding references would seem to apply to summer habitations, as
+distinguished from the mat-covered structures already mentioned. The
+descriptions are rather vague, and the lodges encountered by Schoolcraft
+may have been similar in form to that shown in plate 19. This most
+interesting and valuable photograph was made in the Indian Territory
+probably 40 years or more ago, and represents a rather large dwelling.
+It shows clearly the manner in which sheets of bark were placed and
+secured to serve as roof and sides, and in this instance the bark
+appears to be that of the elm.
+
+Interesting notes on the manners and ways of life of the Sauk and Foxes
+just a century ago are to be found in a communication from Maj. M.
+Marston, of the Fifth Infantry, to Morse. Marston was commanding officer
+at Fort Armstrong, from which place the letter was written during the
+month of November, 1820. At that time the Fox village standing on the
+bank of the Mississippi, opposite Fort Armstrong, consisted of
+"thirty-five permanent lodges," and this may refer to the type of
+structures shown in plate 19. As Marston then wrote: "There is also a
+small Sauk village of five or six lodges on the west bank of the
+Mississippi, near the mouth of Des Moin river, and below Fort Edwards;
+and a Fox village near the lead mines (about a hundred miles above this
+place,) of about twenty lodges; and another near the mouth of the
+Wapsipinica of about ten lodges." Thus the villages and camps of the two
+tribes were to have been seen on both banks of the Mississippi, but
+undoubtedly the greater part of their hunting was done westward from the
+river, within the present State of Iowa. A century ago the people of the
+village would leave "as soon as their corn, beans, &c., are ripe and
+taken care of, and their traders arrive and give out their credit, (or
+their outfits on credit,) and go to their wintering grounds; it being
+previously determined in council, on what particular ground each party
+shall hunt. The old men, women, and children, embark in canoes; the
+young men go by land with their horses; on their arrival, they
+immediately commence their winter's hunt, which lasts about three
+months." The traders would follow and remain in convenient places.
+During the winter most of the Indians would pay their debts, get many
+necessary articles, and at the same time reserve the more valuable
+skins. These, "such as beaver, otter, &c., they take home with them to
+their villages, and dispose of for such articles as they may afterwards
+find necessary." The winter of 1819-20 was evidently a very prosperous
+one for the two tribes as well as for the traders, and Marston wrote:
+"These traders, including the peltries received at the United States
+Factory, near Fort Edwards, collected of the Sauk and Fox Indians during
+this season, _nine hundred and eighty packs_. They consisted of 2,760
+beaver skins; 922 Otter; 13,440 Raccoon; 12,900 Musk Rat; 500 Mink; 200
+Wild Cat; 680 Bear Skins; 28,600 Deer. Whole number, 60,082."
+
+At the close of the winter hunt "they return to their villages, in the
+month of April, and after putting their lodges in order, commence
+preparing the ground to receive the seed. The number of acres cultivated
+by that part of the two nations, who reside at their villages in this
+vicinity, is supposed to be upwards of _three hundred_. They usually
+raise from seven to eight thousand bushels of corn, besides beans,
+pumpkins, melons, &c. About one thousand bushels of the corn they
+annually sell to traders and others; the remainder (except about five
+bushels for each family, which is taken with them,) they put into bags,
+and bury in holes dug in the ground, for their use in the spring and
+summer. The labor of agriculture is confined principally to the women,
+and this is done altogether with a hoe. In June, the greatest part of
+the young men go out on a summer hunt, and return in August. While they
+are absent the old men and women are collecting rushes for mats, and
+bark to make into bags for their corn, &c.
+
+"The women usually make about three hundred floor mats every summer....
+The twine which connects the rushes together, is made either of
+basswood bark, after being boiled and hammered, or the bark of the
+nettle; the women twist or spin it by rolling it on the knee with the
+hand." (Morse, (1), App., pp. 124-127.) Some men, as well as women, of
+these tribes are often employed in and about the lead mines on the
+Mississippi, not far from their villages.
+
+The customs of the tribes, as related in the preceding notes, their
+hunts away from the villages during certain seasons of the year, their
+return to plant and care for their fields and gardens, and the placing
+of the surplus grain in caches, had probably been followed by native
+tribes of the Mississippi Valley and adjacent regions for generations
+before the coming of the Europeans.
+
+ILLINOIS.
+
+Although the tribes of the loosely constituted Illinois confederacy
+claimed and occupied a wide region east of the Mississippi, in later
+years centering in the valley of the Illinois River, nevertheless
+certain villages are known to have crossed and recrossed the great
+river. Thus, in the early summer of 1673, Pere Marquette arrived at a
+village of the Peoria then standing on the right or west bank of the
+Mississippi, at or near the mouth of the Des Moines. Two months later it
+had removed to the upper Illinois. A few weeks after passing the Peoria
+Marquette discovered another of the Illinois tribes, the Michigamea,
+living near the northeastern corner of the present State of Arkansas,
+and consequently west of the Mississippi. On the map of Pierre van der
+Aa, _circa_ 1720, two small streams are shown flowing into the
+Mississippi from the west, a short distance south of the Missouri. The
+more northerly of the two is probably intended to represent the Meramec
+and a dot at the north side of the mouth of the stream bears the legend:
+"_Village des_ Ilinois _et des_ Caskoukia," probably the Cahokia. This
+stream forms the boundary between Jefferson and St. Louis Counties,
+Missouri, and a short distance above its junction with the Mississippi
+are traces of a large village, with many stone-lined graves, probably
+indicating the position of the Illinois village of two centuries ago.
+Also, on the d'Anville map, issued in the year 1755, an "Ancien Village
+Cahokias" is shown at a point corresponding with the mouth of the small
+Riviere des Peres, a stream which joins the Mississippi and there forms
+the southern boundary of the city of St. Louis. Until covered by
+railroad embankments many small mounds were visible near the mouth of
+the Riviere des Peres, indications of the old settlement were numerous,
+and graves were encountered on the neighboring hills. These were
+evidently the remains of the "Ancien Village Cahokias." The many salt
+springs found on the Missouri side of the Mississippi served to attract
+the Indians from the eastern shore. Establishing their camps in the
+vicinity of the springs, they would evaporate the waters and so obtain a
+supply of salt, a process which continued long after the French had
+settled in this part of upper Louisiana.
+
+The villages of the Illinois tribes have been described in a former
+publication (Bushnell, (1)).
+
+About the close of the eighteenth century many scattered bands of
+various tribes whose habitat was east of the Mississippi sought new
+homes to the westward. Especially was this true after the signing of the
+treaty of Greenville, Ohio, August 3, 1795. But two years before the
+signing of this important treaty small groups of Shawnee and Delaware
+crossed the river, and by the year 1793 had established a village on
+Apple Creek, near the Mississippi and some 40 miles south of the French
+settlement of Ste. Genevieve. A few years later these, or others of the
+same tribes, had small towns not far west of St. Louis and only a short
+distance south of the Missouri. Within another generation many of the
+remaining tribes were removed from east of the Mississippi by the
+Government to lands set apart for them just west of the western boundary
+of Missouri. But for many years after the beginning of the nineteenth
+century the western part of the Ozarks was occupied, or frequented, by
+bands of several tribes.
+
+It seems quite evident that with the removal of the tribes from the east
+came certain changes in their customs and ways of life. And it is
+doubtful whether all attempted to erect their native form of
+habitations. Again, before leaving the east they had seen and
+constructed the log cabin of the pioneers, and it is evident similar
+structures were reared by them in their new homes, or at least by some
+of the tribes, among them the Delaware. An interesting account of one of
+these later settlements has been preserved, but it is very brief. It was
+mentioned in the journal of a dragoon, one of the command then crossing
+the wilderness from St. Louis to the valley of the Arkansas, and was
+prepared about the beginning of December, in the year 1833: "It was
+drawing towards the close of the day, when at a little distance we
+descried a cluster of huts that we imagined might be a squatter
+settlement, but upon a nearer approach, found it to be the remains of a
+log-town long since evacuated, that had formerly been the settlement of
+a tribe of the Delawares.... The site was a beautiful one; and the
+associations that were connected with it, as well as the many vestiges
+of rude art that remained about it, invested this spot with many
+pleasing sources of reflection. As we entered the town, our regiment
+slackened their pace, and slowly rode through this now silent ruin. A
+small space of cleared land encompassed the settlement, but scarce large
+enough to relieve it from the deep gloom of the lofty and surrounding
+forest of aged oaks.... The huts were small, containing but one
+apartment, built of logs, many of which had become so decayed as to have
+fallen to the ground, and the whole was covered with a rich coat of
+moss." (Hildreth, (1), pp. 70-71.) Scattered throughout the settlement,
+near and between the ruined houses, stood many large oaks. On the trunks
+of some of these had been cut various figures and symbols by the
+Indians.
+
+This Delaware village evidently stood not far from the present town of
+Springfield, Green County, Missouri. Just beyond it began the "Kickapoo
+prairie, which is the commencement of that immense chain of prairie land
+that extends in broken patches to the Rocky Mountains." (Op. cit., p.
+70.)
+
+The preceding reference to various figures cut on the trees near the
+deserted village tends to recall a somewhat similar allusion by Irving.
+On November 2, 1832, during his "Tour on the Prairies," so he wrote: "We
+came out upon an extensive prairie, and about six miles to our left
+beheld a long line of green forest, marking the course of the north fork
+of the Arkansas. On the edge of the prairie, and in a spacious grove of
+noble trees which overshadowed a small brook, were traces of an old
+Creek hunting camp. On the bark of the trees were rude delineations of
+hunters and squaws, scrawled with charcoal; together with various signs
+and hieroglyphics, which our half-breeds interpreted as indicating that
+from this encampment the hunters had returned home." (Irving,
+Washington. (1), p. 187.)
+
+It is to be regretted that all such figures should so soon have
+disappeared, as did the frail structures of the native villages, leaving
+only fragments of pottery and bits of stone, ashes, and occasional
+animal bones to indicate where they had once stood.
+
+
+SIOUAN TRIBES.
+
+The numerous and widely scattered tribes belonging to the Siouan
+linguistic family formerly had a combined population which caused this
+to rank as the second largest stock north of Mexico, being exceeded only
+by the Algonquian.
+
+All evidence tends to prove that during past centuries the many tribes
+who were found living west of the Mississippi when the great central
+valley of the continent first became known to Europeans had, within a
+few generations, migrated from the eastward. This is likewise indicated
+by certain tribal traditions. Many had undoubtedly occupied the upper
+parts of the Ohio Valley, and were probably the builders of the great
+earthworks discovered in that region. What impelled the westward
+movement of the tribes may never be determined. Whether they were forced
+to abandon their early habitat by stronger forces, by the lack of food
+which made it necessary for them to seek a more plentiful supply, or by
+reason of causes distinct from either of these can never be definitely
+known.
+
+But some remained in the east; all did not join in the migration, and
+the native tribes encountered by the colonists living in the piedmont
+region of Virginia and extending southward into Carolina belonged to
+this linguistic family. Their villages have been mentioned in a former
+publication. (Bushnell, (1), pp. 92-94.)
+
+It is more than probable that while living east of the Mississippi all
+reared and occupied structures similar to those of the Algonquian tribes
+of later generations, mat and bark covered lodges, such as continued in
+use by the Osage, Quapaw, and others even after they had reached their
+new homes, but some through necessity were compelled to adopt other
+forms of dwellings. Thus many were found occupying the conical skin
+tipi, while some had learned the art of building the large earth-covered
+lodges, an art which had evidently been derived from the Caddoan tribes
+coming from the Southwest.
+
+DAKOTA-ASSINIBOIN GROUP.
+
+The Dakota constitute the largest division of the great Siouan
+linguistic family. To quote from the Handbook, this group includes the
+following tribes, a classification which is recognized by the people
+themselves: "1. Mdewakanton; 2. Wahpeton; 3. Wahpekute; 4. Sisseton; 5.
+Yankton; 6. Yanktonai; 7. Teton, each of which is again subdivided into
+bands and subbands." These seven principal divisions are often referred
+to as the Seven Council Fires of the Dakota. The first four groups as
+given in this classification formed the eastern division, and their
+home, when first encountered by Europeans, was in the densely forested
+region about the headwaters of the Mississippi. The others lived
+westward, reaching far into the plains. The Assiniboin, in historic
+times a separate tribe, was originally a part of the Yanktonai, from
+whom they separated and became closely allied with the Algonquian Cree.
+Thus some of the Dakota as first known to history were a timber people,
+others lived where the forest and prairie joined, with a mingling of the
+fauna and flora of the two regions, and in later years the Oglala, the
+principal division of the Teton, extended their wanderings to and beyond
+the Black Hills, crossing the great buffalo range.
+
+As will be shown in the sketches of the dwellings and other structures
+of the Dakota tribes, those who lived in the timbered region, occupying
+much of the present State of Minnesota, erected the type of habitation
+characteristic of the region, but in the villages along the Minnesota
+both bark and skin covered lodges were in use, and the more western
+villages were formed exclusively of the latter type, the conical skin
+tipi of the plains. There appears to have been very little variation in
+the form of structure as erected by the widely scattered bands.
+
+MDEWAKANTON.
+
+When preparing a sketch of the villages and village sites of the
+Mdewakanton, it is quite natural to begin with a brief description of
+the site of the village to which Father Hennepin was led captive, during
+the early spring of the year 1680. On the afternoon of April 11 of that
+year, while ascending the Mississippi with two companions, he was taken
+by a war party of the Sioux, and after much anxiety and suffering
+reached the Falls of St. Anthony, which he so named. Thence, going
+overland through the endless forests, they arrived at the village of
+their captors. Soon Indians were seen running from the village to meet
+them, and then it was that "One of the principal Issati chiefs gave us
+his peace-calumet to smoke, and accepted the one we had brought. He then
+gave us some wild rice to eat, presenting it to us in large bark
+dishes." From this place they were later taken in bark canoes "a short
+league ... to an island where their cabins were." (Shea, (1), pp.
+224-225.)
+
+The Mdewakanton "mystery lake village," of the Santee or eastern
+division of the Dakota, were considered by some as "the only Dakota
+entitled to the name Isanyati (`Santee'), given them from their old home
+on Mille Lac, Minnesota, called by them Isantamde, 'Knife Lake.'" There
+is no doubt of the Mdewakanton being the Issati of Hennepin, to whose
+principal village he was taken, and where he remained for some weeks
+during the year 1680. It has always been acknowledged that the village
+stood on or near the shore of Mille Lac, but not until 1900 was a site
+discovered which appears without doubt to indicate the position of that
+ancient settlement. The outlet of Mille Lac is Rum River, which enters
+the Mississippi at Anoka. The stream soon after leaving the lake expands
+into a series of small lakes, usually designated as the First, Second,
+and Third Lake, from the outlet at Mille Lac. Rum River leaves Mille Lac
+near the southwest corner, but soon turns eastward, therefore the three
+lakes are rather parallel with the south shore of the great lake. At the
+upper end of Third Lake is an isolated mass, rising some feet above the
+highest stage of water, and having a superficial area of several acres.
+On May 29, 1900, this spot was surrounded by a marsh, in places
+overgrown with rushes, with pools of water, more numerous on the north
+side. But a short time has elapsed since all the lakes were somewhat
+deeper and more water flowed in Rum River. And at that time the waters
+surrounded this elevated mass and it stood as an island at the head of
+Third Lake. When the surface of this island was examined it was found
+to be strewn with innumerable fragments of pottery, some fractured
+stones, and a few stone implements. The amount of pottery was greater
+than is often found on any site, in any part of the country, and it was
+quite evident this island was once occupied by a large, permanent native
+settlement. Without doubt this was the site of the village to which
+Hennepin was taken in a bark canoe, "an island where their cabins were."
+At present this is in Sec. 25, T. 42, R. 27, Mille Lacs County,
+Minnesota.
+
+No description of the ancient village has been preserved, but it
+undoubtedly resembled the settlements of other tribes living in the
+midst of the great forests. The structures were probably bark or mat
+covered, many of an oval form quite similar to those of the Ojibway, who
+later occupied the near-by sites on the shores of Mille Lac. And like
+the Ojibway, the Mdewakanton may have had more than one type of dwelling
+in the same village, or structures of different forms may have served
+different purposes.
+
+The shores of Mille Lac, one of the most beautiful sheets of water in
+Minnesota, abound in traces of the ancient settlements which stood
+generations or centuries ago. Near several of the sites are groups of a
+hundred or more burial mounds, all of which may be attributed to the
+Siouan tribes. One village, the site of which is marked by a large
+number of mounds, stood on the shore of the bay in the northwestern part
+of the lake, shown in the photograph reproduced in plate 20, _a_.
+
+The sacred or mysterious island, known as such to the Sioux and later to
+the Ojibway, is in the southern part of the lake, several miles from the
+south shore. It is a remarkable spot, one to be looked upon by the
+Indian as a place of mystery. So small that often it is not visible from
+the shore, it consists of a great quantity of blocks of granitic
+formation which are piled to a height of 20 feet or more upon a ledge
+which comes to within a foot or less of the surface of the lake. The
+island is about 250 feet in length from east to west, the width from
+north to south being about one-half the length. Some of the great blocks
+are 10 or 12 feet in length, 4 or 5 feet in thickness and width, and
+would weigh many tons. The ledge extends for a distance of about 150
+feet to the north and east of the island, covered by a foot or more of
+water. There is no soil on the island, no vegetation, and its only
+occupants are numbers of gulls. A photograph of this most interesting
+spot, made by the writer May 20, 1900, is reproduced as plate 20, _b_.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 20
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Northwest shore of Mille Lac, 1900. Site of an
+ancient Sioux settlement]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ The Sacred Island in the southern part of Mille Lac.
+May, 1900]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 21
+
+[Illustration: "KAPOSIA, JUNE 19TH, 1851"
+
+F. B. Mayer]
+
+According to the stories of the old Ojibway who were still living on the
+shore of Mille Lac during the spring of 1900, the Mdewakanton were
+driven from that region about the middle of the eighteenth century,
+and moving southward settled along the banks of the Mississippi.
+Descendants of these were occupying well-known villages on the
+Mississippi and Minnesota during the summer of 1823, when Major Long and
+his party ascended the rivers from Prairie du Chien.
+
+Before leaving Prairie du Chien to discover the course of the Minnesota,
+or St. Peters, as it was then designated, the members of the expedition
+were divided into two groups, one to go overland to the mouth of the St.
+Peters, the other to convey the supplies by boat to that point. Both
+parties visited the principal villages on the way. First following the
+route of those who went overland, on June 26, 1823, they encountered a
+village of five lodges, evidently on the Iowa River, in the present
+Winneshiek County, Iowa. Two days later, June 28, they arrived at the
+more important village of Wapasha, in the present Wabasha County,
+Minnesota, and as told in the narrative: "Whatever might be the reveries
+in which the party were indulging, they were soon recalled to the dull
+realities of travelling, by the howling and barking of a band of dogs,
+that announced their approach to an Indian village consisting of twenty
+fixed lodges and cabins. It is controlled by Wa-pa-sha, an Indian chief
+of considerable distinction. In his language, (Dacota,) his name
+signifies _the red leaf_. A number of young men fantastically decorated
+with many and variously coloured feathers, and their faces as oddly
+painted, advanced to greet the party. One of them, the son of the chief,
+was remarkable for the gaudiness and display of his dress, which from
+its showy appearance imparted to his character foppishness.... The chief
+is about fifty years of age, but appears older.... His disposition to
+the Americans has generally been a friendly one." (Keating, (1), I, pp.
+249-250.) Hennepin's reception by the ancestors of the same people, in
+their ancient village near Mille Lac, about a century and a half
+earlier, may have been quite similar to this accorded the members of the
+Long expedition in 1823.
+
+On the evening of June 30 the party going by land arrived "at an Indian
+village, which is under the direction of Shakea, (_the man that paints
+himself red_;) the village has retained the appellation of Redwing,
+(_aile rouge_,) by which the chief was formerly distinguished." This was
+on the site of the present Red Wing, Goodhue County, Minnesota. There
+the party remained overnight, and on the following morning, July 1,
+1823, the boat bearing the supplies belonging to the expedition, on its
+way from Prairie du Chien to Fort St. Anthony, reached the village, and
+"The whole party being again united, the chief invited them to his
+lodge, with a view to have a formal conversation with them.... As a
+compliment to the party, the United States' flag was hoisted over his
+cabin, and a deputation of some of his warriors waited at our encampment
+to invite us to his lodge. We were received in due ceremony; the chief
+and his son, Tatunkamane, (the walking buffalo,) were seated next to the
+entrance. We took our stations near them, on the same bed-frame, while
+his warriors seated themselves on the frame opposite to us." This was
+followed by handshaking, and the smoking of the pipe of peace. (Op.
+cit., pp. 251-252.) The two parties again separated and those passing
+overland arrived at the fort the following evening.
+
+The boat party, ascending the Mississippi, arrived at "Wapasha's
+village" on June 29, soon after the departure of the others who were
+going overland. They left Redwing early in the afternoon of July 1, and
+on the following day passed the St. Croix. Continuing, they "passed an
+Indian village consisting of ten or twelve huts, situated at a handsome
+turn on the river, about ten miles below the mouth of the St. Peter; the
+village is generally known by the name of the _Petit Corbeau_, or Little
+Raven, which was the appellation of the father and grandfather of the
+present chief.... As the village was abandoned for the season, we
+proceeded without stopping. The houses which we saw here were
+differently constructed from those which we had previously observed.
+They are formed by upright flattened posts, implanted in the ground,
+without any interval except here and there some small loopholes for
+defence; these posts support the roof, which presents a surface of bark.
+Before and behind each hut, there is a scaffold used for the purpose of
+drying maize, pumpkins, &c." Late in the same day they arrived at the
+fort. (Keating, (1), I, pp. 288-289.) Whether the method of constructing
+lodges by forming the walls of upright posts or logs was of native
+conception or was derived from the French is now difficult to determine.
+In referring to the customs prevailing in the Mississippi Valley,
+particularly the French portions, about the year 1810, Brackenridge
+said: "In building their houses, the logs, instead of being laid
+horizontally, as ours, are placed in a perpendicular position, the
+interstices closed with earth or stone, as with us." (Brackenridge, (1),
+p. 119.) The old courthouse at St. Louis was built after this method.
+Again, among some tribes along the eastern slopes of the Rocky
+Mountains, as will be told on another page, were to have been found
+small, well-protected lodges formed of upright poles, and in this
+instance there is no reason to suspect European influence. Therefore it
+is not possible to say definitely whether the structures standing on the
+banks of the Mississippi during the summer of 1823 were of a primitive,
+native form, or if they represented the influence of the early French
+who had penetrated the region many years before.
+
+Just three years before the Long expedition passed up the Mississippi
+and prepared the preceding descriptions of the Sioux settlements
+Schoolcraft went down the river, and in his journal are to be found
+brief references to the same villages. To quote from the journal, August
+2, 1820: "Four miles below Carver's cave, we landed at the village of Le
+Petit Corbeau, or the Little Raven. Here is a Sioux band of twelve
+lodges, and consisting of about two hundred souls, who plant corn upon
+the adjoining plain, and cultivate the cucumber, and pumpkin. They
+sallied from their lodges on seeing us approach, and gathering upon the
+bank of the river fired a kind of _feu-de-joie_, and manifested the
+utmost satisfaction on our landing.... We were conducted into his cabin
+which is spacious, being about sixty feet in length by thirty in
+width--built in a permanent manner of logs, and covered with bark."
+(Schoolcraft, (2), pp. 317-318.) The following day at noon the party
+arrived "at the Sioux village of Talangamane, or the Red wing, which is
+handsomely situated on the west banks of the river, six miles above Lake
+Pepin. It consists of four large, and several small lodges, built of
+logs in the manner of the little Raven's village. Talangamane is now
+considered the first chief of his nation.... Very few of his people were
+at home, being engaged in hunting or fishing. We observed several fine
+corn fields near the village, but they subsist chiefly by taking
+sturgeon in the neighbouring lake, and by hunting the deer. The buffalo
+is also occasionally killed, but they are obliged to go two days journey
+west of the Mississippi, before this animal is found in plenty. We
+observed several buffalo skins which were undergoing the Indian process
+of tanning." (Op. cit., p. 323.) The third settlement was reached during
+the afternoon of August 4, 1820, at which time, to quote from the
+journal, "we made a short halt at the Sioux village of Wabashaw, which
+is eligibly situated on the west bank of the Mississippi, sixty miles
+below Lake Pepin. It consists of four large lodges, with a population
+of, probably, sixty souls. A present of tobacco and whiskey was given,
+and we again embarked at twenty minutes before five o'clock." (Op, cit.,
+p. 334.) The question now arises, Were the various structures seen by
+Schoolcraft, those "built in a permanent manner of logs," constructed of
+"upright flattened posts," as mentioned in the Long narrative? If so, it
+is evident similar habitations were reared by the Foxes and were
+encountered by Schoolcraft at the Fox village standing on the left bank
+of the Mississippi, below the mouth of the Wisconsin, August 6, 1820.
+However, the statements are rather vague, and the various dwellings may
+have been quite similar to the bark houses more clearly described in
+later narratives. But it is beyond question that some of the structures
+were strongly built, and Long on July 16, 1817, wrote: "Passed a Sioux
+village on our right containing fourteen cabins. The name of the chief
+is the Petit Corbeau, or Little Raven.... One of their cabins is
+furnished with loop holes, and is situated so near the water that the
+opposite side of the river is within musket-shot range from the
+building.... The cabins are a kind of stockade buildings, and of a
+better appearance than any Indian dwellings I have before met with."
+(Long, (1), p. 31.)
+
+One of the most interesting accounts of the villages just mentioned is
+contained in the journal of a traveler who visited them in 1849, the
+year the Territory of Minnesota was created. On May 16 of that year he
+"passed Wapasha's Prairie ... a beautiful prairie in Minnesota, about
+nine miles long and three miles wide, occupied by the chief Wapasha (or
+Red-Leaf) and his band of Sioux, whose bark lodges are seen at the upper
+end of the prairie." (Seymour, (1), p. 75.) And later in the day, after
+leaving Lake Pepin, "an Indian village, called Red Wing, inhabited by a
+tribe of Sioux is seen on the Minnesota shore. It appears to contain
+about one dozen bark lodges, and half as many conical lodges, covered
+with buffalo skins; also, a log or frame house, occupied by a
+missionary. Indian children were seen running, in frolicsome mood, over
+the green prairie, and Indian females were paddling their canoes along
+the shore. This village is near the mouth of Cannon River." On the
+following day, May 17, 1849, Seymour passed the village of Kaposia,
+occupied by the chief Little Crow, or Little Raven. It stood on the west
+bank of the river about 5 miles below the then small town of St. Paul.
+The Indian village at that time consisted of about 40 lodges, having a
+population of some 300. A few days later he went to the village, and
+regarding the visit wrote: "During the time I visited them, the Indians
+were living in skin lodges, such as they use during the winter, and when
+traveling. These are formed of long, slender poles, stuck in the ground,
+in a circle of about eight feet in diameter, and united at the top, and
+covered with the raw hide of the buffalo, having the hair scraped off.
+They are in the form of a cone, and can be distinguished from those of
+the Winnebagos and other Indians as far as they can be seen. During the
+summer they live in bark houses, which are more spacious, and when seen
+from a distance, resemble, in form and appearance, the log cabins of the
+whites. When passing in sight of the village, a few days afterward, I
+noticed that they had removed their skin lodges, and erected their bark
+houses. The population of this village, as I before remarked, is from
+250 to 300 souls." He entered one of the small skin-covered lodges. "An
+iron kettle, suspended in the center, over a fire, forms the principal
+cooking utensil. Blankets spread around on the ground, were used as
+seats and beds." (Op. cit., pp. 137-138.) A cemetery, with its scaffold
+burials, stood on the bluffs in the rear of the village. There is reason
+to believe these were the first skin-covered tipis encountered by Seymour
+while ascending the Mississippi.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 22
+
+[Illustration: _a._ "Dakotah Village." Seth Eastman]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ "Dakotah Encampment." Seth Eastman]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 23
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Council at the mouth of the Teton. George Catlin]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Page of Kurz's Sketchbook, showing Fort Pierre and
+the Indian encampment, July 4, 1851]
+
+It will be noticed that in the preceding description of Kaposia no
+mention is made of log structures, such as were alluded to by Long and
+Schoolcraft. Only the typical bark house and the conical skin-covered
+tipi were seen by Seymour. Fortunately a most valuable and interesting
+picture of the village, as it appeared on June 19, 1851, is preserved
+and is now reproduced in plate 21. Both forms of habitations are shown,
+and in the distance, on the left, are indicated the scaffold burials
+standing on the bluffs in the rear of the settlement. On the extreme
+right is the prow of a canoe, evidently on the immediate bank of the
+Mississippi. Having this remarkable sketch, it is gratifying to find a
+brief description of the two forms of lodges, and also to know that the
+notes may have referred to Kaposia in particular. It tells that "the
+lodges are from eight to fifteen feet in diameter, about ten to fifteen
+feet high and made of buffalo-skins tanned. Elk skins are used for this
+purpose also. The summer house is built of wood, or perches set upright,
+twenty or thirty feet long, by fifteen or twenty wide. The perches are
+set in the ground about one foot, and are about six feet out of the
+ground. Over this is put a roof of elm bark. They are very comfortable
+for summer use. The lodge of skin lasts three or four years; the lodge
+of wood seven or eight years." (Prescott, (1), p. 67.)
+
+The bark houses, which resembled "the log cabins of the whites," were
+shown by Capt. Eastman in one of his paintings. It was used as an
+illustration by Schoolcraft, and is here reproduced as plate 22, _a_. It
+is less interesting than the sketch of Kaposia, but in many respects the
+two are quite similar.
+
+Several bark houses of the form just mentioned stood on the shore of
+Mille Lac, forming part of the Ojibway village visited in 1900, and
+similar to these were the "winter habitations," occasionally erected by
+the Menominee, as mentioned and figured by Hoffman as plate xviii in his
+work on that tribe. (Hoffman, (1), p. 255.) It is rather curious that
+these should be described as "winter habitations" among that Algonquian
+tribe, and as being occupied during the summer by the Siouan people. As
+a matter of fact this strong distinction may not have existed. The use
+of this type of house by the Foxes has already been mentioned. Whether
+these may be regarded as representing a purely aboriginal form of
+structure is not easily determined, but they will at once recall the
+unit of the long communal dwellings of the Iroquois. The slanting roof,
+the flat front and back, and the upright walls, all covered with large
+sheets of bark, were the same.
+
+Again returning to the narrative of the Long expedition. Early in July,
+1823, the party having rested at the mouth of the Minnesota, or St.
+Peters River, began ascending that stream. Having advanced a short
+distance they arrived at the village of Taoapa, better known as
+"Shakopee's Village," from the name of the chief of this band of the
+Mdewakanton. It stood in the present Scott County, Minnesota, and in the
+summer of 1823 "consisted of fifteen large bark lodges, in good order;
+they were arranged along the river. Some of them were large enough to
+hold from thirty to fifty persons, accommodated as the Indians usually
+are in their lodges. The ground near it is neatly laid out, and some
+fine corn-fields were observed in the vicinity. There were scaffolds
+annexed to the houses, for the purpose of drying maize, etc.; upon these
+we were told that the Indians sleep during very hot nights." Near the
+village were seen various scaffold burials, while "In the midst of the
+corn-fields a dog was suspended, his head decorated with feathers, and
+with horse-hair stained red; it was probably a sacrifice for the
+protection of the corn-fields during the absence of the Indians." Six
+miles above the village was Little Prairie. (Keating, (1), pp. 329-330.)
+Quite likely the structures at this village were similar to those
+described above, which resembled in outline the log cabins of the white
+settlers.
+
+WAHPETON.
+
+The Wahpeton, "dwellers among leaves," constitute one of the seven great
+divisions of the Dakota, and to quote from the Handbook: "Historic and
+linguistic evidence proves the affinity of this tribe with the Sisseton,
+Wahpekute, and Mdewakanton. Hennepin (1680) mentions them as living in
+the vicinity of Mille Lac, Minn., near the Mdewakanton, Sisseton, and
+Teton. On his map they are placed a little to the N. E. of the lake."
+While living in the seclusion of the vast forests which surrounded the
+great lakes of central Minnesota, the villages of the Wahpeton were
+probably formed of groups of bark or mat covered structures so typical
+of the region at a later day. Gradually they left the timbered regions,
+and about the first years of the last century were living near the mouth
+of the Minnesota River. Thence they appear to have moved up the stream,
+and during the summer of 1823 were encountered by the Long expedition in
+the vicinity of Big Stone Lake, in the present Lac qui Parle County,
+Minnesota. The account of the meeting with the Indians on the prairie,
+and later of their visit to the village, by the members of the
+expedition, is most interesting. On July 21, 1823, "While traveling over
+the prairie which borders upon this part of the St. Peter, that connects
+Lake qui Parle with Big Stone Lake, our attention was aroused by the
+sight of what appeared to be buffaloes chased across the prairie. They,
+however, soon proved to be Indians; their number, at first limited to
+two, gradually increased to near one hundred; they were seen rising from
+every part of the prairie, and after those in advance had reconnoitered
+us, and made signals that we were friends, by discharging their guns,
+they all came running towards us, and in a few minutes we found
+ourselves surrounded by a numerous band.... Some of them were mounted on
+horseback, and were constantly drumming upon the sides of their horses
+with their heels, being destitute both of whip and spur. Many of them
+came and shook hands with us, while the rest were riding all round us in
+different directions. They belonged, as we were told, to the Wahkpatoan,
+[Wahpeton] one of the tribes of the Dacotas.... As we rode towards their
+lodges, we were met by a large party of squaws and children, who formed
+a very motly group.... The village, to which they directed us, consisted
+of thirty skin lodges, situated on a fine meadow on the bank of the
+lake. Their permanent residence, or at least that which they have
+occupied as such for the last five years, is on a rocky island, (Big
+Island), in the lake, nearly opposite to, and within a quarter of a mile
+of, their present encampment. Upon the island they cultivate their
+cornfields, secure against the aggressions of their enemies. They had
+been lately engaged in hunting buffalo, apparently with much success.
+The principal man led us to his lodge, wherein a number of the
+influential men were admitted, the women being excluded; but we observed
+that they, with the children, went about the lodge, peeping through all
+the crevices, and not unfrequently raising the skins to observe our
+motion. They soon brought in a couple of large wooden dishes, filled
+with pounded buffalo meat boiled, and covered with the marrow of the
+same animal; of this we partook with great delight." This was followed
+by another feast, in a near-by tent, and still a third where a dog had
+been killed and prepared, "which is considered not only as the greatest
+delicacy, but also as a sacred animal, of which they eat only on great
+occasions." The party did not remain long at the village, but continued
+on up the lake shore, and soon encountered on a bluff "two Indian
+lodges, in one of which was Tatanka Wechacheta, (the buffalo man,) an
+Indian who claims the command of the Wahkpatoans." Later in the day the
+party returned to these lodges, where "the chief, and his principal men,
+were in waiting. We entered the skin lodge, and were seated on fine
+buffalo robes, spread all round; on the fire, which was in the centre of
+the lodge, two large iron kettles, filled with choicest pieces of
+buffalo, were placed.... Our hosts were gratified and flattered at the
+quantity which we ate; the residue of the feast was sent to our
+soldiers. In this, and every other instance where we have been invited
+to a feast by Indians, we observed that they never eat with their
+guests." (Keating, (1), I, pp. 367-373.)
+
+The village of skin-covered tipis standing on the shore of the lake, as
+seen by members of the expedition on that July day nearly a century ago,
+must have resembled the painting later made by Capt. Eastman, which is
+reproduced in plate 22, _b_, taken from Schoolcraft. In the painting the
+tipis are undoubtedly too closely placed, but otherwise they are quite
+accurately shown. This illustration as used in Schoolcraft bears the
+legend "Dakotah Encampment."
+
+YANKTONAI.
+
+Like other divisions of the Dakota, the Yanktonai formerly lived in the
+thickly timbered region surrounding the headwaters of the Mississippi,
+in the central portion of the present State of Minnesota, and, like
+them, moved southward and westward until they reached the plains and the
+habitat of the buffalo. Although in their earlier home they undoubtedly
+reared the mat-covered structures, nevertheless when they reached the
+open country they constructed the conical skin lodge.
+
+During the latter part of July, 1823, the Long expedition reached a
+village of this tribe then standing in the vicinity of Lake Traverse, in
+the present Traverse County, Minnesota. In the narrative of the
+expedition very little is said regarding the appearance of the
+encampment, which may not have offered any peculiar features, but much
+was said concerning the dress and ways of the inhabitants. In part the
+narrative states: "The principal interest which we experienced in the
+neighbourhood of Lake Traverse, was from an acquaintance with Wanotan,
+(the Charger,) the most distinguished chief of the Yanktoanan tribe,
+which, as we were informed, is subdivided into six bands. He is one of
+the greatest men of the Dacota nation, and although but twenty-eight
+years of age, he has already acquired great renown as a warrior." As the
+party neared the establishment of the Columbia Fur Company, on the
+border of the lake, "a salute was fired from a number of Indian tents
+which were pitched in the vicinity, from the largest of which the
+American colours were flying. And as soon as we had dismounted from our
+horses, we received an invitation to a feast which Wanotan had prepared
+for us." Three dogs had been killed and prepared for the great occasion.
+"We repaired to a sort of pavilion which they had erected by the union
+of several large skin lodges. Fine Buffalo robes were spread all around,
+and the air was perfumed by the odour of sweet scenting grass which had
+been burned in it. On entering the lodge we saw the chief seated near
+the further end of it, and one of his principal men pointed out to us
+the place which was destined for our accommodation; it was at the upper
+end of the lodge." (Keating, (1), I, pp. 429-432.)
+
+Arranging the skin covers of several large tipis in such a way as to
+form a single shelter, to serve as a ceremonial "lodge," was the custom
+of many tribes, and other instances will be mentioned. But another and
+more elaborate form of structure was used by the tribes just mentioned.
+In 1858, when describing certain customs of the people then living along
+the course of the Minnesota and in the vicinity of Lake Traverse, Riggs
+referred to the sacred dance and said: "Among the Dakotas a most
+remarkable society exists which is called _Wakan wachepe_, or Sacred
+Dance, of which the medicine sack is the badge. It may be regarded as
+the depository and guardian of whatever they esteem as _wakan_, or
+sacred." He then related the contents of the bag and the meaning of the
+ceremony, and continues: "A large skin lodge is usually occupied as the
+center of operations, the door of which is made wide by throwing up the
+corners. From this, on each hand, extends a kind of railing, some thirty
+or forty feet, on which skins are thrown. The entrance is at the farther
+end. All around the inside of this sanctum sanctorum and along the
+extended sides sit those who are called to the dance. Beyond this and
+near the place of entrance is a fire, with great kettles hanging over
+it, which are filled with dried buffalo meat or other food; and near by
+lay several packs or bags of the same, which are consecrated to the
+feast. The whole village are gathered around and are looking over or
+peeping through the holes in the barricades." Much was then told about
+the strange and curious ceremonies enacted within the lodge. (Riggs,
+(1), pp. 505-506.)
+
+Leaving the encampment in the vicinity of the post of the Columbia Fur
+Company, the Long expedition moved northward, and when just beyond Lake
+Traverse, while traversing the prairies on July 27, 1823, "passed a
+party of squaws engaged in conveying to their camp some slices of fresh
+meat to jerk; their fellow labourers were dogs. Each of the dogs had the
+ends of two poles crossed and fastened over the shoulders, with a piece
+of hide underneath to prevent chafing. The other extremities dragged on
+the ground. This sort of vehicle was secured to the animal by a string
+passing round the breast, and another under the abdomen; transverse
+sticks, the ends of which were fastened in the poles, kept these at a
+proper distance, and supported the meat. This seems to be the only mode
+of harnessing dogs, practised among the Sioux; we believe, they never
+use them in teams, as is customary with the traders." (Keating, (1), II,
+pp. 9-10.)
+
+The expedition soon arrived at Pembina, near the international boundary,
+where it would appear they found the two characteristic forms of native
+habitations in use by the Indians. A drawing was at that time made by
+Seymour and used as an illustration in the narrative, showing the "two
+different kind of lodges used by the northwest Indians," the first being
+the skin lodge of the prairie tribes, and "of this nature are all the
+lodges used by the Dacotas;" the second were the bark-covered structures
+of the Ojibway, "who for the most part live to the north-east of the
+buffalo regions." To this latter class must have belonged the
+habitations of the Siouan tribes before they were forced from their
+early homes among the forests and lakes to the eastward.
+
+When referring to the two characteristic forms of habitations it will be
+of interest to quote from the writings of one who traversed the country
+more than a century and a half ago, when all was in its primitive
+condition, but, like many writers of that period, he failed to give
+details which at the present time would prove of the greatest value. He
+wrote: "The Indians, in general, pay a greater attention to their dress
+and to the ornaments with which they decorate their persons, than to the
+accommodation of their huts or tents. They construct the latter in the
+following simple and expeditious manner.
+
+"Being provided with poles of a proper length, they fasten two of them
+across, near their ends, with bands made of bark. Having done this, they
+raise them up, and extend the bottom of each as wide as they purpose to
+make the area of the tent: they then erect others of an equal height,
+and fix them so as to support the two principal ones. On the whole they
+lay skins of the elk or deer, sewed together, in quantity sufficient to
+cover the poles, and by lapping over to form the door. A great number of
+skins are sometimes required for this purpose, as some of their tents
+are very capacious. That of the chief warrior of the Naudowessies was at
+least forty feet in circumference, and very commodious.
+
+"They observe no regularity in fixing their tents when they encamp, but
+place them just as it suits their conveniency.
+
+"The huts also, which those who use no tents erect when they travel,
+for very few tribes have fixed abodes or regular towns or villages, are
+equally simple, and almost as soon constructed.
+
+"They fix small pliable poles in the ground, by bending them till they
+meet at the top and form a semi-circle, then lash them together. These
+they cover with mats made of rushes platted, or with birch bark, which
+they carry with them in their canoes for this purpose.
+
+"These cabins have neither chimnies nor windows; there is only a small
+aperture left in the middle of the roofs through which the smoke is
+discharged, but as this is obliged to be stopped up when it rains or
+snows violently, the smoke then proves exceedingly troublesome.
+
+"They lie on skins, generally those of the bear, which are placed in
+rows on the ground; and if the floor is not large enough to contain
+beds sufficient for the accommodation of the whole family, a frame is
+erected about four or five feet from the ground, in which the younger
+part of it sleep." (Carver, (1), pp. 152-154.) Though lacking much in
+detail, nevertheless the preceding notes are of historical interest and
+value, describing as they do the primitive habitations which were reared
+and occupied by the native tribes living in the upper Mississippi Valley
+about the middle of the eighteenth century. Skins of the elk and deer
+were evidently used as coverings for the conical tipi, which seems to
+prove the lack of a sufficient number of buffalo skins to serve the
+purpose, although farther west, beyond the timbered country, where
+buffalo were more easily obtained, their skins were made use of and
+covered the shelters of tribes by whom they were hunted.
+
+YANKTON.
+
+When the expedition under the leadership of General Atkinson ascended
+the Missouri, during the summer of 1825, he wrote regarding the Yankton:
+"The Yanctons are a band of the Sioux, and rove in the plains north of
+the Missouri, from near the Great Bend, down as far as the Sioux river.
+They do not cultivate, but live by the chase alone, subsisting
+principally upon buffalo. They cover themselves with leather tents, or
+lodges, which they move about from place to place, as the buffalo may
+chance to range. They are pretty well supplied with fusees, and with
+horses, and a few mules. They are estimated at 3,000 souls, of which 600
+are warriors. They are comfortably habited in frocks, or shirts of
+dressed skins, and leggings, reaching to the waist, of the same; they
+use besides, robes of buffalo skins, which are frequently beautifully
+wrought with porcupine quills, or painted tastefully; are friendly to
+the whites, but make war upon almost all other tribes, except those of
+their own nation. Their trading ground is on the river Jaques."
+(Atkinson, (1), pp. 8-9.) On June 17 the party arrived at Fort Lookout,
+a post of the American Fur Company, and four days later, "on the 21st,
+the Tetons, Yanctons, and Yanctonies, three distinct bands of the Sioux
+Nation, having arrived, a council was opened, and, on the 22d, a treaty
+concluded with them." This great gathering of the tribes, with their
+numerous skin-covered tipis, would have presented a sight similar to
+that witnessed and described by Catlin just seven years later, in the
+vicinity of Fort Pierre.
+
+An excellent description of the skin-covered tipi of the Sioux, but of
+the structures of the Yankton in particular, is contained in
+Maximilian's narrative. Writing on May 25, 1833, he said the "Sioux
+Agency, or, as it is now usually called, Fort Lookout, is a square, of
+about sixty paces, surrounded by pickets, twenty or thirty feet high,
+made of squared trunks of trees placed close to each other, within which
+the dwellings are built close to the palisades.... About ten leather
+tents or huts of the Sioux, of the branch of the Yanktons or Yanktoans,
+were set up near the fort.... All these Dacotas of the Missouri, as well
+as most of those of the Mississippi, are only hunters, and, in their
+excursions, always live in portable leather tents.... The tents of the
+Sioux are high pointed cones, made of strong poles, covered with buffalo
+skins, closely sewed together. These skins are scraped on both sides, so
+that they become as transparent as parchment, and give free admission to
+the light. At the top, where the poles meet, or cross each other, there
+is an opening, to let out the smoke, which they endeavor to close by a
+piece of the skin covering of the tent, fixed to a separate pole
+standing upright, and fastened to the upper part of the covering on the
+side from which the wind blows. The door is a slit, in the front of the
+tent, which is generally closed by another piece of buffalo hide,
+stretched upon a frame. A small fire is kept up in the centre of the
+tent. Poles are stuck in the ground, near the tent, and utensils of
+various kinds are suspended from them. There are, likewise, stages, on
+which to hang the newly-tanned hides; others, with gaily-painted
+parchment pouches and bags, on some of which they hang their bows,
+arrows, quivers, leather shields, spears, and war clubs.
+
+"We paid a visit to Wahktageli in his tent, and had some difficulty in
+creeping into the narrow, low entrance, after pulling aside the skin
+that covered it. The inside of this tent was light, and it was about ten
+paces in diameter. Buffalo skins were spread on the ground, upon which
+we sat down. Between us and the side of the tent were a variety of
+articles, such as pouches, boxes, saddles, arms, &c. A relation of the
+chief was employed in making arrows, which were finished very neatly,
+and with great care. Wahktageli immediately, with much gravity, handed
+the tobacco-pipe round, and seemed to inhale the precious smoke with
+great delight.... The conversation was carried on by Cephier, the
+interpreter kept by the Agency, who accompanied us on this visit.... The
+owner of a neighbouring tent had killed a large elk, the skin of which
+the women were then busily employed in dressing. They had stretched it
+out, by means of leather straps, on the ground near the tent, and the
+women were scraping off the particles of flesh and fat with a very
+well-contrived instrument. It is made of bone, sharpened at one end, and
+furnished with little teeth like a saw, and, at the other end, a strap,
+which is fastened round the wrist." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 148-152.) A
+drawing by Bodmer, reproduced by Maximilian on page 151 of the work
+cited, is here shown as figure 2. It represents a small group of tipis,
+of the type mentioned in the narrative, and on the right, in the rear,
+is a tripod with what appears to be a shield suspended from it. The bone
+implement mentioned as being used by the women to remove particles of
+flesh from the skin of the recently killed elk belonged to a well-known
+type which was extensively used throughout the region. It was formed of
+the large bones of the leg of the buffalo, elk, or moose. Many old
+examples are preserved in the National Museum, Washington.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Tipis.]
+
+When dealing with the agents of the Government the Yankton would gather
+on the plains around Fort Pierre. Just 20 years after Maximilian's visit
+to the upper Missouri a small party passed down the river, and on
+October 18, 1853, entered in their journal: "We reached Fort Pierre
+about 12 o'clock m.... Two days before our arrival at this place, the
+main body of the Yankton Sioux, in number some twenty-five hundred, had
+left for the buffalo country. They have been here to receive their
+presents from the government. Two more bands are expected in a few
+days." (Saxton, (1), p. 267.) And some days later, while continuing down
+the Missouri: "The prairies are burning in every direction, and the
+smoke is almost stifling."
+
+TETON.
+
+The Teton, moving westward from their early habitat to the east and
+north of the Minnesota, were encountered on the banks of the Missouri by
+Captains Lewis and Clark when they ascended the river, during the early
+autumn of 1804. On September 26 of that year the expedition reached the
+mouth of Teton River (the present Bad River), which enters the Missouri
+from the west at Pierre, Stanley County, South Dakota. Here stood the
+great village of the Teton, concerning which Sergeant Gass gave a very
+interesting account in his journal: "We remained here all day. Capt.
+Lewis, myself and some of the men, went over to the Indian camp. Their
+lodges are about eighty in number, and contain about ten persons each;
+the greater part women and children. The women were employed in dressing
+buffaloe skins, for clothing for themselves and for covering their
+lodges. They are the most friendly people I ever saw; but will pilfer if
+they have an opportunity. They are also very dirty: the water they make
+use of, is carried in the paunches of the animals they kill, just as
+they are emptied, without being cleaned.... About 3 o'clock we went
+aboard the boat accompanied with the old chief and his little son. In
+the evening captain Clarke and some of the men went over, and the
+Indians made preparations for a dance. At dark it commenced. Captain
+Lewis, myself and some of our party went up to see them perform. Their
+band of music, or orchestra, was composed of about twelve persons
+beating on a buffalo hide, and shaking small bags that made a rattling
+noise. They had a large fire in the centre of their camp; on one side
+the women, about 80 in number, formed a solid column round the fire,
+with sticks in their hands, and the scalps of the Mahas they had killed,
+tied on them. They kept moving, or jumping round the fire, rising and
+falling on both feet at once; keeping a continual noise, singing and
+yelling. In this manner they continued till 1 o'clock at night, when we
+returned to the boat with two of the chiefs." (Gass, (1), pp. 45-46.)
+
+In the journal of the expedition is a very full account of the events
+which transpired during the two days spent at the Teton camp, but only
+part will now be quoted, sufficient to describe the place of meeting:
+"Captain Lewis went on shore and remained several hours, and observing
+that their disposition was friendly we resolved to remain during the
+night to a dance, which they were preparing for us. Captains Lewis and
+Clark, who went on shore one after the other, were met on landing by ten
+well dressed young men, who took them up in a robe highly decorated and
+carried them to a large council house, where they were placed on a
+dressed buffaloe skin by the side of the grand chief. The hall or
+council-room was in the shape of three quarters of a circle, covered at
+the top and sides with skins well dressed and sewed together. Under this
+shelter sat about seventy men, forming a circle round the chief, before
+whom were placed a Spanish flag and the one we had given them yesterday.
+This left a vacant circle of about six feet diameter, in which the pipe
+of peace was raised on two forked sticks, about six or eight inches
+from the ground, and under it the down of the swan was scattered: a
+large fire, in which they were cooking provisions, stood near, and in
+the centre about four hundred pounds of excellent buffaloe meat as a
+present for us." Then followed several addresses by the chiefs;
+offerings of dog meat to the flag "by way of sacrifice," and the smoking
+of the pipe of peace. (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 84-86.) The entire
+ceremony proved of the greatest interest. Then followed an account of
+the habitations standing in the village: "Their lodges are very neatly
+constructed, in the same form as those of the Yanktons; they consist of
+about one hundred cabins, made of white buffaloe hide dressed, with a
+larger one in the centre for holding councils and dances. They are built
+round with poles about fifteen or twenty feet high, covered with white
+skins; these lodges may be taken to pieces, packed up, and carried with
+the nation wherever they go, by dogs which bear great burdens. The women
+are chiefly employed in dressing buffaloe skins: they seem perfectly
+well disposed, but are addicted to stealing any thing which they can
+take without being observed." (Op. cit., pp. 88-89.)
+
+During the year 1832 George Catlin remained for some time at and near
+the mouth of the Teton, where a few years before had been erected a
+station of the American Fur Company, which was soon given the name Fort
+Pierre. "The country about this Fort is almost entirely prairie,
+producing along the banks of the river and streams only, slight
+skirtings of timber.... On my way up the river I made a painting of this
+lovely spot, taken from the summit of the bluffs, a mile or two distant,
+showing an encampment of Sioux, of six hundred tents of skin lodges,
+around the Fort, where they had concentrated to make their spring trade;
+exchanging their furs and peltries for articles and luxuries of
+civilized manufactures." (Catlin, (1), I, p. 209.) And he continued (p.
+211): "I mentioned that this is the nucleus or place of concentration of
+the numerous tribe of the Sioux, who often congregate here in great
+masses to make their trades with the American Fur Company; and that on
+my way up the river, some months since, I found here encamped, six
+hundred families of Sioux, living in tents covered with buffalo hides.
