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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan, and
+Caddoan Tribes West of the Mississippi, by David Ives Bushnell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan, and Caddoan Tribes West of the Mississippi
+
+Author: David Ives Bushnell
+
+Release Date: November 1, 2011 [EBook #37897]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VILLAGES OF THE ALGONQUIAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Julia Neufeld and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note: For this text version passages in italics are
+indicated by _underscores_. Small caps have been replaced by ALL
+CAPS and "i" with a breve is shown as [)i].
+
+On page 6 "pursued by y^e Savages", "^e" refers to superscript "e".
+
+Inconsistent spelling is maintained in this document, for example
+"Chayenne" and "Cheyenne".
+
+
+
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 1
+
+[Illustration: DRYING BUFFALO MEAT--A TYPICAL CAMP SCENE
+
+ERNEST HENRY GRISET]
+
+ SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
+ BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+ BULLETIN 77
+
+ VILLAGES OF THE ALGONQUIAN, SIOUAN,
+ AND CADDOAN TRIBES WEST OF
+ THE MISSISSIPPI
+
+ BY
+ DAVID I. BUSHNELL, JR.
+
+ [Illustration: Decoration]
+
+ WASHINGTON
+ GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
+ 1922
+
+
+
+
+LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
+
+
+ SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
+ BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY,
+ _Washington, D. C., January 4, 1921_.
+
+SIR: I have the honor to transmit the accompanying manuscript, entitled
+"Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan, and Caddoan Tribes West of the
+Mississippi," by David I. Bushnell, jr., and to recommend its
+publication, subject to your approval, as a bulletin of this Bureau.
+
+ Very respectfully,
+
+ J. WALTER FEWKES,
+ _Chief_.
+
+ DR. CHARLES D. WALCOTT,
+ _Secretary of the Smithsonian institution_.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+When Louisiana became a part of the United States the great wilderness
+to the westward of the Mississippi was the home of many native tribes,
+or groups of tribes, retaining their primitive manners and customs,
+little influenced by contact with Europeans. Their villages were
+scattered along the water courses or skirted the prairies, over which
+roamed vast herds of buffalo, these serving to attract the Indians and
+to supply many of their wants--food, raiment, and covering for their
+shelters. But so great are the changes wrought within a century that now
+few buffalo remain, the Indian in his primitive state has all but
+vanished, and even the prairies have been altered in appearance. The
+early accounts of the region contain references to the native camps and
+villages, their forms and extent, tell of the manner in which the
+habitations were constructed, and relate how some were often removed
+from place to place. Extracts from the various narratives are now
+brought together, thus to describe the homes and ways of life of the
+people who once claimed and occupied a large section of the present
+United States.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+ Page
+
+ The tribes and their habitat 1
+
+ The buffalo (_Bison americanus_) 3
+
+ Villages and forms of structures 7
+
+ Algonquian tribes 8
+
+ Ojibway 8
+
+ Cree 17
+
+ Cheyenne 21
+
+ Blackfoot confederacy 25
+
+ Arapaho 33
+
+ Sauk and Foxes 37
+
+ Illinois 41
+
+ Siouan tribes 43
+
+ Dakota-Assiniboin group 44
+
+ Mdewakanton 45
+
+ Wahpeton 52
+
+ Yanktonai 54
+
+ Yankton 57
+
+ Teton 59
+
+ Oglala 63
+
+ Assiniboin 71
+
+ Dhegiha group 77
+
+ Omaha 77
+
+ Ponca 87
+
+ Kansa 89
+
+ Osage 98
+
+ Quapaw 108
+
+ Chiwere group 112
+
+ Iowa 113
+
+ Oto 114
+
+ Missouri 121
+
+ Winnebago 122
+
+ Mandan 122
+
+ Hidatsa group 140
+
+ Hidatsa 141
+
+ Crows 150
+
+ Caddoan tribes 155
+
+ Pawnee 155
+
+ Arikara 167
+
+ Wichita 179
+
+ Waco 181
+
+ Caddo 182
+
+ Conclusion 184
+
+ Authorities cited 186
+
+ Synonymy 193
+
+ Explanation of plates 194
+
+ Index 203
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+PLATES
+
+ Page
+
+ 1. Drying buffalo meat. Griset Frontispiece.
+
+ 2. "A buffalo hunt on the southwestern prairies." Stanley 4
+
+ 3. "Buffalo hunt." Wimar 4
+
+ 4. "Buffalo hunting on the frozen snow." Rindisbacher 4
+
+ 5. _a_, "A buffalo pound." Kane. _b_, Scene in a Sioux village,
+ about 1870 4
+
+ 6. _a_, Camp of "Sautaux Indians on the Red River." _b_,
+ Ojibway wigwam at Leech Lake, Minnesota 10
+
+ 7. _a_, "Encampment among the islands of Lake Huron." Kane.
+ _b_, Ojibway camp on bank of Red River 10
+
+ 8. _a_, Ojibway camp west of Red River. _b_, Ojibway camp
+ on bank of Red River 12
+
+ 9. Ojibway habitations. _a_, Wigwams covered with elm bark.
+ _b_, Wigwams covered with birch bark 12
+
+ 10. _a_, Ojibway birch bark canoe. _b_, Ojibway Indians with
+ birch bark canoes 16
+
+ 11. _a_, Trader's store near Cass Lake. _b_, Outside an elm
+ bark covered structure 16
+
+ 12. Objects of Ojibway make. _a_, Hammer, bag, and two
+ skin-dressing tools. _b_, Section of a rush mat 16
+
+ 13. _a_, Ojibway mortar and pestle. _b_, Delaware mortar
+ and pestle. _c_, Ojibway birch bark dish 16
+
+ 14. Cheyenne family 24
+
+ 15. Piegan camp. Bodmer 24
+
+ 16. _a_, Blackfoot camp. Kane. _b_, Arapaho village 34
+
+ 17. Atsina camp. Bodmer 34
+
+ 18. Sauk and Fox habitations. _a_, Frames of structures.
+ _b_, Mat-covered lodges 38
+
+ 19. Sauk and Fox habitation covered with elm bark 38
+
+ 20. _a_, Northwest shore of Mille Lac, 1900. _b_, The
+ Sacred Island in Mille Lac 46
+
+ 21. "Kaposia, June 19th, 1851." Mayer 46
+
+ 22. _a_, "Dakotah village." Eastman. _b_, "Dakotah
+ encampment." Eastman 50
+
+ 23. _a_, Council at the mouth of the Teton. Catlin.
+ _b_, Fort Pierre, July 4, 1851. Kurz 50
+
+ 24. _a_, _b_, Near Fort Laramie, 1868. _c_, "A skin lodge
+ of an Assiniboin chief." Bodmer 76
+
+ 25. _a_, Assiniboin lodges formed of pine boughs. Kane. _b_,
+ "Horse camp of the Assiniboins, March 21,
+ 1852." Kurz 76
+
+ 26. _a_, Tipi of an Omaha chief. _b_, Page of Kurz's
+ sketchbook 76
+
+ 27. "The village of the Omahas." 1871 76
+
+ 28. _a_, Page of Kurz's sketchbook, showing Omaha village.
+ _b_, Page of Kurz's sketchbook, showing interior
+ of an Omaha lodge 80
+
+ 29. "Punka Indians encamped on the banks of the Missouri."
+ Bodmer 80
+
+ 30. _a_, Kansa village, 1841. Lehman. _b_, Dog dance within
+ a Kansa lodge, 1819. Seymour 96
+
+ 31. Kansa habitation 96
+
+ 32. _a_, Frame of an Osage habitation. _b_, An Iowa
+ structure 102
+
+ 33. "Oto encampment, near the Platte, 1819." Seymour 102
+
+ 34. _a_, Oto pemmican maul. _b_, Heavy stone maul.
+ _c_, Mandan implement for dressing hides 120
+
+ 35. _a_, Oto dugout canoe, from Kurz's sketchbook.
+ _b_, Hidatsa bull-boat and paddle 120
+
+ 36. Winnebago habitations, about 1870. _a_, Structure
+ with arbor. _b_, Showing entrance on side 120
+
+ 37. Winnebago structures 120
+
+ 38. _a_, Interior of a Mandan lodge. Catlin. _b_, Scene
+ in a Mandan village. Catlin 132
+
+ 39. "Mih-tutta-hangkusch," a Mandan village. Bodmer 132
+
+ 40. Interior of a Mandan lodge. Bodmer 136
+
+ 41. _a_, _c_, Mandan wooden bowls. _b_, Mandan
+ earthenware jar 136
+
+ 42. _a_, Buffalo horn spoon. _b_, Spoon made of horn of
+ mountain sheep. Mandan 136
+
+ 43. "Miniatarree village." Catlin 136
+
+ 44. "Winter village of the Minatarres." _a_, Original pencil
+ sketch. _b_, Finished picture of same. Bodmer 142
+
+ 45. From Kurz's sketchbook. _a_, Use of a carrying basket.
+ _b_, The ring-and-pole game. _c_, Hidatsa with
+ bull-boats 142
+
+ 46. Crow tipis. _a_, "Crow lodge." Catlin. _b_, Camp at
+ the old agency, 1871 152
+
+ 47. A camp in a cottonwood grove 152
+
+ 48. Trader crossing the prairies. Page of Kurz's sketchbook 162
+
+ 49. Pawnee village, 1871 162
+
+ 50. Pawnee earth lodges, 1871 162
+
+ 51. In a Pawnee village, 1871. _a_, Children at lodge
+ entrance. _b_, Showing screen near same entrance 162
+
+ 52. __a, Arikara carrying basket. _b_, Wichita mortar 168
+
+ 53. "Riccaree village." Catlin 168
+
+ 54. _a_, Arikara rake. _b_, Arikara hoe. _c_, Crow
+ parfleche box 178
+
+ 55. Wichita habitations. _a_, Near Anadarko. _b_, Lodge
+ standing about 1880 178
+
+
+ TEXT FIGURES
+
+ 1. The buffalo of Gomara, 1554 4
+
+ 2. Tipis 59
+
+ 3. Horse travois 66
+
+ 4. Plan of the large Mandan village, 1833 131
+
+ 5. "The ark of the first man" 132
+
+ 6. Typical earth lodges 133
+
+ 7. Inclosed bed 134
+
+ 8. Plan of the interior of a Mandan lodge 135
+
+ 9. Wooden club 138
+
+ 10. Plan of the Mandan village at Fort Clark 140
+
+ 11. Plan of a ceremonial lodge 144
+
+ 12. Plan of the large Hidatsa village 145
+
+
+
+
+VILLAGES OF THE ALGONQUIAN, SIOUAN, AND CADDOAN TRIBES WEST OF THE
+MISSISSIPPI.
+
+BY DAVID I. BUSHNELL, JR.
+
+
+
+
+THE TRIBES AND THEIR HABITAT.
+
+
+The country occupied by the tribes belonging to the three linguistic
+groups whose villages are now to be described extended from south of the
+Arkansas northward to and beyond the Canadian boundary, and from the
+Mississippi across the Great Plains to the Rocky Mountains. It thus
+embraced the western section of the valley of the Mississippi, including
+the entire course of the Missouri, the hilly regions bordering the
+rivers, and the vast rolling prairies. The climatic conditions were as
+varied as were the physiographical features, for, although the winters
+in the south were comparatively mild, in the north they were long and
+severe.
+
+The three linguistic families to be considered are the Algonquian,
+Siouan, and Caddoan. Many Algonquian and Siouan tribes formerly lived
+east of the Mississippi, and their villages have already been described
+(Bushnell, (1)),[1] but within historic times all Caddoan tribes appear
+to have occupied country to the westward of the river, although it is
+not improbable that during earlier days they may have had villages
+beyond the eastern bank of the stream, the remains of which exist.
+
+[1] For citation of references throughout this bulletin, _see_
+"Authorities cited," p. 186.
+
+The Algonquians included in this account comprise principally the three
+groups which may be termed the western division of the great linguistic
+family. These are: (1) The Blackfoot confederacy, composed of three
+confederated tribes, the Siksika or Blackfeet proper, the Piegan, and
+the Kainah or Bloods; (2) the Arapaho, including several distinct
+divisions, of which the Atsina, or Gros Ventres of the Prairie, who were
+closely allied with the Blackfeet, were often mentioned; (3) the
+Cheyenne, likewise forming various groups or divisions. Belonging to the
+same great family were the Cree or Kristinaux, whose habitat was farther
+north, few living south of the Canadian boundary; also the Ojibway,
+whose villages were scattered northward from the upper waters of the
+Mississippi. Some Sauk later lived west of the Mississippi, as did bands
+of the Foxes and some of the Illinois tribes.
+
+The Siouan tribes were among the most numerous and powerful on the
+continent, and those to be mentioned on the following pages belonged to
+several clearly defined groups. As classified in the Handbook of
+American Indians North of Mexico,[2] these include:
+
+[2] Bull. 30, Bur. Amer. Ethn., part 2, p. 579.
+
+I. Dakota-Assiniboin group: 1, Mdewakanton; 2, Wahpekute (forming, with
+the Mdewakanton, the Santee); 3, Sisseton; 4, Wahpeton; 5, Yankton; 6,
+Yanktonai; 7, Teton--(a) Sichangu or Brules, (b) Itazipcho or Sans Arcs,
+(c) Sihasapa or Blackfeet, (d) Miniconjou, (e) Oohenonpa or Two
+Kettles, (f) Oglala, (g) Hunkpapa; 8, Assiniboin.
+
+II. Dhegiha group: 1, Omaha; 2, Ponca; 3, Quapaw; 4, Osage--(a) Pahatsi,
+(b) Utschta, (c) Santsukhdhi; 5, Kansa.
+
+III. Chiwere group: 1, Iowa; 2, Oto; 3, Missouri.
+
+IV. Winnebago.
+
+V. Mandan.
+
+VI. Hidatsa group: 1, Hidatsa; 2, Crows.
+
+The Caddoan family is less clearly defined than either of the preceding,
+but evidently consisted of many small tribes grouped, and forming
+confederacies. Those to be mentioned later include: (1) The Arikara; (2)
+the Pawnee confederacy, composed of four tribes--(a) Chaui or Grand
+Pawnee, (b) Kitkehahki or Republican Pawnee, (c) Pitahauerat or Tapage
+Pawnee, (d) Skidi or Wolf Pawnee; (3) the Wichita confederacy, including
+the Waco and various small tribes; (4) the Caddo proper.
+
+Although the latter are included in the same linguistic group with the
+Arikara, Pawnee, and others as mentioned above, they are regarded by
+some as constituting a distinct linguistic stock.
+
+During the years following the close of the Revolution, the latter part
+of the eighteenth century, many tribes, or rather the remnants of
+tribes, then living east of the Mississippi, sought a refuge in the West
+beyond the river. Many settled on the streams in the southern part of
+the present State of Missouri and northern Arkansas, and, as stated by
+Stoddard when writing about the year 1810: "A considerable number of
+Delawares, Shawanese, and Cherokees, have built some villages on the
+waters of the St. Francis and White Rivers. Their removal into these
+quarters was authorized by the Spanish government, and they have
+generally conducted themselves to the satisfaction of the whites. Some
+stragglers from the Creeks, Chocktaws, and Chickasaws, who are
+considered as outlaws by their respective nations, have also established
+themselves on the same waters; and their disorders and depredations
+among the white settlers are not unfrequent." (Stoddard, (1), pp.
+210-211.) And at about the same time another writer, referring to the
+same region, said: "Below the Great Osage, on the waters of the Little
+Osage, Saint Francis, and other streams, are a number of scattered bands
+of Indians, and two or three considerable villages. These bands were
+principally Indians, who were formerly outcasts from the tribes east of
+the Mississippi. Numbers have since joined from the Delawares,
+Shawanoes, Wayondott, and other tribes towards the lakes. Their warriors
+are said to be five or six hundred. They have sometimes made excursions
+and done mischief on the Ohio river, but the settlements on the
+Mississippi have suffered the most severely by their depredations."
+(Cutler, (1), p. 120.)
+
+No attempt will be made in the present work to describe the habitations
+or settlements occupied by the scattered bands just mentioned.
+
+It is quite evident that during the past two or three centuries great
+changes have taken place in the locations of the tribes which were
+discovered occupying the region west of the Mississippi by the first
+Europeans to penetrate the vast wilderness. Thus the general movement of
+many Siouan tribes has been westward, that of some Algonquian groups
+southward from their earlier habitats, and the Caddoan appear to have
+gradually gone northward. It resulted in the converging of the tribes in
+the direction of the great prairies occupied by the vast herds of
+buffalo which served to attract the Indian. Until the beginning of this
+tribal movement it would seem that a great region eastward from the base
+of the Rocky Mountains, the rolling prairie lands, was not the home of
+any tribes but was solely the range of the buffalo and other wild
+beasts, which existed in numbers now difficult to conceive.
+
+
+
+
+THE BUFFALO.
+
+(_Bison americanus_.)
+
+
+With the practical extermination of the buffalo in recent years, and the
+rapid changes which have taken place in the general appearance of the
+country, it is difficult to picture it as it was two or more centuries
+ago. While the country continued to be the home of the native tribes
+game was abundant, and the buffalo, in prodigious numbers, roamed over
+the wide region from the Rocky Mountains to near the Atlantic. It is
+quite evident, and easily conceivable, that wherever the buffalo was to
+be found it was hunted by the people of the neighboring villages,
+principally to serve as food. But the different parts of the animal were
+made use of for many purposes, and, as related in an early Spanish
+narrative, one prepared nearly four centuries ago, when referring to
+"the oxen of Quivira ... Their masters have no other riches nor
+substance: of them they eat, they drink, they apparel, they shooe
+themselves: and of their hides they make many things, as houses, shooes,
+apparell and ropes: of their bones they make bodkins: of their sinews
+and haire, threed: of their hornes, maws, and bladders, vessels: of
+their dung, fire: and of their calves-skinnes, budgets, wherein they
+drawe and keepe water. To bee short, they make so many things of them as
+they neede of, or as many as suffice them in the use of this life."
+(Gomara, (1), p. 382.) A crude engraving of a buffalo made at that time
+is reproduced in figure 1.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The buffalo of Gomara, 1554]
+
+The preceding account describes the customs of the people then living in
+the southern part of the region treated in the present sketch, either a
+Caddoan or a neighboring tribe or group, and it suggests another
+reference to the great importance of the buffalo, but applying to the
+tribes of the north more than three centuries later.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 2
+
+[Illustration: "A BUFFALO HUNT ON THE SOUTHWESTERN PRAIRIES"
+
+J. M. Stanley, 1845]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 3
+
+[Illustration: "BUFFALO HUNT"
+
+Carl Wimar, 1860]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 4
+
+[Illustration: "BUFFALO HUNTING ON THE FROZEN SNOW"
+
+Peter Rindisbacher, about 1825]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 5
+
+[Illustration: _a._ "A Buffalo Pound." Paul Kane, 1845]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Scene in a Sioux village, about 1870. Photograph by
+S. J. Morrow]
+
+"The animals inhabiting the Dakota country, and hunted more or less by
+them for clothing, food, or for the purposes of barter, are buffalo,
+elk, black- and white-tailed deer, big-horn, antelope, wolves of several
+kinds, red and gray foxes, a few beaver and otter, grizzly bear, badger,
+skunk, porcupine, rabbits, muskrats, and a few panthers in the
+mountainous parts. Of all those just mentioned the buffalo is most
+numerous and most necessary to their support. Every part of this animal
+is eaten by the Indian except the horns, hoofs, and hair, even the skin
+being made to sustain life in times of great scarcity. The skin is used
+to make their lodges and clothes, the sinews for bowstrings, the horns
+to contain powder, and the bones are wrought into various domestic
+implements, or pounded up and boiled to extract the fatty matter. In the
+proper season, from the beginning of October until the 1st of March, the
+skins are dressed with the hair remaining on them, and are either worn
+by themselves or exchanged with the traders." (Hayden, (1), p. 371.)
+
+In the early days the tribes who occupied a region frequented by or in
+the vicinity of the range of the buffalo could and undoubtedly did kill
+sufficient numbers to satisfy their various wants and requirements, but
+hunting was made more easy in later times when horses were possessed by
+the Indian. Then it became possible for the bands of hunters, or
+even the entire village, to follow the vast herds, to surround and kill
+as many as they desired, and to carry away great quantities of meat to
+be "jerked," or dried, for future use. So intimately connected were the
+buffalo with the life of the tribes of the plains and the circumjacent
+country that frequent allusions will be made to the former when
+describing the camps and villages of the latter.
+
+
+The various ways of hunting the buffalo and other wild beasts of the
+plains and mountainous country, as practiced by the different tribes,
+have been described by many writers. The several methods of hunting the
+buffalo were often forced through natural conditions, but nothing could
+have exceeded the excitement produced during the chase by well-mounted
+Indian hunters. This was the usual custom of the tribes of the plains
+after horses had become plentiful and the buffalo continued numerous.
+The paintings reproduced in plates 2 and 3 vividly portray this phase of
+the hunt. In the north the hunters were compelled during the long
+winters to attack the herds on the frozen, snow-covered prairies, and
+plate 4 shows a party of hunters, wearing snowshoes, mingled with the
+buffalo. This sketch, made about the year 1825, bears the legend:
+"Indian Hunters pursuing the Buffalo early in the spring when the snow
+is sufficiently frozen to bear the men but the Animal breaks through and
+cannot run." This graphic sketch may represent a party of Cree or
+Assiniboin hunters, probably the latter, and it will be noticed that
+they are using bows and arrows, not firearms, although other drawings by
+the same artist representing a summer hunt shows them having guns.
+
+Another custom in the North was that of constructing inclosures of logs
+and branches of trees, leaving one opening through which the buffalo
+were driven, and when thus secured were killed. Such an inclosure, or
+pound, is shown in plate 5, _a_. This is a reproduction of the original
+painting made by Paul Kane, September, 1845. In describing it he wrote:
+"These pounds can only be made in the vicinity of forests, as they are
+composed of logs piled up roughly, five feet high, and enclose about two
+acres. At one side an entrance is left, about ten feet wide, and from
+each side of this, to the distance of half a mile, a row of posts or
+short stumps, called dead men, are planted, at the distance of twenty
+feet each, gradually widening out into the plain from the entrance. When
+we arrived at the pound we found a party there anxiously awaiting the
+arrival of the buffaloes, which their companions were driving in. This
+is accomplished as follows:--A man, mounted on a fleet horse, usually
+rides forward till he sees a band of buffaloes. This may be sixteen or
+eighteen miles distant from the ground, but of course the nearer to it
+the better. The hunter immediately strikes a light with a flint and
+steel, and places the lighted spunk in a handful of dried grass, the
+smoke arising from which the buffaloes soon smell and start away from it
+at the top of their speed. The man now rides up alongside of the herd,
+which, from some unaccountable propensity, invariably endeavour to cross
+in front of his horse. I have had them follow me for miles in order to
+do so. The hunter thus possesses an unfailing means, wherever the pound
+may be situated, of conducting them to it by the dexterous management of
+his horse. Indians are stationed at intervals behind the posts, or dead
+men, provided with buffalo robes, who, when the herd are once in the
+avenue, rise up and shake the robes, yelling and urging them on until
+they get into the enclosure, the spot usually selected for which is one
+with a tree in the centre. On this they hang offerings to propitiate the
+Great Spirit to direct the herd towards it. A man is also placed in the
+tree with a medicine pipestem in his hand, which he waves continually,
+chaunting a sort of prayer to the Great Spirit, the burden of which is
+that the buffaloes may be numerous and fat." (Kane, (1), pp. 117-119.)
+Quite similar to this is the description of a pound constructed by the
+Cree a few years later. This was some 120 feet across, "constructed of
+the trunks of trees, laced with withes together, and braced by outside
+supports," and within "lay tossed in every conceivable position over two
+hundred dead buffalo." Another pound erected at this time had the "dead
+men" extending for a distance of 4 miles from the entrance. (Hind, (1),
+I, pp. 356-359.) Maximilian, Lewis and Clark, and other explorers of the
+upper Missouri Valley refer to enclosures into which the Indians drove
+antelope. And that the custom was followed by the tribes far east of the
+Mississippi is proved by the writings of early explorers. Champlain in
+1615 gave an account, accompanied by an interesting drawing, of such a
+hunt, and Lahontan nearly a century later presented an illustration
+bearing the legend: "Stags block'd up in a park, after being pursued by
+y^e Savages." Many other references could be quoted, as the ways of
+hunting followed by the Indians have always been of interest to the many
+writers who have described the manners and customs of the people.
+
+What was probably a characteristic view in a Sioux village of half a
+century ago, after a successful hunt, is shown in the old photograph
+reproduced in plate 5, _b_. Here, in front of the group of skin tipis,
+are quantities of meat suspended and being "jerked" or dried in the air.
+Buffalo skins are stretched on the ground, and in the immediate
+foreground are two women scraping a skin. This is a picture of the
+greatest interest and rarity.
+
+The sight of the great herds roaming unmolested over the far-reaching
+prairies proved of interest to all who saw them, and many accounts are
+left by the early travelers. One brief description of such a scene may
+be quoted. It refers to a place in the upper Missouri Valley, not far
+from a Mandan village, and was written June 22, 1811:
+
+"We arrived on the summit of a ridge more elevated than any we had yet
+passed. From thence we saw before us a beautiful plain, as we judged,
+about four miles across, in the direction of our course, and of similar
+dimensions from east to west. It was bounded on all sides by long
+ridges, similar to that which we had ascended. The scene exhibited in
+this valley was sufficiently interesting to excite even in our Canadians
+a wish to stop a few minutes and contemplate it. The whole of the plain
+was perfectly level, and, like the rest of the country, without a single
+shrub. It was covered with the finest verdure, and in every part herds
+of buffaloes were feeding. I counted seventeen herds, but the aggregate
+number of the animals it was difficult even to guess at: some thought
+upwards of 10,000." (Bradbury, (1), pp. 134-135.) And this was but one
+of innumerable similar scenes to have been witnessed throughout the wide
+range of the vast herds.
+
+"The Indians say ... that in travelling over a country with which they
+are unacquainted they always follow the buffalo trail, for this animal
+always selects the most practicable route for his road." (Warren, (1),
+p. 74.) This is a well-known fact, and many roads both east and west of
+the Mississippi which have now developed into important highways owe
+their origin to this cause.
+
+The story of the buffalo will ever be one of interest, becoming more and
+more so as the years pass; and so it is gratifying to know that nearly
+all the available information bearing on the customs of the animal, the
+migration of the herds, their ancient habitat, and their rapid reduction
+in numbers was some years ago brought together and preserved in a single
+volume. (Allen, (1).) This was done while the buffalo were still quite
+numerous, and many facts recorded were derived from hunters or others
+acquainted with the customs of the times.
+
+
+
+
+VILLAGES AND FORMS OF STRUCTURES.
+
+
+The villages as well as the separate structures reared by the many
+tribes who formerly occupied the region treated in the present work
+presented marked characteristics, causing them to be easily identified
+by the early travelers through the wilderness of a century ago. The mat
+and bark covered wigwam predominated among the Algonquian tribes of the
+north, although certain members of this great linguistic family also
+used the skin tipi so typical of the Siouan tribes of the plains, while
+some of the latter stock constructed the earth lodge similar to that
+erected by the Caddoan tribes. Thus, it will be understood no one group
+occupied habitations of a single form to the exclusion of all others,
+and again practically all the tribes had two or more types of dwellings
+which were reared and used under different conditions, some forming
+their permanent villages, others, being easily removed and transported,
+serving as their shelters during long journeys in search of the buffalo.
+The villages of the several groups will now be mentioned in detail.
+
+
+ALGONQUIAN TRIBES.
+
+The numerous tribes and the many confederated groups belonging to the
+great Algonquian linguistic family extended over the continent from the
+Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic coast, and from Labrador on the north
+southward to Carolina. They surrounded the Iroquoian tribes of the
+north, and, at various places came in contact with members of other
+stocks. The combined population of the widely scattered Algonquian
+tribes was greater than that of any other linguistic family in North
+America.
+
+The native tribes of tidewater Virginia and those who were encountered
+by the New England colonists, tribes so intimately associated with the
+early history of the Colonies, belonged to this stock, as did the later
+occupants of the Ohio Valley and of the "country of Illinois." In the
+present work the villages of other members of the linguistic group will
+be considered, including those of the Ojibway and the related Cree, and
+of the Blackfoot confederacy, Arapaho, and Cheyenne, usually termed the
+western division of the stock. Several tribes whose villages stood east
+of the Mississippi in early historic times will also be mentioned.
+
+OJIBWAY.
+
+The Ojibway (the Sauteux of many writers) formed the connecting link
+between the tribes living east of the Mississippi and those whose homes
+were across the "Great River." A century ago their lands extended from
+the shores of Lake Superior westward, beyond the headwaters of the
+Mississippi to the vicinity of the Turtle Mountains, in the present
+State of North Dakota. Thus they claimed the magnificent lakes of
+northern and central Minnesota--Mille Lac, Leech Lake, Cass Lake, and
+Red Lake--on the shores of which stood many of their camps and villages,
+serving as barriers against invasions and attacks by their inveterate
+enemies, the Sioux. The Ojibway are essentially a timber people, whose
+manners and customs were formed and governed by the environment of lakes
+and streams, and who were ever surrounded by the vast virgin forests of
+pine. While game, fish, and wild fowl were abundant and easily
+obtained, yet during the long winters when the lakes were frozen and
+the land was covered by several feet of snow there were periods of want
+when food was scarce.
+
+The habitations and other structures of the Ojibway, which have already
+been described and figured (Bushnell, (2)), were of various forms,
+constructed of several materials, and varying in different localities,
+according to the nature of the available supply of barks or rushes.
+
+In the north, on the shores of Lake Superior and westward along the
+lakes and streams, as in the valley of Red River and the adjacent
+region, the majority of structures were covered with sheets of birch
+bark, secured to frames of small saplings.
+
+About the year 1804 Peter Grant, a member of the old North-West Company,
+and for a long period at the head of the Red River Department of the
+company, prepared an account of the Sauteux Indians, and when describing
+the habitations of the people, wrote: "Their tents are constructed with
+slender long poles, erected in the form of a cone and covered with the
+rind of the birch tree. The general diameter of the base is about
+fifteen feet, the fire place exactly in the middle, and the remainder of
+the area, with the exception of a small place for the hearth, is
+carefully covered with the branches of the pine or cedar tree, over
+which some bear skins and old blankets are spread, for sitting and
+sleeping. A small aperture is left in which a bear skin is hung in lieu
+of a door, and a space is left open at the top, which answers the
+purpose of window and chimney. In stormy weather the smoke would be
+intolerable, but this inconvenience is easily removed by contracting or
+shifting the aperture at top according to the point from which the wind
+blows. It is impossible to walk, or even to stand upright, in their
+miserable habitations, except directly around the fire place. The men
+sit generally with their legs stretched before them, but the women have
+theirs folded backwards, inclined a little to the left side, and can
+comfortably remain the whole day in those attitudes, when the weather is
+too bad for remaining out of doors. In fine weather they are very fond
+of basking in the sun.
+
+"When the family is very large, or when several families live together,
+the dimensions of their tents are, of course, in proportion and of
+different forms. Some of these spacious habitations resemble the roof of
+a barn, with small openings at each end for doors, and the whole length
+of the ridge is left uncovered at top for the smoke and light." (Grant,
+(1), pp. 329-330.) And referring briefly to the ways of life of the
+people: "In the spring, when the hunting season is over, they generally
+assemble in small villages, either at the trader's establishment, or in
+places where fish or wild fowl abound; sturgeon and white fish are most
+common, though they have abundance of pike, trout, suckers, and
+pickerel. They sometimes have the precaution to preserve some for the
+summer consumption, this is done by opening and cleaning the fish, and
+then carefully drying it in the smoke or sun, after which it is tied up
+very tight in large parcels, wrapped up in bark and kept for use; their
+meat, in summer, is cured in the same manner.... Their meat is either
+boiled in a kettle, or roasted by means of a sharp stick, fixed in the
+ground at a convenient distance from the fire, and on which the meat is
+fixed and turned occasionally towards the fire, until the whole is
+thoroughly done; their fish is dressed in the same manner." (Op. cit.,
+pp. 330-331.)
+
+The method of cooking food, as mentioned in the preceding paragraph, is
+graphically illustrated in the old sketch made a century ago, now
+reproduced in plate 6, _a_. This shows a family gathered about a small
+fire where food is being prepared, and beyond is a bark-covered wigwam.
+The sketch bears the legend, "A family from the tribe of the wild
+Sautaux Indians on the Red River. Drawn from nature." It indicates the
+primitive dress and appearance of the people, and it is of interest to
+compare this with the photograph which is reproduced in plate 6, _b_,
+showing another small group of the people three-quarters of a century
+later. Such were the changes within that period.
+
+Similar to the preceding were the habitations shown by Kane in a sketch
+made during the early summer of 1845, the original painting being
+reproduced as plate 7, _a_. This was described as an "Indian encampment
+amongst the islands of Lake Huron; the wigwams are made of birch-bark,
+stripped from the trees in large pieces and sewed together with long
+fibrous roots; when the birch tree cannot be conveniently had, they
+weave rushes into mats ... for covering, which are stretched round in
+the same manner as the bark, upon eight or ten poles tied together at
+the top, and stuck in the ground at the required circle of the tent, a
+hole being left at the top to permit the smoke to go out. The fire is
+made in the centre of the lodge, and the inmates sleep all round with
+their feet towards it." (Kane, (1), pp. 6-7.) The interesting painting
+could well have been made among the Ojibway camps or settlements of
+northern Minnesota instead of representing a group of wigwams located
+many miles eastward, but this tends to prove the similarity of the small
+villages in the region where large sheets of birch bark were to be
+obtained.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 6
+
+[Illustration: _a._ "A family from the tribe of the wild Sautaux Indians
+on the Red River." Drawn from nature, 1821]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Ojibway wigwam. Leech Lake, Minnesota, 1896]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 7
+
+[Illustration: _a._ "Encampment among the Islands of Lake Huron." Paul
+Kane, 1845]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Ojibway camp on bank of Red River. Photograph by H.
+L. Hime, 1858]
+
+Between the loosely placed sheets of bark were necessarily many openings
+through which the wind could enter, and in addition was the open space
+at the top intentionally left as a vent through which the smoke could
+escape from the inside. In describing the appearance of the interior of
+such a structure it was told how--
+
+"Around the fire in the centre, and at a distance of perhaps 2 feet from
+it, are placed sticks as large as one's arm, in a square form, guarding
+the fire; and it is a matter of etiquette not to put one's feet nearer
+the fire than that boundary. One or more pots or kettles are hung over
+the fire on the crotch of a sapling. In the sides of the wigwam are
+stowed all clothing, food, cooking utensils, and other property of the
+family." When referring to the great feeling of relief on arriving at
+such a shelter in the frozen wilderness the same writer continued:
+
+"When one has been traveling all day through the virgin forest, in a
+temperature far below zero, and has not seen a house nor a human being
+and knows not where or how he is to pass the night, it is the most
+comforting sight in the whole world to see the glowing column of light
+from the top of the wigwam of some wandering family out hunting, and to
+look in and see that happy group bathed in the light and warmth of the
+life-giving fire ... and no one, Ojibway or white, is ever refused
+admission; on the contrary, they are made heartily welcome, as long as
+there is an inch of space." (Gilfillan, (1), pp. 68-69.) As a missionary
+among the Ojibway of northern Minnesota for a quarter of a century, Dr.
+Gilfillan learned to know and love the forests and lakes in the changing
+seasons of the year and to know the ways of life of the Ojibway as few
+have ever known them.
+
+The structures just mentioned were of a circular form, with the ends of
+the poles which supported the bark describing a circle on the ground. Of
+quite similar construction were the larger oval wigwams, where two
+groups of poles were arranged at the ends in the form of semicircles,
+with a ridgepole extending between the tops of the two groups. Other
+poles rested against the ridgepole and so formed the sloping supports
+upon which the strips of bark were placed. One most interesting example
+of this form of primitive habitation was visited by the writer during
+the month of October, 1899. It formed one of a small group of wigwams
+which at that time stood near the Canadian boundary, north of Ely,
+Minnesota. It was about 18 feet in length and between 8 and 9 feet in
+width. There were two entrances, one at each end, with hanging blankets
+to cover the openings. Within, along the median line on the ground,
+burned four small fires. Beautiful examples of rush mats, made by the
+women, were spread upon the ground near the sloping walls, these serving
+as seats during the day and sleeping places at night. Many articles hung
+from the poles which sustained the bark covering, as small bags and
+baskets, and many bunches of herbs. In one corner was a large covered
+_mokak_, and on the opposite side was a carefully wrapped drum, owned by
+the old Ojibway, _Ahgishkemunsit_, the Kingfisher, who was sitting on
+the ground near by.
+
+Quite similar to the preceding must have been the wigwam visited by Hind
+in 1858. This stood a short distance from Manitobah House, of the
+Hudson's Bay Company, and belonged to an Ojibway hunter. As Hind wrote:
+"His birch-bark tent was roomy and clean. Thirteen persons including
+children squatted round the fire in the centre. On the floor some
+excellent matting was laid upon spruce boughs for the strangers; the
+squaws squatted on the bare ground, the father of the family on an old
+buffalo robe. Attached to the poles of the tent were a gun, bows and
+arrows, a spear, and some mink skins. Suspended on cross pieces over the
+fire were fishing nets and floats, clothes, and a bunch of the bearberry
+to mix with tobacco for the manufacture of kinni-kinnik." (Hind, (1),
+II, p. 63.) Hind was accompanied on his second journey, in 1858, by a
+photographer, Humphrey Lloyd Hime, who made many interesting negatives
+while in the Indian country. Among the photographs made at this time are
+three views of bark wigwams of the Ojibway which stood near the banks of
+Red River. These are now reproduced in plates 7, _b_, and 8 _a_, _b_.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 8
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Ojibway camp west of Red River. Photograph by H. L.
+Hime, 1858]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Ojibway camp on bank of Red River. Photograph by H.
+L. Hime, 1858]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 9
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Wigwams covered with elm bark]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Two types of wigwams covered with birch bark
+
+OJIBWAY HABITATIONS, ABOUT 1865]
+
+While in the vicinity of Red River the year before (1857) Hind
+encountered several interesting Ojibway structures. At a point not far
+north of the Minnesota boundary his party crossed the Roseau a few miles
+east of Red River, and there "on the bank at the crossing place the
+skeletons of Indian wigwams and sweating-houses were grouped in a
+prominent position, just above a fishing weir where the Ojibways of this
+region take large quantities of fish in the spring. The framework of a
+large medicine wigwam measured twenty-five feet in length by fifteen in
+breadth; the sweating-houses were large enough to hold one man in a
+sitting position, and differed in no respect from those frequently seen
+on the canoe route between Lakes Superior and Winnipeg, and which have
+been often described by travelers." (Hind, (1), I, p. 163.) During the
+journey, when camping on an island in Bonnet Lake, the party encountered
+"an Indian cache elevated on a stage in the centre of the island. The
+stage was about seven feet above the ground, and nine feet long by four
+broad. It was covered with birch bark, and the treasures it held
+consisted of rabbit-skin robes, rolls of birch bark, a ragged blanket,
+leather leggings, and other articles of winter apparel, probably the
+greater part of the worldly wealth of an Indian family." (Op. cit., p.
+120.)
+
+The canoe route between the lakes mentioned by Hind was often broken by
+dangerous rapids, around which it was necessary to carry the canoes, as
+Catlin described the Ojibway party doing at the Falls of St. Anthony.
+
+The ceremonial lodge of the Ojibway, where the M[)i]de rites were
+enacted, was often 100 feet or more in length and about 12 feet in
+width. The frame was made of small saplings, bent and fastened by cords,
+similar to the frames of wigwams which were to be covered with mats or
+sheets of bark, but the coverings of the ceremonial lodges were usually
+of a more temporary nature, boughs and branches of the pine and spruce
+being sometimes used, which would soon fall away, although the rigid
+frame would stand from year to year, to be covered when required.
+Somewhat of this form was the "medicine lodge," described by Kane. This
+stood in the center of a large camp of the "Saulteaux" or Ojibway, not
+far from Fort Alexander, which was about 3 miles above Lake Winnipeg, on
+the bank of Winnipeg River. The camp was visited June 11, 1846, and in
+referring to the lodge: "It was rather an oblong structure, composed of
+poles bent in the form of an arch, and both ends forced into the ground,
+so as to form, when completed, a long arched chamber, protected from the
+weather by a covering of birch bark.... On my first entrance into the
+medicine lodge ... I found four men, who appeared to be chiefs, sitting
+upon mats spread upon the ground gesticulating with great violence, and
+keeping time to the beating of a drum. Something, apparently of a sacred
+nature was covered up in the centre of the group, which I was not
+allowed to see.... The interior of their lodge or sanctuary was hung
+round with mats constructed with rushes, to which were attached various
+offerings consisting principally of bits of red and blue cloth, calico,
+&c., strings of beads, scalps of enemies, and sundry other articles
+beyond my comprehension." (Kane, (1), pp. 68-71.)
+
+It is quite evident the frame of the large lodge encountered by Hind was
+similar to the structure described by Kane a few years before. Both
+stood in the northern part of the Ojibway country, a region where birch
+bark was extensively used as covering for the wigwams, and where it was
+easily obtained.
+
+The temporary, quickly raised shelters of the Ojibway were described by
+Tanner, who learned to make them from the people with whom he remained
+many years. Referring to a journey up the valley of the Assiniboin, he
+wrote: "In bad weather we used to make a little lodge, and cover it with
+three or four fresh buffaloe hides, and these being soon frozen, made a
+strong shelter from wind and snow. In calm weather, we commonly encamped
+with no other covering than our blankets." (Tanner, (1) p. 55.) On
+another occasion fire destroyed the wigwam and all the possessions of
+the family with whom he lived, and then, so he said: "We commenced to
+repair our loss, by building a small grass lodge, in which to shelter
+ourselves while we should prepare the pukkwi for a new wigwam. The
+women were very industrious in making these.... At night, also, when it
+was too dark to hunt, Wa-me-gon-a-biew and myself assisted at this
+labour. In a few days our lodge was completed." (Op. cit., p. 85.) And
+again when near Rainy Lake, "I had no pukkwi, or mats, for a lodge and
+therefore had to build one of poles and long grass." (p. 214.) It is
+quite evident the shelters of poles and grass, as mentioned by Tanner,
+were similar to those erected by the Assiniboin as described on another
+page, and as indicated in the painting by Paul Kane, which is reproduced
+as plate 25, _a_.
+
+Two very interesting old photographs, made more than half a century ago,
+are shown in plate 9. One, _a_, represents clearly the elm-bark covering
+of the wigwams, and in this picture the arbor suggests a Siouan rather
+than an Ojibway encampment; _b_ is more characteristic of the Ojibway.
+
+The structures encountered in the Ojibway country farther south differed
+from those already mentioned, the majority of which were covered with
+sheets of birch bark, a form which must necessarily have been restricted
+to the northern country. But the type was widely scattered northward,
+and undoubtedly extended eastward to the Atlantic, especially down the
+valley of the St. Lawrence into northern Maine and the neighboring
+Provinces. South of this zone were the dome-shaped mat or bark covered
+wigwams, varying in different localities according to the available
+supply of barks, or of rushes to be made into mats, which served to
+cover the rigid, oval-topped frame. Most interesting examples were
+standing in the Ojibway settlements on the shore of Mille Lac,
+Minnesota, during the spring of 1900. One, which may be accepted as a
+type specimen, was of a quadrilateral rather than oval outline of base,
+and measured about 14 feet each way, with a maximum height of 6 feet or
+more. The saplings which formed the frame were seldom more than 2 inches
+in diameter, one end being set firmly in the ground, the top being bent
+over and attached to similar pieces coming from the opposite side. Other
+small saplings or branches were tied firmly to these in a horizontal
+position about 2 feet apart, thus forming a rigid frame, over which was
+spread the covering of mats and sheets of bark, the latter serving as
+the roof. In this particular example the covering was held in place by
+cords which passed over the top and were attached to poles which hung
+horizontally about a foot above the ground. A second row of mats was
+fastened to the inside of the frame and others were spread on the ground
+near the walls. A small fire burned within near the center of the open
+space, although the cooking was often done outside, just beyond the
+single entrance.
+
+Although the Ojibway were numerous, they had few large villages or
+settlements. They lived for the most part in small, scattered groups,
+and often moved from place to place. However, there were some
+long-occupied sites, as at Red Lake, Sandy Lake, on the shores of Leech
+Lake, where the Pillagers gathered, and the more recently occupied
+villages at Mille Lac, sites once covered by the settlements of the
+Mdewakanton. These villages, which should more properly be termed
+"gathering places," at once suggest the various descriptions and
+accounts of the great village of the Illinois, which stood on the banks
+of the upper Illinois during the latter part of the seventeenth century
+and was many times visited by the French.
+
+When the Ojibway and Sioux gathered at Fort Snelling, at the mouth of
+the Minnesota River, during the summer of 1835 in the endeavor to
+establish peace between the two tribes or groups, they were encamped on
+opposite sides of the fort. Catlin, who was there at the time, wrote of
+the temporary camp of the Ojibway: "their wigwams made of birch bark,
+covering the frame work, which was of slight poles stuck in the ground,
+and bent over at the top, so as to give a rooflike shape to the lodge,
+best calculated to ward off rain and winds." (Catlin, (1), II, p. 137.)
+Unfortunately, the original painting of the camp does not exist in the
+great collection of Catlin paintings now belonging to the National
+Museum, Washington. In the catalogue of the collection printed in
+London, 1848, it appears as "334, Chippeway Village and Dog Feast at the
+Falls of St. Anthony; lodges built with birch-bark; Upper Mississippi."
+
+An outline drawing of the picture was given as plate 238 to illustrate
+the account quoted above, but how accurate either description or sketch
+may be is now quite difficult to determine. However, it is doubtful if
+the structures had flat ends, as indicated, and mats may have formed
+part of the covering. Catlin continued his narrative and told of the
+removal of the camp (p. 138): "After the business and amusements of this
+great Treaty between the Chippeways and Sioux were all over, the
+Chippeways struck their tents by taking them down and rolling up their
+bark coverings, which, with their bark canoes seen in the picture,
+turned up amongst their wigwams, were carried to the water's edge; and
+all things being packed in, men, women, dogs, and all, were swiftly
+propelled by paddles to the Falls of St Anthony." They reached "an eddy
+below the Falls, and as near as they could get by paddling." Here the
+canoes were unloaded and the canoes and all else carried about one-half
+mile above the Falls, where they again embarked and continued on their
+way. It is interesting to contemplate this scene and to realize it was
+enacted within the limits of the present city of Minneapolis so short a
+time ago. A beautiful example of the light birch-bark canoe of the
+Ojibway is shown in plate 10, _a_, and a photograph of two old Ojibway
+Indians with similar canoes is reproduced in plate 10, _b_. The canoes
+indicated by Kane in his painting (pl. 7, _a_) were of this form,
+probably the most graceful and easiest propelled craft ever devised.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 10
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Ojibway birch bark canoe. Northern Minnesota, 1899]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Ojibway Indians with birch bark canoes. North of
+Ely, Minn., 1899]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 11
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Trader's store at the village of the Pillagers, Cass
+Lake in the distance on the right. November 26, 1899]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Outside an elm-bark structure. At the Ojibway
+village of Sagawamick, on south shore of Mille Lac, Minnesota. May 21,
+1900]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 12
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Hammer, bag, and two skin-dressing tools]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Section of a rush mat, as used to form covering for
+a wigwam
+
+OBJECTS OF OJIBWAY MAKE]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 13
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Ojibway mortar and pestle]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Delaware mortar and pestle]
+
+[Illustration: _c._ Ojibway birch bark dish]
+
+The various structures in an Ojibway village do not appear to have been
+erected or placed with any degree of order. Certainly this is true of
+conditions in recent times, and whether any accepted or recognized plan
+was followed in the past is not known. The small wigwams formed an
+irregular group on the shore of a lake or the bank of a stream
+surrounded by the primeval forest.
+
+In the month of May, 1900, a council house which had been erected by the
+Ojibway some years before stood on a high point of land in the midst of
+dense woods, about 1 mile north of the outlet of Mille Lac--the
+beginning of Rum River--and about 200 yards from the lake shore. It was
+oriented with its sides facing the cardinal points, about 20 feet
+square, with walls 6 feet in height and the peak of the roof twice that
+distance above the ground. The heavy frame was covered with large sheets
+of elm bark, which had evidently been renewed from time to time during
+the preceding years. No traces of seats remained and grass was again
+growing on the ground which had served as the floor. This was the scene
+of the treaty of October 5, 1889, between the Ojibway of Mille Lac and
+the United States Government. Within a short time this very interesting
+primitive structure had disappeared and two years later no trace of it
+remained. Whether this represented an ancient type of building could not
+be ascertained.
+
+The Ojibway villages were supplied with the usual sweat houses, a small
+frame covered with blankets or other material, so often described.
+Resembling these were the shelters prepared for the use of certain old
+men who were believed to possess the power of telling of future events
+and happenings. Such a lodge was seen standing on the shore of Lake
+Superior, about 18 miles from Fond du Lac, July 27, 1826. As described
+by McKenney: "At this place, Burnt river is a place of divination, the
+seat of a _jongleur's_ incantations. It is a circle, made of eight
+poles, twelve feet high, and crossing at the top, which being covered in
+with mats, or bark, he enters, and foretells future events." (McKenney,
+(1), p. 269.) Interesting, indeed, are the many accounts of the
+predictions believed to have been made by these old men.
+
+A remarkable performance of this nature was witnessed by Paul Kane. When
+returning from the far West during the summer of 1848 the small party of
+which he was one arrived at Lake Winnipeg and on July 28 had advanced
+about midway down the eastern shore. On that day Kane made this entry in
+his journal: "_July 28th._--About 2 o'clock P.M., we endeavoured to
+proceed, but got only as far as the Dog's Head, the wind being so strong
+and unfavourable, that it was thought useless to run any risk for
+the short distance we would be able to make against it. In the evening
+our Indians constructed a jonglerie, or medicine lodge, the main object
+of which was to procure a fair wind for next day. For this purpose they
+first drive ten or twelve poles, nine or ten feet long, into the ground,
+enclosing a circular area of about three feet in diameter, with a boat
+sail open at the top. The medicine-man, one of which is generally found
+in every brigade, gets inside and commences shaking the poles violently,
+rattling his medicinal rattle, and singing hoarse incantations to the
+Great Spirit for a fair wind. Being unable to sleep on account of the
+discordant noises, I wrapped a blanket round me, and went out into the
+woods, where they were holding their midnight orgies, and lay down
+amongst those on the outside of the medicine lodge, to witness the
+proceedings. I had no sooner done so than the incantations at once
+ceased, and the performer exclaimed that a white man was present. How he
+ascertained this fact I am at a loss to surmise ... The Major,
+[M'Kenzie] ... with many other intelligent persons, is a firm believer
+in their medicine." (Kane, (1), pp. 439-441.)
+
+In addition to the several forms of structures erected by the Ojibway,
+as already described, they reared the elm-bark lodge which resembled in
+form the log cabin of the early settlers. Three of these were standing
+on the south shore of Mille Lac, Minnesota, during the spring of 1900,
+and the outside of one, showing the manner in which the bark covering
+was placed, is indicated in plate 11, _b_. This was similar in shape to
+the Sauk and Fox habitation reproduced in plate 19, although the Ojibway
+structure was more skillfully constructed. Habitations of a like nature
+were found among the Sioux villages on the banks of the Mississippi in
+the vicinity of Fort Snelling, and others were erected within a
+generation by the Menomini in northern Wisconsin, but whether this may
+be considered a primitive form of structure has not been determined.
+
+A trader's store standing near the Ojibway village on the shore of Cass
+Lake, Minnesota, during the late autumn of 1899 is shown in plate 11,
+_a_. Similar cabins were occupied by some of the Indian families, these
+having taken the place of the native wigwams.
+
+Various objects of primitive forms, made and used by the Ojibway within
+a generation, are shown in plates 12 and 13.
+
+CREE.
+
+The Cree (the Knisteneaux of Mackenzie) were closely related to the
+Ojibway; they spoke the same language, and had many customs in common.
+As Hayden wrote: "The Cree nation was originally a portion of the
+Chippewa, as the similarity of language proves; and even now they are
+so mingled with the latter people as with difficulty to be considered a
+distinct tribe, further than a slight difference in language and their
+local position." (Hayden, (1), p. 235.) Formerly they occupied the
+forest region to the eastward of the country which they later claimed.
+There they were probably accustomed to the mat or bark covered
+structures, similar to those of the neighboring Ojibway, but in more
+recent times, after having been attracted to the prairies by the
+buffalo, they followed the customs of the prairie tribes and for the
+most part made and used the typical conical skin-covered lodge.