+Amongst these there were twenty or more of the different bands, each one
+with their chief at their head, over whom was a _superior chief_ and
+leader, a middle-aged man, of middling stature, with a noble
+countenance.... The name of this chief is Ha-won-je-tah (the one horn)
+of the Mee-ne-cow-e-gee band, who has risen rapidly to the highest
+honours in the tribe."
+
+About this time a "grand feast" was prepared by the Indians in honor of
+the Indian agent and the several Americans who were then at Fort Pierre,
+including Catlin. A sketch of the gathering is shown in plate 23, _a_,
+after the illustration in Catlin's narrative, but it may be of interest
+to know that the original painting is now in the National Museum,
+Washington. Describing this scene, Catlin wrote:
+
+"The two chiefs, Ha-wan-je-tah and Tchan-dee ... brought their two tents
+together, forming the two into a semi-circle, enclosing a space
+sufficiently large to accommodate 150 men; and sat down with that number
+of the principal chiefs and warriors of the Sioux nation." The several
+Americans were "placed on elevated seats in the centre of the crescent;
+while the rest of the company all sat upon the ground, and mostly
+cross-legged, preparatory to the feast being dealt out. In the centre of
+the semi-circle was erected a flag-staff, on which was waving a white
+flag, and to which also was tied the calumet, both expressive of their
+friendly feelings towards us. Near the foot of the flag-staff were
+placed in a row on the ground, six or eight kettles, with iron covers on
+them, shutting them tight, in which were prepared the viands for our
+_voluptuous_ feast. Near the kettles, and on the ground also, bottomside
+upwards, were a number of wooden bowls, in which the meat was to be
+served out. And in front, two or three men, who were there placed as
+waiters, to light the pipes for smoking, and also to deal out the food."
+(Op. cit., p. 228.) The account of the ceremony which soon followed
+proves the gathering to have been one of much interest, and to the
+Indians one of great moment. The arrangement of the two large tipis so
+as to form a single shelter recalls the site of the gathering near the
+shore of Lake Traverse only a few years before. It is to be regretted
+that Catlin did not leave a more detailed description of the appearance
+of the great encampment as it was at the time of his visit, but he
+devoted much of his time to painting portraits of the Indians, of which
+he prepared a large number.
+
+Although Catlin found representatives of many bands of Sioux gathered
+about on the plain surrounding Fort Pierre, nevertheless the
+comparatively permanent village of the Teton was near the mouth of the
+stream of that name. Maximilian, who ascended the Missouri during the
+spring of 1833, arrived at Fort Pierre late in May, and in his journal
+said: "The Sioux, who live on Teton River, near Fort Pierre, are mostly
+of the branch of the Tetons; though there are some Yanktons here."
+(Maximilian, (1), p. 150.) He elsewhere mentioned that "the tents are
+generally composed of fourteen skins," therefore consider the great
+number of buffalo required to furnish coverings for the lodges mentioned
+by Catlin. Maximilian wrote on May 30, 1833, near Fort Pierre: "Round an
+isolated tree in the prairie I observed a circle of holes in the ground,
+in which thick poles had stood. A number of buffalo skulls were piled up
+there; and we were told that this was a medicine, or charm, contrived
+by the Indians in order to entice the herds of buffaloes. Everywhere in
+the plain we saw circles of clods of earth, with a small circular ditch,
+where the tents of many Indians had stood." (Op. cit., p. 157.) These
+were evidently the remains of the encampment seen by Catlin the
+preceding year.
+
+A sketch of Fort Pierre as it appeared July 4, 1851, is given in plate
+23, _b_. This was the work of the young Swiss artist, Friedrich Kurz,
+and is now reproduced for the first time. The small groups of Indians,
+the tipis standing near the fort, and the rolling prairie in the
+distance are all graphically shown.
+
+The several divisions of the Teton performed the sun dance, at which
+time a large ceremonial lodge would be erected, which stood alone in the
+camp circle, formed of the numerous skin tipis. The lodge as reared at
+different times and by the various tribes varied in form and method of
+construction, but it seems to have been the custom of all the tribes to
+abandon the structure at the termination of the ceremonies. It was
+regarded as a sacred place and one not to be destroyed by man. Large
+structures of this sort were often encountered by parties traversing the
+plains and adjacent regions, and one, probably erected by a tribe of the
+Teton, was discovered by the Raynolds party, July 16, 1859, in the
+extreme eastern part of the present Crook County, Wyoming. In the
+journal of the expedition it was written on that day, "We have not yet
+met any Indians, nor any indications of their recent presence. The site
+of our camp is, however, marked by the remains of an immense Indian
+lodge, the frame of which consists of large poles, over thirty feet in
+length. Close by is also a high post, around which a perfect circle of
+buffalo skulls has been arranged." (Raynolds, (1), p. 31.) This may have
+been used during the preceding year, at which time the skin tipis of the
+people enacting the sacred ceremonies were pitched in the form of a
+circle with the great lodge standing in the center. But with the
+completion of the annual dance the participants removed, with their skin
+tipis, to other localities, allowing the sacred structure to be
+destroyed by the elements.
+
+OGLALA.
+
+Of the early history of this, the principal division of the Teton,
+nothing is known. During the first years of the last century they were
+discovered by Lewis and Clark on the banks of the upper Missouri, south
+of the Cheyenne River, in the present Stanley County, South Dakota. They
+hunted and roamed over a wide region, and by the middle of the century
+occupied the country between the Forks of the Platte and beyond to the
+Black Hills. While living on the banks of the Missouri their villages
+undoubtedly resembled the skin-covered tipi settlements of the other
+kindred tribes, and later, when they had pushed farther into the prairie
+country, there was probably no change in the appearance of their
+structures. A very interesting account of the villages of this tribe,
+with reference to their ways of life, after they had arrived on the
+banks of the Platte, is to be found in the narrative of Stansbury's
+expedition, during the years 1849 and 1850.
+
+July 2, 1849, the expedition crossed the South Fork of the Platte,
+evidently at some point in the western part of the present Keith County,
+Nebraska, and on the following day "crossed the ridge between the North
+and South Forks of the Platte, a distance of eighteen and a half miles."
+On July 5 the expedition began moving up the right bank of the North
+Fork, and after advancing 23 miles encamped on the bank of the river.
+They had arrived in the region dominated by the Oglala. "Just above us,
+was a village of Sioux, consisting of ten lodges. They were accompanied
+by Mr. Badeau, a trader; and having been driven from the South Fork by
+the cholera, had fled to the emigrant-road, in the hope of obtaining
+medical aid from the whites. As soon as it was dark, the chief and a
+dozen of the braves of the village came and sat down in a semicircle
+around the front of my tent, and, by means of an interpreter, informed
+me that they would be very glad of a little coffee, sugar, or biscuit. I
+gave them what we could spare." This particular band had not suffered
+very severely from the ailment, but were greatly heartened to receive
+medicines from the doctor, or "medicine-man," of the expedition, and
+when they returned to their village "the sound of the drum and the song,
+expressive of the revival of hope, which had almost departed, resounded
+from the 'medicine lodge,' and continued until a late hour of the
+night." (Stansbury, (1), pp. 44-45.) During this visit some of the
+Indians told of a larger camp about 2 miles distant, where many were ill
+with the dreaded malady.
+
+The following morning, July 6, 1849, the expedition resumed its advance
+up the valley, and soon reached the "upper village," of which an
+interesting account is given in the journal. It "contained about two
+hundred and fifty souls. They were in the act of breaking up their
+encampment, being obliged to move farther up the river to obtain fresh
+grass for their animals. A more curious, animated, and novel scene I
+never witnessed. Squaws, papooses, dogs, puppies, mules, and ponies, all
+in busy motion, while the lordly, lazy men lounged about with an air of
+listless indifference, too proud to render the slightest aid to their
+faithful drudges. Before the lodge of each brave was erected a tripod of
+thin slender poles about ten feet in length, upon which was suspended
+his round white shield, with some device painted upon it, his spear, and
+a buckskin sack containing his 'medicine' bag.... We continued our
+journey, accompanied for several miles by the people of both villages.
+The whole scene was unique in the highest degree. The road was strewn
+for miles with the most motley assemblage I ever beheld, each lodge
+moving off from the village as soon as its inhabitants were ready,
+without waiting for the others. The means of transportation were horses,
+mules, and dogs. Four or five lodge-poles are fastened on each side of
+the animal, the ends of which trail on the ground behind, like the
+shafts of a truck or dray. On these, behind the horse, is fastened a
+light framework, the outside of which consists of a strong hoop bent
+into an oval form, and interlaced with a sort of network of rawhide.
+Most of these are surmounted by a light wicker canopy, very like our
+covers for children's wagons, except that it extends the whole length
+and is open only at one side. Over the canopy is spread a blanket,
+shawl, or buffalo-robe, so as to form a protection from the sun or rain.
+Upon this light but strong trellice-work, they place the lighter
+articles, such as clothing, robes, &c., and then pack away among these
+their puppies and papooses, (of both which they seem to have a goodly
+number;) the women, when tired of walking, get upon them to rest and
+take care of their babies.... The dogs also are made to perform an
+important part in this shifting of quarters. Two short, light
+lodge-poles are fastened together at the small end, and made to rest at
+the angle upon the animal's back, the other end of course, trailing upon
+the ground. Over his shoulders is placed a sort of pad, or small saddle,
+the girth of which fastens the poles to his sides, and connects with a
+little collar or breast-strap. Behind the dog, a small platform or frame
+is fastened to the poles, similar to that used for the horses, upon
+which are placed lighter articles, generally puppies, which are
+considered quite valuable, being raised for beasts of burden as well as
+for food and the chase.... The whole duty of taking down and putting up
+the lodges, packing up, loading the horses, arranging the lodge-poles,
+and leading or driving the animals, devolves upon the squaws, while the
+men stalk along at their leisure; even the boys of larger growth deeming
+it beneath their dignity to lighten the toils of their own mothers."
+(Op. cit., pp. 45-47.)
+
+From the preceding account of the movement of a village of the Oglala it
+is quite apparent they did not advance in the orderly manner followed by
+the Pawnee, as described by Murray in 1835, but the dreaded illness from
+which many were then suffering may have caused the rather demoralized
+condition of the band. The travois as used at that time was similar to
+the example shown in plate 14, although the latter was in use by the
+Cheyenne a generation later. But the frame was not always utilized, and
+often the tipi, folded and rolled, with other possessions of the family,
+rested upon the poles or upon the back of the horse.
+
+Horses thus laden, and with trailing poles on either side, left a very
+distinctive trail as they crossed the prairie, and as described: "The
+trail of the Plain Indians consists usually of three paths, close
+together, yet at fixed distances apart. They are produced as follows:
+The framework of their lodges or tents are made of long poles which, on
+a journey, are tied to each side of a pony, and allowed to trail upon
+the ground. The result is that a long string of ponies, thus laden and
+following each other, will wear a triple path--the central one being
+caused by the tread of the ponies, the two outer by the trailing of the
+lodge-poles." (Bell, (1), pp. 25-26.) An illustration of a horse so
+loaded is given on page 26 and is here reproduced as figure 3. It bears
+the legend "Sioux Indian Lodges or Tents; one packed for a journey, the
+other standing," and, although crude, conveys a clear conception of the
+subject.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Horse travois.]
+
+To continue the narrative of the Stansbury expedition. The party
+advanced up the river and pursued their journey to the Great Salt Lake
+and there wintered. The following year they returned to the east and on
+September 21, 1850, reached the left bank of the North Fork of the
+Platte, at a point near the center of the present Carbon County,
+Wyoming. Describing the site of their encampment that night, near the
+bank of the Platte: "The place we now occupy has long been a favorite
+camp-ground for the numerous war-parties which annually meet in this
+region to hunt buffalo and one another. Remains of old Indian stockades
+are met with scattered about among the thickets; and the guide informed
+us, that four years since there were at one and the same time, upon this
+one bottom, fifteen or twenty of these forts, constructed by different
+tribes. Most of them have since been destroyed by fire. As this was the
+season of the year when we might expect to find them upon their
+expeditions, we were on the _qui vive_, lest we should be surprised."
+They remained in camp the following day, Sunday, and that evening
+entered in the journal: "Several herds of buffalo were seen during the
+day."
+
+The morning of the 23d was warm and cloudy, and the party soon after
+leaving their camp forded the river "on a ripple, with a depth of
+eighteen inches." The water was clear, with a pebbly bottom. That this
+location was frequented by Indians was again indicated by the discovery
+of another great group of "forts," as told in the narrative:
+"Immediately above where we crossed, were about twenty Indian forts, or
+lodges constructed of logs set up endwise, somewhat in the form of an
+ordinary skin lodge, which had been erected among the timber by
+different war-parties: they appeared to be very strong, and were
+ball-proof." (Stansbury, (1), pp. 243-246.) These strongly constructed
+lodges will at once recall the rather similar structures which stood at
+some of the Siouan villages, on the Mississippi below the mouth of the
+Minnesota, during the early years of the last century.
+
+On September 27, when about midway across the present Albany County,
+Wyoming, the expedition encountered a large number of Indians belonging
+to a village a short distance beyond. These proved to be the Oglala, and
+during the following day the village was visited by Stansbury, who wrote
+in the journal: "This village was the largest and by far the
+best-looking of any I had ever seen. It consisted of nearly one hundred
+lodges, most of which were entirely new, pitched upon the level prairie
+which borders on the verdant banks of the Laramie. No regular order
+seemed to be observed in their position, but each builder appeared to
+have selected the site for his habitation according to his own fancy.
+
+"We rode at once to the lodge of the chief, which was painted in broad
+horizontal stripes of alternate black and white, and, on the side
+opposite to the entrance, was ornamented with large black crosses on a
+white ground. We found the old fellow sitting on the floor of his lodge,
+and his squaw busily engaged over a few coals, endeavouring to fry, or
+rather boil, in a pan nearly filled with grease, some very
+suspicious-looking lumps of dough, made doubtless from the flour they
+had received from us yesterday.... After some further conversation,
+another chief, named the 'Iron Heart,' rose up and invited us to a
+feast at his lodge: we accordingly accompanied him, and found him
+occupying the largest and most complete structure in the village,
+although I was assured that the Sioux frequently make them much larger.
+It was intended to be used whenever required, for the accommodation of
+any casual trader that might come among them for the purpose of traffic,
+and was accordingly called 'The Trader's Lodge.' It was made of
+twenty-six buffalo-hides, perfectly new, and white as snow, which, being
+sewed together without a wrinkle, were stretched over twenty-four new
+poles, and formed a conical tent of thirty feet diameter upon the
+ground, and thirty-five feet in height." This must have been a
+magnificent example of the tipi of the plains tribes, and is one of the
+largest of which any record has been preserved.
+
+Moving in a southeastwardly direction from the great village, they
+passed many mounted Indians killing buffalo, and later in the day passed
+another Oglala village of some 50 lodges, moving southward. The surface
+of the prairie for many miles was strewn with the remains of buffalo,
+which had been killed by the Indians and from which only choice pieces
+had been removed. (Op. cit., pp. 254-257.) They were now ascending the
+western slopes of the Black Hills, and approaching the region dominated
+by the Cheyenne, and two days later, September 29, 1850, were a short
+distance south of a village of the latter tribe.
+
+The region just mentioned, the southeastern part of Wyoming, was
+traversed by a missionary who, July 24, 1835, encountered a party of 30
+or 40 mounted Indians. "They were Ogallallahs, headed by eight of their
+chiefs, clad in their war habiliments, and presenting somewhat of a
+terrific appearance.... They told us their whole village was only a few
+hours' travel ahead of us, going to the Black Hills for the purpose of
+trading." Late the following day the party overtook the Indians,
+"consisting of more than two thousand persons. These villages are not
+stationary, but move from place to place, as inclination or convenience
+may dictate. Their lodges are comfortable, and easily transported. They
+are constructed of eight or ten poles about eighteen feet long, set up
+in a circular form, the small ends fastened together, making an apex,
+and the large ends are spread out so as to enclose an area of about
+twenty feet in diameter. The whole is covered with their coarse skins,
+which are elk, or buffalo, taken when they are not good for robes. A
+fire is made in the centre, a hole being left in the top of the lodge
+for the smoke to pass out. All that they have for household furniture,
+clothing, and skins for beds, is deposited around according to their
+ideas of propriety and convenience. Generally not more than one family
+occupies a lodge." (Parker, (1), pp. 66-67.)
+
+Fort Laramie was reached by the Stansbury expedition on July 12, 1849,
+after advancing about 100 miles beyond the Oglala villages passed six
+days before. The fort stood on the emigrant road, and was likewise a
+great gathering place of the neighboring Indians. An interesting account
+of the visit of a party of emigrants just four years before is
+preserved: "Our camp is stationary to-day; part of the emigrants are
+shoeing their horses and oxen; others are trading at the fort and with
+the Indians.... In the afternoon we gave the Indians a feast, and held a
+long _talk_ with them. Each family, as they could best spare it,
+contributed a portion of bread, meat, coffee or sugar, which being
+cooked, a table was set by spreading buffalo skins upon the ground, and
+arranging the provisions upon them. Around this attractive board, the
+Indian chiefs and their principal men seated themselves, occupying one
+fourth of the circle; the remainder of the male Indians made out the
+semi-circle; the rest of the circle was completed by the whites. The
+squaws and younger Indians formed an outer semi-circular row immediately
+behind their dusky lords and fathers." (Palmer, (1), pp. 25-26.) This
+was June 25, 1845, and the account of the gathering of emigrants and
+Indians is followed by a brief description of the fort itself which is
+of equal interest; "Here are two forts. Fort Laramie, situated upon the
+west side of Laramie's fork, two miles from Platte river, belongs to the
+North American Fur Company. The fort is built of _adobes_. The walls are
+about two feet thick, and twelve or fourteen feet high, the tops being
+picketed or spiked. Posts are planted in these walls, and support the
+timber for the roof. They are then covered with mud. In the centre is an
+open square, perhaps twenty-five yards each way, along the sides of
+which are ranged the dwellings, store rooms, smith shop, carpenter's
+shop, offices, &c., all fronting upon the inner area. There are two
+principal entrances; one at the north, the other at the south." (Op.
+cit., pp. 27-28.) Outside the fort proper, on the eastern side, stood
+the stables, and a short distance away was a field of about 4 acres
+where corn was planted, "by way of experiment." About 1 mile distant was
+a similar though smaller structure called Fort John. It was then owned
+and occupied by a company from St. Louis, but a few months later it was
+purchased by the North American Fur Company and destroyed. Such were the
+typical "forts," on and beyond the frontier during the past century.
+
+The Indians would gather about the fort, their skin tipis standing in
+clusters over the surrounding prairie. Such groups are shown in plate
+24, _a_, _b_. These two very interesting photographs were made during
+the visit of the Indian Peace Commission to Fort Laramie in 1868, and it
+is highly probable the tipis shown in the pictures were occupied by
+some of the Indians with whom the commissioners treated.
+
+The Black Hills lay north and west of the region then occupied by the
+Oglala, and although it is known that the broken country was often
+visited and frequented by parties of Indians in quest of poles for their
+tipis, yet it seems doubtful if any permanent settlements ever stood
+within the region. Dodge, in discussing this question, said:
+
+"My opinion is, that the Black Hills have never been a permanent home
+for any Indians. Even now small parties go a little way into the Hills
+to cut spruce lodge-poles, but all the signs indicate that these are
+mere sojourns of the most temporary character.
+
+"The 'teepe,' or lodge, may be regarded as the Indian's house, the
+wickup as his tent. One is his permanent residence, the other the
+make-shift shelter for a night. Except in one single spot, near the head
+of Castle Creek, I saw nowhere any evidence whatever of a lodge having
+been set up, while old wickups were not unfrequent in the edge of the
+Hills. There is not one single teepe or lodge-pole trail, from side to
+side of the Hills, in any direction, and these poles, when dragged in
+the usual way by ponies, soon make a trail as difficult to obliterate as
+a wagon road, visible for many years, even though not used." (Dodge,
+(1), pp. 136-137.)
+
+Col. R. I. Dodge, from whose work the preceding quotation has been made,
+was in command of the military escort which formed part of the
+expedition into the Black Hills during the summer of 1875. The traces of
+the lodges which had stood near the head of Castle Creek, as mentioned
+in 1875, undoubtedly marked the position of the small encampment
+encountered by the Ludlow party the previous year. In the journal of
+that expedition, dated July 26, 1874, is to be found this brief mention:
+"In the afternoon occurred the first rencontre with Indians. A village
+of seven lodges, containing twenty-seven souls, was found in the valley.
+The men were away peacefully engaged in hunting; the squaws in camp
+drying meat, cooking, and other camp avocations. Red Cloud's daughter
+was the wife of the head-man, whose name was One Stab. General Custer
+was desirous they should remain and introduce us to the hills, but the
+presence among our scouts of a party of Rees, with whom the Sioux wage
+constant war, rendered them very uneasy, and toward night-fall,
+abandoning their camp, they made the escape. Old One Stab was at
+headquarters when the flight was discovered, and retained both as guide
+and hostage.... The high limestone ridges surrounding the camp had
+weathered into castellated forms of considerable grandeur and beauty and
+suggested the name of Castle Valley." (Ludlow, (1), p. 13.) Red Cloud,
+whose daughter is mentioned above, was one of the greatest chiefs and
+warriors of the Oglala; born in 1822 near the forks of the Platte, and
+lived until December, 1909.
+
+Although there may never have been any large permanent camps within the
+Black Hills district, nevertheless it is quite evident the region was
+frequented and traversed by bands of Indians, who left well-defined
+trails. Such were discovered by an expedition in 1875, and after
+referring to small trees which had been bent down by the weight of snow
+the narrative continued: "The snow must be sometimes deep enough to hide
+trails and landmarks, as the main Indian trails leading through the
+Hills were marked by stones placed in the forks of the trees or by one
+or more sets of blazes, the oldest almost overgrown by the bark."
+(Newton and Jenney, (1), p. 302.) And in the same work (p. 323), when
+treating of the timber of the Hills, it was said: "The small slender
+spruce-trees are much sought after by the Indians, who visit the Hills
+in the spring for the purpose of procuring them for lodge-poles."
+
+In another work Dodge described the customs of the tribes with whom he
+had been in close contact for many years. The book is illustrated with
+engravings made from original drawings by the French artist Griset, and
+one sketch shows a few Indians, several tipis, and frames from which are
+hanging quantities of buffalo meat in the process of being dried.
+(Dodge, (2), p. 353.) This suggests the scene at Red Cloud's camp. The
+original drawing is now reproduced as plate 1, the frontispiece.
+
+ASSINIBOIN.
+
+The Assiniboin were, until comparatively recent times, a part of the
+Yanktonai, from whom they may have separated while living in the forest
+region of the northern section of the present State of Minnesota.
+Leaving the parent stock, they joined the Cree, then living to the
+northward, with whom they remained in close alliance. Gradually they
+moved to the valleys of the Saskatchewan and Assiniboin Rivers and here
+were encountered by Alexander Henry in 1775. Interesting though brief
+notes on the structures of the Assiniboin as they appeared in 1775 and
+1776 are contained in the narrative of Henry's travels through the great
+northern country. In 1775, when west of Lake Winnipeg, Henry wrote: "At
+eighty leagues above Fort de Bourbon, at the head of a stream which
+falls into the Sascatchiwaine, and into which we had turned, we found
+the Pasquayah village. It consisted of thirty families, lodged in tents
+of a circular form, and composed of dressed ox-skins, stretched upon
+poles twelve feet in length, and leaning against a stake driven into the
+ground in the centre. On our arrival, the chief, named Chatique, or the
+Pelican, came down upon the beach, attended by thirty followers, all
+armed with bows and arrows and with spears." (Henry, (1), pp.
+256-257.) Fort de Bourbon stood at the northwest corner of Lake
+Winnipeg, and the Assiniboin village of Pasquayah was on the present
+Carrot River, which flows parallel with the Saskatchewan before joining
+the larger stream. This was in the eastern part of the province of
+Saskatchewan.
+
+Early the following year Henry made a visit to an Assiniboin village, to
+reach which he crossed many miles of the frozen wilderness. He was
+accompanied by a party of Indians and the short account of the journey
+contains much of interest. They left Fort des Prairies, "built on the
+margin of the Pasquayah, or Sascatchiwaine," February 5, 1776, and, as
+is recorded in the journal, "At noon, we crossed a small river, called
+Moose-river, flowing at the feet of very lofty banks. Moose-river is
+said to fall into Lake Dauphin. Beyond this stream, the wood grows still
+more scanty, and the land more and more level. Our course was southerly.
+The snow lay four feet deep. The Indians travelled swiftly; and, in
+keeping pace with them, my companions and myself had too much exercise,
+to suffer from the coldness of the atmosphere; but, our snow-shoes being
+of a broader make than those of the Indians, we had much fatigue in
+following their track. The women led, and we marched till sunset, when
+we reached a small coppice of wood, under the protection of which we
+encamped. The baggage of the Indians was drawn by dogs, who kept pace
+with the women, and appeared to be under their command. As soon as we
+halted, the women set up the tents, which were constructed, and covered,
+like those of the Cristinaux.
+
+"The tent, in which I slept, contained fourteen persons, each of whom
+lay with his feet to the fire, which was in the middle; but, the night
+was so cold, that even this precaution, with the assistance of our
+_buffalo-robes_ was insufficient to keep us warm. Our supper was made on
+the tongues of the wild ox, or buffalo, boiled in my kettle, which was
+the only one in the camp."
+
+On the morning of February 7, "I was still asleep, when the women began
+their noisy preparations for our march. The striking of the tents, the
+tongues of the women, and the cries of the dogs, were all heard at once.
+At the first dawn of day, we commenced our journey. Nothing was visible
+but the snow and sky; and the snow was drifted into ridges, resembling
+waves.
+
+"Soon after sunrise, we descried a herd of oxen, extending a mile and a
+half in length, and too numerous to be counted. They travelled, not one
+after another, as, in the snow, other animals usually do, but, in a
+broad phalanx, slowly, and sometimes stopping to feed."
+
+One week was required to reach their destination, and during the morning
+of the 12th of February the party arrived at a small wood, in which the
+Assiniboin village stood. And "at the entrance of the wood, we were met
+by a large band of Indians, having the appearance of a guard; each man
+being armed with his bow and spear, and having his quiver filled with
+arrows.... Forming themselves in regular file, on either side of us,
+they escorted us to the lodge, or tent, which was assigned us. It was of
+a circular form, covered with leather, and not less than twenty feet in
+diameter. On the ground within, ox-skins were spread, for beds and
+seats."
+
+Later, the same day of their arrival, they were invited to a feast in
+the tent of the chief. An Indian appeared. "We followed him accordingly,
+and he carried us to the tent of the great chief, which we found neither
+more ornamented, nor better furnished, than the rest." And another feast
+followed in the evening, "Every thing was nearly as before, except that
+in the morning all the guests were men, and now half were women. All the
+women were seated on one side of the floor of the tent, and all the men
+on the other, with a fire placed between them."
+
+The village consisted of about 200 tents, "each tent containing from two
+to four families." And here "I saw, for the first time, one of those
+herds of horses which the Osinipoilles possess in numbers. It was
+feeding on the skirts of the plain." (Henry, (1), pp. 275-289.) Such was
+a great Assiniboin village nearly a century and a half ago.
+
+The entire village was to return to Fort des Prairies, and so, on the
+morning of February 20, 1776, the tents were struck, and "Soon after
+sunrise, the march began. In the van were twenty-five soldiers, who were
+to beat the path, so that the dogs might walk. They were followed by
+about twenty men, apparently in readiness for contingent services; and
+after these went the women, each driving one or two, and some, five
+loaded dogs. The number of these animals, actually drawing loads,
+exceeded five hundred. After the baggage, marched the main body of men,
+carrying only their arms. The rear was guarded by about forty soldiers.
+The line of march certainly exceeded three miles in length." (Op. cit.,
+p. 309.)
+
+It is easy to visualize this great body of Indians passing over the
+frozen plain, camping at night under the scant protection of a small
+cluster of trees. The hundreds of dogs carrying the skin lodges of the
+villages, the men and women moving forward on snowshoes, undoubtedly
+stopping to kill buffalo and thus to obtain food for all. An exciting
+and animated scene it must have been, but only typical and
+characteristic, not unusual.
+
+The preceding description of the movement of an entire village suggests
+a passage in the journal of La Verendrye, treating of the same people a
+generation earlier. Late in the autumn of 1738 a small party of French,
+accompanied by a numerous band of Assiniboin, set out from the village
+of the latter to visit the Mandan, who lived many leagues distant. La
+Verendrye, the leader of the expedition, wrote: "I observed to M. de la
+Marque the good order in which the Assiniboins march to prevent
+surprise, marching always on the prairies, the hillsides and valleys
+from the first mountain, which did not make them fatigued by mounting
+and descending often in their march during the day. There are
+magnificent plains of three or four leagues. The march of the
+Assiniboins, especially when they are numerous, is in three columns,
+having skirmishers in front, with a good rear guard, the old and lame
+march in the middle, forming the central column.... If the skirmishers
+discovered herds of cattle on the road, as often happens, they raise a
+cry which is soon returned by the rear guard, and all the most active
+men in the columns join the vanguard to hem in the cattle, of which they
+secure a number, and each takes what flesh he wants. Since that stops
+the march, the vanguard marks out the encampment which is not to be
+passed; the women and dogs carry all the baggage, the men are burdened
+only with their arms; they make the dogs even carry wood to make the
+fires, being often obliged to encamp in the open prairie, from which the
+clumps of wood may be at a great distance." (La Verendrye, (1), p. 13.)
+
+The Assiniboin appear to have possessed a great fondness for visiting
+other tribes, and many narratives of journeys in the upper Missouri
+Valley contain references to meeting with such parties.
+
+The size of the Assiniboin camps was often mentioned by the early
+writers. Thus Tanner wrote: "When we came from the Little Saskawjawun
+into the Assinneboin river, we came to the rapids, where was a village
+of one hundred and fifty lodges of Assinneboins, and some Crees."
+(James, (2), p. 57.) This was a century ago, when the villages retained
+their primitive appearance, and so it is to be regretted that no
+detailed description was prepared of this large group of skin-covered
+tipis.
+
+The two associated tribes extended their wanderings to the southward,
+reaching the Missouri, a large gathering of the allies being encountered
+by Lewis and Clark at the Mandan towns in November, 1804. In their
+journal, on November 14, appears this entry: "The river rose last night
+half an inch, and is now filled with floating ice. This morning was
+cloudy with some snow: about seventy lodges of Assiniboins and some
+Knistenaux are at the Mandan village, and this being the day of adoption
+and exchange of property between them all, it is accompanied by a dance,
+which prevents our seeing more than two Indians to-day: these Knistenaux
+are a band of Chippeways whose language they speak; they live on the
+Assiniboin and Saskashawan rivers, and are about two hundred and forty
+men...." And on the following day: "The ceremony of yesterday seem to
+continue still, for we were not visited by a single Indian. The swan are
+still passing to the south." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, p. 127.)
+
+As will be recalled, the expedition under command of Lewis and Clark
+wintered near the Mandan towns, and on April 7, 1805, proceeded on their
+journey up the Missouri. On the 13th of April they arrived at a small
+creek which entered the Missouri about 20 miles above the mouth of the
+Little Missouri. They ascended the creek and at a distance of about
+1-1/2 miles reached a pond "which seemed to have been once the bed of
+the Missouri: near this lake were the remains of forty-three temporary
+lodges which seem to belong to the Assiniboins, who are now on the river
+of the same name." The following day, April 14, 1805, after advancing
+about 15 miles beyond the creek entered on the 13th, "we passed timbered
+low grounds and a small creek: in these low grounds are several
+uninhabited lodges built with the boughs of the elm, and the remains of
+two recent encampments, which from the hoops of small kegs found in them
+we judged could belong to Assiniboins only, as they are the only
+Missouri Indians who use spirituous liquors: of these they are so
+passionately fond that it forms their chief inducement to visit the
+British on the Assiniboin." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 185-186.)
+
+During the days following many Assiniboin camps were discovered.
+
+From these brief statements recorded in 1804 and 1805 it will be
+understood that when a large party of the Assiniboin moved, or when on a
+visit to another tribe, they carried with them their skin lodges, but
+when on a hunting trip they raised temporary shelters of brush and
+boughs, and the same custom was undoubtedly followed by war parties.
+
+Evidently the establishment in after years of posts of the American Fur
+Company at certain points along the course of the upper Missouri served
+to attract bands of the Assiniboin as well as representatives of other
+tribes. Several interesting accounts of the arrival of such parties at
+Fort Union, near the mouth of the Yellowstone, are preserved. Thus
+Maximilian wrote when at the fort, June 29, 1833: "The expected arrival
+of more Assiniboins was delayed; they do not willingly travel with their
+leather tents in wet weather, because their baggage then becomes very
+heavy.... On the 30th of June, at noon, a band of Indians had arrived,
+and twenty-five tents were set up near the fort. The women, who were
+short, and mostly stout, with faces painted red, soon finished this
+work, and dug up with their instruments the clods of turf, which they
+lay round the lower part of the hut. One of these tents, the dwelling of
+a chief, was distinguished from the rest. It was painted of the colour
+of yellow ochre, had a broad reddish-brown border below, and on each of
+its sides a large black bear was painted (something of a caricature it
+must be confessed), to the head of which, just above the nose, a piece
+of red cloth, that fluttered in the wind, was fastened, doubtless a
+medicine." Continuing, the narrative recorded the arrival of others.
+"Another band of Assiniboins appeared at a distance. To the west, along
+the wood by the river-side, the prairie was suddenly covered with red
+men, most of whom went singly, with their dogs drawing the loaded
+sledges. The warriors, about sixty in number, formed a close column....
+The whole column entered the fort, where they smoked, ate, and drank:
+and, meantime, forty-two tents were set up. The new camp had a very
+pretty appearance; the tents stood in a semicircle, and all the fires
+were smoking, while all around was life and activity." (Maximilian, (1),
+pp. 202-204.)
+
+A painting of the dwelling of the chief, with a broad border at the
+bottom, "and on each of its sides a large black bear," was made by
+Bodmer and reproduced by Maximilian. It is here shown in plate 24, _c._
+Several interesting details are represented in this graphic sketch. The
+dog travois is well shown, both the manner in which a dog appeared when
+the frame was attached, and the several pairs of poles with the small
+net-covered frames, standing together to the left of the principal tipi.
+
+The preceding quotation from Maximilian is suggestive of an entry in the
+journal of the Swiss artist Friedrich Kurz, made some years later. Kurz
+wrote while at Fort Union: "October 13, 1851. As we were weighing and
+hanging up dried meat, a lot of Assiniboins came to the fort with squaws
+and many horse and dog travois. As a whole these trading parties do not
+show much of interest, but there are always many details to be picked
+up, of great value to a painter." (Bushnell, (3), p. 15.) Kurz remained
+at Fort Union until April 19, 1852, when he descended the Missouri to
+St. Louis, and thence returned to his native city of Bern. While still
+at Fort Union on March 21, 1852, he made the sketch now reproduced in
+plate 25, _b_, which bears the legend, "Horse camp of the Assiniboins."
+It shows a group of skin-covered lodges in the midst of a grove of
+cottonwoods, and evidently the Missouri is in the distance on the right.
+At that time (1851-52), according to Kurz, the Assiniboin then living in
+the vicinity of Fort Union numbered 420 lodges, with 1,050 men, but
+"from 2-3000 Assiniboins live far above, near lake Winnibeg."
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 24
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Near Fort Laramie, 1868]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Near Fort Laramie, 1868]
+
+[Illustration: _c._ "A skin lodge of an Assiniboin chief." Karl Bodmer]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 25
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Assiniboin lodges "formed entirely of pine
+branches." Paul Kane, 1848]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ "Horse camp of the Assiniboins, March 21, 1852."
+Friedrich Kurz]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 26
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Tipi of Gi-he-ga, an Omaha chief. Photograph by W.
+H. Jackson, 1871]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Page of Kurz's Sketchbook]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 27
+
+[Illustration: "THE VILLAGE OF THE OMAHAS"
+
+Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871]
+
+The Assiniboin living in the far northwest had another and simpler form
+of temporary structure, as mentioned by Kane. He wrote, when arriving at
+Rocky Mountain Fort, a post of the Hudson's Bay Company, April 21, 1848:
+"This fort is beautifully situated on the banks of the Saskatchewan, in
+a small prairie, backed by the Rocky Mountains in the distance. In the
+vicinity was a camp of Assiniboine lodges, formed entirely of pine
+branches." (Kane, (1), p. 408.) The painting made by him showing the fort
+and lodges is reproduced in plate 25, _a_.
+
+DHEGIHA GROUP.
+
+Five tribes are considered as belonging to this group of the Siouan
+linguistic family: Omaha, Ponca, Quapaw, Osage, and Kansa. Distinct from
+the Dakota-Assiniboin tribes already mentioned, these undoubtedly some
+centuries ago lived in the central and upper Ohio valleys, whence they
+moved westward to and beyond the Mississippi. To these tribes may be
+attributed the great earthworks of the southern portion of Ohio and the
+adjacent regions bordering the Ohio River. To quote from the Handbook:
+"Hale and Dorsey concluded from a study of the languages and traditions
+that, in the westward migration of the Dhegiha from their seat on Ohio
+and Wabash rivers, after the separation, at least as early as 1500, of
+the Quapaw, who went down the Mississippi from the mouth of the Ohio,
+the Omaha branch moved up the great river, remaining awhile near the
+mouth of the Missouri while war and hunting parties explored the country
+to the northwest. The Osage remained on Osage River, and the Kansa
+continued up the Missouri, while the Omaha, still including the Ponca,
+crossed the latter stream and remained for a period in Iowa, ranging as
+far as the Pipestone quarry at the present Pipestone, Minnesota."
+
+While living in the heavily timbered valleys reaching to the Ohio the
+several tribes now being considered unquestionably occupied villages
+consisting of groups of mat-covered lodges of the type erected by the
+Osage and Quapaw until the present time. But with the Omaha, Ponca, and
+Kansa, it was different, and when they reached the intermediate region,
+where forest and prairie joined, they were compelled to adopt a new form
+of structure, one suited to the natural environments, and thus they
+began to make use of the earth-covered lodge, and the conical skin tipi,
+with certain variations in form. The characteristic structures of the
+five tribes will now be briefly described, beginning with those of the
+Omaha.
+
+OMAHA.
+
+When Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri in 1804 they found the Omaha
+village not far from the Missouri, in the present Dakota County,
+Nebraska. On the 13th of August the expedition reached the mouth of a
+creek entering the right bank of the Missouri. Just beyond they encamped
+on a sandbar, "opposite the lower point of a large island." From here
+Sergeant Ordway and four men were sent to the Omaha village and returned
+the following day. "After crossing a prairie covered with high grass,
+they reached the Maha creek, along which they proceeded to its three
+forks, which join near the village: they crossed the north branch and
+went along the south; the walk was very fatiguing, as they were forced
+to break their way through grass, sunflowers, and thistles, all above
+ten feet high, and interspersed with wild pea. Five miles from our camp
+they reached the position of the ancient Maha village: it had once
+consisted of three hundred cabins, but was burnt about four years ago,
+soon after the smallpox had destroyed four hundred men, and a proportion
+of women and children. On a hill, in the rear of the village, are the
+graves of the nation." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 44-45.)
+
+Seven years after Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri the traveler
+Bradbury visited the Omaha village standing on or near the site of the
+one mentioned in the earlier narrative. May 12, 1811, while away from
+the boat and traversing the country in search of botanical specimens, he
+arrived on the summit of the bluffs, and, to quote from his journal: "I
+had a fine view of the town below. It had a singular appearance; the
+framework of the lodges consists of ten or twelve long poles, placed in
+the periphery of a circle of about sixteen feet in diameter, and are
+inclined towards each other, so as to cross at a little more than half
+their length from the bottom; and the tops diverging with the same
+angle, exhibit the appearance of one cone inverted on the apex of
+another. The lower cone is covered with dressed buffalo skins, sewed
+together, and fancifully painted; some with an undulating red or yellow
+band of ten or twelve inches in breadth, surrounding the lodge at half
+its height; on others, rude figures of horses, buffaloes, or deer were
+painted; others again with attempts at the human face, in a circle, as
+the moon is sometimes painted; these were not less than four feet in
+diameter. I judged there were not fewer than eighty lodges. I did not
+remain long on the summit of the bluffs, as I perceived, from the heaps
+of earth, some of these recent, that it was a burial ground, and I knew
+the veneration they have for the graves of their ancestors." (Bradbury,
+(1), pp. 65-67.)
+
+It is interesting to read of the number of decorated lodges then
+standing in an Omaha village, but in later years fewer structures were
+so ornamented. A typical example of a tipi of half a century ago is
+shown in plate 26, _a_, from a photograph made by Jackson in 1871.
+
+According to the best authorities on the Omaha, from whose monographs
+much of the following information has been gleaned, the earth lodge and
+the skin tipi are the only forms of habitations made use of by the
+Omaha in recent generations. The earth lodge resembled those of other
+tribes of the upper Missouri, and among the Omaha the work of erecting
+such a structure was shared in by both man and woman.
+
+"The marking out of the site and the cutting of the heavy logs were done
+by the men. When the location was chosen, a stick was thrust in the spot
+where the fireplace was to be, one end of a rawhide rope was fastened to
+the stick and a circle 20 to 60 feet in diameter was drawn on the earth
+to mark where the wall was to be erected. The sod within the circle was
+removed, the ground excavated about a foot in depth, and the earth
+thrown around the circle like an embankment. Small crotched posts about
+10 feet high were set 8 or 10 feet apart and 1-1/2 feet within the
+circle, and on these were laid beams. Outside this frame split posts
+were set close together, having one end braced against the bottom of the
+bank and the other end leaning against the beams, thus forming a wall of
+timber. The opening generally, though not always, faced the east. Midway
+between the central fireplace and the wall were planted 4 to 8 large
+crotched posts about 10 feet in height, on which heavy beams rested,
+these serving to support the roof. This was made of long, slender,
+tapering trees stripped of their bark. These were tied at their large
+ends with cords (made from the inner bark of the linden) to the beams at
+the top of the stockade and at the middle to those resting in the
+crotches of the large posts forming the inner circle about the
+fireplace. The slender ends were cut so as to form the circular opening
+for the smoke, the edges being woven together with elm twine, so as to
+be firm. Outside the woodwork of the walls and roof, branches of willow
+were laid crosswise and bound tight to each slab and pole. Over the
+willows a heavy thatch of coarse grass was arranged so as to shed water.
+On the grass was placed a thick coating of sod. The sods were cut to lap
+and be laid like shingles. Finally they were tamped with earth and made
+impervious to rain. The entrance way, 6 to 10 feet long, projected from
+the door and was built in the same manner as the lodge and formed a part
+of it. A curtain of skin hung at the inner and one at the outer door of
+this entrance way. Much labor was expended on the floor of the lodge.
+The loose earth was carefully removed and the ground then tamped. It was
+next flooded with water, after which dried grass was spread over it and
+set on fire. Then the ground was tamped once again. This wetting and
+heating was repeated two or three times, until the floor became hard and
+level and could be easily swept and kept clean. Brooms were made of
+brush or twigs tied together. Couches were arranged around the wall in
+the spaces between the posts of the framework. These were provided with
+skins and pillows, and served as seats by day and as beds by night. In
+the building of an earth lodge the cutting and putting on of the sods
+was always done by women, and as this part of the task had to be
+accomplished rapidly to prevent the drying out of the sods, which must
+hold well together, kindred helped one another. The erection of this
+class of dwelling required considerable labor, hence only the
+industrious and thrifty possessed these lodges." (Fletcher and La
+Flesche, (1), pp. 97-98.)
+
+Although the earth-covered lodge, as just described, was used in the
+permanent villages, nevertheless in the same villages were to have been
+seen many of the conical skin tipis. Both types of habitation were
+standing at the Omaha village in 1871 when the photograph, now
+reproduced in plate 27, was made by W. H. Jackson.
+
+Near each earth lodge, "generally to the left of the entrance, the cache
+was built. This consisted of a hole in the ground about 8 feet deep,
+rounded at the bottom and sides, provided with a neck just large enough
+to admit the body of a person. The whole was lined with split posts, to
+which was tied an inner lining of bunches of dried grass. The opening
+was protected by grass, over which sod was placed. In these caches the
+winter supply of food was stored; the shelled corn was put into skin
+bags, long strings of corn on the cob were made by braiding the outer
+husks, while the jerked meat was packed in parfleche cases. Pelts,
+regalia, and extra clothing were generally kept in the cache; but these
+were laid in ornamented parfleche cases, never used but for this
+purpose." (Op. cit., p. 98.)
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 28
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Page of Kurz's Sketchbook showing Omaha village, May
+20, 1851]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Page of Kurz's Sketchbook showing interior of an
+Omaha lodge, May 16, 1851]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 29
+
+[Illustration: "PUNKA INDIANS ENCAMPED ON THE BANKS OF THE MISSOURI"
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833]
+
+On pages 95 and 96 of the work just cited appears a very interesting
+description of the making and raising of a skin tipi. "Formerly the
+cover was made of 9 to 12 buffalo skins tanned on both sides. To cut and
+sew this cover so that it would fit well and be shapely when stretched
+over the circular framework of poles required skilful workmanship, the
+result of training and of accurate measurements.... The tent poles were
+14 to 16 feet long. Straight young cedar poles were preferred. The bark
+was removed and the poles were rubbed smooth. The setting up of a tent
+was always a woman's task. She first took four poles, laid them together
+on the ground, and then tied them firmly with a thong about 3 feet from
+one end. She then raised the poles and spread their free ends apart and
+thrust them firmly into the ground. These four tied poles formed the
+true framework of the tent. Other poles--10 to 20 in number, according
+to the size of the tent--were arranged in a circle, one end pressed well
+into the ground, the other end laid in the forks made by the tied ends
+of the four poles. There was a definite order in setting up the poles so
+that they would lock one another, and when they were all in place they
+constituted an elastic but firm frame, which could resist a fairly
+heavy wind." There was probably very little variation in the ways and
+customs of the different members of the tribe, and the tents of an
+entire village would have been raised after the same, long-established
+manner. But the structures in an Omaha village did not surround an open
+space, "nor were they set so the people could live in the order of their
+gentes, an order observed when they were on the hunt and during their
+tribal ceremonies. Yet each family knew to what gens it belonged,
+observed its rites, and obeyed strictly the rule of exogamy. To the
+outward appearance a village presented a motley group of tribesmen. The
+dwellings and their different corrals were huddled together; the
+passageways between the lodges were narrow and tortuous. There was
+little of the picturesque. The grass and weeds that grew over the earth
+lodges while the people were off on their summer buffalo hunt were all
+cut away when the tribe returned. So, except for the decorations on the
+skin tents, there was nothing to relieve the dun-colored aspect." (Op.
+cit., p. 99.) Such was the appearance of an Omaha village in the valley
+of the Missouri.
+
+In 1847 the Omaha erected a village on the banks of Papillon Creek, near
+the line between Sarpy and Douglas Counties, Nebraska. Four years later
+it was visited by Kurz during his journey up the Missouri. Kurz was
+camped near Council Bluffs, on the left bank of the Missouri. Opposite
+was Bellevue, the trading post of Peter A. Sarpy, and while at the
+latter place, May 16, 1851, Kurz entered in his journal: "In Bellevue I
+have drawn an Indian winter house made of earth, and also a Pawnee
+girl." And on May 20 he wrote: "Again crossed the river to Bellevue in
+order to visit the Omaha village some six miles distant; went over the
+bluffs, as being the shortest way, then crossed the high prairie ... to
+the _Papillon_ creek which partly surrounds the village of the Omahas.
+The village itself is built on a hill.... The camp or village is
+composed of leather tents and earth-covered lodges. Between the tents
+and lodges are scaffolds for drying meat and also an enclosure for the
+horses.... I walked into the village and watched a group of young men
+endeavoring to throw lances through rolling rings, the others being
+gathered on top the earth lodges, [pl. 26, _b_] as spectators."
+(Bushnell, (3), p. 11.) Sketches made by Kurz at that time are
+reproduced in plate 28. The interior of an earth lodge, drawn at
+Bellevue May 16, 1851, is shown in _b_; the couches extending along the
+wall are clearly indicated, also the fireplace in the center of the
+lodge, over which is hanging a hook for the suspension of a kettle. The
+village, which stood on the banks of Papillion Creek, is shown in the
+lower part of _a_, of the same plate. Both forms of dwellings are
+represented in the sketch; also the scaffolds for drying meat and other
+purposes, and several inclosures in which their horses were confined.
+
+On June 12 Kurz attended a sacred dance performed for the benefit of a
+wounded man. He referred to it in his journal as being given by the
+Buffalo Society, where all wore buffalo masks. It was held in a large
+earth lodge, and he was accompanied by the chief, Joseph La Flesche.
+
+The site of the small village mentioned by Kurz was identified a few
+years ago by Gilder, and some of the ruins were examined. It stood in
+the forks of the Papillion, about 4 miles in a direct line west of the
+Missouri. To quote from the brief narrative: "It was here the Omaha
+lived last before going on a reservation, and where they were visited by
+the Swiss artist, Kurz.... It was found that the ruins were quite
+shallow and had left but slight depressions, while others left small
+circular mounds above the surrounding level. The Rock Island Railroad
+has cut through the village, and at least one cache was exposed from top
+to bottom--about fifteen feet. In all instances the caches were outside
+the lodge sites.
+
+"The surface yielded fractured iron pots, delft or figured china of
+white man's manufacture, and rusty iron objects, besides flint scrapers
+and chips, potsherds, and the usual accumulations of a village prior to
+contact with white people. The writer cannot attribute the flint
+implements to the Omaha, but considers the favorable site on a plateau
+at the junction of two streams to have been used by another people long
+before the Omaha erected their lodges there." (Gilder, (1), p. 75.)
+
+Innumerable ruins of earth lodges were to have been found in the
+vicinity of the present city of Omaha, the great majority of which stood
+in early days before the arrival of Europeans in the valley of the
+Missouri, and it is not possible to say by which tribe the villages were
+erected. Many large ruins were discovered on Childs Point, in the
+extreme northeastern corner of Sarpy County, just south of Omaha, and
+some 4 miles northeast of the small village visited by Kurz. Some of the
+ruins were carefully examined by Gilder. One, which appears to have been
+considered as possessing the typical characteristics of the group, was
+described by Gilder, who wrote: "In all house ruins similar to the one
+here described, the main fireplace, four or five feet in diameter, is
+situated near the exact center. From this fireplace the floor extends,
+nearly flat, to within ten feet of the extreme outer edge or periphery
+of the ruin. Here a platform, or step, twelve to fourteen inches high
+and almost vertical, rose from the floor and sloped rather sharply to
+the outer rim.... Around the line of the inner circumference of the
+platform, at distances of approximately five feet, the remains of posts
+six or seven inches in diameter were discovered. These were either in
+the form of charcoal or of wood dust. Sometimes bowlders lay about the
+remains of the posts, as if designed to aid in holding them in position.
+The grain of the charcoal posts indicated the wood to have been oak.
+About the posts, under the floor, and also under the platform, objects
+were more numerous than at other points in the ruin. The charred remains
+of four posts about eight feet apart surrounded the central fireplace.
+There were two features of house construction that stand out
+conspicuously: (1) the floor was approximately six to eight feet lower
+than the level of the surrounding ridge; (2) the angle at which the
+slabs, logs, or paling probably leaned inward from the periphery seems
+to indicate the highest part of the roof at about the same distance
+above the surrounding level as the floor was below, making the highest
+part of the roof about fifteen feet above the fireplace in the center of
+the dwelling.... Little besides broken flint instruments, flint chips,
+shells, potsherds, and fractured drift bowlders were found upon the
+floor itself; the major number of objects was beneath the floor surface,
+very often covered with bowlders, as if the latter had been placed to
+mark the spot. Small fireplaces were of frequent occurrence on all parts
+of the floor.
+
+"Three caches were found in the first ruin.... In one, fifteen feet west
+of the center of the dwelling were found flint blades, a score of Unio
+shells, a mano or muller made from a rounded drift bowlder ... and a
+pottery pipe in form of a soaring bird.... The bottom of this cache was
+six feet from the surface. The second cache lay at the southeastern side
+of the ruin. Its bottom was eight feet from the surface of the ground.
+It contained thirty shells, several large flint blades, other large
+flint implements of unknown use ... animal bones, projectile points, and
+a small piece of galena. The third cache, in the northeastern part of
+the ruin, was the largest and deepest of the three, its bottom being
+nine feet and a half from the surface. On a small shelf, or niche, at
+its eastern side, two feet from the bottom, lay, a small image of a
+human face carved from pink soapstone, a number of animal bones and
+skulls, fish bones and scales, and Unio shells.