+
+After reaching the open country, and becoming more accustomed to the
+life of roving hunters, they were necessarily less sedentary in their
+habits than formerly, and their camps probably seldom remained long in
+any one place. They became scattered over a wide region, and in 1856 it
+was said: "They number about ten or eleven hundred persons. Like most of
+the tribes in the Northwest Territory, they are separated into clans or
+bands, and live in different districts for greater advantages in
+hunting." Here is given a list of the several bands, with the number of
+skin lodges claimed by each group, but the "Pis-ka-kau-a-kis, or
+'Magpies,' are about thirty lodges; are stationed at Tinder Mountain;
+live in dirt lodges and log-cabins; cultivate the soil to some extent,
+and raise considerable quantities of corn and potatoes; hunt buffalo
+during the winter, and trade also with the Hudson's Bay Company."
+(Hayden, (1), p. 237.) The same writer continues (p. 238): "Besides the
+foregoing there are about two hundred lodges more who are not formed
+into bands, but scattered along Lac de L'Isle Croix, and live by hunting
+reindeer, moose, fish, and wild fowl. They live in skin tents in the
+summer, but sometimes build log and bark huts in winter, and seldom more
+than one cabin is found in the same place. These are the poorest of the
+Crees."
+
+Thus it will be understood how scattered bands of the same tribe often
+reared and occupied several forms of habitations, influenced by their
+natural surroundings and requirements. And here are references to the
+use of the bark-covered lodge, the skin-covered lodge of probably a
+different shape, the structure covered with earth or sod, and, lastly,
+the log cabin, by widely dispersed bands of the Cree.
+
+A simple form of temporary shelter was constructed by the Cree and
+Ojibway to serve during certain ceremonies. This was described about a
+century ago when recounting the customs of the "Sauteaux and the Crees."
+It was told that in public feasts "Several chiefs unite in preparing a
+suitable place, and in collecting sufficient provisions, for the
+accommodation of a numerous assemblage. To provide a place, poles are
+fixed obliquely into the ground, enclosing a sufficient space to hold
+several hundred, and at times, nearly a thousand people. On these
+poles, skins are laid, at the height of twelve or fifteen feet, thus
+forming a spacious court, or tent. The provisions consist both of dried
+and of fresh meat, as it would not be practicable to prepare a
+sufficient quantity of fresh meat, for such a multitude, which, however,
+consists only of men. At these feasts, the guests converse only on
+elevated topics, such as the public interests of the tribe, and the
+noble exploits of their progenitors, that they may infuse a publick and
+an heroic spirit, into their young men. Dancing always forms the
+concluding ceremony, at these festivals; and the women, who are not
+permitted to enter the place where they are celebrated, dance and sing
+around them, often keeping time with the music within." (Harmon, (1), p.
+362.) It is to be regretted that these early accounts are often so
+lacking in detail, and that so much is left to imagination. In this
+instance the form of the large structure was not mentioned, but it was
+probably extended, resembling to some degree the M[)i]de lodge of the
+Ojibway. Among the latter the large ceremonial lodge was covered with
+mats, sheets of bark, or sometimes with skins or boughs of pine or
+spruce. Like customs may have prevailed among the Cree.
+
+Proving the wandering, roving disposition of the Cree, and the
+consequent lack of permanent villages, Maximilian wrote from Fort Union,
+at the mouth of the Yellowstone, during the latter part of June, 1833:
+"The Crees live in the same territory as the Assiniboins, that is,
+between the Saskatschawan, the Assiniboin, and the Missouri. They ramble
+about in small bands with the others, are poor, have many dogs, which
+carry their baggage, but only a few horses. They live, like the
+Assiniboins, in leather tents, follow the herds of buffaloes, of which
+they sometimes kill great numbers in their parks. The Crees are reckoned
+at 600 or 800 tents." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 199-200.)
+
+The dog travois, such as was used by the Cree and mentioned in the
+preceding account, was of very ancient origin, having been seen and
+described by the first Spanish explorers to traverse the prairie lands
+of the Southwest. In _Relacion Postrera de Sivola_, prepared in the year
+1541, appears this interesting note:
+
+"These people have dogs like those in this country, except that they are
+somewhat larger, and they load these dogs like beasts of burden, and
+make saddles for them like our pack saddles, and they fasten them with
+their leather thongs, and these make their backs sore on the withers
+like pack animals. When they go hunting, they load these with their
+necessities, and when they move--for these Indians are not settled in
+one place, since they travel wherever the cows [buffalo] move, to
+support themselves--these dogs carry their houses, and they have the
+sticks of their houses dragging along tied on to the pack-saddles,
+besides the load which they carry on top, and the load may be, according
+to the dog, from 35 to 50 pounds." (Winship, (1), pp. 510-571.) This
+description could easily refer to conditions and customs among the
+tribes three centuries and more later.
+
+A very graphic sketch of a dog travois was made at Fort Union, October
+10, 1851, by the Swiss artist, Friedrich Kurz, and is now reproduced in
+plate 26, _b_, showing the method of attaching the poles, and how the
+load was rolled and placed upon the latter. The use of the horse for a
+similar purpose in later years followed as a natural sequence.
+
+Among the many paintings by Paul Kane, now preserved in the Royal
+Ontario Museum of Archaeology, at Toronto, is one bearing the legend:
+"Cree Indians Travelling." It represents a small party of Indians, some
+walking, others mounted on horses, with several horse and dog travois.
+The latter show long poles attached to the sides of the dogs, one end of
+the poles dragging on the ground, while about midway of their length is
+a small pack upon which a child is seated. The broken, rolling land of
+the north is represented with a few clumps of small trees. The picture
+is one of much beauty and interest, depicting as it does some of the
+primitive customs of the Cree.
+
+During the summer of 1858 the Hind expedition into the region far west
+of the Red River encountered many small groups of Cree hunters and also
+observed the ancient camp sites of the same tribe. They wrote in part:
+"Immediately on the banks of the Qu'appelle Valley near the 'Round Hill'
+opposite Moose Jaws Forks, are the remains of ancient encampments, where
+the Plain Crees, in the day of their power and pride, had erected large
+skin tents, and strengthened them with rings of stones placed round the
+base. These circular remains were twenty-five feet in diameter, the
+stones or boulders being about one foot in circumference. They wore the
+aspect of great antiquity, being partially covered with soil and grass.
+When this camp ground was occupied by the Crees, timber no doubt grew in
+the valley below, or on the prairie and ravines in detached groves, for
+their permanent camping grounds are always placed near a supply of fuel.
+
+"Making an early start in search of wood, we came suddenly upon four
+Cree tents, whose inmates were still fast asleep; about three hundred
+yards west of them we found ten more tents, with over fifty or sixty
+Indians in all. They were preparing to cross the valley in the direction
+of the Grand Coteau, following the buffalo. Their provisions for trade,
+such as dried meat and pemmican, were drawn by dogs, each bag of
+pemmican being supported upon two long poles, which are shaft, body, and
+wheels in one. Buffalo Pound Hill Lake, sixteen miles long, begins near
+Moose Jaws Forks, and on the opposite or south side of this long sheet
+of water, we saw eighteen tents and a large number of horses. The women
+in those we visited on our side of the valley and lake, had collected a
+great quantity of the mesaskatomina berry which they were drying." And
+not far beyond we "began to find the fresh bones of buffalo very
+numerous on the ground, and here and there startled a pack of wolves
+feeding on a carcas which had been deprived of its tongue and hump only
+by the careless, thriftless Crees. On the high banks of the valley the
+remains of ancient encampments in the form of rings of stones to hold
+down the skin tents are everywhere visible, and testify to the former
+numbers of the Plain Crees.... The largest ancient encampment we saw
+lies near a shallow lake in the prairie about a mile from the Qu'appelle
+valley. It is surrounded by a few low sandy and gravelly hills, and is
+quite screened from observation. It may have been a camping ground for
+centuries, as some circles of stones are partially covered with grass
+and embedded in the soil." (Hind, (1), I, pp. 338-341.)
+
+This is a simple explanation of the origin of small circles of stones
+now encountered in different parts of the country, but in other
+localities, where stones were not obtainable, masses of sod were used
+for the same purpose, and these in turn may have caused the small earth
+circles which are now discovered in the lower Mississippi Valley and
+elsewhere.
+
+CHEYENNE.
+
+As has been remarked by the most observant student of this tribe:
+"Information as to the region occupied by the Cheyenne in early days is
+limited and for the most part traditional. Some ethnologists declare
+that Indian tradition has no historical value, but other students of
+Indians decline to assent to this dictum. If it is to be accepted, we
+can know little of the Cheyenne until they are found as nomads following
+the buffalo over the plains. There is, however, a mass of traditionary
+data which points back to conditions at a much earlier date quite
+different from these. In primitive times they occupied permanent earth
+lodges and raised crops of corn, beans, and squashes, on which they
+largely depended for subsistence." (Grinnell, (1), p. 359.)
+
+According to tradition, which in part is verified by the accounts of
+early explorations, the Cheyenne at one time lived in the valley of the
+Minnesota, whence they gradually moved westward. Thus at least a part of
+the tribe removed from the edge of the timbered region to the plains, a
+movement which probably took place during the latter part of the
+eighteenth century.
+
+While living in the vicinity of the Minnesota the villages and camps of
+the Cheyenne undoubtedly resembled those of the Sioux of later days; the
+conical skin-covered lodge, or possibly the mat or bark structure of the
+timber people, as used by the Ojibway and others. But during the same
+period it is evident other bands of the tribe lived quite a distance
+westward, probably on the banks of the Missouri, and there the
+habitations were the permanent earth lodge, similar to those of the
+Pawnee, Mandan, and other Missouri Valley tribes. Sioux traditions refer
+to Cheyenne villages on the banks of the Missouri near Fort Yates, Sioux
+County, North Dakota. These were visited and described by Dr. Grinnell,
+during the spring of 1918, who wrote: "The Teton Sioux, now allotted and
+scattered over the Standing Rock Indian reservation, declare that on the
+west bank of the Missouri river, not far from Fort Yates, there were
+formerly two Cheyenne villages.... I visited the two sites. The most
+northerly one is situated on a bluff above the Missouri river on the
+south side of Porcupine creek, less than five miles north of Ft. Yates.
+The village has been partly destroyed by the Missouri river, which has
+undermined the bank and carried away some of the house rings reported to
+have been well preserved, but a number remain. Of these a few are still
+seen as the raised borders of considerable earth lodges, the rings about
+the central hollow being from twelve to fifteen inches above the
+surrounding soil, and the hollows noticeably deep. In most cases,
+however, the situation of the house is indicated merely by a slight
+hollow and especially by the peculiar character of the grass growing on
+the house site. The eye recognizes the different vegetation, and as soon
+as the foot is set on the soil within a house site, the difference is
+felt between that and the ground immediately without the site. The
+houses nearest both Porcupine creek and the Missouri river stand on the
+bank immediately above the water, and it is possible that some of those
+on the Porcupine have been undermined and carried away by that stream
+when in flood. This settlement must have been large. It stands on a
+flat, now bisected by a railroad embankment, slightly sloping toward the
+river, and the houses stood close together." More than 70 large house
+sites were counted, "one at least being 60 feet in diameter," and in
+addition to these were a large number of smaller ones. "On the gently
+rising land to the west of the Porcupine village the Cheyenne are said
+to have planted their corn, as also on the flats on the north side of
+the Porcupine river. The village site now stands on the farm of Yellow
+Lodge, a Yankton Sioux, who stated that he had always been told by the
+old people that this was a Cheyenne village and that in plowing he had
+often turned up pottery from the ground." And in reference to the age of
+this interesting site: "Sioux tradition declares that the village on
+the Porcupine river was established about 1733 or a little earlier,
+perhaps 1730; they fix the date as about one hundred years before the
+stars fell, 1833. It was a large village and was occupied for fifty
+years or more and then the people abandoned it and moved over to a point
+on Grand river twenty miles above its mouth. The date of the removal is
+given as about the time of a great flood at this point, which, it is
+said, took place about 1784." (Grinnell, Op. cit.) This later village
+existed until about 1840 and appears to have been composed of skin
+lodges, not the permanent earth structures. Sioux tradition also places
+the earlier home of the people who erected the village on the Porcupine
+at some point in the Valley of the Minnesota.
+
+The second of the two sites mentioned stood some 2 miles below Porcupine
+Creek, and it is the belief of Dr. Grinnell that these were the villages
+to which Lewis and Clark referred in their journals as having been
+passed by the expedition on the 15th and 16th of October, 1804. At that
+time game was abundant and several hunting parties of the Arikara were
+encountered, and an entry in the journal dated October 15, 1804, reads:
+"We stopped at three miles on the north a little above a camp of Ricaras
+who are hunting, where we were visited by about thirty Indians. They
+came over in their skin canoes, bringing us meat, for which we returned
+them beads and fishhooks. About a mile higher we found another
+encampment of Ricaras on the south, consisting of eight lodges: here we
+again ate and exchanged a few presents. As we went we discerned numbers
+of other Indians on both sides of the river; and at about nine miles we
+came to a creek on the south, where we saw many high hills resembling a
+house with a slanting roof; and a little below the creek an old village
+of the Sharha or Cheyenne Indians.... At sunset we halted, after coming
+ten miles over several sandbars and points, above a camp of ten Ricara
+lodges on the north side." (Lewis and Clark, (1), pp. 108-109.) Such was
+the nature of the country a little more than a century ago.
+
+Another ancient village site presenting many interesting features stands
+on the bank of an old bed of the Sheyenne River, near Lisbon, Ransom
+County, N. Dak. This would have been about midway between the Minnesota
+River and the village on the Missouri near Porcupine Creek. A plan of
+this village made a few years ago is now preserved in the Historical
+Society of North Dakota and was reproduced by Dr. Grinnell in the
+article cited. It shows a large number--70 or more--earth-lodge sites,
+varying in size, but closely grouped, and protected by a ditch except on
+the river side. There is a remarkable similarity between this site and
+others east of the Mississippi, where structures of a like form
+evidently stood in the centuries before the coming of Europeans. The
+ditch may have been accompanied by an embankment, in turn surmounted by
+palisades. The river served to protect the settlement on the north, the
+encircling embankment and ditch reaching the bank of the stream both
+above and below the occupied area.
+
+Unfortunately no sketch or picture of any sort of a Cheyenne earth lodge
+is known to exist, but the villages just mentioned must necessarily have
+resembled in appearance those of the Pawnee of a later generation,
+remarkable photographs of which have been preserved and which are shown
+in the present work. And as Dr. Grinnell has said in a recent
+communication (February 2, 1920) when referring to the places long ago
+occupied by the camps of the Cheyenne: "I have walked about on the sites
+of these old villages, and the grandmother of a woman of my
+acquaintance, and probably the father of that woman, lived in
+earth-lodge houses, presumably very similar to those occupied in my time
+by the Pawnees and the Mandans. I have never seen one, however, and do
+not know anyone who has seen one. Many years ago, I might have procured
+from old Elk River a description of such houses, though he was even then
+very old and growing feeble. It is too late to lament that now."
+
+The conical skin lodge of the Cheyenne resembled that of other plains
+tribes, and they must in earlier times, when buffalo were so numerous
+and easily secured, have been rather large and commodious structures.
+When Lewis and Clark descended the Missouri, on their return from the
+far west, they reached on August 21, 1806, an encampment of the Cheyenne
+on the bank of the Missouri, opposite the upper village of the Arikara,
+not far below the old Cheyenne village mentioned in the journal of the
+expedition on October 15, 1804. To quote from the entry made August 21,
+1806: "... arrived opposite to the upper Ricara villages. We saluted
+them with the discharge of four guns, which they answered in the same
+manner; and on our landing we were met by the greater part of the
+inhabitants of each village, and also by a band of Chayennes, who were
+encamped on a hill in the neighbourhood...." After conversing with all
+concerning the Mandans, "The sun being now very hot, the chief of the
+Chayennes invited us to his lodge, which was at no great distance from
+the river. We followed him, and found a very large lodge, made of twenty
+buffaloe skins, surrounded by eighteen or twenty lodges, nearly equal in
+size. The rest of the nation are expected to-morrow, and will make the
+number of one hundred and thirty or fifty lodges, containing from three
+hundred and fifty to four hundred men, at which the men of the nation
+may be computed. These Chayennes are a fine looking people, of a large
+stature, straight limbs, high cheek-bones and noses, and of a complexion
+similar to that of the Ricaras." (Lewis and Clark, (1), II, pp.
+413-414.)
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 14
+
+[Illustration: CHEYENNE. STUMP HORSE AND FAMILY]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 15
+
+[Illustration: "ENCAMPMENT OF THE PIEKANN INDIANS"
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833]
+
+The photograph reproduced in plate 14 shows a Cheyenne family group, an
+interesting example of a travois, and part of a lodge. The latter
+differs from all described on the preceding pages and evidently
+resembles those erected by the Pawnee in their temporary camps. This
+form may have been used in later times in the place of the conical skin
+lodge, although the latter was not abandoned, but, as among other
+tribes, the Cheyenne appear to have erected several types of shelters or
+habitations, governed by the available supply of materials necessary for
+their construction.
+
+Large lodges, evidently tipis, set up for special purposes by the
+Cheyenne, are mentioned by Grinnell. In the spring of 1853 the main
+village of that tribe, so he wrote, stood "at the mouth of Beaver Creek
+on the South Platte. There a large lodge was set up as a meeting-place
+for each of the soldier bands. To each such place came the relations of
+those killed the year before to implore the soldier bands to take pity
+on them and to help to revenge their injuries." And at this time many
+presents were given the warriors. (Grinnell, (2), p. 80.)
+
+This was before many of the primitive customs of the tribe had been
+changed through contact with the whites.
+
+BLACKFOOT CONFEDERACY.
+
+The tribes forming this group are the Siksika, or Blackfeet proper, the
+Piegan, and the Kainah, or Bloods. Closely allied and associated with
+these were the Atsina, a branch of the Arapaho, but who later became
+incorporated with the Assiniboin. These tribes roamed over a wide
+territory of mountains, plains, and valleys.
+
+Early accounts of the manners and ways of life of the Blackfeet are to
+be found in the journals kept by traders belonging to the Hudson's Bay
+Company, who penetrated the vast, unknown wilderness southwestward from
+York Factory during the eighteenth century. Although the records are all
+too brief and leave much to be desired, nevertheless they are of the
+greatest interest, referring as they do to the people while yet in a
+primitive state, with no knowledge of the customs of Europeans.
+
+The first of the journals to be mentioned is that of Anthony Hendry, who
+left York Factory June 26, 1754. He ascended Hayes River many miles,
+thence, after crossing numerous lakes and streams and traversing forests
+and plains, arrived on Monday, October 14, 1754, at a point not far
+northeastward from the present city of Calgary, Alberta. This was in the
+country of the Blackfeet, mentioned in the journal as the Archithinue
+Natives. That same day, so the narrative continues: "Came to 200 tents
+of Archithinue Natives, pitched in two rows, and an opening in the
+middle; where we were conducted to the Leader's tent; which was at one
+end, large enough to contain fifty persons; where he received us seated
+on a clear [white] Buffalo skin, attended by 20 elderly men. He made
+signs for me to sit down on his right hand: which I did. Our Leader set
+on several grand-pipes, and smoked all round, according to their usual
+custom: not a word was yet spoke on either side. Smoking being over,
+Buffalo flesh boiled was served round in baskets of a species of bent,
+and I was presented with 10 Buffalo tongues." The following day he again
+visited the lodge of the chief, where he received as a gift "a handsome
+Bow & Arrows," and the journal continues: "I departed and took a view of
+the camp. Their tents were pitched close to one another in two regular
+lines, which formed a broad street open at both ends. Their horses are
+turned out to grass, their legs being fettered: and when wanted, are
+fastened to lines cut of Buffalo skin, that stretches along & is
+fastened to stakes drove in the ground. They have hair halters, Buffalo
+skin pads, & stirrups of the same."
+
+Although Hendry mentioned the encampment to consist of 200 lodges it is
+quite evident others were in the vicinity, or came soon after his
+arrival, for three days later, on October 17, he noted in his journal
+"322 tents of Archithinue Natives unpitched and moved Westward."
+(Hendry, (1), pp. 337-340.) They did not have permanent villages, and
+"never wanted food, as they followed the Buffalo & killed them with the
+Bows and Arrows. They were unacquainted with the canoe, would not eat
+fish, and their garments were finely painted with red paint." Such were
+the Blackfeet about the middle of the eighteenth century.
+
+On June 27, 1772, Matthew Cocking, second factor at York Factory,
+started on a journey quite similar to that performed by Hendry just
+eighteen years earlier. He ascended Hayes River, passed north of Lake
+Winnipeg, and continued in a southwestwardly direction to some point not
+far north of the South Saskatchewan River in the extreme western part of
+the present Province of Saskatchewan. When near this position on
+December 1, 1772, they encamped not far from a "Beast pound," which had
+probably stood from year to year. That day, so he entered in his
+journal, "our Archithinue friends came to us and pitched a small
+distance from us; on one side the pound 21 tents of them, the other
+seven are pitched another way." And the following day, "the Archithinue
+Natives repairing the pound, the repair we gave it on our arrival not
+being sufficient." Two days later "the Archithinue Natives drove into
+the pound 3 male & one female Buffalo, & brought several considerable
+droves very near. They set off in the Evening; & drive the Cattle all
+night. Indeed not only at this Game, but in all their actions they far
+excell the other Natives. They are all well mounted.... Their Weapons,
+Bows & Arrows. Several have on Jackets of Moose leather six fold,
+quilted, & without sleeves." Cocking evidently visited many of the
+tents, and on December 5 wrote: "Our Archithinue Friends are very
+Hospitable, continually inviting us to partake of their best fare;
+generally berries infused in water with fat, very agreeable eating.
+Their manner of showing respect to strangers is, in holding the pipe
+while they smoke: this is done three times. Afterwards every person
+smokes in common; the Women excepted.... The tobacco they use is of
+their own planting.... These people are much more cleanly in their
+cloathing, & food, than my companions: Their Victuals are dressed in
+earthen pots, of their own Manufacturing; much in the same form as
+Newcastle pots, but without feet: their fire tackling a black stone used
+as flint, & a kind of Ore as a steel, using tuss balls as tinder, (i.
+e.) a kind of moss." December 6, 1772: "No success in pounding: the
+Strangers say the season is past." On December 21 "we were joined by ten
+tents of Asinepoet Indians," and the following day "by five tents of
+Nehetheway Indians." The former were Assiniboin and the latter Cree.
+(Cocking, (1), pp. 110-112.)
+
+One of the reasons which inspired Cocking to undertake the long journey
+into the wilderness was the desire to win the Blackfeet away from the
+French interests, and to persuade them to carry their furs to the posts
+of the Hudson's Bay Company. Soon the English were successful in their
+endeavors, and for several generations secured the furs and robes
+collected by the people of the ever-shifting camps, who followed the
+buffalo as the vast herds moved from place to place with the changing
+seasons of the year. Later, traders from another people penetrated the
+country to the upper waters of the Missouri, and certain of the
+Blackfeet began trading at the posts erected by these newcomers. The
+various tribes wandered over a wide region, and 60 years ago it was
+said:
+
+"The Blood Indians range through the district along Maria, Teton, and
+Belly Rivers, inclining west and northwest far into the interior. In
+this section, wood is more abundant, pasturage excellent, and,
+consequently, buffalo almost always abound there. The Blackfeet inhabit
+a portion of country farther north than the Bloods, extending to the
+banks of the Saskatchewan, along which they often reside. They have
+never altogether abandoned their English friends, and more frequently
+dispose of their furs to them than to the American traders on the head
+branches of the Missouri. The Piegans roam through the Rocky Mountains
+on the south side of Maria River, on both banks of the Missouri.... They
+also hunt as far down the Missouri as the Mussel-shell River, and up
+that stream to the borders of the Crow country. The three divisions ...
+constitute the Blackfoot nation proper, whose name has become notorious
+for their fierce and deadly struggles with all the neighboring tribes,
+and in former times struck terror to all white men who travelled in any
+district from the Saskatchewan to the Yellowstone, and from the
+Yellowstone to the Columbia.... These bands all live in skin tents, like
+the rest of the prairie tribes, follow the chase for a subsistence, and
+in former years were famous for their war excursions against neighboring
+tribes." (Hayden, (1), pp. 249-250.)
+
+The region mentioned would have included the central portion of the
+present State of Montana and northward. Marias River flows into the
+Missouri just below Fort Benton.
+
+Maximilian, who visited the Blackfeet during the summer of 1833, has
+left a very concise and interesting account of the appearance of their
+camps:
+
+"The leather tents of the Blackfeet, their internal arrangement, and the
+manner of loading their dogs and horses, agree, in every respect, with
+those of the Sioux and Assiniboins, and all the wandering tribes of
+hunters of the upper Missouri. The tents, made of tanned buffalo skin,
+last only for one year; they are, at first, neat and white, afterwards
+brownish, and at the top, where the smoke issues, black, and, at last,
+transparent, like parchment, and very light inside. Painted tents,
+adorned with figures, are very seldom seen, and only a few chiefs
+possess them. When these tents are taken down, they leave a circle of
+sods, exactly as in the dwellings of the Esquimaux. They are often
+surrounded by fifteen or twenty dogs, which serve, not for food, but
+only for drawing and carrying their baggage. Some Blackfeet, who have
+visited the Sioux, have imitated them in eating dogs, but this is rare.
+Near the tents they keep their dog sledges, with which they form conical
+piles resembling the tents themselves, but differing from them in not
+being covered with leather. On these they hang their shields, travelling
+bags, saddles and bridles; and at some height, out of the reach of the
+hungry dogs, they hang the meat, which is cut into long strips, their
+skins, &c. The medicine bag or bundle, the conjuring apparatus, is often
+hung and fastened to a separate pole, or over the door of the tent.
+Their household goods consist of buffalo robes and blankets, many kinds
+of painted parchment bags, some of them in a semicircular form, with
+leather strings and fringes; wooden dishes, large spoons made of the
+horn of the mountain sheep, which are very wide and deep.... In the
+center of the tent there is a small fire in a circle composed of stones,
+over which the kettle for cooking is suspended." (Maximilian, (1), pp.
+250-251.)
+
+A painting of a Piegan camp was made at that time by Bodmer, who
+accompanied Maximilian, and served as an illustration in the latter's
+work. It is here reproduced as plate 15. It shows clearly the many skin
+lodges forming the encampment, the numerous dogs and horses, with some
+of the Indians wrapped in highly decorated buffalo robes. Some of the
+lodges are decorated, but the great majority are plain, thus conforming
+with the description.
+
+Maximilian again wrote while at Fort McKenzie, in August, 1833:
+
+"Having made our arrangements on the first day of our arrival, and
+viewed the Indian camp, with its many dogs, and old dirty leather tents,
+we were invited, on the following day, together with Mr Mitchell, to a
+feast, given by the Blackfoot chief, Mehkskehme-Sukahs (the iron shirt).
+We proceeded to a large circle in the middle of the camp, enclosed with
+a kind of fence of boughs of trees, which contained part of the tents,
+and was designed to confine the horses during the night, for the Indians
+are so addicted to horse stealing that they do not trust each other. The
+hut of the chief was spacious; we had never before seen so handsome a
+one; it was full fifteen paces in diameter, and was very clean and
+tastefully decorated. We took our seats, without ceremony, on buffalo
+skins, spread out on the left hand of the chief, round the fire, in the
+centre of the tent, which was enclosed in a circle of stones, and a dead
+silence prevailed. Our host was a tall, robust man, who at this time had
+no other clothes than his breechcloth; neither women nor children were
+visible. A tin dish was set before us, which contained dry grated meat,
+mixed with sweet berries, which we ate with our fingers, and found very
+palatable. After we had finished, the chief ate what was left in the
+dish, and took out of a bag a chief's scarlet uniform, with blue facings
+and yellow lace, which he had received from the English, six red and
+black plumes of feathers, a dagger with its sheath, a coloured
+pocket-handkerchief, and two beaver skins, all of which he laid before
+Mr Mitchell as a present, who was obliged to accept these things whether
+he liked or not, thereby laying himself under the obligation of making
+presents in return, and especially a new uniform. When the chief began
+to fill his pipe, made of green talc, we rose and retired (quite in
+Indian fashion) in silence, and without making any salutations." (Op.
+cit., pp. 261-262.)
+
+As Maximilian had already visited and seen many skin lodges as he
+ascended the Missouri, his remarks concerning this one which belonged to
+the Blackfeet chief are most interesting. It was between 40 and 50 feet
+in diameter, very clean and well decorated, probably a remarkable
+example.
+
+The circles of earth which indicated the former positions of lodges were
+noticed by Maximilian, and he again mentioned them while at Fort Union,
+at the mouth of the Yellowstone, October 16, 1833. He said (p. 305):
+"The little prairie fox was so hungry, and, therefore so tame, that it
+often visited the environs of the fort, and we found these pretty little
+animals among the circles of turf which were left on the removal of the
+Indian tents."
+
+Another visit to the Piegan, in the same region, was made just 20 years
+later, during the month of September, 1853. J. M. Stanley, who
+accompanied Gov. Stevens as the artist of the expedition, left camp on
+the banks of Marias River and three days later, September 14, 1853,
+reached the divide between Milk and Bow Rivers: "From this divide I had
+a view of the Bull's Head, forming the base of Cypress mountain.... At 1
+o'clock I descended to a deep valley, in which flows an affluent of
+Beaver river. Here was the Piegan camp, of ninety lodges, under their
+chief Low Horn, one hundred and sixty-three miles north, 20 deg. west, of
+Fort Benton.
+
+"Little Dog conducted me, with my party, to his lodge, and immediately
+the chief and braves collected in the 'council Lodge,' to receive my
+message...." This was conducted with customary formality, and the next
+day, September 15, "At an early hour a town crier announced the
+intention of the chief to move camp. The horses were immediately brought
+in and secured around their respective lodges, and in less than one hour
+the whole encampment was drawn out in two parallel lines on the plains,
+forming one of the most picturesque scenes I have ever witnessed.
+
+"Preparation for their transportation is made in the following manner:
+The poles of the lodges, which are from twenty to thirty-five feet in
+length, are divided, the small ends being lashed together and secured to
+the shoulders of the horse, allowing the butt-ends to drag upon the
+ground on either side; just behind the horse are secured to
+cross-pieces, to keep the poles in their respective places, and upon
+which are placed the lodge and domestic furniture. This also serves for
+the safe transportation of the children and infirm unable to ride on
+horseback--the lodge being folded so as to allow two or more to ride
+securely. The horses dragging this burden--often of three hundred pounds
+are also ridden by the squaws, with a child astride behind, and one in
+her arms, embracing a favorite young pup.
+
+"Their dogs (of which they have a large number) are also used in
+transporting their effects in the same manner as the horses, making,
+with ease, twenty miles a day, dragging forty pounds. In this way this
+heterogeneous caravan, comprising of a thousand souls, fell into line
+and trotted quietly until night, while the chiefs and braves rode in
+front, flank, or rear, ever ready for the chase or defence against a
+foe.... Like other tribes in this region, the Piegans retain all their
+primitive customs, adhering with faithful pertinacity to the ceremonies
+of their forefathers." (Stanley, (1), pp. 448-449.) At that time the
+Piegan were estimated to have had 430 lodges, the average number of
+persons occupying each being 10.
+
+During this brief but interesting journey Stanley made many sketches of
+the Indians with whom he came in contact, but not one of the drawings is
+known to exist at the present time. His beautiful painting of a buffalo
+hunt, shown in plate 2, is one of his five pictures now in the National
+Museum at Washington.
+
+The Blackfeet allies often moved in great numbers from place to place
+when searching for the herds of buffalo or tracking some enemy tribe.
+Such a war party was encountered on the banks of the River Saskatchewan,
+two days' journey below Fort Pitt, about the present town of Battleford,
+Saskatchewan, on June 1, 1848. Among the party then going from Fort Pitt
+to Norway House, the Hudson's Bay Company's post on the northeast shore
+of Lake Winnipeg, was the Canadian artist Kane, who entered in his
+journal: "We saw a large party of mounted Indians, riding furiously
+towards us. On their nearer approach they proved to be a large war
+party, consisting of Blackfoot Indians, Blood Indians, Sur-cees, Gros
+Ventres, and Paygans.... We instantly put ashore to meet them.... They
+told us they were a party of 1,500 warriors, from 1,200 lodges, who were
+then 'pitching on' towards Fort Edmonton; that is, they were making
+short journeys, and pitching their tents on towards Edmonton, leaving
+few behind capable of bearing arms. They were in pursuit of the Crees
+and Assiniboines, whom they threatened totally to annihilate, boasting
+that they themselves were as numerous as the grass on the plains. They
+were the best mounted, the best looking, the most warlike in appearance,
+and the best accoutred of any tribe I had ever seen on the continent
+during my route.... After our smoke several of the young Braves engaged
+in a horse race, to which sport they are very partial, and at which they
+bet heavily; they generally ride on those occasions stark naked, without
+a saddle, and with only a lasso fastened to the lower jaw of the horse
+as represented in Sketch No. 16." (Kane, (1), pp. 417-420.) The "sketch
+No. 16" is here reproduced in plate 16, _a_. It shows, in addition to
+the horses, several conical skin-covered lodges, the one on the right
+being highly decorated.
+
+The valley of the Saskatchewan and southward to the waters of the
+Missouri was a region frequented by many tribes, rich in game, and one
+from which the Hudson's Bay Company derived quantities of furs. The
+Blackfeet, who, as already mentioned, occupied in recent years the
+country about the headwaters of the Missouri, formerly lived farther
+north, and about the close of the eighteenth century were encountered
+near the Saskatchewan, neighbors of the Assiniboin and Cree. About the
+year 1790 Mackenzie traversed the country, and wrote, regarding the
+number and distribution of the tribes then claiming that northern
+region: "At Nepawi, and South-Branch House, about thirty tents of
+Knisteneaux, or ninety warriors; and sixty tents of Stone-Indians, or
+Assiniboins, who are their neighbors, and are equal to two hundred men;
+their hunting ground extends upwards to about Eagle Hills. Next to them
+are those who trade at Forts George and Augustus, and are about eighty
+tents or upwards of Knisteneaux: on either side of the river, their
+number may be two hundred. In the same country are one hundred and forty
+tents of Stone-Indians; not quite half of them inhabit the West woody
+country; the others never leave the plains, and their numbers cannot be
+less than four hundred and fifty men. At the Southern headwaters of the
+North branch dwells a tribe called Sarsees, consisting of about
+thirty-five tents, or one hundred and twenty men. Opposite to those
+Eastward, on the head-waters of the South Branch, are the Picaneaux, to
+the number of from twelve to fifteen hundred men. Next to them, on the
+same water, are the Blood-Indians, of the same nation as the last, to
+the number of about fifty tents, or two hundred and fifty men. From them
+downwards extend the Black-Feet Indians, of the same nation as the two
+last tribes; their number may be eight hundred men. Next to them, and
+who extend to the confluence of the South and North branch, are the
+Fall, or Big-bellied Indians, who may amount to about six hundred
+warriors." (Mackenzie, (1), p. lxx.) "South-Branch House" of this
+narrative stood between the north and south branches of the
+Saskatchewan, near the present town of Dalmeny, in the Province of
+Saskatchewan. The Picaneaux, who probably possessed from 200 to 300
+skin-covered lodges, were the Piegan, the Piekann Indians of Maximilian,
+whose village as it appeared in 1833 was painted by Bodmer. Likewise the
+Fall or Big-bellied Indians, whose habitat about the year 1790 was near
+the junction of the two branches of the Saskatchewan, were the Atsina,
+the Gros Ventres of the Prairie, and their village or camp in 1790 was
+probably quite similar to the one visited by Maximilian 43 years later,
+when it was sketched by Bodmer.
+
+By reason of the roving disposition of the northern tribes, those
+mentioned in the preceding quotations and their neighbors, it was not
+possible for them to erect and maintain permanent villages. The
+skin-covered lodge served as a shelter easily and quickly raised and
+readily transported from place to place as requirements and desires made
+necessary. But many bark-covered structures were probably to have been
+found scattered throughout the wooded sections.
+
+Something of the manners and ways of life of these people may be
+gathered from another passage in Mackenzie's narrative: "In the fall of
+the year the natives meet the traders at the forts, where they barter
+the furs or provisions which they may have procured; then they obtain
+credit, and proceed to hunt the beavers, and do not return till the
+beginning of the year; when they are again fitted out in the same manner
+and come back the latter end of March, or the beginning of April. They
+are now unwilling to repair to the beaver hunt until the waters are
+clear of ice, that they may kill them with fire-arms, which the
+Chepewyans are averse to employ. The major part of the latter return to
+the barren grounds, and live during the summer with their relations and
+friends in the enjoyment of that plenty which is derived from numerous
+herds of deer. But those of that tribe who are most partial to these
+desarts, cannot remain there in winter, and they are obliged, with the
+deer, to take shelter in the woods during that rigorous season, when
+they contrive to kill a few beavers, and send them by young men, to
+exchange for iron utensils and ammunition." (Mackenzie, (1), pp.
+xc-xci.)
+
+The large ceremonial lodges erected by the Blackfeet were among the most
+interesting structures reared by the tribes of the Northwest. A
+remarkable example was encountered by the Fisk party September 1, 1862,
+near the banks of Milk River, a short distance from Fort Benton. As
+described in the journal: "We passed this afternoon an abandoned camp of
+some three thousand or four thousand Blackfeet Indians. A large
+'medicine lodge,' in which they had celebrated their superstitious
+rites, was left standing, although its covering had been mostly stripped
+from its frame-work. It was circular, and about one hundred feet in
+diameter and forty feet high in the centre, the roof poles running from
+the top down to and around a tree, which was erected for a centre pole.
+This, in time of occupancy, is covered with dressed buffalo skins, and
+constitutes the Indian's highest achievement in the architectural line."
+(Fisk, (1), p. 24.) The entire ceremony attending the selection of a
+site for the structure, the cutting of the poles, the erection of the
+associated sweat lodges, and the final raising of the medicine lodge,
+has been recorded by Grinnell, (3), pages 263-267, and is one of the
+most complete accounts of a native ceremony ever prepared.
+
+ARAPAHO.
+
+The ancient habitat of the Arapaho, according to tradition, was once far
+northeast of the country which they later occupied. It may have been
+among the forests of the region about the headwaters of the Mississippi,
+the present State of Minnesota, where their villages would have stood on
+the shores of lakes and streams. But later, like the related Cheyenne,
+with whom they have been closely allied during recent generations and
+probably for a long period, they reached the prairies, through what
+causes may never be known, and there, with different environments, their
+manners and ways of life changed. While a people of the timbered
+country, they undoubtedly reared and occupied the forms of habitations
+so characteristic of the forests, as exemplified by the wigwams of the
+Ojibway and other tribes in recent times, but after reaching the prairie
+country, where buffalo were obtained in such vast numbers, their
+villages or camps assumed the appearance of those of the Siouan tribes,
+conical skin lodges taking the place of the mat or bark covered
+structures.
+
+The Atsina, a detached division of the Arapaho, closely associated with
+the Blackfeet, were often mentioned by the early writers as the Gros
+Ventres of the Prairie, and in certain English narratives as the Fall or
+Rapid Indians. In other journals they were mentioned under the name
+Minnetarees of Fort de Prairie. Thus they were called by the early
+American explorers.
+
+On May 29, 1805, just two weeks before arriving at the Great Falls of
+the Missouri, the Lewis and Clark party reached Judith River, and a
+short distance above its junction with the Missouri "We saw the fires of
+one hundred and twenty-six lodges, which appeared to have been deserted
+about twelve or fifteen days, and on the other side of the Missouri a
+large encampment, apparently made by the same nation. On examining some
+moccasins which we found there, our Indian woman said that they did not
+belong to her own nation the Snake Indians, but she thought that they
+indicated a tribe on this side of the Rocky mountains, and to the north
+of the Missouri; indeed it is probable that these are the Minnetarees of
+fort de Prairie." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, p. 234.) The following year,
+when the expedition was returning from the west, the tribe was again
+mentioned. On July 15, 1806, the expedition passed Shields River, and
+two days later reached Brattons River (now Bridger Creek), a tributary
+of the Yellowstone in the present Sweetgrass County, Montana. Here, "In
+one of the low bottoms of the river was an Indian fort, which seems to
+have been built during the last summer. It was built in the form of a
+circle, about fifty feet in diameter, five feet high, and formed of
+logs, lapping over each other, and covered on the outside with bark set
+up on end, the entrance also was guarded by a work on each side of it,
+facing the river. These intrenchments, the squaw informs us, are
+frequently made by the Minnetarees and other Indians at war with the
+Shoshonees, when pursued by their enemies on horseback." Another similar
+work was encountered the next day. (Lewis and Clark, (1), II, pp.
+379-380.)
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 16
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Blackfoot camp. Paul Kane, 1848]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Arapaho village, Whitewood Canyon, Wyoming, about
+1870]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 17
+
+[Illustration: "CAMP OF THE GROS VENTRES OF THE PRAIRIES" ON THE UPPER
+MISSOURI
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833]
+
+The preceding references to fortified camps are of great interest, but
+similar works were mentioned by other explorers of the upper Missouri
+Valley. During the summer of 1833 several were encountered by
+Maximilian, and on July 18 of that year he wrote: "On this day at noon,
+we reached, on the south bank, an Indian fort ... it is a kind of
+breastwork, which Indian war-parties construct in haste of dry trunks of
+trees.... This fort consisted of a fence, and several angles, enclosing
+a rather small space, with the open side towards the river. In the
+center of the space there was a conical hut, composed of wood. Near this
+fort, on the same bank of the river, there was a beaver's den made of a
+heap of brushwood." (Maximilian, (1), p. 216.) Six days before, on July
+12, they had encountered several huts probably similar to that which
+stood within the "fort." In the narrative it is said: "Just at the place
+where our vessel lay, were four old Indian huts, of some war or hunting
+party, composed of trunks and boughs of trees piled together in a
+square, in which some of our party made a fire to cook their meat.
+Scarcely 100 paces above these huts, was the Indian Fort Creek of Lewis
+and Clark." (Op. cit., p. 212.)
+
+Elsewhere in this sketch other native "forts" will be mentioned. The
+erection of such works appears to have been quite common among the
+widely scattered tribes.
+
+Fortunately, a very interesting picture of a skin lodge village or camp
+of the Atsina has been preserved, a painting made by Bodmer during the
+summer of 1833, when it was visited by Maximilian. It stood on the bank
+of the Yellowstone, at the mouth of the Big Horn, near the dividing line
+between Rosebud and Yellowstone Counties, Montana. Describing the
+settlement as it appeared on the evening of August 3, 1833. Maximilian
+wrote: "On the left was the mouth of Bighorn River, between considerable
+hills, on which numbers of Indians had collected. In the front of the
+eminence the prairie declined gently towards the river, where above 260
+leather tents of the Indians were set up; the tent of the principal
+chief was in the foreground, and, near it, a high pole, with the
+American flag. The whole prairie was covered with Indians, in various
+groups, and with numerous dogs; horses of every colour were grazing
+round, and horsemen galloping backwards and forwards, among whom was a
+celebrated chief, who made a good figure on his light bay horse." These
+were the Gros Ventres, "called by the English, Fall Indians."
+(Maximilian, (1), pp. 231-232.) Bodmer's painting, or more correctly, an
+engraving made from the painting, is reproduced in plate 17.
+
+On July 8, 1842, Fremont, while on his journey to the Rocky Mountains,
+reached a village of the Arapaho and Cheyenne. But before arriving at
+the village the party came in contact with a large number of Indians
+belonging to the two tribes, who were chasing a herd of buffalo. Of the
+exciting scene presented by these many mounted Indians and the rushing
+buffalo, he left a vivid account: "We were too far to hear the report of
+the guns, or any sound; and at every instant, through the clouds of
+dust, which the sun made luminous, we could see for a moment two or
+three buffalo dashing along, and close behind them an Indian with his
+long spear, or other weapon, and instantly again they disappeared. The
+apparent silence, and the dimly seen figures flitting by with such
+rapidity, gave it a kind of dreamy effect, and seemed more like a
+picture than a scene of real life. It had been a large herd when the
+_cerne_ commenced, probably three or four hundred in number; but, though
+I watched them closely, I did not see one emerge from the fatal cloud
+where the work of destruction was going on. After remaining here about
+an hour, we resumed our journey in the direction of the village.
+
+"Gradually, as we rode on, Indian after Indian came dropping along,
+laden with meat; and by the time we had neared the lodges, the backward
+road was covered with the returning horsemen. It was a pleasant contrast
+with the desert road we had been traveling. Several had joined company
+with us, and one of the chiefs invited us to his lodge. The village
+consisted of about one hundred and twenty-five lodges, of which twenty
+were Cheyennes; the latter pitched a little apart from the Arapahoes.
+They were disposed in a scattering manner on both sides of a broad,
+irregular street, about one hundred and fifty feet wide, and running
+along the river. As we rode along, I remarked near some of the lodges a
+kind of tripod frame, formed of three slender poles of birch, scraped
+very clean, to which were affixed the shield and spear, with some other
+weapons of a chief. All were scrupulously clean, the spear-head was
+burnished bright, and the shield white and stainless. It reminded me of
+the days of feudal chivalry; and when, as I rode by, I yielded to the
+passing impulse, and touched one of the spotless shields with the muzzle
+of my gun, I almost expected a grim warrior to start from the lodge and
+resent my challenge. The master of the lodge spread out a robe for me to
+sit upon, and the squaws set before us a large wooden dish of buffalo
+meat. He had lit his pipe in the mean while, and when it had been passed
+around, we commenced our dinner while he continued to smoke. Gradually,
+five or six other chiefs came in, and took their seats in silence. When
+we had finished, our host asked a number of questions.... A storm had
+been gathering for the past hour, and some pattering drops on the lodge
+warned us that we had some miles to our camp.... We found our companions
+under some densely foliaged old trees, about three miles up the
+river.... Nearly opposite was the mouth of one of the most considerable
+affluents of the South fork, _la Fourche aux Castors_, (Beaver fork,)
+heading off in the ridge to the southeast." (Fremont, (1), pp. 29-30.)
+This would have been near the eastern boundary of the present Morgan
+County, Colorado, a region approaching the western edge of the great
+prairie, in the midst of the range of vast herds of buffalo. The entire
+description of the events of the day as prepared by Fremont reads more
+like fiction than fact and is one of the clearest and most concise
+accounts extant of a buffalo hunt by native tribes under such
+conditions. The paintings by Stanley and Wimar, as reproduced in plates
+2 and 3, would serve to illustrate Fremont's narrative.
+
+The following year (1843) Fremont, on his second expedition, reached St.
+Vrain's Fort; thence continuing up the South Fork of the Platte he soon
+arrived in the vicinity of the present city of Denver, and at some point
+not far below the mouth of Cherry Creek discovered a large Arapaho
+village. This was on July 7, 1843, and to quote from his journal: "We
+made this morning an early start, continuing to travel up the Platte;
+and in a few miles frequent bands of horses and mules, scattered for
+several miles round about, indicated our approach to the Arapaho
+village, which we found encamped in a beautiful bottom, and consisting
+of about 160 lodges. It appeared extremely populous, with a great number
+of children; a circumstance which indicated a regular supply of the
+means of subsistence. The chiefs, who were gathered together at the
+farther end of the village, received us (as probably strangers are
+always received to whom they desire to show respect or regard) by
+throwing their arms around our necks and embracing us.... I saw here, as
+I had remarked in an Arapaho village the preceding year, near the lodges
+of the chiefs, tall tripods of white poles supporting their spears and
+shields, which showed it to be a regular custom.... Though disappointed
+in obtaining the presents which had been evidently expected, they
+behaved very courteously, and after a little conversation, I left them,
+and, continuing up the river, halted to noon on the bluff, as the
+bottoms are almost inundated; continuing in the afternoon our route
+along the mountains, which are dark, misty, and shrouded." (Fremont,
+(1), pp. 111-112.)
+
+A photograph of a small Arapaho village, standing in Whitewood Canyon,
+Wyoming, about the year 1870, is reproduced in plate 16, b. The
+skin-covered lodges shown in this photograph were probably similar to
+those sketched by Bodmer a generation before.
+
+SAUK AND FOXES.
+
+It is not the purpose of the present sketch to trace the early
+migrations of the two related tribes, or to refer to their connection,
+linguistically or socially. However, it is evident their villages were
+similar in appearance, and both had two distinct forms of habitations
+which were occupied during different seasons of the year. The summer
+villages of both tribes consisted of bark houses, and near by were
+gardens in which they raised corn, squashes, beans, and some tobacco,
+but with the coming of autumn the families scattered and sought the more
+protected localities where game was to be secured, and there erected the
+dome-shaped, mat-covered lodge, resembling the structures of other
+tribes of the region.
+
+The middle of the eighteenth century found the two tribes established in
+villages near the mouth of Rock River, on the left bank of the
+Mississippi, in the present Rock Island County, Illinois. Here they were
+visited by Long and his small party August 1, 1817, at which time the
+Fox settlement "containing about thirty cabins, with two fires each,"
+stood on the left bank of Rock River, at its junction with the
+Mississippi. The Sauk village was 2 miles up Rock River and consisted
+"of about one hundred cabins, of two, three, and in some instances, four
+fires each," and it was, so Long wrote, "by far the largest Indian
+village situated in the neighborhood of the Mississippi between St.
+Louis and the Falls of St. Anthony." (Long, (1), pp. 68-69.) This was
+the birthplace, in the year 1767, of the great Sauk leader Black Hawk.
+At the time of Long's visit the people of the two villages had several
+hundred acres of corn, "partly in the low ground and extended up the
+slopes of the bluffs," and were in a very prosperous condition.
+
+The village was destroyed by the militia June 15, 1831, and those who
+escaped soon after crossed the Mississippi. In 1837, having ceded their
+hunting grounds in Iowa to the Government, they removed to a tract in
+Kansas beyond the Missouri, where they continued to reside for some 20
+years as practically one tribe. Later the majority of the Foxes returned
+to Iowa and secured a small tract of land near Tama, in Tama County, on
+the left bank of Iowa River, where a mixed group continues to dwell. In
+1867 the remaining Sauk ceded their lands in Kansas and removed to the
+Indian Territory.
+
+As already mentioned, the tribes erected two distinct types of
+habitations. The mat-covered lodge is shown in plate 18. The bare
+frames, ready for the mat coverings, are indicated in _a_, while the
+completed structure is represented in _b_ of the same plate. Both
+photographs were made near Tama within the past few years.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 18
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Frames of structures ready to be covered with mats
+or sheets of bark]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Mat-covered lodges
+
+SAUK AND FOX HABITATIONS]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 19
+
+[Illustration: SAUK AND FOX HABITATION COVERED WITH ELM BARK]
+
+During the summer of 1820 Schoolcraft was on the upper Mississippi and
+stopped at the village of the Sioux chief "La Petit Corbeau," which
+stood on the bank of the river a few miles below the present city of St.
+Paul. He was conducted to the lodge of the chief, which, so he wrote,
+"is spacious, being about sixty feet in length by thirty in width--built
+in a permanent manner of logs, and covered with bark." (Schoolcraft,
+(2), p. 318.) A few days later, on August 6, 1820, he left the mouth of
+the Wisconsin, passed the mouth of Turkey River, which joins the
+Mississippi from the west, and 1 mile below the mouth of Turkey River
+arrived at a Fox village which stood on the left bank of the
+Mississippi. This would have been near the present village of Cassville,
+Grant County, Wisconsin. Here were twelve lodges, "large, and built of
+logs, in the same substantial manner practised among the Narcotah
+bands." This refers to the village of La Petit Corbeau and others which
+he had recently visited. And continuing the narrative, "The cause of
+their being now deserted, is the fear entertained of an attack from the
+Sioux, in retaliation for the massacre lately perpetrated upon the banks
+of the St. Peter's. The desertion appears to have taken place after they
+had planted their corn, and from the order in which the village is left,
+it may be concluded that its re-occupation is kept in view. I found
+several small gardens and corn fields adjoining the village, in which
+squashes, beans, and pumpkins were abundant, but the corn had been
+nearly all destroyed, probably by wild animals. Walking back from the
+river half a mile ... I was surprised to find an extensive field of
+water- and musk-melons, situated in the midst of a grove of small,
+scattering trees, but without any inclosure. Some of the fruit had been
+destroyed by animals, but a great abundance still remained." (Op. cit.,
+pp. 340-341.)
+
+The preceding references would seem to apply to summer habitations, as
+distinguished from the mat-covered structures already mentioned. The
+descriptions are rather vague, and the lodges encountered by Schoolcraft
+may have been similar in form to that shown in plate 19. This most
+interesting and valuable photograph was made in the Indian Territory
+probably 40 years or more ago, and represents a rather large dwelling.
+It shows clearly the manner in which sheets of bark were placed and
+secured to serve as roof and sides, and in this instance the bark
+appears to be that of the elm.
+
+Interesting notes on the manners and ways of life of the Sauk and Foxes
+just a century ago are to be found in a communication from Maj. M.