+
+"So many and varied were the objects found in the ruin, so abundant the
+charred sticks and grasses, that the impression is conveyed that the
+dwelling had been abandoned in haste and that it had burned to the
+ground." (Gilder, (1), pp. 58-61.) The objects discovered in this
+ancient ruin were truly varied, as the discoverer remarked, and likewise
+of the greatest interest, including specimens of stone, bone, and
+pottery, with bones of animals which had probably served as food. But
+how interesting it would be to know the date of the construction of this
+large lodge, and the tribe to which its occupants belonged--questions
+which may never be determined. However, it unquestionably belonged to
+people of a tribe who reared and occupied similar structures in the
+valley of the Missouri as late as the latter half of the nineteenth
+century.
+
+Other quite similar ruins a short distance north of the city of Omaha
+were examined by Gilder. Many objects of bone, stone, and pottery were
+discovered. Caches were encountered, and to quote from his account of
+the work: "The caches within the house sites are smaller in diameter
+near the top than at the bottom, the latter part flaring out somewhat in
+the manner of a large earthen pot. The bottom of the caches are rounded,
+and the walls are almost as hard as fired clay. In the very bottom of
+each cache was a quantity of dust, or earth as fine as dust (not compact
+as at other points), in which were found small arrowpoints, flint
+blades, shell beads, and flint flakes. In each case where the cache was
+found within the house circle it occurred close under the western wall,
+back of the fireplace and exactly opposite the entrance to the lodge,
+the latter in every instance facing the east." (Gilder, (2), p. 716.)
+
+Before closing this brief sketch of the Omaha villages and forms of
+structures, it will be of interest to quote from the writings of one who
+was intimately acquainted with the people of whom he wrote. Referring to
+their various types of habitations, he says:
+
+"The primitive domiciles of the Omaha were chiefly (1) lodges of earth
+or, more rarely, of bark or mats, and (2) skin lodges or tents. It may
+be observed that there were no sacred rites connected with the earth
+lodge-building or tent-making among the Omaha and Ponka. When earth
+lodges were built, the people did not make them in a tribal circle, each
+man erecting his lodge where he wished; yet kindred commonly built near
+one another. The earth lodges were made by the women, and were intended
+principally for summer use, when the people were not migrating or going
+on the hunt.... Earth lodges were generally used for large gatherings,
+such as feasts, councils, or dances.... On a bluff near the Omaha agency
+I found the remains of several ancient earth lodges, with entrances on
+the southern sides. Two of these were 75 feet and one was 100 feet in
+diameter. In the center of the largest there was a hollow about 3 feet
+deep and nearly 4 feet below the surface outside the lodge.
+
+"The Omaha sometimes make bark lodges for summer occupancy, as did the
+Iowa and Sak." (Dorsey, (1), pp. 269-271.)
+
+Referring to the more temporary structure, the skin tipi: "The tent was
+used when the people were migrating, and also when they were traveling
+in search of the buffalo. It was also the favorite abode of a household
+during the winter season, as the earth lodge was generally erected in an
+exposed situation, selected on account of comfort in the summer. The
+tent could be pitched in the timber or brush, or down in wooded ravines,
+where the cold winds never had full sweep. Hence, many Indians abandoned
+their houses in winter and went into their tents, even when they were of
+canvas.
+
+"The tent was commonly made of ten or a dozen dressed or tanned buffalo
+skins. It was in the shape of a sugar loaf, and was from 10 to 12 feet
+high, 10 or 15 feet in diameter at the bottom, and about a foot and a
+half in diameter at the top, which served as a smoke-hole.... No totem
+posts were in use among the Omaha. The tent of the principal man of each
+gens was decorated on the outside with his gentile badge, which was
+painted on each side of the entrance as well as on the back of the
+tent." (Op. cit., pp. 271-274.)
+
+In an earlier work, "A Study of Siouan Cults," Dr. Dorsey showed the
+varied designs on ceremonial tipis of the different Siouan tribes. Among
+other interesting illustrations are pictures of lodges erected at the
+time of the Sun dance, with the great camp circle as formed at that
+time. (Dorsey, (2).)
+
+A clear insight into the ways of life of the primitive Omaha of a
+century ago, before their native manners and customs had been changed
+through influence with the whites, may be obtained from the narrative of
+the Long expedition. A great part of the recorded information was
+imparted by John Dougherty, at that time deputy Indian agent for the
+tribes of the Missouri.
+
+In 1819 and 1820, the period of the narrative, the permanent village of
+the tribe stood on the banks of Omaha Creek, about 2-1/2 miles from the
+right bank of the Missouri, in the present Dakota County, Nebraska. As
+told on preceding pages, this was the large, permanent village of the
+tribe, but nevertheless it was occupied for less than half the year, and
+as related by Dougherty: "The inhabitants occupy their village not
+longer than five months in the year. In April they arrive from their
+hunting excursions, and in the month of May they attend to their
+horticultural interests, and plant maize, beans, pumpkins, and
+watermelons, besides which they cultivate no other vegetable. They also,
+at this season, dress the bison skins, which have been procured during
+the winter hunt, for the traders, who generally appear for the purpose
+of obtaining them. The young men, in the mean time, are employed in
+hunting within the distance of seventy or eighty miles around, for
+beaver, otter, deer, muskrat, elk, &c.
+
+"When the trading and planting occupations of the people are terminated,
+and provisions begin to fail them, which occurs generally in June, the
+chiefs assemble a council for the purpose of deliberating upon the
+further arrangements necessary to be made...." A feast is prepared, and
+all gather to determine where and when the next hunt shall take place.
+These important questions being settled, all are in readiness, and "The
+day assigned for their departure having arrived, the squaws load their
+horses and dogs, and take as great a weight upon their own backs, as
+they can conveniently transport, and, after having closed the entrances
+to their several habitations, by placing a considerable quantity of
+brushwood before them, the whole nation departs from the village." And
+thus they continue to move until word is brought that herds of buffalo
+are near, then they encamp at the nearest watercourse. The skin lodges,
+having been conveyed by means of the travois, are soon set up, to be
+occupied during the period of the hunt. These "are often fancifully
+ornamented on the exterior, with figures, in blue and red paint, rudely
+executed, though sometimes depicted with no small degree of taste." The
+buffalo skins obtained during the summer hunt were known as _summer
+skins_, and were used especially for the covering of their lodges and
+also for their garments. After a successful hunt all parts of the
+buffalo were carried to the camp and the vertebrae were crushed "by
+means of stone axes, similar to those which are not unfrequently
+ploughed up out of the earth in the Atlantic states."
+
+After the summer hunt "The nation return towards their village in the
+month of August, having visited for a short time the Pawnee villages for
+the purpose of trading their guns for horses. They are sometimes so
+successful, in their expedition, in the accumulation of meat, as to be
+obliged to make double trips, returning about mid-day for half the whole
+quantity, which was left in the morning. When within two or three days
+journey of their own village, runners are dispatched to it, charged with
+the duty of ascertaining the safety of it, and the state of the maize.
+
+"On the return of the nation, which is generally early in September, a
+different kind of employment awaits the ever industrious squaws. The
+property buried in the earth is to be taken up and arranged in the
+lodges, which are cleaned out, and put in order. The weeds which during
+their absence had grown up, in every direction through the village, are
+cut down and removed. A sufficient quantity of _sweet corn_ is next to
+be prepared, for present and future use."
+
+Being now plentifully supplied with food, unless for some unforeseen
+cause having an ample quantity of buffalo meat and corn, together with
+the other products of the gardens, they would "content themselves in
+their village until the latter part of October, when, without the
+formality of a council, or other ceremony, they again depart from the
+village, and move in separate parties to various situations on both
+sides of the Missouri, and its tributaries, as far down as the Platte.
+Their primary object at this time, is to obtain, on credit from the
+traders, various articles, indispensably necessary to their fall,
+winter, and spring hunts; such as guns, particularly those of
+_Mackinaw_, powder, ball, and flints, beaver traps, brass, tin, and
+camp-kettles, knives, hoes, squaw-axes and tomahawks.
+
+"Having obtained these implements, they go in pursuit of deer, or apply
+themselves to trapping for beaver and otter. Elk was some time since an
+object of pursuit, but these animals are now rather rare, in the Omawhaw
+territories.
+
+"This hunt continues until towards the close of December, and during the
+rigours of the season they experience an alternation of abundance and
+scarcity of food."
+
+The skins secured during the late autumn hunt would be carried to the
+traders and left as payment for the goods previously obtained on credit,
+and also given in exchange for blankets, wampum, and various other
+articles. Thence they would return to their permanent village "in order
+to procure a supply of maize from their places of concealment, after
+which they continue their journey, in pursuit of bisons.... This
+expedition continues until the month of April, when they return to their
+village as before stated, loaded with provisions. It is during this
+expedition that they procure all the skins, of which the bison robes of
+commerce are made; the animals at this season having their perfect
+winter dress, the hair and wool of which are long and dense." (James,
+(1), I, pp. 200-221.)
+
+Such was the life of the Omaha a hundred years ago, and it may have been
+quite the same for many generations, omitting, of course, the visits
+made to the traders. But their systematic hunts had probably been
+performed ever since the Omaha reached the valley of the Missouri, and
+possibly long before.
+
+PONCA.
+
+That the Ponca and Omaha were formerly a single tribe is accepted
+without question, and that the separation took place long after they
+crossed the Mississippi from their ancient habitat is established by the
+traditions of the two tribes. Probably the two tribes in later years,
+after the separation, continued to resemble one another to such a degree
+that the villages of one could not have been distinguished from those of
+the other.
+
+A deserted village of the Ponca was discovered by members of the Lewis
+and Clark expedition in 1804, and according to the narrative of the
+expedition on September 5 they arrived at the "river Poncara," which
+entered the Missouri from the south, and at its mouth was 30 yards in
+width. "Two men whom we despatched to the village of the same name,
+returned with information that they had found it on the lower side of
+the creek; but as this is the hunting season, the town was so completely
+deserted that they had killed a buffaloe in the village itself." (Lewis
+and Clark, (1), I, pp. 66-67.) The "river Poncara," later to be known as
+Ponca Creek, enters the right bank of the Missouri in the western part
+of the present Knox County, Nebraska. Here they continued to live for
+some years, and during the spring of 1833 Maximilian said they "dwell on
+both sides of Running-water River, and on Ponca Creek, which Lewis and
+Clark call Poncara." Running-water River was the earlier name of the
+Niobrara. "The band of them, which we met with here, has set up eight or
+nine leather tents, at the mouth of Basil Creek, on a fine forest." On
+May 12, 1833, appears this note in the narrative: Arrived "opposite the
+huts of the Punca Indians. They lay in the shade of a forest, like white
+cones, and, in front of them, a sand bank extended into the river, which
+was separated from the land by a narrow channel. The whole troop was
+assembled on the edge of the bank, and it was amusing to see how the
+motley group crowded together, wrapped in brown buffalo skins, white and
+red blankets--some naked, of a deep brown colour." (Maximilian, (1), pp.
+137-139.) A sketch made at that time by Bodmer and reproduced by
+Maximilian is here shown in plate 29. It bears the legend "Punka Indians
+Encamped on the Banks of the Missouri."
+
+Although at that time living in the typical skin tipi, Maximilian stated
+(p. 137), "They formerly lived, like the Omahas, in clay huts at the
+mouth of the river, but their powerful enemies, the Sioux and the
+Pawnees, destroyed their villages, and they have since adopted the mode
+of life of the former, living more generally in tents made of skins, and
+changing their place from time to time." The village visited by members
+of the Lewis and Clark expedition, September 5, 1804, when they "killed
+a buffaloe in the village itself," was probably composed of
+earth-covered lodges.
+
+When discovering a trail, or rather tracks made by a number of Indians
+crossing the prairie, it was often possible to determine the nature of
+the party. The Ponca, who often moved from place to place, setting up
+their tipis in various localities during the course of the year, could
+have been held in mind by Gregg when he wrote: "These lodges are always
+pitched or set up by the squaws, and with such expedition, that, upon
+the stopping of an itinerant band, a town springs up in a desert valley
+in a few minutes, as if by enchantment. The lodge-poles are often neatly
+prepared, and carried along from camp to camp. In conveying them one end
+frequently drags on the ground, whereby the trail is known to be that of
+a band with families, as war parties never carry lodge-poles." (Gregg,
+(1), II, pp. 286-288.) The rapidity and skill with which the squaws set
+up and arranged the tipis, when the site of the camp had been selected,
+was commented on by many writers, and what an interesting and animated
+scene it must have been.
+
+KANSA.
+
+To quote from the Handbook: "Their linguistic relations are closest with
+the Osage, and are close with the Quapaw. In the traditional migration
+of the group, after the Quapaw had first separated therefrom, the main
+body divided at the mouth of Osage River, the Osage moving up that
+stream and the Omaha and Ponca crossing Missouri River and proceeding
+northward, while the Kansa ascended the Missouri on the south side to
+the mouth of Kansa River. Here a brief halt was made, after which they
+ascended the Missouri on the south side until they reached the present
+north boundary of Kansas, where they were attacked by the Cheyenne and
+compelled to retrace their steps. They settled again at the mouth of
+Kansas River, where the Big Knives, as they called the whites, came with
+gifts and induced them to go farther west. The native narrators of this
+tradition give an account of about 20 villages occupied successively
+along Kansas River before the settlement at Council Grove, Kansas,
+whence they were finally removed to their reservation in Indian Ter.
+Marquette's autograph map, drawn probably as early as 1674, places the
+Kansas a considerable distance directly west of the Osage and some
+distance south of the Omaha, indicating that they were then on Kansas
+River.... It is known that the Kansa moved up Kansas River in historic
+times as far as Big Blue River, and thence went to Council Grove in
+1847. The move to the Big Blue must have taken place after 1723."
+
+Thus it would appear that for many generations the villages of the Kansa
+had stood near the eastern boundary of the great plains, a region where
+buffalo were plentiful, one suited to the wants and requirements of the
+native tribes.
+
+On June 26, 1804, the Lewis and Clark expedition reached the mouth of
+the Kansas and encamped on the north side, where they remained two days.
+In the journal of those days they referred to the Kansa, and said: "On
+the banks of the Kanzas reside the Indians of the same name, consisting
+of two villages, one at about twenty, the other forty leagues from its
+mouth, and amounting to about three hundred men. They once lived
+twenty-four leagues higher than the Kanzas [river], on the south bank of
+the Missouri.... This nation is now hunting in the plains for the
+buffaloe which our hunters have seen for the first time." (Lewis and
+Clark, (1), I, pp. 18-19.) A few days later, July 2, after advancing a
+short distance up the Missouri, above the mouth of the Kansas, they
+arrived at the site of an ancient village of the tribe. In the journal
+(p. 20) is this account: "Opposite our camp is a valley, in which was
+situated an old village of the Kansas, between two high points of land,
+and on the bank of the river. About a mile in the rear of the village
+was a small fort, built by the French on an elevation. There are now no
+traces of the village, but the situation of the fort may be recognized
+by some remains of chimnies, and the general outline of the
+fortification, as well as by the fine spring which supplied it with
+water." Three days later, July 5, 1804, while on the right bank of the
+Missouri, they "came along the bank of an extensive and beautiful
+prairie, interspersed with copses of timber, and watered by Independence
+creek. On this bank formerly stood the second village of the Kanzas;
+from the remains it must have been once a large town." (Op. cit., pp.
+21-22.)
+
+The village mentioned by Lewis and Clark as standing on the banks of the
+Kansas River some 40 league above its confluence with the Missouri may
+have been the one visited and described by Maj. George C. Sibley during
+the summer of 1811. Sibley wrote in his journal: "The Konsee town is
+seated immediately on the north bank of the Konsee River, about one
+hundred miles by its course above its junction with the Missouri; in a
+beautiful prairie of moderate extent, which is nearly encircled by the
+River; one of its Northern branches (commonly called the Republican
+fork, which falls in a few hundred paces above the village) and a small
+creek that flows into the north branch. On the north and southwest it is
+overhung by a chain of high prairie hills which give a very pleasing
+effect to the whole scene.
+
+"The town contains one hundred and twenty-eight houses or lodges which
+are generally about 60 feet long and 25 feet wide, constructed of stout
+poles and saplings arranged in form of an arbour and covered with skins,
+bark and mats; they are commodious and quite comfortable. The place for
+fire is simply a hole in the earth, under the ridge pole of the roof,
+where an opening is left for the smoke to pass off. All the larger
+lodges have two, sometimes three, fire places; one for each family
+dwelling in it. The town is built without much regard to order; there
+are no regular streets or avenues. The lodges are erected pretty
+compactly together in crooked rows, allowing barely space sufficient to
+admit a man to pass between them. The avenues between these crooked rows
+are kept in tolerable decent order and the village is on the whole
+rather neat and cleanly than otherwise. Their little fields or patches
+of corn, beans and pumpkins, which they had just finished planting, and
+which constitute their whole variety, are seen in various directions, at
+convenient distances around the village. The prairie was covered with
+their horses and mules (they have no other domestic animals except
+dogs)."
+
+The manuscript journal from which the preceding quotation is made is now
+in the possession of Lindenwood College, St. Charles, Mo., the copy
+having been made by Mrs. N. H. Beauregard.
+
+The preceding is a clear though all too brief account of a native
+village, prepared at a time when it continued in a primitive condition.
+The site, on the left bank of Kansas River just below the mouth of the
+Republican, would have been about the present Fort Riley, near the
+northern line of Geary County. In some respects this is the most
+interesting description of a Kansa village given in the present work.
+The habitations--long mat-covered lodges--were of the type erected by
+the Osage and Quapaw, kindred tribes of the Kansa, and it is highly
+probable they represented the form of dwellings reared by the same
+tribes many generations before in their ancient villages which then
+stood in the valley of the Ohio, far east of the Mississippi.
+
+Just 15 years elapsed between the time of the Lewis and Clark expedition
+and the arrival of the Long party in the country of the Kansa. In
+August, 1819, to those aboard the steamboat _Western Engineer_, "The
+site of an old village of the Konzas, and the remains of a fortification
+erected by the French, were pointed out a few miles below Isle au Vache.
+This island, which lies about one hundred miles above Fort Osage, was
+the wintering post of Capt. Martin's detachment, destined to proceed in
+advance of the troops ordered to the Missouri." And nothing shows more
+clearly the changed conditions in that region during the past century
+than the continuation of this narrative: "Captain Martin, with three
+companies of the rifle regiment, left Bellefontain in September 1818,
+and arrived at Isle au Vache in October, with the expectation of
+resuming his march, as early in the following spring as the weather
+would permit. But not having received the necessary supplies of
+provisions as anticipated, they had been compelled to remain till the
+time of our arrival, subsisting themselves principally by hunting....
+Between two and three thousand deer, besides great numbers of bears,
+turkies, &c. had been taken." On August 23, 1819, a large number of
+Kansa Indians, from their villages on the river bearing their tribal
+name, gathered at Isle au Vache to meet members of the Long party in
+council. "There were present at this council, one hundred and sixty-one
+Konzas, including chiefs and warriors, and thirteen Osages." (James,
+(1), I, pp. 110-112.)
+
+While at Fort Osage members of the Long expedition left for an overland
+journey to the Kansa towns. The party was led by Say, and left the fort
+August 6, arriving at the villages just two weeks later. The Kansa town
+then stood in the extreme southwestern corner of the present
+Pottawatomie County, Kansas, at the mouth of the Big Blue. And "as they
+approached the village, they perceived the tops of the lodges red with
+the crowds of natives; the chiefs and warriors came rushing out on
+horseback, painted and decorated, and followed by great numbers on foot
+... the village was in confusion, the hunters having lately returned;
+and being then engaged in preparations for the journey to Isle au
+Vache." The journey was that mentioned above, when the Indians arrived
+at Isle au Vache to hold council with Long. Continuing the narrative:
+"The approach to the village is over a fine level prairie of
+considerable extent; passing which, you ascend an abrupt bank of the
+height of ten feet, to a second level, on which the village is situate
+in the distance, within about 1/4 of a mile of the river. It consists of
+about 120 lodges, placed as closely together as convenient, and
+destitute of any regularity of arrangement. The ground area of each
+lodge is circular, and is excavated to the depth of from one to three
+feet, and the general form of the exterior may be denominated
+hemispheric.
+
+"The lodge, in which we reside, is larger than any other in the town,
+and being that of the grand chief, it serves as a council house for the
+nation. The roof is supported by two series of pillars, or rough
+vertical posts, forked at top for the reception of the transverse
+connecting pieces of each series; twelve of these pillars form the outer
+series, placed in a circle; and eight longer ones, the inner series,
+also describing a circle; the outer wall, of rude frame work, placed at
+a proper distance from the exterior series of pillars, is five or six
+feet high. Poles, as thick as the leg at base, rest with their butts
+upon the wall, extending on the cross pieces, which are upheld by the
+pillars of the two series, and are of sufficient length to reach nearly
+to the summit. These poles are very numerous, and, agreeable to the
+position which we have indicated, they are placed all around in a
+radiating manner, and support the roof like rafters. Across these are
+laid long and slender sticks or twigs, attached parallel to each other
+by means of bark cord; these are covered by mats made of long grass, or
+reeds, or with the bark of trees; the whole is then covered completely
+over with earth, which, near the ground, is banked up to the eaves. A
+hole is permitted to remain in the middle of the roof to give exit to
+the smoke. Around the walls of the interior, a continuous series of mats
+are suspended; these are of neat workmanship, composed of a soft reed,
+united by bark cord, in straight or undulated lines, between which,
+lines of black paint sometimes occur. The bedsteads are elevated to the
+height of a common seat from the ground, and are about six feet wide;
+they extend in an uninterrupted line around three-fourths of the
+circumference of the apartment, and are formed in the simplest manner of
+numerous sticks, or slender pieces of wood resting at their ends on
+cross pieces, which are supported by short notched or forked posts,
+driven into the ground; bison skins supply them with a comfortable
+bedding. Several medicine or mystic bags are carefully attached to the
+mats of the wall, these are cylindrical, and neatly bound up; several
+reeds are usually placed upon them, and a human scalp serves for the
+fringe and tassels. Of their contents we know nothing. The fireplace is
+a simple shallow cavity, in the center of the apartment, with an upright
+and a projecting arm for the support of the culinary apparatus." (Op.
+cit., pp. 120-121.)
+
+Say and his associates left the Kansa village to rejoin the main party
+aboard the steamboat _Western Engineer_, then waiting near Isle au
+Vache, but soon after starting on the journey were attacked by some
+wandering Pawnee and forced to return to seek refuge among those whom
+they had just left. And as told in the narrative, they were, as a
+consequence, able to witness an interesting ceremony in one of the large
+earth lodges. This was August 23, 1819. "Mr. Say's party were kindly
+received at the village they had left on the preceding day. In the
+evening they had retired to rest in the lodge set apart for their
+accommodation, when they were alarmed by a party of savages, rushing in
+armed with bows, arrows and lances, shouting and yelling in a most
+frightful manner. The gentlemen of the party had immediate recourse to
+their arms, but observing that some squaws, who were in the lodge,
+appeared unmoved, they began to suspect that no molestation to them was
+intended. The Indians collected around the fire in the centre of the
+lodge, yelling incessantly; at length their howlings assumed something
+of a measured tone, and they began to accompany their voices with a sort
+of drum and rattles. After singing for some time, one who appeared to be
+their leader, struck the post over the fire with his lance, and they all
+began to dance, keeping very exact time with the music. Each warrior
+had, besides his arms, and rattles made of strings of deer's hoof, some
+part of the intestines of an animal inflated, and inclosing a few small
+stones, which produced a sound like pebbles in a gourd shell. After
+dancing round the fire for some time, without appearing to notice the
+strangers, they departed, raising the same wolfish howl, with which they
+had entered; but their music and their yelling continued to be heard
+about the village during the night.
+
+"This ceremony, called the _dog dance_, was performed by the Konzas for
+the entertainment of their guests. Mr. Seymour took an opportunity to
+sketch the attitudes and dresses of the principal figures." (Op. cit.,
+p. 135.) The sketch made by Seymour was engraved and served as an
+illustration in the narrative of the expedition prepared by James. It is
+here reproduced as plate 30, _b_. The interior of the large earth lodge
+is clearly shown. The "continuous series of mats" are suspended around
+the wall, and the "bedsteads," as described, serve as seats for the
+guests. Mats are also represented as spread over the floor in the
+foreground.
+
+On August 25, 1819, the steamboat _Western Engineer_ steamed away from
+Isle au Vache, and that night, after having advanced about 23 miles up
+the Missouri, stopped at the mouth of Independence Creek, and a little
+above the creek, on the right bank of the Missouri, was "the site of an
+old Konza town, called formerly the village of the Twenty Four." This
+was evidently the same site as mentioned by Lewis and Clark, July 5,
+1804. Ruins of the earth lodges had undoubtedly remained quite distinct,
+being overgrown with the grass of the prairie.
+
+Isle au Vache, in the Missouri, faces Oak Mills, Atchison County,
+Kansas, and Iatan, Platte County, Missouri. A brief history of the
+island was prepared a few years ago. (Remsburg, (1), pp. 436-443.)
+
+Interesting notes on the habitations of the Kansa Indians are contained
+in a narrative prepared by one who passed through their country during
+the month of May, 1834.
+
+On the night of May 1 the party encamped on a small branch of the Kansas
+River, where they were joined by some members of the Kansa tribe who
+occupied six lodges in a near-by woods. "This party is a small division
+of a portion of this tribe, who are constantly wandering; but although
+their journeys are sometimes pretty extensive, they seldom approach
+nearer to the settlements than they are at present." Later they arrived
+at the banks of the Kansas River, and as it was approached, so the
+narrative continues, "we saw a number of Indian lodges, made of saplings
+driven into the ground, bent over and tied at top, and covered with bark
+and buffalo skins. These lodges, or wigwams, are numerous on both sides
+of the river. As we passed them, the inhabitants, men, women, and
+children, flocked out to see us, and almost prevented our progress by
+their eager greetings. Our party stopped on the bank of the river, and
+the horses were unloaded and driven into the water." They crossed the
+river by means of a large flat-bottomed boat, and reaching the opposite
+bank saw many Indian lodges with some frame houses occupied by whites.
+"The canoes used by the Indians are mostly made of buffalo skins,
+stretched, while recent, over a light frame work of wood, the seams
+sewed with sinews, and so closely, as to be wholly impervious to water.
+These light vessels are remarkably buoyant, and capable of sustaining
+very heavy burthens." That evening they were visited by the Kansa chief
+who lived near by, a "young man about twenty-five years of age, straight
+as a poplar, and with a noble countenance and bearing.... The Kaws
+living here appear to be much more wealthy than those who joined our
+camp on the prairie below.... Their dress consists, universally of deer
+skin leggings, belted around the loins, and over the upper part of the
+body a buffalo robe or blanket." (Townsend, (1), pp. 30-33.)
+
+During the morning of May 20, 1834, the party departed from the Kansa
+settlement on or near the banks of the Kansas River, "leaving the river
+immediately, and making a N. W. by W. course--and the next day came to
+another village of the same tribe, consisting of about thirty lodges,
+and situated in the midst of a beautiful level prairie.... The lodges
+here are constructed very differently from those of the lower village.
+They are made of large and strong timbers, a ridge Pole runs along the
+top, and the different pieces are fastened together by leathern thongs.
+The roofs, which are single, make but one angle, are of stout poplar
+bark, and forms an excellent defence, both against rain and the rays of
+the sun, which must be intense during midsummer in this region. These
+prairies are often visited by heavy gales of wind, which would probably
+demolish the huts, were they built of frail materials like those below.
+We encamped in the evening on a small stream called Little Vermillion
+creek...." (Op. cit., pp. 33-34.)
+
+The sketch by Seymour conveys a very good idea of the general appearance
+of the interior of a Kansa lodge, and an equally interesting picture of
+the village, as it was just 22 years later, is to be found in one of
+Father de Smet's works. He arrived at the first of the villages May 19,
+1841, and in describing it said: "At the first sight of their wigwams,
+we were struck at the resemblance they bore to the large stacks of wheat
+which cover our fields in harvest-time. There were of these in all no
+more than about twenty, grouped together without order, but each
+covering a space about one hundred and twenty feet in circumference, and
+sufficient to shelter from thirty to forty persons. The entire village
+appeared to us to consist of from seven to eight hundred souls,--an
+approximation which is justified by the fact that the total population
+of the tribe is confined to two villages, together numbering 1900
+inhabitants. These cabins, however humble they may appear, are solidly
+built and convenient. From the top of the wall, which is about six feet
+in height, rise inclined poles, which terminate round an opening above,
+serving at once for a chimney and window. The door of the edifice
+consists of an undressed hide on the most sheltered side, the hearth
+occupies the centre and is in the midst of four upright posts destined
+to support the _rotunda_; the beds are ranged round the wall and the
+space between the beds and the hearth is occupied by the members of the
+family, some standing, others sitting or lying on skins, or yellow
+colored mats. It would seem that this last named article is regarded as
+a piece of extra finery, for the lodge assigned to us had one of them."
+(De Smet, (1), pp. 65-66.) Following this description of a lodge is an
+account of its occupants. He refers to the women busily engaged at
+various occupations, and the men, some eating or smoking, and others
+plucking the hair from their brows and beard. The brief description of
+the interior of the lodge conforms with those of the earlier writers,
+but it is to be regretted that more was not said about the outside of
+the structure. Were they covered with earth or thatch? The village
+visited by Say in 1819 was composed of earth-covered lodges, clearly
+described, but the drawing made by one of Father de Smet's associates
+(it is marked _Geo. Lehman, del._) represents the large circular houses
+with overhanging roofs, more closely resembling thatch than the usual
+covering of earth and sod. This drawing, which was reproduced in the
+work cited, is here shown in plate 30, _a_. The structures standing in
+the village visited by Father de Smet may have resembled the
+bark-covered house illustrated in plate 31. This most interesting
+photograph was probably made about 40 years ago, and at once suggests
+the frame, covered with bark, and ready for the final covering of earth;
+in other words, an unfinished earth lodge. However, it was probably a
+complete and finished structure.
+
+Regarding the large village visited by De Smet as mentioned above, one
+historian of the tribe has written: "An important village, and the
+largest of the tribe at that time, was that of old Kah-he-gah-wa-ti-an-gah,
+known as Fool Chief, which from about 1830 to 1846 was located on the north
+side of the Kansas river, just north of the present Union Pacific station
+of Menoken.... Until recent years the lodge-circle marks were visible and
+its exact location easy to be found." (Morehouse, (1), p. 348.)
+
+A year passed between the visit of Father de Smet to the Kansa towns and
+the arrival of Fremont in the same locality, but it had been a period of
+trouble for the tribe and they had suffered greatly. On June 18, 1842,
+Fremont wrote in his journal: "We left our camp seven, journeying along
+the foot of the hills which border the Kansas valley.... I rode off some
+miles to the left, attracted by the appearance of a cluster of huts near
+the mouth of the Vermillion. It was a large but deserted Kansas village,
+scattered in an open wood, along the margin of the stream, chosen with
+the customary Indian fondness for beauty of scenery. The Pawnees had
+attacked it in the early spring. Some of the houses were burnt, and
+others blackened with smoke, and weeds were already getting possession
+of the cleared places." (Fremont, (1), pp. 12-13.)
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 30
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Kansa village, 1841. George Lehman]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Dog dance within a Kansa lodge, August 23, 1819.
+Samuel Seymour]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 31
+
+[Illustration: KANSA HABITATION]
+
+It is quite probable that during their journeys away from the permanent
+villages the Kansa, like other tribes of the Missouri Valley, made use
+of skin tipis as being easily transported from one place to another. It
+would also appear that in later years the earth and bark covered lodge
+ceased to be used, and that skin tipis were constructed to the exclusion
+of other forms of dwellings. A missionary who resided at the Kansa
+agency from 1865 to 1868 wrote: "The tribe at that time was divided into
+three bands, or villages, as they were generally called. Ish-tal-a-sa's
+village occupied the northern part of the reserve. He was not only
+village chief, but head chief of the whole tribe also. Fool Chief's
+village occupied the central part of the reserve, and Al-le-ga-wa-ho's
+the southern portion. The latter became head chief after Ish-tal-a-sa's
+death. There were probably about 300 in each band. Their custom was for
+the entire band to camp together in some desirable locality, where wood,
+water and grass for their ponies were accessible, and remain until the
+pasture was eaten down, and then move to another site. Another reason
+for moving was to get away from the filth that always accumulated in an
+Indian village. Their tents, or tepees, were made of buffalo skins....
+The lodge, as they usually designated their tepees, was easily taken
+down and removed to another place." (Spencer, (1), p. 373.)
+
+Of the numerous tribes mentioned at the present time no one appears to
+have erected a greater variety of dwellings than did the Kansa, whose
+habitations were of several distinct forms and were constructed of
+various materials.
+
+The long mat-covered lodges described by Sibley in 1811, as at that time
+standing in the village at the mouth of the Republican, on the left bank
+of the Kansas River, may be accepted as being the typical or primitive
+form of structure erected by the tribe. Eight years later Say and his
+companions reached another village, a few miles eastward from the one
+preceding, and there found the circular earth lodges. Evidently the
+ruined towns mentioned by Lewis and Clark as being visible from the
+Missouri River were once groups of similar earth lodges. But all
+circular lodges were not covered with earth and sod; in some instances
+the walls and roofs were formed of sheets of bark.
+
+During the month of May, 1834, many small dwellings were standing on
+both banks of the Kansas River which were formed by covering a frame
+composed "of saplings driven into the ground, bent over and tied at
+top," with sheets of bark and buffalo skins. And not far away was
+another village of the same tribe but presenting a very different
+appearance. The structures were described as being "made of large and
+strong timbers, a ridge pole runs along the top, and the different
+pieces are fastened together by leathern thongs. The roofs, which are
+single, make but one angle, are of stout poplar bark." Whether this was
+of circular or quadrangular base is difficult to determine, but probably
+the latter, resembling the example shown in plate 19. And in addition to
+the various structures already noted, the conical skin tipis were
+extensively used by the Kansa, probably serving in early days when the
+people were away from their more permanent villages, but later they were
+more generally utilized.
+
+OSAGE.
+
+From the earliest historical times the habitat of the Osage was among
+the hills and valleys of the Ozarks, south of the Missouri, in the
+present State of Missouri, and here they continued to dwell until their
+removal during the early part of the last century.
+
+When Pere Marquette passed down the Mississippi, late in the month of
+June, 1673, he learned of the Osage, and on his map, prepared soon
+afterwards, indicated the villages of that tribe near a stream which was
+evidently the river bearing their tribal name. They continued to occupy
+rather permanent villages until the beginning of the nineteenth century.
+
+The tribe included three bands, two of which may be rather old; the
+third more recently created. These are: (1) Pahatsi or Great Osage, (2)
+Utsehta or Little Osage, (3) Santsukhdhi or Arkansas band. The latter
+dates from the year 1802 or thereabouts, when a large part of the Great
+Osage, under the leadership of the chief Big Track, removed to the
+vicinity of the Arkansas.
+
+The Osage, unlike certain other members of the Siouan group to which
+they belong, continued to erect and occupy the mat or bark covered
+habitations so characteristic of the forest tribes. Their villages which
+stood among the Ozarks were probably similar in appearance to the
+ancient settlements of their ancestors which once occupied a part of the
+upper valley of the Ohio, whence they migrated to the region beyond the
+Mississippi. But the country which served as their new home was one well
+suited to the wants and requirements of the tribe. Game was plentiful,
+the streams teemed with fish, and wild fruits were to be had in vast
+quantities. Thus food was easily obtained.
+
+The expedition under the command of Captains Lewis and Clark began
+ascending the Missouri May 14, 1804, and just one month later, on June
+15, arrived at the site of an earlier settlement of the Little Osage. In
+the journal the entry for that day states that: "We passed several
+islands and one creek on the south side, and encamped on the north
+opposite a beautiful plain, which extends as far back as the Osage
+river, and some miles up the Missouri. In front of our encampment are
+the remains of an old village of the Little Osage, situated at some
+distance from the river, and at the foot of a small hill. About three
+miles above them, in view of our camp is the situation of the old
+village of the Missouris after they fled from the Sauks. The inroads of
+the same tribe compelled the Little Osage to retire from the Missouri a
+few years ago, and establish themselves near the Great Osages." And two
+days later, at a place about 20 miles above their camp, on the 15th,
+they reached "the crossing place for the Sauks, Ayauways, and Sioux, in
+their excursions against the Osage." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, p. 15.)
+
+The ruined or deserted village of the Little Osage seen by the party
+stood on the right or south bank of the Missouri, in the western part of
+the present Saline County, Missouri, not far from the village of Malta.
+The structures which had stood at this old site were probably similar to
+those later erected by the people in their new village near the town of
+the Great Osage, both of which were visited two years later. They were
+situated far south of the Missouri, in the northern part of the present
+Vernon County, in the valley of the Little Osage River.
+
+During the latter part of August, 1806, Pike arrived at the two villages
+of the Osage, having departed from Fort Bellefontain a short time before
+on his journey to the far west. But, unfortunately, his accounts of the
+native tribes and their villages which he encountered during his travels
+are neither full nor clear, and so it is with the description of the
+habitations of the Osage. To quote from the narrative: "The Osage lodges
+are generally constructed with upright posts, put firmly in the ground,
+of about 20 feet in height, with a crotch at the top; they are generally
+about 12 feet distant from each other; in the crotch of those posts, are
+put the ridge poles, over which are bent small poles, the ends of which
+are brought down and fastened to a row of stakes of about 5 feet in
+height; these stakes are fastened together with three horizontal bars,
+and form the flank walls of the lodge. The gable ends are generally
+broad slabs and rounded off to the ridge pole. The whole of the building
+and sides are covered with matting made of rushes, of two or three feet
+in length, and four feet in width, which are joined together, and
+entirely exclude the rain. The doors are in the side of the building,
+and generally are one on each side. The fires are made in holes in the
+centre of the lodge; the smoke ascending through apertures left in the
+roof for the purpose; at one end of the dwelling is a raised platform,
+about three feet from the ground, which is covered with bear skins, and
+generally holds all the little choice furniture of the master, and on
+which repose his honorable guests.... They vary in length from 36 to 100
+feet." (Pike, (1), App., pp. 11-12.)
+
+Fort Osage, soon to be named Fort Clark, stood on the right bank of the
+Missouri, a short distance northeast of Independence, in Jackson County,
+Missouri. During the early years of the last century it was a gathering
+place for the Osage and neighboring tribes, and several interesting
+accounts are preserved of the appearance of the Indian lodges clustered
+about the post. Both Bradbury and Brackenridge made mention of the fort
+in their journals. The former wrote on April 8, 1811, and told of his
+arrival: "About ten o'clock we came in sight of the fort, about six
+miles distant. We had not been long in sight before we saw the flag was
+hoisted, and at noon we arrived, saluting with a volley as we passed on
+to the landing place, where we met Mr. Crooks, who had come down from
+the wintering station at the mouth of the river Naduet to meet us. There
+were also collected at the landing place about 200 Indians, men, women,
+and children, of the Petit Osage nation, whose village was then about
+300 yards from the fort." And continuing: "At evening Dr. Murray
+proposed that we should walk into the village, and I found it to consist
+of about one hundred lodges of an oblong form, the frame of timber, and
+the covering mats, made of the leaves of flag, or _Typha palustris_. On
+our return through the town, we called at the lodge belonging to a chief
+named Waubuschon, with whom Dr. Murray was particularly acquainted. The
+floor was covered with mats, on which they sat; but as I was a stranger,
+I was offered a cushion. A wooden bowl was now handed round, containing
+square pieces of cake, in taste resembling ginger-bread. On enquiry I
+found it was made of the pulp of the persimon, mixed with pounded corn.
+This bread they called staninca." (Bradbury, (1), pp. 35-37.)
+
+Less than three weeks elapsed before Brackenridge reached the fort in
+the company of Manuel Lisa. April 25, 1811, "About eleven, came in sight
+of Fort Osage, situate on a bluff, three miles off, on a commanding
+eminence.... A number of Indians of the Osage nation, of all ages, and
+sexes, were scattered along the bank, attracted by curiosity, some with
+old buffalo robes thrown over their shoulders, others dressed out in the
+gayest manner.... On landing at the fort, on a very rocky shore, a
+soldier under arms, who waited for us at the water's side, escorted Mr.
+Lisa and myself to the fort, where we were politely received by the
+commanding officer. While Mr. Lisa was transacting some business,
+accompanied by Mr. Sibley, the factor, and an interpreter, I went to
+deliver a pipe to _Sans Oreille_, (a warrior, and head man of this
+tribe) sent to him by gen. Clark....
+
+"The lodges of the Little Osage, are sixty in number, and within gun
+shot of the fort; but they are about to remove their village to a
+prairie, three miles off. Their lodges are of a circular form, not more
+than ten or fifteen feet in diameter, constructed by placing mats, made
+of coarse rushes, over forks and poles.
+
+"All three of the Osage bands, together with some Kansas, were lately
+encamped here for the purpose of trading, to the number of fifteen
+hundred warriors." (Brackenridge, (1), pp. 216-217.)
+
+It is more than probable the Little Osage were then returning to their
+distant villages. Within less than three weeks the group of dwellings in
+the vicinity of the post had been reduced in number from about 100 to
+60, and undoubtedly before the lapse of many days all would have begun
+their homeward journey. But the structures as described would have
+resembled the dwellings in their permanent villages, differing from the
+more temporary lodges discovered by Schoolcraft a few years later.
+
+When Schoolcraft traversed the southern part of the State of Missouri a
+century ago, crossing the Ozarks and following the deep valleys which
+separated the ridges, he encountered many deserted camps of the Osages
+and frames of one or more habitations, the mat or bark covers often
+having been removed, thus allowing the bare frames to remain. These had
+been the temporary shelters occupied by small parties hunting away from
+their home villages. On November 27, 1818, so he wrote, "night overtook
+us, and we encamped in an Indian bark tent on the bank of the river,
+which had not been occupied for one or two years." (Schoolcraft, (1), p.
+28.) The river mentioned was the Great North Fork of White River, and
+the latter was soon reached. Continuing their journey over the rough and
+rugged hills, through tangled masses of vegetation, often advancing only
+a few miles each day, and that with the greatest exertion, they arrived
+December 30, 1818, in the region a short distance east of James River,
+possibly in the present Christian County, Missouri. Here they
+encountered several deserted camps, of which, fortunately, interesting
+accounts are preserved in the narrative: "In pursuing up the valley of
+Swan Creek, about nine miles, we fell into the Osage trace, a horse-path
+beaten by the Osages in their hunting excursions along this river, and
+passing successively three of their camps, now deserted, all very large,
+arranged with much order and neatness, and capable of quartering
+probably 100 men each. Both the method of building camps, and the order
+of encampment observed by this singular nation of savages, are different
+from any thing of the kind I have noticed among the various tribes of
+aboriginal Americans, through whose territories I have had occasion to
+travel. The form of the tent or camp may be compared to an inverted
+bird's nest, or hemisphere, with a small aperture left in the top, for
+the escape of smoke; and a similar, but larger one, at one side, for
+passing in and out. It is formed by cutting a number of slender flexible
+green-poles of equal length, sharpened at each end, stuck in the ground
+like a bow, and, crossing at right angles at the top, the points of
+entrance into the ground forming a circle. Small twigs are then wove in,
+mixed with the leaves of cane, moss, and grass, until it is perfectly
+tight and warm. These tents are arranged in large circles, one within
+another, according to the number of men intended to be accommodated. In
+the centre is a scaffolding for meat, from which all are supplied every
+morning, under the inspection of a chief, whose tent is conspicuously
+situated at the head of the encampment, and differs from all the rest,
+resembling a half cylinder inverted. Their women and children generally
+accompany them on these excursions, which often occupy three months."
+Schoolcraft soon crossed the ridge separating Swan Creek from Findley's
+River, the latter "running from the north-east, and tributary to James'
+river, the main north-western branch of White River." (Op. cit., pp.
+52-53.)
+
+It must be understood that this description applies to a temporary
+encampment of the Osage, not to a permanent village, although they would
+probably not have differed greatly in appearance. The structures in a
+camp were rather smaller than those in the villages, and the latter were
+covered with mats or sheets of bark instead of the walls being composed
+of the crude wattlework, as mentioned in the preceding account.
+
+Throughout the region traversed by Schoolcraft are to be found traces of
+ancient camps, some quite large, others small. The innumerable caves and
+caverns occurring in the limestone formations through which the many
+streams have cut deep valleys show evidence of long occupancy by the
+natives. Great masses of wood ashes, intermingled with broken and lost
+implements of bone and stone, fragments of pottery vessels, and charred
+or broken bones of animals which had served as food, are to be found
+accumulated near the opening, beneath the overhanging strata. The great
+majority of such material should undoubtedly be attributed to the Osage,
+whose hunters penetrated all parts of the Ozarks.
+
+A beautiful example of a frame for an Osage habitation is shown in plate
+32, _a_, a reproduction of a photograph made near Hominy, Oklahoma, in
+1911. This was probably the form of structure seen by the early
+travelers, which is more clearly described on the following pages. It is
+interesting, showing as it does the manner in which the uprights were
+placed in the ground, then bent over and bound in place. As the Osage
+undoubtedly lived, generations ago, in the Ohio Valley, it is possible
+the ancient village sites discovered in Ross County, Ohio, belonged
+either to this or a related tribe, and the ground plan of the structures
+revealed during the exploration of a certain site would agree with the
+typical Osage habitation of recent years. A ground plan was prepared by
+the discoverer of the ancient village site (Mills, (1)) and was
+reproduced on page 139, Bulletin 71, of this Bureau.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 32
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Frame of an Osage habitation, near Hominy, Okla.,
+1911]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ An Iowa structure]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 33
+
+[Illustration: "OTO ENCAMPMENT, NEAR THE PLATTE, 1819"
+
+Samuel Seymour]
+
+On the plan of the ancient settlement which stood many generations ago
+are several interesting features in addition to the outline of the oval
+habitation. North of the space once occupied by the dwelling are many
+comparatively large caches, with fireplaces between. On the opposite
+side of the structure were encountered 30 burials, representing children
+and adults. It would be of the greatest interest at the present time
+to discover the exact location of one of the Osage villages of a century
+ago, and to determine the position of the caches and burials, if any
+exist, in relation to the sites of the habitations.
+
+About the time of Schoolcraft's journey through the Ozarks another
+traveler went up the valley of the Arkansas, and when far west of the
+Mississippi came in contact with the Osage. Nuttall, on July 15, 1819,
+wrote: "The first village of the Osages lies about 60 miles from the
+mouth of the Verdigris, and is said to contain 7 or 800 men and their
+families. About 60 miles further, on the Osage River, is situated the
+village of the chief called White Hair. The whole of the Osages are now,
+by governor Clark, enumerated at about 8000 souls. At this time nearly
+the whole town, men, and women, were engaged in their summer hunt,
+collecting bison tallow and meat. The principal chief is called by the
+French Clarmont, although his proper name is the Iron bird, a species of
+Eagle." (Nuttall, (1), p. 173.) Under date of August 5, 1819, he
+referred to the women of the tribe, saying: "It is to their industry and
+ingenuity, that the men owe every manufactured article of their dress,
+as well as every utensil in their huts. The Osage women appear to excel
+in these employments. Before the Cherokees burnt down their town on the
+Verdigris, their houses were chiefly covered with hand-wove matts of
+bulrushes. Their baskets and bed matts of this material were
+parti-coloured and very handsome. This manufacture, I am told, is done
+with the assistance of three sticks, arranged in some way so as to
+answer the purpose of a loom, and the strands are inlaid diagonally.
+They, as well as the Cherokees and others, frequently take the pains to
+unravel old blankets and cloths, and reweave the yarn into belts and
+garters." (Op. cit., pp. 192-193.)
+
+Evidently it was not the custom of the Osage to entirely abandon their
+villages when they went on their periodical hunts. Some remained, either
+through choice or necessity. In the above quotation Nuttall spoke of
+"nearly the whole town" being absent on their summer hunt, and one very
+familiar with the habits of the tribe said: "The Osages and Kansas live
+in villages, which, even during the hunting seasons, are never wholly
+abandoned, as in the case with several tribes settled on the Missouri."
+(Hunter, (1), p. 334.) Regarding the general appearance of the villages:
+"Their lodges are built promiscuously, in situations to please their
+respective proprietors: they are arranged to neither streets nor alleys,
+and are sometimes so crowded, as to render the passage between them
+difficult."
+
+That some of the Osage constructed very long structures is told by
+Morse, but if the dimensions given in his account are accurate they
+refer to the unusual rather than to the usual form of habitation erected
+by members of that tribe. He said: "The Osages of the Arkansaw occupy
+several villages. The principal village contains about three hundred
+lodges or huts, and about three thousand souls. The lodges are generally
+from fifty to a hundred feet in length; and irregularly arranged, they
+cover a surface of about half a mile square. They are constructed of
+posts, matting, bark and skins. They have neither floors nor chimneys.
+The fire is built on the ground, in the centre of the lodge, and the
+family, and the guests, sit around in a circle, upon skins or mats."
+(Morse, (1), p. 219.) These various statements appear grossly
+exaggerated, and on page 225 of the same work appears the statement that
+"Their villages are nothing more than what they can remove on the
+shortest notice, one horse being capable of carrying house, household
+furniture, and children all at one load." Morse included in his notes on
+the Osage several letters written by missionaries then working among the
+tribe. One communication from Dr. Palmer, dated at Union, March 18,
+1820, contained a note on their habitations: "Their houses are made of
+poles, arched from fifteen to twenty feet, covered by matting made of
+flags. At the sides they set up rived planks, lining the inside with
+neatly made flagg matting. They build several fires in the lodge,
+according to its size, or the number of wives the owner has. For a
+fire-place, they dig a hole about as big as a bushel-basket, leaving the
+smoke to ascend through a hole in the roof. Around the fire they spread
+their mats to sit or eat." And when visiting the settlement, "Having
+entered the lodge, and had our horses turned out, we took a humble seat
+around the fire. Presently there was brought to us a wooden bowl, filled
+with food made of corn. In a short time we were invited to eat at
+another lodge, and before we had finished, at another, and another." And
+another letter, from W. C. Requa, dated February 3, 1822, told of the
+native dwellings. He wrote at that time: "I live at present among the
+Osages, at one of their villages about fifty miles from Union. This
+unhappy people live in low huts, covered with long grass or flag, but so
+badly put together that they leak considerably in a storm of rain. They
+have very little furniture, merely a few pots or kettles in which they
+boil their provisions. The art of cooking their meat in any other way
+than boiling is unknown among them, except roasting it on a stick before
+the fire. They have very little variety in their food. Wild game, corn,
+dried pumpkins, and beans constitute about all on which they subsist.
+With this, however, they are contented. They have wooden bowls, out of
+which they eat, drink, wash themselves." (Op. cit., pp. 227-233.) Union,
+where the two communications were written, was probably Union Agency,
+which stood on the right bank of the Arkansas River, just southwest of
+Fort Gibson, in the present Muskogee County, Oklahoma. The settlement
+"about fifty miles from Union" may have been on the Verdigris, near the
+center of the present Rogers County, Oklahoma.
+
+An interesting description of a deserted camp of the Osage was prepared
+by Irving, as it appeared, standing near the banks of the Arkansas,
+October 11, 1832. On that day, so he wrote: "We came in sight of the
+Arkansas. It presented a broad and rapid stream, bordered by a beach of
+fine sand, overgrown with willows and cotton-wood trees. Beyond the
+river, the eye wandered over a beautiful champaign country, of flowery
+plains and sloping uplands.... Not far from the river, on an open
+eminence, we passed through the recently deserted camping place of an
+Osage war party. The frames of their tents or wigwams remained,
+consisting of poles bent into an arch, with each end stuck into the
+ground; these are intertwined with twigs and branches, and covered with
+bark and skins. Those experienced in Indian lore, can ascertain the
+tribe, and whether on a hunting or warlike expedition, by the shape and
+disposition of the wigwams. Beatte pointed out to us, in the present
+skeleton camp, the wigwam in which the chiefs had held their
+consultations round the council fire; and an open area, well trampled
+down, on which the grand war-dance had been performed." (Irving, W.,
+(1), pp. 38-39.) The frames probably resembled the example shown in
+plate 32, _a_.
+
+This mention of a dance by Irving suggests the description of a ceremony
+witnessed at the village of the Little Osage during the same year. The
+account of a "war-dance" was prepared July 25, 1832: "Much of the
+ceremony consisted in a sort of dancing march round the streets of the
+village between their lodges.... In their marching round the settlement,
+the warriors were followed by a band of musicians, some drumming on a
+piece of deer skin, stretched over the head of a keg, and others singing
+their wild songs. Among the retinue I observed a great many youths, who
+appeared to be young disciples, catching the spirit of their seniors and
+fathers. Another group followed, who appeared to be mourners, crying for
+vengeance on their enemies, to reward them for the death of some
+relative." (Colton, (1), pp. 299-300.)
+
+A brief but interesting sketch of the manners and ways of life of the
+Osage of a century ago is to be found in Morse's work already quoted.
+Although the notes were prepared to apply to several neighboring tribes,
+they referred primarily to the tribe now being discussed. First speaking
+of their gardens: "They raise annually small crops of corn, beans, and
+pumpkins, these they cultivate entirely with the hoe, in the simplest
+manner. Their crops are usually planted in April, and receive one
+dressing before they leave their villages for the summer hunt, in May.
+About the first week in August they return to their villages and gather
+their crops, which have been left unhoed and unfenced all the season.
+Each family, if lucky, can save from ten to twenty bags of corn and
+beans, of a bushel and a half each; besides a quantity of dried
+pumpkins. On this they feast, with the dried meat saved in the summer,
+till September, when what remains is _cashed_, and they set out on the
+fall hunt, from which they return about Christmas. From that time, till
+some time in February or March, as the season happens to be mild or
+severe, they stay pretty much in their villages, making only short
+hunting excursions occasionally, and during that time they consume the
+greater part of their _cashes_. In February or March the spring hunt
+commences; first the bear, and then the beaver hunt. This they pursue
+till planting time, when they again return to their village, pitch their
+crops, and in May set out for the summer hunt, taking with them their
+residue, if any, of their corn, &c. This is the circle of an Osage life,
+here and there indented with war and trading expeditions; and thus it
+has been, with very little variation, these twelve years past." (Morse,
+(1), pp. 203-205.)
+
+The cornfields were left without watchers and were probably often
+destroyed by roving parties of the enemy or by wild beasts. On August
+18, 1820, a hunter belonging to a division of the Long expedition
+"returned with the information of his having discovered a small field of
+maize, occupying a fertile spot at no great distance from the camp, it
+exhibited proofs of having been lately visited by the cultivators; a
+circumstance which leads us to believe that an ascending column of smoke
+seen at a distance this afternoon, proceeded from an encampment of
+Indians, whom, if not a war party, we should now rejoice to meet. We
+took the liberty, agreeable to the custom of the Indians, of procuring a
+mess of corn, and some small but nearly ripe watermelons, that were also
+found growing there, intending to recompense the Osages for them, to
+whom we supposed them to belong." The following morning, August 19, they
+encountered several small cornfields near a creek along which they were
+passing, and that day discovered "an Indian camp, that had a more
+permanent aspect than any we had before seen near this river. The
+boweries were more completely covered, and a greater proportion of bark
+was used in the construction of them. They are between sixty and seventy
+in number. Well worn traces or paths lead in various directions from
+this spot, and the vicinity of the cornfields induce the belief that it
+is occasionally occupied by a tribe of Indians, for the purpose of
+cultivation as well as of hunting." (James, (1), II, pp. 220-221.)
+
+The encampment just mentioned may have resembled the one described by
+Schoolcraft the preceding year, though many miles away in the heart of
+the Ozarks.
+
+Although it is quite probable that hunting parties of the Osage, during
+their wanderings, reached all parts of the Ozarks, and occupied camps on
+banks of many streams in distant regions far away from their more
+permanent villages, nevertheless all sites do not present the same
+characteristic features. Thus in the central and eastern sections of the
+hill country, as in the valleys of the Gasconade and its tributary, the
+Piney, and along the courses of the streams farther eastward quantities
+of fragmentary pottery are to be found scattered over the surface of the
+many village and camp sites, and here it may be remarked that seldom are
+traces of a settlement not to be discovered at the junction of two
+streams, however small or large they may be.
+
+A great many caves, some rather large, occur in the limestone formation,
+often in the cliffs facing or near the streams. As previously mentioned,
+these show evidence of long or frequent occupancy by the Indians. At the
+openings are masses of wood ashes and charcoal, filling the space
+between the sides to a depth of several feet, and in the caves
+encountered in the vicinity of the Gasconade quantities of broken
+pottery are found, with bones of animals which served as food, various
+implements, shells, etc., all intermingled with the accumulated ashes. A
+short distance from the bank of the Piney, several miles above its
+junction with the Gasconade, a cave of more than usual interest is met
+with in the high cliff. This is in Pulaski County. Flowing from the cave
+is a small stream of clear, very cold water. It enters the main chamber
+through an opening not more than 4 feet in height and about the same in
+width, the stream, when the cave was visited some years ago, being 3 or
+4 inches in depth. A few yards up the watercourse the channel widens
+several feet and so continues for a short distance. This widening was
+caused by pieces of chert having been removed from the mass, this
+evidently having been one of the sources whence the Indians secured
+material for the making of their implements. The bed of the stream was
+strewn with flakes and roughly formed rejected pieces of stone.
+
+Thus, as has been shown, vessels of earthenware were made and used by
+the people who occupied or frequented this part of the Ozark country,
+but conditions appear to have been different in the western sections.
+Bits of pottery do not occur on the surface of the camp sites, and it is
+evident it was neither made nor used by the occupants of certain
+settlements. Fragments of pottery are not encountered on these
+particular sites, but large stone mortars are often found, objects which
+do not seem to have been very frequently used farther east.
+
+The valleys of the James and White Rivers, in Stone and Taney Counties,
+Missouri, were visited some years ago and many interesting sites were
+discovered. Traces of a comparatively extensive village were encountered
+on the E. 1/2 of lot 1, S. W. 1/4 of Sec. 9, T. 22, R. 23, Stone County,
+on the left bank of White River. Within a radius of a few feet, on a
+level spot near the center of the once occupied area, were found four
+large sandstone mortars, the concavity of the largest being about 15
+inches in diameter and 6 inches in depth, while the entire block of
+stone was more than 2 feet in thickness. When discovered, June 11, 1901,
+the mortars gave the impression of not having been touched since they
+were last used by some of the inhabitants of the ancient village, and
+from the surrounding surface, an acre or more in extent, were collected
+several hundred stone implements, but not a fragment of pottery was
+encountered. This site, although rather larger and more extensive than
+the majority, was, nevertheless, typical of the 20 or more which were
+discovered during that interesting journey through the valleys
+mentioned. Quantities of stone implements were gathered from the surface
+of the sites, and many mortars were found, but no pottery.
+
+While the material recovered from the sites in the valley of the
+Gasconade is similar to that found to the eastward, the finding of
+mortars and the lack of pottery on the James and White River Valley
+sites suggests a different culture, and it is possible the latter owe
+their origin to parties of the Wichita or neighboring tribes who entered
+the western valleys of the Ozarks from the prairie lands.
+
+QUAPAW.
+
+This, the southernmost tribe of the Dhegiha group, occupied several
+villages west of the Mississippi, near the mouth of the Arkansas. When
+the closely allied tribes had removed from their ancient habitat in the
+upper valley of the Ohio, and had arrived at the mouth of that stream,
+the Quapaw are believed to have turned southward while the others went
+northward. The name of the tribe, Quapaw, signifies "downstream people;"
+Omaha being translated "those going against the wind or current." As a
+people they seem to have been known to the members of the De Soto
+expedition about 1541, probably occupying villages on or near the sites
+of the settlements visited by the French during the latter part of the
+next century.
+
+Pere Marquette, while on his memorable journey down the Mississippi, in
+the year 1673, went as far as the mouth of the Arkansas, where he
+lingered a few days before returning northward on July 17. The villages
+of the Quapaw, designated the Arkansa, were reached, but the habitations
+were only briefly described: "Their cabins, which are long and wide,
+are made of bark; they sleep at the two extremities, which are raised
+about two feet from the ground. They keep their corn in large baskets,
+made of cane, or in gourds, as large as half barrels." They used both
+wooden dishes and "plates of baked earth. Their cooking was done in
+large earthen pots, of their own make." (Shea, (2), p. 48.) But the most
+interesting early account of the villages is contained in Joutel's
+narrative of La Salle's last expedition, when he attempted to reach the
+Illinois country overland from the Gulf coast. Through jealousy and
+intrigue of members of the expedition he was murdered by one of their
+number, March 20, 1687; but others continued eastward, and on July 24,
+1687, arrived at the four villages of the Quapaw, and to quote from the
+narrative of the expedition: "The Nation of the _Accancea's_ consists of
+four Villages. The first is call'd _Otsotchove_, near which we were; the
+second _Toriman_, both of them seated on the River; the third
+_Tonginga_; and the fourth _Cappa_, on the Bank of the _Missisipi_.
+These Villages are built after a different Manner from the others we had
+seen before, in this Point, that the Cottages, which are alike as to
+their Materials and Rounding at the Top, are long, and cover'd with the
+Bark of Trees, and so very large, that several of them can hold two
+hundred Persons, belonging to several Families. The People are not so
+neat as the _Cenis_ [Caddo], or the _Assonis_ [Caddo], in their Houses,
+for some of them lie on the Ground, without any Thing under them but
+some Mats, or dress'd Hide. How ever, some of them have more
+Conveniencies, but the Generality has not. All their Movables consist in
+some Earthen Vessels and oval wooden Platters, which are neatly made,
+and with which they drive a Trade."
+
+The expedition was then resting at the village standing on the banks of
+the Arkansas, not far above its junction with the Mississippi. Here they
+remained three days, departing on July 27. On that day "We imbark'd on a
+Canoe belonging to one of the Chiefs, being at least twenty Persons, as
+well Women as Men, and arriv'd safe, without any Trouble, at a Village
+call'd _Toriman_, for we were going down the River." The river was the
+Arkansas. Later in the day they reached the "fatal River, so much sought
+after by us, called _Colbert_, when first discover'd, and _Missisipi_,
+or _Mechassipi_ by the Natives that were near us." The party lingered at
+Toriman during the twenty-eighth, and on the following day arrived at
+"the next Village call'd _Tonningua_, seated on the Bank of that River
+[the Mississippi], where we were receiv'd in the Chief's Cottage, as we
+had been in the others." On July 30, "We set out for Cappa, the last
+Village of the _Accancea's_, eight Leagues distant from the Place we had
+left." (Joutel, (1), pp. 155-161.) Passing up the Mississippi from the
+Quapaw towns, they encamped during the night of August 2 on an island,
+"for our greater Safety, for we were then come into an Enemy's Nation,
+call'd _Machigamea_, which put our Indians into great Frights."
+
+Pere Anastasius Douay, also a member of the party, had very little to
+say about their stop among the Quapaw, only that "We visited three of
+these villages, the Torimans, the Doginga, and the Kappa; everywhere we
+had feasts, harangues, calumet-dances, with every mark of joy." (Shea,
+(2), p. 220.) Evidently his notes were faulty, as no mention was made of
+the fourth town.
+
+When La Harpe made his journey into the region bordering the Mississippi
+some distance above New Orleans he encountered the Quapaw, and in his
+journal referred to them as the Alkansa, and said: "La nation Alkansa,
+ainsi nommee parce qu'elle sort des Canzes [Kansa] etablis sur le
+Missouri, est situe sur le bord du Mississipi dans un terrein isole par
+les ruisseaux qui l'environnent; elle se divise en trois villages,
+Ougapa, Torisna et Tonginga, eloignes d'une lieue les uns les autres, et
+renfermant ensemble quatre cents habitans; leur principal chef est celui
+des Ougapas; les Sotoueis le reconnaissent aussi pour le leur; ils
+Sotoueis le reconnaissent aussi pour le leur; ils sont tous sortis de la
+meme nation et parlent le meme langue." (La Harpe, (1), p. 317.)
+Elsewhere he referred to reaching the "riviere Blanche, qui court dans
+le nord-ouest du cote des Osages," which entered the "riviere des
+Sotoueis," or Arkansas, 4 leagues from the Mississippi. Here stood a
+village of the Sotoueis, consisting of 40 habitations and having a
+population of 330.
+
+Nearly a century elapsed between the time of La Harpe's visit to the
+country occupied by the Quapaw and the journey performed by Nuttall. On
+February 27, 1819, when the latter was ascending the Arkansas River, he
+wrote: "In the course of the day we passed the outlet of the bayou, or
+rather river, Meta, which diagonally traverses the Great Prairie, also
+two Indian villages on the south bank [of the Arkansas].... The first
+was the periodical residence of a handful of Choctaws, the other was
+occupied by the Quapaws." (Nuttall, (1), p. 91.) This was near the line
+between Lincoln and Desha Counties, Arkansas. Some distance beyond,
+apparently at some point in the present Jefferson County, on March 11,
+1819, he saw other native villages, but whether occupied by Quapaw or
+some other tribe was not told. However, they were probably Quapaw
+settlements. On that day: "Passed Mr. Embree's, and arrived at Mr.
+Lewismore's. Six miles above, we also saw two Indian villages, opposite
+each of those settlements.... The Indians, unfortunately, are here, as
+usual, both poor and indolent, and alive to wants which they have not
+the power of gratifying. The younger ones are extremely foppish in
+their dress; covered with feathers, blazing calicoes, scarlet blankets,
+and silver pendants. Their houses, sufficiently convenient with their
+habits, are oblong square, and without any other furniture than baskets
+and benches, spread with skins for the purpose of rest and repose. The
+fire, as usual, is in the middle of the hut, which is constructed of
+strips of bark and cane, with doors also of the latter split and plaited
+together." (Op. cit., pp. 97-98.)
+
+When returning down the Arkansas, on January 18, 1820, Nuttall evidently
+reached the Quapaw village which he had passed when ascending the stream
+during the preceding February. He wrote: "About noon we landed at one of
+the Quapaw or Osark villages, but found only three houses constructed of
+bark, and those unoccupied. In the largest of them, apparently
+appropriated to amusement and superstition, we found two gigantic
+painted wooden masks of Indians, and a considerable number of conic pelt
+caps, also painted. These, as we learnt from an Indian who came up to us
+from some houses below, were employed at festivals, and worn by the
+dancers.... At the entrance of the cabin, and suspended from the wall,
+there was a female figure, with a rudely carved head of wood painted
+with vermillion. Being hollow, and made of leather, we supposed it to be
+employed as a mask for one of the musicians, having in one hand a
+pendent ferule, as if for the purpose of beating a drum. In the spring
+and autumn the Quapaws have a custom of making a contribution dance, in
+which they visit also the whites, who live in the vicinity, and the
+chief alms which they crave is salt or articles of diet." The following
+day the party reached Arkansas Post. (Nuttall, (1), p. 223.)
+
+This account of the ceremonial lodge, for such it undoubtedly was, of
+the Quapaw of a century ago, is most interesting, as it proves how the
+rapidly diminishing tribe held to their old customs. The tribe gradually
+disappeared from the lower Arkansas. The remnants of this once large
+body moved westward, and on August 11, 1853, some were encountered by
+the Whipple expedition in the extreme north west corner of the Choctaw
+Nation, on the right bank of the Canadian, where the Shawnee Hills reach
+to the river bank. There, on the "high bank of the Canadian, stand still
+some wigwams or rather log-houses of Quappa Indians, who may boast of
+not having yet quitted the land of their forefathers. But they have
+shrunk to a small band that cannot furnish above twenty-five warriors,
+and it would scarcely be supposed that they are all who are left of the
+once powerful tribe of the Arkansas, whose hunting grounds extended from
+the Canadian to the Mississippi." (Moellhausen, (1), I, p. 74.)
+
+Probably no section of the country has revealed more traces of the
+period of aboriginal occupancy than has that part of the Mississippi
+Valley which extends southward from the Ohio to the Arkansas. This was
+the region traversed by the Quapaw during the latter part of their
+migration from their earlier habitat east of the Mississippi, and may
+have been occupied by them since the fifteenth century, or before. Many
+of the mound groups, village sites, and burial places occurring within
+this area may undoubtedly be justly attributed to the Quapaw. Vast
+quantities of earthenware vessels, of great variety of forms and sizes,
+have been recovered from the sites north of the Arkansas, and these
+often present marked characteristics differing from the ware found
+farther south. The Quapaw are known to have been skilled pottery makers.
+As already mentioned, Marquette, in 1673, referred to their "plates of
+baked earth," and also to the large earthen cooking vessels "of their
+own make." And in 1687 Joutel wrote of their earthen vessels "with which
+they drive a Trade." Therefore it is more than probable that much of the
+ancient pottery encountered in this part of the Mississippi Valley was
+made by this southern Siouan tribe. Many of the village sites discovered
+near the Mississippi, north of the Arkansas, were probably once occupied
+by the Quapaw who, by the latter part of the seventeenth century, had
+moved as far south as the mouth of the Arkansas River, in the present
+Desha County. The earlier references to the tribe, those contained in
+the narratives of the De Soto expedition, 1541, mention the towns being
+protected by encircling embankments and ditches. The former were
+probably surmounted by palisades. The village or villages of this period
+probably stood on the bank of the Mississippi, and one may have occupied
+the interesting site at Avenue, in Phillips County, where some
+remarkable pottery vessels have been discovered. Other ancient sites in
+Lee and Crittenden Counties, north of Phillips, were possibly occupied
+by the same people at different times.
+
+The position of the village of the Algonquian Michigamea, who lived
+north of the Quapaw, has not been determined.
+
+CHIWERE GROUP.
+
+This group, so designated by the late Dr. J. O. Dorsey, includes three
+tribes, the Iowa, Oto, and Missouri, who spoke slightly different
+dialects of the same language. According to tribal traditions, they
+were, generations ago, allied and associated with the Winnebago, from
+whom they separated and scattered while living in the vicinity of the
+Great Lakes east of the Mississippi, where the Winnebago continued to
+dwell. It is not the purpose of the present sketch to trace the
+movements of the three tribes from their ancient habitat to the banks of
+the Mississippi, thence westward to the Missouri and beyond, but the
+routes followed in their migrations can be fairly accurately determined
+by comparing their own statements and traditions with early historical
+records, and it is quite probable that many village sites now discovered
+within this region were once occupied by some members of these tribes.
+
+While living east of the Mississippi in a region of lakes and streams
+surrounded by vast forests, their habitations were undoubtedly the bark
+or mat covered structures, but when some moved far west and came in
+contact with tribes beyond the Missouri they evidently learned the art
+of constructing the earth-covered lodge which they soon began to occupy.
+Likewise when and where the skin tipi first became known to them is not
+possible to determine, but probably not until they had reached the
+valley of the Missouri and were nearing the banks of that stream north
+of the Kansas.
+
+IOWA.
+
+On September 15, 1819, the expedition under command of Maj. Stephen H.
+Long arrived at the mouth of Papillion Creek, on the right bank of the
+Missouri a few miles above the Platte, a site now covered by the city of
+Omaha, Nebraska. In the narrative of the expedition it is said that at
+the mouth of the Papillion "we found two boats belonging to the Indian
+traders at St Louis. They had passed us some days before, and were to
+remain for the winter at the mouth of the Papillion, to trade with the
+Otoes, Missouries, and other Indians.
+
+"The banks of the Missouri above the Platte, have long been frequented
+by the Indians, either as places of permanent or occasional residence.
+Deserted encampments are often seen. On the northeast side, near the
+mouth of Mosquito river, are the remains of an old Ioway village. Four
+miles above, on the opposite side, was formerly a village of the Otoes."
+(James, (1), I, pp. 144-145.)
+
+As mentioned elsewhere, the Iowa and their kindred tribes had migrated
+from their ancient habitat in the vicinity of the Great Lakes to the
+Missouri Valley, and in 1848 a map was prepared by an Iowa Indian
+showing the route of the tribe from the mouth of Rock River, Illinois,
+to the banks of the Missouri, across the State which perpetuates the
+tribal name. The map was reproduced by Schoolcraft. (Schoolcraft, (3),
+III, pp. 256-257.)
+
+Unfortunately very little is to be found in the early writings regarding
+the appearance of the Iowa villages, but they probably did not differ
+from those of the tribes with whom they were so closely associated, and
+the primitive village, composed of a group of mat or bark covered
+structures, must have resembled the towns of the Osage. But in addition
+to the usual habitation the Iowa evidently erected a larger, longer
+structure. Maximilian on April 25, 1833, when in the region then
+occupied by the Iowa, wrote: "The canal between Nadaway Island and the
+cantonment is called Nadaway Slew, at the end of which we saw the
+remains of some Indian huts. In a dark glen in the forest, we observed a
+long Indian hut, which occupied almost its whole breadth, and must have
+served for a great number of persons." (Maximilian, (1), p. 124.) It is
+to be regretted that a full description of this "long Indian hut" was
+not preserved. It may have been a ceremonial lodge rather than a large
+dwelling.
+
+An interesting though brief account of the Iowa as they were at this
+time is preserved. It was related by a missionary, Samuel M. Irvin, who
+arrived among the Iowa April 10, 1837. They were living in the
+northwestern part of Missouri, the "Platte purchase," but were soon to
+be removed to lands west of the Missouri. At that time, the spring of
+1837, so the narrative continues: "They numbered in all 830. They were a
+wild, warlike, roving people, and in a most wretched condition,
+depending mainly on the chase for a subsistence. Their habitations were
+of the most frail and temporary kind. They were shelters in the form of
+huts or houses made of the bark of trees stretched over slender poles
+and tied together with bark strings, or they were tents or lodges made
+of the skins of the buffalo or elk, and sewed together with the sinews
+of these animals. These bark houses were mainly for summer shelter, and
+would in a few years yield to the wear of time, when they would be
+abandoned and a new location sought. The skin tents were carried with
+them, and made their habitations wherever they chanced to stop. They
+were strictly a migratory and unsettled people." (Plank, (1), p. 312.)
+And "domestic animals, excepting ponies and dogs, were not among them.
+Indeed, to some of them, such things as cattle, hogs, sheep and poultry
+were almost unknown, and did such animals happen their way they would
+pounce upon them for present food as quickly as upon a buffalo or wild
+turkey."
+
+An excellent picture of an Iowa habitation accompanied the article from
+which the preceding quotations have been made and is now reproduced in
+plate 32, _b_.
+
+OTO.
+
+When Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri during the summer of 1804
+they reached the mouth of the Platte July 21. At that time, so they
+entered in their journal, the Oto were living on the south side of the
+Platte 10 leagues above its junction with the Missouri, and 5 leagues
+beyond, on the same bank, were the Pawnee. Living with the Oto were the
+remnants of the Missouri who had, a few years before, joined them. On
+August 3, 1804, the expedition having ascended the Missouri to about the
+location of the present city of Council Bluffs, Iowa, held a council
+with representatives of the two tribes, Oto and Missouri, an event which
+has been perpetuated in the name of the city. A majority of the two
+tribes were then absent from their village on their summer buffalo hunt,
+consequently few were present at the council.
+
+On May 3, 1811, Bradbury arrived at the Oto village, but it was
+deserted. All were probably some miles away hunting the buffalo.
+However, a very interesting description of the habitations in the
+deserted village is preserved. First referring to the Platte: "The
+southern bank is wholly divested of timber, and as the village is
+situated on a declivity near the river, we could see the lodges very
+distinctly, but there was no appearance of Indians." (p. 54.) On the
+following day, May 4, 1811, he visited the village and found it "to
+consist of about fifty-four lodges, of a circular form, and about forty
+feet in diameter, with a projecting part at the entrance, of ten or
+twelve feet in length, in the form of a porch. At almost every lodge,
+the door or entrance was closed after the manner which is customary with
+Indians when they go on hunting parties and take their squaws and
+children with them. It consists in putting a few sticks across, in a
+particular manner, which they so exactly note and remember, as to be
+able to discover the least change in their position. Although anxious to
+examine the internal structure of the lodges, I did not violate the
+injunction conveyed by this slight obstruction, and after searching some
+time found a few that were left entirely open. On entering one, I found
+the length of the porch to be an inclined plane to the level of the
+floor, about two and a half or three feet below the surface of the
+ground; round the area of the lodge are placed from fifteen to eighteen
+posts, forked at the top, and about seven feet high from the floor. In
+the centre, a circular space of about eight feet in diameter is dug, to
+the depth of two feet; four strong posts are placed in the form of a
+square, about twelve feet asunder, and at equal distances from this
+space these posts are about twenty feet high, and cross pieces are laid
+on the tops. The rafters are laid from the forked tops of the outside
+posts over these cross pieces, and reach nearly to the centre, where a
+small hole is left for the smoke to escape; across the rafters small
+pieces of timber are laid; over these, sticks and a covering of sods,
+and lastly earth. The fire is made in the middle of the central space,
+round the edges of which they sit, and the beds are fixed between the
+outer posts. The door is placed at the immediate entrance into the
+lodge; it is made of a buffalo skin, stretched in a frame of wood, and
+is suspended from the top. On entering, it swings forward, and when let
+go, it falls to its former position." (Bradbury, (1), pp. 56-57.)
+
+It is to be regretted that Bradbury did not give a more detailed account
+of the general appearance of the village; that he did not tell of the
+placing of the lodges, and of the other structures, if any stood within
+the village. But this large group of earth-covered lodges undoubtedly
+resembled the village of the Republican Pawnee, as shown in the
+photograph made by Jackson more than half a century later.
+
+In the narrative of the Long expedition, during the spring of 1820, more
+than a century ago, is a brief note on the Oto. It reads: "The Oto
+nation of Indians is distinguished by the name of _Wah-toh-ta-na_. The
+permanent village of this nation is composed of large dirt lodges,
+similar to those of the Konzas and Omawhaws, and is situate on the left
+bank of the river Platte, or Nebreska, about forty miles above it
+confluence with the Missouri." (James, (1), I, p. 338.) On the map which
+accompanies the narrative the village is indicated on the south or right
+bank of the Platte, in the eastern part of the present Saunders County,
+Nebraska. Continuing, the journal states (p. 342): "The hunting grounds
+of the Oto nation, extend from the Little Platte up to the Boyer creek,
+on the north side of the Missouri, and from Independence creek to about
+forty miles above the Platte, on the south side of that river. They hunt
+the bison, between the Platte and the sources of the Konzas rivers."
+Thus their hunting grounds included one of the richest and most fertile
+sections of the valley of the Missouri, now occupied by many towns and
+villages.
+
+Much of interest respecting the manners and ways of life of the Oto when
+they occupied their village near the mouth of the Platte is to be found
+in Irving's narrative of the expedition of which he was a member. During
+the summer of 1833 the small party under the leadership of Commissioner
+H. L. Ellsworth left St. Louis and, with several teams, proceeded up the
+Valley of the Missouri. They traversed the vast rolling prairie: "Hour
+after hour passed on; the prospect was still the same. At last a loud
+cry from our guide announced that we had come in sight of the
+cantonment. There was a snowy speck resting upon the distant green;
+behind it rose a forest of lofty timber which shadowed the Missouri.
+This was Leavenworth.... It was mid day when we first caught sight of
+Leavenworth, but it was near sunset before we arrived there. About a
+dozen white-washed cottage-looking houses, composed the barracks and the
+abodes of the officers. They are so arranged as to form the three sides
+of a hollow square; the fourth is open, and looks out into a wide but
+broken prairie. It is a rural looking spot--a speck of civilization
+dropped in the heart of a wilderness." (Irving, J. T., (1), I, pp.
+46-47.) From Fort Leavenworth they continued up the valley, soon
+reaching the village of the Oto, near the banks of the Platte. After
+describing the reception accorded the party by the people of the town
+Irving wrote: "The village of the Otoe Indians is situated upon a ridge
+of swelling hills overlooking the darkly wooded banks of the Platte
+river, about a quarter of a mile distant. There is but little beauty or
+neatness about an Indian town. The lodges are built in the shape of a
+half egg. They frequently are twenty feet in height, and sometimes sixty
+in diameter. The roofs are formed of long poles, which diverge like the
+radii of a circle, from one common centre. The ring of the circle is
+formed of upright posts, driven closely together in the ground, and
+projecting upward about five feet. These are interwoven with brushwood
+and the smaller branches of trees, and form the support of the outer end
+of the poles composing the roof, the interstices of which are also
+interwoven with twigs and brushwood. The whole is then covered with
+earth, and when finished resembles a large hillock. The town contained
+about seventy of these lodges, standing singly or in groups, without any
+attention to order or regularity. Within, they are capacious, but dark,
+being lighted merely by a small aperture at the top, which serves both
+as window and chimney. The fire is built in a cavity in the centre,
+directly under the hole in the roof, by which the smoke escapes after
+floating in easy wreaths about the interior.
+
+"As the lodges are very spacious, a little back from the fire there is a
+circular range of tree trunks standing like columns, and connected by
+timber laid in their forks, forming a support for the roof, which
+otherwise, from the great length of the poles that form it, and the
+heavy mass of superincumbent earth, might fall in, and bury the
+inhabitants. Around the wall of the building, are ranged cribs or berths
+for sleeping, screened from view by heavy mats of grass and rushes. Over
+the fire is inclined a forked stake, in the hook of which hangs a large
+kettle, generally filled with buffalo flesh and corn. This, to judge
+from its looks, is never removed from the fire, even for the purpose of
+cleaning it." (Op. cit., pp. 158-160.)
+
+A week or more passed after the arrival of the party at the Oto village
+before a council was held with the chief men of the tribe, "for the
+purpose of forming a treaty, with respect to the lands lying in the
+neighbourhood of the Nemahaw river." The time for holding the council
+having arrived, the commissioner and his party proceeded from their camp
+to the earth-covered lodge in which the ceremony was to be enacted. They
+entered and "found nearly the whole tribe assembled, and seated in
+circles, in the large lodge of the Iotan chief. At the far end of the
+building was the Iotan; and by his side were stationed those two
+worthies, the Big Kaw and the Thief. Next them were the stern forms of
+the older warriors and braves.... The lodge was excessively crowded. One
+ring was formed beyond another; one dark head rose behind another; until
+the dim, dusk outlines of the more distant were lost in shadow, and
+their glistening eyes alone could be seen. The passage which led to the
+air was completely crowded with women and children; and half a dozen
+curious faces were peering down through the round hole in the roof.
+
+"The most of them had adorned themselves for the occasion. Plumes were
+floating from their scalp-locks; their heads and breasts were painted
+with vermilion, and long strings of wampum hung from their necks and
+mutilated ears. But at the present moment there appeared to be no
+thought of their appearance. Every sense was wrapped up in an intense
+interest in the approaching council; every breath was held; and every
+eye fixed with eagerness upon the face of the Commissioner, as he arose
+to address the meeting." (Op. cit., pp. 233-235.) This vivid description
+of the gathering of the Oto in a great earth-covered structure near the
+banks of the Missouri during the summer of 1833 tends to recall Lieut.
+Timberlake's meeting with the head men of the Cherokee, when they came
+together in the townhouse at Chote late in the year 1761. The two
+structures were of similar appearance and probably did not differ
+greatly in size, although at Chote there were several tiers of seats
+surrounding the central space within the house which were lacking in the
+Oto lodge, but the two gatherings were evidently quite similar, although
+belonging to different generations and being in regions separated by
+many hundreds of miles of forest and plain. The great rotundas, or
+townhouses of the Cherokee, were the most interesting of the various
+native structures which formerly stood east of the Mississippi.
+(Bushnell, (1), pp. 59-63.)
+
+The preceding notes on the Oto refer to their permanent earth-lodge
+villages, which were occupied only part of each year. When away from the
+village they would make use of the skin-covered tipi, although the
+temporary shelter of the Pawnee may have been copied by some members of
+the tribe. Fortunately a very good description of the appearance of a
+winter encampment of several families, at some point far west of the
+Missouri on the prairie of Nebraska, during the winter of 1851-52, has
+been preserved. The account was prepared by a traveler who became
+separated from his companions and reached the camp unexpectedly while
+traversing the snow-covered wilderness. The "little camp consisted of
+two large tents, which stood in a deep ravine, overgrown with stunted
+oaks, and on the banks of a deep stream, whose waters were hidden
+beneath a thick covering of ice." One tent belonged to the chief
+Wa-ki-ta-mo-nee, the other to a half-breed named Louis Farfar. Arriving
+at the camp, so the narrative continues, I "crawled into the tent of the
+medicine-man, and took my place by his blazing fire, while the other
+occupants lay or crouched around. The old mother was busy in the
+preparation of the meat, and by her side, next the opening, were two
+daughters; the older about eighteen, the younger about two years old.
+The father of the family, his son, and Schin-ges-in-ki-nee had,
+according to Indian custom, kept the best places for themselves, which
+was so much the better for me as I was placed between them. The medicine
+pipe, with a bowl cut out of some red stone, went round briskly, and the
+time that was employed in distributing the meat intended for the meal I
+spent in taking a good view of the Indian dwelling. Sixteen long poles,
+made of slender pine trees, were so placed as to form a circle of
+sixteen or eighteen feet in diameter, their tops being bent over and
+fastened together. Around this framework was thrown, like a mantle, the
+tent leather, consisting of a great number of buffalo-hides, tanned
+white, and neatly sewed together for the purpose with sinews. The
+leather did not reach quite to the top, but left an opening, by which
+the smoke could escape; but there were two prolongations of the tent
+leather, something like flags, which were supported by particular poles,
+so as, in stormy weather or contrary winds, to form a very tolerable
+chimney. The tent was fixed so firmly to the ground with pegs that the
+tightly stretched sides would admit neither the rain nor the snow, when
+it melted from the heat of the fire; and the inhabitants had not only a
+secure refuge, but a tolerably comfortable dwelling. The various
+possessions of the Indians were hung round on the tent poles, where they
+only took up room that could easily be dispensed with, and kept out the
+cold that could have most readily found an entrance at those places. On
+the space round the fire, buffalo-hides were spread for beds at night,
+and when rolled up in the day made convenient seats; the fire, in a kind
+of pit half a foot deep, and two and a half in diameter, was a mass of
+glowing embers, with a number of logs blazing on the top, and diffused a
+most pleasant warmth over the small space. Near the fire a branch of a
+tree was stuck into the ground, and another placed horizontally across
+it, and running the whole breadth of the tent, from which hung the most
+indispensable of household utensils in the form of a great kettle,
+whilst the rest of the pole was covered with wet and torn mocassins and
+gaiters, in a manner that was certainly more convenient than
+ornamental.... Besides the wild half-naked forms of the Indians, a
+number of dogs, young and old, made part of the company assembled in
+Wa-ki-ta-mo-nee's tent. The attention of the mistress of the family, a
+very dirty old squaw, was exclusively devoted to the vast kettle and its
+bubbling contents; a row of roughly-cut wooden platters stood before
+her, and by means of a pointed stick she fished up from the cauldron
+large joints of bear and half turkeys, and loaded each of the platters
+with a huge portion of the savoury smelling food." (Moellhausen, (1), I,
+pp. 171-175.) The second tent, so he wrote, "was more spacious" than the
+one which he had entered, and described. This is an interesting
+description of a small winter camp of the Oto as it stood in the midst
+of the snow-covered prairie, near a stream "whose waters were hidden
+beneath a thick covering of ice." The scene could undoubtedly have been
+repeated in many localities in the vast region west of the Missouri. The
+identity of the stream near which the two tents stood during the winter
+of 1851-52 is suggested by a note in Fremont's journal, written 10 years
+earlier. On June 22, 1842, when traversing the prairies, soon to reach
+the right bank of the Platte, he wrote: "Made our bivouac in the midst
+of some well-timbered ravines near the Little Blue.... Crossing the next
+morning a number of handsome creeks, with clear water and sandy beds, we
+reached at 10 A. M., a very beautiful wooded stream, about thirty-five
+feet wide, called Sandy creek, and sometimes, as the Ottoes frequently
+winter there, Otto fork." (Fremont, (1), p. 14.) The greater part of the
+course of Sandy Creek is through the present Clay and Thayer Counties,
+Nebraska, a hundred miles or more south of west from the Oto village
+then situated near the mouth of the Platte.
+
+Moellhausen remained with the Oto until the temporary camp was abandoned,
+then returned with them to their permanent village. The journey required
+several weeks but in time they approached the Missouri, and as they
+neared their destination: "We passed the burial place of the Ottoes just
+before we descended into the valley, and shortly afterwards came to the
+village. The first consisted of a number of hillocks inclosed by rough
+palings, and decorated with sticks with little bits of coloured stuff
+and feathers fluttering from them. The village, which lay not many
+hundred yards farther was a group of about sixty huts of various
+construction, some of clay, shaped like haycocks or baking ovens, others
+like small houses, built of thick oak bark. These dwellings stood mostly
+empty, as the inhabitants had pitched their tents just now in the angle
+formed by the Nebrasca and Missouri, on account of the rich grass to be
+found in these bottom lands under the protecting snow, and because they
+and their cattle were in that situation more sheltered from the violent
+gales of wind." (Moellhausen, (1), I, pp. 210-211.) Here is a reference
+to a third form of habitation known to the Oto. In addition to the
+earth-covered lodge and the skin tipi, both of which were characteristic
+of the time and place, they appear to have reared structures similar to
+the habitation of the Sauk and Fox, as shown in plate 19, a type of
+dwelling known to several neighboring tribes in the upper Mississippi
+Valley.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 34
+
+[Illustration: _a._ "Pemmican maul, Oto Agency, Nebrasca, J. W. Griest."
+Formed of one piece of wood. Extreme length, 39 inches. (U.S.N.M.
+22437)]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Heavy stone maul with handle attached. "Yankton
+Sioux. Fort Berthold. Drs. Gray and Matthews, U. S. A." Extreme length
+about 2 feet 2 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6325)]
+
+[Illustration: _c._ "Tools of the Mandans for dressing leather, Dakota.
+Drs. Gray and Matthews, U. S. A." Handle of antler, with flint blade
+attached. Extreme length of handle about 11 inches. (U.S.N.M. 8409)]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 35
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Oto dugout canoe, from Kurz's Sketchbook, May 15,
+1851]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Bull-boat and paddle, obtained from the Hidatsa.
+Marked "Fort Buford, Dak. Ter. Grosventres Tribe. Drs. Gray and
+Matthews." (U.S.N.M. 9785)]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 36
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Structure showing arbor over entrance]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Long structure with entrance on one side
+
+WINNEBAGO HABITATIONS, ABOUT 1870]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 37
+
+[Illustration: WINNEBAGO STRUCTURES]
+
+It is quite evident that after leaving the permanent earth-lodge village
+of the Oto the Long party just a century ago passed one of the temporary
+camps of the same people. This, fortunately, was sketched by the artist
+of the expedition and reproduced in the narrative of the journey, and is
+now shown in plate 33. To quote from the narrative: "For the
+elucidation of what we have said respecting the form and arrangement of
+the skin, or travelling lodges of the Indians, we subjoin an engraving,
+representing an encampment of Oto Indians, which Mr. Seymour sketched
+near the Platte river. In this plate, the group of Indians on the left
+is intended to represent a party of Konza Indians approaching to perform
+the calumet dance in the Oto village. It may be proper to remark, that
+this party when still distant from the Otoes, had sent forward a
+messenger, with the offer of a prize to the first Oto that should meet
+them. This circumstance was productive of much bustle and activity among
+the warriors and young men, who eagerly mounted their horses, and
+exerted their utmost speed." (James. (1), II, pp. 188-189.)
+
+Various ethnological specimens collected among the Oto a generation or
+more ago are in the collections of the National Museum. One quite rare
+object, a "pemmican maul," formed of a single piece of wood, is figured
+in plate 34, _a_.
+
+An original sketch by Kurz in May, 1851, representing a group of Oto
+with a dugout canoe, is reproduced in plate 35, _a_.
+
+MISSOURI.
+
+In the narrative of the Lewis and Clark expedition appears this record:
+"June 13, 1804. We passed ... a bend of the river, Missouri and two
+creeks on the north, called the Round Bend creeks. Between these two
+creeks is the prairie, in which once stood the ancient village of the
+Missouris. Of this village there remains no vestige, nor is there any
+thing to recall this great and numerous nation, except a feeble remnant
+of about thirty families. They were driven from their original seats by
+the invasions of the Sauks and other Indians from the Mississippi, who
+destroyed at this village two hundred of them in one contest." (Lewis
+and Clark, (1), I, p. 13.) About 5 miles beyond they reached the mouth
+of Grand River which flows from the northwest, serves as the boundary
+between Carroll and Chariton Counties, Missouri, and enters the left
+bank of the Missouri River. Therefore the old village of the Missouri
+evidently stood at some point in the latter county. It was probably
+composed of a number of mat and bark covered lodges resembling the
+village of the Osage which stood a few miles farther up the river. Two
+days later, June 15, the party identified the site or remains of the
+former village of the Little Osage, and, so the narrative continues:
+"About three miles above them, in view of our camp is the situation of
+the old village of the Missouris after they fled from the Sauks." (Op.
+cit., p. 15.) From this village the few Missouri Indians appear to have
+sought refuge among the Oto, then living on the banks of the Platte.
+
+WINNIBAGO.
+
+When first known to Europeans the Winnebago occupied the region west of
+Green Bay, west of Lake Michigan, where, according to the Jesuit
+missionaries, they had resided for many generations. There they were
+living in the year 1634 when visited by Nicollet, and just 35 years
+later, during the winter of 1669-70, a mission on the shore of the same
+bay was conducted by Pere Allouez, which proved a gathering place for
+various tribes, including the Winnebago, Sauk and Foxes, Menominee, and
+Potawatomi. These, with the exception of the Winnebago, were Algonquian
+tribes.
+
+As already mentioned, the Oto, Iowa, and Missouri appear to have been
+closely connected with the Winnebago, all speaking dialects understood
+by one another. And it is also evident that when the Oto, Iowa, and
+Missouri began their movement westward to the Mississippi and beyond the
+Winnebago remained behind. However, about the beginning of the last
+century they reached the banks of the Mississippi, and by successive
+moves during the next 50 years some arrived in western Minnesota, soon
+to be removed to lands beyond the Missouri, adjoining the Omaha, in the
+northeastern part of Nebraska.
+
+While living in the vicinity of Green Bay their villages were groups of
+mat and bark-covered lodges, typical of the tribes of the wooded country
+which abounded in lakes and streams. And it is quite evident that during
+their migration westward, when they made long stops before finally
+reaching the banks of the Missouri, they continued to erect and occupy
+structures similar to those which had stood in their old villages
+generations before.
+
+Typical examples of Winnebago dwellings are shown in plates 36 and 37.
+The arbor over the entrance is an interesting feature, seldom appearing
+in the Algonquian villages, although often shown in front of Siouan
+lodges.
+
+In a forthcoming publication Radin has given a list of the various forms
+of structures erected by the Winnebago, some of which existed until very
+recent years. (Radin, (1).)
+
+MANDAN.
+
+As mentioned in the sketch of the Assiniboin, a small party of French
+accompanied by members of that tribe during the autumn of 1738 went
+southward from the Assiniboin country to the Mandan towns, where the
+French remained several weeks. The leader of the expedition, La
+Verendrye, prepared an account of the journey, this being the earliest
+record of a visit by Europeans to the Mandans known to exist, although
+it is easily conceived that French trappers may have been among the
+tribe earlier in the century.
+
+The expedition arrived among the Mandan November 28, 1738, after a
+journey of 46 days, but soon pushed forward to a larger village.
+Fortunately the journal contains references to the ways of life of the
+Mandan and a brief description of their fortified or protected
+settlements. At that time the tribe was said to have had six villages,
+and evidently all were protected by encircling palisades. The village in
+which the French then rested consisted of 130 lodges, and "all the
+streets, squares and huts resembled each other." The French were
+particularly interested in the manner in which the town was protected,
+but the account in the journal must exaggerate the strength, or rather
+the size, of the ditch. The palisade was described as being 15 feet in
+height, and "At fifteen points doubled are green skins which are put for
+sheathing when required, fastened only above in the places needed, as in
+the bastion there are four at each curtain well flanked. The fort is
+built on a height in the open prairie with a ditch upwards of fifteen
+feet deep by fifteen to eighteen feet wide. Their fort can only be
+gained by steps or posts which can be removed when threatened by an
+enemy. If all their forts are alike, they may be called impregnable to
+Indians.... Both men and women of this nation are very laborious; their
+huts are large and spacious, separated into several apartments by thick
+planks; nothing is left lying about; all their baggage is in large bags
+hung on posts; their beds made like tombs surrounded by skins.... Their
+fort is full of caves, in which are stored such articles as grain, food,
+fat, dressed robes, bear skins. They are well supplied with these; it is
+the money of the country.... They make wicker work very neatly, flat and
+in baskets. They make use of earthen pots, which they use like many
+other nations for cooking their food." (La Verendrye, (1), p. 21.) In
+addition to the six more important villages there appear to have been
+others, similar but smaller. Referring to these La Verendrye wrote (p.
+23): "We noticed that in the plain there were several small forts, of
+forty or fifty huts, built like the large ones, but no one was there at
+the time. They made us understand that they came inside for the summer
+to work their fields and that there was a large reserve of grain in
+their cellars." Evidently these were nearer their cornfields, away from
+the river banks, and were occupied only parts of each year.
+
+From this all too brief account of the Mandan it is quite evident that
+when they were first encountered by the French, living in their earth
+lodges, their villages strongly palisaded, their caches filled with corn
+and other food supplies, buffalo robes and bear skins, they were in
+their most powerful and prosperous state. But what great changes they
+were destined to undergo during the next hundred years!
+
+On October 19, 1804, the Lewis and Clark party discovered the first of
+the ruined villages of the Mandan, evidently standing on the left bank
+of the Missouri, in the southern part of the present Burleigh County,
+North Dakota. It proved an interesting day. "In walking along the shore
+we counted fifty-two herds of buffaloe and three of elk, at a single
+view. Besides these we also observed elk, deer, pelicans, and wolves."
+The ruined village had been protected by palisades and, according to the
+Arikara chief, who accompanied them, had been occupied by the Mandan.
+These, so they wrote, "are the first ruins which we have seen of that
+nation in ascending the Missouri." During the night of October 19 the
+expedition encamped on the south, i. e., right, bank of the Missouri,
+evidently about 2 miles below the mouth of Little Heart River, which
+flows from the westward and joins the Missouri in the present Morton
+County, North Dakota. The following day they advanced 12 miles up the
+Missouri.
+
+October 21, 1804, was cold and bleak. Snow and ice covered the ground,
+and the wind blew strong from the northeast. That day the expedition
+advanced only 7 miles. They passed the mouth of Big Heart River and the
+site of Bismarck, the present capital of the State. Two miles above
+their camp of the night previous, about opposite the mouth of the Big
+Heart, they reached "the ruins of a second Mandan village, which was in
+existence at the same time with that just mentioned. It is situated on
+the north at the foot of a hill in a beautiful and extensive plain,
+which is now covered with herds of buffaloes; nearly opposite are
+remains of a third village on the south of the Missouri, and there is
+another also about two miles further on the north, a little off the
+river. At the distance of seven miles we encamped on the south, and
+spent a cold night." The next day, October 22, they discovered other
+ruined towns of the Mandan. "In the morning we passed an old Mandan
+village on the south, near our camp; at four miles another on the same
+side.... At six we reached an island about one mile in length, at the
+head of which is a Mandan village on the north in ruins, and two miles
+beyond a bad sandbar. At eight miles are remains of another Mandan
+village on the south; and at twelve miles encamped on the south....
+These villages, which are nine in number, are scattered along each side
+of the river within a space of twenty miles; almost all that remains of
+them is the wall which surrounds them, the fallen heaps of earth which
+covered the houses, and occasionally human skulls and the teeth and
+bones of men, and different animals, which are scattered on the surface
+of the ground." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 112-114.) Other deserted
+villages were passed as they continued ascending the Missouri, to arrive
+late on the 26th of October, at an old field of the Mandan, about
+one-half mile below the first of their then occupied villages.
+
+The winter encampment of the expedition, Fort Mandan, was situated on
+the left bank of the Missouri, about opposite the future Fort Clark, and
+some 7 or 8 miles below the mouth of Knife River, and consequently
+several miles from the first Mandan village. Here the expedition
+remained until April 7, 1805. The lower of the Mandan villages was
+"Matootonha," the second and smaller was "Rooptahee." The list continues
+and refers to "the third village which is called Mahawha, and where the
+Arwacahwas reside." "The fourth village where the Minnetarees live, and
+which is called Metaharta." A fifth village is mentioned but its name is
+not given. (Op. cit., pp. 120-121.) Referring to these more in detail
+the narrative tells something of their origin: November 21, 1804, "The
+villages near which we are established are five in number, and are the
+residence of three distinct nations: the Mandans, the Ahnahaways, and
+the Minnetarees. The history of the Mandans, as we received it from our
+interpreters and from the chiefs themselves, and as it is attested by
+existing monuments, illustrates more than that of any other nation the
+unsteady movements and the tottering fortunes of the American nations.
+Within the recollection of living witnesses, the Mandans were settled
+forty years ago in nine villages, the ruins of which we passed about
+eighty miles below, and situated seven on the west and two on the east
+side of the Missouri. The two finding themselves wasting away before the
+small-pox and the Sioux, united into one village, and moved up the river
+opposite to the Ricaras. The same causes reduced the remaining seven to
+five villages, till at length they emigrated in a body to the Ricara
+nation, where they formed themselves into two villages, and joined those
+of their countrymen who had gone before them. In their new residence
+they were still insecure, and at length the three villages ascended the
+Missouri to their present position. The two who had emigrated together
+still settled in the two villages on the northwest side of the Missouri,
+while the single village took a position on the southeast side. In this
+situation they were found by those who visited them in 1796; since which
+the two villages have united into one. They are now in two villages, one
+on the southeast of the Missouri, the other on the opposite side, and at
+the distance of three miles across. The first, in an open plain,
+contains about forty or fifty lodges, built in the same way as those of
+the Ricaras: the second, the same number, and both may raise about three
+hundred and fifty men.
+
+"On the same side of the river, and at the distance of four miles from
+the lower Mandan village, is another called Mahaha. It is situated in a
+high plain at the mouth of the Knife river, and is the residence of the
+Ahnahaways. This nation, whose name indicated that they were 'people
+whose village is on a hill,' formerly resided on the Missouri, about
+thirty miles below where they now live. The Assiniboins and Sioux forced
+them to a spot five miles higher, where the greatest part of them were
+put to death, and the rest emigrated to their present situation, in
+order to obtain an asylum near the Minnetarees. They are called by the
+French, Soulier Noir or Shoe Indians; by the Mandans, Wattasoons, and
+their whole force is about fifty men.
+
+"On the south side of the same Knife river, half a mile above the Mahaha
+and in the same open plain with it, is a village of the Minnetarees
+surnamed Metaharta, who are about one hundred and fifty men in number.
+On the opposite side of Knife river, and one and a half mile above this
+village is a second of Minnetarees, who may be considered as the proper
+Minnetaree nation. It is situated in a beautiful low plain, and contains
+four hundred and fifty warriors." (Op. cit., pp. 129-131.)
+
+In their journal, kept while in winter quarters at Fort Mandan, are to
+be found many interesting references to the Mandan. To quote several of
+these will tend to shed light on the ways of life in the native village.
+On November 22, 1804, the Mandan sold to the members of the expedition
+"a quantity of corn of a mixed colour, which they dug up in ears from
+the holes made near the front of their lodges, in which it is buried
+during the winter." This had probably been gathered only a few weeks
+before the arrival of the party at the village, then deposited in the
+caches for future use. December 19 the weather had moderated, and the
+Indians were seen playing a game on the level space between the lodges
+of the first and second chiefs, a distance of about 50 yards. The entry
+for January 13, 1805, contains an interesting note: "We have a
+continuation of clear weather, and the cold has increased, the mercury
+having sunk to 34 below 0. Nearly one half of the Mandan nation passed
+down the river to hunt for several days; in these excursions men, women
+and children, with their dogs, all leave the village together, and after
+discovering a spot convenient for the game, fix their tents; all the
+family bear their part in the labour, and the game is equally divided
+among the families of the tribe." And on February 12, it was told how
+"The horses of the Mandans are so often stolen by the Sioux, Ricaras,
+and Assiniboins, that the invariable rule now is to put the horses every
+night in the same lodge with the family. In the summer they ramble in
+the plains in the vicinity of the camp, and feed on the grass, but
+during cold weather the squaws cut down the cottonwood trees as they are
+wanted, and the horses feed on the boughs and bark of the tender
+branches, which are also brought into the lodges at night and placed
+near them."
+
+About the year 1797, and consequently a few years before the arrival of
+the Lewis and Clark expedition at the Mandan villages, John McDonnell,
+a partner of the North-West Company, made brief mention of the Mandan in
+his journal. He wrote: "These Indians live in settled villages,
+fortified with palisades, which they seldom ever abandon, and they are
+the best husbandman in the whole Northwest. They raise indian corn or
+maize, beans, pumpkins, squashes in considerable quantity, not only
+sufficient to supply their own wants, with the help of the buffalo, but
+also to sell and give away to all strangers that enter their villages."
+(McDonnell, (1), pp. 272-273.) And in 1804 another representative of the
+old North-West Company referred to the gardens of the Mandans and said
+in part:
+
+"In the spring, as soon as the weather and the state of the ground will
+permit, the women repair to the fields, when they cut the stalks of the
+Indian corn of the preceding year and drop new seed into the socket of
+the remaining roots. A small kind of pumpkins which are very productive
+they plant with a dibble, and raise the ground into hillocks the same as
+those about Indian corn. Their kidney beans they plant in the same
+manner. They cultivate a tall kind of sunflower, the seed of which is
+reckoned good eating dry and pounded with fat and made into balls of
+three or four ounces; they are found excellent for long journeys."