+Marston, of the Fifth Infantry, to Morse. Marston was commanding officer
+at Fort Armstrong, from which place the letter was written during the
+month of November, 1820. At that time the Fox village standing on the
+bank of the Mississippi, opposite Fort Armstrong, consisted of
+"thirty-five permanent lodges," and this may refer to the type of
+structures shown in plate 19. As Marston then wrote: "There is also a
+small Sauk village of five or six lodges on the west bank of the
+Mississippi, near the mouth of Des Moin river, and below Fort Edwards;
+and a Fox village near the lead mines (about a hundred miles above this
+place,) of about twenty lodges; and another near the mouth of the
+Wapsipinica of about ten lodges." Thus the villages and camps of the two
+tribes were to have been seen on both banks of the Mississippi, but
+undoubtedly the greater part of their hunting was done westward from the
+river, within the present State of Iowa. A century ago the people of the
+village would leave "as soon as their corn, beans, &c., are ripe and
+taken care of, and their traders arrive and give out their credit, (or
+their outfits on credit,) and go to their wintering grounds; it being
+previously determined in council, on what particular ground each party
+shall hunt. The old men, women, and children, embark in canoes; the
+young men go by land with their horses; on their arrival, they
+immediately commence their winter's hunt, which lasts about three
+months." The traders would follow and remain in convenient places.
+During the winter most of the Indians would pay their debts, get many
+necessary articles, and at the same time reserve the more valuable
+skins. These, "such as beaver, otter, &c., they take home with them to
+their villages, and dispose of for such articles as they may afterwards
+find necessary." The winter of 1819-20 was evidently a very prosperous
+one for the two tribes as well as for the traders, and Marston wrote:
+"These traders, including the peltries received at the United States
+Factory, near Fort Edwards, collected of the Sauk and Fox Indians during
+this season, _nine hundred and eighty packs_. They consisted of 2,760
+beaver skins; 922 Otter; 13,440 Raccoon; 12,900 Musk Rat; 500 Mink; 200
+Wild Cat; 680 Bear Skins; 28,600 Deer. Whole number, 60,082."
+
+At the close of the winter hunt "they return to their villages, in the
+month of April, and after putting their lodges in order, commence
+preparing the ground to receive the seed. The number of acres cultivated
+by that part of the two nations, who reside at their villages in this
+vicinity, is supposed to be upwards of _three hundred_. They usually
+raise from seven to eight thousand bushels of corn, besides beans,
+pumpkins, melons, &c. About one thousand bushels of the corn they
+annually sell to traders and others; the remainder (except about five
+bushels for each family, which is taken with them,) they put into bags,
+and bury in holes dug in the ground, for their use in the spring and
+summer. The labor of agriculture is confined principally to the women,
+and this is done altogether with a hoe. In June, the greatest part of
+the young men go out on a summer hunt, and return in August. While they
+are absent the old men and women are collecting rushes for mats, and
+bark to make into bags for their corn, &c.
+
+"The women usually make about three hundred floor mats every summer....
+The twine which connects the rushes together, is made either of
+basswood bark, after being boiled and hammered, or the bark of the
+nettle; the women twist or spin it by rolling it on the knee with the
+hand." (Morse, (1), App., pp. 124-127.) Some men, as well as women, of
+these tribes are often employed in and about the lead mines on the
+Mississippi, not far from their villages.
+
+The customs of the tribes, as related in the preceding notes, their
+hunts away from the villages during certain seasons of the year, their
+return to plant and care for their fields and gardens, and the placing
+of the surplus grain in caches, had probably been followed by native
+tribes of the Mississippi Valley and adjacent regions for generations
+before the coming of the Europeans.
+
+ILLINOIS.
+
+Although the tribes of the loosely constituted Illinois confederacy
+claimed and occupied a wide region east of the Mississippi, in later
+years centering in the valley of the Illinois River, nevertheless
+certain villages are known to have crossed and recrossed the great
+river. Thus, in the early summer of 1673, Pere Marquette arrived at a
+village of the Peoria then standing on the right or west bank of the
+Mississippi, at or near the mouth of the Des Moines. Two months later it
+had removed to the upper Illinois. A few weeks after passing the Peoria
+Marquette discovered another of the Illinois tribes, the Michigamea,
+living near the northeastern corner of the present State of Arkansas,
+and consequently west of the Mississippi. On the map of Pierre van der
+Aa, _circa_ 1720, two small streams are shown flowing into the
+Mississippi from the west, a short distance south of the Missouri. The
+more northerly of the two is probably intended to represent the Meramec
+and a dot at the north side of the mouth of the stream bears the legend:
+"_Village des_ Ilinois _et des_ Caskoukia," probably the Cahokia. This
+stream forms the boundary between Jefferson and St. Louis Counties,
+Missouri, and a short distance above its junction with the Mississippi
+are traces of a large village, with many stone-lined graves, probably
+indicating the position of the Illinois village of two centuries ago.
+Also, on the d'Anville map, issued in the year 1755, an "Ancien Village
+Cahokias" is shown at a point corresponding with the mouth of the small
+Riviere des Peres, a stream which joins the Mississippi and there forms
+the southern boundary of the city of St. Louis. Until covered by
+railroad embankments many small mounds were visible near the mouth of
+the Riviere des Peres, indications of the old settlement were numerous,
+and graves were encountered on the neighboring hills. These were
+evidently the remains of the "Ancien Village Cahokias." The many salt
+springs found on the Missouri side of the Mississippi served to attract
+the Indians from the eastern shore. Establishing their camps in the
+vicinity of the springs, they would evaporate the waters and so obtain a
+supply of salt, a process which continued long after the French had
+settled in this part of upper Louisiana.
+
+The villages of the Illinois tribes have been described in a former
+publication (Bushnell, (1)).
+
+About the close of the eighteenth century many scattered bands of
+various tribes whose habitat was east of the Mississippi sought new
+homes to the westward. Especially was this true after the signing of the
+treaty of Greenville, Ohio, August 3, 1795. But two years before the
+signing of this important treaty small groups of Shawnee and Delaware
+crossed the river, and by the year 1793 had established a village on
+Apple Creek, near the Mississippi and some 40 miles south of the French
+settlement of Ste. Genevieve. A few years later these, or others of the
+same tribes, had small towns not far west of St. Louis and only a short
+distance south of the Missouri. Within another generation many of the
+remaining tribes were removed from east of the Mississippi by the
+Government to lands set apart for them just west of the western boundary
+of Missouri. But for many years after the beginning of the nineteenth
+century the western part of the Ozarks was occupied, or frequented, by
+bands of several tribes.
+
+It seems quite evident that with the removal of the tribes from the east
+came certain changes in their customs and ways of life. And it is
+doubtful whether all attempted to erect their native form of
+habitations. Again, before leaving the east they had seen and
+constructed the log cabin of the pioneers, and it is evident similar
+structures were reared by them in their new homes, or at least by some
+of the tribes, among them the Delaware. An interesting account of one of
+these later settlements has been preserved, but it is very brief. It was
+mentioned in the journal of a dragoon, one of the command then crossing
+the wilderness from St. Louis to the valley of the Arkansas, and was
+prepared about the beginning of December, in the year 1833: "It was
+drawing towards the close of the day, when at a little distance we
+descried a cluster of huts that we imagined might be a squatter
+settlement, but upon a nearer approach, found it to be the remains of a
+log-town long since evacuated, that had formerly been the settlement of
+a tribe of the Delawares.... The site was a beautiful one; and the
+associations that were connected with it, as well as the many vestiges
+of rude art that remained about it, invested this spot with many
+pleasing sources of reflection. As we entered the town, our regiment
+slackened their pace, and slowly rode through this now silent ruin. A
+small space of cleared land encompassed the settlement, but scarce large
+enough to relieve it from the deep gloom of the lofty and surrounding
+forest of aged oaks.... The huts were small, containing but one
+apartment, built of logs, many of which had become so decayed as to have
+fallen to the ground, and the whole was covered with a rich coat of
+moss." (Hildreth, (1), pp. 70-71.) Scattered throughout the settlement,
+near and between the ruined houses, stood many large oaks. On the trunks
+of some of these had been cut various figures and symbols by the
+Indians.
+
+This Delaware village evidently stood not far from the present town of
+Springfield, Green County, Missouri. Just beyond it began the "Kickapoo
+prairie, which is the commencement of that immense chain of prairie land
+that extends in broken patches to the Rocky Mountains." (Op. cit., p.
+70.)
+
+The preceding reference to various figures cut on the trees near the
+deserted village tends to recall a somewhat similar allusion by Irving.
+On November 2, 1832, during his "Tour on the Prairies," so he wrote: "We
+came out upon an extensive prairie, and about six miles to our left
+beheld a long line of green forest, marking the course of the north fork
+of the Arkansas. On the edge of the prairie, and in a spacious grove of
+noble trees which overshadowed a small brook, were traces of an old
+Creek hunting camp. On the bark of the trees were rude delineations of
+hunters and squaws, scrawled with charcoal; together with various signs
+and hieroglyphics, which our half-breeds interpreted as indicating that
+from this encampment the hunters had returned home." (Irving,
+Washington. (1), p. 187.)
+
+It is to be regretted that all such figures should so soon have
+disappeared, as did the frail structures of the native villages, leaving
+only fragments of pottery and bits of stone, ashes, and occasional
+animal bones to indicate where they had once stood.
+
+
+SIOUAN TRIBES.
+
+The numerous and widely scattered tribes belonging to the Siouan
+linguistic family formerly had a combined population which caused this
+to rank as the second largest stock north of Mexico, being exceeded only
+by the Algonquian.
+
+All evidence tends to prove that during past centuries the many tribes
+who were found living west of the Mississippi when the great central
+valley of the continent first became known to Europeans had, within a
+few generations, migrated from the eastward. This is likewise indicated
+by certain tribal traditions. Many had undoubtedly occupied the upper
+parts of the Ohio Valley, and were probably the builders of the great
+earthworks discovered in that region. What impelled the westward
+movement of the tribes may never be determined. Whether they were forced
+to abandon their early habitat by stronger forces, by the lack of food
+which made it necessary for them to seek a more plentiful supply, or by
+reason of causes distinct from either of these can never be definitely
+known.
+
+But some remained in the east; all did not join in the migration, and
+the native tribes encountered by the colonists living in the piedmont
+region of Virginia and extending southward into Carolina belonged to
+this linguistic family. Their villages have been mentioned in a former
+publication. (Bushnell, (1), pp. 92-94.)
+
+It is more than probable that while living east of the Mississippi all
+reared and occupied structures similar to those of the Algonquian tribes
+of later generations, mat and bark covered lodges, such as continued in
+use by the Osage, Quapaw, and others even after they had reached their
+new homes, but some through necessity were compelled to adopt other
+forms of dwellings. Thus many were found occupying the conical skin
+tipi, while some had learned the art of building the large earth-covered
+lodges, an art which had evidently been derived from the Caddoan tribes
+coming from the Southwest.
+
+DAKOTA-ASSINIBOIN GROUP.
+
+The Dakota constitute the largest division of the great Siouan
+linguistic family. To quote from the Handbook, this group includes the
+following tribes, a classification which is recognized by the people
+themselves: "1. Mdewakanton; 2. Wahpeton; 3. Wahpekute; 4. Sisseton; 5.
+Yankton; 6. Yanktonai; 7. Teton, each of which is again subdivided into
+bands and subbands." These seven principal divisions are often referred
+to as the Seven Council Fires of the Dakota. The first four groups as
+given in this classification formed the eastern division, and their
+home, when first encountered by Europeans, was in the densely forested
+region about the headwaters of the Mississippi. The others lived
+westward, reaching far into the plains. The Assiniboin, in historic
+times a separate tribe, was originally a part of the Yanktonai, from
+whom they separated and became closely allied with the Algonquian Cree.
+Thus some of the Dakota as first known to history were a timber people,
+others lived where the forest and prairie joined, with a mingling of the
+fauna and flora of the two regions, and in later years the Oglala, the
+principal division of the Teton, extended their wanderings to and beyond
+the Black Hills, crossing the great buffalo range.
+
+As will be shown in the sketches of the dwellings and other structures
+of the Dakota tribes, those who lived in the timbered region, occupying
+much of the present State of Minnesota, erected the type of habitation
+characteristic of the region, but in the villages along the Minnesota
+both bark and skin covered lodges were in use, and the more western
+villages were formed exclusively of the latter type, the conical skin
+tipi of the plains. There appears to have been very little variation in
+the form of structure as erected by the widely scattered bands.
+
+MDEWAKANTON.
+
+When preparing a sketch of the villages and village sites of the
+Mdewakanton, it is quite natural to begin with a brief description of
+the site of the village to which Father Hennepin was led captive, during
+the early spring of the year 1680. On the afternoon of April 11 of that
+year, while ascending the Mississippi with two companions, he was taken
+by a war party of the Sioux, and after much anxiety and suffering
+reached the Falls of St. Anthony, which he so named. Thence, going
+overland through the endless forests, they arrived at the village of
+their captors. Soon Indians were seen running from the village to meet
+them, and then it was that "One of the principal Issati chiefs gave us
+his peace-calumet to smoke, and accepted the one we had brought. He then
+gave us some wild rice to eat, presenting it to us in large bark
+dishes." From this place they were later taken in bark canoes "a short
+league ... to an island where their cabins were." (Shea, (1), pp.
+224-225.)
+
+The Mdewakanton "mystery lake village," of the Santee or eastern
+division of the Dakota, were considered by some as "the only Dakota
+entitled to the name Isanyati (`Santee'), given them from their old home
+on Mille Lac, Minnesota, called by them Isantamde, 'Knife Lake.'" There
+is no doubt of the Mdewakanton being the Issati of Hennepin, to whose
+principal village he was taken, and where he remained for some weeks
+during the year 1680. It has always been acknowledged that the village
+stood on or near the shore of Mille Lac, but not until 1900 was a site
+discovered which appears without doubt to indicate the position of that
+ancient settlement. The outlet of Mille Lac is Rum River, which enters
+the Mississippi at Anoka. The stream soon after leaving the lake expands
+into a series of small lakes, usually designated as the First, Second,
+and Third Lake, from the outlet at Mille Lac. Rum River leaves Mille Lac
+near the southwest corner, but soon turns eastward, therefore the three
+lakes are rather parallel with the south shore of the great lake. At the
+upper end of Third Lake is an isolated mass, rising some feet above the
+highest stage of water, and having a superficial area of several acres.
+On May 29, 1900, this spot was surrounded by a marsh, in places
+overgrown with rushes, with pools of water, more numerous on the north
+side. But a short time has elapsed since all the lakes were somewhat
+deeper and more water flowed in Rum River. And at that time the waters
+surrounded this elevated mass and it stood as an island at the head of
+Third Lake. When the surface of this island was examined it was found
+to be strewn with innumerable fragments of pottery, some fractured
+stones, and a few stone implements. The amount of pottery was greater
+than is often found on any site, in any part of the country, and it was
+quite evident this island was once occupied by a large, permanent native
+settlement. Without doubt this was the site of the village to which
+Hennepin was taken in a bark canoe, "an island where their cabins were."
+At present this is in Sec. 25, T. 42, R. 27, Mille Lacs County,
+Minnesota.
+
+No description of the ancient village has been preserved, but it
+undoubtedly resembled the settlements of other tribes living in the
+midst of the great forests. The structures were probably bark or mat
+covered, many of an oval form quite similar to those of the Ojibway, who
+later occupied the near-by sites on the shores of Mille Lac. And like
+the Ojibway, the Mdewakanton may have had more than one type of dwelling
+in the same village, or structures of different forms may have served
+different purposes.
+
+The shores of Mille Lac, one of the most beautiful sheets of water in
+Minnesota, abound in traces of the ancient settlements which stood
+generations or centuries ago. Near several of the sites are groups of a
+hundred or more burial mounds, all of which may be attributed to the
+Siouan tribes. One village, the site of which is marked by a large
+number of mounds, stood on the shore of the bay in the northwestern part
+of the lake, shown in the photograph reproduced in plate 20, _a_.
+
+The sacred or mysterious island, known as such to the Sioux and later to
+the Ojibway, is in the southern part of the lake, several miles from the
+south shore. It is a remarkable spot, one to be looked upon by the
+Indian as a place of mystery. So small that often it is not visible from
+the shore, it consists of a great quantity of blocks of granitic
+formation which are piled to a height of 20 feet or more upon a ledge
+which comes to within a foot or less of the surface of the lake. The
+island is about 250 feet in length from east to west, the width from
+north to south being about one-half the length. Some of the great blocks
+are 10 or 12 feet in length, 4 or 5 feet in thickness and width, and
+would weigh many tons. The ledge extends for a distance of about 150
+feet to the north and east of the island, covered by a foot or more of
+water. There is no soil on the island, no vegetation, and its only
+occupants are numbers of gulls. A photograph of this most interesting
+spot, made by the writer May 20, 1900, is reproduced as plate 20, _b_.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 20
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Northwest shore of Mille Lac, 1900. Site of an
+ancient Sioux settlement]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ The Sacred Island in the southern part of Mille Lac.
+May, 1900]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 21
+
+[Illustration: "KAPOSIA, JUNE 19TH, 1851"
+
+F. B. Mayer]
+
+According to the stories of the old Ojibway who were still living on the
+shore of Mille Lac during the spring of 1900, the Mdewakanton were
+driven from that region about the middle of the eighteenth century,
+and moving southward settled along the banks of the Mississippi.
+Descendants of these were occupying well-known villages on the
+Mississippi and Minnesota during the summer of 1823, when Major Long and
+his party ascended the rivers from Prairie du Chien.
+
+Before leaving Prairie du Chien to discover the course of the Minnesota,
+or St. Peters, as it was then designated, the members of the expedition
+were divided into two groups, one to go overland to the mouth of the St.
+Peters, the other to convey the supplies by boat to that point. Both
+parties visited the principal villages on the way. First following the
+route of those who went overland, on June 26, 1823, they encountered a
+village of five lodges, evidently on the Iowa River, in the present
+Winneshiek County, Iowa. Two days later, June 28, they arrived at the
+more important village of Wapasha, in the present Wabasha County,
+Minnesota, and as told in the narrative: "Whatever might be the reveries
+in which the party were indulging, they were soon recalled to the dull
+realities of travelling, by the howling and barking of a band of dogs,
+that announced their approach to an Indian village consisting of twenty
+fixed lodges and cabins. It is controlled by Wa-pa-sha, an Indian chief
+of considerable distinction. In his language, (Dacota,) his name
+signifies _the red leaf_. A number of young men fantastically decorated
+with many and variously coloured feathers, and their faces as oddly
+painted, advanced to greet the party. One of them, the son of the chief,
+was remarkable for the gaudiness and display of his dress, which from
+its showy appearance imparted to his character foppishness.... The chief
+is about fifty years of age, but appears older.... His disposition to
+the Americans has generally been a friendly one." (Keating, (1), I, pp.
+249-250.) Hennepin's reception by the ancestors of the same people, in
+their ancient village near Mille Lac, about a century and a half
+earlier, may have been quite similar to this accorded the members of the
+Long expedition in 1823.
+
+On the evening of June 30 the party going by land arrived "at an Indian
+village, which is under the direction of Shakea, (_the man that paints
+himself red_;) the village has retained the appellation of Redwing,
+(_aile rouge_,) by which the chief was formerly distinguished." This was
+on the site of the present Red Wing, Goodhue County, Minnesota. There
+the party remained overnight, and on the following morning, July 1,
+1823, the boat bearing the supplies belonging to the expedition, on its
+way from Prairie du Chien to Fort St. Anthony, reached the village, and
+"The whole party being again united, the chief invited them to his
+lodge, with a view to have a formal conversation with them.... As a
+compliment to the party, the United States' flag was hoisted over his
+cabin, and a deputation of some of his warriors waited at our encampment
+to invite us to his lodge. We were received in due ceremony; the chief
+and his son, Tatunkamane, (the walking buffalo,) were seated next to the
+entrance. We took our stations near them, on the same bed-frame, while
+his warriors seated themselves on the frame opposite to us." This was
+followed by handshaking, and the smoking of the pipe of peace. (Op.
+cit., pp. 251-252.) The two parties again separated and those passing
+overland arrived at the fort the following evening.
+
+The boat party, ascending the Mississippi, arrived at "Wapasha's
+village" on June 29, soon after the departure of the others who were
+going overland. They left Redwing early in the afternoon of July 1, and
+on the following day passed the St. Croix. Continuing, they "passed an
+Indian village consisting of ten or twelve huts, situated at a handsome
+turn on the river, about ten miles below the mouth of the St. Peter; the
+village is generally known by the name of the _Petit Corbeau_, or Little
+Raven, which was the appellation of the father and grandfather of the
+present chief.... As the village was abandoned for the season, we
+proceeded without stopping. The houses which we saw here were
+differently constructed from those which we had previously observed.
+They are formed by upright flattened posts, implanted in the ground,
+without any interval except here and there some small loopholes for
+defence; these posts support the roof, which presents a surface of bark.
+Before and behind each hut, there is a scaffold used for the purpose of
+drying maize, pumpkins, &c." Late in the same day they arrived at the
+fort. (Keating, (1), I, pp. 288-289.) Whether the method of constructing
+lodges by forming the walls of upright posts or logs was of native
+conception or was derived from the French is now difficult to determine.
+In referring to the customs prevailing in the Mississippi Valley,
+particularly the French portions, about the year 1810, Brackenridge
+said: "In building their houses, the logs, instead of being laid
+horizontally, as ours, are placed in a perpendicular position, the
+interstices closed with earth or stone, as with us." (Brackenridge, (1),
+p. 119.) The old courthouse at St. Louis was built after this method.
+Again, among some tribes along the eastern slopes of the Rocky
+Mountains, as will be told on another page, were to have been found
+small, well-protected lodges formed of upright poles, and in this
+instance there is no reason to suspect European influence. Therefore it
+is not possible to say definitely whether the structures standing on the
+banks of the Mississippi during the summer of 1823 were of a primitive,
+native form, or if they represented the influence of the early French
+who had penetrated the region many years before.
+
+Just three years before the Long expedition passed up the Mississippi
+and prepared the preceding descriptions of the Sioux settlements
+Schoolcraft went down the river, and in his journal are to be found
+brief references to the same villages. To quote from the journal, August
+2, 1820: "Four miles below Carver's cave, we landed at the village of Le
+Petit Corbeau, or the Little Raven. Here is a Sioux band of twelve
+lodges, and consisting of about two hundred souls, who plant corn upon
+the adjoining plain, and cultivate the cucumber, and pumpkin. They
+sallied from their lodges on seeing us approach, and gathering upon the
+bank of the river fired a kind of _feu-de-joie_, and manifested the
+utmost satisfaction on our landing.... We were conducted into his cabin
+which is spacious, being about sixty feet in length by thirty in
+width--built in a permanent manner of logs, and covered with bark."
+(Schoolcraft, (2), pp. 317-318.) The following day at noon the party
+arrived "at the Sioux village of Talangamane, or the Red wing, which is
+handsomely situated on the west banks of the river, six miles above Lake
+Pepin. It consists of four large, and several small lodges, built of
+logs in the manner of the little Raven's village. Talangamane is now
+considered the first chief of his nation.... Very few of his people were
+at home, being engaged in hunting or fishing. We observed several fine
+corn fields near the village, but they subsist chiefly by taking
+sturgeon in the neighbouring lake, and by hunting the deer. The buffalo
+is also occasionally killed, but they are obliged to go two days journey
+west of the Mississippi, before this animal is found in plenty. We
+observed several buffalo skins which were undergoing the Indian process
+of tanning." (Op. cit., p. 323.) The third settlement was reached during
+the afternoon of August 4, 1820, at which time, to quote from the
+journal, "we made a short halt at the Sioux village of Wabashaw, which
+is eligibly situated on the west bank of the Mississippi, sixty miles
+below Lake Pepin. It consists of four large lodges, with a population
+of, probably, sixty souls. A present of tobacco and whiskey was given,
+and we again embarked at twenty minutes before five o'clock." (Op, cit.,
+p. 334.) The question now arises, Were the various structures seen by
+Schoolcraft, those "built in a permanent manner of logs," constructed of
+"upright flattened posts," as mentioned in the Long narrative? If so, it
+is evident similar habitations were reared by the Foxes and were
+encountered by Schoolcraft at the Fox village standing on the left bank
+of the Mississippi, below the mouth of the Wisconsin, August 6, 1820.
+However, the statements are rather vague, and the various dwellings may
+have been quite similar to the bark houses more clearly described in
+later narratives. But it is beyond question that some of the structures
+were strongly built, and Long on July 16, 1817, wrote: "Passed a Sioux
+village on our right containing fourteen cabins. The name of the chief
+is the Petit Corbeau, or Little Raven.... One of their cabins is
+furnished with loop holes, and is situated so near the water that the
+opposite side of the river is within musket-shot range from the
+building.... The cabins are a kind of stockade buildings, and of a
+better appearance than any Indian dwellings I have before met with."
+(Long, (1), p. 31.)
+
+One of the most interesting accounts of the villages just mentioned is
+contained in the journal of a traveler who visited them in 1849, the
+year the Territory of Minnesota was created. On May 16 of that year he
+"passed Wapasha's Prairie ... a beautiful prairie in Minnesota, about
+nine miles long and three miles wide, occupied by the chief Wapasha (or
+Red-Leaf) and his band of Sioux, whose bark lodges are seen at the upper
+end of the prairie." (Seymour, (1), p. 75.) And later in the day, after
+leaving Lake Pepin, "an Indian village, called Red Wing, inhabited by a
+tribe of Sioux is seen on the Minnesota shore. It appears to contain
+about one dozen bark lodges, and half as many conical lodges, covered
+with buffalo skins; also, a log or frame house, occupied by a
+missionary. Indian children were seen running, in frolicsome mood, over
+the green prairie, and Indian females were paddling their canoes along
+the shore. This village is near the mouth of Cannon River." On the
+following day, May 17, 1849, Seymour passed the village of Kaposia,
+occupied by the chief Little Crow, or Little Raven. It stood on the west
+bank of the river about 5 miles below the then small town of St. Paul.
+The Indian village at that time consisted of about 40 lodges, having a
+population of some 300. A few days later he went to the village, and
+regarding the visit wrote: "During the time I visited them, the Indians
+were living in skin lodges, such as they use during the winter, and when
+traveling. These are formed of long, slender poles, stuck in the ground,
+in a circle of about eight feet in diameter, and united at the top, and
+covered with the raw hide of the buffalo, having the hair scraped off.
+They are in the form of a cone, and can be distinguished from those of
+the Winnebagos and other Indians as far as they can be seen. During the
+summer they live in bark houses, which are more spacious, and when seen
+from a distance, resemble, in form and appearance, the log cabins of the
+whites. When passing in sight of the village, a few days afterward, I
+noticed that they had removed their skin lodges, and erected their bark
+houses. The population of this village, as I before remarked, is from
+250 to 300 souls." He entered one of the small skin-covered lodges. "An
+iron kettle, suspended in the center, over a fire, forms the principal
+cooking utensil. Blankets spread around on the ground, were used as
+seats and beds." (Op. cit., pp. 137-138.) A cemetery, with its scaffold
+burials, stood on the bluffs in the rear of the village. There is reason
+to believe these were the first skin-covered tipis encountered by Seymour
+while ascending the Mississippi.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 22
+
+[Illustration: _a._ "Dakotah Village." Seth Eastman]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ "Dakotah Encampment." Seth Eastman]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 23
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Council at the mouth of the Teton. George Catlin]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Page of Kurz's Sketchbook, showing Fort Pierre and
+the Indian encampment, July 4, 1851]
+
+It will be noticed that in the preceding description of Kaposia no
+mention is made of log structures, such as were alluded to by Long and
+Schoolcraft. Only the typical bark house and the conical skin-covered
+tipi were seen by Seymour. Fortunately a most valuable and interesting
+picture of the village, as it appeared on June 19, 1851, is preserved
+and is now reproduced in plate 21. Both forms of habitations are shown,
+and in the distance, on the left, are indicated the scaffold burials
+standing on the bluffs in the rear of the settlement. On the extreme
+right is the prow of a canoe, evidently on the immediate bank of the
+Mississippi. Having this remarkable sketch, it is gratifying to find a
+brief description of the two forms of lodges, and also to know that the
+notes may have referred to Kaposia in particular. It tells that "the
+lodges are from eight to fifteen feet in diameter, about ten to fifteen
+feet high and made of buffalo-skins tanned. Elk skins are used for this
+purpose also. The summer house is built of wood, or perches set upright,
+twenty or thirty feet long, by fifteen or twenty wide. The perches are
+set in the ground about one foot, and are about six feet out of the
+ground. Over this is put a roof of elm bark. They are very comfortable
+for summer use. The lodge of skin lasts three or four years; the lodge
+of wood seven or eight years." (Prescott, (1), p. 67.)
+
+The bark houses, which resembled "the log cabins of the whites," were
+shown by Capt. Eastman in one of his paintings. It was used as an
+illustration by Schoolcraft, and is here reproduced as plate 22, _a_. It
+is less interesting than the sketch of Kaposia, but in many respects the
+two are quite similar.
+
+Several bark houses of the form just mentioned stood on the shore of
+Mille Lac, forming part of the Ojibway village visited in 1900, and
+similar to these were the "winter habitations," occasionally erected by
+the Menominee, as mentioned and figured by Hoffman as plate xviii in his
+work on that tribe. (Hoffman, (1), p. 255.) It is rather curious that
+these should be described as "winter habitations" among that Algonquian
+tribe, and as being occupied during the summer by the Siouan people. As
+a matter of fact this strong distinction may not have existed. The use
+of this type of house by the Foxes has already been mentioned. Whether
+these may be regarded as representing a purely aboriginal form of
+structure is not easily determined, but they will at once recall the
+unit of the long communal dwellings of the Iroquois. The slanting roof,
+the flat front and back, and the upright walls, all covered with large
+sheets of bark, were the same.
+
+Again returning to the narrative of the Long expedition. Early in July,
+1823, the party having rested at the mouth of the Minnesota, or St.
+Peters River, began ascending that stream. Having advanced a short
+distance they arrived at the village of Taoapa, better known as
+"Shakopee's Village," from the name of the chief of this band of the
+Mdewakanton. It stood in the present Scott County, Minnesota, and in the
+summer of 1823 "consisted of fifteen large bark lodges, in good order;
+they were arranged along the river. Some of them were large enough to
+hold from thirty to fifty persons, accommodated as the Indians usually
+are in their lodges. The ground near it is neatly laid out, and some
+fine corn-fields were observed in the vicinity. There were scaffolds
+annexed to the houses, for the purpose of drying maize, etc.; upon these
+we were told that the Indians sleep during very hot nights." Near the
+village were seen various scaffold burials, while "In the midst of the
+corn-fields a dog was suspended, his head decorated with feathers, and
+with horse-hair stained red; it was probably a sacrifice for the
+protection of the corn-fields during the absence of the Indians." Six
+miles above the village was Little Prairie. (Keating, (1), pp. 329-330.)
+Quite likely the structures at this village were similar to those
+described above, which resembled in outline the log cabins of the white
+settlers.
+
+WAHPETON.
+
+The Wahpeton, "dwellers among leaves," constitute one of the seven great
+divisions of the Dakota, and to quote from the Handbook: "Historic and
+linguistic evidence proves the affinity of this tribe with the Sisseton,
+Wahpekute, and Mdewakanton. Hennepin (1680) mentions them as living in
+the vicinity of Mille Lac, Minn., near the Mdewakanton, Sisseton, and
+Teton. On his map they are placed a little to the N. E. of the lake."
+While living in the seclusion of the vast forests which surrounded the
+great lakes of central Minnesota, the villages of the Wahpeton were
+probably formed of groups of bark or mat covered structures so typical
+of the region at a later day. Gradually they left the timbered regions,
+and about the first years of the last century were living near the mouth
+of the Minnesota River. Thence they appear to have moved up the stream,
+and during the summer of 1823 were encountered by the Long expedition in
+the vicinity of Big Stone Lake, in the present Lac qui Parle County,
+Minnesota. The account of the meeting with the Indians on the prairie,
+and later of their visit to the village, by the members of the
+expedition, is most interesting. On July 21, 1823, "While traveling over
+the prairie which borders upon this part of the St. Peter, that connects
+Lake qui Parle with Big Stone Lake, our attention was aroused by the
+sight of what appeared to be buffaloes chased across the prairie. They,
+however, soon proved to be Indians; their number, at first limited to
+two, gradually increased to near one hundred; they were seen rising from
+every part of the prairie, and after those in advance had reconnoitered
+us, and made signals that we were friends, by discharging their guns,
+they all came running towards us, and in a few minutes we found
+ourselves surrounded by a numerous band.... Some of them were mounted on
+horseback, and were constantly drumming upon the sides of their horses
+with their heels, being destitute both of whip and spur. Many of them
+came and shook hands with us, while the rest were riding all round us in
+different directions. They belonged, as we were told, to the Wahkpatoan,
+[Wahpeton] one of the tribes of the Dacotas.... As we rode towards their
+lodges, we were met by a large party of squaws and children, who formed
+a very motly group.... The village, to which they directed us, consisted
+of thirty skin lodges, situated on a fine meadow on the bank of the
+lake. Their permanent residence, or at least that which they have
+occupied as such for the last five years, is on a rocky island, (Big
+Island), in the lake, nearly opposite to, and within a quarter of a mile
+of, their present encampment. Upon the island they cultivate their
+cornfields, secure against the aggressions of their enemies. They had
+been lately engaged in hunting buffalo, apparently with much success.
+The principal man led us to his lodge, wherein a number of the
+influential men were admitted, the women being excluded; but we observed
+that they, with the children, went about the lodge, peeping through all
+the crevices, and not unfrequently raising the skins to observe our
+motion. They soon brought in a couple of large wooden dishes, filled
+with pounded buffalo meat boiled, and covered with the marrow of the
+same animal; of this we partook with great delight." This was followed
+by another feast, in a near-by tent, and still a third where a dog had
+been killed and prepared, "which is considered not only as the greatest
+delicacy, but also as a sacred animal, of which they eat only on great
+occasions." The party did not remain long at the village, but continued
+on up the lake shore, and soon encountered on a bluff "two Indian
+lodges, in one of which was Tatanka Wechacheta, (the buffalo man,) an
+Indian who claims the command of the Wahkpatoans." Later in the day the
+party returned to these lodges, where "the chief, and his principal men,
+were in waiting. We entered the skin lodge, and were seated on fine
+buffalo robes, spread all round; on the fire, which was in the centre of
+the lodge, two large iron kettles, filled with choicest pieces of
+buffalo, were placed.... Our hosts were gratified and flattered at the
+quantity which we ate; the residue of the feast was sent to our
+soldiers. In this, and every other instance where we have been invited
+to a feast by Indians, we observed that they never eat with their
+guests." (Keating, (1), I, pp. 367-373.)
+
+The village of skin-covered tipis standing on the shore of the lake, as
+seen by members of the expedition on that July day nearly a century ago,
+must have resembled the painting later made by Capt. Eastman, which is
+reproduced in plate 22, _b_, taken from Schoolcraft. In the painting the
+tipis are undoubtedly too closely placed, but otherwise they are quite
+accurately shown. This illustration as used in Schoolcraft bears the
+legend "Dakotah Encampment."
+
+YANKTONAI.
+
+Like other divisions of the Dakota, the Yanktonai formerly lived in the
+thickly timbered region surrounding the headwaters of the Mississippi,
+in the central portion of the present State of Minnesota, and, like
+them, moved southward and westward until they reached the plains and the
+habitat of the buffalo. Although in their earlier home they undoubtedly
+reared the mat-covered structures, nevertheless when they reached the
+open country they constructed the conical skin lodge.
+
+During the latter part of July, 1823, the Long expedition reached a
+village of this tribe then standing in the vicinity of Lake Traverse, in
+the present Traverse County, Minnesota. In the narrative of the
+expedition very little is said regarding the appearance of the
+encampment, which may not have offered any peculiar features, but much
+was said concerning the dress and ways of the inhabitants. In part the
+narrative states: "The principal interest which we experienced in the
+neighbourhood of Lake Traverse, was from an acquaintance with Wanotan,
+(the Charger,) the most distinguished chief of the Yanktoanan tribe,
+which, as we were informed, is subdivided into six bands. He is one of
+the greatest men of the Dacota nation, and although but twenty-eight
+years of age, he has already acquired great renown as a warrior." As the
+party neared the establishment of the Columbia Fur Company, on the
+border of the lake, "a salute was fired from a number of Indian tents
+which were pitched in the vicinity, from the largest of which the
+American colours were flying. And as soon as we had dismounted from our
+horses, we received an invitation to a feast which Wanotan had prepared
+for us." Three dogs had been killed and prepared for the great occasion.
+"We repaired to a sort of pavilion which they had erected by the union
+of several large skin lodges. Fine Buffalo robes were spread all around,
+and the air was perfumed by the odour of sweet scenting grass which had
+been burned in it. On entering the lodge we saw the chief seated near
+the further end of it, and one of his principal men pointed out to us
+the place which was destined for our accommodation; it was at the upper
+end of the lodge." (Keating, (1), I, pp. 429-432.)
+
+Arranging the skin covers of several large tipis in such a way as to
+form a single shelter, to serve as a ceremonial "lodge," was the custom
+of many tribes, and other instances will be mentioned. But another and
+more elaborate form of structure was used by the tribes just mentioned.
+In 1858, when describing certain customs of the people then living along
+the course of the Minnesota and in the vicinity of Lake Traverse, Riggs
+referred to the sacred dance and said: "Among the Dakotas a most
+remarkable society exists which is called _Wakan wachepe_, or Sacred
+Dance, of which the medicine sack is the badge. It may be regarded as
+the depository and guardian of whatever they esteem as _wakan_, or
+sacred." He then related the contents of the bag and the meaning of the
+ceremony, and continues: "A large skin lodge is usually occupied as the
+center of operations, the door of which is made wide by throwing up the
+corners. From this, on each hand, extends a kind of railing, some thirty
+or forty feet, on which skins are thrown. The entrance is at the farther
+end. All around the inside of this sanctum sanctorum and along the
+extended sides sit those who are called to the dance. Beyond this and
+near the place of entrance is a fire, with great kettles hanging over
+it, which are filled with dried buffalo meat or other food; and near by
+lay several packs or bags of the same, which are consecrated to the
+feast. The whole village are gathered around and are looking over or
+peeping through the holes in the barricades." Much was then told about
+the strange and curious ceremonies enacted within the lodge. (Riggs,
+(1), pp. 505-506.)
+
+Leaving the encampment in the vicinity of the post of the Columbia Fur
+Company, the Long expedition moved northward, and when just beyond Lake
+Traverse, while traversing the prairies on July 27, 1823, "passed a
+party of squaws engaged in conveying to their camp some slices of fresh
+meat to jerk; their fellow labourers were dogs. Each of the dogs had the
+ends of two poles crossed and fastened over the shoulders, with a piece
+of hide underneath to prevent chafing. The other extremities dragged on
+the ground. This sort of vehicle was secured to the animal by a string
+passing round the breast, and another under the abdomen; transverse
+sticks, the ends of which were fastened in the poles, kept these at a
+proper distance, and supported the meat. This seems to be the only mode
+of harnessing dogs, practised among the Sioux; we believe, they never
+use them in teams, as is customary with the traders." (Keating, (1), II,
+pp. 9-10.)
+
+The expedition soon arrived at Pembina, near the international boundary,
+where it would appear they found the two characteristic forms of native
+habitations in use by the Indians. A drawing was at that time made by
+Seymour and used as an illustration in the narrative, showing the "two
+different kind of lodges used by the northwest Indians," the first being
+the skin lodge of the prairie tribes, and "of this nature are all the
+lodges used by the Dacotas;" the second were the bark-covered structures
+of the Ojibway, "who for the most part live to the north-east of the
+buffalo regions." To this latter class must have belonged the
+habitations of the Siouan tribes before they were forced from their
+early homes among the forests and lakes to the eastward.
+
+When referring to the two characteristic forms of habitations it will be
+of interest to quote from the writings of one who traversed the country
+more than a century and a half ago, when all was in its primitive
+condition, but, like many writers of that period, he failed to give
+details which at the present time would prove of the greatest value. He
+wrote: "The Indians, in general, pay a greater attention to their dress
+and to the ornaments with which they decorate their persons, than to the
+accommodation of their huts or tents. They construct the latter in the
+following simple and expeditious manner.
+
+"Being provided with poles of a proper length, they fasten two of them
+across, near their ends, with bands made of bark. Having done this, they
+raise them up, and extend the bottom of each as wide as they purpose to
+make the area of the tent: they then erect others of an equal height,
+and fix them so as to support the two principal ones. On the whole they
+lay skins of the elk or deer, sewed together, in quantity sufficient to
+cover the poles, and by lapping over to form the door. A great number of
+skins are sometimes required for this purpose, as some of their tents
+are very capacious. That of the chief warrior of the Naudowessies was at
+least forty feet in circumference, and very commodious.
+
+"They observe no regularity in fixing their tents when they encamp, but
+place them just as it suits their conveniency.
+
+"The huts also, which those who use no tents erect when they travel,
+for very few tribes have fixed abodes or regular towns or villages, are
+equally simple, and almost as soon constructed.
+
+"They fix small pliable poles in the ground, by bending them till they
+meet at the top and form a semi-circle, then lash them together. These
+they cover with mats made of rushes platted, or with birch bark, which
+they carry with them in their canoes for this purpose.
+
+"These cabins have neither chimnies nor windows; there is only a small
+aperture left in the middle of the roofs through which the smoke is
+discharged, but as this is obliged to be stopped up when it rains or
+snows violently, the smoke then proves exceedingly troublesome.
+
+"They lie on skins, generally those of the bear, which are placed in
+rows on the ground; and if the floor is not large enough to contain
+beds sufficient for the accommodation of the whole family, a frame is
+erected about four or five feet from the ground, in which the younger
+part of it sleep." (Carver, (1), pp. 152-154.) Though lacking much in
+detail, nevertheless the preceding notes are of historical interest and
+value, describing as they do the primitive habitations which were reared
+and occupied by the native tribes living in the upper Mississippi Valley
+about the middle of the eighteenth century. Skins of the elk and deer
+were evidently used as coverings for the conical tipi, which seems to
+prove the lack of a sufficient number of buffalo skins to serve the
+purpose, although farther west, beyond the timbered country, where
+buffalo were more easily obtained, their skins were made use of and
+covered the shelters of tribes by whom they were hunted.
+
+YANKTON.
+
+When the expedition under the leadership of General Atkinson ascended
+the Missouri, during the summer of 1825, he wrote regarding the Yankton:
+"The Yanctons are a band of the Sioux, and rove in the plains north of
+the Missouri, from near the Great Bend, down as far as the Sioux river.
+They do not cultivate, but live by the chase alone, subsisting
+principally upon buffalo. They cover themselves with leather tents, or
+lodges, which they move about from place to place, as the buffalo may
+chance to range. They are pretty well supplied with fusees, and with
+horses, and a few mules. They are estimated at 3,000 souls, of which 600
+are warriors. They are comfortably habited in frocks, or shirts of
+dressed skins, and leggings, reaching to the waist, of the same; they
+use besides, robes of buffalo skins, which are frequently beautifully
+wrought with porcupine quills, or painted tastefully; are friendly to
+the whites, but make war upon almost all other tribes, except those of
+their own nation. Their trading ground is on the river Jaques."
+(Atkinson, (1), pp. 8-9.) On June 17 the party arrived at Fort Lookout,
+a post of the American Fur Company, and four days later, "on the 21st,
+the Tetons, Yanctons, and Yanctonies, three distinct bands of the Sioux
+Nation, having arrived, a council was opened, and, on the 22d, a treaty
+concluded with them." This great gathering of the tribes, with their
+numerous skin-covered tipis, would have presented a sight similar to
+that witnessed and described by Catlin just seven years later, in the
+vicinity of Fort Pierre.
+
+An excellent description of the skin-covered tipi of the Sioux, but of
+the structures of the Yankton in particular, is contained in
+Maximilian's narrative. Writing on May 25, 1833, he said the "Sioux
+Agency, or, as it is now usually called, Fort Lookout, is a square, of
+about sixty paces, surrounded by pickets, twenty or thirty feet high,
+made of squared trunks of trees placed close to each other, within which
+the dwellings are built close to the palisades.... About ten leather
+tents or huts of the Sioux, of the branch of the Yanktons or Yanktoans,
+were set up near the fort.... All these Dacotas of the Missouri, as well
+as most of those of the Mississippi, are only hunters, and, in their
+excursions, always live in portable leather tents.... The tents of the
+Sioux are high pointed cones, made of strong poles, covered with buffalo
+skins, closely sewed together. These skins are scraped on both sides, so
+that they become as transparent as parchment, and give free admission to
+the light. At the top, where the poles meet, or cross each other, there
+is an opening, to let out the smoke, which they endeavor to close by a
+piece of the skin covering of the tent, fixed to a separate pole
+standing upright, and fastened to the upper part of the covering on the
+side from which the wind blows. The door is a slit, in the front of the
+tent, which is generally closed by another piece of buffalo hide,
+stretched upon a frame. A small fire is kept up in the centre of the
+tent. Poles are stuck in the ground, near the tent, and utensils of
+various kinds are suspended from them. There are, likewise, stages, on
+which to hang the newly-tanned hides; others, with gaily-painted
+parchment pouches and bags, on some of which they hang their bows,
+arrows, quivers, leather shields, spears, and war clubs.
+
+"We paid a visit to Wahktageli in his tent, and had some difficulty in
+creeping into the narrow, low entrance, after pulling aside the skin
+that covered it. The inside of this tent was light, and it was about ten
+paces in diameter. Buffalo skins were spread on the ground, upon which
+we sat down. Between us and the side of the tent were a variety of
+articles, such as pouches, boxes, saddles, arms, &c. A relation of the
+chief was employed in making arrows, which were finished very neatly,
+and with great care. Wahktageli immediately, with much gravity, handed
+the tobacco-pipe round, and seemed to inhale the precious smoke with
+great delight.... The conversation was carried on by Cephier, the
+interpreter kept by the Agency, who accompanied us on this visit.... The
+owner of a neighbouring tent had killed a large elk, the skin of which
+the women were then busily employed in dressing. They had stretched it
+out, by means of leather straps, on the ground near the tent, and the
+women were scraping off the particles of flesh and fat with a very
+well-contrived instrument. It is made of bone, sharpened at one end, and
+furnished with little teeth like a saw, and, at the other end, a strap,
+which is fastened round the wrist." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 148-152.) A
+drawing by Bodmer, reproduced by Maximilian on page 151 of the work
+cited, is here shown as figure 2. It represents a small group of tipis,
+of the type mentioned in the narrative, and on the right, in the rear,
+is a tripod with what appears to be a shield suspended from it. The bone
+implement mentioned as being used by the women to remove particles of
+flesh from the skin of the recently killed elk belonged to a well-known
+type which was extensively used throughout the region. It was formed of
+the large bones of the leg of the buffalo, elk, or moose. Many old
+examples are preserved in the National Museum, Washington.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Tipis.]
+
+When dealing with the agents of the Government the Yankton would gather
+on the plains around Fort Pierre. Just 20 years after Maximilian's visit
+to the upper Missouri a small party passed down the river, and on
+October 18, 1853, entered in their journal: "We reached Fort Pierre
+about 12 o'clock m.... Two days before our arrival at this place, the
+main body of the Yankton Sioux, in number some twenty-five hundred, had
+left for the buffalo country. They have been here to receive their
+presents from the government. Two more bands are expected in a few
+days." (Saxton, (1), p. 267.) And some days later, while continuing down
+the Missouri: "The prairies are burning in every direction, and the
+smoke is almost stifling."
+
+TETON.
+
+The Teton, moving westward from their early habitat to the east and
+north of the Minnesota, were encountered on the banks of the Missouri by
+Captains Lewis and Clark when they ascended the river, during the early
+autumn of 1804. On September 26 of that year the expedition reached the
+mouth of Teton River (the present Bad River), which enters the Missouri
+from the west at Pierre, Stanley County, South Dakota. Here stood the
+great village of the Teton, concerning which Sergeant Gass gave a very
+interesting account in his journal: "We remained here all day. Capt.
+Lewis, myself and some of the men, went over to the Indian camp. Their
+lodges are about eighty in number, and contain about ten persons each;
+the greater part women and children. The women were employed in dressing
+buffaloe skins, for clothing for themselves and for covering their
+lodges. They are the most friendly people I ever saw; but will pilfer if
+they have an opportunity. They are also very dirty: the water they make
+use of, is carried in the paunches of the animals they kill, just as
+they are emptied, without being cleaned.... About 3 o'clock we went
+aboard the boat accompanied with the old chief and his little son. In
+the evening captain Clarke and some of the men went over, and the
+Indians made preparations for a dance. At dark it commenced. Captain
+Lewis, myself and some of our party went up to see them perform. Their
+band of music, or orchestra, was composed of about twelve persons
+beating on a buffalo hide, and shaking small bags that made a rattling
+noise. They had a large fire in the centre of their camp; on one side
+the women, about 80 in number, formed a solid column round the fire,
+with sticks in their hands, and the scalps of the Mahas they had killed,
+tied on them. They kept moving, or jumping round the fire, rising and
+falling on both feet at once; keeping a continual noise, singing and
+yelling. In this manner they continued till 1 o'clock at night, when we
+returned to the boat with two of the chiefs." (Gass, (1), pp. 45-46.)
+
+In the journal of the expedition is a very full account of the events
+which transpired during the two days spent at the Teton camp, but only
+part will now be quoted, sufficient to describe the place of meeting:
+"Captain Lewis went on shore and remained several hours, and observing
+that their disposition was friendly we resolved to remain during the
+night to a dance, which they were preparing for us. Captains Lewis and
+Clark, who went on shore one after the other, were met on landing by ten
+well dressed young men, who took them up in a robe highly decorated and
+carried them to a large council house, where they were placed on a
+dressed buffaloe skin by the side of the grand chief. The hall or
+council-room was in the shape of three quarters of a circle, covered at
+the top and sides with skins well dressed and sewed together. Under this
+shelter sat about seventy men, forming a circle round the chief, before
+whom were placed a Spanish flag and the one we had given them yesterday.
+This left a vacant circle of about six feet diameter, in which the pipe
+of peace was raised on two forked sticks, about six or eight inches
+from the ground, and under it the down of the swan was scattered: a
+large fire, in which they were cooking provisions, stood near, and in
+the centre about four hundred pounds of excellent buffaloe meat as a
+present for us." Then followed several addresses by the chiefs;
+offerings of dog meat to the flag "by way of sacrifice," and the smoking
+of the pipe of peace. (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 84-86.) The entire
+ceremony proved of the greatest interest. Then followed an account of
+the habitations standing in the village: "Their lodges are very neatly
+constructed, in the same form as those of the Yanktons; they consist of
+about one hundred cabins, made of white buffaloe hide dressed, with a
+larger one in the centre for holding councils and dances. They are built
+round with poles about fifteen or twenty feet high, covered with white
+skins; these lodges may be taken to pieces, packed up, and carried with
+the nation wherever they go, by dogs which bear great burdens. The women
+are chiefly employed in dressing buffaloe skins: they seem perfectly
+well disposed, but are addicted to stealing any thing which they can
+take without being observed." (Op. cit., pp. 88-89.)
+
+During the year 1832 George Catlin remained for some time at and near
+the mouth of the Teton, where a few years before had been erected a
+station of the American Fur Company, which was soon given the name Fort
+Pierre. "The country about this Fort is almost entirely prairie,
+producing along the banks of the river and streams only, slight
+skirtings of timber.... On my way up the river I made a painting of this
+lovely spot, taken from the summit of the bluffs, a mile or two distant,
+showing an encampment of Sioux, of six hundred tents of skin lodges,
+around the Fort, where they had concentrated to make their spring trade;
+exchanging their furs and peltries for articles and luxuries of
+civilized manufactures." (Catlin, (1), I, p. 209.) And he continued (p.
+211): "I mentioned that this is the nucleus or place of concentration of
+the numerous tribe of the Sioux, who often congregate here in great
+masses to make their trades with the American Fur Company; and that on
+my way up the river, some months since, I found here encamped, six
+hundred families of Sioux, living in tents covered with buffalo hides.
+Amongst these there were twenty or more of the different bands, each one
+with their chief at their head, over whom was a _superior chief_ and
+leader, a middle-aged man, of middling stature, with a noble
+countenance.... The name of this chief is Ha-won-je-tah (the one horn)
+of the Mee-ne-cow-e-gee band, who has risen rapidly to the highest
+honours in the tribe."
+
+About this time a "grand feast" was prepared by the Indians in honor of
+the Indian agent and the several Americans who were then at Fort Pierre,
+including Catlin. A sketch of the gathering is shown in plate 23, _a_,
+after the illustration in Catlin's narrative, but it may be of interest
+to know that the original painting is now in the National Museum,
+Washington. Describing this scene, Catlin wrote:
+
+"The two chiefs, Ha-wan-je-tah and Tchan-dee ... brought their two tents
+together, forming the two into a semi-circle, enclosing a space
+sufficiently large to accommodate 150 men; and sat down with that number
+of the principal chiefs and warriors of the Sioux nation." The several
+Americans were "placed on elevated seats in the centre of the crescent;
+while the rest of the company all sat upon the ground, and mostly
+cross-legged, preparatory to the feast being dealt out. In the centre of
+the semi-circle was erected a flag-staff, on which was waving a white
+flag, and to which also was tied the calumet, both expressive of their
+friendly feelings towards us. Near the foot of the flag-staff were
+placed in a row on the ground, six or eight kettles, with iron covers on
+them, shutting them tight, in which were prepared the viands for our
+_voluptuous_ feast. Near the kettles, and on the ground also, bottomside
+upwards, were a number of wooden bowls, in which the meat was to be
+served out. And in front, two or three men, who were there placed as
+waiters, to light the pipes for smoking, and also to deal out the food."
+(Op. cit., p. 228.) The account of the ceremony which soon followed
+proves the gathering to have been one of much interest, and to the
+Indians one of great moment. The arrangement of the two large tipis so
+as to form a single shelter recalls the site of the gathering near the
+shore of Lake Traverse only a few years before. It is to be regretted
+that Catlin did not leave a more detailed description of the appearance
+of the great encampment as it was at the time of his visit, but he
+devoted much of his time to painting portraits of the Indians, of which
+he prepared a large number.
+
+Although Catlin found representatives of many bands of Sioux gathered
+about on the plain surrounding Fort Pierre, nevertheless the
+comparatively permanent village of the Teton was near the mouth of the
+stream of that name. Maximilian, who ascended the Missouri during the
+spring of 1833, arrived at Fort Pierre late in May, and in his journal
+said: "The Sioux, who live on Teton River, near Fort Pierre, are mostly
+of the branch of the Tetons; though there are some Yanktons here."
+(Maximilian, (1), p. 150.) He elsewhere mentioned that "the tents are
+generally composed of fourteen skins," therefore consider the great
+number of buffalo required to furnish coverings for the lodges mentioned
+by Catlin. Maximilian wrote on May 30, 1833, near Fort Pierre: "Round an
+isolated tree in the prairie I observed a circle of holes in the ground,
+in which thick poles had stood. A number of buffalo skulls were piled up
+there; and we were told that this was a medicine, or charm, contrived
+by the Indians in order to entice the herds of buffaloes. Everywhere in
+the plain we saw circles of clods of earth, with a small circular ditch,
+where the tents of many Indians had stood." (Op. cit., p. 157.) These
+were evidently the remains of the encampment seen by Catlin the
+preceding year.
+
+A sketch of Fort Pierre as it appeared July 4, 1851, is given in plate
+23, _b_. This was the work of the young Swiss artist, Friedrich Kurz,
+and is now reproduced for the first time. The small groups of Indians,
+the tipis standing near the fort, and the rolling prairie in the
+distance are all graphically shown.
+
+The several divisions of the Teton performed the sun dance, at which
+time a large ceremonial lodge would be erected, which stood alone in the
+camp circle, formed of the numerous skin tipis. The lodge as reared at
+different times and by the various tribes varied in form and method of
+construction, but it seems to have been the custom of all the tribes to
+abandon the structure at the termination of the ceremonies. It was
+regarded as a sacred place and one not to be destroyed by man. Large
+structures of this sort were often encountered by parties traversing the
+plains and adjacent regions, and one, probably erected by a tribe of the
+Teton, was discovered by the Raynolds party, July 16, 1859, in the
+extreme eastern part of the present Crook County, Wyoming. In the
+journal of the expedition it was written on that day, "We have not yet
+met any Indians, nor any indications of their recent presence. The site
+of our camp is, however, marked by the remains of an immense Indian
+lodge, the frame of which consists of large poles, over thirty feet in
+length. Close by is also a high post, around which a perfect circle of
+buffalo skulls has been arranged." (Raynolds, (1), p. 31.) This may have
+been used during the preceding year, at which time the skin tipis of the
+people enacting the sacred ceremonies were pitched in the form of a
+circle with the great lodge standing in the center. But with the
+completion of the annual dance the participants removed, with their skin
+tipis, to other localities, allowing the sacred structure to be
+destroyed by the elements.
+
+OGLALA.
+
+Of the early history of this, the principal division of the Teton,
+nothing is known. During the first years of the last century they were
+discovered by Lewis and Clark on the banks of the upper Missouri, south
+of the Cheyenne River, in the present Stanley County, South Dakota. They
+hunted and roamed over a wide region, and by the middle of the century
+occupied the country between the Forks of the Platte and beyond to the
+Black Hills. While living on the banks of the Missouri their villages
+undoubtedly resembled the skin-covered tipi settlements of the other
+kindred tribes, and later, when they had pushed farther into the prairie
+country, there was probably no change in the appearance of their
+structures. A very interesting account of the villages of this tribe,
+with reference to their ways of life, after they had arrived on the
+banks of the Platte, is to be found in the narrative of Stansbury's
+expedition, during the years 1849 and 1850.
+
+July 2, 1849, the expedition crossed the South Fork of the Platte,
+evidently at some point in the western part of the present Keith County,
+Nebraska, and on the following day "crossed the ridge between the North
+and South Forks of the Platte, a distance of eighteen and a half miles."
+On July 5 the expedition began moving up the right bank of the North
+Fork, and after advancing 23 miles encamped on the bank of the river.
+They had arrived in the region dominated by the Oglala. "Just above us,
+was a village of Sioux, consisting of ten lodges. They were accompanied
+by Mr. Badeau, a trader; and having been driven from the South Fork by
+the cholera, had fled to the emigrant-road, in the hope of obtaining
+medical aid from the whites. As soon as it was dark, the chief and a
+dozen of the braves of the village came and sat down in a semicircle
+around the front of my tent, and, by means of an interpreter, informed
+me that they would be very glad of a little coffee, sugar, or biscuit. I
+gave them what we could spare." This particular band had not suffered
+very severely from the ailment, but were greatly heartened to receive
+medicines from the doctor, or "medicine-man," of the expedition, and
+when they returned to their village "the sound of the drum and the song,
+expressive of the revival of hope, which had almost departed, resounded
+from the 'medicine lodge,' and continued until a late hour of the
+night." (Stansbury, (1), pp. 44-45.) During this visit some of the
+Indians told of a larger camp about 2 miles distant, where many were ill
+with the dreaded malady.
+
+The following morning, July 6, 1849, the expedition resumed its advance
+up the valley, and soon reached the "upper village," of which an
+interesting account is given in the journal. It "contained about two
+hundred and fifty souls. They were in the act of breaking up their
+encampment, being obliged to move farther up the river to obtain fresh
+grass for their animals. A more curious, animated, and novel scene I
+never witnessed. Squaws, papooses, dogs, puppies, mules, and ponies, all
+in busy motion, while the lordly, lazy men lounged about with an air of
+listless indifference, too proud to render the slightest aid to their
+faithful drudges. Before the lodge of each brave was erected a tripod of
+thin slender poles about ten feet in length, upon which was suspended
+his round white shield, with some device painted upon it, his spear, and
+a buckskin sack containing his 'medicine' bag.... We continued our
+journey, accompanied for several miles by the people of both villages.
+The whole scene was unique in the highest degree. The road was strewn
+for miles with the most motley assemblage I ever beheld, each lodge
+moving off from the village as soon as its inhabitants were ready,
+without waiting for the others. The means of transportation were horses,
+mules, and dogs. Four or five lodge-poles are fastened on each side of
+the animal, the ends of which trail on the ground behind, like the
+shafts of a truck or dray. On these, behind the horse, is fastened a
+light framework, the outside of which consists of a strong hoop bent
+into an oval form, and interlaced with a sort of network of rawhide.
+Most of these are surmounted by a light wicker canopy, very like our
+covers for children's wagons, except that it extends the whole length
+and is open only at one side. Over the canopy is spread a blanket,
+shawl, or buffalo-robe, so as to form a protection from the sun or rain.
+Upon this light but strong trellice-work, they place the lighter
+articles, such as clothing, robes, &c., and then pack away among these
+their puppies and papooses, (of both which they seem to have a goodly
+number;) the women, when tired of walking, get upon them to rest and
+take care of their babies.... The dogs also are made to perform an
+important part in this shifting of quarters. Two short, light
+lodge-poles are fastened together at the small end, and made to rest at
+the angle upon the animal's back, the other end of course, trailing upon
+the ground. Over his shoulders is placed a sort of pad, or small saddle,
+the girth of which fastens the poles to his sides, and connects with a
+little collar or breast-strap. Behind the dog, a small platform or frame
+is fastened to the poles, similar to that used for the horses, upon
+which are placed lighter articles, generally puppies, which are
+considered quite valuable, being raised for beasts of burden as well as
+for food and the chase.... The whole duty of taking down and putting up
+the lodges, packing up, loading the horses, arranging the lodge-poles,
+and leading or driving the animals, devolves upon the squaws, while the
+men stalk along at their leisure; even the boys of larger growth deeming
+it beneath their dignity to lighten the toils of their own mothers."
+(Op. cit., pp. 45-47.)
+
+From the preceding account of the movement of a village of the Oglala it
+is quite apparent they did not advance in the orderly manner followed by
+the Pawnee, as described by Murray in 1835, but the dreaded illness from
+which many were then suffering may have caused the rather demoralized
+condition of the band. The travois as used at that time was similar to
+the example shown in plate 14, although the latter was in use by the
+Cheyenne a generation later. But the frame was not always utilized, and
+often the tipi, folded and rolled, with other possessions of the family,
+rested upon the poles or upon the back of the horse.
+
+Horses thus laden, and with trailing poles on either side, left a very
+distinctive trail as they crossed the prairie, and as described: "The
+trail of the Plain Indians consists usually of three paths, close
+together, yet at fixed distances apart. They are produced as follows:
+The framework of their lodges or tents are made of long poles which, on
+a journey, are tied to each side of a pony, and allowed to trail upon
+the ground. The result is that a long string of ponies, thus laden and
+following each other, will wear a triple path--the central one being
+caused by the tread of the ponies, the two outer by the trailing of the
+lodge-poles." (Bell, (1), pp. 25-26.) An illustration of a horse so
+loaded is given on page 26 and is here reproduced as figure 3. It bears
+the legend "Sioux Indian Lodges or Tents; one packed for a journey, the
+other standing," and, although crude, conveys a clear conception of the
+subject.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Horse travois.]
+
+To continue the narrative of the Stansbury expedition. The party
+advanced up the river and pursued their journey to the Great Salt Lake
+and there wintered. The following year they returned to the east and on
+September 21, 1850, reached the left bank of the North Fork of the
+Platte, at a point near the center of the present Carbon County,
+Wyoming. Describing the site of their encampment that night, near the
+bank of the Platte: "The place we now occupy has long been a favorite
+camp-ground for the numerous war-parties which annually meet in this
+region to hunt buffalo and one another. Remains of old Indian stockades
+are met with scattered about among the thickets; and the guide informed
+us, that four years since there were at one and the same time, upon this
+one bottom, fifteen or twenty of these forts, constructed by different
+tribes. Most of them have since been destroyed by fire. As this was the
+season of the year when we might expect to find them upon their
+expeditions, we were on the _qui vive_, lest we should be surprised."
+They remained in camp the following day, Sunday, and that evening
+entered in the journal: "Several herds of buffalo were seen during the
+day."
+
+The morning of the 23d was warm and cloudy, and the party soon after
+leaving their camp forded the river "on a ripple, with a depth of
+eighteen inches." The water was clear, with a pebbly bottom. That this
+location was frequented by Indians was again indicated by the discovery
+of another great group of "forts," as told in the narrative:
+"Immediately above where we crossed, were about twenty Indian forts, or
+lodges constructed of logs set up endwise, somewhat in the form of an
+ordinary skin lodge, which had been erected among the timber by
+different war-parties: they appeared to be very strong, and were
+ball-proof." (Stansbury, (1), pp. 243-246.) These strongly constructed
+lodges will at once recall the rather similar structures which stood at
+some of the Siouan villages, on the Mississippi below the mouth of the
+Minnesota, during the early years of the last century.
+
+On September 27, when about midway across the present Albany County,
+Wyoming, the expedition encountered a large number of Indians belonging
+to a village a short distance beyond. These proved to be the Oglala, and
+during the following day the village was visited by Stansbury, who wrote
+in the journal: "This village was the largest and by far the
+best-looking of any I had ever seen. It consisted of nearly one hundred
+lodges, most of which were entirely new, pitched upon the level prairie
+which borders on the verdant banks of the Laramie. No regular order
+seemed to be observed in their position, but each builder appeared to
+have selected the site for his habitation according to his own fancy.
+
+"We rode at once to the lodge of the chief, which was painted in broad
+horizontal stripes of alternate black and white, and, on the side
+opposite to the entrance, was ornamented with large black crosses on a
+white ground. We found the old fellow sitting on the floor of his lodge,
+and his squaw busily engaged over a few coals, endeavouring to fry, or
+rather boil, in a pan nearly filled with grease, some very
+suspicious-looking lumps of dough, made doubtless from the flour they
+had received from us yesterday.... After some further conversation,
+another chief, named the 'Iron Heart,' rose up and invited us to a
+feast at his lodge: we accordingly accompanied him, and found him
+occupying the largest and most complete structure in the village,
+although I was assured that the Sioux frequently make them much larger.
+It was intended to be used whenever required, for the accommodation of
+any casual trader that might come among them for the purpose of traffic,
+and was accordingly called 'The Trader's Lodge.' It was made of
+twenty-six buffalo-hides, perfectly new, and white as snow, which, being
+sewed together without a wrinkle, were stretched over twenty-four new
+poles, and formed a conical tent of thirty feet diameter upon the
+ground, and thirty-five feet in height." This must have been a
+magnificent example of the tipi of the plains tribes, and is one of the
+largest of which any record has been preserved.
+
+Moving in a southeastwardly direction from the great village, they
+passed many mounted Indians killing buffalo, and later in the day passed
+another Oglala village of some 50 lodges, moving southward. The surface
+of the prairie for many miles was strewn with the remains of buffalo,
+which had been killed by the Indians and from which only choice pieces
+had been removed. (Op. cit., pp. 254-257.) They were now ascending the
+western slopes of the Black Hills, and approaching the region dominated
+by the Cheyenne, and two days later, September 29, 1850, were a short
+distance south of a village of the latter tribe.
+
+The region just mentioned, the southeastern part of Wyoming, was
+traversed by a missionary who, July 24, 1835, encountered a party of 30
+or 40 mounted Indians. "They were Ogallallahs, headed by eight of their
+chiefs, clad in their war habiliments, and presenting somewhat of a
+terrific appearance.... They told us their whole village was only a few
+hours' travel ahead of us, going to the Black Hills for the purpose of
+trading." Late the following day the party overtook the Indians,
+"consisting of more than two thousand persons. These villages are not
+stationary, but move from place to place, as inclination or convenience
+may dictate. Their lodges are comfortable, and easily transported. They
+are constructed of eight or ten poles about eighteen feet long, set up
+in a circular form, the small ends fastened together, making an apex,
+and the large ends are spread out so as to enclose an area of about
+twenty feet in diameter. The whole is covered with their coarse skins,
+which are elk, or buffalo, taken when they are not good for robes. A
+fire is made in the centre, a hole being left in the top of the lodge
+for the smoke to pass out. All that they have for household furniture,
+clothing, and skins for beds, is deposited around according to their
+ideas of propriety and convenience. Generally not more than one family
+occupies a lodge." (Parker, (1), pp. 66-67.)
+
+Fort Laramie was reached by the Stansbury expedition on July 12, 1849,
+after advancing about 100 miles beyond the Oglala villages passed six
+days before. The fort stood on the emigrant road, and was likewise a
+great gathering place of the neighboring Indians. An interesting account
+of the visit of a party of emigrants just four years before is
+preserved: "Our camp is stationary to-day; part of the emigrants are
+shoeing their horses and oxen; others are trading at the fort and with
+the Indians.... In the afternoon we gave the Indians a feast, and held a
+long _talk_ with them. Each family, as they could best spare it,
+contributed a portion of bread, meat, coffee or sugar, which being
+cooked, a table was set by spreading buffalo skins upon the ground, and
+arranging the provisions upon them. Around this attractive board, the
+Indian chiefs and their principal men seated themselves, occupying one
+fourth of the circle; the remainder of the male Indians made out the
+semi-circle; the rest of the circle was completed by the whites. The
+squaws and younger Indians formed an outer semi-circular row immediately
+behind their dusky lords and fathers." (Palmer, (1), pp. 25-26.) This
+was June 25, 1845, and the account of the gathering of emigrants and
+Indians is followed by a brief description of the fort itself which is
+of equal interest; "Here are two forts. Fort Laramie, situated upon the
+west side of Laramie's fork, two miles from Platte river, belongs to the
+North American Fur Company. The fort is built of _adobes_. The walls are
+about two feet thick, and twelve or fourteen feet high, the tops being
+picketed or spiked. Posts are planted in these walls, and support the
+timber for the roof. They are then covered with mud. In the centre is an
+open square, perhaps twenty-five yards each way, along the sides of
+which are ranged the dwellings, store rooms, smith shop, carpenter's
+shop, offices, &c., all fronting upon the inner area. There are two
+principal entrances; one at the north, the other at the south." (Op.
+cit., pp. 27-28.) Outside the fort proper, on the eastern side, stood
+the stables, and a short distance away was a field of about 4 acres
+where corn was planted, "by way of experiment." About 1 mile distant was
+a similar though smaller structure called Fort John. It was then owned
+and occupied by a company from St. Louis, but a few months later it was
+purchased by the North American Fur Company and destroyed. Such were the
+typical "forts," on and beyond the frontier during the past century.
+
+The Indians would gather about the fort, their skin tipis standing in
+clusters over the surrounding prairie. Such groups are shown in plate
+24, _a_, _b_. These two very interesting photographs were made during
+the visit of the Indian Peace Commission to Fort Laramie in 1868, and it
+is highly probable the tipis shown in the pictures were occupied by
+some of the Indians with whom the commissioners treated.
+
+The Black Hills lay north and west of the region then occupied by the
+Oglala, and although it is known that the broken country was often
+visited and frequented by parties of Indians in quest of poles for their
+tipis, yet it seems doubtful if any permanent settlements ever stood
+within the region. Dodge, in discussing this question, said:
+
+"My opinion is, that the Black Hills have never been a permanent home
+for any Indians. Even now small parties go a little way into the Hills
+to cut spruce lodge-poles, but all the signs indicate that these are
+mere sojourns of the most temporary character.
+
+"The 'teepe,' or lodge, may be regarded as the Indian's house, the
+wickup as his tent. One is his permanent residence, the other the
+make-shift shelter for a night. Except in one single spot, near the head
+of Castle Creek, I saw nowhere any evidence whatever of a lodge having
+been set up, while old wickups were not unfrequent in the edge of the
+Hills. There is not one single teepe or lodge-pole trail, from side to
+side of the Hills, in any direction, and these poles, when dragged in
+the usual way by ponies, soon make a trail as difficult to obliterate as
+a wagon road, visible for many years, even though not used." (Dodge,
+(1), pp. 136-137.)
+
+Col. R. I. Dodge, from whose work the preceding quotation has been made,
+was in command of the military escort which formed part of the
+expedition into the Black Hills during the summer of 1875. The traces of
+the lodges which had stood near the head of Castle Creek, as mentioned
+in 1875, undoubtedly marked the position of the small encampment
+encountered by the Ludlow party the previous year. In the journal of
+that expedition, dated July 26, 1874, is to be found this brief mention:
+"In the afternoon occurred the first rencontre with Indians. A village
+of seven lodges, containing twenty-seven souls, was found in the valley.
+The men were away peacefully engaged in hunting; the squaws in camp
+drying meat, cooking, and other camp avocations. Red Cloud's daughter
+was the wife of the head-man, whose name was One Stab. General Custer
+was desirous they should remain and introduce us to the hills, but the
+presence among our scouts of a party of Rees, with whom the Sioux wage
+constant war, rendered them very uneasy, and toward night-fall,
+abandoning their camp, they made the escape. Old One Stab was at
+headquarters when the flight was discovered, and retained both as guide
+and hostage.... The high limestone ridges surrounding the camp had
+weathered into castellated forms of considerable grandeur and beauty and
+suggested the name of Castle Valley." (Ludlow, (1), p. 13.) Red Cloud,
+whose daughter is mentioned above, was one of the greatest chiefs and
+warriors of the Oglala; born in 1822 near the forks of the Platte, and
+lived until December, 1909.
+
+Although there may never have been any large permanent camps within the
+Black Hills district, nevertheless it is quite evident the region was
+frequented and traversed by bands of Indians, who left well-defined
+trails. Such were discovered by an expedition in 1875, and after
+referring to small trees which had been bent down by the weight of snow
+the narrative continued: "The snow must be sometimes deep enough to hide
+trails and landmarks, as the main Indian trails leading through the
+Hills were marked by stones placed in the forks of the trees or by one
+or more sets of blazes, the oldest almost overgrown by the bark."
+(Newton and Jenney, (1), p. 302.) And in the same work (p. 323), when
+treating of the timber of the Hills, it was said: "The small slender
+spruce-trees are much sought after by the Indians, who visit the Hills
+in the spring for the purpose of procuring them for lodge-poles."
+
+In another work Dodge described the customs of the tribes with whom he
+had been in close contact for many years. The book is illustrated with
+engravings made from original drawings by the French artist Griset, and
+one sketch shows a few Indians, several tipis, and frames from which are
+hanging quantities of buffalo meat in the process of being dried.
+(Dodge, (2), p. 353.) This suggests the scene at Red Cloud's camp. The
+original drawing is now reproduced as plate 1, the frontispiece.
+
+ASSINIBOIN.
+
+The Assiniboin were, until comparatively recent times, a part of the
+Yanktonai, from whom they may have separated while living in the forest
+region of the northern section of the present State of Minnesota.
+Leaving the parent stock, they joined the Cree, then living to the
+northward, with whom they remained in close alliance. Gradually they
+moved to the valleys of the Saskatchewan and Assiniboin Rivers and here
+were encountered by Alexander Henry in 1775. Interesting though brief
+notes on the structures of the Assiniboin as they appeared in 1775 and
+1776 are contained in the narrative of Henry's travels through the great
+northern country. In 1775, when west of Lake Winnipeg, Henry wrote: "At
+eighty leagues above Fort de Bourbon, at the head of a stream which
+falls into the Sascatchiwaine, and into which we had turned, we found
+the Pasquayah village. It consisted of thirty families, lodged in tents
+of a circular form, and composed of dressed ox-skins, stretched upon
+poles twelve feet in length, and leaning against a stake driven into the
+ground in the centre. On our arrival, the chief, named Chatique, or the
+Pelican, came down upon the beach, attended by thirty followers, all
+armed with bows and arrows and with spears." (Henry, (1), pp.
+256-257.) Fort de Bourbon stood at the northwest corner of Lake
+Winnipeg, and the Assiniboin village of Pasquayah was on the present
+Carrot River, which flows parallel with the Saskatchewan before joining
+the larger stream. This was in the eastern part of the province of
+Saskatchewan.
+
+Early the following year Henry made a visit to an Assiniboin village, to
+reach which he crossed many miles of the frozen wilderness. He was
+accompanied by a party of Indians and the short account of the journey
+contains much of interest. They left Fort des Prairies, "built on the
+margin of the Pasquayah, or Sascatchiwaine," February 5, 1776, and, as
+is recorded in the journal, "At noon, we crossed a small river, called
+Moose-river, flowing at the feet of very lofty banks. Moose-river is
+said to fall into Lake Dauphin. Beyond this stream, the wood grows still
+more scanty, and the land more and more level. Our course was southerly.
+The snow lay four feet deep. The Indians travelled swiftly; and, in
+keeping pace with them, my companions and myself had too much exercise,
+to suffer from the coldness of the atmosphere; but, our snow-shoes being
+of a broader make than those of the Indians, we had much fatigue in
+following their track. The women led, and we marched till sunset, when
+we reached a small coppice of wood, under the protection of which we
+encamped. The baggage of the Indians was drawn by dogs, who kept pace
+with the women, and appeared to be under their command. As soon as we
+halted, the women set up the tents, which were constructed, and covered,
+like those of the Cristinaux.
+
+"The tent, in which I slept, contained fourteen persons, each of whom
+lay with his feet to the fire, which was in the middle; but, the night
+was so cold, that even this precaution, with the assistance of our
+_buffalo-robes_ was insufficient to keep us warm. Our supper was made on
+the tongues of the wild ox, or buffalo, boiled in my kettle, which was
+the only one in the camp."
+
+On the morning of February 7, "I was still asleep, when the women began
+their noisy preparations for our march. The striking of the tents, the
+tongues of the women, and the cries of the dogs, were all heard at once.
+At the first dawn of day, we commenced our journey. Nothing was visible
+but the snow and sky; and the snow was drifted into ridges, resembling
+waves.
+
+"Soon after sunrise, we descried a herd of oxen, extending a mile and a
+half in length, and too numerous to be counted. They travelled, not one
+after another, as, in the snow, other animals usually do, but, in a
+broad phalanx, slowly, and sometimes stopping to feed."
+
+One week was required to reach their destination, and during the morning
+of the 12th of February the party arrived at a small wood, in which the
+Assiniboin village stood. And "at the entrance of the wood, we were met
+by a large band of Indians, having the appearance of a guard; each man
+being armed with his bow and spear, and having his quiver filled with
+arrows.... Forming themselves in regular file, on either side of us,
+they escorted us to the lodge, or tent, which was assigned us. It was of
+a circular form, covered with leather, and not less than twenty feet in
+diameter. On the ground within, ox-skins were spread, for beds and
+seats."
+
+Later, the same day of their arrival, they were invited to a feast in
+the tent of the chief. An Indian appeared. "We followed him accordingly,
+and he carried us to the tent of the great chief, which we found neither
+more ornamented, nor better furnished, than the rest." And another feast
+followed in the evening, "Every thing was nearly as before, except that
+in the morning all the guests were men, and now half were women. All the
+women were seated on one side of the floor of the tent, and all the men
+on the other, with a fire placed between them."
+
+The village consisted of about 200 tents, "each tent containing from two
+to four families." And here "I saw, for the first time, one of those
+herds of horses which the Osinipoilles possess in numbers. It was
+feeding on the skirts of the plain." (Henry, (1), pp. 275-289.) Such was
+a great Assiniboin village nearly a century and a half ago.
+
+The entire village was to return to Fort des Prairies, and so, on the
+morning of February 20, 1776, the tents were struck, and "Soon after
+sunrise, the march began. In the van were twenty-five soldiers, who were
+to beat the path, so that the dogs might walk. They were followed by
+about twenty men, apparently in readiness for contingent services; and
+after these went the women, each driving one or two, and some, five
+loaded dogs. The number of these animals, actually drawing loads,
+exceeded five hundred. After the baggage, marched the main body of men,
+carrying only their arms. The rear was guarded by about forty soldiers.
+The line of march certainly exceeded three miles in length." (Op. cit.,
+p. 309.)
+
+It is easy to visualize this great body of Indians passing over the
+frozen plain, camping at night under the scant protection of a small
+cluster of trees. The hundreds of dogs carrying the skin lodges of the
+villages, the men and women moving forward on snowshoes, undoubtedly
+stopping to kill buffalo and thus to obtain food for all. An exciting
+and animated scene it must have been, but only typical and
+characteristic, not unusual.
+
+The preceding description of the movement of an entire village suggests
+a passage in the journal of La Verendrye, treating of the same people a
+generation earlier. Late in the autumn of 1738 a small party of French,
+accompanied by a numerous band of Assiniboin, set out from the village
+of the latter to visit the Mandan, who lived many leagues distant. La
+Verendrye, the leader of the expedition, wrote: "I observed to M. de la
+Marque the good order in which the Assiniboins march to prevent
+surprise, marching always on the prairies, the hillsides and valleys
+from the first mountain, which did not make them fatigued by mounting
+and descending often in their march during the day. There are
+magnificent plains of three or four leagues. The march of the
+Assiniboins, especially when they are numerous, is in three columns,
+having skirmishers in front, with a good rear guard, the old and lame
+march in the middle, forming the central column.... If the skirmishers
+discovered herds of cattle on the road, as often happens, they raise a
+cry which is soon returned by the rear guard, and all the most active
+men in the columns join the vanguard to hem in the cattle, of which they
+secure a number, and each takes what flesh he wants. Since that stops
+the march, the vanguard marks out the encampment which is not to be
+passed; the women and dogs carry all the baggage, the men are burdened
+only with their arms; they make the dogs even carry wood to make the
+fires, being often obliged to encamp in the open prairie, from which the
+clumps of wood may be at a great distance." (La Verendrye, (1), p. 13.)
+
+The Assiniboin appear to have possessed a great fondness for visiting
+other tribes, and many narratives of journeys in the upper Missouri
+Valley contain references to meeting with such parties.
+
+The size of the Assiniboin camps was often mentioned by the early
+writers. Thus Tanner wrote: "When we came from the Little Saskawjawun
+into the Assinneboin river, we came to the rapids, where was a village
+of one hundred and fifty lodges of Assinneboins, and some Crees."
+(James, (2), p. 57.) This was a century ago, when the villages retained
+their primitive appearance, and so it is to be regretted that no
+detailed description was prepared of this large group of skin-covered
+tipis.
+
+The two associated tribes extended their wanderings to the southward,
+reaching the Missouri, a large gathering of the allies being encountered
+by Lewis and Clark at the Mandan towns in November, 1804. In their
+journal, on November 14, appears this entry: "The river rose last night
+half an inch, and is now filled with floating ice. This morning was
+cloudy with some snow: about seventy lodges of Assiniboins and some
+Knistenaux are at the Mandan village, and this being the day of adoption
+and exchange of property between them all, it is accompanied by a dance,
+which prevents our seeing more than two Indians to-day: these Knistenaux
+are a band of Chippeways whose language they speak; they live on the
+Assiniboin and Saskashawan rivers, and are about two hundred and forty
+men...." And on the following day: "The ceremony of yesterday seem to
+continue still, for we were not visited by a single Indian. The swan are
+still passing to the south." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, p. 127.)
+
+As will be recalled, the expedition under command of Lewis and Clark
+wintered near the Mandan towns, and on April 7, 1805, proceeded on their
+journey up the Missouri. On the 13th of April they arrived at a small
+creek which entered the Missouri about 20 miles above the mouth of the
+Little Missouri. They ascended the creek and at a distance of about
+1-1/2 miles reached a pond "which seemed to have been once the bed of
+the Missouri: near this lake were the remains of forty-three temporary
+lodges which seem to belong to the Assiniboins, who are now on the river
+of the same name." The following day, April 14, 1805, after advancing
+about 15 miles beyond the creek entered on the 13th, "we passed timbered
+low grounds and a small creek: in these low grounds are several
+uninhabited lodges built with the boughs of the elm, and the remains of
+two recent encampments, which from the hoops of small kegs found in them
+we judged could belong to Assiniboins only, as they are the only
+Missouri Indians who use spirituous liquors: of these they are so
+passionately fond that it forms their chief inducement to visit the
+British on the Assiniboin." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 185-186.)
+
+During the days following many Assiniboin camps were discovered.
+
+From these brief statements recorded in 1804 and 1805 it will be
+understood that when a large party of the Assiniboin moved, or when on a
+visit to another tribe, they carried with them their skin lodges, but
+when on a hunting trip they raised temporary shelters of brush and
+boughs, and the same custom was undoubtedly followed by war parties.
+
+Evidently the establishment in after years of posts of the American Fur
+Company at certain points along the course of the upper Missouri served
+to attract bands of the Assiniboin as well as representatives of other
+tribes. Several interesting accounts of the arrival of such parties at
+Fort Union, near the mouth of the Yellowstone, are preserved. Thus
+Maximilian wrote when at the fort, June 29, 1833: "The expected arrival
+of more Assiniboins was delayed; they do not willingly travel with their
+leather tents in wet weather, because their baggage then becomes very
+heavy.... On the 30th of June, at noon, a band of Indians had arrived,
+and twenty-five tents were set up near the fort. The women, who were
+short, and mostly stout, with faces painted red, soon finished this
+work, and dug up with their instruments the clods of turf, which they
+lay round the lower part of the hut. One of these tents, the dwelling of
+a chief, was distinguished from the rest. It was painted of the colour
+of yellow ochre, had a broad reddish-brown border below, and on each of
+its sides a large black bear was painted (something of a caricature it
+must be confessed), to the head of which, just above the nose, a piece
+of red cloth, that fluttered in the wind, was fastened, doubtless a
+medicine." Continuing, the narrative recorded the arrival of others.
+"Another band of Assiniboins appeared at a distance. To the west, along
+the wood by the river-side, the prairie was suddenly covered with red
+men, most of whom went singly, with their dogs drawing the loaded
+sledges. The warriors, about sixty in number, formed a close column....
+The whole column entered the fort, where they smoked, ate, and drank:
+and, meantime, forty-two tents were set up. The new camp had a very
+pretty appearance; the tents stood in a semicircle, and all the fires
+were smoking, while all around was life and activity." (Maximilian, (1),
+pp. 202-204.)
+
+A painting of the dwelling of the chief, with a broad border at the
+bottom, "and on each of its sides a large black bear," was made by
+Bodmer and reproduced by Maximilian. It is here shown in plate 24, _c._
+Several interesting details are represented in this graphic sketch. The
+dog travois is well shown, both the manner in which a dog appeared when
+the frame was attached, and the several pairs of poles with the small
+net-covered frames, standing together to the left of the principal tipi.
+
+The preceding quotation from Maximilian is suggestive of an entry in the
+journal of the Swiss artist Friedrich Kurz, made some years later. Kurz
+wrote while at Fort Union: "October 13, 1851. As we were weighing and
+hanging up dried meat, a lot of Assiniboins came to the fort with squaws
+and many horse and dog travois. As a whole these trading parties do not
+show much of interest, but there are always many details to be picked
+up, of great value to a painter." (Bushnell, (3), p. 15.) Kurz remained
+at Fort Union until April 19, 1852, when he descended the Missouri to
+St. Louis, and thence returned to his native city of Bern. While still
+at Fort Union on March 21, 1852, he made the sketch now reproduced in
+plate 25, _b_, which bears the legend, "Horse camp of the Assiniboins."
+It shows a group of skin-covered lodges in the midst of a grove of
+cottonwoods, and evidently the Missouri is in the distance on the right.
+At that time (1851-52), according to Kurz, the Assiniboin then living in
+the vicinity of Fort Union numbered 420 lodges, with 1,050 men, but
+"from 2-3000 Assiniboins live far above, near lake Winnibeg."
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 24
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Near Fort Laramie, 1868]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Near Fort Laramie, 1868]
+
+[Illustration: _c._ "A skin lodge of an Assiniboin chief." Karl Bodmer]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 25
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Assiniboin lodges "formed entirely of pine
+branches." Paul Kane, 1848]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ "Horse camp of the Assiniboins, March 21, 1852."
+Friedrich Kurz]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 26
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Tipi of Gi-he-ga, an Omaha chief. Photograph by W.
+H. Jackson, 1871]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Page of Kurz's Sketchbook]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 27
+
+[Illustration: "THE VILLAGE OF THE OMAHAS"
+
+Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871]
+
+The Assiniboin living in the far northwest had another and simpler form
+of temporary structure, as mentioned by Kane. He wrote, when arriving at
+Rocky Mountain Fort, a post of the Hudson's Bay Company, April 21, 1848:
+"This fort is beautifully situated on the banks of the Saskatchewan, in
+a small prairie, backed by the Rocky Mountains in the distance. In the
+vicinity was a camp of Assiniboine lodges, formed entirely of pine
+branches." (Kane, (1), p. 408.) The painting made by him showing the fort
+and lodges is reproduced in plate 25, _a_.
+
+DHEGIHA GROUP.
+
+Five tribes are considered as belonging to this group of the Siouan
+linguistic family: Omaha, Ponca, Quapaw, Osage, and Kansa. Distinct from
+the Dakota-Assiniboin tribes already mentioned, these undoubtedly some
+centuries ago lived in the central and upper Ohio valleys, whence they
+moved westward to and beyond the Mississippi. To these tribes may be
+attributed the great earthworks of the southern portion of Ohio and the
+adjacent regions bordering the Ohio River. To quote from the Handbook:
+"Hale and Dorsey concluded from a study of the languages and traditions
+that, in the westward migration of the Dhegiha from their seat on Ohio
+and Wabash rivers, after the separation, at least as early as 1500, of
+the Quapaw, who went down the Mississippi from the mouth of the Ohio,
+the Omaha branch moved up the great river, remaining awhile near the
+mouth of the Missouri while war and hunting parties explored the country
+to the northwest. The Osage remained on Osage River, and the Kansa
+continued up the Missouri, while the Omaha, still including the Ponca,
+crossed the latter stream and remained for a period in Iowa, ranging as
+far as the Pipestone quarry at the present Pipestone, Minnesota."
+
+While living in the heavily timbered valleys reaching to the Ohio the
+several tribes now being considered unquestionably occupied villages
+consisting of groups of mat-covered lodges of the type erected by the
+Osage and Quapaw until the present time. But with the Omaha, Ponca, and
+Kansa, it was different, and when they reached the intermediate region,
+where forest and prairie joined, they were compelled to adopt a new form
+of structure, one suited to the natural environments, and thus they
+began to make use of the earth-covered lodge, and the conical skin tipi,
+with certain variations in form. The characteristic structures of the
+five tribes will now be briefly described, beginning with those of the
+Omaha.
+
+OMAHA.
+
+When Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri in 1804 they found the Omaha
+village not far from the Missouri, in the present Dakota County,
+Nebraska. On the 13th of August the expedition reached the mouth of a
+creek entering the right bank of the Missouri. Just beyond they encamped
+on a sandbar, "opposite the lower point of a large island." From here
+Sergeant Ordway and four men were sent to the Omaha village and returned
+the following day. "After crossing a prairie covered with high grass,
+they reached the Maha creek, along which they proceeded to its three
+forks, which join near the village: they crossed the north branch and
+went along the south; the walk was very fatiguing, as they were forced
+to break their way through grass, sunflowers, and thistles, all above
+ten feet high, and interspersed with wild pea. Five miles from our camp
+they reached the position of the ancient Maha village: it had once
+consisted of three hundred cabins, but was burnt about four years ago,
+soon after the smallpox had destroyed four hundred men, and a proportion
+of women and children. On a hill, in the rear of the village, are the
+graves of the nation." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 44-45.)
+
+Seven years after Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri the traveler
+Bradbury visited the Omaha village standing on or near the site of the
+one mentioned in the earlier narrative. May 12, 1811, while away from
+the boat and traversing the country in search of botanical specimens, he
+arrived on the summit of the bluffs, and, to quote from his journal: "I
+had a fine view of the town below. It had a singular appearance; the
+framework of the lodges consists of ten or twelve long poles, placed in
+the periphery of a circle of about sixteen feet in diameter, and are
+inclined towards each other, so as to cross at a little more than half
+their length from the bottom; and the tops diverging with the same
+angle, exhibit the appearance of one cone inverted on the apex of
+another. The lower cone is covered with dressed buffalo skins, sewed
+together, and fancifully painted; some with an undulating red or yellow
+band of ten or twelve inches in breadth, surrounding the lodge at half
+its height; on others, rude figures of horses, buffaloes, or deer were
+painted; others again with attempts at the human face, in a circle, as
+the moon is sometimes painted; these were not less than four feet in
+diameter. I judged there were not fewer than eighty lodges. I did not
+remain long on the summit of the bluffs, as I perceived, from the heaps
+of earth, some of these recent, that it was a burial ground, and I knew
+the veneration they have for the graves of their ancestors." (Bradbury,
+(1), pp. 65-67.)
+
+It is interesting to read of the number of decorated lodges then
+standing in an Omaha village, but in later years fewer structures were
+so ornamented. A typical example of a tipi of half a century ago is
+shown in plate 26, _a_, from a photograph made by Jackson in 1871.
+
+According to the best authorities on the Omaha, from whose monographs
+much of the following information has been gleaned, the earth lodge and
+the skin tipi are the only forms of habitations made use of by the
+Omaha in recent generations. The earth lodge resembled those of other
+tribes of the upper Missouri, and among the Omaha the work of erecting
+such a structure was shared in by both man and woman.
+
+"The marking out of the site and the cutting of the heavy logs were done
+by the men. When the location was chosen, a stick was thrust in the spot
+where the fireplace was to be, one end of a rawhide rope was fastened to
+the stick and a circle 20 to 60 feet in diameter was drawn on the earth
+to mark where the wall was to be erected. The sod within the circle was
+removed, the ground excavated about a foot in depth, and the earth
+thrown around the circle like an embankment. Small crotched posts about
+10 feet high were set 8 or 10 feet apart and 1-1/2 feet within the
+circle, and on these were laid beams. Outside this frame split posts
+were set close together, having one end braced against the bottom of the
+bank and the other end leaning against the beams, thus forming a wall of
+timber. The opening generally, though not always, faced the east. Midway
+between the central fireplace and the wall were planted 4 to 8 large
+crotched posts about 10 feet in height, on which heavy beams rested,
+these serving to support the roof. This was made of long, slender,
+tapering trees stripped of their bark. These were tied at their large
+ends with cords (made from the inner bark of the linden) to the beams at
+the top of the stockade and at the middle to those resting in the
+crotches of the large posts forming the inner circle about the
+fireplace. The slender ends were cut so as to form the circular opening
+for the smoke, the edges being woven together with elm twine, so as to
+be firm. Outside the woodwork of the walls and roof, branches of willow
+were laid crosswise and bound tight to each slab and pole. Over the
+willows a heavy thatch of coarse grass was arranged so as to shed water.
+On the grass was placed a thick coating of sod. The sods were cut to lap
+and be laid like shingles. Finally they were tamped with earth and made
+impervious to rain. The entrance way, 6 to 10 feet long, projected from
+the door and was built in the same manner as the lodge and formed a part
+of it. A curtain of skin hung at the inner and one at the outer door of
+this entrance way. Much labor was expended on the floor of the lodge.
+The loose earth was carefully removed and the ground then tamped. It was
+next flooded with water, after which dried grass was spread over it and
+set on fire. Then the ground was tamped once again. This wetting and
+heating was repeated two or three times, until the floor became hard and
+level and could be easily swept and kept clean. Brooms were made of
+brush or twigs tied together. Couches were arranged around the wall in
+the spaces between the posts of the framework. These were provided with
+skins and pillows, and served as seats by day and as beds by night. In
+the building of an earth lodge the cutting and putting on of the sods
+was always done by women, and as this part of the task had to be
+accomplished rapidly to prevent the drying out of the sods, which must
+hold well together, kindred helped one another. The erection of this
+class of dwelling required considerable labor, hence only the
+industrious and thrifty possessed these lodges." (Fletcher and La
+Flesche, (1), pp. 97-98.)
+
+Although the earth-covered lodge, as just described, was used in the
+permanent villages, nevertheless in the same villages were to have been
+seen many of the conical skin tipis. Both types of habitation were
+standing at the Omaha village in 1871 when the photograph, now
+reproduced in plate 27, was made by W. H. Jackson.
+
+Near each earth lodge, "generally to the left of the entrance, the cache
+was built. This consisted of a hole in the ground about 8 feet deep,
+rounded at the bottom and sides, provided with a neck just large enough
+to admit the body of a person. The whole was lined with split posts, to
+which was tied an inner lining of bunches of dried grass. The opening
+was protected by grass, over which sod was placed. In these caches the
+winter supply of food was stored; the shelled corn was put into skin
+bags, long strings of corn on the cob were made by braiding the outer
+husks, while the jerked meat was packed in parfleche cases. Pelts,
+regalia, and extra clothing were generally kept in the cache; but these
+were laid in ornamented parfleche cases, never used but for this
+purpose." (Op. cit., p. 98.)
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 28
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Page of Kurz's Sketchbook showing Omaha village, May
+20, 1851]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Page of Kurz's Sketchbook showing interior of an
+Omaha lodge, May 16, 1851]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 29
+
+[Illustration: "PUNKA INDIANS ENCAMPED ON THE BANKS OF THE MISSOURI"
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833]
+
+On pages 95 and 96 of the work just cited appears a very interesting
+description of the making and raising of a skin tipi. "Formerly the
+cover was made of 9 to 12 buffalo skins tanned on both sides. To cut and
+sew this cover so that it would fit well and be shapely when stretched
+over the circular framework of poles required skilful workmanship, the
+result of training and of accurate measurements.... The tent poles were
+14 to 16 feet long. Straight young cedar poles were preferred. The bark
+was removed and the poles were rubbed smooth. The setting up of a tent
+was always a woman's task. She first took four poles, laid them together
+on the ground, and then tied them firmly with a thong about 3 feet from
+one end. She then raised the poles and spread their free ends apart and
+thrust them firmly into the ground. These four tied poles formed the
+true framework of the tent. Other poles--10 to 20 in number, according
+to the size of the tent--were arranged in a circle, one end pressed well
+into the ground, the other end laid in the forks made by the tied ends
+of the four poles. There was a definite order in setting up the poles so
+that they would lock one another, and when they were all in place they
+constituted an elastic but firm frame, which could resist a fairly
+heavy wind." There was probably very little variation in the ways and
+customs of the different members of the tribe, and the tents of an
+entire village would have been raised after the same, long-established
+manner. But the structures in an Omaha village did not surround an open
+space, "nor were they set so the people could live in the order of their
+gentes, an order observed when they were on the hunt and during their
+tribal ceremonies. Yet each family knew to what gens it belonged,
+observed its rites, and obeyed strictly the rule of exogamy. To the
+outward appearance a village presented a motley group of tribesmen. The
+dwellings and their different corrals were huddled together; the
+passageways between the lodges were narrow and tortuous. There was
+little of the picturesque. The grass and weeds that grew over the earth
+lodges while the people were off on their summer buffalo hunt were all
+cut away when the tribe returned. So, except for the decorations on the
+skin tents, there was nothing to relieve the dun-colored aspect." (Op.
+cit., p. 99.) Such was the appearance of an Omaha village in the valley
+of the Missouri.
+
+In 1847 the Omaha erected a village on the banks of Papillon Creek, near
+the line between Sarpy and Douglas Counties, Nebraska. Four years later
+it was visited by Kurz during his journey up the Missouri. Kurz was
+camped near Council Bluffs, on the left bank of the Missouri. Opposite
+was Bellevue, the trading post of Peter A. Sarpy, and while at the
+latter place, May 16, 1851, Kurz entered in his journal: "In Bellevue I
+have drawn an Indian winter house made of earth, and also a Pawnee
+girl." And on May 20 he wrote: "Again crossed the river to Bellevue in
+order to visit the Omaha village some six miles distant; went over the
+bluffs, as being the shortest way, then crossed the high prairie ... to
+the _Papillon_ creek which partly surrounds the village of the Omahas.
+The village itself is built on a hill.... The camp or village is
+composed of leather tents and earth-covered lodges. Between the tents
+and lodges are scaffolds for drying meat and also an enclosure for the
+horses.... I walked into the village and watched a group of young men
+endeavoring to throw lances through rolling rings, the others being
+gathered on top the earth lodges, [pl. 26, _b_] as spectators."
+(Bushnell, (3), p. 11.) Sketches made by Kurz at that time are
+reproduced in plate 28. The interior of an earth lodge, drawn at
+Bellevue May 16, 1851, is shown in _b_; the couches extending along the
+wall are clearly indicated, also the fireplace in the center of the
+lodge, over which is hanging a hook for the suspension of a kettle. The
+village, which stood on the banks of Papillion Creek, is shown in the
+lower part of _a_, of the same plate. Both forms of dwellings are
+represented in the sketch; also the scaffolds for drying meat and other
+purposes, and several inclosures in which their horses were confined.
+
+On June 12 Kurz attended a sacred dance performed for the benefit of a
+wounded man. He referred to it in his journal as being given by the
+Buffalo Society, where all wore buffalo masks. It was held in a large
+earth lodge, and he was accompanied by the chief, Joseph La Flesche.
+
+The site of the small village mentioned by Kurz was identified a few
+years ago by Gilder, and some of the ruins were examined. It stood in
+the forks of the Papillion, about 4 miles in a direct line west of the
+Missouri. To quote from the brief narrative: "It was here the Omaha
+lived last before going on a reservation, and where they were visited by
+the Swiss artist, Kurz.... It was found that the ruins were quite
+shallow and had left but slight depressions, while others left small
+circular mounds above the surrounding level. The Rock Island Railroad
+has cut through the village, and at least one cache was exposed from top
+to bottom--about fifteen feet. In all instances the caches were outside
+the lodge sites.
+
+"The surface yielded fractured iron pots, delft or figured china of
+white man's manufacture, and rusty iron objects, besides flint scrapers
+and chips, potsherds, and the usual accumulations of a village prior to
+contact with white people. The writer cannot attribute the flint
+implements to the Omaha, but considers the favorable site on a plateau
+at the junction of two streams to have been used by another people long
+before the Omaha erected their lodges there." (Gilder, (1), p. 75.)
+
+Innumerable ruins of earth lodges were to have been found in the
+vicinity of the present city of Omaha, the great majority of which stood
+in early days before the arrival of Europeans in the valley of the
+Missouri, and it is not possible to say by which tribe the villages were
+erected. Many large ruins were discovered on Childs Point, in the
+extreme northeastern corner of Sarpy County, just south of Omaha, and
+some 4 miles northeast of the small village visited by Kurz. Some of the
+ruins were carefully examined by Gilder. One, which appears to have been
+considered as possessing the typical characteristics of the group, was
+described by Gilder, who wrote: "In all house ruins similar to the one
+here described, the main fireplace, four or five feet in diameter, is
+situated near the exact center. From this fireplace the floor extends,
+nearly flat, to within ten feet of the extreme outer edge or periphery
+of the ruin. Here a platform, or step, twelve to fourteen inches high
+and almost vertical, rose from the floor and sloped rather sharply to
+the outer rim.... Around the line of the inner circumference of the
+platform, at distances of approximately five feet, the remains of posts
+six or seven inches in diameter were discovered. These were either in
+the form of charcoal or of wood dust. Sometimes bowlders lay about the
+remains of the posts, as if designed to aid in holding them in position.
+The grain of the charcoal posts indicated the wood to have been oak.
+About the posts, under the floor, and also under the platform, objects
+were more numerous than at other points in the ruin. The charred remains
+of four posts about eight feet apart surrounded the central fireplace.
+There were two features of house construction that stand out
+conspicuously: (1) the floor was approximately six to eight feet lower
+than the level of the surrounding ridge; (2) the angle at which the
+slabs, logs, or paling probably leaned inward from the periphery seems
+to indicate the highest part of the roof at about the same distance
+above the surrounding level as the floor was below, making the highest
+part of the roof about fifteen feet above the fireplace in the center of
+the dwelling.... Little besides broken flint instruments, flint chips,
+shells, potsherds, and fractured drift bowlders were found upon the
+floor itself; the major number of objects was beneath the floor surface,
+very often covered with bowlders, as if the latter had been placed to
+mark the spot. Small fireplaces were of frequent occurrence on all parts
+of the floor.
+
+"Three caches were found in the first ruin.... In one, fifteen feet west
+of the center of the dwelling were found flint blades, a score of Unio
+shells, a mano or muller made from a rounded drift bowlder ... and a
+pottery pipe in form of a soaring bird.... The bottom of this cache was
+six feet from the surface. The second cache lay at the southeastern side
+of the ruin. Its bottom was eight feet from the surface of the ground.
+It contained thirty shells, several large flint blades, other large
+flint implements of unknown use ... animal bones, projectile points, and
+a small piece of galena. The third cache, in the northeastern part of
+the ruin, was the largest and deepest of the three, its bottom being
+nine feet and a half from the surface. On a small shelf, or niche, at
+its eastern side, two feet from the bottom, lay, a small image of a
+human face carved from pink soapstone, a number of animal bones and
+skulls, fish bones and scales, and Unio shells.
+
+"So many and varied were the objects found in the ruin, so abundant the
+charred sticks and grasses, that the impression is conveyed that the
+dwelling had been abandoned in haste and that it had burned to the
+ground." (Gilder, (1), pp. 58-61.) The objects discovered in this
+ancient ruin were truly varied, as the discoverer remarked, and likewise
+of the greatest interest, including specimens of stone, bone, and
+pottery, with bones of animals which had probably served as food. But
+how interesting it would be to know the date of the construction of this
+large lodge, and the tribe to which its occupants belonged--questions
+which may never be determined. However, it unquestionably belonged to
+people of a tribe who reared and occupied similar structures in the
+valley of the Missouri as late as the latter half of the nineteenth
+century.
+
+Other quite similar ruins a short distance north of the city of Omaha
+were examined by Gilder. Many objects of bone, stone, and pottery were
+discovered. Caches were encountered, and to quote from his account of
+the work: "The caches within the house sites are smaller in diameter
+near the top than at the bottom, the latter part flaring out somewhat in
+the manner of a large earthen pot. The bottom of the caches are rounded,
+and the walls are almost as hard as fired clay. In the very bottom of
+each cache was a quantity of dust, or earth as fine as dust (not compact
+as at other points), in which were found small arrowpoints, flint
+blades, shell beads, and flint flakes. In each case where the cache was
+found within the house circle it occurred close under the western wall,
+back of the fireplace and exactly opposite the entrance to the lodge,
+the latter in every instance facing the east." (Gilder, (2), p. 716.)