+(Mackenzie, Charles, (1), pp. 338-339.) And the narrative continued:
+"The only implement used among the Mandanes for the purpose of
+agriculture is a hoe made from the shoulder blade of a buffalo and which
+is ingrafted upon a short crooked handle. With this crooked instrument
+they work very expeditiously, and soon do all that is required for their
+supplies."
+
+As already mentioned, the Lewis and Clark party departed from their
+winter quarters April 7, 1805, to pursue their journey westward. The
+next year, on August 14, 1806, when returning, they again arrived at the
+Mandan villages. They reached Rooptahee, where they were kindly received
+by the people, but it is interesting to know that during the 16 months
+which had intervened between the departure and return of the Lewis and
+Clark party a great change had taken place in the appearance of the
+native village. As mentioned in the journal, "This village has been
+rebuilt since our departure, and was now much smaller; a quarrel having
+arisen among the Indians, in consequence of which a number of families
+had removed to the opposite side of the river." Such were the changes
+ever occurring among the people of the upper Missouri. Old villages were
+abandoned and new ones built, some to be divided and others united,
+consequently very few of the ruined sites discovered along the course of
+the river represent towns which were occupied at the same time.
+
+Although the work just quoted contains much of interest pertaining to
+the Mandan and neighboring tribes, subsequent writers described the
+appearance of the villages and separate structures more in detail, and
+from the narratives of Catlin and Maximilian, supplemented by many
+sketches, it is possible to visualize the primitive earth-lodge villages
+with their many peculiar features.
+
+Catlin remained among the Mandan for some weeks during the year 1832 and
+wrote at that time: "They have two villages only, which are about two
+miles distant from each other.... Their present villages are beautifully
+located, and judiciously also, for defence against the assaults of their
+enemies. The site of the lower (or principal) town, in particular is one
+of the most beautiful and pleasing that can be seen in the world, and
+even more beautiful than imagination could ever create. In the very
+midst of an extensive valley (embraced within a thousand graceful swells
+and parapets or mounds of interminable green, changing to blue, as they
+vanish in distance) is built the city, or principal town of the
+Mandans." This was evidently the lower village, the first encountered
+when ascending the Missouri, the Matootonha of Lewis and Clark, and
+Mihtutta-hangusch of Maximilian. Describing the position of this town,
+Catlin continued: "The ground on which the Mandan village is at present
+built, was admirably selected for defence; being on a bank forty or
+fifty feet above the bed of the river. The greater part of this bank is
+nearly perpendicular and of solid rock. The river, suddenly changing its
+course to a right-angle, protects two sides of the village, which is
+built upon this promontory or angle; they have therefore but one side to
+protect, which is effectually done by a strong piquet, and a ditch
+inside of it, of three or four feet in depth. The piquet is composed of
+timbers of a foot or more in diameter, and eighteen feet high, set
+firmly in the ground at sufficient distances from each other to admit of
+guns and other missiles to be fired between them. The ditch ... is
+inside of the piquet, in which their warriors screen their bodies from
+the view and weapons of their enemies." (Catlin, (1), I, pp. 80-81.)
+This is followed by a description of the earth-covered lodges, "closely
+grouped together, leaving but just room enough for walking and riding
+between them." Outside they appeared to be made entirely of earth, but
+entering he was surprised "to see the neatness, comfort, and spacious
+dimensions of these earth-covered dwellings." The structures varied in
+size, some being 40, others 60 feet in diameter. All were of a circular
+form with the floors 2 feet or more below the original surface. "In the
+centre, and immediately under the sky-light is the fire-place, a hole of
+four or five feet in diameter, of a circular form, sunk a foot or more
+below the surface, and curbed around with stone. Over the fire-place,
+and suspended from the apex of diverging props or poles, is generally
+seen the pot or kettle, filled with buffalo meat; and around it are the
+family, reclining in all the most picturesque attitudes and groups,
+resting on their buffalo-robes and beautiful mats of rushes." Their
+beds, or sleeping places, stood against the wall and were formed of
+poles lashed together and covered with buffalo skins. Each such bed was
+screened by skins of the buffalo or elk, arranged as curtains, with a
+hole in front to serve as an entrance. "Some of these coverings or
+curtains are exceedingly beautiful, being cut tastefully into fringe,
+and handsomely ornamented with porcupine's quills and picture writings
+or hieroglyphics." Catlin's sketch of the interior of a lodge, as just
+described, is reproduced in plate 38, _a_. In this picture the beds
+resting against the wall are clearly shown, the sunken fireplace is
+surrounded by the occupants of the lodge, and on the extreme right are
+two pottery vessels and a bull-boat, so characteristic of the upper
+Missouri.
+
+Near the center of the large village, surrounded by the lodges, was the
+open space where games were played and their various ceremonies enacted.
+Referring to this, Catlin wrote (Op. cit., p. 88): "In the centre of the
+village is an open space, or public area, of 150 feet in diameter, and
+circular in form, which is used for all public games and festivals,
+shows and exhibitions and also for their 'annual religious
+ceremonies.'... The lodges around this open space front in, with their
+doors towards the centre; and in the middle of this circle stands an
+object of great religious veneration.... This object is in form of a
+large hogshead, some eight or ten feet high, made of planks and
+hoops.... One of the lodges fronting on this circular area, and facing
+this strange object of their superstition, is called the 'Medicine
+Lodge,' or council house. It is in this sacred building that these
+wonderful ceremonies, in commemoration of the flood, take place." Later
+Catlin witnessed the remarkable ceremony, as enacted by the Mandan in
+the midst of their large village, and prepared a series of paintings
+showing the various phases. The original pictures are in the collection
+belonging to the United States National Museum, and one, the last,
+showing what they termed the "last race," is now reproduced as plate 38,
+_b_. In the center of the open space stands the sacred object, "in form
+of a large hogshead." An outline drawing of this painting was reproduced
+as plate 69 in Catlin's work.
+
+One of the most interesting and vivid passages in Catlin's writings is
+his description of this village as it impressed him. To quote (Op. cit.,
+pp. 88-89): "In ranging the eye over the village from where I am
+writing, there is presented to the view the strangest mixture and medley
+of unintelligible trash (independent of the living beings that are in
+motion), that can possibly be imagined. On the roofs of the lodges,
+besides the groups of living, are buffaloes' skulls, skin canoes, pots
+and pottery; sleds and sledges--and suspended on poles, erected some
+twenty feet above the doors of their wigwams, are displayed in a
+pleasant day, the scalps of warriors, preserved as trophies; and thus
+proudly exposed as evidence of their warlike deeds. In other parts are
+raised on poles the warriors' pure and whitened shields and quivers,
+with medicine-bags attached; and here and there a sacrifice of red
+cloth, or other costly stuff, offered up to the Great Spirit, over the
+door of some benignant chief, in humble gratitude for the blessings
+which he is enjoying. Such is a part of the strange medley that is
+before and around me; and amidst them ... can be seen in distance, the
+green and boundless, treeless, bushless prairie; and on it, and
+contiguous to the piquet which encloses the village, a hundred scaffolds
+on which their 'dead live,' as they term it." Such was the appearance of
+the great Mandan town in the year 1832, and this description would
+probably have applied to many of the ruined villages which stood on the
+banks of the Missouri farther down the river, which were occupied during
+past generations by the ancestors of those whom Catlin met and whose
+portraits have been preserved.
+
+Maximilian, accompanied by the artist Karl Bodmer, left St. Louis April
+10, 1833, on board the steamboat _Yellow Stone_, bound for the upper
+Missouri. Arriving at Fort Pierre they boarded the _Assiniboin_. The
+_Yellow Stone_ being loaded with "7,000 buffalo skins and other furs,"
+was to return to St. Louis. Starting from Fort Pierre June 5, they
+arrived at Fort Clark, among the Mandan, just two weeks later.
+Maximilian wrote on June 18: "At half-past seven we passed a roundish
+island covered with willows, and reached then the wood on the western
+bank, in which the winter dwellings of part of the Mandan Indian are
+situated; and saw, at a distance, the largest village of this tribe,
+Mih-Tutta-Hang-Kush, in the vicinity of which the whole prairie was
+covered with riders and pedestrians. As we drew nearer the huts of that
+village, Fort Clarke, lying before it, relieved by the background of the
+blue prairie hills, came in sight, with the gay American banner waving
+from the flag-staff.... The _Assiniboin_ soon lay to before the fort,
+against the gently sloping shore, where above 600 Indians were waiting
+for us." (Maximilian, (1), p. 171.) They departed from Fort Clark the
+following day and on June 24, "the seventy-fifth day since our departure
+from St. Louis," arrived at Fort Union, near the mouth of the
+Yellowstone. Returning to Fort Clark November 8, they remained
+throughout the winter, departing April 18, 1834.
+
+During the long winter months Maximilian learned much of the manners and
+ways of life of the Mandan, and his records are, in many respects, to be
+preferred to those of Catlin. To quote his description of the Mandan
+towns: "Their villages are assemblages of clay huts, of greater or less
+extent, placed close to each other, without regard to order.
+Mih-Tutta-Hang-Kush, the largest of the Mandan villages, was about 150
+or 200 paces in diameter, the second was much smaller. The circumference
+forms an irregular circle, and was anciently surrounded with strong
+posts, or palisades, which have, however, gradually disappeared as the
+natives used them for fuel in the cold winters. At four places, at
+nearly equal distances from each other, is a bastion built of clay,
+furnished with loop-holes, and lined both within and without with
+basket-work of willow branches. They form an angle, and are open towards
+the village; the earth is filled in between the basket-work and it is
+said that these bulwarks, which are now in a state of decay, were
+erected for the Indians by the Whites." It is curious and interesting
+that a similar observation should have been made by La Verendrye nearly
+a century before, and so the question arises, If made by Europeans, who
+were they? No protection or fortification of this sort was at the second
+and smaller village. A plan of the larger village, indicating its
+position on the right bank of the Missouri a short distance above Fort
+Clark, is given by Maximilian on page 394 and is here reproduced in
+figure 4. This would probably have been near the southern line of the
+present Mercer County, North Dakota.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Plan of the large Mandan village, 1833.]
+
+Continuing the description of the large village, Maximilian wrote: "The
+huts, as I have before remarked, stand close to each other, leaving, in
+the centre, an open circular space, about sixty paces in diameter, in
+the centre of which (among the Mandans) the ark of the first man is set
+up, of which we shall speak in the sequel. It is a small cylinder, open
+above, made of planks, about four or five feet high, fixed in the
+ground, and bound with climbing plants, or pliable boughs, to hold them
+together (see the woodcut, p. 342 [fig. 5]).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--"The ark of the first man."]
+
+"At the north end of this circular space is the medicine lodge, in which
+festivals are celebrated, and certain customs practised, which are
+connected with the religious notions of this people.... At the top of a
+high pole, a figure is here placed, made of skins, with a wooden head,
+the face painted black, and wearing a fur cap and feathers, which is
+intended to represent the evil spirit Ochkih-Hadda.... Other grotesque
+figures, made of skins and bundles of twigs, we saw hanging on high
+poles, most of them being offerings to the deity. Among the huts are
+many stages of several stories, supported by poles, on which they dry
+the maize. The huts themselves are of a circular form, slightly vaulted,
+having a sort of portico entrance. When the inmates are absent the
+entrance is shut up with twigs and thorns; and if they wish merely to
+close the door they put up a skin stretched out on a frame, which is
+shoved aside on entering. In the centre of the roof is a square opening
+for the smoke to find vent, over which is a circular sort of screen made
+of twigs, as a protection against the wind and rain, and which, when
+necessary, is covered with skins (see woodcut [fig. 6]).
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 38
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Interior of a Mandan lodge. George Catlin]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Scene in a Mandan village. George Catlin]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 39
+
+[Illustration: "MIH-TUTTA-HANG-KUSCH," A MANDAN VILLAGE
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833]
+
+"The interior of the hut is spacious, tolerably light, and cleanly. Four
+strong pillars towards the middle, with several cross beams, support the
+roof. The inner circumference of the hut is formed by eleven or fifteen
+thick posts, four or five feet in height, between which other rather
+shorter ones are placed close to each other. On these shorter posts,
+which are all of an equal height, are long rafters, inclining to the
+centre; they are placed near each other, and bear the roof. On the
+outside the huts are covered with a kind of mat, made of osiers, joined
+together with bark, and now the skeleton of the hut is finished. Over
+this hay is spread, and the outer covering is of earth. The men and
+women work together in erecting these huts, and the relations,
+neighbours, and friends, assist them in the work.... In the centre of
+the hut a circular place is dug for the fire, over which the kettle is
+suspended. This fire-place, or hearth, is often enclosed with a ledge
+of stones. The fuel is laid, in moderately thick pieces, on the external
+edge of the hearth, crossing each other in the middle, when it is
+kindled, and the pieces gradually pushed in as they burn away. The
+Indians are not fond of large fires. The inmates sit round it, on low
+seats, made of peeled osiers, covered with buffalo or bear skin. Round
+the inner circumference of the hut lie or hang the baggage, the
+furniture, and other property, in leather bags, the painted parchment
+travelling bags, and the harness of the horses; and on separate stages
+there are arms, sledges, and snow-shoes, while meat and maize, piled up,
+complete the motley assemblage." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 342-344.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Typical earth lodges.]
+
+Among the many interesting paintings made by Bodmer during his journey
+with Maximilian is one of the large Mandan village, plate 39, looking
+down the Missouri, showing the cluster of earth lodges on the summit of
+the cliff which terminates abruptly at the river. A structure rather
+lower than the others, on the immediate edge of the level area, is
+probably the "bastion," as represented in the plan, figure 4, pointing
+out over the cliff. Beyond the village, but evidently screened from view
+by the high cliff upon which the latter stood, was Fort Clark, near the
+mouth of a small stream which flowed into the Missouri.
+
+In these large circular structures the beds stood against the wall and
+the single opening faced inward. These were described by Catlin and
+clearly indicated in his drawing of an interior of a lodge, plate 38,
+_a_. In Maximilian's work (p. 344) is a sketch of such a bed which shows
+it as a unit, not attached to the wall, and capable of being moved
+about. The sketch is reproduced in figure 7. These were so formed and
+inclosed in skins as to protect the occupants from the cold blasts of
+air which must have circulated about in the interior of the lodge during
+certain seasons of the year. And as additional protection "In the
+winter huts they place, at the inside of the door, a high screen of
+willow boughs, covered with hides, which keeps off the draught of air
+from without, and especially protects the fire." And Maximilian related
+how, about the middle of November or before, the Indians removed to
+their winter huts which were in a timbered area, and thus more protected
+from the winds and storms of winter. There they remained until the
+latter part of February, or the beginning of March, being governed by
+the climatic conditions. Thus about four months of the year would be
+spent in their winter village. As the greater part of their possessions
+would be deposited in underground caches they made frequent trips
+between their villages to get what was desired--food, clothing, skins,
+and other supplies. In the winter, when the frozen prairie was covered
+with ice and snow, they made use of sledges drawn by dogs to transport
+their goods from place to place. The sledges were "made of a couple of
+thin, narrow boards, nine or ten feet in length, fastened together with
+leather straps, and with four cross-pieces, by way of giving them
+firmness."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Inclosed bed.]
+
+On the evening of November 30, 1833, Maximilian returned to Fort Clark
+from a visit of a few days to the villages a short distance above. They
+passed through "the forest-village belonging to the inhabitants of
+Ruhptare," referring to the winter village of the people of the smaller
+Mandan town. They entered one of the winter lodges, and "there was an
+abundance of meat hanging up in this hut, as they had had a very
+successful buffalo hunt." After returning to Fort Clark Maximilian
+wrote: "The Mandan village near the fort was now entirely forsaken by
+the inhabitants. The entrances to the huts were blocked with bundles of
+thorns; a couple of families only still remained, one of which was that
+of Dipauch, whom Mr Bodmer visited every day, in order to make a drawing
+of the interior of the hut. Instead of the numerous inhabitants, magpies
+were flying about, and flocks of snow buntings were seen in the
+neighbourhood about the dry plants of the prairie, where the Indian
+children set long rows of snares, made of horsehair, to catch them
+alive." (Op. cit., p. 425.) The drawing made by Bodmer of the interior
+of the lodge proves to be one of his most interesting pictures. It was
+reproduced as plate XIX, and is here shown in plate 40.
+
+The people of Mih-tutta-hang-kusch having removed to their winter
+settlement, prepared to have "a great medicine feast," and Maximilian
+was invited to be present, and so, as he recorded in his narrative, "we
+proceeded thither, on the 3rd of December, in the afternoon. Mr. Kipp
+took his family with him, and Mato-Tope and several other Indians
+accompanied us. We were all well armed, because it was asserted that a
+band of hostile Indians had been seen among the prairie hills on the
+preceding day. Our beds, blankets, and buffalo skins were laid on a
+horse, on which Mr Kipp's wife, a Mandan Indian, rode. Thus we passed,
+at a rapid pace, through the prairie, along the Missouri, then below the
+hills, which are pretty high.... After proceeding about an hour and a
+half we reached the village in the wood, which is the winter residence
+of the inhabitants of Mih-Tutta-Hang-Kush. We stopped at the hut of Mr.
+Kipp's father-in-law, Mandeek-Suck-Choppenik (the medicine bird), who
+accommodated us with a night's lodging. The description of this hut may
+serve for all the winter huts of these Indians. It was about twenty
+paces in diameter, and circular; _h_ is the fence or wall of the hut,
+supported inside by strong, low posts, on which rests the vaulted roof,
+which has a square hole to let the smoke escape; _g_ is the entrance,
+protected by two projecting walls covered above. At _f_ is the door,
+consisting of a piece of leather stretched on a frame. At _d d_ there is
+a cross wall of considerable height, made of reeds and osier twigs woven
+together, to keep off the draught of air. At _e e e_ there is another
+cross wall, only three feet high, behind which the horses stand; _a_ is
+the fireplace, round which, at _c c c c_, are the seats of the inmates,
+consisting of benches formed of basket-work, covered with skins; _b b b
+b_ are four strong pillars which bear the roof, and are very well united
+above by cross beams. At _i_ there was a large leather case for the beds
+in which the family slept. A chain, with a large kettle, was suspended
+from the roof over the fire, to cook our supper, consisting of very
+pleasant flavoured sweet maize." (Op. cit., pp. 425-426.) A plan of the
+lodge is given on page 426, here reproduced as figure 8.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Plan of the interior of a Mandan lodge.]
+
+The "great medicine feast" was to begin the evening of their arrival at
+the winter village and to last 40 nights. That evening "after seven
+o'clock we repaired to the medicine lodge; it was entirely cleared,
+except that some women sat along the walls; the fire burned in the
+centre, before which we took our seats, near the partition _d d_, with
+several distinguished men of the band of soldiers. At our left hand, the
+other soldiers, about twenty-five in number, were seated in a row; some
+of them were handsomely dressed, though the majority were in plain
+clothes. They had their arms in their hands, and in the centre were
+three men who beat the drum." (Op. cit., pp. 426-427.) The lengthy
+detailed account of what followed during the course of the "feast" is
+most interesting, but will not be mentioned in this sketch.
+
+As among the many neighboring tribes of the Missouri Valley, the buffalo
+served as the principal source of food for the Mandan. Often sufficient
+meat could be secured very near the towns; again it would be necessary
+to undertake long journeys in search of the moving herds. It will be
+recalled that on January 13, 1805, when the mercury stood 34 deg. below
+zero, Lewis and Clark saw "nearly one half of the Mandan nation" pass
+down the frozen Missouri on a hunt to last several days. And a few years
+later, just at the beginning of summer, June 25, 1811, Brackenridge
+wrote: "At ten, passed an old Mandan village; and at some distance
+above, saw a great number of Mandan Indians on their march along the
+prairie. They sometimes go on hunting parties by whole villages, which
+is the case at present; they are about five hundred in number, some on
+horseback, some on foot, their tents and baggage drawn by dogs. On these
+great hunting parties, the women are employed in preserving the hides,
+drying the meat, and making a provision to keep. Very little of the
+buffalo is lost, for after taking the marrow, they pound the bones, boil
+them, and preserve the oil." (Brackenridge, (1), p. 260.) On such trips
+away from their permanent earth-lodge villages the Mandan made use of
+the skin-covered tipi.
+
+In addition to the food supplied by the chase the people of the
+permanent villages had large gardens in which they raised quantities of
+corn and beans of various sorts, gourds and sunflowers of several
+varieties, and of the seeds of the latter "very nice cakes are made."
+Many animals in addition to the buffalo, and various plants besides
+those cultivated in the gardens, served the Mandan for food.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 40
+
+[Illustration: "THE INTERIOR OF THE HUT OF A MANDAN CHIEF"
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 41
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Mandan wooden bowl. Marked "Ft. Berthold, Dacotah
+Ter. Drs. Gray and Matthews." Diameter 7-1/4 inches, depth 2 inches.
+(U.S.N.M. 6341)]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Mandan earthenware jar, collected by Drs. Gray and
+Matthews. (U.S.N.M. 8407)]
+
+[Illustration: _c._ Wooden bowl. Marked "Bowl of Mandan Indians, Dakota
+T. Drs. Gray and Matthews--U. S. A." Diameters 10-3/4 and 9-1/4 inches,
+depth 3-1/2 inches. (U.S.N.M. 8406)]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 42
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Spoon, marked "Buffalo horn spoon, presented by Gen.
+T. Duncan." Length about 10 inches. (U.S.N.M. 12259)]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Spoon made of horn of mountain sheep. "Mandan
+Indians, Dacotah Ter. Drs. Gray and Matthews." Extreme length 16-1/2
+inches. (U.S.N.M. 6333)]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 43
+
+[Illustration: "MINATARREE VILLAGE"
+
+George Catlin]
+
+At the time of Catlin's and Maximilian's visits to the Mandan the latter
+were making and using their primitive forms of utensils such as had been
+in use for generations. Wooden mortars, bowls hollowed out of hard
+knots, spoons made of the horn of buffalo and mountain sheep, and, most
+interesting of all, dishes and vessels made of pottery--all these were
+used in the preparation or serving of food. Some remarkable examples of
+wooden bowls made by the Mandan are now preserved in the collection of
+the United States National Museum, Washington. One of the most
+interesting is shown in plate 41, _c_ (U.S.N.M. 8406), and another, of
+simpler form but equally well made, in plate 41, _a_ (U.S.N.M. 6341).
+Both examples were evidently quite old even when collected. They are
+fashioned out of maple knots, worked thin and smooth, and are beautiful
+specimens. Large spoons, often termed "drinking cups," were, as already
+mentioned, made of the horns of buffalo and mountain sheep. The former
+were extensively used by many tribes, and usually resembled the one
+shown in plate 42, _a_. The spoons made of mountain-sheep horns were
+often much larger and thinner, of a yellowish hue, and the handles were
+frequently bent into form or decorated. A very beautiful spoon of this
+sort is shown in plate 42, _b_. (U.S.N.M. 6333.)
+
+Pottery dishes and vessels, so Catlin wrote, "are a familiar part of the
+culinary furniture of every Mandan lodge, and are manufactured by the
+women of this tribe in great quantities, and modelled into a thousand
+forms and tastes. They are made by the hands of the women, from a tough
+black clay, and baked in kilns which are made for the purpose, and are
+nearly equal in hardness to our own manufacture of pottery; though they
+have not yet got the art of glazing, which would be to them a most
+valuable secret. They make them so strong and serviceable, however, that
+they hang them over the fire as we do our iron pots, and boil their meat
+in them with perfect success." (Op. cit., p. 116.) Maximilian described
+the art of pottery making among the Mandan as exactly like that of the
+two associated tribes, the Hidatsa and Arikara. He wrote regarding the
+three tribes that they "understand the manufacture of earthen pots and
+vessels, of various forms and sizes. The clay is of a dark slate colour,
+and burns a yellowish-red, very similar to what is seen in the burnt
+tops of the Missouri hills. This clay is mixed with flint or granite
+reduced to powder by the action of fire. The workwoman forms the hollow
+inside of the vessel by means of a round stone which she holds in her
+hand while she works and smooths the outside with a piece of poplar
+bark. When the pot is made, it is filled and surrounded with dry
+shavings, and then burnt, when it is ready for use. They know nothing of
+glazing." (Op. cit., p. 348.) This was probably the simple process of
+manufacture followed by the widely scattered tribes, and the apparent
+ease with which the vessels were made accounts for the great quantities
+of fragments now discovered scattered over ancient village sites. Two
+small vessels made by the Mandan, and collected by Dr. Matthews half a
+century ago, are in the National Museum collection, and one is shown in
+plate 41, _b_. Very few perfect specimens exist, several being in the
+collection of the State Historical Society of North Dakota. The
+specimens in the National Museum are rather small, but some very large
+vessels were made and used in boiling their food.
+
+Bows and arrows were the principal weapons of the Mandan. The heads of
+the arrows, at the time of Maximilian's stay among the people, were made
+of thin bits of iron, although persons then living remembered the use of
+stone. Lances and clubs were likewise made and used, and when mentioning
+the latter Maximilian said, "a simple, knotty, wooden club is called
+mauna-panischa," and gives, on page 390, a woodcut of such a weapon. It
+is of interest to know that an example of this peculiar form of weapon,
+which at once suggests the traditional club of Hercules, is preserved in
+the Museo Kircheriana, in Rome. It is one of four specimens now
+belonging to the museum which were collected by Maximilian, the other
+three being a knife sheath, a horse bridle, and a saddle blanket, all
+being beautifully decorated with colored quillwork. The club is shown in
+figure 9, after a drawing made for the writer in 1905 by Dr. Paribeni,
+of the museum. The smaller end is bound or braided with tanned skin, to
+serve as a handle, and around the upper end of the wrapping is a band of
+quillwork similar in workmanship to that on the other objects. All are
+remarkably well preserved, and several specimens in the Ethnological
+Museum in Florence may have belonged to the Maximilian collection.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Wooden club.]
+
+The Mandans, like other tribes of the upper Missouri Valley, were very
+expert in the art of dressing skins, especially those of the buffalo.
+They used two forms of implements, one of which is similar to those
+shown in plate 12, _a_; the second, rather more complicated, is
+represented in plate 34, _c_. This is a beautiful old specimen now in
+the National Museum. The handle is formed of a piece of elk antler; the
+blade is of clear, brownish flint, well chipped. Other similar objects
+are preserved in the collection.
+
+How fortunate it was that Catlin and Maximilian chose to spend much time
+among the Mandan during the years 1832, 1833, and 1834. A few years
+later, in the spring of 1837, the dreaded smallpox swept away the
+greater part of this most interesting nation, and "when the disease had
+abated, and when the remnant of this once powerful nation had recovered
+sufficiently to remove the decaying bodies from their cabins, the total
+number of grown men was twenty-three, of women forty, and of young
+persons sixty or seventy. These were all that were left of the eighteen
+hundred souls that composed the nation prior to the advent of that
+terrific disease, and even those that recovered were so disfigured as
+scarcely to be recognized." (Hayden, (1), p. 433.) Soon those who
+survived deserted their old village near Fort Clark and removed a few
+miles above, and the town was, about this time, occupied by the Arikara.
+It is interesting to know that the small remnant of the Mandan continued
+to follow their own peculiar customs and to maintain their tribal unity
+although so reduced in numbers. It will not be necessary in the present
+sketch to trace the later history of the tribe.
+
+In recent years the State Historical Society of North Dakota has caused
+surveys to be made of the more important village sites in that State. In
+addition to the plans of the sites, showing the position of the earth
+lodges, they have been fortunate in obtaining drawings of the Mandan and
+Hidatsa villages, made by a Mandan living on the Fort Berthold
+Reservation. In writing of the picture and plan of the "most important
+historical site of the Mandan tribe in the state, the one visited and
+described by Lewis and Clark, Catlin, and Maximilian," Libby said: "The
+Indian chart and the map of the village as it appears to-day are here
+shown. It is seen that the two representations are not essentially
+unlike. The grouping of the houses about a common center, at one side of
+which is the holy tepee, is the predominating characteristic of each."
+The Indian drawing, although crude, shows some details omitted by Catlin
+in his many sketches; but the map (fig. 10) is of the greatest interest.
+It shows the site near Fort Clark as it appeared about the year 1908,
+and to quote from the description: "In the center of the tepees, on the
+space devoted by the old Mandans to the 'big canoe' and cedar post of
+the 'elder man,' stands now a large tepee (shown in dotted outline)
+which was placed there by the Arikara who occupied the village after the
+small-pox scourge of 1837 had killed or driven away the original
+inhabitants." The structures surrounding the open space were occupied by
+the principal men of the village, and the names as given by Libby were
+secured by him from "Bad Gun, Rushing War Eagle, son of the Ma-ta-to-pe
+or Four Bears, whose portrait Catlin painted." In the list of names
+"Tepee No. 1 was the holy tepee and was also used by Lance Shoulder,"
+and "No. 2 was occupied by Four Bears." The list includes fifteen names.
+At the time the survey was made the entire ditch could not be traced,
+but its general course could be followed, thus indicating the
+approximate boundary of the town, "beyond which only a few tepees are
+located." (Libby, (1), pp. 498-499.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Plan of the Mandan village at Fort Clark.]
+
+When it is realized how little is known regarding the arrangement of the
+many ancient villages which once stood in the country east of the
+Mississippi, villages which in their time were probably as large and
+important as those of the Mandan of the last century, it is not possible
+to overestimate the value of the work of the Historical Society in
+causing to be made an accurate survey of the sites and in securing
+descriptions of the villages from some who remember them. A generation
+later this would not have been possible.
+
+HIDATSA GROUP.
+
+Two tribes are regarded as constituting this group: The Hidatsa proper,
+known to the earlier writers as the Minnetarees, and to others as the
+Gros Ventres of the Missouri; and the Crows. The Hidatsa and the Crows
+were, until a few generations ago, one people, but trouble developed and
+the latter moved farther up the Missouri to the Rocky Mountains, and
+there they were discovered by the early explorers of the region.
+
+The Amahami may have been a distinct tribe, and as such were recognized
+by Lewis and Clark, but according to their own traditions they, together
+with the Hidatsa and Crows, once formed a single tribe. Their language
+differs only slightly from that of the Hidatsa. During the early years
+of the last century their one village stood at the mouth of Knife River.
+Already greatly reduced in numbers, they suffered during the epidemic of
+1837, and later the majority of those who had survived became more
+closely associated with the Hidatsa.
+
+HIDATSA.
+
+The Hidatsa, also known as the Minnetarees and designated by some
+writers the Gros Ventres of the Missouri, a name which must not be
+confused with Gros Ventres of the Prairie often applied to the Atsina,
+lived when first known to Europeans near the junction of the Knife and
+Missouri Rivers, in the eastern part of the present Mercer County, North
+Dakota. Some are of the belief that it was the Hidatsa and not the
+Mandan whom the French, under La Verendrye, visited during the autumn
+and winter of 1738, but in the present sketch the Mandan are accepted as
+undoubtedly being the tribe at whose villages the French remained.
+
+The Hidatsa villages as seen by Catlin and Maximilian during the years
+1832, 1833, and 1834 had probably changed little since the winter of
+1804-05, when Lewis and Clark occupied Fort Mandan, their winter
+quarters, some 8 miles below the mouth of Knife River. Describing the
+villages, Catlin said the principal one stood on the bank of Knife River
+and consisted of 40 or 50 earth-covered lodges, each from 40 to 50 feet
+in diameter, and this town being on an elevated bank overlooked the
+other two which were on lower ground "and almost lost amidst their
+numerous corn fields and other profuse vegetation which cover the earth
+with their luxuriant growth.
+
+"The scenery along the banks of this little river, from village to
+village, is quite peculiar and curious; rendered extremely so by the
+continual wild and garrulous groups of men, women, and children, who are
+wending their way along its winding shores, or dashing and plunging
+through its blue waves, enjoying the luxury of swimming, of which both
+sexes seem to be passionately fond. Others are paddling about in their
+tub-like canoes, made of the skins of buffaloes." (Catlin, (1), I, p.
+186.) Among the great collection of Catlin's paintings belonging to the
+United States National Museum, in Washington, is one of the large
+village. The original painting is reproduced in plate 43. A drawing of
+the same was shown as plate 70 in Catlin's work cited above. The work is
+crude but interesting historically, and conveys some idea of the
+appearance of the town, although in this, as in other paintings by the
+same artist, the earth lodges are very poorly drawn, failing to show the
+projection which served as the entrance and having the roofs too rounded
+and dome-shaped. Bodmer's sketches are far superior.
+
+On June 19, 1833, Maximilian, aboard the steamboat _Assiniboin_, left
+Fort Clark bound for Fort Union at the mouth of the Yellowstone. Soon
+after passing the Mandan village of Ruhptare, so Maximilian wrote: "We
+saw before us the fine broad mirror of the river, and, at a distance on
+the southern bank, the red mass of the clay huts of the lower village of
+the Manitaries, which we reached in half an hour. The Missouri is joined
+by the Knife River, on which the three villages of the Manitaries are
+built. The largest, which is the furthest from the Missouri, is called
+Elah-Sa (the village of the great willows); the middle one, Awatichay
+(the little village), where Charbonneau, the interpreter, lives; and the
+third, Awachawi (le village des souliers), which is the smallest,
+consisting of only eighteen huts, situated at the mouth of Knife
+River.... The south bank of the river was now animated by a crowd of
+Indians, both on foot and on horseback; they were the Manitaries, who
+had flocked from their villages to see the steamer and to welcome us.
+The appearance of this vessel of the Company, which comes up, once in
+two years, to the Yellow Stone River, is an event of the greatest
+importance to the Indians.... The sight of the red brown crowd collected
+on the river side, for even their buffalo skins were mostly of this
+colour, was, in the highest degree, striking. We already saw above a
+hundred of them, with many dogs, some of which drew sledges, and others,
+wooden boards fastened to their backs, and the ends trailing on the
+ground, to which the baggage was attached with leather straps."
+(Maximilian, (1), pp. 178-179.)
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 44
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Original pencil sketch]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Finished picture of the same
+
+"WINTER VILLAGE OF THE MINATARRES"
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 45
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Manner of carrying basket similar to that shown in
+plate 52, _a_]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ The ring-and-pole game]
+
+[Illustration: _c._ Hidatsa group with bull-boats. At Fort Berthold,
+July 13, 1851
+
+FROM KURZ'S SKETCHBOOK]
+
+As told in the preceding section, Maximilian returned from Fort Union to
+Fort Clark, where, with the artist Bodmer, he spent the long winter.
+While near the Mandan towns he made several visits to the Hidatsa
+villages a few miles above, and learned much of the manners and ways of
+life of the people. He again spoke of the three villages on the banks of
+Knife River, "two on the left bank, and the third, which is much the
+largest, on the right bank." He continued: "At present the Manitaries
+live constantly in their villages, and do not roam about as they
+formerly did, when, like the Pawnees and other nations, they went in
+pursuit of the herds of buffaloes as soon as their fields were sown,
+returned in the autumn for the harvest, after which they again went into
+the prairie. In these wanderings they made use of leather tents, some of
+which are still standing by the side of their permanent dwellings" (p.
+395). He then described the dress and general appearance of the people
+and continued: "The Manitari villages are similarly arranged as those of
+the Mandans, except that they have no ark placed in the central space,
+and the figure of Ochkih-Hadda is not there. In the principal village,
+however, is the figure of a woman placed on a long pole, doubtless
+representing the grandmother, who presented them with the pots, of
+which I shall speak more hereafter. A bundle of brushwood is hung on
+this pole, to which are attached the leathern dress and leggins of a
+woman. The head is made of wormwood, and has a cap with feathers. The
+interior of their huts is arranged as among the Mandans: like them the
+Manitaries go, in winter, into the forests on both banks of the
+Missouri, where they find fuel, and, at the same time, protection
+against the inclement weather. Their winter villages are in the thickest
+of the forest, and the huts are built near to each other, promiscuously,
+and without any attempt at order or regularity. They have about 250 or
+300 horses in their three villages, and a considerable number of dogs"
+(pp. 396-397). Bodmer's picture of the "Winter Village of the
+Minatarres," made during the winter of 1833, is probably the most
+accurate drawing of an earth-lodge village in existence. It was given as
+plate xxvi by Maximilian, which is here reproduced as plate 44, _b_. A
+pencil sketch which may be considered as the original sketch made by
+Bodmer, and from which the finished picture was made, is now in the E.
+E. Ayer collection preserved in the Newberry Library. Unfortunately the
+drawing is unfinished but is very interesting historically. It is shown
+in plate 44, _a_.
+
+Maximilian then referred briefly to the creation myth of the people with
+whom he was then resting. The entire surface was once covered with
+water. There were two beings: one a man who lived in the far Rocky
+Mountains who made all; the other was the old woman called grandmother
+by the members of the tribe. "She gave the Manitaries a couple of pots,
+which they still preserve as a sacred treasure," and "When their fields
+are threatened with a great drought they are to celebrate a medicine
+feast with the old grandmother's pots, in order to beg for rain: this
+is, properly, the destination of the pots. The medicine men are still
+paid, on such occasions, to sing for four days together in the huts,
+while the pots remain filled with water." Such were the superstitious
+beliefs of these strange people.
+
+November 26, 1833, Maximilian, Bodmer, and several others went from Fort
+Clark to the winter village to attend "a great medicine feast among the
+Manitaries." They passed the two Mandan towns and during the journey saw
+a large stone, "undoubtedly one of those isolated blocks of granite
+which are scattered over the whole prairie, and which the Indians, from
+some superstitious notion, paint with vermilion, and surround with
+little sticks, or rods, to which were attached some feathers." The
+little party had seen much of interest on the way, and it was late in
+the day when they arrived at the village, "the large huts of which were
+built so close to each other that it was sometimes difficult to pass
+between them." Herds of buffalo having been reported in the vicinity of
+the village, a party of Indians had decided to start after them the
+following day, and planned "to implore the blessings of heaven upon
+their undertaking by a great medicine feast." This appears to have been
+a ceremony arranged by the women of the village. The structure in which
+the dance took place was not one of the earth-covered lodges of the
+town, but a rather temporary shelter of unusual shape. As described by
+Maximilian: "Between the huts, in the centre of the village, an
+elliptical space, forty paces or more in length, was enclosed in a
+fence, ten or twelve feet high, consisting of reeds and willow twigs
+inclining inwards. (See the woodcut.) [Fig. 11.] An entrance was left at
+_a_; _b_ represents the fence; _d_ are the four fires, burning in the
+medicine lodge, which were kept up the whole time. At _e_ the elder and
+principal men had taken their seats; to the right sat the old chief,
+Lachpitzi-Sihrisch (the yellow bear); some parts of his face were
+painted red, and a bandage of yellow skin encircled his head. Places
+were assigned to us on the right hand of the yellow bear. At _f_, close
+to the fence, the spectators, especially the women, were seated: the men
+walked about, some of them handsomely dressed, others quite simply;
+children were seated round the fires, which they kept alive by throwing
+twigs of willow trees into them." Here follows a description of the
+ceremony, and it is related how six elderly men who had been chosen by
+the younger ones to represent buffalo bulls, entered the inclosure. They
+came from the hut opposite and when they were within, and after certain
+formalities, were seated at _c_. The ceremony was attended by smoking,
+the pipes were "brought first to the old men and the visitors; they
+presented the mouth-piece of the pipe to us in succession, going from
+right to left: we each took a few whiffs, uttered, as before, a wish or
+prayer, and passed the pipe to our next neighbours.... The six buffalo
+bulls, meantime, sitting behind the fire, sang, and rattled the medicine
+sticks, while one of them constantly beat the badger skin. After a while
+they all stood up, bent forward, and danced; that is, they leaped as
+high as they could with both their feet together, continuing to sing and
+rattle their sticks, one of them beating time on the badger. Their song
+was invariably the same, consisting of loud, broken notes and
+exclamations. When they had danced for some time, they resumed their
+seats.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Plan of a ceremonial lodge.]
+
+"The whole was extremely interesting. The great number of red men, in a
+variety of costumes, the singing, dancing, beating the drum, &c., while
+the lofty trees of the forest, illumed by the fires, spread their
+branches against the dark sky, formed a _tout ensemble_ so striking and
+original, that I regretted the impracticability of taking a sketch of it
+on the spot."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Plan of the large Hidatsa village.]
+
+Two days after the dance, on November 28, 1833, Maximilian visited the
+chief Yellow Bear in his lodge. The interior presents an interesting
+appearance: "The beds, consisting of square leathern cases, were placed
+along the sides of the spacious hut, and the inmates sat round the fire
+variously occupied. The Yellow Bear, wearing only his breech-cloth, sat
+upon a bench made of willow boughs, covered with skins, and was painting
+a new buffalo robe with figures in vermillion and black, having his
+colours standing by him, ready mixed, in old potsherds. In lieu of a
+pencil he was using the more inartificial substitute of a sharp-pointed
+piece of wood. The robe was ornamented with the symbols of valuable
+presents which he had made, and which had gained the Yellow Bear much
+reputation, and made him a man of distinction." (Maximilian, (1), pp.
+419-423.)
+
+Among the historic village sites which have been studied and surveyed by
+the State Historical Society of North Dakota, as mentioned in the
+preceding sketch of the Mandan, was that "of the largest Hidatsa
+village on Knife river." The map made for the society is here reproduced
+in figure 12. This, to quote Libby, "shows the present appearance of the
+... largest Hidatsa village site, located just north of the mouth of
+Knife river. From the position and direction of the doorways, it is seen
+that these villages show no such large grouping as is characteristic of
+the Mandan village...." It was observed that the circles marking the
+positions of the earth lodges were much deeper in the Hidatsa villages
+than in the two Mandan sites. In the former the extreme depth below the
+"highest part of the rim was often three feet and very commonly over two
+feet," but on the Mandan sites the depressions were quite shallow. And
+"in many cases it was observed that in and near the Hidatsa villages
+were mounds of debris of varying heights, while nothing of the kind was
+seen on or near Mandan sites." (Libby, (1), p. 500.) Noting these
+characteristic features of the two groups of villages, or rather of the
+villages of the two tribes, should reduce the difficulty of identifying
+other ancient sites in the upper Missouri Valley.
+
+The several quotations already made refer to the earth-covered lodges of
+the Hidatsa, but the same people also made use of the typical skin tipi,
+although less often mentioned by the early writers. They probably
+resembled the structures used by the Crow. On November 8, 1833, when
+Maximilian was returning to Fort Clark from the mouth of the
+Yellowstone, he wrote: "At twelve o'clock we were opposite the first
+Manitari summer village, and saw, on the other side, many Indians....
+The invitations to land became more vociferous and numerous." Going
+ashore "we were immediately conducted, by a distinguished man,
+Ita-Widahki-Hisha (the red shield), to his tent, which stood apart on
+the prairie, on the summit of the bank. The white leather tent was new,
+spacious, and handsomely ornamented with tufts of hair of various
+colours, and at each side of the entrance, finished with a stripe and
+rosettes of dyed porcupine quills, very neatly executed. It had been
+well warmed by a good fire, a most refreshing sight to us. We took our
+seats around it, with the numerous family, the brother and uncle of the
+chief, young men, women, and children. The chief had rather a long
+beard, like the Punca chief, Shudegacheh, and his right breast was
+tattooed with black stripes.... A large dish of boiled maize and beans
+was immediately set before us; it was very tender and well dressed, and
+three of us eat out of the dish with spoons made of the horn of buffalo,
+or bighorn; after which the red Dacota pipe went round." (Maximilian;
+(1), p. 316.) This must have been a beautiful example of the
+buffalo-skin tipi, new and white, decorated with quillwork and tufts of
+hair.
+
+Continuing down the Missouri to Fort Clark they passed women in their
+"round leather boats," and saw others, "proceeding towards the river,
+with their boats hanging on their heads and down their backs."
+
+An example of a "bull-boat" and paddle is shown in plate 35, _b_. It was
+collected among the Hidatsa and is now preserved in the collection of
+the National Museum. It is a specimen of great interest and rarity,
+though once so extensively used by the tribes of the Missouri Valley.
+Several boats of this sort are shown by Bodmer in his picture of the
+Mandan village (pl. 39), and Kurz likewise left many drawings of these
+peculiar craft (pl. 45, _c_).
+
+In addition to the several forms of structures already mentioned, the
+Hidatsa evidently erected a very secure temporary lodge when away from
+their villages on hunting trips. On November 7, 1833, when descending
+the Missouri, and just before arriving at Fort Clark, Maximilian wrote:
+"Our breakfast was prepared at nine o'clock, when we lay to on the north
+bank, in a narrow strip of forest, where we found some old Indian
+hunting lodges, built, in a conical form, of dry timber. They had,
+doubtless, been left by the Manitaries, who had come thus far on their
+hunting excursions. The lower part of the huts, or lodges, was covered
+with the bark of trees; the entrance was square, and bones were
+scattered in all directions. We proceeded with a bleak, high wind, saw
+the singular clay tops of the hills, and, in the forest, the stages made
+of poles, where the Indian hunters dry the flesh of the animals they
+have taken in the chase. About twelve o'clock we came to the spot where
+some stakes indicated the former site of a Mandan village.... We are now
+in the centre of the territory of the Manitaries." (Maximilian, (1), pp.
+314-315.) Probably the danger of attack by their enemies made necessary
+the erection of these comparatively secure shelters.
+
+About the year 1845 many Hidatsa removed from the vicinity of Knife
+River and reared a new village not far from Fort Berthold, some 60 miles
+up the Missouri from old Fort Clark. They were joined from time to time
+by other members of their tribe, and also by many of the remaining
+Mandan. In 1862 the Arikara became the third tribe to settle near Fort
+Berthold. But in 1850 the Arikara continued to occupy the old Mandan
+town just below Fort Clark, the large village of earth lodges so often
+visited and mentioned by the explorers and traders during the early
+years of the last century. It is quite evident the new settlement of the
+Hidatsa did not differ in appearance from the old Mandan town, the later
+home of the Arikara, and on June 13, 1850, Culbertson wrote from Fort
+Berthold: "The village, with its mud lodges, differs nothing in looks
+from the Ree village described yesterday, except in one particular, that
+is, the inhabitants are now engaged in surrounding it with pickets. The
+logs are well prepared and are all up except on the west side; a bastion
+with loop holes is placed in the middle of each side. This picket is of
+course to protect the inmates against enemies by whom they are
+frequently attacked." (Culbertson, (1), pp. 118-119.) This is a most
+interesting reference. Could this palisade have been the one to which
+Matthews alluded as having stood until 1865? The manner of constructing
+the palisade, with "a bastion ... in the middle of each side," will
+tend to recall the similar arrangement as indicated on the drawing of
+the ancient Mahican village about two centuries before. (Bushnell, (1),
+p. 26.)
+
+In the autumn of 1853, just 20 years after Maximilian was among the
+Hidatsa, an officer passed down the Missouri from Fort Benton to St.
+Louis, thence to continue to Washington, where he arrived November 21.
+In his journal are several brief references to the Hidatsa, or, as he
+designated the tribe, the Gros Ventres. To quote from the journal:
+"October 8 ... a fine region, full of game, and occasionally speaking a
+hunting party of Gros Ventres out after buffalo." The next day the small
+party arrived at Fort Berthold, late in the afternoon. Then, so the
+journal continues: "We received many visits from the Gros Ventres, and
+gave them a few presents. The Gros Ventres have a large village of mud
+houses--very unsightly outside, but within warm and comfortable." The
+following morning, October 10, 1853, "I visited some of the lodges of
+the Gros Ventres, and found them exceedingly comfortable and capable of
+accommodating comfortably a hundred persons. One part of the lodge is
+appropriated to the horses, dogs, cattle, and chickens, and another to
+their own sleeping apartments. They all seemed to live sociably and
+comfortable together during the long cold winters of this cold
+latitude.... We left Fort Berthold early; but, before we had advanced
+far, were driven ashore by a strong wind, which continued throughout the
+day. The smoke from the burning prairies is so dense as to almost hide
+the sun. The fires, burning in every direction, present at night a
+beautiful and magnificent, though terrible appearance." (Saxton, (1),
+pp. 264-265.) What a vivid, though brief, description of conditions in
+the Upper Missouri Valley when all was in a primitive state.
+
+During the years following the visits of Catlin and Maximilian many
+changes took place in the native villages standing on the banks of the
+upper Missouri and its tributaries. Writing of a period about 40 years
+after Maximilian's stay among the Mandan and Hidatsa, the winter of
+1833-34, Dr. Matthews said: "The Hidatsa, Minnetaree, or Grosventre
+Indians, are one of the three tribes which at present inhabit the
+permanent village at Fort Berthold, Dakota Territory, and hunt on the
+waters of the Upper Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers, in Northwestern
+Dakota and Eastern Montana." Describing the village, he continued: "The
+village consists of a number of houses built very closely together,
+without any attempt at regularity of position. The doors face in every
+possible direction; and there is great uniformity in the appearance of
+the lodges; so it is a very difficult matter to find one's way among
+them." In a footnote to this paragraph is given the number of structures
+standing there in the year 1872. The note reads: In the fall of 1872,
+Dr. C. E. McChesney, then physician at the Berthold agency, counted,
+with great care, the buildings in the village and, in a letter, gave me
+the following results:
+
+  Old-style (round) lodges of Rees                         43
+  Log-cabins of Rees                                       28
+                                                          ---
+      Total number of houses of Rees                       71
+
+  Old-style lodges of Grosventres and Mandans              35
+  Log-cabins of Grosventres and Mandans                    69
+                                                          ---
+      Total number of houses of Grosventres and Mandans   104
+
+      Total of houses in village                          175
+
+The note states that "owing to the stupidity of the interpreter" it was
+not possible to separate the Grosventres from the Mandans, which was to
+be regretted.
+
+The "old-style lodges" were the earth-covered lodges, and Matthews
+follows with an excellent description of how they were constructed. He
+tells of the building of the frame, "covered with willows, hay, and
+earth," and over the opening in the center of the top "of many of the
+lodges are placed frames of wicker-work, on which skins are spread to
+the windward in stormy weather to keep the lodges from getting smoky.
+Sometimes bull-boats are used for this purpose." (Matthews, (1), pp.
+3-6.) A comment on the work of the early artists is worthy of being
+mentioned at this time: "Prince Maximilian's artist [Karl Bodmer]
+usually sketches the lodge very correctly; but Mr. Catlin invariably
+gives an incorrect representation of its exterior. Whenever he depicts a
+Mandan, Arickaree, or Minnetaree lodge, he makes it appear as an almost
+exact hemisphere, and always omits the entry." (Op. cit., p. 6.)
+
+Game, especially the buffalo, was becoming less plentiful in the
+vicinity of the villages, and Matthews told how, "Every winter, until
+1866, the Indians left their permanent village, and, moving some
+distance up the Missouri Valley, built temporary quarters, usually in
+the center of heavy forests and in the neighborhood of buffalo.... The
+houses of the winter-villages resembled much the log-cabins of our own
+western pioneers. They were neatly built, very warm, had regular
+fire-places and chimneys built of sticks and mud, and square holes in
+the roofs for the admission of light." About that time some cabins of
+this sort were erected "in the permanent village at Fort Berthold; every
+year since, they are becoming gradually more numerous and threaten to
+eventually supplant the original earth-covered lodges." And in 1877
+"game has recently become very scarce in their country, they are obliged
+to travel immense distances, and almost constantly, when they go out on
+their winter-hunts. Requiring, therefore, movable habitations, they take
+with them, on their journeys, the ordinary skin-lodges, or 'tepees,'
+such as are used by the Dakotas, Assiniboines, and other nomadic tribes
+of the region." (Op. cit., pp. 6-7.)
+
+Matthews's description of the caches prepared by the tribes with whom he
+was so closely associated is most interesting, and it tends to explain
+the origin and use of the numerous pits often discovered in the vicinity
+of ancient village sites east of the Mississippi. He wrote: "The
+numerous _caches_, or pits, for storing grain, are noteworthy objects in
+the village. In summer, when they are not in use, they are often left
+open, or are carelessly covered, and may entrap the unwary stroller.
+When these Indians have harvested their crops, and before they start on
+their winter-hunt, they dig their _caches_, or clear out those dug in
+previous years. A _cache_ is a cellar, usually round, with a small
+opening above, barely large enough to allow a person to descend; when
+finished, it looks much like an ordinary round cistern. Reserving a
+small portion of corn, dried squash, etc., for winter use, they deposit
+the remainder in these subterranean store-houses, along with
+household-utensils, and other articles of value which they wish to leave
+behind. They then fill up the orifices with earth, which they trample
+down and rake over; thus obliterating every trace of the excavation.