+
+Before closing this brief sketch of the Omaha villages and forms of
+structures, it will be of interest to quote from the writings of one who
+was intimately acquainted with the people of whom he wrote. Referring to
+their various types of habitations, he says:
+
+"The primitive domiciles of the Omaha were chiefly (1) lodges of earth
+or, more rarely, of bark or mats, and (2) skin lodges or tents. It may
+be observed that there were no sacred rites connected with the earth
+lodge-building or tent-making among the Omaha and Ponka. When earth
+lodges were built, the people did not make them in a tribal circle, each
+man erecting his lodge where he wished; yet kindred commonly built near
+one another. The earth lodges were made by the women, and were intended
+principally for summer use, when the people were not migrating or going
+on the hunt.... Earth lodges were generally used for large gatherings,
+such as feasts, councils, or dances.... On a bluff near the Omaha agency
+I found the remains of several ancient earth lodges, with entrances on
+the southern sides. Two of these were 75 feet and one was 100 feet in
+diameter. In the center of the largest there was a hollow about 3 feet
+deep and nearly 4 feet below the surface outside the lodge.
+
+"The Omaha sometimes make bark lodges for summer occupancy, as did the
+Iowa and Sak." (Dorsey, (1), pp. 269-271.)
+
+Referring to the more temporary structure, the skin tipi: "The tent was
+used when the people were migrating, and also when they were traveling
+in search of the buffalo. It was also the favorite abode of a household
+during the winter season, as the earth lodge was generally erected in an
+exposed situation, selected on account of comfort in the summer. The
+tent could be pitched in the timber or brush, or down in wooded ravines,
+where the cold winds never had full sweep. Hence, many Indians abandoned
+their houses in winter and went into their tents, even when they were of
+canvas.
+
+"The tent was commonly made of ten or a dozen dressed or tanned buffalo
+skins. It was in the shape of a sugar loaf, and was from 10 to 12 feet
+high, 10 or 15 feet in diameter at the bottom, and about a foot and a
+half in diameter at the top, which served as a smoke-hole.... No totem
+posts were in use among the Omaha. The tent of the principal man of each
+gens was decorated on the outside with his gentile badge, which was
+painted on each side of the entrance as well as on the back of the
+tent." (Op. cit., pp. 271-274.)
+
+In an earlier work, "A Study of Siouan Cults," Dr. Dorsey showed the
+varied designs on ceremonial tipis of the different Siouan tribes. Among
+other interesting illustrations are pictures of lodges erected at the
+time of the Sun dance, with the great camp circle as formed at that
+time. (Dorsey, (2).)
+
+A clear insight into the ways of life of the primitive Omaha of a
+century ago, before their native manners and customs had been changed
+through influence with the whites, may be obtained from the narrative of
+the Long expedition. A great part of the recorded information was
+imparted by John Dougherty, at that time deputy Indian agent for the
+tribes of the Missouri.
+
+In 1819 and 1820, the period of the narrative, the permanent village of
+the tribe stood on the banks of Omaha Creek, about 2-1/2 miles from the
+right bank of the Missouri, in the present Dakota County, Nebraska. As
+told on preceding pages, this was the large, permanent village of the
+tribe, but nevertheless it was occupied for less than half the year, and
+as related by Dougherty: "The inhabitants occupy their village not
+longer than five months in the year. In April they arrive from their
+hunting excursions, and in the month of May they attend to their
+horticultural interests, and plant maize, beans, pumpkins, and
+watermelons, besides which they cultivate no other vegetable. They also,
+at this season, dress the bison skins, which have been procured during
+the winter hunt, for the traders, who generally appear for the purpose
+of obtaining them. The young men, in the mean time, are employed in
+hunting within the distance of seventy or eighty miles around, for
+beaver, otter, deer, muskrat, elk, &c.
+
+"When the trading and planting occupations of the people are terminated,
+and provisions begin to fail them, which occurs generally in June, the
+chiefs assemble a council for the purpose of deliberating upon the
+further arrangements necessary to be made...." A feast is prepared, and
+all gather to determine where and when the next hunt shall take place.
+These important questions being settled, all are in readiness, and "The
+day assigned for their departure having arrived, the squaws load their
+horses and dogs, and take as great a weight upon their own backs, as
+they can conveniently transport, and, after having closed the entrances
+to their several habitations, by placing a considerable quantity of
+brushwood before them, the whole nation departs from the village." And
+thus they continue to move until word is brought that herds of buffalo
+are near, then they encamp at the nearest watercourse. The skin lodges,
+having been conveyed by means of the travois, are soon set up, to be
+occupied during the period of the hunt. These "are often fancifully
+ornamented on the exterior, with figures, in blue and red paint, rudely
+executed, though sometimes depicted with no small degree of taste." The
+buffalo skins obtained during the summer hunt were known as _summer
+skins_, and were used especially for the covering of their lodges and
+also for their garments. After a successful hunt all parts of the
+buffalo were carried to the camp and the vertebrae were crushed "by
+means of stone axes, similar to those which are not unfrequently
+ploughed up out of the earth in the Atlantic states."
+
+After the summer hunt "The nation return towards their village in the
+month of August, having visited for a short time the Pawnee villages for
+the purpose of trading their guns for horses. They are sometimes so
+successful, in their expedition, in the accumulation of meat, as to be
+obliged to make double trips, returning about mid-day for half the whole
+quantity, which was left in the morning. When within two or three days
+journey of their own village, runners are dispatched to it, charged with
+the duty of ascertaining the safety of it, and the state of the maize.
+
+"On the return of the nation, which is generally early in September, a
+different kind of employment awaits the ever industrious squaws. The
+property buried in the earth is to be taken up and arranged in the
+lodges, which are cleaned out, and put in order. The weeds which during
+their absence had grown up, in every direction through the village, are
+cut down and removed. A sufficient quantity of _sweet corn_ is next to
+be prepared, for present and future use."
+
+Being now plentifully supplied with food, unless for some unforeseen
+cause having an ample quantity of buffalo meat and corn, together with
+the other products of the gardens, they would "content themselves in
+their village until the latter part of October, when, without the
+formality of a council, or other ceremony, they again depart from the
+village, and move in separate parties to various situations on both
+sides of the Missouri, and its tributaries, as far down as the Platte.
+Their primary object at this time, is to obtain, on credit from the
+traders, various articles, indispensably necessary to their fall,
+winter, and spring hunts; such as guns, particularly those of
+_Mackinaw_, powder, ball, and flints, beaver traps, brass, tin, and
+camp-kettles, knives, hoes, squaw-axes and tomahawks.
+
+"Having obtained these implements, they go in pursuit of deer, or apply
+themselves to trapping for beaver and otter. Elk was some time since an
+object of pursuit, but these animals are now rather rare, in the Omawhaw
+territories.
+
+"This hunt continues until towards the close of December, and during the
+rigours of the season they experience an alternation of abundance and
+scarcity of food."
+
+The skins secured during the late autumn hunt would be carried to the
+traders and left as payment for the goods previously obtained on credit,
+and also given in exchange for blankets, wampum, and various other
+articles. Thence they would return to their permanent village "in order
+to procure a supply of maize from their places of concealment, after
+which they continue their journey, in pursuit of bisons.... This
+expedition continues until the month of April, when they return to their
+village as before stated, loaded with provisions. It is during this
+expedition that they procure all the skins, of which the bison robes of
+commerce are made; the animals at this season having their perfect
+winter dress, the hair and wool of which are long and dense." (James,
+(1), I, pp. 200-221.)
+
+Such was the life of the Omaha a hundred years ago, and it may have been
+quite the same for many generations, omitting, of course, the visits
+made to the traders. But their systematic hunts had probably been
+performed ever since the Omaha reached the valley of the Missouri, and
+possibly long before.
+
+PONCA.
+
+That the Ponca and Omaha were formerly a single tribe is accepted
+without question, and that the separation took place long after they
+crossed the Mississippi from their ancient habitat is established by the
+traditions of the two tribes. Probably the two tribes in later years,
+after the separation, continued to resemble one another to such a degree
+that the villages of one could not have been distinguished from those of
+the other.
+
+A deserted village of the Ponca was discovered by members of the Lewis
+and Clark expedition in 1804, and according to the narrative of the
+expedition on September 5 they arrived at the "river Poncara," which
+entered the Missouri from the south, and at its mouth was 30 yards in
+width. "Two men whom we despatched to the village of the same name,
+returned with information that they had found it on the lower side of
+the creek; but as this is the hunting season, the town was so completely
+deserted that they had killed a buffaloe in the village itself." (Lewis
+and Clark, (1), I, pp. 66-67.) The "river Poncara," later to be known as
+Ponca Creek, enters the right bank of the Missouri in the western part
+of the present Knox County, Nebraska. Here they continued to live for
+some years, and during the spring of 1833 Maximilian said they "dwell on
+both sides of Running-water River, and on Ponca Creek, which Lewis and
+Clark call Poncara." Running-water River was the earlier name of the
+Niobrara. "The band of them, which we met with here, has set up eight or
+nine leather tents, at the mouth of Basil Creek, on a fine forest." On
+May 12, 1833, appears this note in the narrative: Arrived "opposite the
+huts of the Punca Indians. They lay in the shade of a forest, like white
+cones, and, in front of them, a sand bank extended into the river, which
+was separated from the land by a narrow channel. The whole troop was
+assembled on the edge of the bank, and it was amusing to see how the
+motley group crowded together, wrapped in brown buffalo skins, white and
+red blankets--some naked, of a deep brown colour." (Maximilian, (1), pp.
+137-139.) A sketch made at that time by Bodmer and reproduced by
+Maximilian is here shown in plate 29. It bears the legend "Punka Indians
+Encamped on the Banks of the Missouri."
+
+Although at that time living in the typical skin tipi, Maximilian stated
+(p. 137), "They formerly lived, like the Omahas, in clay huts at the
+mouth of the river, but their powerful enemies, the Sioux and the
+Pawnees, destroyed their villages, and they have since adopted the mode
+of life of the former, living more generally in tents made of skins, and
+changing their place from time to time." The village visited by members
+of the Lewis and Clark expedition, September 5, 1804, when they "killed
+a buffaloe in the village itself," was probably composed of
+earth-covered lodges.
+
+When discovering a trail, or rather tracks made by a number of Indians
+crossing the prairie, it was often possible to determine the nature of
+the party. The Ponca, who often moved from place to place, setting up
+their tipis in various localities during the course of the year, could
+have been held in mind by Gregg when he wrote: "These lodges are always
+pitched or set up by the squaws, and with such expedition, that, upon
+the stopping of an itinerant band, a town springs up in a desert valley
+in a few minutes, as if by enchantment. The lodge-poles are often neatly
+prepared, and carried along from camp to camp. In conveying them one end
+frequently drags on the ground, whereby the trail is known to be that of
+a band with families, as war parties never carry lodge-poles." (Gregg,
+(1), II, pp. 286-288.) The rapidity and skill with which the squaws set
+up and arranged the tipis, when the site of the camp had been selected,
+was commented on by many writers, and what an interesting and animated
+scene it must have been.
+
+KANSA.
+
+To quote from the Handbook: "Their linguistic relations are closest with
+the Osage, and are close with the Quapaw. In the traditional migration
+of the group, after the Quapaw had first separated therefrom, the main
+body divided at the mouth of Osage River, the Osage moving up that
+stream and the Omaha and Ponca crossing Missouri River and proceeding
+northward, while the Kansa ascended the Missouri on the south side to
+the mouth of Kansa River. Here a brief halt was made, after which they
+ascended the Missouri on the south side until they reached the present
+north boundary of Kansas, where they were attacked by the Cheyenne and
+compelled to retrace their steps. They settled again at the mouth of
+Kansas River, where the Big Knives, as they called the whites, came with
+gifts and induced them to go farther west. The native narrators of this
+tradition give an account of about 20 villages occupied successively
+along Kansas River before the settlement at Council Grove, Kansas,
+whence they were finally removed to their reservation in Indian Ter.
+Marquette's autograph map, drawn probably as early as 1674, places the
+Kansas a considerable distance directly west of the Osage and some
+distance south of the Omaha, indicating that they were then on Kansas
+River.... It is known that the Kansa moved up Kansas River in historic
+times as far as Big Blue River, and thence went to Council Grove in
+1847. The move to the Big Blue must have taken place after 1723."
+
+Thus it would appear that for many generations the villages of the Kansa
+had stood near the eastern boundary of the great plains, a region where
+buffalo were plentiful, one suited to the wants and requirements of the
+native tribes.
+
+On June 26, 1804, the Lewis and Clark expedition reached the mouth of
+the Kansas and encamped on the north side, where they remained two days.
+In the journal of those days they referred to the Kansa, and said: "On
+the banks of the Kanzas reside the Indians of the same name, consisting
+of two villages, one at about twenty, the other forty leagues from its
+mouth, and amounting to about three hundred men. They once lived
+twenty-four leagues higher than the Kanzas [river], on the south bank of
+the Missouri.... This nation is now hunting in the plains for the
+buffaloe which our hunters have seen for the first time." (Lewis and
+Clark, (1), I, pp. 18-19.) A few days later, July 2, after advancing a
+short distance up the Missouri, above the mouth of the Kansas, they
+arrived at the site of an ancient village of the tribe. In the journal
+(p. 20) is this account: "Opposite our camp is a valley, in which was
+situated an old village of the Kansas, between two high points of land,
+and on the bank of the river. About a mile in the rear of the village
+was a small fort, built by the French on an elevation. There are now no
+traces of the village, but the situation of the fort may be recognized
+by some remains of chimnies, and the general outline of the
+fortification, as well as by the fine spring which supplied it with
+water." Three days later, July 5, 1804, while on the right bank of the
+Missouri, they "came along the bank of an extensive and beautiful
+prairie, interspersed with copses of timber, and watered by Independence
+creek. On this bank formerly stood the second village of the Kanzas;
+from the remains it must have been once a large town." (Op. cit., pp.
+21-22.)
+
+The village mentioned by Lewis and Clark as standing on the banks of the
+Kansas River some 40 league above its confluence with the Missouri may
+have been the one visited and described by Maj. George C. Sibley during
+the summer of 1811. Sibley wrote in his journal: "The Konsee town is
+seated immediately on the north bank of the Konsee River, about one
+hundred miles by its course above its junction with the Missouri; in a
+beautiful prairie of moderate extent, which is nearly encircled by the
+River; one of its Northern branches (commonly called the Republican
+fork, which falls in a few hundred paces above the village) and a small
+creek that flows into the north branch. On the north and southwest it is
+overhung by a chain of high prairie hills which give a very pleasing
+effect to the whole scene.
+
+"The town contains one hundred and twenty-eight houses or lodges which
+are generally about 60 feet long and 25 feet wide, constructed of stout
+poles and saplings arranged in form of an arbour and covered with skins,
+bark and mats; they are commodious and quite comfortable. The place for
+fire is simply a hole in the earth, under the ridge pole of the roof,
+where an opening is left for the smoke to pass off. All the larger
+lodges have two, sometimes three, fire places; one for each family
+dwelling in it. The town is built without much regard to order; there
+are no regular streets or avenues. The lodges are erected pretty
+compactly together in crooked rows, allowing barely space sufficient to
+admit a man to pass between them. The avenues between these crooked rows
+are kept in tolerable decent order and the village is on the whole
+rather neat and cleanly than otherwise. Their little fields or patches
+of corn, beans and pumpkins, which they had just finished planting, and
+which constitute their whole variety, are seen in various directions, at
+convenient distances around the village. The prairie was covered with
+their horses and mules (they have no other domestic animals except
+dogs)."
+
+The manuscript journal from which the preceding quotation is made is now
+in the possession of Lindenwood College, St. Charles, Mo., the copy
+having been made by Mrs. N. H. Beauregard.
+
+The preceding is a clear though all too brief account of a native
+village, prepared at a time when it continued in a primitive condition.
+The site, on the left bank of Kansas River just below the mouth of the
+Republican, would have been about the present Fort Riley, near the
+northern line of Geary County. In some respects this is the most
+interesting description of a Kansa village given in the present work.
+The habitations--long mat-covered lodges--were of the type erected by
+the Osage and Quapaw, kindred tribes of the Kansa, and it is highly
+probable they represented the form of dwellings reared by the same
+tribes many generations before in their ancient villages which then
+stood in the valley of the Ohio, far east of the Mississippi.
+
+Just 15 years elapsed between the time of the Lewis and Clark expedition
+and the arrival of the Long party in the country of the Kansa. In
+August, 1819, to those aboard the steamboat _Western Engineer_, "The
+site of an old village of the Konzas, and the remains of a fortification
+erected by the French, were pointed out a few miles below Isle au Vache.
+This island, which lies about one hundred miles above Fort Osage, was
+the wintering post of Capt. Martin's detachment, destined to proceed in
+advance of the troops ordered to the Missouri." And nothing shows more
+clearly the changed conditions in that region during the past century
+than the continuation of this narrative: "Captain Martin, with three
+companies of the rifle regiment, left Bellefontain in September 1818,
+and arrived at Isle au Vache in October, with the expectation of
+resuming his march, as early in the following spring as the weather
+would permit. But not having received the necessary supplies of
+provisions as anticipated, they had been compelled to remain till the
+time of our arrival, subsisting themselves principally by hunting....
+Between two and three thousand deer, besides great numbers of bears,
+turkies, &c. had been taken." On August 23, 1819, a large number of
+Kansa Indians, from their villages on the river bearing their tribal
+name, gathered at Isle au Vache to meet members of the Long party in
+council. "There were present at this council, one hundred and sixty-one
+Konzas, including chiefs and warriors, and thirteen Osages." (James,
+(1), I, pp. 110-112.)
+
+While at Fort Osage members of the Long expedition left for an overland
+journey to the Kansa towns. The party was led by Say, and left the fort
+August 6, arriving at the villages just two weeks later. The Kansa town
+then stood in the extreme southwestern corner of the present
+Pottawatomie County, Kansas, at the mouth of the Big Blue. And "as they
+approached the village, they perceived the tops of the lodges red with
+the crowds of natives; the chiefs and warriors came rushing out on
+horseback, painted and decorated, and followed by great numbers on foot
+... the village was in confusion, the hunters having lately returned;
+and being then engaged in preparations for the journey to Isle au
+Vache." The journey was that mentioned above, when the Indians arrived
+at Isle au Vache to hold council with Long. Continuing the narrative:
+"The approach to the village is over a fine level prairie of
+considerable extent; passing which, you ascend an abrupt bank of the
+height of ten feet, to a second level, on which the village is situate
+in the distance, within about 1/4 of a mile of the river. It consists of
+about 120 lodges, placed as closely together as convenient, and
+destitute of any regularity of arrangement. The ground area of each
+lodge is circular, and is excavated to the depth of from one to three
+feet, and the general form of the exterior may be denominated
+hemispheric.
+
+"The lodge, in which we reside, is larger than any other in the town,
+and being that of the grand chief, it serves as a council house for the
+nation. The roof is supported by two series of pillars, or rough
+vertical posts, forked at top for the reception of the transverse
+connecting pieces of each series; twelve of these pillars form the outer
+series, placed in a circle; and eight longer ones, the inner series,
+also describing a circle; the outer wall, of rude frame work, placed at
+a proper distance from the exterior series of pillars, is five or six
+feet high. Poles, as thick as the leg at base, rest with their butts
+upon the wall, extending on the cross pieces, which are upheld by the
+pillars of the two series, and are of sufficient length to reach nearly
+to the summit. These poles are very numerous, and, agreeable to the
+position which we have indicated, they are placed all around in a
+radiating manner, and support the roof like rafters. Across these are
+laid long and slender sticks or twigs, attached parallel to each other
+by means of bark cord; these are covered by mats made of long grass, or
+reeds, or with the bark of trees; the whole is then covered completely
+over with earth, which, near the ground, is banked up to the eaves. A
+hole is permitted to remain in the middle of the roof to give exit to
+the smoke. Around the walls of the interior, a continuous series of mats
+are suspended; these are of neat workmanship, composed of a soft reed,
+united by bark cord, in straight or undulated lines, between which,
+lines of black paint sometimes occur. The bedsteads are elevated to the
+height of a common seat from the ground, and are about six feet wide;
+they extend in an uninterrupted line around three-fourths of the
+circumference of the apartment, and are formed in the simplest manner of
+numerous sticks, or slender pieces of wood resting at their ends on
+cross pieces, which are supported by short notched or forked posts,
+driven into the ground; bison skins supply them with a comfortable
+bedding. Several medicine or mystic bags are carefully attached to the
+mats of the wall, these are cylindrical, and neatly bound up; several
+reeds are usually placed upon them, and a human scalp serves for the
+fringe and tassels. Of their contents we know nothing. The fireplace is
+a simple shallow cavity, in the center of the apartment, with an upright
+and a projecting arm for the support of the culinary apparatus." (Op.
+cit., pp. 120-121.)
+
+Say and his associates left the Kansa village to rejoin the main party
+aboard the steamboat _Western Engineer_, then waiting near Isle au
+Vache, but soon after starting on the journey were attacked by some
+wandering Pawnee and forced to return to seek refuge among those whom
+they had just left. And as told in the narrative, they were, as a
+consequence, able to witness an interesting ceremony in one of the large
+earth lodges. This was August 23, 1819. "Mr. Say's party were kindly
+received at the village they had left on the preceding day. In the
+evening they had retired to rest in the lodge set apart for their
+accommodation, when they were alarmed by a party of savages, rushing in
+armed with bows, arrows and lances, shouting and yelling in a most
+frightful manner. The gentlemen of the party had immediate recourse to
+their arms, but observing that some squaws, who were in the lodge,
+appeared unmoved, they began to suspect that no molestation to them was
+intended. The Indians collected around the fire in the centre of the
+lodge, yelling incessantly; at length their howlings assumed something
+of a measured tone, and they began to accompany their voices with a sort
+of drum and rattles. After singing for some time, one who appeared to be
+their leader, struck the post over the fire with his lance, and they all
+began to dance, keeping very exact time with the music. Each warrior
+had, besides his arms, and rattles made of strings of deer's hoof, some
+part of the intestines of an animal inflated, and inclosing a few small
+stones, which produced a sound like pebbles in a gourd shell. After
+dancing round the fire for some time, without appearing to notice the
+strangers, they departed, raising the same wolfish howl, with which they
+had entered; but their music and their yelling continued to be heard
+about the village during the night.
+
+"This ceremony, called the _dog dance_, was performed by the Konzas for
+the entertainment of their guests. Mr. Seymour took an opportunity to
+sketch the attitudes and dresses of the principal figures." (Op. cit.,
+p. 135.) The sketch made by Seymour was engraved and served as an
+illustration in the narrative of the expedition prepared by James. It is
+here reproduced as plate 30, _b_. The interior of the large earth lodge
+is clearly shown. The "continuous series of mats" are suspended around
+the wall, and the "bedsteads," as described, serve as seats for the
+guests. Mats are also represented as spread over the floor in the
+foreground.
+
+On August 25, 1819, the steamboat _Western Engineer_ steamed away from
+Isle au Vache, and that night, after having advanced about 23 miles up
+the Missouri, stopped at the mouth of Independence Creek, and a little
+above the creek, on the right bank of the Missouri, was "the site of an
+old Konza town, called formerly the village of the Twenty Four." This
+was evidently the same site as mentioned by Lewis and Clark, July 5,
+1804. Ruins of the earth lodges had undoubtedly remained quite distinct,
+being overgrown with the grass of the prairie.
+
+Isle au Vache, in the Missouri, faces Oak Mills, Atchison County,
+Kansas, and Iatan, Platte County, Missouri. A brief history of the
+island was prepared a few years ago. (Remsburg, (1), pp. 436-443.)
+
+Interesting notes on the habitations of the Kansa Indians are contained
+in a narrative prepared by one who passed through their country during
+the month of May, 1834.
+
+On the night of May 1 the party encamped on a small branch of the Kansas
+River, where they were joined by some members of the Kansa tribe who
+occupied six lodges in a near-by woods. "This party is a small division
+of a portion of this tribe, who are constantly wandering; but although
+their journeys are sometimes pretty extensive, they seldom approach
+nearer to the settlements than they are at present." Later they arrived
+at the banks of the Kansas River, and as it was approached, so the
+narrative continues, "we saw a number of Indian lodges, made of saplings
+driven into the ground, bent over and tied at top, and covered with bark
+and buffalo skins. These lodges, or wigwams, are numerous on both sides
+of the river. As we passed them, the inhabitants, men, women, and
+children, flocked out to see us, and almost prevented our progress by
+their eager greetings. Our party stopped on the bank of the river, and
+the horses were unloaded and driven into the water." They crossed the
+river by means of a large flat-bottomed boat, and reaching the opposite
+bank saw many Indian lodges with some frame houses occupied by whites.
+"The canoes used by the Indians are mostly made of buffalo skins,
+stretched, while recent, over a light frame work of wood, the seams
+sewed with sinews, and so closely, as to be wholly impervious to water.
+These light vessels are remarkably buoyant, and capable of sustaining
+very heavy burthens." That evening they were visited by the Kansa chief
+who lived near by, a "young man about twenty-five years of age, straight
+as a poplar, and with a noble countenance and bearing.... The Kaws
+living here appear to be much more wealthy than those who joined our
+camp on the prairie below.... Their dress consists, universally of deer
+skin leggings, belted around the loins, and over the upper part of the
+body a buffalo robe or blanket." (Townsend, (1), pp. 30-33.)
+
+During the morning of May 20, 1834, the party departed from the Kansa
+settlement on or near the banks of the Kansas River, "leaving the river
+immediately, and making a N. W. by W. course--and the next day came to
+another village of the same tribe, consisting of about thirty lodges,
+and situated in the midst of a beautiful level prairie.... The lodges
+here are constructed very differently from those of the lower village.
+They are made of large and strong timbers, a ridge Pole runs along the
+top, and the different pieces are fastened together by leathern thongs.
+The roofs, which are single, make but one angle, are of stout poplar
+bark, and forms an excellent defence, both against rain and the rays of
+the sun, which must be intense during midsummer in this region. These
+prairies are often visited by heavy gales of wind, which would probably
+demolish the huts, were they built of frail materials like those below.
+We encamped in the evening on a small stream called Little Vermillion
+creek...." (Op. cit., pp. 33-34.)
+
+The sketch by Seymour conveys a very good idea of the general appearance
+of the interior of a Kansa lodge, and an equally interesting picture of
+the village, as it was just 22 years later, is to be found in one of
+Father de Smet's works. He arrived at the first of the villages May 19,
+1841, and in describing it said: "At the first sight of their wigwams,
+we were struck at the resemblance they bore to the large stacks of wheat
+which cover our fields in harvest-time. There were of these in all no
+more than about twenty, grouped together without order, but each
+covering a space about one hundred and twenty feet in circumference, and
+sufficient to shelter from thirty to forty persons. The entire village
+appeared to us to consist of from seven to eight hundred souls,--an
+approximation which is justified by the fact that the total population
+of the tribe is confined to two villages, together numbering 1900
+inhabitants. These cabins, however humble they may appear, are solidly
+built and convenient. From the top of the wall, which is about six feet
+in height, rise inclined poles, which terminate round an opening above,
+serving at once for a chimney and window. The door of the edifice
+consists of an undressed hide on the most sheltered side, the hearth
+occupies the centre and is in the midst of four upright posts destined
+to support the _rotunda_; the beds are ranged round the wall and the
+space between the beds and the hearth is occupied by the members of the
+family, some standing, others sitting or lying on skins, or yellow
+colored mats. It would seem that this last named article is regarded as
+a piece of extra finery, for the lodge assigned to us had one of them."
+(De Smet, (1), pp. 65-66.) Following this description of a lodge is an
+account of its occupants. He refers to the women busily engaged at
+various occupations, and the men, some eating or smoking, and others
+plucking the hair from their brows and beard. The brief description of
+the interior of the lodge conforms with those of the earlier writers,
+but it is to be regretted that more was not said about the outside of
+the structure. Were they covered with earth or thatch? The village
+visited by Say in 1819 was composed of earth-covered lodges, clearly
+described, but the drawing made by one of Father de Smet's associates
+(it is marked _Geo. Lehman, del._) represents the large circular houses
+with overhanging roofs, more closely resembling thatch than the usual
+covering of earth and sod. This drawing, which was reproduced in the
+work cited, is here shown in plate 30, _a_. The structures standing in
+the village visited by Father de Smet may have resembled the
+bark-covered house illustrated in plate 31. This most interesting
+photograph was probably made about 40 years ago, and at once suggests
+the frame, covered with bark, and ready for the final covering of earth;
+in other words, an unfinished earth lodge. However, it was probably a
+complete and finished structure.
+
+Regarding the large village visited by De Smet as mentioned above, one
+historian of the tribe has written: "An important village, and the
+largest of the tribe at that time, was that of old Kah-he-gah-wa-ti-an-gah,
+known as Fool Chief, which from about 1830 to 1846 was located on the north
+side of the Kansas river, just north of the present Union Pacific station
+of Menoken.... Until recent years the lodge-circle marks were visible and
+its exact location easy to be found." (Morehouse, (1), p. 348.)
+
+A year passed between the visit of Father de Smet to the Kansa towns and
+the arrival of Fremont in the same locality, but it had been a period of
+trouble for the tribe and they had suffered greatly. On June 18, 1842,
+Fremont wrote in his journal: "We left our camp seven, journeying along
+the foot of the hills which border the Kansas valley.... I rode off some
+miles to the left, attracted by the appearance of a cluster of huts near
+the mouth of the Vermillion. It was a large but deserted Kansas village,
+scattered in an open wood, along the margin of the stream, chosen with
+the customary Indian fondness for beauty of scenery. The Pawnees had
+attacked it in the early spring. Some of the houses were burnt, and
+others blackened with smoke, and weeds were already getting possession
+of the cleared places." (Fremont, (1), pp. 12-13.)
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 30
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Kansa village, 1841. George Lehman]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Dog dance within a Kansa lodge, August 23, 1819.
+Samuel Seymour]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 31
+
+[Illustration: KANSA HABITATION]
+
+It is quite probable that during their journeys away from the permanent
+villages the Kansa, like other tribes of the Missouri Valley, made use
+of skin tipis as being easily transported from one place to another. It
+would also appear that in later years the earth and bark covered lodge
+ceased to be used, and that skin tipis were constructed to the exclusion
+of other forms of dwellings. A missionary who resided at the Kansa
+agency from 1865 to 1868 wrote: "The tribe at that time was divided into
+three bands, or villages, as they were generally called. Ish-tal-a-sa's
+village occupied the northern part of the reserve. He was not only
+village chief, but head chief of the whole tribe also. Fool Chief's
+village occupied the central part of the reserve, and Al-le-ga-wa-ho's
+the southern portion. The latter became head chief after Ish-tal-a-sa's
+death. There were probably about 300 in each band. Their custom was for
+the entire band to camp together in some desirable locality, where wood,
+water and grass for their ponies were accessible, and remain until the
+pasture was eaten down, and then move to another site. Another reason
+for moving was to get away from the filth that always accumulated in an
+Indian village. Their tents, or tepees, were made of buffalo skins....
+The lodge, as they usually designated their tepees, was easily taken
+down and removed to another place." (Spencer, (1), p. 373.)
+
+Of the numerous tribes mentioned at the present time no one appears to
+have erected a greater variety of dwellings than did the Kansa, whose
+habitations were of several distinct forms and were constructed of
+various materials.
+
+The long mat-covered lodges described by Sibley in 1811, as at that time
+standing in the village at the mouth of the Republican, on the left bank
+of the Kansas River, may be accepted as being the typical or primitive
+form of structure erected by the tribe. Eight years later Say and his
+companions reached another village, a few miles eastward from the one
+preceding, and there found the circular earth lodges. Evidently the
+ruined towns mentioned by Lewis and Clark as being visible from the
+Missouri River were once groups of similar earth lodges. But all
+circular lodges were not covered with earth and sod; in some instances
+the walls and roofs were formed of sheets of bark.
+
+During the month of May, 1834, many small dwellings were standing on
+both banks of the Kansas River which were formed by covering a frame
+composed "of saplings driven into the ground, bent over and tied at
+top," with sheets of bark and buffalo skins. And not far away was
+another village of the same tribe but presenting a very different
+appearance. The structures were described as being "made of large and
+strong timbers, a ridge pole runs along the top, and the different
+pieces are fastened together by leathern thongs. The roofs, which are
+single, make but one angle, are of stout poplar bark." Whether this was
+of circular or quadrangular base is difficult to determine, but probably
+the latter, resembling the example shown in plate 19. And in addition to
+the various structures already noted, the conical skin tipis were
+extensively used by the Kansa, probably serving in early days when the
+people were away from their more permanent villages, but later they were
+more generally utilized.
+
+OSAGE.
+
+From the earliest historical times the habitat of the Osage was among
+the hills and valleys of the Ozarks, south of the Missouri, in the
+present State of Missouri, and here they continued to dwell until their
+removal during the early part of the last century.
+
+When Pere Marquette passed down the Mississippi, late in the month of
+June, 1673, he learned of the Osage, and on his map, prepared soon
+afterwards, indicated the villages of that tribe near a stream which was
+evidently the river bearing their tribal name. They continued to occupy
+rather permanent villages until the beginning of the nineteenth century.
+
+The tribe included three bands, two of which may be rather old; the
+third more recently created. These are: (1) Pahatsi or Great Osage, (2)
+Utsehta or Little Osage, (3) Santsukhdhi or Arkansas band. The latter
+dates from the year 1802 or thereabouts, when a large part of the Great
+Osage, under the leadership of the chief Big Track, removed to the
+vicinity of the Arkansas.
+
+The Osage, unlike certain other members of the Siouan group to which
+they belong, continued to erect and occupy the mat or bark covered
+habitations so characteristic of the forest tribes. Their villages which
+stood among the Ozarks were probably similar in appearance to the
+ancient settlements of their ancestors which once occupied a part of the
+upper valley of the Ohio, whence they migrated to the region beyond the
+Mississippi. But the country which served as their new home was one well
+suited to the wants and requirements of the tribe. Game was plentiful,
+the streams teemed with fish, and wild fruits were to be had in vast
+quantities. Thus food was easily obtained.
+
+The expedition under the command of Captains Lewis and Clark began
+ascending the Missouri May 14, 1804, and just one month later, on June
+15, arrived at the site of an earlier settlement of the Little Osage. In
+the journal the entry for that day states that: "We passed several
+islands and one creek on the south side, and encamped on the north
+opposite a beautiful plain, which extends as far back as the Osage
+river, and some miles up the Missouri. In front of our encampment are
+the remains of an old village of the Little Osage, situated at some
+distance from the river, and at the foot of a small hill. About three
+miles above them, in view of our camp is the situation of the old
+village of the Missouris after they fled from the Sauks. The inroads of
+the same tribe compelled the Little Osage to retire from the Missouri a
+few years ago, and establish themselves near the Great Osages." And two
+days later, at a place about 20 miles above their camp, on the 15th,
+they reached "the crossing place for the Sauks, Ayauways, and Sioux, in
+their excursions against the Osage." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, p. 15.)
+
+The ruined or deserted village of the Little Osage seen by the party
+stood on the right or south bank of the Missouri, in the western part of
+the present Saline County, Missouri, not far from the village of Malta.
+The structures which had stood at this old site were probably similar to
+those later erected by the people in their new village near the town of
+the Great Osage, both of which were visited two years later. They were
+situated far south of the Missouri, in the northern part of the present
+Vernon County, in the valley of the Little Osage River.
+
+During the latter part of August, 1806, Pike arrived at the two villages
+of the Osage, having departed from Fort Bellefontain a short time before
+on his journey to the far west. But, unfortunately, his accounts of the
+native tribes and their villages which he encountered during his travels
+are neither full nor clear, and so it is with the description of the
+habitations of the Osage. To quote from the narrative: "The Osage lodges
+are generally constructed with upright posts, put firmly in the ground,
+of about 20 feet in height, with a crotch at the top; they are generally
+about 12 feet distant from each other; in the crotch of those posts, are
+put the ridge poles, over which are bent small poles, the ends of which
+are brought down and fastened to a row of stakes of about 5 feet in
+height; these stakes are fastened together with three horizontal bars,
+and form the flank walls of the lodge. The gable ends are generally
+broad slabs and rounded off to the ridge pole. The whole of the building
+and sides are covered with matting made of rushes, of two or three feet
+in length, and four feet in width, which are joined together, and
+entirely exclude the rain. The doors are in the side of the building,
+and generally are one on each side. The fires are made in holes in the
+centre of the lodge; the smoke ascending through apertures left in the
+roof for the purpose; at one end of the dwelling is a raised platform,
+about three feet from the ground, which is covered with bear skins, and
+generally holds all the little choice furniture of the master, and on
+which repose his honorable guests.... They vary in length from 36 to 100
+feet." (Pike, (1), App., pp. 11-12.)
+
+Fort Osage, soon to be named Fort Clark, stood on the right bank of the
+Missouri, a short distance northeast of Independence, in Jackson County,
+Missouri. During the early years of the last century it was a gathering
+place for the Osage and neighboring tribes, and several interesting
+accounts are preserved of the appearance of the Indian lodges clustered
+about the post. Both Bradbury and Brackenridge made mention of the fort
+in their journals. The former wrote on April 8, 1811, and told of his
+arrival: "About ten o'clock we came in sight of the fort, about six
+miles distant. We had not been long in sight before we saw the flag was
+hoisted, and at noon we arrived, saluting with a volley as we passed on
+to the landing place, where we met Mr. Crooks, who had come down from
+the wintering station at the mouth of the river Naduet to meet us. There
+were also collected at the landing place about 200 Indians, men, women,
+and children, of the Petit Osage nation, whose village was then about
+300 yards from the fort." And continuing: "At evening Dr. Murray
+proposed that we should walk into the village, and I found it to consist
+of about one hundred lodges of an oblong form, the frame of timber, and
+the covering mats, made of the leaves of flag, or _Typha palustris_. On
+our return through the town, we called at the lodge belonging to a chief
+named Waubuschon, with whom Dr. Murray was particularly acquainted. The
+floor was covered with mats, on which they sat; but as I was a stranger,
+I was offered a cushion. A wooden bowl was now handed round, containing
+square pieces of cake, in taste resembling ginger-bread. On enquiry I
+found it was made of the pulp of the persimon, mixed with pounded corn.
+This bread they called staninca." (Bradbury, (1), pp. 35-37.)
+
+Less than three weeks elapsed before Brackenridge reached the fort in
+the company of Manuel Lisa. April 25, 1811, "About eleven, came in sight
+of Fort Osage, situate on a bluff, three miles off, on a commanding
+eminence.... A number of Indians of the Osage nation, of all ages, and
+sexes, were scattered along the bank, attracted by curiosity, some with
+old buffalo robes thrown over their shoulders, others dressed out in the
+gayest manner.... On landing at the fort, on a very rocky shore, a
+soldier under arms, who waited for us at the water's side, escorted Mr.
+Lisa and myself to the fort, where we were politely received by the
+commanding officer. While Mr. Lisa was transacting some business,
+accompanied by Mr. Sibley, the factor, and an interpreter, I went to
+deliver a pipe to _Sans Oreille_, (a warrior, and head man of this
+tribe) sent to him by gen. Clark....
+
+"The lodges of the Little Osage, are sixty in number, and within gun
+shot of the fort; but they are about to remove their village to a
+prairie, three miles off. Their lodges are of a circular form, not more
+than ten or fifteen feet in diameter, constructed by placing mats, made
+of coarse rushes, over forks and poles.
+
+"All three of the Osage bands, together with some Kansas, were lately
+encamped here for the purpose of trading, to the number of fifteen
+hundred warriors." (Brackenridge, (1), pp. 216-217.)
+
+It is more than probable the Little Osage were then returning to their
+distant villages. Within less than three weeks the group of dwellings in
+the vicinity of the post had been reduced in number from about 100 to
+60, and undoubtedly before the lapse of many days all would have begun
+their homeward journey. But the structures as described would have
+resembled the dwellings in their permanent villages, differing from the
+more temporary lodges discovered by Schoolcraft a few years later.
+
+When Schoolcraft traversed the southern part of the State of Missouri a
+century ago, crossing the Ozarks and following the deep valleys which
+separated the ridges, he encountered many deserted camps of the Osages
+and frames of one or more habitations, the mat or bark covers often
+having been removed, thus allowing the bare frames to remain. These had
+been the temporary shelters occupied by small parties hunting away from
+their home villages. On November 27, 1818, so he wrote, "night overtook
+us, and we encamped in an Indian bark tent on the bank of the river,
+which had not been occupied for one or two years." (Schoolcraft, (1), p.
+28.) The river mentioned was the Great North Fork of White River, and
+the latter was soon reached. Continuing their journey over the rough and
+rugged hills, through tangled masses of vegetation, often advancing only
+a few miles each day, and that with the greatest exertion, they arrived
+December 30, 1818, in the region a short distance east of James River,
+possibly in the present Christian County, Missouri. Here they
+encountered several deserted camps, of which, fortunately, interesting
+accounts are preserved in the narrative: "In pursuing up the valley of
+Swan Creek, about nine miles, we fell into the Osage trace, a horse-path
+beaten by the Osages in their hunting excursions along this river, and
+passing successively three of their camps, now deserted, all very large,
+arranged with much order and neatness, and capable of quartering
+probably 100 men each. Both the method of building camps, and the order
+of encampment observed by this singular nation of savages, are different
+from any thing of the kind I have noticed among the various tribes of
+aboriginal Americans, through whose territories I have had occasion to
+travel. The form of the tent or camp may be compared to an inverted
+bird's nest, or hemisphere, with a small aperture left in the top, for
+the escape of smoke; and a similar, but larger one, at one side, for
+passing in and out. It is formed by cutting a number of slender flexible
+green-poles of equal length, sharpened at each end, stuck in the ground
+like a bow, and, crossing at right angles at the top, the points of
+entrance into the ground forming a circle. Small twigs are then wove in,
+mixed with the leaves of cane, moss, and grass, until it is perfectly
+tight and warm. These tents are arranged in large circles, one within
+another, according to the number of men intended to be accommodated. In
+the centre is a scaffolding for meat, from which all are supplied every
+morning, under the inspection of a chief, whose tent is conspicuously
+situated at the head of the encampment, and differs from all the rest,
+resembling a half cylinder inverted. Their women and children generally
+accompany them on these excursions, which often occupy three months."
+Schoolcraft soon crossed the ridge separating Swan Creek from Findley's
+River, the latter "running from the north-east, and tributary to James'
+river, the main north-western branch of White River." (Op. cit., pp.
+52-53.)
+
+It must be understood that this description applies to a temporary
+encampment of the Osage, not to a permanent village, although they would
+probably not have differed greatly in appearance. The structures in a
+camp were rather smaller than those in the villages, and the latter were
+covered with mats or sheets of bark instead of the walls being composed
+of the crude wattlework, as mentioned in the preceding account.
+
+Throughout the region traversed by Schoolcraft are to be found traces of
+ancient camps, some quite large, others small. The innumerable caves and
+caverns occurring in the limestone formations through which the many
+streams have cut deep valleys show evidence of long occupancy by the
+natives. Great masses of wood ashes, intermingled with broken and lost
+implements of bone and stone, fragments of pottery vessels, and charred
+or broken bones of animals which had served as food, are to be found
+accumulated near the opening, beneath the overhanging strata. The great
+majority of such material should undoubtedly be attributed to the Osage,
+whose hunters penetrated all parts of the Ozarks.
+
+A beautiful example of a frame for an Osage habitation is shown in plate
+32, _a_, a reproduction of a photograph made near Hominy, Oklahoma, in
+1911. This was probably the form of structure seen by the early
+travelers, which is more clearly described on the following pages. It is
+interesting, showing as it does the manner in which the uprights were
+placed in the ground, then bent over and bound in place. As the Osage
+undoubtedly lived, generations ago, in the Ohio Valley, it is possible
+the ancient village sites discovered in Ross County, Ohio, belonged
+either to this or a related tribe, and the ground plan of the structures
+revealed during the exploration of a certain site would agree with the
+typical Osage habitation of recent years. A ground plan was prepared by
+the discoverer of the ancient village site (Mills, (1)) and was
+reproduced on page 139, Bulletin 71, of this Bureau.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 32
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Frame of an Osage habitation, near Hominy, Okla.,
+1911]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ An Iowa structure]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 33
+
+[Illustration: "OTO ENCAMPMENT, NEAR THE PLATTE, 1819"
+
+Samuel Seymour]
+
+On the plan of the ancient settlement which stood many generations ago
+are several interesting features in addition to the outline of the oval
+habitation. North of the space once occupied by the dwelling are many
+comparatively large caches, with fireplaces between. On the opposite
+side of the structure were encountered 30 burials, representing children
+and adults. It would be of the greatest interest at the present time
+to discover the exact location of one of the Osage villages of a century
+ago, and to determine the position of the caches and burials, if any
+exist, in relation to the sites of the habitations.
+
+About the time of Schoolcraft's journey through the Ozarks another
+traveler went up the valley of the Arkansas, and when far west of the
+Mississippi came in contact with the Osage. Nuttall, on July 15, 1819,
+wrote: "The first village of the Osages lies about 60 miles from the
+mouth of the Verdigris, and is said to contain 7 or 800 men and their
+families. About 60 miles further, on the Osage River, is situated the
+village of the chief called White Hair. The whole of the Osages are now,
+by governor Clark, enumerated at about 8000 souls. At this time nearly
+the whole town, men, and women, were engaged in their summer hunt,
+collecting bison tallow and meat. The principal chief is called by the
+French Clarmont, although his proper name is the Iron bird, a species of
+Eagle." (Nuttall, (1), p. 173.) Under date of August 5, 1819, he
+referred to the women of the tribe, saying: "It is to their industry and
+ingenuity, that the men owe every manufactured article of their dress,
+as well as every utensil in their huts. The Osage women appear to excel
+in these employments. Before the Cherokees burnt down their town on the
+Verdigris, their houses were chiefly covered with hand-wove matts of
+bulrushes. Their baskets and bed matts of this material were
+parti-coloured and very handsome. This manufacture, I am told, is done
+with the assistance of three sticks, arranged in some way so as to
+answer the purpose of a loom, and the strands are inlaid diagonally.
+They, as well as the Cherokees and others, frequently take the pains to
+unravel old blankets and cloths, and reweave the yarn into belts and
+garters." (Op. cit., pp. 192-193.)
+
+Evidently it was not the custom of the Osage to entirely abandon their
+villages when they went on their periodical hunts. Some remained, either
+through choice or necessity. In the above quotation Nuttall spoke of
+"nearly the whole town" being absent on their summer hunt, and one very
+familiar with the habits of the tribe said: "The Osages and Kansas live
+in villages, which, even during the hunting seasons, are never wholly
+abandoned, as in the case with several tribes settled on the Missouri."
+(Hunter, (1), p. 334.) Regarding the general appearance of the villages:
+"Their lodges are built promiscuously, in situations to please their
+respective proprietors: they are arranged to neither streets nor alleys,
+and are sometimes so crowded, as to render the passage between them
+difficult."
+
+That some of the Osage constructed very long structures is told by
+Morse, but if the dimensions given in his account are accurate they
+refer to the unusual rather than to the usual form of habitation erected
+by members of that tribe. He said: "The Osages of the Arkansaw occupy
+several villages. The principal village contains about three hundred
+lodges or huts, and about three thousand souls. The lodges are generally
+from fifty to a hundred feet in length; and irregularly arranged, they
+cover a surface of about half a mile square. They are constructed of
+posts, matting, bark and skins. They have neither floors nor chimneys.
+The fire is built on the ground, in the centre of the lodge, and the
+family, and the guests, sit around in a circle, upon skins or mats."
+(Morse, (1), p. 219.) These various statements appear grossly
+exaggerated, and on page 225 of the same work appears the statement that
+"Their villages are nothing more than what they can remove on the
+shortest notice, one horse being capable of carrying house, household
+furniture, and children all at one load." Morse included in his notes on
+the Osage several letters written by missionaries then working among the
+tribe. One communication from Dr. Palmer, dated at Union, March 18,
+1820, contained a note on their habitations: "Their houses are made of
+poles, arched from fifteen to twenty feet, covered by matting made of
+flags. At the sides they set up rived planks, lining the inside with
+neatly made flagg matting. They build several fires in the lodge,
+according to its size, or the number of wives the owner has. For a
+fire-place, they dig a hole about as big as a bushel-basket, leaving the
+smoke to ascend through a hole in the roof. Around the fire they spread
+their mats to sit or eat." And when visiting the settlement, "Having
+entered the lodge, and had our horses turned out, we took a humble seat
+around the fire. Presently there was brought to us a wooden bowl, filled
+with food made of corn. In a short time we were invited to eat at
+another lodge, and before we had finished, at another, and another." And
+another letter, from W. C. Requa, dated February 3, 1822, told of the
+native dwellings. He wrote at that time: "I live at present among the
+Osages, at one of their villages about fifty miles from Union. This
+unhappy people live in low huts, covered with long grass or flag, but so
+badly put together that they leak considerably in a storm of rain. They
+have very little furniture, merely a few pots or kettles in which they
+boil their provisions. The art of cooking their meat in any other way
+than boiling is unknown among them, except roasting it on a stick before
+the fire. They have very little variety in their food. Wild game, corn,
+dried pumpkins, and beans constitute about all on which they subsist.
+With this, however, they are contented. They have wooden bowls, out of
+which they eat, drink, wash themselves." (Op. cit., pp. 227-233.) Union,
+where the two communications were written, was probably Union Agency,
+which stood on the right bank of the Arkansas River, just southwest of
+Fort Gibson, in the present Muskogee County, Oklahoma. The settlement
+"about fifty miles from Union" may have been on the Verdigris, near the
+center of the present Rogers County, Oklahoma.
+
+An interesting description of a deserted camp of the Osage was prepared
+by Irving, as it appeared, standing near the banks of the Arkansas,
+October 11, 1832. On that day, so he wrote: "We came in sight of the
+Arkansas. It presented a broad and rapid stream, bordered by a beach of
+fine sand, overgrown with willows and cotton-wood trees. Beyond the
+river, the eye wandered over a beautiful champaign country, of flowery
+plains and sloping uplands.... Not far from the river, on an open
+eminence, we passed through the recently deserted camping place of an
+Osage war party. The frames of their tents or wigwams remained,
+consisting of poles bent into an arch, with each end stuck into the
+ground; these are intertwined with twigs and branches, and covered with
+bark and skins. Those experienced in Indian lore, can ascertain the
+tribe, and whether on a hunting or warlike expedition, by the shape and
+disposition of the wigwams. Beatte pointed out to us, in the present
+skeleton camp, the wigwam in which the chiefs had held their
+consultations round the council fire; and an open area, well trampled
+down, on which the grand war-dance had been performed." (Irving, W.,
+(1), pp. 38-39.) The frames probably resembled the example shown in
+plate 32, _a_.
+
+This mention of a dance by Irving suggests the description of a ceremony
+witnessed at the village of the Little Osage during the same year. The
+account of a "war-dance" was prepared July 25, 1832: "Much of the
+ceremony consisted in a sort of dancing march round the streets of the
+village between their lodges.... In their marching round the settlement,
+the warriors were followed by a band of musicians, some drumming on a
+piece of deer skin, stretched over the head of a keg, and others singing
+their wild songs. Among the retinue I observed a great many youths, who
+appeared to be young disciples, catching the spirit of their seniors and
+fathers. Another group followed, who appeared to be mourners, crying for
+vengeance on their enemies, to reward them for the death of some
+relative." (Colton, (1), pp. 299-300.)
+
+A brief but interesting sketch of the manners and ways of life of the
+Osage of a century ago is to be found in Morse's work already quoted.
+Although the notes were prepared to apply to several neighboring tribes,
+they referred primarily to the tribe now being discussed. First speaking
+of their gardens: "They raise annually small crops of corn, beans, and
+pumpkins, these they cultivate entirely with the hoe, in the simplest
+manner. Their crops are usually planted in April, and receive one
+dressing before they leave their villages for the summer hunt, in May.
+About the first week in August they return to their villages and gather
+their crops, which have been left unhoed and unfenced all the season.
+Each family, if lucky, can save from ten to twenty bags of corn and
+beans, of a bushel and a half each; besides a quantity of dried
+pumpkins. On this they feast, with the dried meat saved in the summer,
+till September, when what remains is _cashed_, and they set out on the
+fall hunt, from which they return about Christmas. From that time, till
+some time in February or March, as the season happens to be mild or
+severe, they stay pretty much in their villages, making only short
+hunting excursions occasionally, and during that time they consume the
+greater part of their _cashes_. In February or March the spring hunt
+commences; first the bear, and then the beaver hunt. This they pursue
+till planting time, when they again return to their village, pitch their
+crops, and in May set out for the summer hunt, taking with them their
+residue, if any, of their corn, &c. This is the circle of an Osage life,
+here and there indented with war and trading expeditions; and thus it
+has been, with very little variation, these twelve years past." (Morse,
+(1), pp. 203-205.)
+
+The cornfields were left without watchers and were probably often
+destroyed by roving parties of the enemy or by wild beasts. On August
+18, 1820, a hunter belonging to a division of the Long expedition
+"returned with the information of his having discovered a small field of
+maize, occupying a fertile spot at no great distance from the camp, it
+exhibited proofs of having been lately visited by the cultivators; a
+circumstance which leads us to believe that an ascending column of smoke
+seen at a distance this afternoon, proceeded from an encampment of
+Indians, whom, if not a war party, we should now rejoice to meet. We
+took the liberty, agreeable to the custom of the Indians, of procuring a
+mess of corn, and some small but nearly ripe watermelons, that were also
+found growing there, intending to recompense the Osages for them, to
+whom we supposed them to belong." The following morning, August 19, they
+encountered several small cornfields near a creek along which they were
+passing, and that day discovered "an Indian camp, that had a more
+permanent aspect than any we had before seen near this river. The
+boweries were more completely covered, and a greater proportion of bark
+was used in the construction of them. They are between sixty and seventy
+in number. Well worn traces or paths lead in various directions from
+this spot, and the vicinity of the cornfields induce the belief that it
+is occasionally occupied by a tribe of Indians, for the purpose of
+cultivation as well as of hunting." (James, (1), II, pp. 220-221.)
+
+The encampment just mentioned may have resembled the one described by
+Schoolcraft the preceding year, though many miles away in the heart of
+the Ozarks.
+
+Although it is quite probable that hunting parties of the Osage, during
+their wanderings, reached all parts of the Ozarks, and occupied camps on
+banks of many streams in distant regions far away from their more
+permanent villages, nevertheless all sites do not present the same
+characteristic features. Thus in the central and eastern sections of the
+hill country, as in the valleys of the Gasconade and its tributary, the
+Piney, and along the courses of the streams farther eastward quantities
+of fragmentary pottery are to be found scattered over the surface of the
+many village and camp sites, and here it may be remarked that seldom are
+traces of a settlement not to be discovered at the junction of two
+streams, however small or large they may be.
+
+A great many caves, some rather large, occur in the limestone formation,
+often in the cliffs facing or near the streams. As previously mentioned,
+these show evidence of long or frequent occupancy by the Indians. At the
+openings are masses of wood ashes and charcoal, filling the space
+between the sides to a depth of several feet, and in the caves
+encountered in the vicinity of the Gasconade quantities of broken
+pottery are found, with bones of animals which served as food, various
+implements, shells, etc., all intermingled with the accumulated ashes. A
+short distance from the bank of the Piney, several miles above its
+junction with the Gasconade, a cave of more than usual interest is met
+with in the high cliff. This is in Pulaski County. Flowing from the cave
+is a small stream of clear, very cold water. It enters the main chamber
+through an opening not more than 4 feet in height and about the same in
+width, the stream, when the cave was visited some years ago, being 3 or
+4 inches in depth. A few yards up the watercourse the channel widens
+several feet and so continues for a short distance. This widening was
+caused by pieces of chert having been removed from the mass, this
+evidently having been one of the sources whence the Indians secured
+material for the making of their implements. The bed of the stream was
+strewn with flakes and roughly formed rejected pieces of stone.
+
+Thus, as has been shown, vessels of earthenware were made and used by
+the people who occupied or frequented this part of the Ozark country,
+but conditions appear to have been different in the western sections.
+Bits of pottery do not occur on the surface of the camp sites, and it is
+evident it was neither made nor used by the occupants of certain
+settlements. Fragments of pottery are not encountered on these
+particular sites, but large stone mortars are often found, objects which
+do not seem to have been very frequently used farther east.
+
+The valleys of the James and White Rivers, in Stone and Taney Counties,
+Missouri, were visited some years ago and many interesting sites were
+discovered. Traces of a comparatively extensive village were encountered
+on the E. 1/2 of lot 1, S. W. 1/4 of Sec. 9, T. 22, R. 23, Stone County,
+on the left bank of White River. Within a radius of a few feet, on a
+level spot near the center of the once occupied area, were found four
+large sandstone mortars, the concavity of the largest being about 15
+inches in diameter and 6 inches in depth, while the entire block of
+stone was more than 2 feet in thickness. When discovered, June 11, 1901,
+the mortars gave the impression of not having been touched since they
+were last used by some of the inhabitants of the ancient village, and
+from the surrounding surface, an acre or more in extent, were collected
+several hundred stone implements, but not a fragment of pottery was
+encountered. This site, although rather larger and more extensive than
+the majority, was, nevertheless, typical of the 20 or more which were
+discovered during that interesting journey through the valleys
+mentioned. Quantities of stone implements were gathered from the surface
+of the sites, and many mortars were found, but no pottery.
+
+While the material recovered from the sites in the valley of the
+Gasconade is similar to that found to the eastward, the finding of
+mortars and the lack of pottery on the James and White River Valley
+sites suggests a different culture, and it is possible the latter owe
+their origin to parties of the Wichita or neighboring tribes who entered
+the western valleys of the Ozarks from the prairie lands.
+
+QUAPAW.
+
+This, the southernmost tribe of the Dhegiha group, occupied several
+villages west of the Mississippi, near the mouth of the Arkansas. When
+the closely allied tribes had removed from their ancient habitat in the
+upper valley of the Ohio, and had arrived at the mouth of that stream,
+the Quapaw are believed to have turned southward while the others went
+northward. The name of the tribe, Quapaw, signifies "downstream people;"
+Omaha being translated "those going against the wind or current." As a
+people they seem to have been known to the members of the De Soto
+expedition about 1541, probably occupying villages on or near the sites
+of the settlements visited by the French during the latter part of the
+next century.
+
+Pere Marquette, while on his memorable journey down the Mississippi, in
+the year 1673, went as far as the mouth of the Arkansas, where he
+lingered a few days before returning northward on July 17. The villages
+of the Quapaw, designated the Arkansa, were reached, but the habitations
+were only briefly described: "Their cabins, which are long and wide,
+are made of bark; they sleep at the two extremities, which are raised
+about two feet from the ground. They keep their corn in large baskets,
+made of cane, or in gourds, as large as half barrels." They used both
+wooden dishes and "plates of baked earth. Their cooking was done in
+large earthen pots, of their own make." (Shea, (2), p. 48.) But the most
+interesting early account of the villages is contained in Joutel's
+narrative of La Salle's last expedition, when he attempted to reach the
+Illinois country overland from the Gulf coast. Through jealousy and
+intrigue of members of the expedition he was murdered by one of their
+number, March 20, 1687; but others continued eastward, and on July 24,
+1687, arrived at the four villages of the Quapaw, and to quote from the
+narrative of the expedition: "The Nation of the _Accancea's_ consists of
+four Villages. The first is call'd _Otsotchove_, near which we were; the
+second _Toriman_, both of them seated on the River; the third
+_Tonginga_; and the fourth _Cappa_, on the Bank of the _Missisipi_.
+These Villages are built after a different Manner from the others we had
+seen before, in this Point, that the Cottages, which are alike as to
+their Materials and Rounding at the Top, are long, and cover'd with the
+Bark of Trees, and so very large, that several of them can hold two
+hundred Persons, belonging to several Families. The People are not so
+neat as the _Cenis_ [Caddo], or the _Assonis_ [Caddo], in their Houses,
+for some of them lie on the Ground, without any Thing under them but
+some Mats, or dress'd Hide. How ever, some of them have more
+Conveniencies, but the Generality has not. All their Movables consist in
+some Earthen Vessels and oval wooden Platters, which are neatly made,
+and with which they drive a Trade."
+
+The expedition was then resting at the village standing on the banks of
+the Arkansas, not far above its junction with the Mississippi. Here they
+remained three days, departing on July 27. On that day "We imbark'd on a
+Canoe belonging to one of the Chiefs, being at least twenty Persons, as
+well Women as Men, and arriv'd safe, without any Trouble, at a Village
+call'd _Toriman_, for we were going down the River." The river was the
+Arkansas. Later in the day they reached the "fatal River, so much sought
+after by us, called _Colbert_, when first discover'd, and _Missisipi_,
+or _Mechassipi_ by the Natives that were near us." The party lingered at
+Toriman during the twenty-eighth, and on the following day arrived at
+"the next Village call'd _Tonningua_, seated on the Bank of that River
+[the Mississippi], where we were receiv'd in the Chief's Cottage, as we
+had been in the others." On July 30, "We set out for Cappa, the last
+Village of the _Accancea's_, eight Leagues distant from the Place we had
+left." (Joutel, (1), pp. 155-161.) Passing up the Mississippi from the
+Quapaw towns, they encamped during the night of August 2 on an island,
+"for our greater Safety, for we were then come into an Enemy's Nation,
+call'd _Machigamea_, which put our Indians into great Frights."
+
+Pere Anastasius Douay, also a member of the party, had very little to
+say about their stop among the Quapaw, only that "We visited three of
+these villages, the Torimans, the Doginga, and the Kappa; everywhere we
+had feasts, harangues, calumet-dances, with every mark of joy." (Shea,
+(2), p. 220.) Evidently his notes were faulty, as no mention was made of
+the fourth town.
+
+When La Harpe made his journey into the region bordering the Mississippi
+some distance above New Orleans he encountered the Quapaw, and in his
+journal referred to them as the Alkansa, and said: "La nation Alkansa,
+ainsi nommee parce qu'elle sort des Canzes [Kansa] etablis sur le
+Missouri, est situe sur le bord du Mississipi dans un terrein isole par
+les ruisseaux qui l'environnent; elle se divise en trois villages,
+Ougapa, Torisna et Tonginga, eloignes d'une lieue les uns les autres, et
+renfermant ensemble quatre cents habitans; leur principal chef est celui
+des Ougapas; les Sotoueis le reconnaissent aussi pour le leur; ils
+Sotoueis le reconnaissent aussi pour le leur; ils sont tous sortis de la
+meme nation et parlent le meme langue." (La Harpe, (1), p. 317.)
+Elsewhere he referred to reaching the "riviere Blanche, qui court dans
+le nord-ouest du cote des Osages," which entered the "riviere des
+Sotoueis," or Arkansas, 4 leagues from the Mississippi. Here stood a
+village of the Sotoueis, consisting of 40 habitations and having a
+population of 330.
+
+Nearly a century elapsed between the time of La Harpe's visit to the
+country occupied by the Quapaw and the journey performed by Nuttall. On
+February 27, 1819, when the latter was ascending the Arkansas River, he
+wrote: "In the course of the day we passed the outlet of the bayou, or
+rather river, Meta, which diagonally traverses the Great Prairie, also
+two Indian villages on the south bank [of the Arkansas].... The first
+was the periodical residence of a handful of Choctaws, the other was
+occupied by the Quapaws." (Nuttall, (1), p. 91.) This was near the line
+between Lincoln and Desha Counties, Arkansas. Some distance beyond,
+apparently at some point in the present Jefferson County, on March 11,
+1819, he saw other native villages, but whether occupied by Quapaw or
+some other tribe was not told. However, they were probably Quapaw
+settlements. On that day: "Passed Mr. Embree's, and arrived at Mr.
+Lewismore's. Six miles above, we also saw two Indian villages, opposite
+each of those settlements.... The Indians, unfortunately, are here, as
+usual, both poor and indolent, and alive to wants which they have not
+the power of gratifying. The younger ones are extremely foppish in
+their dress; covered with feathers, blazing calicoes, scarlet blankets,
+and silver pendants. Their houses, sufficiently convenient with their
+habits, are oblong square, and without any other furniture than baskets
+and benches, spread with skins for the purpose of rest and repose. The
+fire, as usual, is in the middle of the hut, which is constructed of
+strips of bark and cane, with doors also of the latter split and plaited
+together." (Op. cit., pp. 97-98.)
+
+When returning down the Arkansas, on January 18, 1820, Nuttall evidently
+reached the Quapaw village which he had passed when ascending the stream
+during the preceding February. He wrote: "About noon we landed at one of
+the Quapaw or Osark villages, but found only three houses constructed of
+bark, and those unoccupied. In the largest of them, apparently
+appropriated to amusement and superstition, we found two gigantic
+painted wooden masks of Indians, and a considerable number of conic pelt
+caps, also painted. These, as we learnt from an Indian who came up to us
+from some houses below, were employed at festivals, and worn by the
+dancers.... At the entrance of the cabin, and suspended from the wall,
+there was a female figure, with a rudely carved head of wood painted
+with vermillion. Being hollow, and made of leather, we supposed it to be
+employed as a mask for one of the musicians, having in one hand a
+pendent ferule, as if for the purpose of beating a drum. In the spring
+and autumn the Quapaws have a custom of making a contribution dance, in
+which they visit also the whites, who live in the vicinity, and the
+chief alms which they crave is salt or articles of diet." The following
+day the party reached Arkansas Post. (Nuttall, (1), p. 223.)
+
+This account of the ceremonial lodge, for such it undoubtedly was, of
+the Quapaw of a century ago, is most interesting, as it proves how the
+rapidly diminishing tribe held to their old customs. The tribe gradually
+disappeared from the lower Arkansas. The remnants of this once large
+body moved westward, and on August 11, 1853, some were encountered by
+the Whipple expedition in the extreme north west corner of the Choctaw
+Nation, on the right bank of the Canadian, where the Shawnee Hills reach
+to the river bank. There, on the "high bank of the Canadian, stand still
+some wigwams or rather log-houses of Quappa Indians, who may boast of
+not having yet quitted the land of their forefathers. But they have
+shrunk to a small band that cannot furnish above twenty-five warriors,
+and it would scarcely be supposed that they are all who are left of the
+once powerful tribe of the Arkansas, whose hunting grounds extended from
+the Canadian to the Mississippi." (Moellhausen, (1), I, p. 74.)
+
+Probably no section of the country has revealed more traces of the
+period of aboriginal occupancy than has that part of the Mississippi
+Valley which extends southward from the Ohio to the Arkansas. This was
+the region traversed by the Quapaw during the latter part of their
+migration from their earlier habitat east of the Mississippi, and may
+have been occupied by them since the fifteenth century, or before. Many
+of the mound groups, village sites, and burial places occurring within
+this area may undoubtedly be justly attributed to the Quapaw. Vast
+quantities of earthenware vessels, of great variety of forms and sizes,
+have been recovered from the sites north of the Arkansas, and these
+often present marked characteristics differing from the ware found
+farther south. The Quapaw are known to have been skilled pottery makers.
+As already mentioned, Marquette, in 1673, referred to their "plates of
+baked earth," and also to the large earthen cooking vessels "of their
+own make." And in 1687 Joutel wrote of their earthen vessels "with which
+they drive a Trade." Therefore it is more than probable that much of the
+ancient pottery encountered in this part of the Mississippi Valley was
+made by this southern Siouan tribe. Many of the village sites discovered
+near the Mississippi, north of the Arkansas, were probably once occupied
+by the Quapaw who, by the latter part of the seventeenth century, had
+moved as far south as the mouth of the Arkansas River, in the present
+Desha County. The earlier references to the tribe, those contained in
+the narratives of the De Soto expedition, 1541, mention the towns being
+protected by encircling embankments and ditches. The former were
+probably surmounted by palisades. The village or villages of this period
+probably stood on the bank of the Mississippi, and one may have occupied
+the interesting site at Avenue, in Phillips County, where some
+remarkable pottery vessels have been discovered. Other ancient sites in
+Lee and Crittenden Counties, north of Phillips, were possibly occupied
+by the same people at different times.
+
+The position of the village of the Algonquian Michigamea, who lived
+north of the Quapaw, has not been determined.
+
+CHIWERE GROUP.
+
+This group, so designated by the late Dr. J. O. Dorsey, includes three
+tribes, the Iowa, Oto, and Missouri, who spoke slightly different
+dialects of the same language. According to tribal traditions, they
+were, generations ago, allied and associated with the Winnebago, from
+whom they separated and scattered while living in the vicinity of the
+Great Lakes east of the Mississippi, where the Winnebago continued to
+dwell. It is not the purpose of the present sketch to trace the
+movements of the three tribes from their ancient habitat to the banks of
+the Mississippi, thence westward to the Missouri and beyond, but the
+routes followed in their migrations can be fairly accurately determined
+by comparing their own statements and traditions with early historical
+records, and it is quite probable that many village sites now discovered
+within this region were once occupied by some members of these tribes.
+
+While living east of the Mississippi in a region of lakes and streams
+surrounded by vast forests, their habitations were undoubtedly the bark
+or mat covered structures, but when some moved far west and came in
+contact with tribes beyond the Missouri they evidently learned the art
+of constructing the earth-covered lodge which they soon began to occupy.
+Likewise when and where the skin tipi first became known to them is not
+possible to determine, but probably not until they had reached the
+valley of the Missouri and were nearing the banks of that stream north
+of the Kansas.
+
+IOWA.
+
+On September 15, 1819, the expedition under command of Maj. Stephen H.
+Long arrived at the mouth of Papillion Creek, on the right bank of the
+Missouri a few miles above the Platte, a site now covered by the city of
+Omaha, Nebraska. In the narrative of the expedition it is said that at
+the mouth of the Papillion "we found two boats belonging to the Indian
+traders at St Louis. They had passed us some days before, and were to
+remain for the winter at the mouth of the Papillion, to trade with the
+Otoes, Missouries, and other Indians.
+
+"The banks of the Missouri above the Platte, have long been frequented
+by the Indians, either as places of permanent or occasional residence.
+Deserted encampments are often seen. On the northeast side, near the
+mouth of Mosquito river, are the remains of an old Ioway village. Four
+miles above, on the opposite side, was formerly a village of the Otoes."
+(James, (1), I, pp. 144-145.)
+
+As mentioned elsewhere, the Iowa and their kindred tribes had migrated
+from their ancient habitat in the vicinity of the Great Lakes to the
+Missouri Valley, and in 1848 a map was prepared by an Iowa Indian
+showing the route of the tribe from the mouth of Rock River, Illinois,
+to the banks of the Missouri, across the State which perpetuates the
+tribal name. The map was reproduced by Schoolcraft. (Schoolcraft, (3),
+III, pp. 256-257.)
+
+Unfortunately very little is to be found in the early writings regarding
+the appearance of the Iowa villages, but they probably did not differ
+from those of the tribes with whom they were so closely associated, and
+the primitive village, composed of a group of mat or bark covered
+structures, must have resembled the towns of the Osage. But in addition
+to the usual habitation the Iowa evidently erected a larger, longer
+structure. Maximilian on April 25, 1833, when in the region then
+occupied by the Iowa, wrote: "The canal between Nadaway Island and the
+cantonment is called Nadaway Slew, at the end of which we saw the
+remains of some Indian huts. In a dark glen in the forest, we observed a
+long Indian hut, which occupied almost its whole breadth, and must have
+served for a great number of persons." (Maximilian, (1), p. 124.) It is
+to be regretted that a full description of this "long Indian hut" was
+not preserved. It may have been a ceremonial lodge rather than a large
+dwelling.
+
+An interesting though brief account of the Iowa as they were at this
+time is preserved. It was related by a missionary, Samuel M. Irvin, who
+arrived among the Iowa April 10, 1837. They were living in the
+northwestern part of Missouri, the "Platte purchase," but were soon to
+be removed to lands west of the Missouri. At that time, the spring of
+1837, so the narrative continues: "They numbered in all 830. They were a
+wild, warlike, roving people, and in a most wretched condition,
+depending mainly on the chase for a subsistence. Their habitations were
+of the most frail and temporary kind. They were shelters in the form of
+huts or houses made of the bark of trees stretched over slender poles
+and tied together with bark strings, or they were tents or lodges made
+of the skins of the buffalo or elk, and sewed together with the sinews
+of these animals. These bark houses were mainly for summer shelter, and
+would in a few years yield to the wear of time, when they would be
+abandoned and a new location sought. The skin tents were carried with
+them, and made their habitations wherever they chanced to stop. They
+were strictly a migratory and unsettled people." (Plank, (1), p. 312.)
+And "domestic animals, excepting ponies and dogs, were not among them.
+Indeed, to some of them, such things as cattle, hogs, sheep and poultry
+were almost unknown, and did such animals happen their way they would
+pounce upon them for present food as quickly as upon a buffalo or wild
+turkey."
+
+An excellent picture of an Iowa habitation accompanied the article from
+which the preceding quotations have been made and is now reproduced in
+plate 32, _b_.
+
+OTO.
+
+When Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri during the summer of 1804
+they reached the mouth of the Platte July 21. At that time, so they
+entered in their journal, the Oto were living on the south side of the
+Platte 10 leagues above its junction with the Missouri, and 5 leagues
+beyond, on the same bank, were the Pawnee. Living with the Oto were the
+remnants of the Missouri who had, a few years before, joined them. On
+August 3, 1804, the expedition having ascended the Missouri to about the
+location of the present city of Council Bluffs, Iowa, held a council
+with representatives of the two tribes, Oto and Missouri, an event which
+has been perpetuated in the name of the city. A majority of the two
+tribes were then absent from their village on their summer buffalo hunt,
+consequently few were present at the council.
+
+On May 3, 1811, Bradbury arrived at the Oto village, but it was
+deserted. All were probably some miles away hunting the buffalo.
+However, a very interesting description of the habitations in the
+deserted village is preserved. First referring to the Platte: "The
+southern bank is wholly divested of timber, and as the village is
+situated on a declivity near the river, we could see the lodges very
+distinctly, but there was no appearance of Indians." (p. 54.) On the
+following day, May 4, 1811, he visited the village and found it "to
+consist of about fifty-four lodges, of a circular form, and about forty
+feet in diameter, with a projecting part at the entrance, of ten or
+twelve feet in length, in the form of a porch. At almost every lodge,
+the door or entrance was closed after the manner which is customary with
+Indians when they go on hunting parties and take their squaws and
+children with them. It consists in putting a few sticks across, in a
+particular manner, which they so exactly note and remember, as to be
+able to discover the least change in their position. Although anxious to
+examine the internal structure of the lodges, I did not violate the
+injunction conveyed by this slight obstruction, and after searching some
+time found a few that were left entirely open. On entering one, I found
+the length of the porch to be an inclined plane to the level of the
+floor, about two and a half or three feet below the surface of the
+ground; round the area of the lodge are placed from fifteen to eighteen
+posts, forked at the top, and about seven feet high from the floor. In
+the centre, a circular space of about eight feet in diameter is dug, to
+the depth of two feet; four strong posts are placed in the form of a
+square, about twelve feet asunder, and at equal distances from this
+space these posts are about twenty feet high, and cross pieces are laid
+on the tops. The rafters are laid from the forked tops of the outside
+posts over these cross pieces, and reach nearly to the centre, where a
+small hole is left for the smoke to escape; across the rafters small
+pieces of timber are laid; over these, sticks and a covering of sods,
+and lastly earth. The fire is made in the middle of the central space,
+round the edges of which they sit, and the beds are fixed between the
+outer posts. The door is placed at the immediate entrance into the
+lodge; it is made of a buffalo skin, stretched in a frame of wood, and
+is suspended from the top. On entering, it swings forward, and when let
+go, it falls to its former position." (Bradbury, (1), pp. 56-57.)
+
+It is to be regretted that Bradbury did not give a more detailed account
+of the general appearance of the village; that he did not tell of the
+placing of the lodges, and of the other structures, if any stood within
+the village. But this large group of earth-covered lodges undoubtedly
+resembled the village of the Republican Pawnee, as shown in the
+photograph made by Jackson more than half a century later.
+
+In the narrative of the Long expedition, during the spring of 1820, more
+than a century ago, is a brief note on the Oto. It reads: "The Oto
+nation of Indians is distinguished by the name of _Wah-toh-ta-na_. The
+permanent village of this nation is composed of large dirt lodges,
+similar to those of the Konzas and Omawhaws, and is situate on the left
+bank of the river Platte, or Nebreska, about forty miles above it
+confluence with the Missouri." (James, (1), I, p. 338.) On the map which
+accompanies the narrative the village is indicated on the south or right
+bank of the Platte, in the eastern part of the present Saunders County,
+Nebraska. Continuing, the journal states (p. 342): "The hunting grounds
+of the Oto nation, extend from the Little Platte up to the Boyer creek,
+on the north side of the Missouri, and from Independence creek to about
+forty miles above the Platte, on the south side of that river. They hunt
+the bison, between the Platte and the sources of the Konzas rivers."
+Thus their hunting grounds included one of the richest and most fertile
+sections of the valley of the Missouri, now occupied by many towns and
+villages.
+
+Much of interest respecting the manners and ways of life of the Oto when
+they occupied their village near the mouth of the Platte is to be found
+in Irving's narrative of the expedition of which he was a member. During
+the summer of 1833 the small party under the leadership of Commissioner
+H. L. Ellsworth left St. Louis and, with several teams, proceeded up the
+Valley of the Missouri. They traversed the vast rolling prairie: "Hour
+after hour passed on; the prospect was still the same. At last a loud
+cry from our guide announced that we had come in sight of the
+cantonment. There was a snowy speck resting upon the distant green;
+behind it rose a forest of lofty timber which shadowed the Missouri.
+This was Leavenworth.... It was mid day when we first caught sight of
+Leavenworth, but it was near sunset before we arrived there. About a
+dozen white-washed cottage-looking houses, composed the barracks and the
+abodes of the officers. They are so arranged as to form the three sides
+of a hollow square; the fourth is open, and looks out into a wide but
+broken prairie. It is a rural looking spot--a speck of civilization
+dropped in the heart of a wilderness." (Irving, J. T., (1), I, pp.
+46-47.) From Fort Leavenworth they continued up the valley, soon
+reaching the village of the Oto, near the banks of the Platte. After
+describing the reception accorded the party by the people of the town
+Irving wrote: "The village of the Otoe Indians is situated upon a ridge
+of swelling hills overlooking the darkly wooded banks of the Platte
+river, about a quarter of a mile distant. There is but little beauty or
+neatness about an Indian town. The lodges are built in the shape of a
+half egg. They frequently are twenty feet in height, and sometimes sixty
+in diameter. The roofs are formed of long poles, which diverge like the
+radii of a circle, from one common centre. The ring of the circle is
+formed of upright posts, driven closely together in the ground, and
+projecting upward about five feet. These are interwoven with brushwood
+and the smaller branches of trees, and form the support of the outer end
+of the poles composing the roof, the interstices of which are also
+interwoven with twigs and brushwood. The whole is then covered with
+earth, and when finished resembles a large hillock. The town contained
+about seventy of these lodges, standing singly or in groups, without any
+attention to order or regularity. Within, they are capacious, but dark,
+being lighted merely by a small aperture at the top, which serves both
+as window and chimney. The fire is built in a cavity in the centre,
+directly under the hole in the roof, by which the smoke escapes after
+floating in easy wreaths about the interior.
+
+"As the lodges are very spacious, a little back from the fire there is a
+circular range of tree trunks standing like columns, and connected by
+timber laid in their forks, forming a support for the roof, which
+otherwise, from the great length of the poles that form it, and the
+heavy mass of superincumbent earth, might fall in, and bury the
+inhabitants. Around the wall of the building, are ranged cribs or berths
+for sleeping, screened from view by heavy mats of grass and rushes. Over
+the fire is inclined a forked stake, in the hook of which hangs a large
+kettle, generally filled with buffalo flesh and corn. This, to judge
+from its looks, is never removed from the fire, even for the purpose of
+cleaning it." (Op. cit., pp. 158-160.)
+
+A week or more passed after the arrival of the party at the Oto village
+before a council was held with the chief men of the tribe, "for the
+purpose of forming a treaty, with respect to the lands lying in the
+neighbourhood of the Nemahaw river." The time for holding the council
+having arrived, the commissioner and his party proceeded from their camp
+to the earth-covered lodge in which the ceremony was to be enacted. They
+entered and "found nearly the whole tribe assembled, and seated in
+circles, in the large lodge of the Iotan chief. At the far end of the
+building was the Iotan; and by his side were stationed those two
+worthies, the Big Kaw and the Thief. Next them were the stern forms of
+the older warriors and braves.... The lodge was excessively crowded. One
+ring was formed beyond another; one dark head rose behind another; until
+the dim, dusk outlines of the more distant were lost in shadow, and
+their glistening eyes alone could be seen. The passage which led to the
+air was completely crowded with women and children; and half a dozen
+curious faces were peering down through the round hole in the roof.
+
+"The most of them had adorned themselves for the occasion. Plumes were
+floating from their scalp-locks; their heads and breasts were painted
+with vermilion, and long strings of wampum hung from their necks and
+mutilated ears. But at the present moment there appeared to be no
+thought of their appearance. Every sense was wrapped up in an intense
+interest in the approaching council; every breath was held; and every
+eye fixed with eagerness upon the face of the Commissioner, as he arose
+to address the meeting." (Op. cit., pp. 233-235.) This vivid description
+of the gathering of the Oto in a great earth-covered structure near the
+banks of the Missouri during the summer of 1833 tends to recall Lieut.
+Timberlake's meeting with the head men of the Cherokee, when they came
+together in the townhouse at Chote late in the year 1761. The two
+structures were of similar appearance and probably did not differ
+greatly in size, although at Chote there were several tiers of seats
+surrounding the central space within the house which were lacking in the
+Oto lodge, but the two gatherings were evidently quite similar, although
+belonging to different generations and being in regions separated by
+many hundreds of miles of forest and plain. The great rotundas, or
+townhouses of the Cherokee, were the most interesting of the various
+native structures which formerly stood east of the Mississippi.
+(Bushnell, (1), pp. 59-63.)
+
+The preceding notes on the Oto refer to their permanent earth-lodge
+villages, which were occupied only part of each year. When away from the
+village they would make use of the skin-covered tipi, although the
+temporary shelter of the Pawnee may have been copied by some members of
+the tribe. Fortunately a very good description of the appearance of a
+winter encampment of several families, at some point far west of the
+Missouri on the prairie of Nebraska, during the winter of 1851-52, has
+been preserved. The account was prepared by a traveler who became
+separated from his companions and reached the camp unexpectedly while
+traversing the snow-covered wilderness. The "little camp consisted of
+two large tents, which stood in a deep ravine, overgrown with stunted
+oaks, and on the banks of a deep stream, whose waters were hidden
+beneath a thick covering of ice." One tent belonged to the chief
+Wa-ki-ta-mo-nee, the other to a half-breed named Louis Farfar. Arriving
+at the camp, so the narrative continues, I "crawled into the tent of the
+medicine-man, and took my place by his blazing fire, while the other
+occupants lay or crouched around. The old mother was busy in the
+preparation of the meat, and by her side, next the opening, were two
+daughters; the older about eighteen, the younger about two years old.
+The father of the family, his son, and Schin-ges-in-ki-nee had,
+according to Indian custom, kept the best places for themselves, which
+was so much the better for me as I was placed between them. The medicine
+pipe, with a bowl cut out of some red stone, went round briskly, and the
+time that was employed in distributing the meat intended for the meal I
+spent in taking a good view of the Indian dwelling. Sixteen long poles,
+made of slender pine trees, were so placed as to form a circle of
+sixteen or eighteen feet in diameter, their tops being bent over and
+fastened together. Around this framework was thrown, like a mantle, the
+tent leather, consisting of a great number of buffalo-hides, tanned
+white, and neatly sewed together for the purpose with sinews. The
+leather did not reach quite to the top, but left an opening, by which
+the smoke could escape; but there were two prolongations of the tent
+leather, something like flags, which were supported by particular poles,
+so as, in stormy weather or contrary winds, to form a very tolerable
+chimney. The tent was fixed so firmly to the ground with pegs that the
+tightly stretched sides would admit neither the rain nor the snow, when
+it melted from the heat of the fire; and the inhabitants had not only a
+secure refuge, but a tolerably comfortable dwelling. The various
+possessions of the Indians were hung round on the tent poles, where they
+only took up room that could easily be dispensed with, and kept out the
+cold that could have most readily found an entrance at those places. On
+the space round the fire, buffalo-hides were spread for beds at night,
+and when rolled up in the day made convenient seats; the fire, in a kind
+of pit half a foot deep, and two and a half in diameter, was a mass of
+glowing embers, with a number of logs blazing on the top, and diffused a
+most pleasant warmth over the small space. Near the fire a branch of a
+tree was stuck into the ground, and another placed horizontally across
+it, and running the whole breadth of the tent, from which hung the most
+indispensable of household utensils in the form of a great kettle,
+whilst the rest of the pole was covered with wet and torn mocassins and
+gaiters, in a manner that was certainly more convenient than
+ornamental.... Besides the wild half-naked forms of the Indians, a
+number of dogs, young and old, made part of the company assembled in
+Wa-ki-ta-mo-nee's tent. The attention of the mistress of the family, a
+very dirty old squaw, was exclusively devoted to the vast kettle and its
+bubbling contents; a row of roughly-cut wooden platters stood before
+her, and by means of a pointed stick she fished up from the cauldron
+large joints of bear and half turkeys, and loaded each of the platters
+with a huge portion of the savoury smelling food." (Moellhausen, (1), I,
+pp. 171-175.) The second tent, so he wrote, "was more spacious" than the
+one which he had entered, and described. This is an interesting
+description of a small winter camp of the Oto as it stood in the midst
+of the snow-covered prairie, near a stream "whose waters were hidden
+beneath a thick covering of ice." The scene could undoubtedly have been
+repeated in many localities in the vast region west of the Missouri. The
+identity of the stream near which the two tents stood during the winter
+of 1851-52 is suggested by a note in Fremont's journal, written 10 years
+earlier. On June 22, 1842, when traversing the prairies, soon to reach
+the right bank of the Platte, he wrote: "Made our bivouac in the midst
+of some well-timbered ravines near the Little Blue.... Crossing the next
+morning a number of handsome creeks, with clear water and sandy beds, we
+reached at 10 A. M., a very beautiful wooded stream, about thirty-five
+feet wide, called Sandy creek, and sometimes, as the Ottoes frequently
+winter there, Otto fork." (Fremont, (1), p. 14.) The greater part of the
+course of Sandy Creek is through the present Clay and Thayer Counties,
+Nebraska, a hundred miles or more south of west from the Oto village
+then situated near the mouth of the Platte.
+
+Moellhausen remained with the Oto until the temporary camp was abandoned,
+then returned with them to their permanent village. The journey required
+several weeks but in time they approached the Missouri, and as they
+neared their destination: "We passed the burial place of the Ottoes just
+before we descended into the valley, and shortly afterwards came to the
+village. The first consisted of a number of hillocks inclosed by rough
+palings, and decorated with sticks with little bits of coloured stuff
+and feathers fluttering from them. The village, which lay not many
+hundred yards farther was a group of about sixty huts of various
+construction, some of clay, shaped like haycocks or baking ovens, others
+like small houses, built of thick oak bark. These dwellings stood mostly
+empty, as the inhabitants had pitched their tents just now in the angle
+formed by the Nebrasca and Missouri, on account of the rich grass to be
+found in these bottom lands under the protecting snow, and because they
+and their cattle were in that situation more sheltered from the violent
+gales of wind." (Moellhausen, (1), I, pp. 210-211.) Here is a reference
+to a third form of habitation known to the Oto. In addition to the
+earth-covered lodge and the skin tipi, both of which were characteristic
+of the time and place, they appear to have reared structures similar to
+the habitation of the Sauk and Fox, as shown in plate 19, a type of
+dwelling known to several neighboring tribes in the upper Mississippi
+Valley.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 34
+
+[Illustration: _a._ "Pemmican maul, Oto Agency, Nebrasca, J. W. Griest."
+Formed of one piece of wood. Extreme length, 39 inches. (U.S.N.M.
+22437)]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Heavy stone maul with handle attached. "Yankton
+Sioux. Fort Berthold. Drs. Gray and Matthews, U. S. A." Extreme length
+about 2 feet 2 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6325)]
+
+[Illustration: _c._ "Tools of the Mandans for dressing leather, Dakota.
+Drs. Gray and Matthews, U. S. A." Handle of antler, with flint blade
+attached. Extreme length of handle about 11 inches. (U.S.N.M. 8409)]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 35
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Oto dugout canoe, from Kurz's Sketchbook, May 15,
+1851]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Bull-boat and paddle, obtained from the Hidatsa.
+Marked "Fort Buford, Dak. Ter. Grosventres Tribe. Drs. Gray and
+Matthews." (U.S.N.M. 9785)]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 36
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Structure showing arbor over entrance]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Long structure with entrance on one side
+
+WINNEBAGO HABITATIONS, ABOUT 1870]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 37
+
+[Illustration: WINNEBAGO STRUCTURES]
+
+It is quite evident that after leaving the permanent earth-lodge village
+of the Oto the Long party just a century ago passed one of the temporary
+camps of the same people. This, fortunately, was sketched by the artist
+of the expedition and reproduced in the narrative of the journey, and is
+now shown in plate 33. To quote from the narrative: "For the
+elucidation of what we have said respecting the form and arrangement of
+the skin, or travelling lodges of the Indians, we subjoin an engraving,
+representing an encampment of Oto Indians, which Mr. Seymour sketched
+near the Platte river. In this plate, the group of Indians on the left
+is intended to represent a party of Konza Indians approaching to perform
+the calumet dance in the Oto village. It may be proper to remark, that
+this party when still distant from the Otoes, had sent forward a
+messenger, with the offer of a prize to the first Oto that should meet
+them. This circumstance was productive of much bustle and activity among
+the warriors and young men, who eagerly mounted their horses, and
+exerted their utmost speed." (James. (1), II, pp. 188-189.)
+
+Various ethnological specimens collected among the Oto a generation or
+more ago are in the collections of the National Museum. One quite rare
+object, a "pemmican maul," formed of a single piece of wood, is figured
+in plate 34, _a_.
+
+An original sketch by Kurz in May, 1851, representing a group of Oto
+with a dugout canoe, is reproduced in plate 35, _a_.
+
+MISSOURI.
+
+In the narrative of the Lewis and Clark expedition appears this record:
+"June 13, 1804. We passed ... a bend of the river, Missouri and two
+creeks on the north, called the Round Bend creeks. Between these two
+creeks is the prairie, in which once stood the ancient village of the
+Missouris. Of this village there remains no vestige, nor is there any
+thing to recall this great and numerous nation, except a feeble remnant
+of about thirty families. They were driven from their original seats by
+the invasions of the Sauks and other Indians from the Mississippi, who
+destroyed at this village two hundred of them in one contest." (Lewis
+and Clark, (1), I, p. 13.) About 5 miles beyond they reached the mouth
+of Grand River which flows from the northwest, serves as the boundary
+between Carroll and Chariton Counties, Missouri, and enters the left
+bank of the Missouri River. Therefore the old village of the Missouri
+evidently stood at some point in the latter county. It was probably
+composed of a number of mat and bark covered lodges resembling the
+village of the Osage which stood a few miles farther up the river. Two
+days later, June 15, the party identified the site or remains of the
+former village of the Little Osage, and, so the narrative continues:
+"About three miles above them, in view of our camp is the situation of
+the old village of the Missouris after they fled from the Sauks." (Op.
+cit., p. 15.) From this village the few Missouri Indians appear to have
+sought refuge among the Oto, then living on the banks of the Platte.
+
+WINNIBAGO.
+
+When first known to Europeans the Winnebago occupied the region west of
+Green Bay, west of Lake Michigan, where, according to the Jesuit
+missionaries, they had resided for many generations. There they were
+living in the year 1634 when visited by Nicollet, and just 35 years
+later, during the winter of 1669-70, a mission on the shore of the same
+bay was conducted by Pere Allouez, which proved a gathering place for
+various tribes, including the Winnebago, Sauk and Foxes, Menominee, and
+Potawatomi. These, with the exception of the Winnebago, were Algonquian
+tribes.
+
+As already mentioned, the Oto, Iowa, and Missouri appear to have been
+closely connected with the Winnebago, all speaking dialects understood
+by one another. And it is also evident that when the Oto, Iowa, and
+Missouri began their movement westward to the Mississippi and beyond the
+Winnebago remained behind. However, about the beginning of the last
+century they reached the banks of the Mississippi, and by successive
+moves during the next 50 years some arrived in western Minnesota, soon
+to be removed to lands beyond the Missouri, adjoining the Omaha, in the
+northeastern part of Nebraska.
+
+While living in the vicinity of Green Bay their villages were groups of
+mat and bark-covered lodges, typical of the tribes of the wooded country
+which abounded in lakes and streams. And it is quite evident that during
+their migration westward, when they made long stops before finally
+reaching the banks of the Missouri, they continued to erect and occupy
+structures similar to those which had stood in their old villages
+generations before.
+
+Typical examples of Winnebago dwellings are shown in plates 36 and 37.
+The arbor over the entrance is an interesting feature, seldom appearing
+in the Algonquian villages, although often shown in front of Siouan
+lodges.
+
+In a forthcoming publication Radin has given a list of the various forms
+of structures erected by the Winnebago, some of which existed until very
+recent years. (Radin, (1).)
+
+MANDAN.
+
+As mentioned in the sketch of the Assiniboin, a small party of French
+accompanied by members of that tribe during the autumn of 1738 went
+southward from the Assiniboin country to the Mandan towns, where the
+French remained several weeks. The leader of the expedition, La
+Verendrye, prepared an account of the journey, this being the earliest
+record of a visit by Europeans to the Mandans known to exist, although
+it is easily conceived that French trappers may have been among the
+tribe earlier in the century.
+
+The expedition arrived among the Mandan November 28, 1738, after a
+journey of 46 days, but soon pushed forward to a larger village.
+Fortunately the journal contains references to the ways of life of the
+Mandan and a brief description of their fortified or protected
+settlements. At that time the tribe was said to have had six villages,
+and evidently all were protected by encircling palisades. The village in
+which the French then rested consisted of 130 lodges, and "all the
+streets, squares and huts resembled each other." The French were
+particularly interested in the manner in which the town was protected,
+but the account in the journal must exaggerate the strength, or rather
+the size, of the ditch. The palisade was described as being 15 feet in
+height, and "At fifteen points doubled are green skins which are put for
+sheathing when required, fastened only above in the places needed, as in
+the bastion there are four at each curtain well flanked. The fort is
+built on a height in the open prairie with a ditch upwards of fifteen
+feet deep by fifteen to eighteen feet wide. Their fort can only be
+gained by steps or posts which can be removed when threatened by an
+enemy. If all their forts are alike, they may be called impregnable to
+Indians.... Both men and women of this nation are very laborious; their
+huts are large and spacious, separated into several apartments by thick
+planks; nothing is left lying about; all their baggage is in large bags
+hung on posts; their beds made like tombs surrounded by skins.... Their
+fort is full of caves, in which are stored such articles as grain, food,
+fat, dressed robes, bear skins. They are well supplied with these; it is
+the money of the country.... They make wicker work very neatly, flat and
+in baskets. They make use of earthen pots, which they use like many
+other nations for cooking their food." (La Verendrye, (1), p. 21.) In
+addition to the six more important villages there appear to have been
+others, similar but smaller. Referring to these La Verendrye wrote (p.
+23): "We noticed that in the plain there were several small forts, of
+forty or fifty huts, built like the large ones, but no one was there at
+the time. They made us understand that they came inside for the summer
+to work their fields and that there was a large reserve of grain in
+their cellars." Evidently these were nearer their cornfields, away from
+the river banks, and were occupied only parts of each year.
+
+From this all too brief account of the Mandan it is quite evident that
+when they were first encountered by the French, living in their earth
+lodges, their villages strongly palisaded, their caches filled with corn
+and other food supplies, buffalo robes and bear skins, they were in
+their most powerful and prosperous state. But what great changes they
+were destined to undergo during the next hundred years!
+
+On October 19, 1804, the Lewis and Clark party discovered the first of
+the ruined villages of the Mandan, evidently standing on the left bank
+of the Missouri, in the southern part of the present Burleigh County,
+North Dakota. It proved an interesting day. "In walking along the shore
+we counted fifty-two herds of buffaloe and three of elk, at a single
+view. Besides these we also observed elk, deer, pelicans, and wolves."
+The ruined village had been protected by palisades and, according to the
+Arikara chief, who accompanied them, had been occupied by the Mandan.
+These, so they wrote, "are the first ruins which we have seen of that
+nation in ascending the Missouri." During the night of October 19 the
+expedition encamped on the south, i. e., right, bank of the Missouri,
+evidently about 2 miles below the mouth of Little Heart River, which
+flows from the westward and joins the Missouri in the present Morton
+County, North Dakota. The following day they advanced 12 miles up the
+Missouri.
+
+October 21, 1804, was cold and bleak. Snow and ice covered the ground,
+and the wind blew strong from the northeast. That day the expedition
+advanced only 7 miles. They passed the mouth of Big Heart River and the
+site of Bismarck, the present capital of the State. Two miles above
+their camp of the night previous, about opposite the mouth of the Big
+Heart, they reached "the ruins of a second Mandan village, which was in
+existence at the same time with that just mentioned. It is situated on
+the north at the foot of a hill in a beautiful and extensive plain,
+which is now covered with herds of buffaloes; nearly opposite are
+remains of a third village on the south of the Missouri, and there is
+another also about two miles further on the north, a little off the
+river. At the distance of seven miles we encamped on the south, and
+spent a cold night." The next day, October 22, they discovered other
+ruined towns of the Mandan. "In the morning we passed an old Mandan
+village on the south, near our camp; at four miles another on the same
+side.... At six we reached an island about one mile in length, at the
+head of which is a Mandan village on the north in ruins, and two miles
+beyond a bad sandbar. At eight miles are remains of another Mandan
+village on the south; and at twelve miles encamped on the south....
+These villages, which are nine in number, are scattered along each side
+of the river within a space of twenty miles; almost all that remains of
+them is the wall which surrounds them, the fallen heaps of earth which
+covered the houses, and occasionally human skulls and the teeth and
+bones of men, and different animals, which are scattered on the surface
+of the ground." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 112-114.) Other deserted
+villages were passed as they continued ascending the Missouri, to arrive
+late on the 26th of October, at an old field of the Mandan, about
+one-half mile below the first of their then occupied villages.
+
+The winter encampment of the expedition, Fort Mandan, was situated on
+the left bank of the Missouri, about opposite the future Fort Clark, and
+some 7 or 8 miles below the mouth of Knife River, and consequently
+several miles from the first Mandan village. Here the expedition
+remained until April 7, 1805. The lower of the Mandan villages was
+"Matootonha," the second and smaller was "Rooptahee." The list continues
+and refers to "the third village which is called Mahawha, and where the
+Arwacahwas reside." "The fourth village where the Minnetarees live, and
+which is called Metaharta." A fifth village is mentioned but its name is
+not given. (Op. cit., pp. 120-121.) Referring to these more in detail
+the narrative tells something of their origin: November 21, 1804, "The
+villages near which we are established are five in number, and are the
+residence of three distinct nations: the Mandans, the Ahnahaways, and
+the Minnetarees. The history of the Mandans, as we received it from our
+interpreters and from the chiefs themselves, and as it is attested by
+existing monuments, illustrates more than that of any other nation the
+unsteady movements and the tottering fortunes of the American nations.
+Within the recollection of living witnesses, the Mandans were settled
+forty years ago in nine villages, the ruins of which we passed about
+eighty miles below, and situated seven on the west and two on the east
+side of the Missouri. The two finding themselves wasting away before the
+small-pox and the Sioux, united into one village, and moved up the river
+opposite to the Ricaras. The same causes reduced the remaining seven to
+five villages, till at length they emigrated in a body to the Ricara
+nation, where they formed themselves into two villages, and joined those
+of their countrymen who had gone before them. In their new residence
+they were still insecure, and at length the three villages ascended the
+Missouri to their present position. The two who had emigrated together
+still settled in the two villages on the northwest side of the Missouri,
+while the single village took a position on the southeast side. In this
+situation they were found by those who visited them in 1796; since which
+the two villages have united into one. They are now in two villages, one
+on the southeast of the Missouri, the other on the opposite side, and at
+the distance of three miles across. The first, in an open plain,
+contains about forty or fifty lodges, built in the same way as those of
+the Ricaras: the second, the same number, and both may raise about three
+hundred and fifty men.
+
+"On the same side of the river, and at the distance of four miles from
+the lower Mandan village, is another called Mahaha. It is situated in a
+high plain at the mouth of the Knife river, and is the residence of the
+Ahnahaways. This nation, whose name indicated that they were 'people
+whose village is on a hill,' formerly resided on the Missouri, about
+thirty miles below where they now live. The Assiniboins and Sioux forced
+them to a spot five miles higher, where the greatest part of them were
+put to death, and the rest emigrated to their present situation, in
+order to obtain an asylum near the Minnetarees. They are called by the
+French, Soulier Noir or Shoe Indians; by the Mandans, Wattasoons, and
+their whole force is about fifty men.
+
+"On the south side of the same Knife river, half a mile above the Mahaha
+and in the same open plain with it, is a village of the Minnetarees
+surnamed Metaharta, who are about one hundred and fifty men in number.
+On the opposite side of Knife river, and one and a half mile above this
+village is a second of Minnetarees, who may be considered as the proper
+Minnetaree nation. It is situated in a beautiful low plain, and contains
+four hundred and fifty warriors." (Op. cit., pp. 129-131.)
+
+In their journal, kept while in winter quarters at Fort Mandan, are to
+be found many interesting references to the Mandan. To quote several of
+these will tend to shed light on the ways of life in the native village.
+On November 22, 1804, the Mandan sold to the members of the expedition
+"a quantity of corn of a mixed colour, which they dug up in ears from
+the holes made near the front of their lodges, in which it is buried
+during the winter." This had probably been gathered only a few weeks
+before the arrival of the party at the village, then deposited in the
+caches for future use. December 19 the weather had moderated, and the
+Indians were seen playing a game on the level space between the lodges
+of the first and second chiefs, a distance of about 50 yards. The entry
+for January 13, 1805, contains an interesting note: "We have a
+continuation of clear weather, and the cold has increased, the mercury
+having sunk to 34 below 0. Nearly one half of the Mandan nation passed
+down the river to hunt for several days; in these excursions men, women
+and children, with their dogs, all leave the village together, and after
+discovering a spot convenient for the game, fix their tents; all the
+family bear their part in the labour, and the game is equally divided
+among the families of the tribe." And on February 12, it was told how
+"The horses of the Mandans are so often stolen by the Sioux, Ricaras,
+and Assiniboins, that the invariable rule now is to put the horses every
+night in the same lodge with the family. In the summer they ramble in
+the plains in the vicinity of the camp, and feed on the grass, but
+during cold weather the squaws cut down the cottonwood trees as they are
+wanted, and the horses feed on the boughs and bark of the tender
+branches, which are also brought into the lodges at night and placed
+near them."
+
+About the year 1797, and consequently a few years before the arrival of
+the Lewis and Clark expedition at the Mandan villages, John McDonnell,
+a partner of the North-West Company, made brief mention of the Mandan in
+his journal. He wrote: "These Indians live in settled villages,
+fortified with palisades, which they seldom ever abandon, and they are
+the best husbandman in the whole Northwest. They raise indian corn or
+maize, beans, pumpkins, squashes in considerable quantity, not only
+sufficient to supply their own wants, with the help of the buffalo, but
+also to sell and give away to all strangers that enter their villages."
+(McDonnell, (1), pp. 272-273.) And in 1804 another representative of the
+old North-West Company referred to the gardens of the Mandans and said
+in part:
+
+"In the spring, as soon as the weather and the state of the ground will
+permit, the women repair to the fields, when they cut the stalks of the
+Indian corn of the preceding year and drop new seed into the socket of
+the remaining roots. A small kind of pumpkins which are very productive
+they plant with a dibble, and raise the ground into hillocks the same as
+those about Indian corn. Their kidney beans they plant in the same
+manner. They cultivate a tall kind of sunflower, the seed of which is
+reckoned good eating dry and pounded with fat and made into balls of
+three or four ounces; they are found excellent for long journeys."
+(Mackenzie, Charles, (1), pp. 338-339.) And the narrative continued:
+"The only implement used among the Mandanes for the purpose of
+agriculture is a hoe made from the shoulder blade of a buffalo and which
+is ingrafted upon a short crooked handle. With this crooked instrument
+they work very expeditiously, and soon do all that is required for their
+supplies."
+
+As already mentioned, the Lewis and Clark party departed from their
+winter quarters April 7, 1805, to pursue their journey westward. The
+next year, on August 14, 1806, when returning, they again arrived at the
+Mandan villages. They reached Rooptahee, where they were kindly received
+by the people, but it is interesting to know that during the 16 months
+which had intervened between the departure and return of the Lewis and
+Clark party a great change had taken place in the appearance of the
+native village. As mentioned in the journal, "This village has been
+rebuilt since our departure, and was now much smaller; a quarrel having
+arisen among the Indians, in consequence of which a number of families
+had removed to the opposite side of the river." Such were the changes
+ever occurring among the people of the upper Missouri. Old villages were
+abandoned and new ones built, some to be divided and others united,
+consequently very few of the ruined sites discovered along the course of
+the river represent towns which were occupied at the same time.
+
+Although the work just quoted contains much of interest pertaining to
+the Mandan and neighboring tribes, subsequent writers described the
+appearance of the villages and separate structures more in detail, and
+from the narratives of Catlin and Maximilian, supplemented by many
+sketches, it is possible to visualize the primitive earth-lodge villages
+with their many peculiar features.