+Some _caches_ are made under the floors of the houses, others outside,
+in various parts of the village-grounds; in each case, the distance and
+direction from some door, post, bedstead, fire-place, or other object is
+noted, so that the stores may be found on the return of the owners in
+the spring. Should an enemy enter the village while it is temporarily
+deserted, the goods are safe from fire and theft. This method of
+secreting property has been in use among many tribes, has been adopted
+by whites living on the plains, and is referred to in the works of many
+travelers." (Op. cit., pp. 8-9.)
+
+Such were the characteristic features of the Hidatsa villages.
+
+CROWS.
+
+Before the separation of the Crows from the Hidatsa they may have
+occupied permanent villages of earth-covered lodges, such as the latter
+continued to erect and use until very recent years. But after the
+separation the Crows moved into the mountains, the region drained by the
+upper tributaries of the Missouri, and there no longer built permanent
+structures but adopted the skin tipi, so easily erected and transported
+from place to place. Many of their tipis were very large, beautifully
+made and decorated, and were evidently not surpassed in any manner by
+the similar structures constructed by other tribes of the Upper Missouri
+Valley.
+
+During the summer of 1805 Francois Antoine Larocque, a clerk attached to
+the Upper Red River Department of the Compagnie du Nord-Ouest, visited
+the Crows and in his journal recorded much of interest respecting the
+manners of the people. Larocque had, during the winter of 1804-05,
+remained near the Mandan and Hidatsa villages, and thus met Captains
+Lewis and Clark in their winter encampment. A large party of the Crows,
+the Rocky Mountain Indians of the journal, came to the Hidatsa villages
+on Knife River. There they were met by Larocque, with whom they departed
+for their distant country, on Saturday, June 29, 1805. His narrative
+contains a brief reference to the people. He wrote: "This nation known
+among the Sioux by the name of Crow Indians inhabit the eastern part of
+the Rocky Mountains at the head of the River aux Roches Jaunes (which is
+Known by the Kinistinaux and Assiniboines by the name of River a la
+Biche, from the great number of elks with which all the Country along it
+abounds) and its Branches and Close to the head of the Missouri.
+
+"There are three principal tribes of them whose names in their own
+language are _Apsarechas_, _Keetheresas_ and _Ashcabcaber_, and these
+tribes are again divided into many other small ones which at present
+consist but of a few people each, as they are the remainder of a
+numerous people who were reduced to their present number by the ravage
+of the Small Pox, which raged among them for many years successively and
+as late as three years ago. They told me they counted 2000 Lodges or
+tents in their Camp when all together before the Small Pox had infected
+them. At present their whole number consist of about 2400 persons
+dwelling in 300 tents and are able to raise 600 Wariors like the Sioux
+and Assiniboines. They wander about in Leather tents and remain where
+there are Buffaloes and Elks. After having remained a few days in one
+place so that game is not more so plentiful as it was they flit to
+another place where there are Buffaloes or deers and so on all the year
+around. Since the great decrease of their numbers they generally dwell
+all together and flit at the same time and as long as it is possible for
+them to live when together they seldom part." (Larocque, (1), pp.
+55-56.) The narrative continues: "They live upon Buffaloes & Deer, a
+very few of them eat Bears or Beaver flesh, but when compelled by
+hunger; they eat no fish." The Crows were at that time in their
+primitive condition. "They have never had any traders with them, they
+get their battle Guns, ammunitions etc. from the Mandans & Big Bellys in
+exchange for horses, Robes, Leggings & shirts, they likewise purchase
+corn, Pumpkins & tobacco from the Big Bellys as they do not cultivate
+the ground."
+
+Unfortunately, Larocque did not describe the appearance of the tipis,
+but such information was supplied by later writers.
+
+Catlin visited the Crows during the summer of 1832 and saw many who
+frequented Fort Union, at the mouth of the Yellowstone, during his stay
+at that post. He wrote at that time: "The Crows who live on the head
+waters of Yellow Stone, and extend from this neighborhood also to the
+base of the Rocky Mountains, are similar ... to the Blackfeet: roaming
+about a great part of the year." And describing their habitations, he
+said: "The Crows, of all the tribes in this region, or on the Continent,
+make the most beautiful lodge ... they construct them as the Sioux do,
+and make them of the same material; yet they oftentimes dress the skins
+of which they are composed almost as white as linen, and beautifully
+garnish them with porcupine quills, and paint and ornament them in such
+a variety of ways, as renders them exceedingly picturesque and agreeable
+to the eye. I have procured a very beautiful one of this description,
+highly ornamented, and fringed with scalp-locks and sufficiently large
+for forty men to dine under. The poles which support it are about thirty
+in number, of pine, and all cut in the Rocky Mountains.... This tent,
+when erected, is about twenty-five feet high." (Catlin, (1), I, pp.
+43-44.) Catlin's original painting of this most interesting tipi is in
+the National Museum, Washington, and is here reproduced in plate 46,
+_a_. The same was drawn and given by Catlin as plate 20 in his work.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 46
+
+[Illustration: _a._ "Crow lodge." George Catlin]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Crow camp at the old agency on the Yellowstone, near
+Shields River. Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871
+
+CROW TIPIS]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 47
+
+[Illustration: A CAMP IN A COTTONWOOD GROVE
+
+Photograph not identified, but probably made by J. D. Hutton]
+
+As told elsewhere in this work, Maximilian, on June 18, 1833, arrived at
+Fort Clark. At that time representatives of several tribes were gathered
+in the vicinity of the fort. These included Crows, "of which tribe there
+were now seventy tents about the fort." Referring to these in
+particular, he remarked: "The tents of the Crows are exactly like those
+of the Sioux, and are set up without any regular order. On the poles,
+instead of scalps, there were small pieces of coloured cloth, chiefly
+red, floating like streamers in the wind." (Maximilian, (1), p. 172.)
+Later in the day Maximilian accompanied the Indian agent to the tipi
+occupied by the Crow chief Eripuass. This he found to be of much
+interest. "The interior of the tent itself had a striking effect. A
+small fire in the centre gave sufficient light; the chief sat opposite
+the entrance, and round him many fine tall men, placed according to
+their rank, all with no other covering than a breech-cloth. Places were
+assigned to us on buffalo hides near the chief, who then lighted his
+Sioux pipe, which had a long flat tube, ornamented with bright yellow
+nails, made each of us take a few puffs, holding the pipe in his hand,
+and then passed it round to the left hand." And speaking of the tribe as
+a whole he wrote: "The territory in which they move about is bounded, to
+the north or north-west, by the Yellow Stone River, and extends round
+Bighorn River, towards the sources of Chayenne River and the Rocky
+Mountains. These Indians are a wandering tribe of hunters, who neither
+dwell in fixed villages, like the Mandans, Manitaries, and Arikkaras,
+nor make any plantations except of tobacco, which, however, are very
+small.... They roam about with their leather tents, hunt the buffalo,
+and other wild animals, and have many horses and dogs, which, however,
+they never use for food.... The Crow women are very skilful in various
+kinds of work, and their shirts and dresses of bighorn leather,
+embroidered and ornamented with dyed porcupine quills, are particularly
+handsome, as well as their buffalo robes, which are painted and
+embroidered in the same manner." (Op. cit., pp. 174-175.)
+
+During the spring of 1863 a peculiar type of log house was discovered in
+the Crow country which had probably been erected by members of that
+tribe. They may have resembled the cabins mentioned by Matthews as
+standing at the Fort Berthold Reservation nine years later. On May 2,
+1863, a member of the Yellowstone expedition entered in his journal: "In
+the timber along the river, we saw many houses built of dry logs and
+bark; some are built like lodges, but the most of them are either square
+or oblong, and among them were many large and strong corrals of dry
+logs. The Crows evidently winter along here, and, from the sign, they
+are very numerous." The following day, "We camped three miles below
+Pompey's Pillar, on which we found the names of Captain Clark and two of
+his men cut in the rock, with the date July 25, 1806.... Buffalo to be
+seen in every direction, and very tame.... No wonder the Crows like
+their country; it is a perfect paradise for a hunter.... About sundown a
+large band of buffalo came in to drink at a water-hole about two hundred
+yards in front of our camp." (Stuart, (1), pp. 176-178.) This may have
+represented a winter camp ground, with permanent huts to which the Crows
+returned from year to year. It was in the northeastern part of the
+present Yellowstone County, Montana.
+
+A very interesting description of a Crow camp is to be found in Lord
+Dunraven's narrative of his hunting trip to the Yellowstone region
+performed during the year 1874. The particular camp stood not far from
+the present Livingston, Montana. In describing the camp he wrote: "The
+lodges are tall, circular dwellings, composed of long fir-poles planted
+on a circle in the ground. These slope inwards and form a cone, meeting
+and leaning against each other at the apex; and upon them is stretched a
+covering of buffalo hides. They make very comfortable, clean and airy
+houses, and are far preferable to any tent, being much warmer in winter
+and cooler in summer. A tepee will hold from twelve to fifteen or even
+twenty individuals; several families, therefore, generally occupy one in
+common. The earth is beaten down hard, forming a smooth floor, and in
+the middle burns the fire, the smoke finding an exit through an aperture
+at the top. The portions of the tepee assigned to each family or couple
+are divided by a kind of wicker-work screen at the head and foot,
+separating a segment of a circle of about eight or ten feet in length
+and five or six in breadth, closed by the screen at either end, and at
+the outer side by the wall of the lodge, but being open towards the
+interior. The fire is common property, and has a certain amount of
+reverence paid to it. It is considered very bad manners, for instance,
+to step between the fire and the place where the head man sits. All
+round, on the lodge poles and on the screens, are suspended the arms,
+clothing, finery, and equipment of the men and their horses. Each lodge
+forms a little community in itself.
+
+"The tepees are pitched with all the regularity of an organized camp, in
+a large circle, inside which the stock is driven at night or on an alarm
+or occasion of danger. Outside the door is struck a spear or pole, on
+which is suspended the shield of the chief and a mysterious something
+tied up in a bundle, which is great medicine." (Dunraven, (1), pp.
+94-95.)
+
+A white shield supported outside a tipi is visible in the photograph
+reproduced as plate 47. This remarkable picture has not, unfortunately,
+been identified, but it was undoubtedly made in the Upper Missouri
+Valley, and from the nature of the tipis, many appearing to be quite
+small, it may be assumed that it was a party of Indians who had come on
+a trading trip, rather than that it represented a regular village.
+
+Several accounts are preserved of large structures discovered in the
+region frequented by the Crows which, although not positively
+identified, were possibly erected by members of that tribe. Thus Lewis
+and Clark on July 24, 1806, arrived at an island in the Yellowstone
+River between 5 and 6 miles below the mouth of Clark's Fork, and wrote:
+"It is a beautiful spot with a rich soil, covered with wild rye, and a
+species of grass like the blue-grass, and some of another kind, which
+the Indians wear in plaits round the neck, on account of a strong scent
+resembling that of vanilla. There is also a thin growth of cottonwood
+scattered over the island. In the centre is a large Indian lodge which
+seems to have been built during the last summer. It is in the form of a
+cone, sixty feet in diameter at the base, composed of twenty poles, each
+forty-five feet long, and two and a half in circumference, and the whole
+structure covered with bushes. The interior was curiously ornamented. On
+the tops of the poles were feathers of eagles, and circular pieces of
+wood, with sticks across them in the form of a girdle: from the centre
+was suspended a stuffed buffaloe skin; on the side fronting the door was
+hung a cedar bush: on one side of the lodge a buffaloe's head; on the
+other several pieces of wood stuck in the ground. From its whole
+appearance, it was more like a lodge for holding councils, than an
+ordinary dwelling house." (Lewis and Clark, (1), II, p. 386.) This was
+undoubtedly a ceremonial lodge, and it was probably quite similar to
+another observed a few years later. To quote the description of the
+second example: "In the country of the Crow Indians, (Up-sa-ro-ka,) Mr.
+Dougherty saw a singular arrangement of the magi. The upper portion of a
+cotton-wood tree was implanted, with its base in the earth, and around
+it was a sweat house, the upper part of the top of the tree arising
+through the roof. A gray bison skin, extended with oziers on the inside
+so as to exhibit a natural appearance, was suspended above the house,
+and on the branches were attached several pairs of children's mockasins
+and leggings, and from one of the limbs of the tree, a very large fan
+made of war eagle's feathers was dependent." (James, (1), I, p. 272.)
+
+CADDOAN TRIBES.
+
+The ancient habitat of the many small tribes which evidently later
+became confederated, thus forming the principal groups of this
+linguistic stock, was in the southwest, whence the Pawnee and Arikara,
+and those gathered under the name of the Wichita, moved northward.
+
+The Caddo proper, the name of a tribe later applied to the confederated
+group of which they formed the principal member, formerly occupied the
+valley of the Red River of Louisiana, the many villages of the several
+tribes being scattered along the banks of that stream and of its
+tributaries in northern Louisiana, southwestern Arkansas, and eastern
+Texas. Although usually included in the same linguistic group with the
+Pawnee, Arikara, Wichita, and others, several notable authorities are
+inclined to regard the Caddo as constituting a separate and distinct
+linguistic group. This may be established and recognized in the future.
+
+PAWNEE.
+
+Soon after the transfer of Louisiana to the United States Government
+several expeditions were sent out to explore the newly acquired domains
+and to discover the native tribes who claimed and occupied parts of the
+vast territory. Of these parties, that led by Capts. Lewis and Clark was
+the most important, but of great interest was the second expedition
+under command of Lieut. Z. M. Pike, which traversed the country
+extending from the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains, and reached the
+Pawnee villages near the North Platte during the month of September,
+1806. How long the Pawnee had occupied that region may never be
+determined, but they had evidently migrated from the southwest, probably
+moving slowly, making long stops on the way. As a tribe they were known
+to the Spaniards as early as the first half of the sixteenth century,
+and appear to have been among the first of the plains tribes to be
+visited by French and Spanish traders.
+
+Unfortunately Pike did not prepare a very extensive account of the
+Pawnee as they appeared during the autumn of 1806, but wrote in part:
+"Their houses are a perfect circle, (except where the door enters) from
+whence there is a projection of about 15 feet; the whole being
+constructed after the following manner, Viz: 1st. there is an excavation
+of a circular form, made in the ground, of about 4 feet deep and 60
+diameter, where there is a row of posts about 5 feet high, with crotches
+at the top, set firmly in all round, and horizontal poles from one to
+the other. There is then a row of posts, forming a circle of about 10
+feet width in the diameter of the others, and 10 feet in height; the
+crotches of those are so directed, that horizontal poles are also laid
+from one to the other; long poles are then laid slanting,
+perpendicularly from the lower poles over the upper, and meeting nearly
+at the top, leaving only a small aperture for the smoke of the fire to
+pass out, which is made on the ground in the middle of the lodge. There
+is then a number of small poles put up round the circle, so as to form
+the wall, and wicker work run through the whole. The roof is then
+thatched with grass, and earth thrown up against the wall until a bank
+is made to the eves of the thatch; and that is also covered with earth
+one or two feet thick, and rendered so tight, as entirely to exclude any
+storm whatsoever, and make them extremely warm. The entrance is about 6
+feet wide, with walls on each side, and roofed like our houses in shape,
+but of the same materials as the main building. Inside there are
+numerous little apartments constructed of wicker work against the wall
+with small doors; they have a great appearance of neatness and in them
+the members of the family sleep and have their little deposits. Their
+towns are by no means so much crowded as the Osage, giving much more
+space, but they have the same mode of introducing all their horses into
+the village at night, which makes it extremely crowded. They keep guards
+with the horses during the day. They are extremely addicted to gaming,
+and have for that purpose a smooth piece of ground cleared out on each
+side of the village for about 150 yards in length." (Pike, (1),
+Appendix, p. 15.)
+
+Although Pike's account of this interesting tribe is very brief and
+unsatisfactory, it was soon to be followed by a more complete and
+comprehensive description. This refers to the notes prepared by members
+of the Long expedition, 14 years later.
+
+The expedition under command of Maj. Stephen H. Long arrived at Council
+Bluff, "so called by Lewis and Clark, from a council with the Otoes and
+Missouries held there, on the 3rd of August, 1804," during the early
+autumn of 1819. Winter quarters were established at a point about 5
+miles lower down the Missouri and at a short distance north of the
+present city of Omaha, Nebr. This was called Engineer Cantonment, and
+during the ensuing months many Indians visited the encampment to treat
+with Maj. O'Fallon, the commissioner.
+
+Leaving the majority of the party in quarters at the cantonment, Maj.
+Long and others of the expedition, on October 11, "began to descend the
+Missouri in a canoe, on their way towards Washington and Philadelphia."
+Returning from the east they reached Engineer Cantonment May 28, 1820,
+having arrived at St. Louis April 24, "from Philadelphia to Council
+Bluff, to rejoin the party."
+
+During the absence of the commanding officers some members of the
+expedition made a short trip to the Pawnee villages, and the following
+brief account appears in the narrative on May 1, 1820:
+
+"At each of the villages, we observed small sticks of the length of
+eighteen inches or two feet, painted red, stuck in the earth in various
+situations, but chiefly on the roofs of the houses, each bearing the
+fragment of a human scalp, the hair of which streamed in the wind.
+Before the entrance to some of the lodges were small frames, like
+painter's easels, supporting each a shield, and generally a large
+painted cylindrical case of skin, prepared like parchment, in which a
+war dress is deposited. The shield is circular, made of bison skin, and
+thick enough to ward off an arrow, but not to arrest the flight of a
+rifle ball at close quarters.... The lodges, or houses, of these three
+villages, are similar in structure, but differ in size. The description
+of those of the Konzas will apply to them, excepting that the beds are
+all concealed by a mat partition, which extends parallel to the walls of
+the lodge, and from the floor to the roof. Small apertures, or doors, at
+intervals in this partition, are left for the different families, that
+inhabit a lodge, to enter their respective bed chambers." (James, (1),
+pp. 367-368.)
+
+After the return of Maj. Long the reunited party left Engineer
+Cantonment, June 6, 1820, and soon reached the Pawnee villages, situated
+about 100 miles westward, on the Loup River, a branch of the Platte. The
+narrative of this part of the journey is most interesting: "The path
+leading to the Pawnee villages runs in a direction a little south of
+west from the cantonment, and lies across a tract of high and barren
+prairie for the first ten miles. At this distance it crosses the
+Papillon, or Butterfly creek, a small stream discharging into the
+Missouri, three miles above the confluence of the Platte."
+
+After advancing for several days over the prairie, on June 10, "At
+sunset we arrived at a small creek, eleven miles distant from the
+village of the Grand Pawnees, where we encamped. On the following
+morning, having arranged the party according to rank, and given the
+necessary instructions for the preservation of order, we proceeded
+forward and in a short time came in sight of the first of the Pawnee
+villages. The trace on which we had travelled since we left the
+Missouri, had the appearance of being more and more frequented as we
+approached the Pawnee towns; and here, instead of a single footway, it
+consisted of more than twenty parallel paths, of similar size and
+appearance.... After a ride of about three hours, we arrived before the
+village, and despatched a messenger to inform the chief of our approach.
+Answer was returned that he was engaged with his chiefs and warriors at
+a medicine feast, and could not, therefore, come out to meet us.... The
+party which accompanied Major Long, after groping about some time, and
+traversing a considerable part of the village, arrived at the lodge of
+the principal chief. Here we were again informed that _Tarrarecawaho_,
+with all the principal men of the village, were engaged at a medicine
+feast.
+
+"Notwithstanding his absence, some mats were spread for us upon the
+ground, in the back part of the lodge. Upon these we sat down, and after
+waiting some time, were presented with a large wooden dish of hominy, or
+boiled maize. In this was a single spoon of the horn of a bison, large
+enough to hold half a pint, which, being used alternately by each of the
+party, soon emptied the dish of its contents."
+
+An excellent example of an old spoon similar to the one mentioned in the
+preceding paragraph is shown in plate 42, _a_ (U.S.N.M. 12259). It is
+about 10 inches in length and much worn from long use. Unfortunately it
+is not known when or where it was collected, but without doubt it came
+from the Upper Missouri Valley.
+
+Continuing the narrative: "The interior of this capacious dwelling was
+dimly lighted from a hole at the top, through which the sun's rays, in a
+defined column, fell upon the earthen floor. Immediately under this
+hole, which is both window and chimney, is a small depression in the
+centre of the floor, where the fire is made; but the upper parts of the
+lodge are constantly filled with smoke; adding much to the air of
+gloominess and obscurity, which prevail within. The furniture of
+Long-hair's lodge consisted of mats, ingeniously woven of grass or
+rushes, bison robes, wooden dishes, and one or two small brass kettles.
+In the part of the lodge immediately opposite the entrance, we observed
+a rude niche in the wall, which was occupied by a bison skull. It
+appeared to have been exposed to the weather, until the flesh and
+periosteum had decayed, and the bones had become white....
+
+"Our visit to this village seemed to excite no great degree of
+attention. Among the crowd, who surrounded us before we entered the
+village, we observed several young squaws rather gaily dressed, being
+wrapped in clean and new blankets, and having their heads ornamented
+with wreaths of gnaphalium and the silvery leaves of the prosalea
+canescens. On the tops of the lodges we also saw some display of finery,
+which we supposed to have been made on account of our visit. Flags were
+hoisted, shields, and bows, and quivers, were suspended in conspicuous
+places, scalps were hung out; in short, the people appeared to have
+exposed whatever they possessed, in the exhibition of which, they could
+find any gratification of the vanity. Aside from this, we received no
+distinguished marks of attention from the Grand Pawnees." (James, (1),
+I, pp. 427-437.)
+
+The camp of the expedition was a little more than a mile from the
+village of the Grand Pawnee, and the intervening prairie must have
+presented an animated sight, being "covered with great numbers of
+horses, intermixed with men, women, and children." Nearer the village
+were groups of squaws "busily engaged in dressing the skins of the bison
+for robes." During the afternoon many Indians arrived at the camp, men
+wishing to trade horses, the women endeavoring to trade various
+articles. And on the following morning, June 11, 1820, many groups of
+women were seen leaving the village, accompanied by their dogs, bound
+for their fields of corn situated a few miles away.
+
+The expedition next arrived at the village of the Republican Pawnee, 4
+miles from that of the Grand Pawnee. Both villages stood on the
+immediate bank of the stream. Remaining there but a short time, they
+continued on to the Loup village. Here they encamped during the night of
+June 12, leaving early on the following morning. On the morning of the
+13th many squaws were again observed making their way to the cornfields,
+with their small children. Some stopped to admire the "novel appearance"
+of the members of the expedition, many brought various vegetables,
+jerked buffalo meat and tallow to exchange for whatever they could
+obtain.
+
+"The three Pawnee villages, with their pasture grounds, and
+insignificant enclosures, occupy about ten miles in length of the
+fertile valley of the Wolf river. The surface is wholly naked of timber,
+rising gradually to the river hills, which are broad and low, and from a
+mile to a mile and a half distant." (James, (1), I, p. 447.)
+
+During the latter part of the summer of 1833 the small party under the
+leadership of Commissioner Henry L. Ellsworth reached the Pawnee towns,
+and in the narrative of the expedition are to be found many references
+to the customs of the people whose habitations were the primitive
+earth-covered lodges. The second morning after arriving at the village
+of the Grand Pawnee several members of the party walked about among the
+lodges, and at that time, so wrote Irving: "The warriors were collected
+in small knots of five or six, and by their vehement gestures, were
+apparently engaged in earnest conversation. The children were rolling
+and tumbling in the dirt; the squaws were busily engaged. Some were
+bringing from their lodges large leather sacks of shelled corn; others
+were spreading it out to dry, upon the leather of their buffalo-skin
+tents, which had been stretched out upon the ground. Others were
+cleansing from it the decayed kernels and packing it up in small sacks
+of whitish undressed leather, resembling parchment. These were then
+deposited in cache-holes for a winter's store.
+
+"At a distance from the village, a band of females were slowly wending
+along the top of the low prairie ridges, to their daily labour in the
+small plantations of corn. These are scattered in every direction round
+the village, wherever a spot of rich, black soil, gives promise of a
+bountiful harvest. Some of them are as much as eight miles distant from
+the town." (Irving, J. T., (1), II, pp. 44-45.)
+
+Later the same day a council was held at the lodge of the chief,
+attended by the principal men of the village, and it is interesting to
+read the description of the gathering of those who were to participate:
+"The lodge had been swept clean; a large cheery fire was crackling in
+the centre. The rabble crowd of loungers and hangers-on had been routed;
+and besides the family of the chief, we were the only occupants of the
+spacious building.
+
+"At mid-day the chiefs and braves began to assemble. They were full
+dressed; many of the young warriors had spent the whole morning in
+preparation, and now presented themselves, fully ornamented for the
+meeting.
+
+"As the hour for the opening of the council grew nearer, the tall,
+muffled warriors poured in, in one continuous stream. They moved quietly
+to the places allotted them, and seating themselves in silence round the
+chief, according to their rank.... The crowd continued flowing in until
+the lodge was filled almost to suffocation. As they came in, they seated
+themselves, until five or six circles were formed, one beyond the other,
+the last ranging against the wall of the building. In the ring nearest
+the chiefs, sat the principal braves, or those warriors whose deeds of
+blood entitled them to a high rank in the councils of the nation. The
+more distant circles were filled by such young men of the village as
+were admitted to its councils. The passage leading to the open air, was
+completely blocked up with a tight wedged mass of women and children,
+who dared venture no nearer to the deliberations of the tribe." (Op.
+cit., pp. 48-50.) When all had gathered the chief filled a large stone
+pipe, took a few puffs, then handed it to the members of the
+commissioner's party, who in turn passed it to the other Indians. The
+addresses were then made and the council deliberated on the several
+questions presented.
+
+The expedition moved on from the Grand Pawnee to the village of the
+Republican Pawnee, which stood on the bank of the Loup Fork of the
+Platte, some 20 miles distant from the former, with the rolling prairie
+between. Approaching the river they could see, on the far side, "a high
+bluff, on which was situated the dingy lodges of the Republican
+village." They were welcomed by the people of the village, and soon
+reached the lodge of the principal chief, Blue Coat, which they entered.
+Then "it was not long before the lodge became crowded. The old warriors
+moved with a hushed step across the building, and listened to our
+conversation." Soon an invitation was received to attend a feast at the
+lodge of the second chief. Entering that lodge, he was seen seated upon
+"a small leather mat.... Around him were lounging about a dozen Indians.
+Some, reclining with their backs against the pillars supporting the
+roof, with their eyes half closed, were smoking their stone pipes. Some
+were lying half asleep upon the clay floor, with their feet within a few
+inches of the fire; and others were keeping up a sleepy song.
+
+"At a short distance from the fire, half a dozen squaws were pounding
+corn, in large mortars, and chattering vociferously at the same time. In
+the farther part of the building, about a dozen naked children, with
+faces almost hid by their bushy, tangled hair, were rolling and
+wrestling upon the floor, occasionally causing the lodge to echo to
+their childish glee. In the back ground, we could perceive some half
+dozen shaggy, thievish-looking wolf dogs, skulking among the hides and
+bundles, in search of food, and gliding about with the air of dogs, who
+knew that they had no business there." (Op. cit., pp. 96-99.) Such was a
+domestic scene within a Pawnee lodge.
+
+A very clear and concise description of the interior arrangement and
+fittings of an earth lodge, one standing in the village of the Grand
+Pawnee during the autumn of 1835, has been preserved in Dunbar's
+journal. On October 22, after referring to the construction of the lodge
+itself, he wrote: "Within these buildings the earth is beat down hard,
+and forms the floor. In the center a circular place is dug about 8
+inches deep, and 3 feet in diameter. This is the fireplace. The earth
+that is taken from this place is spatted down around it, and forms the
+hearth. Near the fireplace a stake is firmly fixed in the earth in an
+inclined position, and serves all the purposes of a crane. Mats made of
+rushes are spread down round the fire on which they sit. Back next the
+walls are the sleeping apartments. A frame work is raised about two feet
+from the floor, on this are placed small rods, interwoven with slips of
+elm bark. On these rods a rush mat is spread. At proper distances
+partitions are set up, composed of small willow rods interwoven with
+slips of bark. In front of these apartments, either a partition of
+willow rods is erected, or rush mats are hung up as curtains. But this
+is not always the case. In some lodges the simple platform alone is to
+be seen, without either partitions, or curtains. In others there is not
+even the platform, and the inmates sleep on the ground.
+
+"In these lodges several families frequently live together. I believe
+there are as many as three different families in the lodge where I stop.
+Each family has its particular portion of the dwelling, and the
+furniture of each is kept separate." (Dunbar, (2), p. 600.) Comparing
+the two preceding accounts it is easy to visualize the interior of
+Pawnee earth lodges as they were nearly a century ago.
+
+The preceding references to the women of the villages going early in the
+morning to their fields of corn recall a note in Fremont's journal a few
+years later. He wrote when returning from the mountains, on September
+22, 1842, "We arrived at the village of the Grand Pawnees, on the right
+bank of the river [the Platte] about thirty miles above the mouth of the
+Loup fork. They were gathering in their corn, and we obtained from them
+a very welcome supply of vegetables." (Fremont, (1), p. 78.)
+
+The villages described in the accounts already quoted were the permanent
+settlements of the tribe, groups of earth-covered lodges quite similar
+to those erected by other tribes in the Upper Missouri Valley.
+Fortunately several remarkable photographs of the villages and of the
+separate structures are in existence, having been made by W. H. Jackson
+in 1871. The most valuable of the early pictures is reproduced as plate
+49. And here it may be remarked that this is a different photograph from
+the one which was presented as plate 12 in Bulletin 69 of this bureau's
+publications, and although both were made at the same time, nevertheless
+they differ in minor details. It is therefore of interest to know two
+negatives were made at that time. This was the village of the Republican
+Pawnee. In plate 50 are two of the large earth-covered lodges, showing
+the tunnel-like entrances, and with many persons sitting on the tops of
+the structures. The entrance is more clearly shown in plate 51, where a
+brush mat protects the side. This may be part of a small inclosure.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 48
+
+[Illustration: TRADER CROSSING THE PRAIRIES
+
+Page of Kurz's Sketchbook, August 28, 1851]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 49
+
+[Illustration: PAWNEE-VILLAGE WHICH STOOD ON THE LOUPE FORK OF THE
+PLATTE RIVER
+
+Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 50
+
+[Illustration: LODGES IN THE PAWNEE VILLAGE WHICH STOOD ON THE LOUPE
+FORK OF THE PLATTE RIVER
+
+Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 51
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Children at lodge entrance]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Showing screen near same entrance
+
+IN A PAWNEE VILLAGE
+
+Photographs by W. H. Jackson, 1871]
+
+In addition to the permanent earth-covered lodges the Pawnee made
+extensive use of temporary skin-covered shelters, unlike the conical
+lodge of the plains tribes. These served as their habitations during the
+hunting season, when away from their villages. A most valuable and
+interesting description of the ways and customs of the Pawnee while
+occupying their movable villages was prepared by one who, during the
+summer and autumn of 1835, lived among the people, sharing their
+primitive ways of life and thereby learning many of their peculiar
+traits. The English traveler, Charles A. Murray, whose narrative is
+quoted in part on the following pages, left Fort Leavenworth July 7,
+1835, and two weeks later reached the summer camp of the Pawnee: "and a
+more interesting or picturesque scene I never beheld. Upon an extensive
+prairie gently sloping down to a creek, the winding course of which
+marked a broken line of wood here and there interspersed with a fine
+clump of trees, were about five thousand savages, inclusive of women and
+children; some were sitting under their buffalo-skin lodges lazily
+smoking their pipes; while the women were stooping over their fires
+busily employed in preparing meat and maize for these indolent lords of
+the creation. Far as the eye could reach, were scattered herds of
+horses, watched (or as we should say in Scotland, 'tented') by urchins,
+whose whole dress and equipment was the slight bow and arrow, with which
+they exercised their infant archery upon the heads of the taller
+flowers, or upon the luckless blackbird perched near them. Here and
+there might be seen some gay young warrior ambling along the heights,
+his painted form partially exposed to view as his bright scarlet blanket
+waved in the breeze." (Murray, (1), I, pp. 277-278.) Later he described
+the manner of moving and pitching their large temporary camps: "On
+reaching the camping-place, which is selected by the grand chief (or, in
+his absence, by the next in rank), the senior squaw chooses the spot
+most agreeable to her fancy, and orders the younger women and children,
+who lead the pack-horses and mules (generally from five to ten in
+number, according to the size or wealth of the family), to halt; but in
+making this choice of ground, she is restricted within certain limits,
+and those of no great extent, as the Pawnees observe great regularity
+both in their line of march and encampment. I could not ascertain
+whether these regulations were invariable, or made at the pleasure of
+the chief; but I believe the latter; and that on leaving their winter,
+or stationary, villages, he issues the general orders on this subject,
+which are observed during the season or the expedition; at any rate,
+they never varied during my stay among them.
+
+"They move in three parallel bodies; the left wing consisting of part of
+the Grand Pawnees and the Tapages; the centre of the remaining Grand
+Pawnees; and the right of the Republicans.... All these bodies move in
+'Indian file,' though of course in the mingled mass of men, women,
+children, and pack-horses, it was not very regularly observed;
+nevertheless, on arriving at the halting-place, the party to which I
+belonged invariably camped at the eastern extremity of the village, the
+great chief in the centre, and the _Republiques_ on the western side;
+and this arrangement was kept so well, that, after I had been a few
+days with them, I could generally find our lodge in a new encampment
+with very little trouble, although the village consisted of about six
+hundred of them, all nearly similar in appearance.
+
+"They first unpack and unsaddle the horses, which are given to a boy to
+drive off to their grass and water; they then arrange all their bales,
+saddles, &c. in a semi-circular form, and pile them from two to three
+feet high. Around the exterior of these they drive into the ground eight
+or ten curved willow rods, from two to three feet distant from each
+other, but all firmly bound by leather thongs to four large upright
+poles, that form the front of the lodge, and along which run transverse
+willow rods, to which the extremities of the curved ones are fastened.
+When the frame, or skeleton, is thus finished, they stretch the cover
+(made of buffalo hides, sewed together) tight over the whole, leaving an
+aperture for entrance and egress in the centre of the front; and in fine
+weather, the whole front open.
+
+"This is an accurate description of a Pawnee summer-lodge; but, of
+course, the dimensions vary according to the number and wealth of the
+families residing therein; in some tents I have observed the front
+consisting of six or eight upright poles, to which were fixed more
+skins, for additional shelter or shade. On the grass, in the interior,
+are spread mats, made by the squaws from reeds, and skins of buffalo or
+bear.
+
+"From the foregoing it will be easily understood that the bales of
+cloth, maize, skins, and whatever other property they possess, form the
+back of the tent. Each occupant, from the chief to the lowest in rank,
+has his assigned place; sleeps upon his own blanket, or buffalo robe;
+has his bow and quiver suspended over his head; his saddle, bridle, and
+laryettes, &c. behind his back: and thus little confusion prevails,
+although each individual has only just room to sit or lie at full
+length.
+
+"Before the tent a kind of shield is raised, upon three poles
+pyramidically placed, on which is the device of the chief, by which his
+tent is to be recognised.... In the interior of the tent, and generally
+about the centre of its concave, is suspended the 'medicine,' which is
+most carefully and religiously preserved.... Under the head of
+'medicine,' the Indians comprise not only its own healing department,
+but everything connected with religion of superstition; all omens, all
+relics, and everything extraordinary or supernatural." (Murray (1), I,
+pp. 282-286.)
+
+Late in the year 1835 Murray left the Pawnee encampment to return to
+Fort Leavenworth, but, meeting with an accident, was not able to proceed
+on his way. The Pawnee were likewise moving, and in moving over the
+prairie made a well-defined trail. Retracing his way, and seeking the
+Pawnee, he wrote: "About ten o'clock on the following day we found the
+great Pawnee trail, and, following it, came at mid-day to the place
+where they had camped the night before, and a most hideous spectacle did
+it present; the grass was all trodden into mud--hundreds of circular
+heaps of charred wood attested the number of fires that had been used;
+and the whole plain was strewed with split heads, bare skeletons, and
+scattered entrails of buffalo; while some hundreds of the half-starved
+Pawnee dogs who had lingered behind the village were endeavoring to
+dispute some morsels of the carcasses with the gaunt snarling wolves,
+who were stripping the scanty relics of skin and sinew which are left by
+Indian butchery attached to the bone." (Op. cit., p. 438.) This vivid
+description of the appearance of an abandoned camp site quite agrees
+with a reference made by Dr. Grinnell a few years ago. Writing of events
+during the year 1853, and alluding to an abandoned camp of the Pawnee
+that year discovered by the Cheyenne, he said: "It was a big camp; and
+there were many fires. It seemed as if the Pawnees had been camped there
+killing buffalo for a long time. There were still many dogs in the camp.
+On one side was a well-beaten trail which led to another camp two
+hundred yards off where a number of people had been camped, not in
+lodges but in shelters made of willows bent over, after the fashion of a
+sweat-house." (Grinnell, (2), p. 86.)
+
+These temporary and easily erected structures of the Pawnee were
+probably quite similar in form and appearance to that of the Cheyenne,
+part of which is shown in plate 14. But in the latter instance the cover
+is not formed of the primitive buffalo skin, but of canvas, or some
+other material obtained from the trader.
+
+The Pawnee had a strange method of dealing with their sick or wounded
+during the movement of a village from place to place, and, so wrote
+Father De Smet, "if, in the long journeys which they undertake in search
+of game, any should be impeded, either by age or sickness, their
+children or relations make a small hut of dried grass to shelter them
+from the heat of the sun or from the weather, leaving as much provision
+as they are able to spare, and thus abandon them to their destiny....
+If, some days after, they are successful in the chase, they return as
+quickly as possible to render assistance and consolation. These
+practices are common to all the nomadic tribes of the mountains." (De
+Smet, (2), pp. 356-357.) It is more than probable that similar grass
+shelters were constructed and used by small parties when away from the
+villages, but such structures would necessarily have been of only
+temporary use.
+
+In addition to the semicircular skin-covered lodge mentioned by Murray,
+the Pawnee evidently made use of the conical tipi. This was described by
+Dunbar when he wrote: "Their movable dwellings consist of from 12 to 20
+poles (the number varying with the size) about 16 feet long, and a
+covering. Three of these poles are tied together near the top and set
+up. The string, with which these poles are tied together, is so long
+that one end of it reaches to the ground, when the poles are set up. The
+other poles are now successively set up save one, the top of each
+leaning against the three, first set up, and forming with them a circle.
+The string is then wound round them all at the top several times and
+fastened. The cover is tied to the top of the remaining pole by which it
+is raised up, then is spread round them all and tied together on the
+opposite side, where is the entrance formed by leaving the cover untied
+about three feet from the ground. Over the entrance the skin of a bear
+or some other animal is suspended. The tents are always set up with
+their entrances toward the east. At the top the smoke passes out among
+the poles, a place being left for that purpose. The fire place, crane and
+hearth are similar to those in their fixed habitations. The furniture is
+placed back next the cover. Rush mats are then spread down forming a
+sort of floor. On these they sit, eat and sleep. The large tents are
+about 18 feet in diameter at the base. The tent covers are made of
+buffalo skins, scraped so thin as to transmit light, and sewed together.
+These when new are quite white, and a village of them presents a
+beautiful appearance. Some of them are painted according to Pawnee
+fancy. They carry their tent poles with them during their whole journey.
+From three to six of them, as the case may be, are tied together at the
+larger end, and made fast to the saddle, an equal number on each side,
+the other end drags on the ground." (Dunbar, (2), pp. 602-603.)
+
+From these various records it will be understood the Pawnee made use of
+several forms of temporary and comparatively easily transported and
+erected structures when away from their permanent villages of
+earth-covered lodges. And what is true of the Pawnee would probably
+apply to other tribes of the upper Missouri Valley.
+
+The Pawnee, as did other tribes of the region, made long journeys away
+from their villages in quest of the buffalo, and an interesting account
+of their annual hunts, as conducted about the year 1835, has been
+preserved. Then it was told how "The Pawnees make two hunts each year,
+the summer and winter hunt. To perform the winter hunt they leave their
+villages usually in the last week of October, and do not return to them
+again till about the first of April. They now prepare their cornfields
+for the ensuing season. The ground is dug up with the hoe, the corn is
+planted and well tended. When it has attained to a certain height they
+leave it, and go out to their summer hunt. This is done near the last of
+June. About the first of September they return to their villages.
+Formerly the buffalo came down to and far below their villages. Now
+they are obliged to travel out from ten to twenty days to reach them.
+The buffalo are rapidly diminishing and will in time become extinct.
+
+"When they leave their villages to hunt the buffalo, they take every man
+and beast with them, and the place of their habitations is as desolate
+and solitary during their absence as any other spot on the prairie. When
+the time of departure arrives all the furniture and provisions they wish
+to carry with them are packed on the horses. The residue of their scant
+furniture and provisions are concealed in the earth till their return.
+As each family gets ready they fall into the train, which frequently
+extends some miles." (Dunbar, (1), pp. 329-330.) The narrative continues
+and relates many of the mannerisms of the people, and tells of their
+peculiar traits. And it is difficult to realize the great distance
+traveled during the hunting trips away from the permanent earth-lodge
+villages. Dunbar accompanied them on several of their hunts and wrote
+(Op. cit., p. 331): "The first hunting tour I performed with them they
+traveled, from the time they left their village till they returned to it
+again in the spring, about 400 miles. During the first summer hunt I was
+with them they traveled 700 miles before returning to their village.
+During my second winter hunt they traveled 900 miles, second summer hunt
+800 miles."
+
+The moving about over the vast rolling prairies of the people of an
+entire village, while on their distant hunts, covering many hundreds of
+miles, and carrying with them practically all of their belongings, with
+innumerable dogs and horses, stopping now to kill the buffalo and again
+pushing on in quest of more, constituted one of the most interesting and
+characteristic phases of primitive life on the prairies. But within a
+few decades all has changed, and now many towns and villages occupy the
+region once traversed by the roving bands.
+
+ARIKARA.
+
+When or where the Arikara separated from their kindred tribe, the
+Pawnee, may never be determined, but during the years which followed the
+separation they continued moving northward, leaving ruined villages to
+mark the line of their migration. Sixty years ago it was said: "That
+they migrated upward, along the Missouri, from their friends below is
+established by the remains of their dirt villages, which are yet seen
+along that river, though at this time mostly overgrown with grass. At
+what time they separated from the parent stock is not now correctly
+known, though some of their locations appear to have been of very
+ancient date, at least previous to the commencement of the fur trade on
+the Upper Missouri. At the time when the old French and Spanish traders
+began their dealings with the Indians of the Upper Missouri, the
+Arikara village was situated a little above the mouth of Grand River,
+since which time they have made several removals and are now located at
+Fort Clark, the former village of the Mandans." (Hayden, (1), pp.
+351-352.)
+
+The beginning of the last century found the Arikara living in three
+villages, all on the right bank of the Missouri. In the journal of the
+French trader Le Raye are brief references to the villages, together
+with some notes on the manners and customs of the inhabitants. April 22,
+1802, he wrote: "The _Ricaras_ or _Rus_ have three villages, situated on
+the south bank of the Missouri, in the great bend of the river. The
+lower village is on a large bottom covered with cotton wood, and
+contains about fifty huts." He then describes the manner in which the
+earth-covered lodges were built and refers to the structures being
+"placed with great regularity," a statement which does not seem to have
+been borne out by later writers. Continuing, he said: "The town is
+picketed with pickets twelve feet high and set very close, to prevent
+firing between them. There is one gate way, which is shut at night." On
+May 27, 1802, he left the lower village, "crossed Missouri, and arrived
+the same evening at the upper village. This village is situated on an
+Island in the Missouri, and is fortified in the same manner as the lower
+village, containing about sixty huts.... The next morning we proceeded,
+and soon left the Missouri, travelling a northwest course, in a well
+beaten path." (Le Raye, (1), pp. 171-180.)
+
+Although the preceding notes may not be very accurate, nevertheless they
+are of interest on account of the period they cover, just before the
+transfer of Louisiana to the United States, and two years before the
+most important expedition ascended the Missouri.
+
+To trace the sites of early Arikara villages as mentioned by Lewis and
+Clark, and as seen by them when the expedition under their command
+passed up the Missouri during the early autumn of 1804, is most
+interesting. On September 29 of that year they reached the mouth of a
+small creek which entered the Missouri from the south, "which we called
+Notimber creek from its bare appearance. Above the mouth of this stream,
+a Ricara band of Pawnees had a village five years ago: but there are no
+remains of it except the mound which encircled the town." This would
+have been in the present Stanley County, South Dakota. Two days later,
+on October 1, they "passed a large island in the middle of the river,
+opposite the lower end of which the Ricaras once had a village on the
+south side of the river: there are, however, no remnants of it now,
+except a circular wall three or four feet in height, which encompassed
+the town." Two miles beyond was the mouth of the Cheyenne River.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 52
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Arikara carrying basket. (U.S.N.M. 8430)]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Wooden mortar. "Witchata Inds. Dr. E. Palmer."
+Height of body 13-1/2 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6899)]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 53
+
+[Illustration: "RICCAREE VILLAGE"
+
+George Catlin]
+
+On the third day after passing the mouth of the Cheyenne they reached
+"Teal creek," and "A little above this is an island on the north side of
+the current, about one and a half mile in length and three quarters of a
+mile in breadth. In the centre of this island is an old village of the
+Ricaras, called Lahoocat; it was surrounded by a circular wall,
+containing seventeen lodges. The Ricaras are known to have lived there
+in 1797, and the village seems to have been deserted about five years
+since: it does not contain much timber."
+
+On October 6, two days' travel beyond Teal Creek, and at a distance of
+about 32 miles above it, "We halted for dinner at a village which we
+suppose to have belonged to the Ricaras: it is situated in a low plain
+on the river, and consists of about eighty lodges, of an octagonal form,
+neatly covered with earth, and placed as close to each other as
+possible, and picketed round. The skin canoes, mats, buckets, and
+articles of furniture found in the lodges, induce us to suppose that it
+had been left in the spring. We found three different sorts of squashes
+growing in the village; we also killed an elk near it, and saw two
+wolves." On the following day, after advancing about 4 or 5 miles, they
+encountered "another village or wintering camp of the Ricaras, composed
+of about sixty lodges, built in the same form as those passed yesterday,
+with willow and straw mats, baskets, buffalo-skin canoes, remaining
+entire in the camp."
+
+The baskets may have included many similar to two rare examples now in
+the National Museum, Washington, one of which is shown in plate 52, _a_
+(U.S.N.M. 8430).
+
+On October 9, 1804, after passing the mouth of the river called by them
+the Wetawhoo or Wetarko, soon to be known as Grand River, which flows
+into the Missouri from the west in the present Corson County, South
+Dakota, the expedition stopped and held a council with the Indians.
+There they remained until October 11, when "At one o'clock we left our
+camp with the grand chief and his nephew on board, and at about two
+miles anchored below a creek on the south, separating the second and
+third village of the Ricaras, which are about half a mile distant from
+each other.... These two villages are placed near each other in a high
+smooth prairie; a fine situation, except that having no wood the
+inhabitants are obliged to go for it across the river to a timbered
+lowland opposite to them."
+
+The expedition left the Arikara during the afternoon of October 12, and
+on that date in the narrative appears an interesting account of the then
+recent migrations of the tribe: "They were originally colonies of
+Pawnees, who established themselves on the Missouri, below Chayenne,
+where the traders still remember that twenty years ago they occupied a
+number of villages. From that situation a part of the Ricaras emigrated
+to the neighborhood of the Mandans, with whom they were then in
+alliance. The rest of the nation continued near the Chayenne till the
+year 1797, in the course of which, distressed by their wars with the
+Sioux, they joined their countrymen near the Mandans. Soon after a new
+war arose between the Ricaras and the Mandans, in consequence of which
+the former came down the river to their present position. In this
+migration those who had first gone to the Mandans kept together, and now
+live in the two lower villages, which may be considered as the Ricaras
+proper. The third village was composed of such remnants of the villages
+as had survived the wars, and as these were nine in number a difference
+of pronunciation and some difference of language may be observed between
+them and the Ricaras proper, who do not understand all the words of
+these wanderers. The villages are within the distance of four miles of
+each other, the two lower ones consist of between one hundred and fifty
+and two hundred men each, the third of three hundred." (Lewis and Clark,
+(1), I, pp. 92-104.) Following this, on page 106, is a brief description
+of the earth-covered lodges of the Arikara, which were of "a circular or
+octagonal form, and generally about thirty or forty feet in diameter,"
+but a rather better description was prepared by one of the members of
+the expedition, Patrick Gass, who wrote on October 10: "This day I went
+with some of the men to the lodges, about 60 in number. The following is
+a description of the form of these lodges and the manner of building
+them.
+
+"In a circle of a size suited to the dimensions of the intended lodge
+they set up 16 forked posts five or six feet high, and lay poles from
+one fork to another. Against these poles they lean other poles, slanting
+from the ground, and extending about four inches above the cross poles;
+these are to receive the ends of the upper poles that support the roof.
+They next set up four large forks, fifteen feet high, and about ten feet
+apart, in the middle of the area; and poles or beams between these. The
+roof poles are then laid on extending from the lower poles across the
+beams which rest on the middle forks, of such a length as to leave a
+hole at the top for a chimney. The whole is then covered with willow
+branches, except the chimney and a hole below to pass through. On the
+willow branches they lay grass and lastly clay. At the hole below they
+build a pen about four feet wide and projecting ten feet from the hut;
+and hang a buffalo skin at the entrance of the hut for a door. This
+labour like every other kind is chiefly performed by the squaws. They
+raise corn, beans and tobacco." (Gass, (1), p. 52.) And five days later
+Gass entered in his journal: "At 7 we saw a hunting party of the
+Rickarees, on their way down to the villages. They had 12 buffalo-skin
+canoes or boats laden with meat and skins; beside some horses that were
+going down the bank by land. They gave us a part of their meat. The
+party consisted of men, women, and children." (Op. cit., p. 54.)
+
+Two years later, on the return of the expedition, they again passed the
+villages of the Arikara, arriving opposite the upper village August 21,
+1806, at which time there was an exchange of salutes of four guns each.
+
+In 1812 Cutler wrote regarding the Arikara: "They live in fortified
+villages, claim no land, except that on which their villages stand, and
+the fields they improve." (Cutler, (1), p. 125.)
+
+It is quite evident, from the preceding references as well as from the
+observations of later travelers, that the Arikara villages were usually,
+if not always, surrounded by palisades. But to have surrounded the area
+occupied by the lodges by stout posts placed close together would have
+required some time and, with the primitive implements and methods of
+collecting the necessary number of timbers, would have been a laborious
+undertaking. However, they appear to have had another way of protecting
+their towns. This was told by a French trader who was at the Arikara
+village in 1795. During the early part of June of that year several
+Indians arrived among the Arikara and told that three Sioux villages
+"had assembled and formed an army of five hundred warriors, intending to
+attack the village of the Ricaras." Fearing this attack, the narrative
+continues: "The Ricaras have fortified their village by placing
+palisades five feet high which they have reinforced with earth. The fort
+is constructed in the following manner: All around their village they
+drive into the ground heavy forked stakes, standing from four to five
+feet high and from fifteen to twenty feet apart. Upon these are placed
+cross-pieces as thick as one's thigh; next they place poles of willow or
+cottonwood, as thick as one's leg, resting on the cross-pieces and very
+close together. Against these poles which are five feet high they pile
+fascines of brush which they cover with an embankment of earth two feet
+thick; in this way, the height of the poles would prevent the scaling of
+the fort by the enemy, while the well-packed earth protects those within
+from their balls and arrows." (Trudeau, (1), pp. 454-455.) Undoubtedly
+many embankments found east of the Mississippi owe their origin to this
+method of protecting the villages which they once surrounded.
+
+The most interesting and comprehensible accounts of the Arikara villages
+were prepared during the month of June, 1811. Two travelers that spring
+ascended the Missouri with rival parties of traders, but they were
+acquainted and again met on the upper Missouri on June 3. Brackenridge
+arrived at the village on June 12, and wrote:
+
+"The village appeared to occupy about three quarters of a mile along the
+river bank, on a level plain, the country behind it rising into hills of
+considerable height. There are little or no woods anywhere to be seen.
+The lodges are of a conical shape, and look like heaps of earth. A great
+number of horses are seen feeding in the plains around, and on the sides
+of the hills. I espied a number of squaws, in canoes, descending the
+river and landing at the village. The interpreter informed me, that they
+were returning home with wood. These canoes are made of a single buffalo
+hide, stretched over osiers, and are of a circular form. There was but
+one woman in each canoe, who kneeled down, and instead of paddling
+sideways, placed the paddle before; the load is fastened to the
+canoe.... About two o'clock fourteen of us crossed over, and accompanied
+the chief to his lodge. Mats were laid around for us to sit on, while he
+placed himself on a kind of stool or bench. The pipe was handed around,
+and smoked; after which, the herald, (every chief or great man, has one
+of them) ascended the top of the lodge and seated himself near an open
+place, and began to bawl out like one of our town criers; the chief
+every now and then addressing something to him through the aperture
+before mentioned. We soon discovered the object of this, by the arrival
+of the other chiefs, who seemed to drop in, one after the other, as
+their names were called.