+
+Catlin remained among the Mandan for some weeks during the year 1832 and
+wrote at that time: "They have two villages only, which are about two
+miles distant from each other.... Their present villages are beautifully
+located, and judiciously also, for defence against the assaults of their
+enemies. The site of the lower (or principal) town, in particular is one
+of the most beautiful and pleasing that can be seen in the world, and
+even more beautiful than imagination could ever create. In the very
+midst of an extensive valley (embraced within a thousand graceful swells
+and parapets or mounds of interminable green, changing to blue, as they
+vanish in distance) is built the city, or principal town of the
+Mandans." This was evidently the lower village, the first encountered
+when ascending the Missouri, the Matootonha of Lewis and Clark, and
+Mihtutta-hangusch of Maximilian. Describing the position of this town,
+Catlin continued: "The ground on which the Mandan village is at present
+built, was admirably selected for defence; being on a bank forty or
+fifty feet above the bed of the river. The greater part of this bank is
+nearly perpendicular and of solid rock. The river, suddenly changing its
+course to a right-angle, protects two sides of the village, which is
+built upon this promontory or angle; they have therefore but one side to
+protect, which is effectually done by a strong piquet, and a ditch
+inside of it, of three or four feet in depth. The piquet is composed of
+timbers of a foot or more in diameter, and eighteen feet high, set
+firmly in the ground at sufficient distances from each other to admit of
+guns and other missiles to be fired between them. The ditch ... is
+inside of the piquet, in which their warriors screen their bodies from
+the view and weapons of their enemies." (Catlin, (1), I, pp. 80-81.)
+This is followed by a description of the earth-covered lodges, "closely
+grouped together, leaving but just room enough for walking and riding
+between them." Outside they appeared to be made entirely of earth, but
+entering he was surprised "to see the neatness, comfort, and spacious
+dimensions of these earth-covered dwellings." The structures varied in
+size, some being 40, others 60 feet in diameter. All were of a circular
+form with the floors 2 feet or more below the original surface. "In the
+centre, and immediately under the sky-light is the fire-place, a hole of
+four or five feet in diameter, of a circular form, sunk a foot or more
+below the surface, and curbed around with stone. Over the fire-place,
+and suspended from the apex of diverging props or poles, is generally
+seen the pot or kettle, filled with buffalo meat; and around it are the
+family, reclining in all the most picturesque attitudes and groups,
+resting on their buffalo-robes and beautiful mats of rushes." Their
+beds, or sleeping places, stood against the wall and were formed of
+poles lashed together and covered with buffalo skins. Each such bed was
+screened by skins of the buffalo or elk, arranged as curtains, with a
+hole in front to serve as an entrance. "Some of these coverings or
+curtains are exceedingly beautiful, being cut tastefully into fringe,
+and handsomely ornamented with porcupine's quills and picture writings
+or hieroglyphics." Catlin's sketch of the interior of a lodge, as just
+described, is reproduced in plate 38, _a_. In this picture the beds
+resting against the wall are clearly shown, the sunken fireplace is
+surrounded by the occupants of the lodge, and on the extreme right are
+two pottery vessels and a bull-boat, so characteristic of the upper
+Missouri.
+
+Near the center of the large village, surrounded by the lodges, was the
+open space where games were played and their various ceremonies enacted.
+Referring to this, Catlin wrote (Op. cit., p. 88): "In the centre of the
+village is an open space, or public area, of 150 feet in diameter, and
+circular in form, which is used for all public games and festivals,
+shows and exhibitions and also for their 'annual religious
+ceremonies.'... The lodges around this open space front in, with their
+doors towards the centre; and in the middle of this circle stands an
+object of great religious veneration.... This object is in form of a
+large hogshead, some eight or ten feet high, made of planks and
+hoops.... One of the lodges fronting on this circular area, and facing
+this strange object of their superstition, is called the 'Medicine
+Lodge,' or council house. It is in this sacred building that these
+wonderful ceremonies, in commemoration of the flood, take place." Later
+Catlin witnessed the remarkable ceremony, as enacted by the Mandan in
+the midst of their large village, and prepared a series of paintings
+showing the various phases. The original pictures are in the collection
+belonging to the United States National Museum, and one, the last,
+showing what they termed the "last race," is now reproduced as plate 38,
+_b_. In the center of the open space stands the sacred object, "in form
+of a large hogshead." An outline drawing of this painting was reproduced
+as plate 69 in Catlin's work.
+
+One of the most interesting and vivid passages in Catlin's writings is
+his description of this village as it impressed him. To quote (Op. cit.,
+pp. 88-89): "In ranging the eye over the village from where I am
+writing, there is presented to the view the strangest mixture and medley
+of unintelligible trash (independent of the living beings that are in
+motion), that can possibly be imagined. On the roofs of the lodges,
+besides the groups of living, are buffaloes' skulls, skin canoes, pots
+and pottery; sleds and sledges--and suspended on poles, erected some
+twenty feet above the doors of their wigwams, are displayed in a
+pleasant day, the scalps of warriors, preserved as trophies; and thus
+proudly exposed as evidence of their warlike deeds. In other parts are
+raised on poles the warriors' pure and whitened shields and quivers,
+with medicine-bags attached; and here and there a sacrifice of red
+cloth, or other costly stuff, offered up to the Great Spirit, over the
+door of some benignant chief, in humble gratitude for the blessings
+which he is enjoying. Such is a part of the strange medley that is
+before and around me; and amidst them ... can be seen in distance, the
+green and boundless, treeless, bushless prairie; and on it, and
+contiguous to the piquet which encloses the village, a hundred scaffolds
+on which their 'dead live,' as they term it." Such was the appearance of
+the great Mandan town in the year 1832, and this description would
+probably have applied to many of the ruined villages which stood on the
+banks of the Missouri farther down the river, which were occupied during
+past generations by the ancestors of those whom Catlin met and whose
+portraits have been preserved.
+
+Maximilian, accompanied by the artist Karl Bodmer, left St. Louis April
+10, 1833, on board the steamboat _Yellow Stone_, bound for the upper
+Missouri. Arriving at Fort Pierre they boarded the _Assiniboin_. The
+_Yellow Stone_ being loaded with "7,000 buffalo skins and other furs,"
+was to return to St. Louis. Starting from Fort Pierre June 5, they
+arrived at Fort Clark, among the Mandan, just two weeks later.
+Maximilian wrote on June 18: "At half-past seven we passed a roundish
+island covered with willows, and reached then the wood on the western
+bank, in which the winter dwellings of part of the Mandan Indian are
+situated; and saw, at a distance, the largest village of this tribe,
+Mih-Tutta-Hang-Kush, in the vicinity of which the whole prairie was
+covered with riders and pedestrians. As we drew nearer the huts of that
+village, Fort Clarke, lying before it, relieved by the background of the
+blue prairie hills, came in sight, with the gay American banner waving
+from the flag-staff.... The _Assiniboin_ soon lay to before the fort,
+against the gently sloping shore, where above 600 Indians were waiting
+for us." (Maximilian, (1), p. 171.) They departed from Fort Clark the
+following day and on June 24, "the seventy-fifth day since our departure
+from St. Louis," arrived at Fort Union, near the mouth of the
+Yellowstone. Returning to Fort Clark November 8, they remained
+throughout the winter, departing April 18, 1834.
+
+During the long winter months Maximilian learned much of the manners and
+ways of life of the Mandan, and his records are, in many respects, to be
+preferred to those of Catlin. To quote his description of the Mandan
+towns: "Their villages are assemblages of clay huts, of greater or less
+extent, placed close to each other, without regard to order.
+Mih-Tutta-Hang-Kush, the largest of the Mandan villages, was about 150
+or 200 paces in diameter, the second was much smaller. The circumference
+forms an irregular circle, and was anciently surrounded with strong
+posts, or palisades, which have, however, gradually disappeared as the
+natives used them for fuel in the cold winters. At four places, at
+nearly equal distances from each other, is a bastion built of clay,
+furnished with loop-holes, and lined both within and without with
+basket-work of willow branches. They form an angle, and are open towards
+the village; the earth is filled in between the basket-work and it is
+said that these bulwarks, which are now in a state of decay, were
+erected for the Indians by the Whites." It is curious and interesting
+that a similar observation should have been made by La Verendrye nearly
+a century before, and so the question arises, If made by Europeans, who
+were they? No protection or fortification of this sort was at the second
+and smaller village. A plan of the larger village, indicating its
+position on the right bank of the Missouri a short distance above Fort
+Clark, is given by Maximilian on page 394 and is here reproduced in
+figure 4. This would probably have been near the southern line of the
+present Mercer County, North Dakota.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Plan of the large Mandan village, 1833.]
+
+Continuing the description of the large village, Maximilian wrote: "The
+huts, as I have before remarked, stand close to each other, leaving, in
+the centre, an open circular space, about sixty paces in diameter, in
+the centre of which (among the Mandans) the ark of the first man is set
+up, of which we shall speak in the sequel. It is a small cylinder, open
+above, made of planks, about four or five feet high, fixed in the
+ground, and bound with climbing plants, or pliable boughs, to hold them
+together (see the woodcut, p. 342 [fig. 5]).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--"The ark of the first man."]
+
+"At the north end of this circular space is the medicine lodge, in which
+festivals are celebrated, and certain customs practised, which are
+connected with the religious notions of this people.... At the top of a
+high pole, a figure is here placed, made of skins, with a wooden head,
+the face painted black, and wearing a fur cap and feathers, which is
+intended to represent the evil spirit Ochkih-Hadda.... Other grotesque
+figures, made of skins and bundles of twigs, we saw hanging on high
+poles, most of them being offerings to the deity. Among the huts are
+many stages of several stories, supported by poles, on which they dry
+the maize. The huts themselves are of a circular form, slightly vaulted,
+having a sort of portico entrance. When the inmates are absent the
+entrance is shut up with twigs and thorns; and if they wish merely to
+close the door they put up a skin stretched out on a frame, which is
+shoved aside on entering. In the centre of the roof is a square opening
+for the smoke to find vent, over which is a circular sort of screen made
+of twigs, as a protection against the wind and rain, and which, when
+necessary, is covered with skins (see woodcut [fig. 6]).
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 38
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Interior of a Mandan lodge. George Catlin]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Scene in a Mandan village. George Catlin]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 39
+
+[Illustration: "MIH-TUTTA-HANG-KUSCH," A MANDAN VILLAGE
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833]
+
+"The interior of the hut is spacious, tolerably light, and cleanly. Four
+strong pillars towards the middle, with several cross beams, support the
+roof. The inner circumference of the hut is formed by eleven or fifteen
+thick posts, four or five feet in height, between which other rather
+shorter ones are placed close to each other. On these shorter posts,
+which are all of an equal height, are long rafters, inclining to the
+centre; they are placed near each other, and bear the roof. On the
+outside the huts are covered with a kind of mat, made of osiers, joined
+together with bark, and now the skeleton of the hut is finished. Over
+this hay is spread, and the outer covering is of earth. The men and
+women work together in erecting these huts, and the relations,
+neighbours, and friends, assist them in the work.... In the centre of
+the hut a circular place is dug for the fire, over which the kettle is
+suspended. This fire-place, or hearth, is often enclosed with a ledge
+of stones. The fuel is laid, in moderately thick pieces, on the external
+edge of the hearth, crossing each other in the middle, when it is
+kindled, and the pieces gradually pushed in as they burn away. The
+Indians are not fond of large fires. The inmates sit round it, on low
+seats, made of peeled osiers, covered with buffalo or bear skin. Round
+the inner circumference of the hut lie or hang the baggage, the
+furniture, and other property, in leather bags, the painted parchment
+travelling bags, and the harness of the horses; and on separate stages
+there are arms, sledges, and snow-shoes, while meat and maize, piled up,
+complete the motley assemblage." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 342-344.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Typical earth lodges.]
+
+Among the many interesting paintings made by Bodmer during his journey
+with Maximilian is one of the large Mandan village, plate 39, looking
+down the Missouri, showing the cluster of earth lodges on the summit of
+the cliff which terminates abruptly at the river. A structure rather
+lower than the others, on the immediate edge of the level area, is
+probably the "bastion," as represented in the plan, figure 4, pointing
+out over the cliff. Beyond the village, but evidently screened from view
+by the high cliff upon which the latter stood, was Fort Clark, near the
+mouth of a small stream which flowed into the Missouri.
+
+In these large circular structures the beds stood against the wall and
+the single opening faced inward. These were described by Catlin and
+clearly indicated in his drawing of an interior of a lodge, plate 38,
+_a_. In Maximilian's work (p. 344) is a sketch of such a bed which shows
+it as a unit, not attached to the wall, and capable of being moved
+about. The sketch is reproduced in figure 7. These were so formed and
+inclosed in skins as to protect the occupants from the cold blasts of
+air which must have circulated about in the interior of the lodge during
+certain seasons of the year. And as additional protection "In the
+winter huts they place, at the inside of the door, a high screen of
+willow boughs, covered with hides, which keeps off the draught of air
+from without, and especially protects the fire." And Maximilian related
+how, about the middle of November or before, the Indians removed to
+their winter huts which were in a timbered area, and thus more protected
+from the winds and storms of winter. There they remained until the
+latter part of February, or the beginning of March, being governed by
+the climatic conditions. Thus about four months of the year would be
+spent in their winter village. As the greater part of their possessions
+would be deposited in underground caches they made frequent trips
+between their villages to get what was desired--food, clothing, skins,
+and other supplies. In the winter, when the frozen prairie was covered
+with ice and snow, they made use of sledges drawn by dogs to transport
+their goods from place to place. The sledges were "made of a couple of
+thin, narrow boards, nine or ten feet in length, fastened together with
+leather straps, and with four cross-pieces, by way of giving them
+firmness."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Inclosed bed.]
+
+On the evening of November 30, 1833, Maximilian returned to Fort Clark
+from a visit of a few days to the villages a short distance above. They
+passed through "the forest-village belonging to the inhabitants of
+Ruhptare," referring to the winter village of the people of the smaller
+Mandan town. They entered one of the winter lodges, and "there was an
+abundance of meat hanging up in this hut, as they had had a very
+successful buffalo hunt." After returning to Fort Clark Maximilian
+wrote: "The Mandan village near the fort was now entirely forsaken by
+the inhabitants. The entrances to the huts were blocked with bundles of
+thorns; a couple of families only still remained, one of which was that
+of Dipauch, whom Mr Bodmer visited every day, in order to make a drawing
+of the interior of the hut. Instead of the numerous inhabitants, magpies
+were flying about, and flocks of snow buntings were seen in the
+neighbourhood about the dry plants of the prairie, where the Indian
+children set long rows of snares, made of horsehair, to catch them
+alive." (Op. cit., p. 425.) The drawing made by Bodmer of the interior
+of the lodge proves to be one of his most interesting pictures. It was
+reproduced as plate XIX, and is here shown in plate 40.
+
+The people of Mih-tutta-hang-kusch having removed to their winter
+settlement, prepared to have "a great medicine feast," and Maximilian
+was invited to be present, and so, as he recorded in his narrative, "we
+proceeded thither, on the 3rd of December, in the afternoon. Mr. Kipp
+took his family with him, and Mato-Tope and several other Indians
+accompanied us. We were all well armed, because it was asserted that a
+band of hostile Indians had been seen among the prairie hills on the
+preceding day. Our beds, blankets, and buffalo skins were laid on a
+horse, on which Mr Kipp's wife, a Mandan Indian, rode. Thus we passed,
+at a rapid pace, through the prairie, along the Missouri, then below the
+hills, which are pretty high.... After proceeding about an hour and a
+half we reached the village in the wood, which is the winter residence
+of the inhabitants of Mih-Tutta-Hang-Kush. We stopped at the hut of Mr.
+Kipp's father-in-law, Mandeek-Suck-Choppenik (the medicine bird), who
+accommodated us with a night's lodging. The description of this hut may
+serve for all the winter huts of these Indians. It was about twenty
+paces in diameter, and circular; _h_ is the fence or wall of the hut,
+supported inside by strong, low posts, on which rests the vaulted roof,
+which has a square hole to let the smoke escape; _g_ is the entrance,
+protected by two projecting walls covered above. At _f_ is the door,
+consisting of a piece of leather stretched on a frame. At _d d_ there is
+a cross wall of considerable height, made of reeds and osier twigs woven
+together, to keep off the draught of air. At _e e e_ there is another
+cross wall, only three feet high, behind which the horses stand; _a_ is
+the fireplace, round which, at _c c c c_, are the seats of the inmates,
+consisting of benches formed of basket-work, covered with skins; _b b b
+b_ are four strong pillars which bear the roof, and are very well united
+above by cross beams. At _i_ there was a large leather case for the beds
+in which the family slept. A chain, with a large kettle, was suspended
+from the roof over the fire, to cook our supper, consisting of very
+pleasant flavoured sweet maize." (Op. cit., pp. 425-426.) A plan of the
+lodge is given on page 426, here reproduced as figure 8.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Plan of the interior of a Mandan lodge.]
+
+The "great medicine feast" was to begin the evening of their arrival at
+the winter village and to last 40 nights. That evening "after seven
+o'clock we repaired to the medicine lodge; it was entirely cleared,
+except that some women sat along the walls; the fire burned in the
+centre, before which we took our seats, near the partition _d d_, with
+several distinguished men of the band of soldiers. At our left hand, the
+other soldiers, about twenty-five in number, were seated in a row; some
+of them were handsomely dressed, though the majority were in plain
+clothes. They had their arms in their hands, and in the centre were
+three men who beat the drum." (Op. cit., pp. 426-427.) The lengthy
+detailed account of what followed during the course of the "feast" is
+most interesting, but will not be mentioned in this sketch.
+
+As among the many neighboring tribes of the Missouri Valley, the buffalo
+served as the principal source of food for the Mandan. Often sufficient
+meat could be secured very near the towns; again it would be necessary
+to undertake long journeys in search of the moving herds. It will be
+recalled that on January 13, 1805, when the mercury stood 34 deg. below
+zero, Lewis and Clark saw "nearly one half of the Mandan nation" pass
+down the frozen Missouri on a hunt to last several days. And a few years
+later, just at the beginning of summer, June 25, 1811, Brackenridge
+wrote: "At ten, passed an old Mandan village; and at some distance
+above, saw a great number of Mandan Indians on their march along the
+prairie. They sometimes go on hunting parties by whole villages, which
+is the case at present; they are about five hundred in number, some on
+horseback, some on foot, their tents and baggage drawn by dogs. On these
+great hunting parties, the women are employed in preserving the hides,
+drying the meat, and making a provision to keep. Very little of the
+buffalo is lost, for after taking the marrow, they pound the bones, boil
+them, and preserve the oil." (Brackenridge, (1), p. 260.) On such trips
+away from their permanent earth-lodge villages the Mandan made use of
+the skin-covered tipi.
+
+In addition to the food supplied by the chase the people of the
+permanent villages had large gardens in which they raised quantities of
+corn and beans of various sorts, gourds and sunflowers of several
+varieties, and of the seeds of the latter "very nice cakes are made."
+Many animals in addition to the buffalo, and various plants besides
+those cultivated in the gardens, served the Mandan for food.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 40
+
+[Illustration: "THE INTERIOR OF THE HUT OF A MANDAN CHIEF"
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 41
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Mandan wooden bowl. Marked "Ft. Berthold, Dacotah
+Ter. Drs. Gray and Matthews." Diameter 7-1/4 inches, depth 2 inches.
+(U.S.N.M. 6341)]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Mandan earthenware jar, collected by Drs. Gray and
+Matthews. (U.S.N.M. 8407)]
+
+[Illustration: _c._ Wooden bowl. Marked "Bowl of Mandan Indians, Dakota
+T. Drs. Gray and Matthews--U. S. A." Diameters 10-3/4 and 9-1/4 inches,
+depth 3-1/2 inches. (U.S.N.M. 8406)]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 42
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Spoon, marked "Buffalo horn spoon, presented by Gen.
+T. Duncan." Length about 10 inches. (U.S.N.M. 12259)]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Spoon made of horn of mountain sheep. "Mandan
+Indians, Dacotah Ter. Drs. Gray and Matthews." Extreme length 16-1/2
+inches. (U.S.N.M. 6333)]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 43
+
+[Illustration: "MINATARREE VILLAGE"
+
+George Catlin]
+
+At the time of Catlin's and Maximilian's visits to the Mandan the latter
+were making and using their primitive forms of utensils such as had been
+in use for generations. Wooden mortars, bowls hollowed out of hard
+knots, spoons made of the horn of buffalo and mountain sheep, and, most
+interesting of all, dishes and vessels made of pottery--all these were
+used in the preparation or serving of food. Some remarkable examples of
+wooden bowls made by the Mandan are now preserved in the collection of
+the United States National Museum, Washington. One of the most
+interesting is shown in plate 41, _c_ (U.S.N.M. 8406), and another, of
+simpler form but equally well made, in plate 41, _a_ (U.S.N.M. 6341).
+Both examples were evidently quite old even when collected. They are
+fashioned out of maple knots, worked thin and smooth, and are beautiful
+specimens. Large spoons, often termed "drinking cups," were, as already
+mentioned, made of the horns of buffalo and mountain sheep. The former
+were extensively used by many tribes, and usually resembled the one
+shown in plate 42, _a_. The spoons made of mountain-sheep horns were
+often much larger and thinner, of a yellowish hue, and the handles were
+frequently bent into form or decorated. A very beautiful spoon of this
+sort is shown in plate 42, _b_. (U.S.N.M. 6333.)
+
+Pottery dishes and vessels, so Catlin wrote, "are a familiar part of the
+culinary furniture of every Mandan lodge, and are manufactured by the
+women of this tribe in great quantities, and modelled into a thousand
+forms and tastes. They are made by the hands of the women, from a tough
+black clay, and baked in kilns which are made for the purpose, and are
+nearly equal in hardness to our own manufacture of pottery; though they
+have not yet got the art of glazing, which would be to them a most
+valuable secret. They make them so strong and serviceable, however, that
+they hang them over the fire as we do our iron pots, and boil their meat
+in them with perfect success." (Op. cit., p. 116.) Maximilian described
+the art of pottery making among the Mandan as exactly like that of the
+two associated tribes, the Hidatsa and Arikara. He wrote regarding the
+three tribes that they "understand the manufacture of earthen pots and
+vessels, of various forms and sizes. The clay is of a dark slate colour,
+and burns a yellowish-red, very similar to what is seen in the burnt
+tops of the Missouri hills. This clay is mixed with flint or granite
+reduced to powder by the action of fire. The workwoman forms the hollow
+inside of the vessel by means of a round stone which she holds in her
+hand while she works and smooths the outside with a piece of poplar
+bark. When the pot is made, it is filled and surrounded with dry
+shavings, and then burnt, when it is ready for use. They know nothing of
+glazing." (Op. cit., p. 348.) This was probably the simple process of
+manufacture followed by the widely scattered tribes, and the apparent
+ease with which the vessels were made accounts for the great quantities
+of fragments now discovered scattered over ancient village sites. Two
+small vessels made by the Mandan, and collected by Dr. Matthews half a
+century ago, are in the National Museum collection, and one is shown in
+plate 41, _b_. Very few perfect specimens exist, several being in the
+collection of the State Historical Society of North Dakota. The
+specimens in the National Museum are rather small, but some very large
+vessels were made and used in boiling their food.
+
+Bows and arrows were the principal weapons of the Mandan. The heads of
+the arrows, at the time of Maximilian's stay among the people, were made
+of thin bits of iron, although persons then living remembered the use of
+stone. Lances and clubs were likewise made and used, and when mentioning
+the latter Maximilian said, "a simple, knotty, wooden club is called
+mauna-panischa," and gives, on page 390, a woodcut of such a weapon. It
+is of interest to know that an example of this peculiar form of weapon,
+which at once suggests the traditional club of Hercules, is preserved in
+the Museo Kircheriana, in Rome. It is one of four specimens now
+belonging to the museum which were collected by Maximilian, the other
+three being a knife sheath, a horse bridle, and a saddle blanket, all
+being beautifully decorated with colored quillwork. The club is shown in
+figure 9, after a drawing made for the writer in 1905 by Dr. Paribeni,
+of the museum. The smaller end is bound or braided with tanned skin, to
+serve as a handle, and around the upper end of the wrapping is a band of
+quillwork similar in workmanship to that on the other objects. All are
+remarkably well preserved, and several specimens in the Ethnological
+Museum in Florence may have belonged to the Maximilian collection.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Wooden club.]
+
+The Mandans, like other tribes of the upper Missouri Valley, were very
+expert in the art of dressing skins, especially those of the buffalo.
+They used two forms of implements, one of which is similar to those
+shown in plate 12, _a_; the second, rather more complicated, is
+represented in plate 34, _c_. This is a beautiful old specimen now in
+the National Museum. The handle is formed of a piece of elk antler; the
+blade is of clear, brownish flint, well chipped. Other similar objects
+are preserved in the collection.
+
+How fortunate it was that Catlin and Maximilian chose to spend much time
+among the Mandan during the years 1832, 1833, and 1834. A few years
+later, in the spring of 1837, the dreaded smallpox swept away the
+greater part of this most interesting nation, and "when the disease had
+abated, and when the remnant of this once powerful nation had recovered
+sufficiently to remove the decaying bodies from their cabins, the total
+number of grown men was twenty-three, of women forty, and of young
+persons sixty or seventy. These were all that were left of the eighteen
+hundred souls that composed the nation prior to the advent of that
+terrific disease, and even those that recovered were so disfigured as
+scarcely to be recognized." (Hayden, (1), p. 433.) Soon those who
+survived deserted their old village near Fort Clark and removed a few
+miles above, and the town was, about this time, occupied by the Arikara.
+It is interesting to know that the small remnant of the Mandan continued
+to follow their own peculiar customs and to maintain their tribal unity
+although so reduced in numbers. It will not be necessary in the present
+sketch to trace the later history of the tribe.
+
+In recent years the State Historical Society of North Dakota has caused
+surveys to be made of the more important village sites in that State. In
+addition to the plans of the sites, showing the position of the earth
+lodges, they have been fortunate in obtaining drawings of the Mandan and
+Hidatsa villages, made by a Mandan living on the Fort Berthold
+Reservation. In writing of the picture and plan of the "most important
+historical site of the Mandan tribe in the state, the one visited and
+described by Lewis and Clark, Catlin, and Maximilian," Libby said: "The
+Indian chart and the map of the village as it appears to-day are here
+shown. It is seen that the two representations are not essentially
+unlike. The grouping of the houses about a common center, at one side of
+which is the holy tepee, is the predominating characteristic of each."
+The Indian drawing, although crude, shows some details omitted by Catlin
+in his many sketches; but the map (fig. 10) is of the greatest interest.
+It shows the site near Fort Clark as it appeared about the year 1908,
+and to quote from the description: "In the center of the tepees, on the
+space devoted by the old Mandans to the 'big canoe' and cedar post of
+the 'elder man,' stands now a large tepee (shown in dotted outline)
+which was placed there by the Arikara who occupied the village after the
+small-pox scourge of 1837 had killed or driven away the original
+inhabitants." The structures surrounding the open space were occupied by
+the principal men of the village, and the names as given by Libby were
+secured by him from "Bad Gun, Rushing War Eagle, son of the Ma-ta-to-pe
+or Four Bears, whose portrait Catlin painted." In the list of names
+"Tepee No. 1 was the holy tepee and was also used by Lance Shoulder,"
+and "No. 2 was occupied by Four Bears." The list includes fifteen names.
+At the time the survey was made the entire ditch could not be traced,
+but its general course could be followed, thus indicating the
+approximate boundary of the town, "beyond which only a few tepees are
+located." (Libby, (1), pp. 498-499.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Plan of the Mandan village at Fort Clark.]
+
+When it is realized how little is known regarding the arrangement of the
+many ancient villages which once stood in the country east of the
+Mississippi, villages which in their time were probably as large and
+important as those of the Mandan of the last century, it is not possible
+to overestimate the value of the work of the Historical Society in
+causing to be made an accurate survey of the sites and in securing
+descriptions of the villages from some who remember them. A generation
+later this would not have been possible.
+
+HIDATSA GROUP.
+
+Two tribes are regarded as constituting this group: The Hidatsa proper,
+known to the earlier writers as the Minnetarees, and to others as the
+Gros Ventres of the Missouri; and the Crows. The Hidatsa and the Crows
+were, until a few generations ago, one people, but trouble developed and
+the latter moved farther up the Missouri to the Rocky Mountains, and
+there they were discovered by the early explorers of the region.
+
+The Amahami may have been a distinct tribe, and as such were recognized
+by Lewis and Clark, but according to their own traditions they, together
+with the Hidatsa and Crows, once formed a single tribe. Their language
+differs only slightly from that of the Hidatsa. During the early years
+of the last century their one village stood at the mouth of Knife River.
+Already greatly reduced in numbers, they suffered during the epidemic of
+1837, and later the majority of those who had survived became more
+closely associated with the Hidatsa.
+
+HIDATSA.
+
+The Hidatsa, also known as the Minnetarees and designated by some
+writers the Gros Ventres of the Missouri, a name which must not be
+confused with Gros Ventres of the Prairie often applied to the Atsina,
+lived when first known to Europeans near the junction of the Knife and
+Missouri Rivers, in the eastern part of the present Mercer County, North
+Dakota. Some are of the belief that it was the Hidatsa and not the
+Mandan whom the French, under La Verendrye, visited during the autumn
+and winter of 1738, but in the present sketch the Mandan are accepted as
+undoubtedly being the tribe at whose villages the French remained.
+
+The Hidatsa villages as seen by Catlin and Maximilian during the years
+1832, 1833, and 1834 had probably changed little since the winter of
+1804-05, when Lewis and Clark occupied Fort Mandan, their winter
+quarters, some 8 miles below the mouth of Knife River. Describing the
+villages, Catlin said the principal one stood on the bank of Knife River
+and consisted of 40 or 50 earth-covered lodges, each from 40 to 50 feet
+in diameter, and this town being on an elevated bank overlooked the
+other two which were on lower ground "and almost lost amidst their
+numerous corn fields and other profuse vegetation which cover the earth
+with their luxuriant growth.
+
+"The scenery along the banks of this little river, from village to
+village, is quite peculiar and curious; rendered extremely so by the
+continual wild and garrulous groups of men, women, and children, who are
+wending their way along its winding shores, or dashing and plunging
+through its blue waves, enjoying the luxury of swimming, of which both
+sexes seem to be passionately fond. Others are paddling about in their
+tub-like canoes, made of the skins of buffaloes." (Catlin, (1), I, p.
+186.) Among the great collection of Catlin's paintings belonging to the
+United States National Museum, in Washington, is one of the large
+village. The original painting is reproduced in plate 43. A drawing of
+the same was shown as plate 70 in Catlin's work cited above. The work is
+crude but interesting historically, and conveys some idea of the
+appearance of the town, although in this, as in other paintings by the
+same artist, the earth lodges are very poorly drawn, failing to show the
+projection which served as the entrance and having the roofs too rounded
+and dome-shaped. Bodmer's sketches are far superior.
+
+On June 19, 1833, Maximilian, aboard the steamboat _Assiniboin_, left
+Fort Clark bound for Fort Union at the mouth of the Yellowstone. Soon
+after passing the Mandan village of Ruhptare, so Maximilian wrote: "We
+saw before us the fine broad mirror of the river, and, at a distance on
+the southern bank, the red mass of the clay huts of the lower village of
+the Manitaries, which we reached in half an hour. The Missouri is joined
+by the Knife River, on which the three villages of the Manitaries are
+built. The largest, which is the furthest from the Missouri, is called
+Elah-Sa (the village of the great willows); the middle one, Awatichay
+(the little village), where Charbonneau, the interpreter, lives; and the
+third, Awachawi (le village des souliers), which is the smallest,
+consisting of only eighteen huts, situated at the mouth of Knife
+River.... The south bank of the river was now animated by a crowd of
+Indians, both on foot and on horseback; they were the Manitaries, who
+had flocked from their villages to see the steamer and to welcome us.
+The appearance of this vessel of the Company, which comes up, once in
+two years, to the Yellow Stone River, is an event of the greatest
+importance to the Indians.... The sight of the red brown crowd collected
+on the river side, for even their buffalo skins were mostly of this
+colour, was, in the highest degree, striking. We already saw above a
+hundred of them, with many dogs, some of which drew sledges, and others,
+wooden boards fastened to their backs, and the ends trailing on the
+ground, to which the baggage was attached with leather straps."
+(Maximilian, (1), pp. 178-179.)
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 44
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Original pencil sketch]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Finished picture of the same
+
+"WINTER VILLAGE OF THE MINATARRES"
+
+Karl Bodmer, 1833]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 45
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Manner of carrying basket similar to that shown in
+plate 52, _a_]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ The ring-and-pole game]
+
+[Illustration: _c._ Hidatsa group with bull-boats. At Fort Berthold,
+July 13, 1851
+
+FROM KURZ'S SKETCHBOOK]
+
+As told in the preceding section, Maximilian returned from Fort Union to
+Fort Clark, where, with the artist Bodmer, he spent the long winter.
+While near the Mandan towns he made several visits to the Hidatsa
+villages a few miles above, and learned much of the manners and ways of
+life of the people. He again spoke of the three villages on the banks of
+Knife River, "two on the left bank, and the third, which is much the
+largest, on the right bank." He continued: "At present the Manitaries
+live constantly in their villages, and do not roam about as they
+formerly did, when, like the Pawnees and other nations, they went in
+pursuit of the herds of buffaloes as soon as their fields were sown,
+returned in the autumn for the harvest, after which they again went into
+the prairie. In these wanderings they made use of leather tents, some of
+which are still standing by the side of their permanent dwellings" (p.
+395). He then described the dress and general appearance of the people
+and continued: "The Manitari villages are similarly arranged as those of
+the Mandans, except that they have no ark placed in the central space,
+and the figure of Ochkih-Hadda is not there. In the principal village,
+however, is the figure of a woman placed on a long pole, doubtless
+representing the grandmother, who presented them with the pots, of
+which I shall speak more hereafter. A bundle of brushwood is hung on
+this pole, to which are attached the leathern dress and leggins of a
+woman. The head is made of wormwood, and has a cap with feathers. The
+interior of their huts is arranged as among the Mandans: like them the
+Manitaries go, in winter, into the forests on both banks of the
+Missouri, where they find fuel, and, at the same time, protection
+against the inclement weather. Their winter villages are in the thickest
+of the forest, and the huts are built near to each other, promiscuously,
+and without any attempt at order or regularity. They have about 250 or
+300 horses in their three villages, and a considerable number of dogs"
+(pp. 396-397). Bodmer's picture of the "Winter Village of the
+Minatarres," made during the winter of 1833, is probably the most
+accurate drawing of an earth-lodge village in existence. It was given as
+plate xxvi by Maximilian, which is here reproduced as plate 44, _b_. A
+pencil sketch which may be considered as the original sketch made by
+Bodmer, and from which the finished picture was made, is now in the E.
+E. Ayer collection preserved in the Newberry Library. Unfortunately the
+drawing is unfinished but is very interesting historically. It is shown
+in plate 44, _a_.
+
+Maximilian then referred briefly to the creation myth of the people with
+whom he was then resting. The entire surface was once covered with
+water. There were two beings: one a man who lived in the far Rocky
+Mountains who made all; the other was the old woman called grandmother
+by the members of the tribe. "She gave the Manitaries a couple of pots,
+which they still preserve as a sacred treasure," and "When their fields
+are threatened with a great drought they are to celebrate a medicine
+feast with the old grandmother's pots, in order to beg for rain: this
+is, properly, the destination of the pots. The medicine men are still
+paid, on such occasions, to sing for four days together in the huts,
+while the pots remain filled with water." Such were the superstitious
+beliefs of these strange people.
+
+November 26, 1833, Maximilian, Bodmer, and several others went from Fort
+Clark to the winter village to attend "a great medicine feast among the
+Manitaries." They passed the two Mandan towns and during the journey saw
+a large stone, "undoubtedly one of those isolated blocks of granite
+which are scattered over the whole prairie, and which the Indians, from
+some superstitious notion, paint with vermilion, and surround with
+little sticks, or rods, to which were attached some feathers." The
+little party had seen much of interest on the way, and it was late in
+the day when they arrived at the village, "the large huts of which were
+built so close to each other that it was sometimes difficult to pass
+between them." Herds of buffalo having been reported in the vicinity of
+the village, a party of Indians had decided to start after them the
+following day, and planned "to implore the blessings of heaven upon
+their undertaking by a great medicine feast." This appears to have been
+a ceremony arranged by the women of the village. The structure in which
+the dance took place was not one of the earth-covered lodges of the
+town, but a rather temporary shelter of unusual shape. As described by
+Maximilian: "Between the huts, in the centre of the village, an
+elliptical space, forty paces or more in length, was enclosed in a
+fence, ten or twelve feet high, consisting of reeds and willow twigs
+inclining inwards. (See the woodcut.) [Fig. 11.] An entrance was left at
+_a_; _b_ represents the fence; _d_ are the four fires, burning in the
+medicine lodge, which were kept up the whole time. At _e_ the elder and
+principal men had taken their seats; to the right sat the old chief,
+Lachpitzi-Sihrisch (the yellow bear); some parts of his face were
+painted red, and a bandage of yellow skin encircled his head. Places
+were assigned to us on the right hand of the yellow bear. At _f_, close
+to the fence, the spectators, especially the women, were seated: the men
+walked about, some of them handsomely dressed, others quite simply;
+children were seated round the fires, which they kept alive by throwing
+twigs of willow trees into them." Here follows a description of the
+ceremony, and it is related how six elderly men who had been chosen by
+the younger ones to represent buffalo bulls, entered the inclosure. They
+came from the hut opposite and when they were within, and after certain
+formalities, were seated at _c_. The ceremony was attended by smoking,
+the pipes were "brought first to the old men and the visitors; they
+presented the mouth-piece of the pipe to us in succession, going from
+right to left: we each took a few whiffs, uttered, as before, a wish or
+prayer, and passed the pipe to our next neighbours.... The six buffalo
+bulls, meantime, sitting behind the fire, sang, and rattled the medicine
+sticks, while one of them constantly beat the badger skin. After a while
+they all stood up, bent forward, and danced; that is, they leaped as
+high as they could with both their feet together, continuing to sing and
+rattle their sticks, one of them beating time on the badger. Their song
+was invariably the same, consisting of loud, broken notes and
+exclamations. When they had danced for some time, they resumed their
+seats.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Plan of a ceremonial lodge.]
+
+"The whole was extremely interesting. The great number of red men, in a
+variety of costumes, the singing, dancing, beating the drum, &c., while
+the lofty trees of the forest, illumed by the fires, spread their
+branches against the dark sky, formed a _tout ensemble_ so striking and
+original, that I regretted the impracticability of taking a sketch of it
+on the spot."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Plan of the large Hidatsa village.]
+
+Two days after the dance, on November 28, 1833, Maximilian visited the
+chief Yellow Bear in his lodge. The interior presents an interesting
+appearance: "The beds, consisting of square leathern cases, were placed
+along the sides of the spacious hut, and the inmates sat round the fire
+variously occupied. The Yellow Bear, wearing only his breech-cloth, sat
+upon a bench made of willow boughs, covered with skins, and was painting
+a new buffalo robe with figures in vermillion and black, having his
+colours standing by him, ready mixed, in old potsherds. In lieu of a
+pencil he was using the more inartificial substitute of a sharp-pointed
+piece of wood. The robe was ornamented with the symbols of valuable
+presents which he had made, and which had gained the Yellow Bear much
+reputation, and made him a man of distinction." (Maximilian, (1), pp.
+419-423.)
+
+Among the historic village sites which have been studied and surveyed by
+the State Historical Society of North Dakota, as mentioned in the
+preceding sketch of the Mandan, was that "of the largest Hidatsa
+village on Knife river." The map made for the society is here reproduced
+in figure 12. This, to quote Libby, "shows the present appearance of the
+... largest Hidatsa village site, located just north of the mouth of
+Knife river. From the position and direction of the doorways, it is seen
+that these villages show no such large grouping as is characteristic of
+the Mandan village...." It was observed that the circles marking the
+positions of the earth lodges were much deeper in the Hidatsa villages
+than in the two Mandan sites. In the former the extreme depth below the
+"highest part of the rim was often three feet and very commonly over two
+feet," but on the Mandan sites the depressions were quite shallow. And
+"in many cases it was observed that in and near the Hidatsa villages
+were mounds of debris of varying heights, while nothing of the kind was
+seen on or near Mandan sites." (Libby, (1), p. 500.) Noting these
+characteristic features of the two groups of villages, or rather of the
+villages of the two tribes, should reduce the difficulty of identifying
+other ancient sites in the upper Missouri Valley.
+
+The several quotations already made refer to the earth-covered lodges of
+the Hidatsa, but the same people also made use of the typical skin tipi,
+although less often mentioned by the early writers. They probably
+resembled the structures used by the Crow. On November 8, 1833, when
+Maximilian was returning to Fort Clark from the mouth of the
+Yellowstone, he wrote: "At twelve o'clock we were opposite the first
+Manitari summer village, and saw, on the other side, many Indians....
+The invitations to land became more vociferous and numerous." Going
+ashore "we were immediately conducted, by a distinguished man,
+Ita-Widahki-Hisha (the red shield), to his tent, which stood apart on
+the prairie, on the summit of the bank. The white leather tent was new,
+spacious, and handsomely ornamented with tufts of hair of various
+colours, and at each side of the entrance, finished with a stripe and
+rosettes of dyed porcupine quills, very neatly executed. It had been
+well warmed by a good fire, a most refreshing sight to us. We took our
+seats around it, with the numerous family, the brother and uncle of the
+chief, young men, women, and children. The chief had rather a long
+beard, like the Punca chief, Shudegacheh, and his right breast was
+tattooed with black stripes.... A large dish of boiled maize and beans
+was immediately set before us; it was very tender and well dressed, and
+three of us eat out of the dish with spoons made of the horn of buffalo,
+or bighorn; after which the red Dacota pipe went round." (Maximilian;
+(1), p. 316.) This must have been a beautiful example of the
+buffalo-skin tipi, new and white, decorated with quillwork and tufts of
+hair.
+
+Continuing down the Missouri to Fort Clark they passed women in their
+"round leather boats," and saw others, "proceeding towards the river,
+with their boats hanging on their heads and down their backs."
+
+An example of a "bull-boat" and paddle is shown in plate 35, _b_. It was
+collected among the Hidatsa and is now preserved in the collection of
+the National Museum. It is a specimen of great interest and rarity,
+though once so extensively used by the tribes of the Missouri Valley.
+Several boats of this sort are shown by Bodmer in his picture of the
+Mandan village (pl. 39), and Kurz likewise left many drawings of these
+peculiar craft (pl. 45, _c_).
+
+In addition to the several forms of structures already mentioned, the
+Hidatsa evidently erected a very secure temporary lodge when away from
+their villages on hunting trips. On November 7, 1833, when descending
+the Missouri, and just before arriving at Fort Clark, Maximilian wrote:
+"Our breakfast was prepared at nine o'clock, when we lay to on the north
+bank, in a narrow strip of forest, where we found some old Indian
+hunting lodges, built, in a conical form, of dry timber. They had,
+doubtless, been left by the Manitaries, who had come thus far on their
+hunting excursions. The lower part of the huts, or lodges, was covered
+with the bark of trees; the entrance was square, and bones were
+scattered in all directions. We proceeded with a bleak, high wind, saw
+the singular clay tops of the hills, and, in the forest, the stages made
+of poles, where the Indian hunters dry the flesh of the animals they
+have taken in the chase. About twelve o'clock we came to the spot where
+some stakes indicated the former site of a Mandan village.... We are now
+in the centre of the territory of the Manitaries." (Maximilian, (1), pp.
+314-315.) Probably the danger of attack by their enemies made necessary
+the erection of these comparatively secure shelters.
+
+About the year 1845 many Hidatsa removed from the vicinity of Knife
+River and reared a new village not far from Fort Berthold, some 60 miles
+up the Missouri from old Fort Clark. They were joined from time to time
+by other members of their tribe, and also by many of the remaining
+Mandan. In 1862 the Arikara became the third tribe to settle near Fort
+Berthold. But in 1850 the Arikara continued to occupy the old Mandan
+town just below Fort Clark, the large village of earth lodges so often
+visited and mentioned by the explorers and traders during the early
+years of the last century. It is quite evident the new settlement of the
+Hidatsa did not differ in appearance from the old Mandan town, the later
+home of the Arikara, and on June 13, 1850, Culbertson wrote from Fort
+Berthold: "The village, with its mud lodges, differs nothing in looks
+from the Ree village described yesterday, except in one particular, that
+is, the inhabitants are now engaged in surrounding it with pickets. The
+logs are well prepared and are all up except on the west side; a bastion
+with loop holes is placed in the middle of each side. This picket is of
+course to protect the inmates against enemies by whom they are
+frequently attacked." (Culbertson, (1), pp. 118-119.) This is a most
+interesting reference. Could this palisade have been the one to which
+Matthews alluded as having stood until 1865? The manner of constructing
+the palisade, with "a bastion ... in the middle of each side," will
+tend to recall the similar arrangement as indicated on the drawing of
+the ancient Mahican village about two centuries before. (Bushnell, (1),
+p. 26.)
+
+In the autumn of 1853, just 20 years after Maximilian was among the
+Hidatsa, an officer passed down the Missouri from Fort Benton to St.
+Louis, thence to continue to Washington, where he arrived November 21.
+In his journal are several brief references to the Hidatsa, or, as he
+designated the tribe, the Gros Ventres. To quote from the journal:
+"October 8 ... a fine region, full of game, and occasionally speaking a
+hunting party of Gros Ventres out after buffalo." The next day the small
+party arrived at Fort Berthold, late in the afternoon. Then, so the
+journal continues: "We received many visits from the Gros Ventres, and
+gave them a few presents. The Gros Ventres have a large village of mud
+houses--very unsightly outside, but within warm and comfortable." The
+following morning, October 10, 1853, "I visited some of the lodges of
+the Gros Ventres, and found them exceedingly comfortable and capable of
+accommodating comfortably a hundred persons. One part of the lodge is
+appropriated to the horses, dogs, cattle, and chickens, and another to
+their own sleeping apartments. They all seemed to live sociably and
+comfortable together during the long cold winters of this cold
+latitude.... We left Fort Berthold early; but, before we had advanced
+far, were driven ashore by a strong wind, which continued throughout the
+day. The smoke from the burning prairies is so dense as to almost hide
+the sun. The fires, burning in every direction, present at night a
+beautiful and magnificent, though terrible appearance." (Saxton, (1),
+pp. 264-265.) What a vivid, though brief, description of conditions in
+the Upper Missouri Valley when all was in a primitive state.
+
+During the years following the visits of Catlin and Maximilian many
+changes took place in the native villages standing on the banks of the
+upper Missouri and its tributaries. Writing of a period about 40 years
+after Maximilian's stay among the Mandan and Hidatsa, the winter of
+1833-34, Dr. Matthews said: "The Hidatsa, Minnetaree, or Grosventre
+Indians, are one of the three tribes which at present inhabit the
+permanent village at Fort Berthold, Dakota Territory, and hunt on the
+waters of the Upper Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers, in Northwestern
+Dakota and Eastern Montana." Describing the village, he continued: "The
+village consists of a number of houses built very closely together,
+without any attempt at regularity of position. The doors face in every
+possible direction; and there is great uniformity in the appearance of
+the lodges; so it is a very difficult matter to find one's way among
+them." In a footnote to this paragraph is given the number of structures
+standing there in the year 1872. The note reads: In the fall of 1872,
+Dr. C. E. McChesney, then physician at the Berthold agency, counted,
+with great care, the buildings in the village and, in a letter, gave me
+the following results:
+
+ Old-style (round) lodges of Rees 43
+ Log-cabins of Rees 28
+ ---
+ Total number of houses of Rees 71
+
+ Old-style lodges of Grosventres and Mandans 35
+ Log-cabins of Grosventres and Mandans 69
+ ---
+ Total number of houses of Grosventres and Mandans 104
+
+ Total of houses in village 175
+
+The note states that "owing to the stupidity of the interpreter" it was
+not possible to separate the Grosventres from the Mandans, which was to
+be regretted.
+
+The "old-style lodges" were the earth-covered lodges, and Matthews
+follows with an excellent description of how they were constructed. He
+tells of the building of the frame, "covered with willows, hay, and
+earth," and over the opening in the center of the top "of many of the
+lodges are placed frames of wicker-work, on which skins are spread to
+the windward in stormy weather to keep the lodges from getting smoky.
+Sometimes bull-boats are used for this purpose." (Matthews, (1), pp.
+3-6.) A comment on the work of the early artists is worthy of being
+mentioned at this time: "Prince Maximilian's artist [Karl Bodmer]
+usually sketches the lodge very correctly; but Mr. Catlin invariably
+gives an incorrect representation of its exterior. Whenever he depicts a
+Mandan, Arickaree, or Minnetaree lodge, he makes it appear as an almost
+exact hemisphere, and always omits the entry." (Op. cit., p. 6.)
+
+Game, especially the buffalo, was becoming less plentiful in the
+vicinity of the villages, and Matthews told how, "Every winter, until
+1866, the Indians left their permanent village, and, moving some
+distance up the Missouri Valley, built temporary quarters, usually in
+the center of heavy forests and in the neighborhood of buffalo.... The
+houses of the winter-villages resembled much the log-cabins of our own
+western pioneers. They were neatly built, very warm, had regular
+fire-places and chimneys built of sticks and mud, and square holes in
+the roofs for the admission of light." About that time some cabins of
+this sort were erected "in the permanent village at Fort Berthold; every
+year since, they are becoming gradually more numerous and threaten to
+eventually supplant the original earth-covered lodges." And in 1877
+"game has recently become very scarce in their country, they are obliged
+to travel immense distances, and almost constantly, when they go out on
+their winter-hunts. Requiring, therefore, movable habitations, they take
+with them, on their journeys, the ordinary skin-lodges, or 'tepees,'
+such as are used by the Dakotas, Assiniboines, and other nomadic tribes
+of the region." (Op. cit., pp. 6-7.)
+
+Matthews's description of the caches prepared by the tribes with whom he
+was so closely associated is most interesting, and it tends to explain
+the origin and use of the numerous pits often discovered in the vicinity
+of ancient village sites east of the Mississippi. He wrote: "The
+numerous _caches_, or pits, for storing grain, are noteworthy objects in
+the village. In summer, when they are not in use, they are often left
+open, or are carelessly covered, and may entrap the unwary stroller.
+When these Indians have harvested their crops, and before they start on
+their winter-hunt, they dig their _caches_, or clear out those dug in
+previous years. A _cache_ is a cellar, usually round, with a small
+opening above, barely large enough to allow a person to descend; when
+finished, it looks much like an ordinary round cistern. Reserving a
+small portion of corn, dried squash, etc., for winter use, they deposit
+the remainder in these subterranean store-houses, along with
+household-utensils, and other articles of value which they wish to leave
+behind. They then fill up the orifices with earth, which they trample
+down and rake over; thus obliterating every trace of the excavation.
+Some _caches_ are made under the floors of the houses, others outside,
+in various parts of the village-grounds; in each case, the distance and
+direction from some door, post, bedstead, fire-place, or other object is
+noted, so that the stores may be found on the return of the owners in
+the spring. Should an enemy enter the village while it is temporarily
+deserted, the goods are safe from fire and theft. This method of
+secreting property has been in use among many tribes, has been adopted
+by whites living on the plains, and is referred to in the works of many
+travelers." (Op. cit., pp. 8-9.)
+
+Such were the characteristic features of the Hidatsa villages.
+
+CROWS.
+
+Before the separation of the Crows from the Hidatsa they may have
+occupied permanent villages of earth-covered lodges, such as the latter
+continued to erect and use until very recent years. But after the
+separation the Crows moved into the mountains, the region drained by the
+upper tributaries of the Missouri, and there no longer built permanent
+structures but adopted the skin tipi, so easily erected and transported
+from place to place. Many of their tipis were very large, beautifully
+made and decorated, and were evidently not surpassed in any manner by
+the similar structures constructed by other tribes of the Upper Missouri
+Valley.
+
+During the summer of 1805 Francois Antoine Larocque, a clerk attached to
+the Upper Red River Department of the Compagnie du Nord-Ouest, visited
+the Crows and in his journal recorded much of interest respecting the
+manners of the people. Larocque had, during the winter of 1804-05,
+remained near the Mandan and Hidatsa villages, and thus met Captains
+Lewis and Clark in their winter encampment. A large party of the Crows,
+the Rocky Mountain Indians of the journal, came to the Hidatsa villages
+on Knife River. There they were met by Larocque, with whom they departed
+for their distant country, on Saturday, June 29, 1805. His narrative
+contains a brief reference to the people. He wrote: "This nation known
+among the Sioux by the name of Crow Indians inhabit the eastern part of
+the Rocky Mountains at the head of the River aux Roches Jaunes (which is
+Known by the Kinistinaux and Assiniboines by the name of River a la
+Biche, from the great number of elks with which all the Country along it
+abounds) and its Branches and Close to the head of the Missouri.