+
+"When all were seated, the pipe was handed to the chief, who began as is
+usual on solemn occasions, by blowing a whiff upwards as it were to the
+sky, then to the earth, and after to the east and west, after which the
+pipe was sent round. A mark of respect in handing the pipe to another,
+is to hold it until the person has taken several whiffs." (Brackenridge,
+(1), pp. 245-246.)
+
+Bradbury, who was also present at the gathering on June 12, entered in
+his journal:
+
+"I quitted the feast, in order to examine the town, which I found to be
+fortified all round with a ditch, and with pickets or pallisadoes, of
+about nine feet high. The lodges are placed without any regard to
+regularity, which renders it difficult to count them, but there appears
+to be from 150 to 160, and they are constructed in the same manner as
+those of the Ottoes, with the additional convenience of a railing on the
+eaves: behind this railing they sit at their ease and smoke. There is
+scarcely any declivity in the scite of the town, and as little regard is
+paid to cleanliness, it is very dirty in wet weather." (Bradbury, (1),
+pp. 114-115.) Later he wrote (pp. 165-166): "I am not acquainted with
+any customs peculiar to this nation, save that of having a sacred lodge
+in the centre of the largest village. This is called the _Medicine
+lodge_, and in one particular, corresponds with the sanctuary of the
+Jews, as no blood is on any account whatsoever to be spilled within it,
+not even that of an enemy; nor is any one, having taken refuge there,
+to be forced from it. This lodge is also the general place of deposit
+for such things as they devote to the _Father of Life_."
+
+On the following day, June 13, 1811, Brackenridge "rambled through the
+village," which he found "excessively filthy," with innumerable dogs
+running about. Then he proceeded to describe the habitations: "The
+lodges are constructed in the following manner: Four large forks of
+about fifteen feet in height, are placed in the ground, usually about
+twenty feet from each other, with hewn logs, or beams across; from these
+beams, other pieces of wood are placed slanting; smaller pieces are
+placed above, leaving an aperture at the top, to admit the light, and to
+give vent to the smoke. These upright pieces are interwoven with osiers,
+after which, the whole is covered with earth, though not sodded. An
+opening is left at one side, for a door, which is secured by a kind of
+projection of ten or twelve feet, enclosed on all sides, and forming a
+narrow entrance, which might be easily defended. A buffalo robe
+suspended at the entrance, answers as a door. The fire is made in a hole
+in the ground, directly under the aperture at the top. Their beds
+elevated a few feet, are placed around the lodge, and enclosed with
+curtains of dressed elk skins. At the upper end of the lodge, there is a
+kind of trophy erected; two buffalo heads, fantastically painted, are
+placed on a little elevation; over them are placed, a variety of
+consecrated things, such as shields, skins of a rare or valuable kind,
+and quivers of arrows. The lodges seem placed at random, without any
+regularity or design, and are so much alike, that it was for some time
+before I could learn to return to the same one. The village is
+surrounded by a palisade of cedar poles, but in a very bad state. Around
+the village, there are little plats enclosed by stakes, intwined with
+osiers, in which they cultivate maize, tobacco, and beans; but their
+principal field is at the distance of a mile from the village, to which,
+such of the females whose duty it is to attend to their culture, go and
+return morning and evening. Around the village they have buffalo robes
+stuck up on high poles. I saw one so arranged as to bear a resemblance
+to the human figure, the hip bone of the buffaloe represented the head,
+the sockets of the thigh bones looked like eyes." (Op. cit., pp.
+247-248.)
+
+On June 14 they walked together to the upper of the two villages, which
+were separated by a narrow stream. They entered several lodges and were
+always pleasantly received by the occupants and offered food, which
+included fresh buffalo meat served in wooden dishes or bowls, and
+"homony made of corn dried in the milk, mixed with beans, which was
+prepared with buffalo marrow." This latter, according to Bradbury, was
+"warmed on the fire in an earthen vessel of their own manufacture."
+Later, when he returned to the same village, he wrote (p. 158): "I
+noticed over their fires much larger vessels of earthenware than any I
+had before seen, and was permitted to examine them. They were
+sufficiently hardened by the fire to cause them to emit a sonorous tone
+on being struck, and in all I observed impressions on the outside
+seemingly made by wicker work. This led me to enquire of them by signs
+how they were made? when a squaw brought a basket, and taking some clay,
+she began to spread it very evenly within it, shewing me at the same
+time that they were made in that way. From the shape of these vessels,
+they must be under the necessity of burning the basket to disengage
+them, as they are wider at the bottom than at the top. I must here
+remark, that at the Great Salt Lick, or Saline, about twenty miles from
+the mouth of the Wabash, vast quantities of Indian earthenware are
+found, on which I have observed impressions exactly similar to those
+here mentioned. From the situation of these heaps of fragments, and
+their proximity to the salt works, I am decidedly of opinion that the
+Indians practised the art of evaporating the brine, to make salt, before
+the discovery of America."
+
+It was the custom of the people of the village to gather in the evenings
+on the tops of their lodges, there to sit and converse, and "every now
+and then the attention of all was attracted by some old men who rose up
+and declaimed aloud, so as to be heard over the whole village." Within
+the village women were often seen busily engaged in dressing buffalo
+robes, stretched on frames near the lodges. Men, playing at various
+games, or sitting in groups smoking and talking; children and dogs
+innumerable. Such was the appearance of an Arikara village a little more
+than a century ago.
+
+On the 18th of June Bradbury visited the bluffs southwest of the village
+and on one discovered 14 buffalo skulls placed in a row, and in
+describing them said: "The cavities of the eyes and the nostrils were
+filled with a species of _artemisia_ common on the prairies, which
+appears to be a non-descript. On my return I caused our interpreter to
+enquire into the reason for this, and found that it was an honour
+conferred on the buffaloes which they had killed, in order to appease
+their spirits, and prevent them from apprising the living buffaloes of
+the danger they run in approaching the neighbourhood." (Op. cit., p.
+125.)
+
+An interesting observation was made at this time by Brackenridge
+concerning a temporary encampment of a small party of Arikara when away
+from their permanent, well-protected villages. He said (Op. cit., pp.
+254-255): "To avoid surprise, they always encamp at the edge of a wood;
+and when the party is small, they construct a kind of fortress, with
+wonderful expedition, of billets of wood, apparently piled up in a
+careless manner, but so arranged as to be very strong, and are able to
+withstand an assault from a much superior force." Many such inclosures
+were discovered and mentioned by the early explorers of the Upper
+Missouri Valley, and several instances have been cited on the preceding
+pages when treating of the Siouan tribes.
+
+In 1832 Catlin went up the Missouri, and when he arrived at the Arikara
+village he made a sketch of the town as it appeared from the deck of the
+steamboat. The original painting is now in the National Museum,
+Washington, and is reproduced in plate 53. This was engraved and
+presented as plate 80 in his narrative. Writing of this sketch he
+remarked: "Plate 80, gives a view of the Riccaree village, which is
+beautifully situated on the west bank of the river, 200 miles below the
+Mandans; and built very much in the same manner; being constituted of
+150 earth-covered lodges, which are in part surrounded by an imperfect
+and open barrier of piquets set firmly in the ground, and of ten or
+twelve feet in height. This village is built upon an open prairie, and
+the gracefully undulating hills that rise in distance behind it are
+everywhere covered with a verdant green turf, without a tree or a bush
+anywhere to be seen. This view was taken from the deck of the steamer
+when I was on my way up the river." (Catlin, (1), I, p. 204.) At this
+time the Arikara were very hostile to all the traders who passed and
+repassed along the Missouri. They had attacked many canoes and caused
+the death of their occupants. Fearing the outcome of their actions they
+soon left the banks of the Missouri and moved westward. One year after
+Catlin passed the villages Maximilian arrived there while on his way to
+the far upper waters of the Missouri. On June 12, 1833, Maximilian
+wrote: "Moreau's River ... is called the southern boundary of the
+territory of the Arikkaras, though they often make excursions far beyond
+it.... On the morning of the 12th our cannon, muskets and rifles were
+loaded with ball, because we were approaching the village of the hostile
+Arikkaras. We came to Grand River, called in Lewis and Clarke's map
+Wetarko River. As we here touched the bottom, we crossed to the east
+bank, and in half an hour reached Rampart River, which issues from a
+narrow chain of hills, called Les Remparts; and soon afterwards an
+island covered with willows, which, on the large special map of Lewis
+and Clarke, has an Arikkara village, of which there are now no traces.
+From the hills we had a fine prospect over the bend of the river, on
+which the villages of the Arikkaras are situated, and which we reached
+after a short run of only two miles. The two villages of this tribe are
+on the west bank, very near each other, but separated by a small stream.
+They consist of a great number of clay huts, round at the top, with a
+square entrance in front, and the whole surrounded with a fence of
+stakes, which were much decayed, and in many places thrown down. It was
+not quite a year since these villages had been wholly abandoned, because
+their inhabitants, who were extremely hostile to the Whites, killed so
+many Americans, that they themselves foresaw that they would be severely
+chastised by the United States, and therefore preferred to emigrate. To
+this cause was added, a dry, unproductive season, when the crops
+entirely failed; as well as the absence of the herds of buffaloes, which
+hastened their removal.... The principal chief of the Arikkaras, when
+they retired from the Missouri, was called Starapat (the little hawk,
+with bloody claws)." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 166-167.) The Arikara at this
+time appear to have left the banks of the Missouri and removed to the
+vicinity of the Pawnee.
+
+Fort Clark, on the upper Missouri, at the villages of the Mandan and
+Hidatsa, was erected by the American Fur Company during the year 1829.
+
+In 1837 the Mandans suffered from the dreaded smallpox, losing more than
+90 per cent of their number, and the few who survived abandoned their
+large village below Fort Clark and settled a short distance above. And,
+so wrote Hayden in 1855, "About the time that the Mandans left the lower
+village, the Arikaras came and took possession, the former readily
+consenting to this arrangement, because it placed a large body of
+strangers between them and the Dakotas, with whom, in their now feeble
+state, they were unable to contend." (Hayden, (1), p. 434.)
+
+A brief description of the Arikara village as it appeared early in June,
+1850, is to be found in Culbertson's journal. On the 12th of that month
+the steamboat, ascending the Missouri, reached Fort Clark, "a small
+fort, about one hundred feet in length on each side." Just above the
+fort was the village of the Arikara. "The village is composed of two
+hundred lodges, as near as I could learn from the interpreter, and is
+built upon the top of a bluff bank rising about seventy-five feet
+perpendicular from the water. The huts are placed very irregularly,
+sometimes with very narrow, and sometimes with quite broad spaces
+between them. A number of platforms of poles, as high as the lodges
+themselves, are interspersed among them for the convenience of drying
+meat and dressing robes. I noticed a number of squaws busily employed in
+dressing robes." (Culbertson, (1), p. 117.) The typical earth lodge is
+described, one similar to those mentioned on other pages of this sketch,
+but his account of the interior of a habitation is most interesting. He,
+with others, stopped at a large lodge, when, so he wrote: "We were
+conducted to the place of honor, opposite to and facing the door. To our
+right, along the wall, were arranged several bedsteads, rudely made,
+while to the left, a part was cut off by a couple of poles, for the
+accommodation of the horses; the chickens had a coop in one corner, but
+roam at large on most occasions, and the centre is used for a fireplace.
+The lodge was clean, airy, light and comfortable, and there was plenty
+of room for more than those, who I suppose, inhabit it. Behind us were
+hung bows with spears on the ends, and two rude instruments of music,
+made of a number of pumpkins.... Near the fireplace a small wooden
+mortar was sunk in the ground, for pounding corn. The large and high
+room appeared rather scarce of furniture." Many burials were encountered
+when passing between the village and Fort Clark, and there "were little
+patches of corn and pumpkins, generally enclosed by a slight bush
+fence," these probably being the gardens belonging to the people of the
+near-by town. The mortar, "sunk in the ground," as mentioned by
+Culbertson, was evidently similar to the example shown in plate 52, _b_,
+a form which was indicated by Bodmer in his sketch of the interior of a
+Mandan lodge, plate 40.
+
+It will be recalled that the village mentioned in the preceding notes
+was the home of the Mandan during the memorable winter of 1804-05, when
+the expedition of Lewis and Clark encamped a few miles below, and there
+the Mandan continued to dwell until after the epidemic of 1837.
+
+In later years the three tribes, Arikara, Hidatsa, and Mandan, were
+closely associated, living in the vicinity of Fort Berthold, on the left
+bank of the Missouri and about 60 miles above Fort Clark, the Arikara
+having arrived at Fort Berthold, during the month of August, 1862.
+Evidently their ways of life and customs were quite similar, and
+Matthews, in his work on the Hidatsa in particular, but in which he
+treats of the three tribes in general, said: "For cleaning the
+village-grounds, they had rakes made of a few osiers tied together, the
+ends curved and spreading. Their most important agricultural implement
+was the hoe. Before they obtained iron utensils of the white traders,
+their only hoes were made of the shoulder-blades of elk or buffalo,
+attached to wooden handles of suitable length ... as late as 1867, I saw
+a great number in use at Fort Berthold, and purchased two or three, one
+of which was sent to Washington, and, I presume, is now on exhibition in
+the museum of the Smithsonian Institution." (Matthews, (1), p. 19.)
+Several rakes of this description are in the collection of the National
+Museum, Washington. One, bearing the legend "Arickaree," which was
+obtained at Fort Berthold, is shown in plate 54, _a_ (U.S.N.M. 6353). It
+measures 4 feet 10 inches in length and is formed of six pieces bound
+together. It is also of great interest to know that the hoe which was
+sent by Dr. Matthews to the museum is perfectly preserved. It is here
+reproduced in plate 54, _b_ (U.S.N.M. 6326). Written on it is this
+legend: "Ree Indians. Ft Berthold Dacotah Ter. Drs Gray and Matthews."
+The length of the scapula, that of a buffalo, is about 14 inches. Both
+handle and blade are worn smooth from use. The specimen is one of much
+importance.
+
+It will be recalled that Bradbury in 1811 referred to the "medicine
+lodge," then standing in the center of the large Arikara village.
+Matthews, more than 60 years later, mentioned a similar structure then
+standing at the village near Fort Berthold, and said concerning it: "The
+medicine-lodge of the Arickarees is larger than that of the Mandans, and
+is used for a greater variety of ceremonies. Some of these performances,
+consisting of ingenious tricks of jugglery and dances, representative of
+various hunts, we might be inclined to call theatrical rather than
+religious. Probably these Indians consider them both worshipful and
+entertaining. It is often hard to tell how much of a religious ceremony
+is intended to propitiate the unknown powers, and how much to please the
+spectators." (Matthews, (1), p. 10.)
+
+From the various quotations given on the preceding pages it is possible
+to form a good idea of the appearance of an ancient Arikara village. A
+large number of earth-covered lodges, of varying sizes, were placed
+without order but rather close together, often with a "medicine lodge"
+in the center of the group. All were surrounded by a palisade, often
+reared in connection with a ditch and embankment. The village at Fort
+Berthold was thus protected until the winter of 1865, at which time the
+stockade was cut down and used as fuel, and it was never replaced.
+
+As late as 1872 there were 43 earth-covered lodges standing at the
+Arikara village near Fort Berthold, together with 28 log cabins.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 54
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Rake marked "Arickaree." Collected at Fort Berthold.
+Length 4 feet 10 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6353)]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Agricultural implement formed of a scapula of a
+buffalo attached to a wooden handle. Marked "Ree Indians. Ft. Berthold,
+Dacotah Ter. Drs. Gray and Matthews." Length of scapula about 14 inches.
+(U.S.N.M. 6326)]
+
+[Illustration: _c._ Parfleche box. "Crows, Montana Ter. J. I. Allen."
+Length 28 inches, width 13-1/2 inches. (U.S.N.M. 130574)]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 55
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Grass-covered structures near Anadarko]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Grass-covered lodge, about 1880
+
+WICHITA HABITATIONS]
+
+In addition to the earth-covered lodges found in the permanent villages,
+they had skin tents which were occupied when away from their towns on
+war or hunting expeditions. Like the great majority of the native
+tribes, the Arikara would move about during certain seasons of the year.
+Hayden, writing about the year 1855, referred to this custom: "At the
+commencement of the winter the Arikaras leave their village in quest of
+buffalo, which seldom approach near enough to be killed in the vicinity
+of their cabins. They then encamp in skin tents, in various directions
+from the Missouri or along its banks, wherever the buffalo may chance to
+range. They pass the winter in hunting, and return to their permanent
+village early in the spring, bringing with them their skins in an
+unprepared state, with a great supply of meat." (Hayden, (1), p. 354.)
+Such were the hunting parties often met by the traders and explorers, as
+that mentioned by Sergeant Gass on October 15, 1804. That they were
+skilled agriculturists is attested by a note referring to the time they
+were still living in the old Mandan village below Fort Clark, October
+11, 1853. In the journal of a party at that time descending the Missouri
+from Fort Benton to St. Louis appears this entry:
+
+"Arrived at Fort Clark, or Aricaree's village. It is situated on the top
+of a very high bluff on the bank of the river.... The Rees are not
+friendly to the whites, and are kept from open hostilities only by fear.
+They are a large tribe, and on the fertile meadows they occupy, raise a
+great amount of corn and pumpkins, which they exchange with the Crows
+and Dacotahs for dried buffalo meat and robes. They exported five
+thousand bushels of excellent corn this year...." (Saxton, (1), p. 265.)
+And it must be remembered that the principal implement was the primitive
+hoe, formed of a scapula of a buffalo attached to a wooden handle.
+
+WICHITA.
+
+Like the other members of this linguistic family, whose villages have
+already been described, the Wichita had two forms of dwellings, which
+they occupied under different conditions. One served as the structure in
+their permanent villages, the other being of a more temporary nature.
+But, instead of the earth-covered lodges used farther north, their fixed
+villages were composed of groups of high circular structures, entirely
+thatched from bottom to top. Their movable camps, when away from home on
+war or hunting expeditions, consisted of the skin-covered tents of the
+plains.
+
+The peculiar thatched structures were first seen and described by
+Europeans in the year 1541, when Coronado crossed the vast rolling
+prairies and reached the Quivira (the Wichita) about the northeastern
+part of the present State of Kansas. Here extensive village sites, with
+innumerable traces of occupancy, undoubtedly indicate the positions of
+the ancient settlements.
+
+In the narrative of the expedition led by Coronado, prepared by one of
+the Spanish officers, Juan Jaramillo, appears an interesting though very
+brief description of the thatched dwellings of the people of Quivira:
+
+"The houses which these Indians have were of straw, and most of them
+round, and the straw reached down to the ground like a wall, so that
+they did not have the symmetry or the style of these here [referring to
+pueblos]; they have something like a chapel or sentry box outside and
+around these, with an entry, where the Indians appear seated or
+reclining." (Winship, (1), p. 591.) Castaneda, writing of the same
+villages, said: "The houses are round, without a wall, and they have one
+story like a loft, under the roof, where they sleep and keep their
+belongings. The roofs are of straw." (Winship, (1), pp. 528-529.) This
+evidently referred to structures similar to that shown on the right of
+the lodge in plate 55, _a_.
+
+A photograph of a large Wichita dwelling, of the form mentioned, is
+reproduced in plate 55, _b_. The picture was probably made about the
+year 1880. The door in front is open, and there appears to be another on
+the extreme left, which would be 90 deg. from the former; therefore there
+were evidently four entrances. This is explained in the following
+account of the construction and arrangement of such a dwelling:
+
+"Its construction was begun by drawing a circle on the ground, and on
+the outline setting a number of crotched posts, in which beams were
+laid. Against these, poles were set very closely in a row so as to lean
+inward; these in turn were laced with willow rods and their tops brought
+together and securely-fastened so as to form a peak. Over this frame a
+heavy thatch of grass was laid and bound down by slender rods, and at
+each point where the rods joined an ornamental tuft of grass was tied.
+Two poles, laid at right angles, jutting out in four projecting points,
+were fastened to the apex of the roof, and over the center, where they
+crossed, rose a spire, 2 ft. high or more, made of bunches of grass.
+Four doors, opening to each point of the compass, were formerly made,
+but now, except when the house is to be used for ceremonial purposes,
+only two are provided, one on the east to serve for the morning, and one
+on the west to go in and out of when the sun is in that quarter. The
+fireplace was a circular excavation in the center of the floor, and the
+smoke found egress through a hole left high up in the roof toward the E.
+The four projecting beams at the peak pointed toward and were symbolic
+of the four points of the compass, where were the paths down which the
+powers descended to help man. The spire typified the abode in the zenith
+of the mysterious permeating force that animates all nature. The
+fireplace was accounted sacred; it was never treated lightly even in the
+daily life of the family. The couches of the occupants were placed
+against the wall. They consisted of a framework on which was fitted a
+woven covering of reeds. Upon this robes or rush mats were spread. The
+grass house is a comely structure. Skill is required to build it, and it
+has an attractive appearance both within and without." (Fletcher, (1).)
+
+An interesting photograph made some 30 or 40 years ago, near Anadarko,
+Caddo County, Oklahoma, is reproduced in plate 55, _a_. This shows a
+grass lodge of the usual form, and to the right of it appears to be an
+arbor or shelter, having a thatched roof but open on the sides. This
+second structure may be of the form which was seen by the Spaniards
+nearly four centuries ago, a place "where the Indians appear seated or
+reclining." It undoubtedly served as a gathering place, out of doors,
+and gave protection from the rays of the sun.
+
+WACO.
+
+On August 23, 1853, the expedition under command of Lieut. A. W. Whipple
+camped at some point in the southwestern portion of the present McClain
+County, Oklahoma, and that evening were visited by two Indians, "the one
+tall and straight, the other ill-looking. Their dress consisted of a
+blue cotton blanket wrapped around the waist, a head-dress of eagles'
+feathers, brass wire bracelets, and moccasins. The outer cartilages of
+their ears were cut through in various places, and short sticks inserted
+in place of rings. They were painted with vermilion, and carried bows of
+bois d'arc three feet long, and cow-skin quivers filled with arrows. The
+latter were about twenty-six inches in length, with very sharp steel
+heads, tastefully and skillfully made. The feathers with which they were
+tipped, and the sinews which bound them, were prettily tinted with red,
+blue, and green. The shafts were colored red, and said to be poisoned."
+(Whipple, (1), p. 22.) Unable to converse with the two strangers, the
+interpreter proceeded to interview them by signs. "The graceful motions
+of the hands seemed to convey ideas faster than words could have done,
+and with the whole operation we were highly amused and interested. Our
+visitors now said that they were not Kichais, but Huecos, and that they
+were upon a hunting expedition." Referring to the same two Indians
+another member of the expedition wrote:
+
+"The newcomers belonged to the tribe of Wakos, or Waekos, neighbours of
+the Witchita Indians, who live to the east of the Witchita Mountains, in
+a village situated on the bank of a small river rising in that
+direction. They were now on a journey to the Canadian, to meet a
+barter-trader there, but having heard of our expedition, had turned out
+of their way to pay us a visit. The Wakos and Witchitas differ only in
+name, and in some slight varieties of dialect; their villages are built
+in the same style, and are only about a thousand yards from one another.
+Their wigwams, of which the Witchitas count forty-two, and the Wakos
+only twenty, look a good deal like haycocks, and are constructed with
+pliable poles, eighteen or twenty feet long, driven into the ground in a
+circle of twenty-five feet diameter; the poles are then bent together
+and fastened to one another at the top, and the spaces between filled
+with plaited willow twigs and turf, a low aperture being left for a
+door, and one above for a chimney. A place is hollowed out in the centre
+for a fireplace, and around this, and a little raised, are placed the
+beds of the inhabitants of the hut; which, when covered with good
+buffalo skins, make tolerable resting-places. Each of these wigwams is
+generally occupied by two families; and the Wako tribe is reckoned at
+about two hundred, that of the Witchitas at not less than eight hundred
+members. These Indians practise agriculture; and beans, peas, maize,
+gourds, and melons are seen prospering very well round their villages."
+(Moellhausen, (1), I, pp. 115-116.)
+
+CADDO.
+
+The "Caddo proper," or Cenis as they were called by Joutel, early
+occupied the southwestern part of the present State of Arkansas, the Red
+River Valley, and adjacent region to the south and west.
+
+La Salle was murdered near the banks of the Trinity, in eastern Texas,
+March 20, 1687. Joutel and several others of the party pushed on, and
+nine days later, when traversing the valley of the Red River, arrived at
+a village of the Cenis. Fortunately a very good account of the people
+and their homes is preserved in Joutel's narrative, and from it the
+following quotations are made:
+
+"The _Indian_ that was with us conducted us to their Chief's Cottage.
+By the Way, we saw many other Cottages, and the Elders coming to meet us
+in their Formalities, which consisted in some Goat Skins dress'd and
+painted of several Colours, which they wore on their Shoulders like
+Belts, and Plumes of Feathers of several Colours, on their Heads, like
+Coronets.... All their Faces were daub'd with black or red. There were
+twelve Elders, who walk'd in the Middle, and the Youth and Warriors in
+Ranks, on the Sides of those old Men." After remaining a short time with
+the chief "They led us to a larger Cottage, a Quarter of a League from
+thence, being the Hut in which they have their public Rejoycings, and
+the great Assemblies. We found it furnish'd with Mats for us to sit on.
+The Elders seated themselves round about us, and they brought us to eat,
+some _Sagamite_, which is their Pottage, little Beans, Bread made of
+_Indian_ Corn, and another Sort they make with boil'd Flower, and at
+last they made us smoke."
+
+They proceeded to another village not far away, and, so the narrative
+continues: "By the Way, we saw several Cottages at certain Distances,
+stragling up and down, as the Ground happens to be fit for Tillage. The
+Field lies about the Cottage, and at other Distances there are other
+large Huts, not inhabited, but only serving for publick Assemblies,
+either upon Occasion of Rejoycing, or to consult about Peace and War.
+
+"The Cottages that are inhabited, are not each of them for a private
+Family, for in some of them are fifteen or twenty, each of which has its
+Nook or Corner, Bed and other Utensils to its self: but without any
+Partition to separate it from the rest: However, they have Nothing in
+Common besides the Fire, which is in the Midst of the Hut, and never
+goes out. It is made of great Trees, the Ends whereof are laid together,
+so that when once lighted, it lasts a long Time, and the first Comer
+takes Care to keep it up." Here follows a brief description of the
+appearance of the structures of the village, the dwellings resembling
+those later mentioned as being typical of the Wichita. "The Cottages are
+round at the Top, after the manner of a Bee-Hive, or a Reek of Hay. Some
+of them are sixty Foot Diameter." There follows a brief account of the
+method of constructing such a house. "In order to build them, they plant
+Trees as thick as a Man's thigh, tall and strait, and placing them in a
+Circle, and joyning the Tops together, from the Dome, or round Top, then
+they lash and cover them with Weeds. When they remove their Dwellings,
+they generally burn the Cottages they leave, and build new on the Ground
+they design to inhabit. Their Moveables are some Bullocks Hides and
+Goats Skins well cur'd, some Mats close wove, wherewith they adorn their
+Huts, and some Earthen Vessels, which they are very skilful at making,
+and wherein they boil their Flesh or Roots, or _Sagamite_, which, as has
+been said, is their Pottage. They have also some small Baskets made of
+Canes, serving to put in their Fruit and other Provisions. Their Beds
+are made of Canes, rais'd two or three Foot above the Ground, handsomely
+fitted with Mats and Bullocks Hides, or Goats Skins well cur'd, which
+serve them for Feather Beds, or Quilts and Blankets; and those Beds are
+parted one from another by Mats hung up." (Joutel, (1), pp. 106-109.)
+
+The preceding is probably the clearest description of the furnishings of
+a native structure standing beyond the Mississippi during the last
+quarter of the seventeenth century that has been preserved. The large
+circular structures served as the dwelling place of many individuals.
+The beds were placed, so it may be assumed, in a line around the wall,
+each separated from its neighbor by a mat. A large fire burned in the
+center of the space. In many respects the large dwellings of the Caddo
+must have closely resembled the great round structures which stood north
+of St. Augustine, Florida, about the year 1700. (Bushnell, (1), pp.
+84-86.)
+
+Brief accounts of the many small tribes living south of the Arkansas
+River soon after the transfer of Louisiana contain references to the
+numerous villages, but fail, unfortunately, to describe the structures
+in detail. (Sibley, (1), pp. 721-725.) The dwellings probably resembled
+those already mentioned as standing a century and more before.
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION.
+
+
+The references brought together and presented on the preceding pages
+will reveal the nature of the dwellings and the appearance of the camps
+and villages which stood, so short a time ago, in the region between the
+Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains. First encountered in the southern
+part of the country by the Spanish expeditions led by De Soto and
+Coronado before the middle of the sixteenth century, and by the French
+who entered the upper and central portions of the Mississippi Valley
+during the latter part of the seventeenth century, all types of
+structures continued to be reared and occupied until the latter half of
+the nineteenth century, while some forms are even now in use, although
+it is highly probable that within another generation these, too, will
+have disappeared.
+
+Various writers during the eighteenth century mentioned the tribes of
+the Upper Missouri Valley, but all accounts prepared at that time are
+rather vague, as was their knowledge of conditions on and in the region
+bordering the Great Plains. And not until after the transfer of
+Louisiana to the United States, and as a result of the several
+expeditions sent out by the Government to explore the newly acquired
+territories, did the various groups of tribes, with their peculiar
+characteristics, become known with a degree of certainty. But with the
+transfer of Louisiana conditions rapidly changed. Hunters and traders
+soon penetrated the wilderness where few had gone before. Fort Crawford,
+at the mouth of the Wisconsin; Fort Snelling, just below the Falls of
+St. Anthony; and Leavenworth, on the Missouri, were established before
+the close of the first quarter of the century. Towns were built farther
+and farther beyond the old frontier, and on April 18, 1851, Kurz wrote
+in his journal:
+
+"St Joseph, formerly the trading post of Joseph Robidoux, is at the foot
+of the Blacksnake hills, on the left bank of the Missouri.... The
+streets are crowded with traders and emigrants on their way to
+California and Oregon. Many Indians of the tribes of the Pottowatomis,
+Foxes (Musquakees), Kikapoos, Iowas, and Otoes are continually in the
+town.... In summer the _Bourgeois_, or Chiefs, the clerks and _Engages_
+of the fur companies enliven the streets.... St. Joseph is now what St
+Louis was formerly--their gathering place." Thus the Indian in his
+primitive state was doomed, as were the vast herds of buffalo which then
+roamed, unopposed, over the far-reaching prairies.
+
+In studying the various types of structures it is interesting to learn
+how the natural environments influenced the form of dwellings erected by
+the tribes of a particular section. Thus in the densely timbered country
+of the north, about the headwaters of the Mississippi and far beyond,
+the mat and bark covered wigwams were developed and employed practically
+to the exclusion of all other forms of habitations. But on the plains,
+and in the regions bordering the great buffalo ranges, the skin-covered
+conical tipis predominated, although other forms were sometimes
+constructed by the same people. The earth lodges as erected by certain
+tribes of the Missouri Valley were the most interesting native
+structures east of the Rocky Mountains, and these at once suggest the
+_Rotundas_, or great council houses once built by the Cherokees and
+Creeks east of the Mississippi.
+
+In treating of the habitations and villages of the several tribes
+references have been made, incidentally, to the manners and ways of life
+of the people who once claimed and occupied so great a part of the
+present United States.
+
+
+
+
+AUTHORITIES CITED.
+
+
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+    COCKING, MATTHEW.
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+    CUTLER, JERVIS.
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+
+    _See_ Smet.
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+    GRANT, PETER.
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
+    HARMON, D. W.
+
+    (1) A Journal of Voyages and Travels in the Interiour of North
+    America. Andover, 1820.
+
+    HAYDEN, F. V.
+
+    (1) Contributions to the Ethnography and Philology of the Indian
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+    Philosophical Society, Vol. XII. Philadelphia, 1862.
+
+    HENDRY, ANTHONY.
+
+    (1) Journal of ... 1754-1755. _In_ Proceedings and Transactions of
+    the Royal Society of Canada. Vol. I, Third series, 1907.
+
+    HENNEPIN, LOUIS.
+
+    (1) Journey of 1680. _In_ Shea (1).
+
+    HENRY, ALEXANDER.
+
+    (1) Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories,
+    between the years 1760 and 1776. New York, 1809.
+
+    HILDRETH, JAMES.
+
+    (1) Dragoon Campaigns to the Rocky Mountains. New York, 1836.
+
+    HIND, HENRY YOULE.
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+    (1) Narrative of the Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition of 1857
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+
+    HOFFMAN, WALTER JAMES.
+
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+
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+
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+
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+
+    (1) Indian Sketches, taken during an Expedition to the Pawnee
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+
+    IRVING, WASHINGTON.
+
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+
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+    performed in the years 1819 and 1820. Philadelphia, 1823. 2 vols.
+
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+
+    JOUTEL.
+
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+    Leagues through Forty Nations of Indians in Louisiana to Canada: His
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+
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+
+    (1) Wanderings of an Artist among the Indians of North America.
+    London, 1859.
+
+    KEATING, WILLIAM H.
+
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+    ... under command of Stephen H. Long. Philadelphia, 1824. 2 vols.
+
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+
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+    Louisiane. Nouvelle-Orleans, 1831.
+
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+
+    (1) Journal of ... from the Assiniboine to the Yellowstone, 1805.
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+
+    LA VERENDRYE.
+
+    (1) Journal of ... 1738-1739. _In_ Report on Canadian Archives ...
+    1889. Ottawa, 1890.
+
+    LE RAYE, CHARLES.
+
+    (1) Journal of. _In_ Cutler (1).
+
+    LEWIS, M., and CLARK, W.
+
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+    and Clark.... Prepared for the press by Paul Allen. Philadelphia,
+    1814. 2 vols.
+
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+
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+
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+
+    (1) Voyage in a Six-Oared skiff to the Falls of Saint Anthony in
+    1817. _In_ Collections Minnesota Historical Society, Vol. II, pt. 1.
+    1860.
+
+    First Expedition. _See_ James, Edwin. (1).
+
+    Second Expedition. _See_ Keating, W. H. (1).
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+
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+    the Summer of 1874. Washington, 1875.
+
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+
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+    years 1789 and 1793. London, 1801.
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+    Pacific. London, 1858. 2 vols.
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+    Philadelphia, 1855.
+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+    1839.
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+    WARREN, G. K.
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+    Washington, 1856.
+
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+
+    (1) Itinerary. _In_ Reports of Explorations and Surveys to Ascertain
+    the Most Practicable and Economical Route for a Railroad from the
+    Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean ... 1853-1854. Vol. III.
+    Washington, 1856.
+
+    WINSHIP, GEORGE P.
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+    Report Bureau of Ethnology. Pt. 1. Washington, 1896.
+
+
+
+
+SYNONYMY
+
+
+  Accancea=Quapaw.
+  Ahnahaways=Amahami.
+  Alkansa=Quapaw.
+  Archithinue=Blackfeet.
+  Aricaree, Arickarees, Arikkaras=Arikara.
+  Arkansa=Quapaw.
+  Arwacahwas=Amahami.
+  Asinepoet, Assinneboins=Assiniboin.
+  Assonis=Caddo.
+  Awachawi=Amahami.
+  Big-bellied Indians=Atsina.
+  Big Bellys=Hidatsa.
+  Canzee=Kansa.
+  Cenis=Caddo.
+  Chayennes=Cheyenne.
+  Chepewyans=Chipewyan.
+  Chippeway=Chippewa.
+  Cristinaux=Cree.
+  Dacotahs=Dakota.
+  Fall Indians=Atsina.
+  Grosventre Indians, Grosventres, Gros Ventres of the Missouri=Hidatsa.
+  Gros Ventres of the Prairie=Atsina.
+  Huecos=Waco.
+  Kansas, Kanzas, Kaws=Kansa.
+  Knistenaux, Knisteneaux=Cree.
+  Konsee, Konza, Konzas=Kansa.
+  Machigamea=Michigamea.
+  Maha=Omaha.
+  Manitaries, Minatarres, Minnetarees=Hidatsa.
+  Minnetarees of Fort de Prairie=Atsina.
+  Naudowessies=Dakota.
+  Nehetheway=Cree.
+  Ogallallaha=Oglala.
+  Ojibway=Chippewa.
+  Omawhaw=Omaha.
+  Osinipoilles=Assiniboin.
+  Otoes, Ottoes=Oto.
+  Ougapa=Quapaw.
+  Pay-gans, Picaneaux, Piekann=Piegan.
+  Poncara, Punca, Punka=Ponca.
+  Quappa=Quapaw.
+  Quivira=Wichita.
+  Rapid Indians=Atsina.
+  Ree, Ricaras, Riccaree, Rickarees, Rus=Arikara.
+  Sak=Sauk.
+  Sarsees=Sarsi.
+  Saulteaux, Sautaux, Sauteaux, Sauteux=Chippewa.
+  Sharha=Cheyenne.
+  Shoe Indians=Amahami.
+  Shoshonees=Shoshoni.
+  Soulier Noir=Amahami.
+  Stone Indians=Assiniboin.
+  Sur-cees=Sarsi.
+  Upsaroka=Crows.
+  Waekoes, Wakos=Waco.
+  Wattasoons=Amahami.
+  Witchita=Wichita.
+  Yanctonies=Yanktonai.
+  Yanctons=Yankton.
+
+
+
+
+EXPLANATION OF PLATES
+
+
+The art of photography has made it possible to preserve a pictorial
+record of the dwellings and other structures of native tribes beyond the
+Mississippi, and many early photographs, together with drawings and
+paintings by various artists, have been selected to illustrate the
+present work.
+
+
+PLATE 1
+
+One of the original drawings by Griset reproduced by woodcuts in Col. R.
+I. Dodge's work _The Plains of the Great West_, 1877. The reproduction
+is now made exact size of the original. Collection of David I. Bushnell,
+jr.
+
+Ernest Henry Griset, born in France, 1844; died March 22, 1907. Lived in
+England, where he did much of his work. In 1871 he exhibited at Suffolk
+Street. Some of his paintings are hung in the Victoria and Albert
+Museum. More than 30 examples of his work belong to the Smithsonian
+Institution, Washington. "His reputation rests on his water-color
+studies of animals, for which he was awarded prizes in London. Two of
+his best-known works are _Cache-cache_, and _Travailleurs de la foret_."
+
+
+PLATE 2
+
+Reproduction of one of the five paintings by Stanley now in the United
+States National Museum, Washington, D. C.
+
+James M. Stanley, born in Canandaigua, New York, January 17, 1814; died
+April 10, 1872. He moved to Michigan in 1835 and became a portrait
+painter in Detroit; two years later removed to Chicago. About this time
+he visited the "Indian Country" in the vicinity of Fort Snelling, and
+there made many sketches. Returned to the eastern cities, where he spent
+several years, but in 1842 again went west and began his wanderings over
+the prairies far beyond the Mississippi, reaching Texas and New Mexico.
+His _Buffalo Hunt on the Southwestern Prairies_ was made in 1845. From
+1851 to 1863 Stanley lived in Washington, D. C., during which time he
+endeavored to have the Government purchase the many paintings which he
+had made of Indians and of scenes in the Indian country, but
+unfortunately he was not successful. His pictures were hanging in the
+Smithsonian Building, and on January 24, 1865, when a large part of the
+building was ruined by fire, only five of his pictures escaped
+destruction, they being in a different part of the structure. The five
+are now in the National Museum, including the large canvas shown in this
+plate.
+
+
+PLATE 3
+
+This is considered to be one of Wimar's best works. The original is
+owned by the City Art Museum, St. Louis, Missouri. Size of canvas, 36
+inches high, 60 inches long.
+
+Charles Ferdinand Wimar, usually known as Carl Wimar, was born in
+Germany, 1828; died in St. Louis, November, 1862. Came to America and
+settled in St. Louis during the year 1843. A few years later he met the
+French artist Leon de Pomarede, with whom he later studied and made
+several journeys up the Missouri for the purpose of sketching. Went to
+Europe and returned to St. Louis about 1857. His _Buffalo Hunt_, now
+reproduced, was painted in 1860, exhibited at the St. Louis Fair during
+the autumn of that year, when it was seen by the Prince of Wales, later
+Edward VII, for whom a replica was made.
+
+
+PLATE 4
+
+One of four water-color sketches by Peter Rindisbacher secured in London
+some years ago. Size of original 9-1/4 inches high, 17-1/8 inches long.
+Collection of David I. Bushnell, jr. Twenty or more similar sketches are
+in the library of the Military Academy, West Point. One of these was
+used as an illustration by McKenney and Hall in their great work; the
+second used by them is in a private collection in Washington. Another of
+the pictures now at West Point was reproduced by wood cut and appeared
+on page 181 of Burton's Gentleman's Magazine, Philadelphia, April, 1840.
+Rindisbacher may have come to America with the Swiss colonists who
+settled in the Red River Valley in 1821, and in the Public Archives of
+Canada are six small sketches which were probably made by him at that
+time. (See pl. 6, _a_.)
+
+
+PLATE 5
+
+_a._ A scene near Fort Carlton, 1846, showing buffalo approaching a
+pound. Reproduction of a photograph of the painting by Kane, now in the
+Royal Ontario Museum of Archaeology, Toronto, Canada. Size of painting,
+18 inches high, 29 inches long.
+
+Paul Kane, born at York, the present city of Toronto, 1810; died 1871.
+After spending several years in the United States he went to Europe,
+where he studied in various art centers. Returned to Canada, and from
+early in 1845 until the autumn of 1848 traveled among the native tribes
+of the far west, making a large number of paintings of Indians and
+scenes in the Indian country. One hundred or more of his paintings are
+in the Museum at Toronto; others are in the Public Archives of Canada,
+Ottawa. Some of the sketches and paintings were reproduced in his work
+_Wanderings of an Artist_, London, 1859.
+
+_b._ Reproduction of a photograph, probably made in the upper Missouri
+Valley about 1870.
+
+
+PLATE 6
+
+_a._ Reproduction of a water-color sketch now in the collection in
+Public Archives of Canada, Ottawa. It is one of six small sketches "by
+an artist, probably Swiss, who accompanied the European emigrants
+brought by Lord Selkirk's agents to the Red River Settlement in 1821."
+Size of original, 5-5/8 inches high, 7-5/8 inches long. Although not
+signed it suggests and resembles the work of Peter Rindisbacher. (See
+note, pl. 4.)
+
+_b._ Reproduced from an original photograph furnished by the Minnesota
+Historical Society, St. Paul.
+
+
+PLATE 7
+
+_a._ Reproduction of a photograph of a painting by Kane, now in the
+Museum at Toronto. Size of original, 18 inches high, 29 inches long.
+(See note, pl. 5, _a_.) This was engraved and shown on page 7 of his
+work _Wanderings of an Artist_.
+
+_b._ Reproduced from an original photograph made near the Red River
+during the summer of 1858 by Humphrey Lloyd Hime, who was photographer
+with the expedition led by Henry Youle Hind.
+
+
+PLATE 8
+
+_a_ and _b_. Same as _b_, plate 7. Original photographs are in the
+Bureau of American Ethnology.
+
+
+PLATE 9
+
+Both _a_ and _b_ are from original photographs belonging to the
+Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul. The two small prints are mounted
+on similar cards, that of _b_ bearing the name of C. A. Zimmerman,
+photographer. The name has been cut from _a_. Both are attributed to
+Zimmerman, who, in 1869, purchased the studio of Whitney, which had been
+established some years. The negatives may have been made by Whitney, and
+although the prints are catalogued as Ojibway habitations, nevertheless
+_a_ resembles more closely the Siouan type, with an arbor over the
+entrance, and the photograph may have been made in a Sioux village. The
+dwellings are quite similar to the Winnebago structure shown in plate
+36, _a_.
+
+Charles Alfred Zimmerman was born in Strassburg, Alsace, June 21, 1844;
+died in St. Paul, Minnesota, September 23, 1909.
+
+
+PLATE 10
+
+Reproductions of original photographs by David I. Bushnell, jr. October,
+1899.
+
+
+PLATE 11
+
+_a._ This small log structure stood near the southeastern shore of Cass
+Lake, Minnesota. Several Ojibway Indians are in the picture. Original
+photograph by David I. Bushnell, jr. November, 1899.
+
+_b._ The old Ojibway medicine man, Nagwanabe, a name well known in
+Ojibway annals, is shown holding a club of unusual design which he said
+he took from a Sioux warrior many years ago, during a fight between some
+of his people and members of that tribe. Original photograph by David I.
+Bushnell, jr. 1900.
+
+
+PLATE 12
+
+_a._ Objects collected among the Ojibway. At top, a hammer formed of a
+section of a small tree with part of a branch cut to serve as a handle.
+Used in driving plugs in maple trees during the season of sugar making.
+Mille Lac, May, 1900. Bag braided of narrow strips of cedar bark. Size
+about 9-1/2 inches square. From the Ojibway settlement on shore of
+Basswood Lake, north of Ely, Lake County, Minnesota, October, 1899. Two
+tools used in dressing skins. Formed of leg bones of moose, beveled and
+serrated. Length of example on right, 15 inches. Cass Lake, Minnesota,
+1898.
+
+_b._ Section of rush mat.
+
+
+PLATE 13
+
+_a._ Wooden mortar and pestle collected among the Ojibway. Length of
+pestle about 37-1/2 inches. Reproduced from Fourteenth Annual Report
+Bureau of Ethnology, part 1, p. 257.
+
+_b._ Mortar and pestle collected among the Delaware by Dr. E. Palmer and
+acquired by the National Museum November 11, 1868. Length of pestle
+33-1/2 inches. Diameter of mortar 7-1/2 inches, height 15 inches. (U. S.
+N. M. 6900.)
+
+_c._ Birch-bark dish, type used extensively by the Ojibway and other
+northern tribes. Reproduced from Nineteenth Annual Report Bureau of
+American Ethnology, part 2, Pl. LXXIX.
+
+
+PLATE 14
+
+Reproduced from an original negative now in the Bureau of American
+Ethnology.
+
+
+PLATE 15
+
+Reproduced from the engraving of the painting by Bodmer, as used by
+Maximilian.
+
+Karl Bodmer, born in Zurich, Switzerland, 1805; died 1894. Studied under
+Cornu. He accompanied Maximilian, Prince of Wied, on several journeys,
+including that up the Valley of the Missouri. Many of his original
+sketches made during that memorable trip are now in the Edward E. Ayer
+collection, Newberry Library, Chicago. His later works are chiefly of
+wooded landscapes, some being scenes in the valleys of the Missouri and
+Mississippi. Bodmer was a very close friend of the great artist Jean
+Francois Millet. De Cost Smith, in Century Magazine, May, 1910,
+discussing the close association of the two artists, and referring
+especially to their joint work, wrote: "The two men must have worked
+together from the pure joy of friendship, for it must be confessed that
+the work of neither was very greatly improved by the other's additions.
+Bodmer would put a horse into one of Millet's Indian pictures and add
+some vegetation in the foreground, Millet would return the favor by
+introducing figures into Bodmer's landscapes." But this does not refer
+to the sketches made by Bodmer during his journey up the Missouri in
+1833.
+
+
+PLATE 16
+
+_a._ Reproduction of a wood cut on page 420 of _Wanderings of an
+Artist_. The original painting by Kane is now in the Royal Ontario
+Museum of Archaeology, Toronto, being No. 51 in the catalogue. Size of
+painting, 18 inches high, 29 inches long. (See note, pl. 5, _a_.)
+
+_b._ The original photograph from which this illustration is made is in
+the collection of the United States National Museum, Washington, D. C.
+It is not known by whom the negative was made.
+
+
+PLATE 17
+
+Reproduced from the engraving of the original painting by Bodmer, as
+used by Maximilian. (See note, pl. 15.)
+
+
+PLATE 18
+
+Both _a_ and _b_ are reproductions of photographs furnished by the State
+Historical Society of Iowa.
+
+
+PLATE 19
+
+Reproduction of an original photograph in a scrapbook, which contains
+many manuscript notes, news clippings, etc., prepared by Newton H.
+Chittenden. The book is now in the Manuscript Division, Library of
+Congress, Washington, D. C.
+
+
+PLATE 20
+
+From original photographs by David I. Bushnell, jr. 1900.
+
+
+PLATE 21
+
+Reproduction of an original pencil sketch of the Sioux village of
+Kaposia, made June 19, 1851, by F. B. Mayer. The drawing is now in the
+Edward E. Ayer collection, Newberry Library, Chicago.
+
+Frank Blackwell Mayer, born in Baltimore, Maryland, December 27, 1827;
+died in 1908. Many of his paintings represented scenes in Indian life,
+and in 1886 he completed a canvas entitled _The Treaty of Traverse des
+Sioux_, the treaty having been signed during the summer of 1851, about
+the time the sketch of Kaposia was made.
+
+
+PLATE 22
+
+Both _a_ and _b_ are reproduced from engravings of paintings by Eastman,
+used by Schoolcraft in _Information respecting the History, Conditions,
+and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States, 1851-1857_.
+
+Seth Eastman, born in Brunswick, Maine, January 24, 1808; died in
+Washington, D. C., August 31, 1875. Was appointed to the Military
+Academy, West Point, at the age of 16, and was graduated June, 1829.
+Served at Fort Crawford and Fort Snelling, where he had ample
+opportunities for studying the Indians who frequented the posts. In
+November, 1831, he was detailed for duty at the Academy and retired from
+active service December, 1863. From 1850 to 1855 he was engaged in the
+preparation of the illustrations used in the work mentioned above,
+evidently under the supervision of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs.
+
+
+PLATE 23
+
+_a._ Reproduction of a drawing made by Catlin of one of his oil
+sketches. The original painting is now in the United States National
+Museum, Washington, D. C.
+
+George Catlin, born in Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania, 1796; died in Jersey
+City, New Jersey, December 23, 1872. In the year 1832 he went to the
+then far west, and during the succeeding eight years traveled among
+numerous native tribes, making many paintings portraying the life and
+customs of the people. He went to Europe, taking with him his great
+collection of pictures and objects obtained from the Indians among whom
+he had been for so long a time. One hundred and twenty-six of his
+pictures were shown at the Centennial Exposition, Philadelphia, 1876,
+and now more than 500 of his works, portraits and scenes are preserved
+in the National Museum, forming a collection of inestimable value and
+interest.
+
+_b._ Fort Pierre, after sketch by Kurz, July 4, 1851.
+
+Friedrich Kurz, born in Bern, Switzerland, 1818; died 1871. At the
+suggestion of his friend Karl Bodmer, he came to America in 1846, for
+the purpose of studying the native tribes, intending to prepare a
+well-illustrated account of his travels. He landed at New Orleans and
+reached St. Louis by way of the Mississippi. The trouble with Mexico had
+developed, and for that reason instead of going to the Southwest, to
+endeavor to accomplish among the tribes of that region what Bodmer had
+already done among the people of the Upper Missouri Valley, he decided
+to follow the route of the latter and ascend the Missouri to the Rocky
+Mountains. But although his plans were changed he did not become
+discouraged, and on October 28, 1851, entered in his journal: "My plan
+is still for the gallery.... I shall have lots of correct drawings."
+Cholera raged along the upper Missouri in 1851, and for that reason Kurz
+was unable to remain at Fort Pierre. However, he reached Fort Berthold
+July 9, 1851. Later he continued to Fort Union at the mouth of the
+Yellowstone, where he remained until April 19, 1852. Returning, he
+reached St. Louis May 25, thus covering the distance from the mouth of
+the Yellowstone in five weeks and one day. He arrived in Bern during
+September of that year and was soon appointed drawing master in the
+schools of his native city, a position which he held until his death.
+
+During the winter of 1851-52, while Kurz was at Fort Union, a German
+artist of some ability was with the Oto and Omaha near the banks of the
+Missouri. H. Baldwin Moellhausen, late in the autumn of 1851, became lost
+on the frozen, snow-covered prairies south of the Platte, and was
+rescued by a family of Oto encamped on the bank of a small stream. He
+remained with the Oto and later returned with them to their village near
+the mouth of the Platte. From the Oto village he went up the Missouri to
+the Omaha, with whom he stayed some weeks. While with the two tribes he
+made many sketches of the Indians and scenes depicting the ways of life
+of the people. When he returned to his home in Berlin he carried with
+him the collection of drawings, and these, if found at the present time,
+would probably prove of much interest.
+
+
+PLATE 24
+
+Both _a_ and _b_ are reproductions of photographs made in the vicinity
+of Fort Laramie in 1868, during the visit of the Indian Peace
+Commission. The commission was composed of a number of Army officers who
+went among many of the Plains tribes for the purpose of gaining their
+friendship for the Government. From original prints in the possession of
+Mrs. N. H. Beauregard, St. Louis. The name of the photographer is not
+known.
+
+_c._ From the engraving of the original picture by Bodmer, as used by
+Maximilian. (See note, pl. 15.)
+
+
+PLATE 25
+
+_a._ Reproduced from a photograph of the original painting by Kane, now
+in the Royal Ontario Museum of Archaeology, Toronto. Rocky Mountain Fort
+in the distance on the right. No. 57 in the catalogue. Size of picture,
+18 inches high, 29 inches long. (See note, pl. 5, _a_.)
+
+_b._ From a photograph of a water-color sketch by Kurz. (See note, pl.
+23, _b_.)
+
+
+PLATE 26
+
+_a._ From an original negative now in the Bureau of American Ethnology,
+made by Jackson in 1871. It was probably made at the Omaha village shown
+in plate 27.
+
+_b._ A page of Kurz's sketchbook. (See note, pl. 23, _b_.)
+
+
+PLATE 27
+
+Omaha village, from an original negative made by Jackson in 1871 and now
+in the Bureau of American Ethnology. According to La Flesche, "The
+location of the Omaha village can best be described as in the southwest
+quarter of Section 30, Township 25, Range 10, in the extreme eastern
+border of Thurston County, Nebraska. The land was allotted in 1883 to
+Pe-de-ga-hi, one of the Omaha chiefs. It is about three-quarters of a
+mile west of the historic site known as Blackbird Hill, on which the
+great medicine man Blackbird was buried."
+
+
+PLATE 28
+
+Both _a_ and _b_ represent pages in Kurz's sketchbook. (See note, pl. 23,
+_b_.)
+
+
+PLATE 29
+
+Reproduced from the engraving of Bodmer's painting, as illustrated by
+Maximilian. (See note, pl. 15.)
+
+
+PLATE 30
+
+_a._ Reproduction of the illustration in De Smet's work, where the
+picture is signed _Geo. Lehman, del._
+
+_b._ Reproduced from the engraving after a drawing by Samuel Seymour.
+
+In the instructions issued to members of the expedition, dated
+"Pittsburgh, March 31, 1819," Major Long stated: "Mr. Seymour, as
+painter for the expedition, will furnish sketches of landscapes,
+whenever we meet with any distinguished for their beauty and grandeur.
+He will also paint miniature likenesses, or portraits if required, of
+distinguished Indians, and exhibit groups of savages engaged in
+celebrating their festivals or sitting in council, and in general
+illustrate any subject, that may be deemed appropriate in his art."
+
+
+PLATE 31
+
+Reproduced from a photograph in the Chittenden scrapbook. (See note, pl.
+19.)
+
+
+PLATE 32
+
+_a._ From an original photograph furnished by Francis La Flesche.
+
+_b._ Reproduced from an illustration in Transactions of the Kansas State
+Historical Society, 1907-1908, Vol. X. Topeka, 1908.
+
+
+PLATE 33
+
+Reproduced from an engraving of the original drawing by Samuel Seymour.
+(See note, pl. 30, _b_.)
+
+
+PLATE 34
+
+Specimens in the United States National Museum.
+
+
+PLATE 35
+
+_a._ After original drawing by Friedrich Kurz. (See note, pl. 23, _b_.)
+
+_b._ Photograph of specimen now in the United States National Museum.
+
+
+PLATE 36
+
+Both _a_ and _b_ are reproduced from original photographs in the United
+States National Museum, Washington. It is not known by whom the
+negatives were made.
+
+
+PLATE 37
+
+From a photograph made about the year 1900, furnished by Miss Alice C.
+Fletcher. The structures stood near the bank of the Missouri, north of
+the Omahas. The photograph was reproduced as plate 18 in the
+Twenty-seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology.
+
+
+PLATE 38
+
+_a._ From the drawing by Catlin of the original painting. This is No.
+503 in Catlin's Catalogue (London, 1848), where it is described as "The
+Interior of a Mandan Lodge, showing the manner in which it is
+constructed of poles and covered with dirt. The chief is seen smoking
+his pipe, and his family grouped around him."
+
+_b._ After the original painting in the National Museum, Washington.
+This is the fourth and last of Catlin's paintings representing different
+scenes during the remarkable ceremony by the Mandan. No. 507 in the
+Catalogue, where it is referred to as "The Last Race."
+
+George Catlin. (See note, pl. 23, _a_.)
+
+
+PLATE 39
+
+From the engraving of Bodmer's painting used by Maximilian. (See note,
+pl. 15.)
+
+
+PLATE 40
+
+Reproduced from the engraving of Bodmer's painting as used by
+Maximilian. (See note, pl. 15.)
+
+
+PLATE 41
+
+Two wooden bowls and a pottery vessel collected among the Mandan.
+Specimens in the United States National Museum.
+
+
+PLATE 42
+
+Examples of spoons, one made of a buffalo horn, the other formed from a
+horn of a mountain sheep, now in the United States National Museum.
+
+
+PLATE 43
+
+Reproduction of the original painting by Catlin, now in the United
+States National Museum, Washington. It is No. 383 in Catlin's Catalogue,
+described as "Minatarree Village, earth-covered lodges, on Knife River,
+1,810 miles above St. Louis."
+
+George Catlin. (See note, pl. 23, _a_.)
+
+
+PLATE 44
+
+_a._ Original pencil sketch by Bodmer of the finished picture shown in
+_b_. The sketch is now in the Edward E. Ayer collection, Newberry
+Library, Chicago.
+
+_b._ Reproduction of a photograph of the engraving as used by
+Maximilian.
+
+
+PLATE 45
+
+After original sketches by Friedrich Kurz. (See note, pl. 23, _b_.)
+
+
+PLATE 46
+
+_a._ Reproduction of the original painting by Catlin, now in the United
+States National Museum, Washington. It is mentioned as No. 491 in
+Catlin's Catalogue and described as a "Crow Lodge, of twenty-five
+buffalo-skins." A drawing made from the painting appeared as plate 20 in
+Vol. I of Catlin's work.
+
+_b._ From the original negative by Jackson now in the Bureau of American
+Ethnology.
+
+
+PLATE 47
+
+A rather crude woodcut, made from this photograph, was used in
+Dunraven's book, _The Great Divide_. Unfortunately it is not known when
+or by whom this most interesting negative was made, but it was probably
+the work of J. D. Hutton, a member of the Raynolds party during the
+exploration of the Yellowstone Valley, 1859-1860. Although the Raynolds
+journal is in the War Department in Washington, there is no record or
+list of the photographs, many of which are known to have been made
+during the journey. A number of Hutton's photographs were reproduced by
+Hayden in his work _Contributions to the Ethnography and Philology of
+the Indian Tribes of the Missouri Valley_, Philadelphia, 1862.
+
+
+PLATE 48
+
+A page from Kurz's sketchbook, carried by him during his travels through
+the Upper Missouri Valley. This shows several traders approaching Fort
+Union and a herd of buffalo in the distance on the right. (See note, pl.
+23, _b_.)
+
+
+PLATE 49
+
+Two negatives were made by Jackson, evidently without moving the camera.
+One was reproduced in Bulletin 69 of this Bureau's publications; the
+second is now shown. The first negative now belongs to the Bureau, but
+the present plate is a reproduction of a photograph furnished by the
+Peabody Museum, Harvard University.
+
+Concerning the photographs now reproduced in plates 49, 50, and 51, Mr.
+W. H. Jackson, now of Detroit, wrote to the Bureau, April 28, 1921, and
+said in part: "Negatives to which you refer, viz, of Pawnee village
+scenes, were made by myself in 1871 on my return from the first
+Yellowstone expedition of the Survey, this trip also including a visit
+to the Omaha Agency."
+
+
+PLATE 50
+
+Earth lodges standing in the Pawnee village. From original negative by
+W. H. Jackson, 1871. Negative now in the Bureau of American Ethnology.
+
+
+PLATE 51
+
+Views in the Pawnee village, after photographs by Jackson, 1871.
+Original photographs belonging to the Bureau of American Ethnology.
+
+
+PLATE 52
+
+Specimens in the United States National Museum.
+
+
+PLATE 53
+
+Reproduction of a photograph of the original painting by Catlin, now in
+the United States National Museum. It is No. 386 in Catlin's Catalogue,
+described as "Riccaree Village, with earth-covered lodges, 1,600 miles
+above St. Louis."
+
+George Catlin. (See note, pl. 23, _a_.)
+
+
+PLATE 54
+
+Specimens in the United States National Museum.
+
+
+PLATE 55
+
+_a._ From a photograph in the Chittenden scrapbook. (See note, pl. 19.)
+
+_b._ After a photograph in the collection of the United States National
+Museum.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  ACCANCEA. _See_ Quapaw.
+
+  AGRICULTURE--
+    among Sauk and Foxes, 40
+    of the Arikara, 179
+    of the Mandan, 127
+    of the Osage, 106
+
+  ALGONQUIAN FAMILY--
+    characteristics of villages of, 7
+    general movement of groups of, 3
+    groups comprising western division of, 1
+    largest north of Mexico, 43
+    villages of, described, 1
+
+  AL-LE-GA-WA-HO'S VILLAGE, 97
+
+  ALLEN, J.A., book by, on the buffalo, 7
+
+  ALLOUEZ, PERE, mission conducted by, 122
+
+  AMAHAMI--
+    once united with the Hidatsa and Crow, 140
+    village of, on Knife River, 125, 141
+
+  AMERICAN FUR COMPANY--
+    post of, 75
+    trade of, with Sioux, 61
+
+  ANIMALS--
+    domestic, lack of, among the Iowa, 114
+    domestic, of the Kansa, 90
+    of the Dakota country, 4
+    _See_ Buffalo, Dogs, Game.
+
+  ARAPAHO--
+    an Algonquian group, 1
+    country occupied by, 33-34
+    habitations of, 34
+
+  ARAPAHO VILLAGE--
+    described by Fremont, 36-37
+    photograph of, 37
+
+  ARBOR ENTRANCE, a Siouan feature, 122
+
+  ARCHITHINUE NATIVES, name applied to Blackfeet, 25, 26
+
+  ARIKARA--
+    a Caddoan group, 2
+    encampments of, visited by Lewis and Clark, 23
+    hostility of, to whites, 176, 179
+    Mandan village occupied by, 139
+    migration of, 167, 169-170
+    pottery of, 174
+    settlement of, near Fort Berthold, 147
+    skilled agriculturists, 179
+    warfare of, with Sioux, 70
+
+  AKIKARA VILLAGES--
+    described by Brackenridge, 172, 173
+    described by Bradbury, 172
+    described by Maximilian, 175-176
+    on the Missouri, 168
+    sites of, 168-169
+    sketched by Catlin, 175
+
+  ARK OF THE FIRST MAN, 129, 132
+
+  ARKANSA. _See_ Quapaw.
+
+  ARKANSAS BAND, a division of the Osage, 98
+
+  ASSINIBOIN, a Missouri River steamboat 130
+    trip of, to the Yellowstone River, 142
+
+  ASSINIBOIN TRIBE--
+    alliance of, with Cree, 71
+    camp of, described by Maximilian, 75-76
+    country occupied by, 71
+    location and number of, 32
+    of the Dakota-Assiniboin group, 2
+    on the march, 73, 74
+    relation of, to other tribes, 44
+    separated from Yanktonai, 71
+    structures of, 71, 72, 73, 76-77
+    with Cree, at Mandan village, 74
+
+  ASSINIBOIN VILLAGE--
+    size of, 73, 74
+    movement of, 73, 74
+
+  ATSINA, a division of the Arapaho, 1, 25
+    allied with tribes of the Blackfeet confederacy, 25, 34
+    fortified camps of, 34
+    incorporated with the Assiniboin, 25
+    various names for, 34
+
+  ATSINA VILLAGE, described by Maximilian, 35
+
+  AVENUE, pottery on site of, 112
+
+  AWACHAWI, an Hidatsa village, 142
+
+  AWATICHAY, an Hidatsa village, 142
+
+  AYAUWAYS, excursions of, against the Osage, 98
+
+  BARK-COVERED LODGES--
+    as summer habitations, 38, 51, 84
+    as winter habitations, 51
+    employed in timber country, 184-185
+    erected by the Dakota, 44
+    of the Kansa, 95
+    of the Mdewakanton, 50
+    of the Ojibway, 9-13, 16, 17, 56
+    of the Osage, 98
+    of the Oto, 120
+    of the Quapaw, 109
+    of the Sauk and Foxes, 39
+
+  BASKETRY--
+    of the Arikara, 169
+    of the Osage, 103
+
+  BEAUREGARD, MRS. N.H., copy by, of manuscript, 90
+
+  BEDS--
+    of the Caddo, 183
+    of the Kansa, 92
+    of the Mandan, 133, 134
+
+  BELLEVUE, a trading post on the Missouri, 81
+
+  BIG-BELLIED INDIANS. _See_ Atsina.
+
+  BIG KAW, an Oto Indian, 117
+
+  BIG KNIVES, Kansa name for the whites, 89
+
+  BIG TRACK, an Osage chief, 98
+
+  BIRCH BARK STRUCTURES, 9-13
+    _See_ Bark-covered lodges.
+
+  BLACKFEET CONFEDERACY, tribes composing, 1, 25
+
+  BLACKFEET INDIANS--
+    camps of, described by Maximilian, 28
+    ceremonial lodges of, 33
+    country inhabited by, 27, 32
+    descriptions of, 25-28
+    manner of living, 33
+    number of, 32
+    warlike nature of, 28
+    war party of, 31
+    _See_ Siksika.
+
+  BLACK HAWK, birthplace of, 38
+
+  BLACK HILLS, no permanent Indian settlement in, 70
+
+  BLOOD INDIANS--
+    country occupied by, 27, 32
+    number of, 32
+    _See_ Kainah.
+
+  BODMER--
+    painting by, of Atsina village, 35
+    painting by, of chief's lodge, 76
+    painting by, of Mandan village, 133
+    drawing by, of tipis, 58
+    sketch by, in Newberry Library, 143
+
+  BOWLS, WOODEN, of the Mandan, 137
+
+  BRADBURY, visit of, to Omaha village, 78
+
+  BRULES, a Teton band, 2
+
+  BRUSH SHELTERS OF THE ASSINIBOIN, 75
+
+  BUFFALO--
+    Arikara offering to, 174
+    hunting of, 4-7
+    importance of, to the Indian, 3-4
+    manner of traveling, 72
+
+  BUFFALO HUNT--
+    described by Fremont, 35-36
+    of the Oglala, 68
+
+  BUFFALO POUNDS, 5-6
+    use of, by Blackfeet, 26
+
+  BUFFALO SKULLS, a charm to entice buffaloes, 62-63
+
+  BUFFALO SOCIETY, Omaha, dance given by, 82
+
+  BUFFALO TRAILS, followed by Indians, 7
+
+  BULL-BOAT--
+    characteristic of upper Missouri, 129
+    of the Hidatsa, 146-147
+
+  BURIALS--
+    Omaha, 78
+    Oto, 120
+    scaffold, mention of, 50-51
+
+  CACHES--
+    described by Fletcher and La Flesche, 80
+    described by Matthews, 150
+    exposed by railroad cut, 82
+    for storage of corn, 126
+    Omaha, described by Gilden, 83, 84
+    on elevated stage, 12
+
+  CADDO--
+    a tribe of the Caddoan family, 2
+    country occupied by, 155, 182
+    described by Joutel, 182-183
+
+  CADDOAN FAMILY--
+    confederacies of, 2
+    country occupied by, 1
+    earth lodge characteristic of, 7-8
+    general movement of, 3
+    tribes composing, 2
+
+  CAHOKIA TRIBE, village of, 41
+
+  CANNON RIVER, village near mouth of, 50
+
+  CANOES--
+    birch-bark, 15-16
+    made of buffalo skins, 94
+    of the Arikara, 172
+    of the Hidatsa, 141
+    Oto, 121
+    _See_ Bull-boat.
+
+  CAPPA, a Quapaw village, 109
+
+  CASTANEDA, thatched houses mentioned by, 179
+
+  CATLIN, GEORGE--
+    among the Mandan, 128
+    among the Teton, 61
+    Arikara village sketched by, 175
+    collection of paintings by, in National Museum, 15, 129, 141, 175
+    incorrect drawings by, of earth lodges, 149
+    Indian portraits painted by, 62
+    Ojibway camp described by, 15
+
+  CAVES, in the Ozarks, occupied by Indians, 107
+
+  CEREMONIAL LODGE--
+    of the Crows, 155
+    of the Hidatsa, 144
+    of the Ojibway, 13
+    of the Quapaw, 111
+    of the Sun dance, 63
+    _See_ Medicine lodge.
+
+  CEREMONIAL SHELTER, temporary, of the Cree and Ojibway, 18-19
+
+  CEREMONIES, Arikara, in medicine lodge, 178
+
+  CHATIQUE, an Assiniboin chief, 71
+
+  CHAUI, a tribe of the Pawnee confederacy, 2
+
+  CHEROKEES, migration of remnant of, 2
+
+  CHEYENNE INDIANS--
+    an Algonquian group, 1
+    described by Lewis and Clark, 24
+    in Arapaho village, 36
+    lodges of, for special purposes, 25
+    lodges of, like Pawnee, 24, 25
+    territory occupied by, 21
+    various habitations of, 22
+
+  CHEYENNE VILLAGE SITES--
+    described by Grinnell, 22-23
+    mentioned by Lewis and Clark, 23
+
+  CHIEFS, decorations on lodges of, 67, 76
+
+  CHILDS POINT, ruins on, 82
+
+  CHIPPEWAY--
+    treaty of, with Sioux, 15
+    _See_ Ojibway.
+
+  CHIWERE GROUP OF SIOUAN TRIBES, 2
+    habitations of, 113
+    tribes composing, 112
+
+  CHOCTAW, temporary village of, 110
+
+  CHOLERA AMONG THE OGLALA, 64
+
+  CHOTE, town house at, 118
+
+  CIRCLES--
+    of earth, 21, 28, 30
+    of stone, 20, 21
+
+  CLARMONT, French name of Osage chief, 103
+
+  CLOTHING--
+    made of buffalo hides, 3, 4
+    of the Kansa, 94
+
+  CLUB, wooden, of the Mandan, 138
+
+  COCKING, MATTHEW, journey of, 26-27
+
+  COLBERT, first name of Mississippi River, 109
+
+  CORN, cultivation of, 39, 40, 106, 127, 179
+
+  CORONADO EXPEDITION, thatched houses seen by, 179
+
+  COUNCIL BLUFFS, origin of the name, 115, 157
+
+  COUNCIL HOUSE--
+    of the Kansa, 92-93
+    of the Ojibway, 16
+    of the Oto, 117
+    of the Teton, 60
+
+  CREE INDIANS--
+    habitations of, 17-21
+    language of, 17
+    population of, 18, 19
+    related to Ojibway, 17
+    loving disposition of, 19
+    territory inhabited by, 1, 18, 19
+    with Assiniboin at Mandan village, 74
+    _See_ Knistenaux.
+
+  CROW INDIANS--
+    a tribe of the Hidatsa group, 2
+    arrangement of camps of, 154
+    ceremonial lodge of, 154-155
+    country inhabited by, 151, 152-153
+    described by Larocque, 151
+    lodges of, described, 152-154
+    separation of, from the Hidatsa, 150
+    wandering habits of, 153
+
+  CUSTER, GENERAL, mention of, 70
+
+  CUSTOMS--
+    of the Blackfeet, 26-27
+    of the Cree, 18-19
+    of the Ojibway, 8-11, 13, 17
+    of the Omaha, 85-87
+    of the Osage, 105-106
+    of the Pawnee, 163-165
+    of the Sauk and Foxes, 39-41
+    of the Teton, 60-61
+    of the Wahpeton, 53
+    of the Yanktonai, 54-57
+
+  DAKOTA-ASSINIBOIN GROUP, 2
+    country occupied by, 44
+    habitations of, 44-45
+    tribes composing, 44
+
+  DANCE--
+    of the Teton, 60
+    _See_ Dog dance, Sacred dance, Sun dance, War dance.
+
+  DE SMET, FATHER, at the Kansa villages, 95-96
+
+  DECORATION OF LODGES, 28, 67, 75-76, 78, 85
+
+  DELAWARE INDIANS--
+    abandoned settlement of, 42-43
+    log cabins built by, 42
+    migration of remnant of, 2, 3
+
+  DHEGIHA GROUP, 2
+    migration of, 77
+
+  DODGE, COL. R. I., with expedition into Black Hills, 70
+
+  DOG DANCE OF THE KANSA, 93
+
+  DOG FEAST, painting of, 15
+
+  DOG TRAVOIS, 19-20, 55, 65, 76
+
+  DOGS--
+    as a sacrifice, 52, 61
+    as beasts of burden, 28
+    as food, 28, 53, 54
+    as sacred animals, 53
+    use of, for transportation, 72, 73
+    _See_ Dog travois.
+
+  DORSEY, J. O., Omaha structures described by, 85
+
+  DOUAY, PERE ANASTASIUS, Quapaw villages mentioned by, 110
+
+  DWELLINGS. _See_ Lodges, Tipi, Wigwam.
+
+  EARTH CIRCLES--
+    explanations of, 21
+    noticed by Maximilian, 28, 30
+
+  EARTH LODGE--
+    Arikara, 170, 173, 176
+    characteristic of Missouri River tribes, 185
+    Cheyenne, no pictures of, 24
+    erected by Caddoan tribes, 8
+    Gros Ventres, 148
+    Hidatsa, 142
+    interior of, 81, 161-162
+    Mandan, 128, 130, 132, 133
+    most accurate drawing of, 143
+    not in tribal circle, 84
+    Omaha, 79-80, 82-83
+    Oto, 115, 116, 117
+    Pawnee, 156, 161-162
+    suggestive of Creek and Cherokee council house, 185
+    used by Dhegiha group, 77
+
+  EARTHENWARE--
+    in the Ozark country, 107
+    _See_ Pottery.
+
+  EARTHWORKS, attributed to Dhegiha group, 77
+
+  EASTMAN, CAPT., painting by, 51, 54
+
+  ELAH-SA, an Hidatsa village, 142
+
+  ELLSWORTH, H. L., expedition led by, 116, 159-161
+
+  ELM BARK, structures of, 16, 17, 39
+    _See_ Bark-covered lodges.
+
+  ENGINEER CANTONMENT, winter quarters of Long expedition, 157
+
+  ENTRANCE--
+    to earth lodge, 149
+    to Winnebago dwelling, 122
+
+  ENVIRONMENT, influence of--
+    on form of dwelling, 184
+    on manners and customs, 8
+
+  FALL INDIANS, location and number of, 32
+    _See_ Atsina.
+
+  FALL OF THE RAPID INDIANS, a name for the Atsina, 34
+
+  FALLS OF ST. ANTHONY--
+    Indian camp at, 15
+    named by Father Hennepin, 45
+
+  FEASTS--
+    given by Blackfoot chief, 29
+    of the Cree, 18-19
+    of the Teton Sioux, 61-62
+
+  FISH, method of curing, 10
+
+  FLOOR MATS, method of making, 41
+
+  FOOD--
+    method of cooking illustrated, 10
+    of the Mandan, 127, 136
+    of the Ojibway, 8-9
+    of the Osage, 104, 105-106
+    _See_ Agriculture, Buffalo, Corn, Dogs, Fish, Game.
+
+  FOOL CHIEF, a Kansa chief, 96
+    village of, 97
+
+  FORT BERTHOLD, tribes near, 147
+
+  FORT CLARK--
+    erection of, 176
+    Mandan village near, 130, 139, 140
+    _See_ Fort Osage.
+
+  FORT CRAWFORD, establishment of, 184
+
+  FORT DE BOURBON--
+    location of, 72
+    mention of, 71
+
+  FORT DES PRAIRIES, mention of, 72
+
+  FORT JOHN, destroyed by North American Fur Company, 69
+
+  FORT LARAMIE, description of, 69
+
+  FORT LEAVENWORTH, early description of, 116
+
+  FORT LOOKOUT, treaty concluded at, 57
+
+  FORT OSAGE--
+    later named Fort Clark, 99
+    village near, 100
+
+  FORT PIERRE--
+    gathering of Yankton near, 57, 59
+    sketch of, 63
+
+  FORT SNELLING--
+    encampment at, 15
+    establishment of, 184
+
+  FORT UNION--
+    Assiniboin camp at, 75
+    stay at, of Friedrich Kurz, 76
+    visit at, of Maximilian, 142
+
+  FORT YATES, villages near, 22
+
+  FORTIFIED VILLAGES--
+    Arikara, 168, 171, 172
+    Hidatsa, 147
+    Mandan, 123, 131
+
+  FORTS BUILT BY INDIANS, 34, 35
+
+  FOX INDIANS--
+    habitat of, 1
+    present location of, 38
+    visited by Long, 38
+    _See_ Sauk and Foxes.
+
+  FREMONT, arrival of, at Kansa towns, 96
+
+  FUR TRADE OF THE TETON, 61
+
+  FURS, huge quantities of, collected by Sauk and Foxes, 40
+
+  GAME--
+    abundance of, at Isle au Vache, 91
+    _See_ Animals, Buffalo, Hunting.
+
+  GAMES--
+    played by the Omaha, 81
+    space for playing, 129
+
+  GILDER, R. F., village site identified by, 82
+
+  GILFILLAN, DR. J. A., missionary among the Ojibway, 11
+
+  GRAND PAWNEE--
+    visit to, of Long expedition, 158
+    _See_ Chaui.
+
+  GRANT, PETER, Ojibway dwellings described by, 9-10
+
+  GRASS LODGE--
+    as temporary shelter, 13-14
+    of the Caddo, 183
+    of the Wichita, 179-180
+    photograph of, 180
+
+  GREAT OSAGE, an Osage band, 98
+
+  GRINNELL, GEORGE B., erection of medicine lodge described by, 33
+
+  GROS VENTRES. _See_ Hidatsa.
+
+  GROS VENTRES OF THE MISSOURI, a name applied to the Hidatsa, 141
+
+  GROS VENTRES OF THE PRAIRIE, a name applied to the Atsina, 34, 141
+    _See_ Atsina.
+
+  HABITATIONS. _See_ Lodges, Tipi, Wigwam.
+
+  HA-WON-JE-TAH, a Teton Sioux chief, 61, 62
+
+  HENDRY, ANTHONY, Journal of, 25
+
+  HENRY, ALEXANDER, travels of, through Assiniboin country, 71-73
+
+  HIDATSA GROUP, tribes composing, 2, 140
+
+  HIDATSA TRIBE--
+    ceremonial lodge of, 144
+    creation myth of, 143
+    temporary lodge of, 147
+    winter village of, 143, 149
+    _See_ Minnetarees.
+
+  HIDATSA VILLAGES--
+    descriptions of, 142-143, 145-146, 148-150
+    Indian drawings of, 139
+    location of, 141
+    near Fort Berthold, 147
+    painting of, by Catlin, 141
+    plan of, 145
+    sites of, compared with Mandan, 146
+    temporary, for winter use, 149
+
+  HIME, HUMPHREY LLOYD, photographs made by, 12
+
+  HIND EXPEDITION--
+    camp sites observed by, 20-21
+    Ojibway structures encountered by, 12
+
+  HOE, made by Arikara, 177
+
+  HORSE TRAVOIS, 30, 65, 66
+
+  HORSERACING of the Blackfeet, 31
+
+  HORSES, housed in lodges of the Mandan, 126
+
+  HOUSE RINGS, 20, 21, 22, 28, 30
+
+  HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY--
+    journals of traders of, 25
+    trade of, with the Blackfeet, 27
+    trading post of, 76
+
+  HUNKPAPA, a Teton band, 2
+
+  HUNTING--
+    customs of the Osage, 103, 106
+    customs of the Sauk and Foxes, 40
+    excursions of the Mandan, 126
+    excursions of the Omaha, 85-87
+    grounds used for, by Oto, 116
+    of antelope, a method of, 6
+    of buffalo, 4-7
+    parties of the Mandan, 136
+    trips of the Pawnee, 166-167
+
+  ILLINOIS CONFEDERACY, villages of, 41-43
+
+  ILLINOIS INDIANS--
+    village of, 41
+    west of the Mississippi, 1
+
+  IMPLEMENTS--
+    agricultural, of the Arikara, 177
+    flint, on Omaha village site, 82, 83
+    for skin dressing, 138
+    stone, found on White River, 108
+
+  INDIAN PEACE COMMISSION, visit of, to Fort Laramie, 69
+
+  IOTAN, an Oto chief, 117
+
+  IOWA TRIBE--
+    appearance of villages of, 113
+    belonging to Chiwere group, 2
+    brief description of, 114
+    closely connected with Winnebago, 122
+    habitations of, 114
+    migration of, 113
+
+  IRON BIRD, an Osage chief, 103
+
+  IRVIN, SAMUEL M., missionary among the Iowa, 114
+
+  IRVING, WASHINGTON--
+    deserted village described by, 105
+    Indian symbols mentioned by, 43
+
+  ISH-TAL-A-SA'S VILLAGE, 97
+
+  ISLE AU VACHE--
+    brief history of, by Remsburg, 94
+    council at, between Kansa and Long party, 91
+    location of, 94
+    remains near, 91
+
+  ISSATI VILLAGE, site of, 45
+
+  ITAZIPCHO, a Teton band, 2
+    _See_ Sans Arcs.
+
+  JACKSON, W. H., photographs made by, 162
+
+  JARAMILLO, JUAN, an officer of the Coronado expedition, 179
+
+  JONGLERIE, or medicine lodge, 16-17
+
+  JOURNALS OF TRADERS, Blackfeet described in, 25
+
+  JOUTEL--
+    account by, of Quapaw villages, 109
+    Caddo tribe described by, 182-183
+
+  KAINAH, a tribe of the Blackfeet confederacy, 1, 25
+
+  KANE, PAUL--
+    Ojibway wigwam described by, 10
+    paintings by, 20, 77
+
+  KANSA INDIANS--
+    a tribe of the Dhegiha group, 2, 77
+    attack on, by Pawnee, 96
+    dress of, 94
+    migration of, 89
+    population of, 89, 95
+    variety of dwellings of, 97
+    villages of, described, 90, 92, 95-96, 97
+    visit of, to the Oto, 121
+
+  KAPOSIA, village of, 50, 51
+
+  KINGFISHER, an old Ojibway, 12
+
+  KITKEHAHKI, a tribe of the Pawnee confederacy, 2
+
+  KNISTENAUX--
+    at Mandan village, 74
+    language spoken by, 74
+    location and number of, 32
+    _See_ Cree.
+
+  KURZ, FRIEDRICH--
+    among the Omaha, 81
+    at Fort Union, 76
+    sketches by, 20, 63, 121
+
+  LA FLESCHE, JOSEPH, an Omaha chief, 82
+
+  LA HARPE, meeting of, with the Quapaw, 110
+
+  LA PETIT CORBEAU, a Sioux chief, village of, 38
+
+  LA SALLE EXPEDITION, 109, 182
+
+  LA VERENDRYE EXPEDITION, 73-74, 122
+
+  LAC DE L'ISLE CROIX, Cree bands along, 18
+
+  LAHCOCAT, an Arikara village, 169
+
+  LAKE HURON, encampment on islands of, 10
+
+  LAKE SUPERIOR, structures on shores of, 9
+
+  LAROCQUE, ANTOINE, visit of, among the Crows, 151
+
+  LE RAYE, references in journal of, to the Arikara, 168
+
+  LEAVENWORTH, establishment of, 184
+
+  LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION, villages visited by, 23, 34, 60, 74,
+        75, 78, 89, 90, 114-115, 124-126
+
+  LINDENWOOD COLLEGE, manuscript journal in possession of, 90
+
+  LIQUOR, use of, among Indians, 75
+
+  LITTLE DOG, a Piegan Indian, 30
+
+  LITTLE OSAGE, an Osage band, 98
+
+  LITTLE OSAGE RIVER, Osage villages in valley of, 99
+
+  LITTLE RAVEN, village of, 48, 49, 50
+
+  LODGES. _See_ Bark-covered lodges, Ceremonial lodge, Earth lodge,
+        Grass lodge, Log houses, Mat-covered lodge, Skin lodge,
+        Thatched lodge, Tipi, Traders lodge, Wigwam.
+
+  LOG CABINS--
+    built by Cree, 18
+    of the Delaware, 42
+    _See_ Log houses.
+
+  LOG HOUSES--
+    construction of, 48
+    of Fox Indians, 38
+    of Sioux chief, 39
+    of upright posts, 48, 49, 50
+
+  LONG, MAJ. STEPHEN H., expedition under command of, 47, 157
+
+  LOUISIANA PURCHASE, change of conditions due to, 184
+
+  LOW HORN, a Piegan chief, 30
+
+  LUDLOW EXPLORING PARTY, 70
+
+  MAHAWHA, village of the Amahami, 125
+
+  MALTA, MO., former Osage village near, 99
+
+  MANDAN--
+    a Siouan tribe, 2
+    history of, 125
+    settled near Fort Berthold, 147
+    village sites of, compared with Hidatsa, 146
+
+  MANDAN VILLAGES--
+    described by Catlin, 128, 129-130
+    described by Maximilian, 130-132
+    deserted, 124
+    French expedition to, 122-123
+    Indian drawings of, 139
+    occupied by Arikaras, 176
+    plan of, 131
+
+  MANITOBAH HOUSE, wigwam near, 12
+
+  MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. _See_ Customs.
+
+  MARQUETTE, PERE--
+    Illinois tribes visited by, 41
+    Osage villages listed by, 98
+    Quapaw villages reached by, 108
+
+  MARSTON, MAJOR M., life of Sauk and Foxes described by, 39-41
+
+  MARTIN, CAPTAIN, stay of detachment of, at Isle au Vache, 91
+
+  MAT-COVERED LODGE--
+    as winter habitation, 38
+    of the Kansa, 91, 92
+    of the Osage, 98, 99, 100
+    used by Dhegiha group, 77
+
+  MATOOTONHA, a Mandan village, 125
+
+  MATS, rush, method of making, 41
+
+  MATTHEWS, description by, of Hidatsa villages, 148-150
+
+  MAXIMILIAN, villages visited by, 19, 28, 29, 35, 88, 130-136, 175-176
+
+  MDEWAKANTON TRIBE--
+    a division of the Dakota, 2, 44
+    sites of settlements of, 15
+    villages of, 45-52
+
+  MEDICINE, meaning of the term, 164
+
+  MEDICINE BAG OF THE DAKOTAS, 55
+
+  MEDICINE FEAST--
+    of the Hidatsa, 143-145
+    of the Mandan, 135, 136
+
+  MEDICINE LODGE--
+    Arikara, 172-173, 178
+    ceremony of erecting, 33
+    of the Blackfeet, 33
+    of the Mandan, 129
+    Ojibway, 12, 13, 16-17
+
+  METAHARTA, a Minnetaree village, 125, 126
+
+  MICHIGAMEA--
+    an Illinois tribe, 41
+    position of village of, not determined, 112
+    visited by Marquette, 41
+
+  M[)I]DE LODGE OF THE OJIBWAY, 13, 19
+
+  MIH-TUTTA-HANGUSCH, a Mandan village, 128, 130, 131
+
+  MILLE LAC, village sites on, 45-46
+
+  MINICONJOU, a Teton band, 2
+
+  MINNETAREES--
+    intrenchments made by, 34
+    population of village of, 126
+    winter village of, 143
+    _See_ Hidatsa.
+
+  MINNETAREES OF FORT DE PRAIRIE, a name for the Atsina, 34
+
+  MISSISSIPPI RIVER, first name of, 109
+
+  MISSOURI TRIBE--
+    ancient village of, 121
+    connected with Winnebago, 122
+    of the Chiwere group, 2
+    remnants of, with the Oto, 114
+
+  MORTARS--
+    stone, in the Ozark country, 107, 108
+    wooden, of the Arikara, 177
+
+  NATIONAL MUSEUM--
+    bone scrapers in, 59
+    collection in, of paintings by Catlin, 15, 129, 141, 175
+    Oto specimens in, 121
+
+  NEWBERRY LIBRARY, sketch in, by Bodmer, 143
+
+  NICOLLET, visit of, to the Winnebago, 122
+
+  NIOBRARA RIVER, early name of, 88
+
+  NUTTALL, THOMAS, journey of, 103, 110, 111
+
+  OCHKIH-HADDA, the evil spirit of the Mandan, 132, 142
+
+  O'FALLON, MAJ., commissioner with Long expedition, 157
+
+  OGLALA--
+    a Teton band, 2
+    country occupied by, 63
+    epidemic of cholera among, 64
+    log lodges of, 67
+    moving of village of, 64-65
+    skin lodges of, 68
+    wanderings of, 44
+
+  OHIO VALLEY, ancient village sites of, 102
+
+  OJIBWAY--
+    ceremonial structures of, 18-19
+    habitations of, 8-17
+    location of villages of, 1
+    meeting of, with Sioux, to establish peace, 15
+    territory claimed by, 8
+    village sites of, 15
+    _See_ Chippeway.
+
+  OMAHA TRIBE--
+    manners and customs of, 85-87
+    meaning of the name, 108
+    migration of, 77
+    of the Dhegiha group, 2, 77
+
+  OMAHA VILLAGES, 77-87
+    destroyed by fire, 78
+
+  ONE STAB, an Oglala head-man, 70
+
+  OOHENONPA, a Teton band, 2
+
+  OSAGE INDIANS--
+    a tribe of the Dhegiha group, 2, 77
+    habitat of, 98
+    industry of women, 103
+    life of, described by Morse, 106
+    structures of, 99, 101-104
+    villages of, described, 100, 103-104
+    villages of, listed by Pere Marquette, 98
+
+  OTO TRIBE--
+    a tribe of the Chiwere group, 2
+    closely connected with Winnebago, 122
+    councils with, 115, 117-118
+    country occupied by, 114
+    habitation of, described by Bradbury, 115
+    temporary camp of, described by James, 120
+    winter camp of, described by Moelhausen, 118
+
+  OTSOTCHOVE, a Quapaw village, 109
+
+  OZARKS--
+    caves of, 107
+    habitat of the Osage, 98
+    hunting ground of the Osage, 107
+
+  PAHATSI, an Osage band, 2, 98
+
+  PALISADES. _See_ Fortified villages.
+
+  PALMER, DR., missionary to the Osage, 104
+
+  PAPILLION CREEK, Omaha village on, 81
+
+  PASQUAYAH VILLAGE, 71
+
+  PAWNEE CONFEDERACY, tribes composing, 2
+
+  PAWNEE INDIANS--
+    abandoned camp of, 165
+    attack by, on Kansa village, 96
+    council held with, 160-161
+    country occupied by, 159
+    customs of, 163-165
+    habitations of, 156, 158, 161-162
+    manner of moving, 163
+    migration of, 156
+    temporary camp of, 164
+
+  PAWNEE VILLAGES--
+    description of, 157, 162
+    orderly removal of, 65
+    photographs of, 162
+
+  PELICAN, THE, an Assiniboin chief, 71
+
+  PEMBINA, native habitations at, 55
+
+  PEMMICAN MAUL, of the Oto, 121
+
+  PEORIA, VILLAGE OF, visited by Marquette, 41
+
+  PERSIMMON PULP, bread made of, 100
+
+  PETIT CORBEAU, village of, 48, 49, 50
+
+  PICANEAUX, location and number of, 32
+    _See_ Piegan.
+
+  PIEGAN INDIANS--
+    a tribe of the Blackfeet confederacy, 1, 25
+    camp of, described, 30-31
+    camp of, painted by Bodmer, 29
+    country occupied by, 27
+    population of, 31, 32
+    _See_ Picaneaux.
+
+  PIKE, LIEUT. Z. M., exploring expedition of, 99, 155
+
+  PILLAGERS, gathering place of, 15
+
+  PIPES--
+    ceremonial use of, 172
+    from Omaha cache, 83
+    of peace, smoking of, 61
+
+  PIPESTONE QUARRY, tribes ranging near, 77
+
+  PIS-KA-KAU-A-KIS, a band of Cree, 18
+
+  PITAHAUERAT, a tribe of the Pawnee confederacy, 2
+
+  "PLATTE PURCHASE," Iowa living in, 114
+
+  PLATTE RIVER, Oto village on, 116
+
+  PONCA INDIANS--
+    a tribe of the Dhegiha group, 2, 77
+    habitations of, 87-88
+    migration of, 77
+    separation of, from the Omaha, 87
+
+  POPULATION--
+    of Arikara villages, 170
+    of Assiniboin, 76
+    of Atsina or Fall Indians, 32
+    of Cheyenne, 24
+    of Cree, 19
+    of Crow, 19
+    of Kansa, 89, 93
+    of Mandan, 139
+    of Minnetaree villages, 126
+    of Osage, 104
+    of Piegan, 31
+    of Sarsees, 32
+    of village of Sotoueis, 110
+    of Waco, 182
+    of Wichita, 182
+    of Yankton, 56
+
+  PORCUPINE CREEK, village on, 22
+
+  POTTERY--
+    Arikara, 174
+    fragments of, in Ozark caves, 107
+    fragments of, on village site, 46
+    of the Mandan, 137-138
+    of the Quapaw, 112
+    _See_ Earthenware.
+
+  POUNDS, BUFFALO, 5-6, 26
+
+  QUAPAW--
+    a tribe of the Dhegiha group, 2, 77
+    country occupied by, 108
+    decrease in population of, 111
+    meaning of the name, 108
+    migration of, 77, 112
+    remnants of, 111
+
+  QUIVIRA, reached by Coronado, 179
+
+  RADIN, PAUL, list of Winnebago structures given by, 122
+
+  RAKES, made by Arikara, 177
+
+  RAYNOLDS EXPLORING PARTY, sacred structure discovered by, 63
+
+  RED CLOUD, an Oglala chief, 70, 71
+
+  RED RIVER, structures in valley of, 9, 12
+
+  RED WING, MINN., origin of the name, 47
+
+  RED WING, village of--
+    described by Schoolcraft, 49
+    described by Seymour, 50
+
+  REES, warfare of, with Sioux, 70
+
+  REPUBLICAN PAWNEE--
+    described by Irving, 161
+    visited by Long expedition, 159
+    _See_ Kitkehahki.
+
+  REQUA, W. C., Osage described by, 104
+
+  RINGS--
+    of earth, 21, 28, 30
+    of stone, 20, 21
+
+  ROCKY MOUNTAIN FORT, Assiniboin camp near, 77
+
+  ROOPTAHEE, a Mandan winter village, 125, 134
+
+  ROTUNDAS OF THE CHEROKEE, 118
+
+  RUNNING-WATER RIVER, early name of the Niobrara, 88
+
+  RUSH MATS--
+    for seats and sleeping places, 11
+    method of making, 41
+    used for covering dwellings, 10
+
+  SACRED DANCE--
+    for benefit of sick, 82
+    of the Dakotas, 55
+
+  SACRED ISLAND IN MILLE LAC, described, 46
+
+  ST. JOSEPH, a trading post, 184
+
+  ST. PAUL, former Indian village near, 38
+
+  ST. PETERS RIVER, exploration of, 47
+
+  SALT, making of, by Indians, 42, 174
+
+  SANDY CREEK, Oto encampment on, 120
+
+  SANS ARCS, a Teton band, 2
+    _See_ Itazipcho.
+
+  SANS OREILLE, an Osage chief, 100
+
+  SANTEE--
+    eastern division of the Dakota, 45
+    tribes forming, 2
+    use of the name, 45
+
+  SANTSUKHDHI an Osage band, 2, 98
+
+  SARSEES, number and location of, 32
+
+  SASKATCHEWAN VALLEY, tribes inhabiting, 32
+
+  SAUK AND FOXES--
+    agriculture of, 40
+    living as one tribe, 38
+    manners and ways of life, 39-41
+    summer and winter habitations of, 38
+    villages of, similar in appearance, 38
+    _See_ Fox Indians, Sauk Indians.
+
+  SAUK INDIANS--
+    excursions of, against the Osage and Missouris, 98
+    Missouri driven out by, 121
+    removal of, to Indian Territory, 38
+    territory of, 1
+    village of, visited by Long, 38
+    _See_ Sauk and Foxes.
+
+  SAUTEUX. _See_ Ojibway.
+
+  SCHOOLCRAFT, H. R.--
+    deserted Osage villages encountered by, 101
+    journey of, down the Mississippi, 49
+    Sioux settlements described by, 49
+
+  SEVEN COUNCIL FIRES OF THE DAKOTA, 44
+
+  SEYMOUR, E. S.--
+    Kaposia described by, 50
+    sketches by, 55, 93, 95, 121
+
+  SHAKOPEE'S VILLAGE, described by Keating, 52
+
+  SHAWANESE, migration of remnant of, 2, 3
+
+  SHAWNEE, villages of, west of the Mississippi, 42
+
+  SHIELDS--
+    Arapaho, affixed to tripods, 36, 37
+    of the Pawnee, 157
+
+  SIBLEY, GEORGE C., Kansa village described by, 90
+
+  SICHANGU, a Teton band, 2
+
+  SICK AND AGED--
+    dance for benefit of, 82
+    treatment of, 165
+
+  SIHASAPA, a Teton band, 2
+
+  SIKSIKA, a tribe of the Blackfeet confederacy, 1, 25
+
+  SIOUAN TRIBES--
+    classification of  2
+    general movement of  3
+    in the East  44
+    second largest stock north of Mexico  43
+    skin tipi typical of  7
+    various habitations of  44
+    villages of, described  1
+    westward migration of  43
+
+  SIOUX--
+    excursions of, against the Osage  98
+    gathering of, with Ojibway, to establish peace  15
+
+  SISSETON, a division of the Dakota  2, 44
+
+  SKIDI, a tribe of the Pawnee Confederacy  2
+
+  SKIN DRESSING, implements for  58, 59, 138
+
+  SKIN LODGE--
+    Arapaho  37
+    Assiniboin  71, 76
+    Blackfoot  28
+    Cheyenne  24
+    construction of  56
+    Cree  18, 20
+    Crow  150, 152, 153
+    decorations on  28, 67, 76, 78, 85
+    descriptions of  50, 51
+    drawings of  56
+    erected by the Dakota  45
+    Hidatsa  146
+    Kansa  94
+    Omaha, construction of  80-81, 85
+    Pawnee  162, 164, 165-166
+    predominance of, on the plains  185
+    sketched by Kurz  76
+    Teton  61
+    used by roving tribes  32
+    used by the Dhegiha  77
+    used by the Oto  118
+
+  SKIN SCRAPER, bone, described  58, 59
+
+  SKIN TIPI--
+    when used by Omaha  84-85
+    Yankton, described by Maximilian  57-58
+
+  SLEDGES OF THE MANDAN  134
+
+  SMALLPOX EPIDEMIC--
+    among the Mandan  139
+    among the Omaha  78
+
+  SMOKING CUSTOM OF THE BLACKFEET  26, 27
+    _See_ Pipes.
+
+  SOTOUeIS, population of village of  110
+
+  SOULIER NOIR, French name for the Amahami  126
+
+  SPEARS, ARAPAHO, affixed to tripods  36, 37
+
+  SPOONS, HORN--
+    of the Mandan  137
+    of the Pawnee  158
+
+  STANLEY, paintings by, in National Museum  31
+
+  STANSBURY EXPEDITION, narrative of  64, 66-68
+
+  STARAPAT, an Arikara chief  176
+
+  STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF NORTH DAKOTA, surveys made by  139, 145
+
+  STOCKADE BUILDINGS, mentioned by Long  50
+
+  STOCKADES, remains of  67
+    _See_ Fortified villages.
+
+  STONE CIRCLES, explanation of  20, 21
+
+  STONE INDIANS. _See_ Assiniboins.
+
+  SUN DANCE, lodges erected for  63, 85
+
+  SUNFLOWER SEED, cakes made of  136
+
+  SWEAT HOUSE--
+    of the Crows  155
+    of the Ojibway  12, 16
+
+  SYMBOLS, cut on trees by Indians  43
+
+  TALANGAMANE, a Sioux chief  49
+
+  TAOAPA, description of village of  52
+
+  TAPAGE PAWNEE. _See_ Pitahauerat.
+
+  TATANKA WECHACHETA, a Wahpeton chief  53
+
+  TATUNKAMANE, son of a Dakota chief  48
+
+  TCHAN-DEE, a Teton Sioux chief  62
+
+  TETON--
+    a division of the Dakota  2, 44
+    bands composing  2
+    customs of  60
+    great village of, visited by Lewis and Clark  59-60
+
+  TETON RIVER, village near mouth of  62
+
+  THATCHED LODGES, of the Wichita  179-180
+
+  THIEF, THE, an Oto Indian  117
+
+  TINDER MOUNTAIN, Cree band at  18
+
+  TIPI--
+    drawing of, by Bodmer  58, 59
+    of the plains tribes, fine example of  68
+    typical of Siouan tribes  7
+    _See_ Skin lodges.
+
+  TONGINGA, a Quapaw village  109
+
+  TORIMAN, a Quapaw village  109
+
+  TOTEM POSTS, not used by Omaha  85
+
+  TRADERS LODGE, of the Oglala  68
+
+  TRAILS--
+    across the prairie  88
+    buffalo  7
+    in the Black Hills  70, 71
+    made by travois  66
+
+  TRANSPORTATION--
+    among the Oglala  65
+    among the Piegan  30
+    _See_ Dog travois, Horse travois.
+
+  TRAVOIS. See Dog travois, Horse travois.
+
+  TREATIES--
+    of Greenville, westward migration following  42
+    of peace between Sioux and Chippewas  15
+    place of, between Ojibway and U. S. Government  16
+    with Tetons, Yankton and Yanktonai  57
+
+  TWENTY-FOUR, VILLAGE OF THE, a former Kansa town  94
+
+  TWO KETTLES. _See_ Oohenonpa.
+
+  TYPHA PALUSTRIS, mats made of leaves of  100
+
+  UNION AGENCY, location of  104-105
+
+  UTENSILS OF THE MANDAN  136-137
+
+  UTSEHTA, an Osage band  2, 98
+
+  VILLAGE OF THE TWENTY-FOUR  94
+
+  VILLAGE SITES, not contemporaneous  127
+
+  WABASHAW, a Sioux village visited by Schoolcraft  49
+
+  WACO INDIANS--
+    a tribe of the Wichita confederacy  2
+    appearance of  181
+    grass lodge of  181
+    population of  182
+
+  WAHKTAGELI, a Yankton chief  58
+
+  WAHPEKUTE, a division of the Dakota  2, 44
+
+  WAHPETON TRIBE--
+    a division of the Dakota  2, 44, 52
+    country occupied by  52
+    village of, described  53
+
+  WAH-TOH-TA-NA, name for the Oto, 116
+
+  WAKAN WACHEPE, a Dakota society, 55
+
+  WA-KI-TA-MO-NEE, an Oto chief, 118
+
+  WANOTAN, a Yanktonai chief, 54
+
+  WAPASHA, a Dakota chief, 47
+
+  WAPASHA'S PRAIRIE, mentioned by Seymour, 50
+
+  WAPASHA VILLAGE, description of, 47, 48
+
+  WAR DANCE, OSAGE, account of, 105
+
+  WARRIORS, special lodges for use of, 25
+
+  WATTASOONS, Mandan name for the Amahami, 126
+
+  WATTLEWORK STRUCTURES OF THE OSAGE, 101-102, 105
+
+  WAUBUSCHON, an Osage chief, 100
+
+  WAYONDOTT, migration of band of, 3
+
+  WEAPONS OF THE MANDAN, 138
+
+  WESTERN ENGINEER, a steamboat of 1819 on Missouri River, 91-93
+
+  WETARKO, Indian name for Grand River, 169
+
+  WHITE HAIR, an Osage chief, 103
+
+  WHITE RIVER, village site on, 108
+
+  WICHITA CONFEDERACY--
+    a Caddoan group, 2
+    thatched dwellings of, 179-180
+
+  WICKIUP, a temporary shelter, 70
+
+  WIGWAMS--
+    construction of, 11
+    dome-shaped, of the Ojibway, 14
+    mat and bark covered, 7
+    _See_ Lodges.
+
+  WINNEBAGO--
+    a Siouan tribe, 2
+    country occupied by, 122
+    villages of, 122
+
+  WOLF PAWNEE. _See_ Skidi.
+
+  WOMEN--
+    custom concerning, 19
+    industry of, 103
+    labor of, 65
+
+  YANKTON TRIBE--
+    a division of the Dakota, 2, 44
+    described by General Atkinson, 57
+    population of, 57
+    structures of, 57-58
+
+  YANKTONAI--
+    a division of the Dakota, 2, 44
+    country inhabited by, 54
+    described by Keating, 54, 55
+    habitations of, 56-57
+    village of, near Lake Traverse, 54
+
+  YELLOW BEAR, an Hidatsa chief, 145
+
+  YELLOW STONE, a Missouri River steamboat, 130
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan,
+and Caddoan Tribes West of the Mississippi, by David Ives Bushnell
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