+
+"There are three principal tribes of them whose names in their own
+language are _Apsarechas_, _Keetheresas_ and _Ashcabcaber_, and these
+tribes are again divided into many other small ones which at present
+consist but of a few people each, as they are the remainder of a
+numerous people who were reduced to their present number by the ravage
+of the Small Pox, which raged among them for many years successively and
+as late as three years ago. They told me they counted 2000 Lodges or
+tents in their Camp when all together before the Small Pox had infected
+them. At present their whole number consist of about 2400 persons
+dwelling in 300 tents and are able to raise 600 Wariors like the Sioux
+and Assiniboines. They wander about in Leather tents and remain where
+there are Buffaloes and Elks. After having remained a few days in one
+place so that game is not more so plentiful as it was they flit to
+another place where there are Buffaloes or deers and so on all the year
+around. Since the great decrease of their numbers they generally dwell
+all together and flit at the same time and as long as it is possible for
+them to live when together they seldom part." (Larocque, (1), pp.
+55-56.) The narrative continues: "They live upon Buffaloes & Deer, a
+very few of them eat Bears or Beaver flesh, but when compelled by
+hunger; they eat no fish." The Crows were at that time in their
+primitive condition. "They have never had any traders with them, they
+get their battle Guns, ammunitions etc. from the Mandans & Big Bellys in
+exchange for horses, Robes, Leggings & shirts, they likewise purchase
+corn, Pumpkins & tobacco from the Big Bellys as they do not cultivate
+the ground."
+
+Unfortunately, Larocque did not describe the appearance of the tipis,
+but such information was supplied by later writers.
+
+Catlin visited the Crows during the summer of 1832 and saw many who
+frequented Fort Union, at the mouth of the Yellowstone, during his stay
+at that post. He wrote at that time: "The Crows who live on the head
+waters of Yellow Stone, and extend from this neighborhood also to the
+base of the Rocky Mountains, are similar ... to the Blackfeet: roaming
+about a great part of the year." And describing their habitations, he
+said: "The Crows, of all the tribes in this region, or on the Continent,
+make the most beautiful lodge ... they construct them as the Sioux do,
+and make them of the same material; yet they oftentimes dress the skins
+of which they are composed almost as white as linen, and beautifully
+garnish them with porcupine quills, and paint and ornament them in such
+a variety of ways, as renders them exceedingly picturesque and agreeable
+to the eye. I have procured a very beautiful one of this description,
+highly ornamented, and fringed with scalp-locks and sufficiently large
+for forty men to dine under. The poles which support it are about thirty
+in number, of pine, and all cut in the Rocky Mountains.... This tent,
+when erected, is about twenty-five feet high." (Catlin, (1), I, pp.
+43-44.) Catlin's original painting of this most interesting tipi is in
+the National Museum, Washington, and is here reproduced in plate 46,
+_a_. The same was drawn and given by Catlin as plate 20 in his work.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 46
+
+[Illustration: _a._ "Crow lodge." George Catlin]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Crow camp at the old agency on the Yellowstone, near
+Shields River. Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871
+
+CROW TIPIS]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 47
+
+[Illustration: A CAMP IN A COTTONWOOD GROVE
+
+Photograph not identified, but probably made by J. D. Hutton]
+
+As told elsewhere in this work, Maximilian, on June 18, 1833, arrived at
+Fort Clark. At that time representatives of several tribes were gathered
+in the vicinity of the fort. These included Crows, "of which tribe there
+were now seventy tents about the fort." Referring to these in
+particular, he remarked: "The tents of the Crows are exactly like those
+of the Sioux, and are set up without any regular order. On the poles,
+instead of scalps, there were small pieces of coloured cloth, chiefly
+red, floating like streamers in the wind." (Maximilian, (1), p. 172.)
+Later in the day Maximilian accompanied the Indian agent to the tipi
+occupied by the Crow chief Eripuass. This he found to be of much
+interest. "The interior of the tent itself had a striking effect. A
+small fire in the centre gave sufficient light; the chief sat opposite
+the entrance, and round him many fine tall men, placed according to
+their rank, all with no other covering than a breech-cloth. Places were
+assigned to us on buffalo hides near the chief, who then lighted his
+Sioux pipe, which had a long flat tube, ornamented with bright yellow
+nails, made each of us take a few puffs, holding the pipe in his hand,
+and then passed it round to the left hand." And speaking of the tribe as
+a whole he wrote: "The territory in which they move about is bounded, to
+the north or north-west, by the Yellow Stone River, and extends round
+Bighorn River, towards the sources of Chayenne River and the Rocky
+Mountains. These Indians are a wandering tribe of hunters, who neither
+dwell in fixed villages, like the Mandans, Manitaries, and Arikkaras,
+nor make any plantations except of tobacco, which, however, are very
+small.... They roam about with their leather tents, hunt the buffalo,
+and other wild animals, and have many horses and dogs, which, however,
+they never use for food.... The Crow women are very skilful in various
+kinds of work, and their shirts and dresses of bighorn leather,
+embroidered and ornamented with dyed porcupine quills, are particularly
+handsome, as well as their buffalo robes, which are painted and
+embroidered in the same manner." (Op. cit., pp. 174-175.)
+
+During the spring of 1863 a peculiar type of log house was discovered in
+the Crow country which had probably been erected by members of that
+tribe. They may have resembled the cabins mentioned by Matthews as
+standing at the Fort Berthold Reservation nine years later. On May 2,
+1863, a member of the Yellowstone expedition entered in his journal: "In
+the timber along the river, we saw many houses built of dry logs and
+bark; some are built like lodges, but the most of them are either square
+or oblong, and among them were many large and strong corrals of dry
+logs. The Crows evidently winter along here, and, from the sign, they
+are very numerous." The following day, "We camped three miles below
+Pompey's Pillar, on which we found the names of Captain Clark and two of
+his men cut in the rock, with the date July 25, 1806.... Buffalo to be
+seen in every direction, and very tame.... No wonder the Crows like
+their country; it is a perfect paradise for a hunter.... About sundown a
+large band of buffalo came in to drink at a water-hole about two hundred
+yards in front of our camp." (Stuart, (1), pp. 176-178.) This may have
+represented a winter camp ground, with permanent huts to which the Crows
+returned from year to year. It was in the northeastern part of the
+present Yellowstone County, Montana.
+
+A very interesting description of a Crow camp is to be found in Lord
+Dunraven's narrative of his hunting trip to the Yellowstone region
+performed during the year 1874. The particular camp stood not far from
+the present Livingston, Montana. In describing the camp he wrote: "The
+lodges are tall, circular dwellings, composed of long fir-poles planted
+on a circle in the ground. These slope inwards and form a cone, meeting
+and leaning against each other at the apex; and upon them is stretched a
+covering of buffalo hides. They make very comfortable, clean and airy
+houses, and are far preferable to any tent, being much warmer in winter
+and cooler in summer. A tepee will hold from twelve to fifteen or even
+twenty individuals; several families, therefore, generally occupy one in
+common. The earth is beaten down hard, forming a smooth floor, and in
+the middle burns the fire, the smoke finding an exit through an aperture
+at the top. The portions of the tepee assigned to each family or couple
+are divided by a kind of wicker-work screen at the head and foot,
+separating a segment of a circle of about eight or ten feet in length
+and five or six in breadth, closed by the screen at either end, and at
+the outer side by the wall of the lodge, but being open towards the
+interior. The fire is common property, and has a certain amount of
+reverence paid to it. It is considered very bad manners, for instance,
+to step between the fire and the place where the head man sits. All
+round, on the lodge poles and on the screens, are suspended the arms,
+clothing, finery, and equipment of the men and their horses. Each lodge
+forms a little community in itself.
+
+"The tepees are pitched with all the regularity of an organized camp, in
+a large circle, inside which the stock is driven at night or on an alarm
+or occasion of danger. Outside the door is struck a spear or pole, on
+which is suspended the shield of the chief and a mysterious something
+tied up in a bundle, which is great medicine." (Dunraven, (1), pp.
+94-95.)
+
+A white shield supported outside a tipi is visible in the photograph
+reproduced as plate 47. This remarkable picture has not, unfortunately,
+been identified, but it was undoubtedly made in the Upper Missouri
+Valley, and from the nature of the tipis, many appearing to be quite
+small, it may be assumed that it was a party of Indians who had come on
+a trading trip, rather than that it represented a regular village.
+
+Several accounts are preserved of large structures discovered in the
+region frequented by the Crows which, although not positively
+identified, were possibly erected by members of that tribe. Thus Lewis
+and Clark on July 24, 1806, arrived at an island in the Yellowstone
+River between 5 and 6 miles below the mouth of Clark's Fork, and wrote:
+"It is a beautiful spot with a rich soil, covered with wild rye, and a
+species of grass like the blue-grass, and some of another kind, which
+the Indians wear in plaits round the neck, on account of a strong scent
+resembling that of vanilla. There is also a thin growth of cottonwood
+scattered over the island. In the centre is a large Indian lodge which
+seems to have been built during the last summer. It is in the form of a
+cone, sixty feet in diameter at the base, composed of twenty poles, each
+forty-five feet long, and two and a half in circumference, and the whole
+structure covered with bushes. The interior was curiously ornamented. On
+the tops of the poles were feathers of eagles, and circular pieces of
+wood, with sticks across them in the form of a girdle: from the centre
+was suspended a stuffed buffaloe skin; on the side fronting the door was
+hung a cedar bush: on one side of the lodge a buffaloe's head; on the
+other several pieces of wood stuck in the ground. From its whole
+appearance, it was more like a lodge for holding councils, than an
+ordinary dwelling house." (Lewis and Clark, (1), II, p. 386.) This was
+undoubtedly a ceremonial lodge, and it was probably quite similar to
+another observed a few years later. To quote the description of the
+second example: "In the country of the Crow Indians, (Up-sa-ro-ka,) Mr.
+Dougherty saw a singular arrangement of the magi. The upper portion of a
+cotton-wood tree was implanted, with its base in the earth, and around
+it was a sweat house, the upper part of the top of the tree arising
+through the roof. A gray bison skin, extended with oziers on the inside
+so as to exhibit a natural appearance, was suspended above the house,
+and on the branches were attached several pairs of children's mockasins
+and leggings, and from one of the limbs of the tree, a very large fan
+made of war eagle's feathers was dependent." (James, (1), I, p. 272.)
+
+CADDOAN TRIBES.
+
+The ancient habitat of the many small tribes which evidently later
+became confederated, thus forming the principal groups of this
+linguistic stock, was in the southwest, whence the Pawnee and Arikara,
+and those gathered under the name of the Wichita, moved northward.
+
+The Caddo proper, the name of a tribe later applied to the confederated
+group of which they formed the principal member, formerly occupied the
+valley of the Red River of Louisiana, the many villages of the several
+tribes being scattered along the banks of that stream and of its
+tributaries in northern Louisiana, southwestern Arkansas, and eastern
+Texas. Although usually included in the same linguistic group with the
+Pawnee, Arikara, Wichita, and others, several notable authorities are
+inclined to regard the Caddo as constituting a separate and distinct
+linguistic group. This may be established and recognized in the future.
+
+PAWNEE.
+
+Soon after the transfer of Louisiana to the United States Government
+several expeditions were sent out to explore the newly acquired domains
+and to discover the native tribes who claimed and occupied parts of the
+vast territory. Of these parties, that led by Capts. Lewis and Clark was
+the most important, but of great interest was the second expedition
+under command of Lieut. Z. M. Pike, which traversed the country
+extending from the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains, and reached the
+Pawnee villages near the North Platte during the month of September,
+1806. How long the Pawnee had occupied that region may never be
+determined, but they had evidently migrated from the southwest, probably
+moving slowly, making long stops on the way. As a tribe they were known
+to the Spaniards as early as the first half of the sixteenth century,
+and appear to have been among the first of the plains tribes to be
+visited by French and Spanish traders.
+
+Unfortunately Pike did not prepare a very extensive account of the
+Pawnee as they appeared during the autumn of 1806, but wrote in part:
+"Their houses are a perfect circle, (except where the door enters) from
+whence there is a projection of about 15 feet; the whole being
+constructed after the following manner, Viz: 1st. there is an excavation
+of a circular form, made in the ground, of about 4 feet deep and 60
+diameter, where there is a row of posts about 5 feet high, with crotches
+at the top, set firmly in all round, and horizontal poles from one to
+the other. There is then a row of posts, forming a circle of about 10
+feet width in the diameter of the others, and 10 feet in height; the
+crotches of those are so directed, that horizontal poles are also laid
+from one to the other; long poles are then laid slanting,
+perpendicularly from the lower poles over the upper, and meeting nearly
+at the top, leaving only a small aperture for the smoke of the fire to
+pass out, which is made on the ground in the middle of the lodge. There
+is then a number of small poles put up round the circle, so as to form
+the wall, and wicker work run through the whole. The roof is then
+thatched with grass, and earth thrown up against the wall until a bank
+is made to the eves of the thatch; and that is also covered with earth
+one or two feet thick, and rendered so tight, as entirely to exclude any
+storm whatsoever, and make them extremely warm. The entrance is about 6
+feet wide, with walls on each side, and roofed like our houses in shape,
+but of the same materials as the main building. Inside there are
+numerous little apartments constructed of wicker work against the wall
+with small doors; they have a great appearance of neatness and in them
+the members of the family sleep and have their little deposits. Their
+towns are by no means so much crowded as the Osage, giving much more
+space, but they have the same mode of introducing all their horses into
+the village at night, which makes it extremely crowded. They keep guards
+with the horses during the day. They are extremely addicted to gaming,
+and have for that purpose a smooth piece of ground cleared out on each
+side of the village for about 150 yards in length." (Pike, (1),
+Appendix, p. 15.)
+
+Although Pike's account of this interesting tribe is very brief and
+unsatisfactory, it was soon to be followed by a more complete and
+comprehensive description. This refers to the notes prepared by members
+of the Long expedition, 14 years later.
+
+The expedition under command of Maj. Stephen H. Long arrived at Council
+Bluff, "so called by Lewis and Clark, from a council with the Otoes and
+Missouries held there, on the 3rd of August, 1804," during the early
+autumn of 1819. Winter quarters were established at a point about 5
+miles lower down the Missouri and at a short distance north of the
+present city of Omaha, Nebr. This was called Engineer Cantonment, and
+during the ensuing months many Indians visited the encampment to treat
+with Maj. O'Fallon, the commissioner.
+
+Leaving the majority of the party in quarters at the cantonment, Maj.
+Long and others of the expedition, on October 11, "began to descend the
+Missouri in a canoe, on their way towards Washington and Philadelphia."
+Returning from the east they reached Engineer Cantonment May 28, 1820,
+having arrived at St. Louis April 24, "from Philadelphia to Council
+Bluff, to rejoin the party."
+
+During the absence of the commanding officers some members of the
+expedition made a short trip to the Pawnee villages, and the following
+brief account appears in the narrative on May 1, 1820:
+
+"At each of the villages, we observed small sticks of the length of
+eighteen inches or two feet, painted red, stuck in the earth in various
+situations, but chiefly on the roofs of the houses, each bearing the
+fragment of a human scalp, the hair of which streamed in the wind.
+Before the entrance to some of the lodges were small frames, like
+painter's easels, supporting each a shield, and generally a large
+painted cylindrical case of skin, prepared like parchment, in which a
+war dress is deposited. The shield is circular, made of bison skin, and
+thick enough to ward off an arrow, but not to arrest the flight of a
+rifle ball at close quarters.... The lodges, or houses, of these three
+villages, are similar in structure, but differ in size. The description
+of those of the Konzas will apply to them, excepting that the beds are
+all concealed by a mat partition, which extends parallel to the walls of
+the lodge, and from the floor to the roof. Small apertures, or doors, at
+intervals in this partition, are left for the different families, that
+inhabit a lodge, to enter their respective bed chambers." (James, (1),
+pp. 367-368.)
+
+After the return of Maj. Long the reunited party left Engineer
+Cantonment, June 6, 1820, and soon reached the Pawnee villages, situated
+about 100 miles westward, on the Loup River, a branch of the Platte. The
+narrative of this part of the journey is most interesting: "The path
+leading to the Pawnee villages runs in a direction a little south of
+west from the cantonment, and lies across a tract of high and barren
+prairie for the first ten miles. At this distance it crosses the
+Papillon, or Butterfly creek, a small stream discharging into the
+Missouri, three miles above the confluence of the Platte."
+
+After advancing for several days over the prairie, on June 10, "At
+sunset we arrived at a small creek, eleven miles distant from the
+village of the Grand Pawnees, where we encamped. On the following
+morning, having arranged the party according to rank, and given the
+necessary instructions for the preservation of order, we proceeded
+forward and in a short time came in sight of the first of the Pawnee
+villages. The trace on which we had travelled since we left the
+Missouri, had the appearance of being more and more frequented as we
+approached the Pawnee towns; and here, instead of a single footway, it
+consisted of more than twenty parallel paths, of similar size and
+appearance.... After a ride of about three hours, we arrived before the
+village, and despatched a messenger to inform the chief of our approach.
+Answer was returned that he was engaged with his chiefs and warriors at
+a medicine feast, and could not, therefore, come out to meet us.... The
+party which accompanied Major Long, after groping about some time, and
+traversing a considerable part of the village, arrived at the lodge of
+the principal chief. Here we were again informed that _Tarrarecawaho_,
+with all the principal men of the village, were engaged at a medicine
+feast.
+
+"Notwithstanding his absence, some mats were spread for us upon the
+ground, in the back part of the lodge. Upon these we sat down, and after
+waiting some time, were presented with a large wooden dish of hominy, or
+boiled maize. In this was a single spoon of the horn of a bison, large
+enough to hold half a pint, which, being used alternately by each of the
+party, soon emptied the dish of its contents."
+
+An excellent example of an old spoon similar to the one mentioned in the
+preceding paragraph is shown in plate 42, _a_ (U.S.N.M. 12259). It is
+about 10 inches in length and much worn from long use. Unfortunately it
+is not known when or where it was collected, but without doubt it came
+from the Upper Missouri Valley.
+
+Continuing the narrative: "The interior of this capacious dwelling was
+dimly lighted from a hole at the top, through which the sun's rays, in a
+defined column, fell upon the earthen floor. Immediately under this
+hole, which is both window and chimney, is a small depression in the
+centre of the floor, where the fire is made; but the upper parts of the
+lodge are constantly filled with smoke; adding much to the air of
+gloominess and obscurity, which prevail within. The furniture of
+Long-hair's lodge consisted of mats, ingeniously woven of grass or
+rushes, bison robes, wooden dishes, and one or two small brass kettles.
+In the part of the lodge immediately opposite the entrance, we observed
+a rude niche in the wall, which was occupied by a bison skull. It
+appeared to have been exposed to the weather, until the flesh and
+periosteum had decayed, and the bones had become white....
+
+"Our visit to this village seemed to excite no great degree of
+attention. Among the crowd, who surrounded us before we entered the
+village, we observed several young squaws rather gaily dressed, being
+wrapped in clean and new blankets, and having their heads ornamented
+with wreaths of gnaphalium and the silvery leaves of the prosalea
+canescens. On the tops of the lodges we also saw some display of finery,
+which we supposed to have been made on account of our visit. Flags were
+hoisted, shields, and bows, and quivers, were suspended in conspicuous
+places, scalps were hung out; in short, the people appeared to have
+exposed whatever they possessed, in the exhibition of which, they could
+find any gratification of the vanity. Aside from this, we received no
+distinguished marks of attention from the Grand Pawnees." (James, (1),
+I, pp. 427-437.)
+
+The camp of the expedition was a little more than a mile from the
+village of the Grand Pawnee, and the intervening prairie must have
+presented an animated sight, being "covered with great numbers of
+horses, intermixed with men, women, and children." Nearer the village
+were groups of squaws "busily engaged in dressing the skins of the bison
+for robes." During the afternoon many Indians arrived at the camp, men
+wishing to trade horses, the women endeavoring to trade various
+articles. And on the following morning, June 11, 1820, many groups of
+women were seen leaving the village, accompanied by their dogs, bound
+for their fields of corn situated a few miles away.
+
+The expedition next arrived at the village of the Republican Pawnee, 4
+miles from that of the Grand Pawnee. Both villages stood on the
+immediate bank of the stream. Remaining there but a short time, they
+continued on to the Loup village. Here they encamped during the night of
+June 12, leaving early on the following morning. On the morning of the
+13th many squaws were again observed making their way to the cornfields,
+with their small children. Some stopped to admire the "novel appearance"
+of the members of the expedition, many brought various vegetables,
+jerked buffalo meat and tallow to exchange for whatever they could
+obtain.
+
+"The three Pawnee villages, with their pasture grounds, and
+insignificant enclosures, occupy about ten miles in length of the
+fertile valley of the Wolf river. The surface is wholly naked of timber,
+rising gradually to the river hills, which are broad and low, and from a
+mile to a mile and a half distant." (James, (1), I, p. 447.)
+
+During the latter part of the summer of 1833 the small party under the
+leadership of Commissioner Henry L. Ellsworth reached the Pawnee towns,
+and in the narrative of the expedition are to be found many references
+to the customs of the people whose habitations were the primitive
+earth-covered lodges. The second morning after arriving at the village
+of the Grand Pawnee several members of the party walked about among the
+lodges, and at that time, so wrote Irving: "The warriors were collected
+in small knots of five or six, and by their vehement gestures, were
+apparently engaged in earnest conversation. The children were rolling
+and tumbling in the dirt; the squaws were busily engaged. Some were
+bringing from their lodges large leather sacks of shelled corn; others
+were spreading it out to dry, upon the leather of their buffalo-skin
+tents, which had been stretched out upon the ground. Others were
+cleansing from it the decayed kernels and packing it up in small sacks
+of whitish undressed leather, resembling parchment. These were then
+deposited in cache-holes for a winter's store.
+
+"At a distance from the village, a band of females were slowly wending
+along the top of the low prairie ridges, to their daily labour in the
+small plantations of corn. These are scattered in every direction round
+the village, wherever a spot of rich, black soil, gives promise of a
+bountiful harvest. Some of them are as much as eight miles distant from
+the town." (Irving, J. T., (1), II, pp. 44-45.)
+
+Later the same day a council was held at the lodge of the chief,
+attended by the principal men of the village, and it is interesting to
+read the description of the gathering of those who were to participate:
+"The lodge had been swept clean; a large cheery fire was crackling in
+the centre. The rabble crowd of loungers and hangers-on had been routed;
+and besides the family of the chief, we were the only occupants of the
+spacious building.
+
+"At mid-day the chiefs and braves began to assemble. They were full
+dressed; many of the young warriors had spent the whole morning in
+preparation, and now presented themselves, fully ornamented for the
+meeting.
+
+"As the hour for the opening of the council grew nearer, the tall,
+muffled warriors poured in, in one continuous stream. They moved quietly
+to the places allotted them, and seating themselves in silence round the
+chief, according to their rank.... The crowd continued flowing in until
+the lodge was filled almost to suffocation. As they came in, they seated
+themselves, until five or six circles were formed, one beyond the other,
+the last ranging against the wall of the building. In the ring nearest
+the chiefs, sat the principal braves, or those warriors whose deeds of
+blood entitled them to a high rank in the councils of the nation. The
+more distant circles were filled by such young men of the village as
+were admitted to its councils. The passage leading to the open air, was
+completely blocked up with a tight wedged mass of women and children,
+who dared venture no nearer to the deliberations of the tribe." (Op.
+cit., pp. 48-50.) When all had gathered the chief filled a large stone
+pipe, took a few puffs, then handed it to the members of the
+commissioner's party, who in turn passed it to the other Indians. The
+addresses were then made and the council deliberated on the several
+questions presented.
+
+The expedition moved on from the Grand Pawnee to the village of the
+Republican Pawnee, which stood on the bank of the Loup Fork of the
+Platte, some 20 miles distant from the former, with the rolling prairie
+between. Approaching the river they could see, on the far side, "a high
+bluff, on which was situated the dingy lodges of the Republican
+village." They were welcomed by the people of the village, and soon
+reached the lodge of the principal chief, Blue Coat, which they entered.
+Then "it was not long before the lodge became crowded. The old warriors
+moved with a hushed step across the building, and listened to our
+conversation." Soon an invitation was received to attend a feast at the
+lodge of the second chief. Entering that lodge, he was seen seated upon
+"a small leather mat.... Around him were lounging about a dozen Indians.
+Some, reclining with their backs against the pillars supporting the
+roof, with their eyes half closed, were smoking their stone pipes. Some
+were lying half asleep upon the clay floor, with their feet within a few
+inches of the fire; and others were keeping up a sleepy song.
+
+"At a short distance from the fire, half a dozen squaws were pounding
+corn, in large mortars, and chattering vociferously at the same time. In
+the farther part of the building, about a dozen naked children, with
+faces almost hid by their bushy, tangled hair, were rolling and
+wrestling upon the floor, occasionally causing the lodge to echo to
+their childish glee. In the back ground, we could perceive some half
+dozen shaggy, thievish-looking wolf dogs, skulking among the hides and
+bundles, in search of food, and gliding about with the air of dogs, who
+knew that they had no business there." (Op. cit., pp. 96-99.) Such was a
+domestic scene within a Pawnee lodge.
+
+A very clear and concise description of the interior arrangement and
+fittings of an earth lodge, one standing in the village of the Grand
+Pawnee during the autumn of 1835, has been preserved in Dunbar's
+journal. On October 22, after referring to the construction of the lodge
+itself, he wrote: "Within these buildings the earth is beat down hard,
+and forms the floor. In the center a circular place is dug about 8
+inches deep, and 3 feet in diameter. This is the fireplace. The earth
+that is taken from this place is spatted down around it, and forms the
+hearth. Near the fireplace a stake is firmly fixed in the earth in an
+inclined position, and serves all the purposes of a crane. Mats made of
+rushes are spread down round the fire on which they sit. Back next the
+walls are the sleeping apartments. A frame work is raised about two feet
+from the floor, on this are placed small rods, interwoven with slips of
+elm bark. On these rods a rush mat is spread. At proper distances
+partitions are set up, composed of small willow rods interwoven with
+slips of bark. In front of these apartments, either a partition of
+willow rods is erected, or rush mats are hung up as curtains. But this
+is not always the case. In some lodges the simple platform alone is to
+be seen, without either partitions, or curtains. In others there is not
+even the platform, and the inmates sleep on the ground.
+
+"In these lodges several families frequently live together. I believe
+there are as many as three different families in the lodge where I stop.
+Each family has its particular portion of the dwelling, and the
+furniture of each is kept separate." (Dunbar, (2), p. 600.) Comparing
+the two preceding accounts it is easy to visualize the interior of
+Pawnee earth lodges as they were nearly a century ago.
+
+The preceding references to the women of the villages going early in the
+morning to their fields of corn recall a note in Fremont's journal a few
+years later. He wrote when returning from the mountains, on September
+22, 1842, "We arrived at the village of the Grand Pawnees, on the right
+bank of the river [the Platte] about thirty miles above the mouth of the
+Loup fork. They were gathering in their corn, and we obtained from them
+a very welcome supply of vegetables." (Fremont, (1), p. 78.)
+
+The villages described in the accounts already quoted were the permanent
+settlements of the tribe, groups of earth-covered lodges quite similar
+to those erected by other tribes in the Upper Missouri Valley.
+Fortunately several remarkable photographs of the villages and of the
+separate structures are in existence, having been made by W. H. Jackson
+in 1871. The most valuable of the early pictures is reproduced as plate
+49. And here it may be remarked that this is a different photograph from
+the one which was presented as plate 12 in Bulletin 69 of this bureau's
+publications, and although both were made at the same time, nevertheless
+they differ in minor details. It is therefore of interest to know two
+negatives were made at that time. This was the village of the Republican
+Pawnee. In plate 50 are two of the large earth-covered lodges, showing
+the tunnel-like entrances, and with many persons sitting on the tops of
+the structures. The entrance is more clearly shown in plate 51, where a
+brush mat protects the side. This may be part of a small inclosure.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 48
+
+[Illustration: TRADER CROSSING THE PRAIRIES
+
+Page of Kurz's Sketchbook, August 28, 1851]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 49
+
+[Illustration: PAWNEE-VILLAGE WHICH STOOD ON THE LOUPE FORK OF THE
+PLATTE RIVER
+
+Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 50
+
+[Illustration: LODGES IN THE PAWNEE VILLAGE WHICH STOOD ON THE LOUPE
+FORK OF THE PLATTE RIVER
+
+Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 51
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Children at lodge entrance]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Showing screen near same entrance
+
+IN A PAWNEE VILLAGE
+
+Photographs by W. H. Jackson, 1871]
+
+In addition to the permanent earth-covered lodges the Pawnee made
+extensive use of temporary skin-covered shelters, unlike the conical
+lodge of the plains tribes. These served as their habitations during the
+hunting season, when away from their villages. A most valuable and
+interesting description of the ways and customs of the Pawnee while
+occupying their movable villages was prepared by one who, during the
+summer and autumn of 1835, lived among the people, sharing their
+primitive ways of life and thereby learning many of their peculiar
+traits. The English traveler, Charles A. Murray, whose narrative is
+quoted in part on the following pages, left Fort Leavenworth July 7,
+1835, and two weeks later reached the summer camp of the Pawnee: "and a
+more interesting or picturesque scene I never beheld. Upon an extensive
+prairie gently sloping down to a creek, the winding course of which
+marked a broken line of wood here and there interspersed with a fine
+clump of trees, were about five thousand savages, inclusive of women and
+children; some were sitting under their buffalo-skin lodges lazily
+smoking their pipes; while the women were stooping over their fires
+busily employed in preparing meat and maize for these indolent lords of
+the creation. Far as the eye could reach, were scattered herds of
+horses, watched (or as we should say in Scotland, 'tented') by urchins,
+whose whole dress and equipment was the slight bow and arrow, with which
+they exercised their infant archery upon the heads of the taller
+flowers, or upon the luckless blackbird perched near them. Here and
+there might be seen some gay young warrior ambling along the heights,
+his painted form partially exposed to view as his bright scarlet blanket
+waved in the breeze." (Murray, (1), I, pp. 277-278.) Later he described
+the manner of moving and pitching their large temporary camps: "On
+reaching the camping-place, which is selected by the grand chief (or, in
+his absence, by the next in rank), the senior squaw chooses the spot
+most agreeable to her fancy, and orders the younger women and children,
+who lead the pack-horses and mules (generally from five to ten in
+number, according to the size or wealth of the family), to halt; but in
+making this choice of ground, she is restricted within certain limits,
+and those of no great extent, as the Pawnees observe great regularity
+both in their line of march and encampment. I could not ascertain
+whether these regulations were invariable, or made at the pleasure of
+the chief; but I believe the latter; and that on leaving their winter,
+or stationary, villages, he issues the general orders on this subject,
+which are observed during the season or the expedition; at any rate,
+they never varied during my stay among them.
+
+"They move in three parallel bodies; the left wing consisting of part of
+the Grand Pawnees and the Tapages; the centre of the remaining Grand
+Pawnees; and the right of the Republicans.... All these bodies move in
+'Indian file,' though of course in the mingled mass of men, women,
+children, and pack-horses, it was not very regularly observed;
+nevertheless, on arriving at the halting-place, the party to which I
+belonged invariably camped at the eastern extremity of the village, the
+great chief in the centre, and the _Republiques_ on the western side;
+and this arrangement was kept so well, that, after I had been a few
+days with them, I could generally find our lodge in a new encampment
+with very little trouble, although the village consisted of about six
+hundred of them, all nearly similar in appearance.
+
+"They first unpack and unsaddle the horses, which are given to a boy to
+drive off to their grass and water; they then arrange all their bales,
+saddles, &c. in a semi-circular form, and pile them from two to three
+feet high. Around the exterior of these they drive into the ground eight
+or ten curved willow rods, from two to three feet distant from each
+other, but all firmly bound by leather thongs to four large upright
+poles, that form the front of the lodge, and along which run transverse
+willow rods, to which the extremities of the curved ones are fastened.
+When the frame, or skeleton, is thus finished, they stretch the cover
+(made of buffalo hides, sewed together) tight over the whole, leaving an
+aperture for entrance and egress in the centre of the front; and in fine
+weather, the whole front open.
+
+"This is an accurate description of a Pawnee summer-lodge; but, of
+course, the dimensions vary according to the number and wealth of the
+families residing therein; in some tents I have observed the front
+consisting of six or eight upright poles, to which were fixed more
+skins, for additional shelter or shade. On the grass, in the interior,
+are spread mats, made by the squaws from reeds, and skins of buffalo or
+bear.
+
+"From the foregoing it will be easily understood that the bales of
+cloth, maize, skins, and whatever other property they possess, form the
+back of the tent. Each occupant, from the chief to the lowest in rank,
+has his assigned place; sleeps upon his own blanket, or buffalo robe;
+has his bow and quiver suspended over his head; his saddle, bridle, and
+laryettes, &c. behind his back: and thus little confusion prevails,
+although each individual has only just room to sit or lie at full
+length.
+
+"Before the tent a kind of shield is raised, upon three poles
+pyramidically placed, on which is the device of the chief, by which his
+tent is to be recognised.... In the interior of the tent, and generally
+about the centre of its concave, is suspended the 'medicine,' which is
+most carefully and religiously preserved.... Under the head of
+'medicine,' the Indians comprise not only its own healing department,
+but everything connected with religion of superstition; all omens, all
+relics, and everything extraordinary or supernatural." (Murray (1), I,
+pp. 282-286.)
+
+Late in the year 1835 Murray left the Pawnee encampment to return to
+Fort Leavenworth, but, meeting with an accident, was not able to proceed
+on his way. The Pawnee were likewise moving, and in moving over the
+prairie made a well-defined trail. Retracing his way, and seeking the
+Pawnee, he wrote: "About ten o'clock on the following day we found the
+great Pawnee trail, and, following it, came at mid-day to the place
+where they had camped the night before, and a most hideous spectacle did
+it present; the grass was all trodden into mud--hundreds of circular
+heaps of charred wood attested the number of fires that had been used;
+and the whole plain was strewed with split heads, bare skeletons, and
+scattered entrails of buffalo; while some hundreds of the half-starved
+Pawnee dogs who had lingered behind the village were endeavoring to
+dispute some morsels of the carcasses with the gaunt snarling wolves,
+who were stripping the scanty relics of skin and sinew which are left by
+Indian butchery attached to the bone." (Op. cit., p. 438.) This vivid
+description of the appearance of an abandoned camp site quite agrees
+with a reference made by Dr. Grinnell a few years ago. Writing of events
+during the year 1853, and alluding to an abandoned camp of the Pawnee
+that year discovered by the Cheyenne, he said: "It was a big camp; and
+there were many fires. It seemed as if the Pawnees had been camped there
+killing buffalo for a long time. There were still many dogs in the camp.
+On one side was a well-beaten trail which led to another camp two
+hundred yards off where a number of people had been camped, not in
+lodges but in shelters made of willows bent over, after the fashion of a
+sweat-house." (Grinnell, (2), p. 86.)
+
+These temporary and easily erected structures of the Pawnee were
+probably quite similar in form and appearance to that of the Cheyenne,
+part of which is shown in plate 14. But in the latter instance the cover
+is not formed of the primitive buffalo skin, but of canvas, or some
+other material obtained from the trader.
+
+The Pawnee had a strange method of dealing with their sick or wounded
+during the movement of a village from place to place, and, so wrote
+Father De Smet, "if, in the long journeys which they undertake in search
+of game, any should be impeded, either by age or sickness, their
+children or relations make a small hut of dried grass to shelter them
+from the heat of the sun or from the weather, leaving as much provision
+as they are able to spare, and thus abandon them to their destiny....
+If, some days after, they are successful in the chase, they return as
+quickly as possible to render assistance and consolation. These
+practices are common to all the nomadic tribes of the mountains." (De
+Smet, (2), pp. 356-357.) It is more than probable that similar grass
+shelters were constructed and used by small parties when away from the
+villages, but such structures would necessarily have been of only
+temporary use.
+
+In addition to the semicircular skin-covered lodge mentioned by Murray,
+the Pawnee evidently made use of the conical tipi. This was described by
+Dunbar when he wrote: "Their movable dwellings consist of from 12 to 20
+poles (the number varying with the size) about 16 feet long, and a
+covering. Three of these poles are tied together near the top and set
+up. The string, with which these poles are tied together, is so long
+that one end of it reaches to the ground, when the poles are set up. The
+other poles are now successively set up save one, the top of each
+leaning against the three, first set up, and forming with them a circle.
+The string is then wound round them all at the top several times and
+fastened. The cover is tied to the top of the remaining pole by which it
+is raised up, then is spread round them all and tied together on the
+opposite side, where is the entrance formed by leaving the cover untied
+about three feet from the ground. Over the entrance the skin of a bear
+or some other animal is suspended. The tents are always set up with
+their entrances toward the east. At the top the smoke passes out among
+the poles, a place being left for that purpose. The fire place, crane and
+hearth are similar to those in their fixed habitations. The furniture is
+placed back next the cover. Rush mats are then spread down forming a
+sort of floor. On these they sit, eat and sleep. The large tents are
+about 18 feet in diameter at the base. The tent covers are made of
+buffalo skins, scraped so thin as to transmit light, and sewed together.
+These when new are quite white, and a village of them presents a
+beautiful appearance. Some of them are painted according to Pawnee
+fancy. They carry their tent poles with them during their whole journey.
+From three to six of them, as the case may be, are tied together at the
+larger end, and made fast to the saddle, an equal number on each side,
+the other end drags on the ground." (Dunbar, (2), pp. 602-603.)
+
+From these various records it will be understood the Pawnee made use of
+several forms of temporary and comparatively easily transported and
+erected structures when away from their permanent villages of
+earth-covered lodges. And what is true of the Pawnee would probably
+apply to other tribes of the upper Missouri Valley.
+
+The Pawnee, as did other tribes of the region, made long journeys away
+from their villages in quest of the buffalo, and an interesting account
+of their annual hunts, as conducted about the year 1835, has been
+preserved. Then it was told how "The Pawnees make two hunts each year,
+the summer and winter hunt. To perform the winter hunt they leave their
+villages usually in the last week of October, and do not return to them
+again till about the first of April. They now prepare their cornfields
+for the ensuing season. The ground is dug up with the hoe, the corn is
+planted and well tended. When it has attained to a certain height they
+leave it, and go out to their summer hunt. This is done near the last of
+June. About the first of September they return to their villages.
+Formerly the buffalo came down to and far below their villages. Now
+they are obliged to travel out from ten to twenty days to reach them.
+The buffalo are rapidly diminishing and will in time become extinct.
+
+"When they leave their villages to hunt the buffalo, they take every man
+and beast with them, and the place of their habitations is as desolate
+and solitary during their absence as any other spot on the prairie. When
+the time of departure arrives all the furniture and provisions they wish
+to carry with them are packed on the horses. The residue of their scant
+furniture and provisions are concealed in the earth till their return.
+As each family gets ready they fall into the train, which frequently
+extends some miles." (Dunbar, (1), pp. 329-330.) The narrative continues
+and relates many of the mannerisms of the people, and tells of their
+peculiar traits. And it is difficult to realize the great distance
+traveled during the hunting trips away from the permanent earth-lodge
+villages. Dunbar accompanied them on several of their hunts and wrote
+(Op. cit., p. 331): "The first hunting tour I performed with them they
+traveled, from the time they left their village till they returned to it
+again in the spring, about 400 miles. During the first summer hunt I was
+with them they traveled 700 miles before returning to their village.
+During my second winter hunt they traveled 900 miles, second summer hunt
+800 miles."
+
+The moving about over the vast rolling prairies of the people of an
+entire village, while on their distant hunts, covering many hundreds of
+miles, and carrying with them practically all of their belongings, with
+innumerable dogs and horses, stopping now to kill the buffalo and again
+pushing on in quest of more, constituted one of the most interesting and
+characteristic phases of primitive life on the prairies. But within a
+few decades all has changed, and now many towns and villages occupy the
+region once traversed by the roving bands.
+
+ARIKARA.
+
+When or where the Arikara separated from their kindred tribe, the
+Pawnee, may never be determined, but during the years which followed the
+separation they continued moving northward, leaving ruined villages to
+mark the line of their migration. Sixty years ago it was said: "That
+they migrated upward, along the Missouri, from their friends below is
+established by the remains of their dirt villages, which are yet seen
+along that river, though at this time mostly overgrown with grass. At
+what time they separated from the parent stock is not now correctly
+known, though some of their locations appear to have been of very
+ancient date, at least previous to the commencement of the fur trade on
+the Upper Missouri. At the time when the old French and Spanish traders
+began their dealings with the Indians of the Upper Missouri, the
+Arikara village was situated a little above the mouth of Grand River,
+since which time they have made several removals and are now located at
+Fort Clark, the former village of the Mandans." (Hayden, (1), pp.
+351-352.)
+
+The beginning of the last century found the Arikara living in three
+villages, all on the right bank of the Missouri. In the journal of the
+French trader Le Raye are brief references to the villages, together
+with some notes on the manners and customs of the inhabitants. April 22,
+1802, he wrote: "The _Ricaras_ or _Rus_ have three villages, situated on
+the south bank of the Missouri, in the great bend of the river. The
+lower village is on a large bottom covered with cotton wood, and
+contains about fifty huts." He then describes the manner in which the
+earth-covered lodges were built and refers to the structures being
+"placed with great regularity," a statement which does not seem to have
+been borne out by later writers. Continuing, he said: "The town is
+picketed with pickets twelve feet high and set very close, to prevent
+firing between them. There is one gate way, which is shut at night." On
+May 27, 1802, he left the lower village, "crossed Missouri, and arrived
+the same evening at the upper village. This village is situated on an
+Island in the Missouri, and is fortified in the same manner as the lower
+village, containing about sixty huts.... The next morning we proceeded,
+and soon left the Missouri, travelling a northwest course, in a well
+beaten path." (Le Raye, (1), pp. 171-180.)
+
+Although the preceding notes may not be very accurate, nevertheless they
+are of interest on account of the period they cover, just before the
+transfer of Louisiana to the United States, and two years before the
+most important expedition ascended the Missouri.
+
+To trace the sites of early Arikara villages as mentioned by Lewis and
+Clark, and as seen by them when the expedition under their command
+passed up the Missouri during the early autumn of 1804, is most
+interesting. On September 29 of that year they reached the mouth of a
+small creek which entered the Missouri from the south, "which we called
+Notimber creek from its bare appearance. Above the mouth of this stream,
+a Ricara band of Pawnees had a village five years ago: but there are no
+remains of it except the mound which encircled the town." This would
+have been in the present Stanley County, South Dakota. Two days later,
+on October 1, they "passed a large island in the middle of the river,
+opposite the lower end of which the Ricaras once had a village on the
+south side of the river: there are, however, no remnants of it now,
+except a circular wall three or four feet in height, which encompassed
+the town." Two miles beyond was the mouth of the Cheyenne River.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 52
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Arikara carrying basket. (U.S.N.M. 8430)]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Wooden mortar. "Witchata Inds. Dr. E. Palmer."
+Height of body 13-1/2 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6899)]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 53
+
+[Illustration: "RICCAREE VILLAGE"
+
+George Catlin]
+
+On the third day after passing the mouth of the Cheyenne they reached
+"Teal creek," and "A little above this is an island on the north side of
+the current, about one and a half mile in length and three quarters of a
+mile in breadth. In the centre of this island is an old village of the
+Ricaras, called Lahoocat; it was surrounded by a circular wall,
+containing seventeen lodges. The Ricaras are known to have lived there
+in 1797, and the village seems to have been deserted about five years
+since: it does not contain much timber."
+
+On October 6, two days' travel beyond Teal Creek, and at a distance of
+about 32 miles above it, "We halted for dinner at a village which we
+suppose to have belonged to the Ricaras: it is situated in a low plain
+on the river, and consists of about eighty lodges, of an octagonal form,
+neatly covered with earth, and placed as close to each other as
+possible, and picketed round. The skin canoes, mats, buckets, and
+articles of furniture found in the lodges, induce us to suppose that it
+had been left in the spring. We found three different sorts of squashes
+growing in the village; we also killed an elk near it, and saw two
+wolves." On the following day, after advancing about 4 or 5 miles, they
+encountered "another village or wintering camp of the Ricaras, composed
+of about sixty lodges, built in the same form as those passed yesterday,
+with willow and straw mats, baskets, buffalo-skin canoes, remaining
+entire in the camp."
+
+The baskets may have included many similar to two rare examples now in
+the National Museum, Washington, one of which is shown in plate 52, _a_
+(U.S.N.M. 8430).
+
+On October 9, 1804, after passing the mouth of the river called by them
+the Wetawhoo or Wetarko, soon to be known as Grand River, which flows
+into the Missouri from the west in the present Corson County, South
+Dakota, the expedition stopped and held a council with the Indians.
+There they remained until October 11, when "At one o'clock we left our
+camp with the grand chief and his nephew on board, and at about two
+miles anchored below a creek on the south, separating the second and
+third village of the Ricaras, which are about half a mile distant from
+each other.... These two villages are placed near each other in a high
+smooth prairie; a fine situation, except that having no wood the
+inhabitants are obliged to go for it across the river to a timbered
+lowland opposite to them."
+
+The expedition left the Arikara during the afternoon of October 12, and
+on that date in the narrative appears an interesting account of the then
+recent migrations of the tribe: "They were originally colonies of
+Pawnees, who established themselves on the Missouri, below Chayenne,
+where the traders still remember that twenty years ago they occupied a
+number of villages. From that situation a part of the Ricaras emigrated
+to the neighborhood of the Mandans, with whom they were then in
+alliance. The rest of the nation continued near the Chayenne till the
+year 1797, in the course of which, distressed by their wars with the
+Sioux, they joined their countrymen near the Mandans. Soon after a new
+war arose between the Ricaras and the Mandans, in consequence of which
+the former came down the river to their present position. In this
+migration those who had first gone to the Mandans kept together, and now
+live in the two lower villages, which may be considered as the Ricaras
+proper. The third village was composed of such remnants of the villages
+as had survived the wars, and as these were nine in number a difference
+of pronunciation and some difference of language may be observed between
+them and the Ricaras proper, who do not understand all the words of
+these wanderers. The villages are within the distance of four miles of
+each other, the two lower ones consist of between one hundred and fifty
+and two hundred men each, the third of three hundred." (Lewis and Clark,
+(1), I, pp. 92-104.) Following this, on page 106, is a brief description
+of the earth-covered lodges of the Arikara, which were of "a circular or
+octagonal form, and generally about thirty or forty feet in diameter,"
+but a rather better description was prepared by one of the members of
+the expedition, Patrick Gass, who wrote on October 10: "This day I went
+with some of the men to the lodges, about 60 in number. The following is
+a description of the form of these lodges and the manner of building
+them.
+
+"In a circle of a size suited to the dimensions of the intended lodge
+they set up 16 forked posts five or six feet high, and lay poles from
+one fork to another. Against these poles they lean other poles, slanting
+from the ground, and extending about four inches above the cross poles;
+these are to receive the ends of the upper poles that support the roof.
+They next set up four large forks, fifteen feet high, and about ten feet
+apart, in the middle of the area; and poles or beams between these. The
+roof poles are then laid on extending from the lower poles across the
+beams which rest on the middle forks, of such a length as to leave a
+hole at the top for a chimney. The whole is then covered with willow
+branches, except the chimney and a hole below to pass through. On the
+willow branches they lay grass and lastly clay. At the hole below they
+build a pen about four feet wide and projecting ten feet from the hut;
+and hang a buffalo skin at the entrance of the hut for a door. This
+labour like every other kind is chiefly performed by the squaws. They
+raise corn, beans and tobacco." (Gass, (1), p. 52.) And five days later
+Gass entered in his journal: "At 7 we saw a hunting party of the
+Rickarees, on their way down to the villages. They had 12 buffalo-skin
+canoes or boats laden with meat and skins; beside some horses that were
+going down the bank by land. They gave us a part of their meat. The
+party consisted of men, women, and children." (Op. cit., p. 54.)
+
+Two years later, on the return of the expedition, they again passed the
+villages of the Arikara, arriving opposite the upper village August 21,
+1806, at which time there was an exchange of salutes of four guns each.
+
+In 1812 Cutler wrote regarding the Arikara: "They live in fortified
+villages, claim no land, except that on which their villages stand, and
+the fields they improve." (Cutler, (1), p. 125.)
+
+It is quite evident, from the preceding references as well as from the
+observations of later travelers, that the Arikara villages were usually,
+if not always, surrounded by palisades. But to have surrounded the area
+occupied by the lodges by stout posts placed close together would have
+required some time and, with the primitive implements and methods of
+collecting the necessary number of timbers, would have been a laborious
+undertaking. However, they appear to have had another way of protecting
+their towns. This was told by a French trader who was at the Arikara
+village in 1795. During the early part of June of that year several
+Indians arrived among the Arikara and told that three Sioux villages
+"had assembled and formed an army of five hundred warriors, intending to
+attack the village of the Ricaras." Fearing this attack, the narrative
+continues: "The Ricaras have fortified their village by placing
+palisades five feet high which they have reinforced with earth. The fort
+is constructed in the following manner: All around their village they
+drive into the ground heavy forked stakes, standing from four to five
+feet high and from fifteen to twenty feet apart. Upon these are placed
+cross-pieces as thick as one's thigh; next they place poles of willow or
+cottonwood, as thick as one's leg, resting on the cross-pieces and very
+close together. Against these poles which are five feet high they pile
+fascines of brush which they cover with an embankment of earth two feet
+thick; in this way, the height of the poles would prevent the scaling of
+the fort by the enemy, while the well-packed earth protects those within
+from their balls and arrows." (Trudeau, (1), pp. 454-455.) Undoubtedly
+many embankments found east of the Mississippi owe their origin to this
+method of protecting the villages which they once surrounded.
+
+The most interesting and comprehensible accounts of the Arikara villages
+were prepared during the month of June, 1811. Two travelers that spring
+ascended the Missouri with rival parties of traders, but they were
+acquainted and again met on the upper Missouri on June 3. Brackenridge
+arrived at the village on June 12, and wrote:
+
+"The village appeared to occupy about three quarters of a mile along the
+river bank, on a level plain, the country behind it rising into hills of
+considerable height. There are little or no woods anywhere to be seen.
+The lodges are of a conical shape, and look like heaps of earth. A great
+number of horses are seen feeding in the plains around, and on the sides
+of the hills. I espied a number of squaws, in canoes, descending the
+river and landing at the village. The interpreter informed me, that they
+were returning home with wood. These canoes are made of a single buffalo
+hide, stretched over osiers, and are of a circular form. There was but
+one woman in each canoe, who kneeled down, and instead of paddling
+sideways, placed the paddle before; the load is fastened to the
+canoe.... About two o'clock fourteen of us crossed over, and accompanied
+the chief to his lodge. Mats were laid around for us to sit on, while he
+placed himself on a kind of stool or bench. The pipe was handed around,
+and smoked; after which, the herald, (every chief or great man, has one
+of them) ascended the top of the lodge and seated himself near an open
+place, and began to bawl out like one of our town criers; the chief
+every now and then addressing something to him through the aperture
+before mentioned. We soon discovered the object of this, by the arrival
+of the other chiefs, who seemed to drop in, one after the other, as
+their names were called.
+
+"When all were seated, the pipe was handed to the chief, who began as is
+usual on solemn occasions, by blowing a whiff upwards as it were to the
+sky, then to the earth, and after to the east and west, after which the
+pipe was sent round. A mark of respect in handing the pipe to another,
+is to hold it until the person has taken several whiffs." (Brackenridge,
+(1), pp. 245-246.)
+
+Bradbury, who was also present at the gathering on June 12, entered in
+his journal:
+
+"I quitted the feast, in order to examine the town, which I found to be
+fortified all round with a ditch, and with pickets or pallisadoes, of
+about nine feet high. The lodges are placed without any regard to
+regularity, which renders it difficult to count them, but there appears
+to be from 150 to 160, and they are constructed in the same manner as
+those of the Ottoes, with the additional convenience of a railing on the
+eaves: behind this railing they sit at their ease and smoke. There is
+scarcely any declivity in the scite of the town, and as little regard is
+paid to cleanliness, it is very dirty in wet weather." (Bradbury, (1),
+pp. 114-115.) Later he wrote (pp. 165-166): "I am not acquainted with
+any customs peculiar to this nation, save that of having a sacred lodge
+in the centre of the largest village. This is called the _Medicine
+lodge_, and in one particular, corresponds with the sanctuary of the
+Jews, as no blood is on any account whatsoever to be spilled within it,
+not even that of an enemy; nor is any one, having taken refuge there,
+to be forced from it. This lodge is also the general place of deposit
+for such things as they devote to the _Father of Life_."
+
+On the following day, June 13, 1811, Brackenridge "rambled through the
+village," which he found "excessively filthy," with innumerable dogs
+running about. Then he proceeded to describe the habitations: "The
+lodges are constructed in the following manner: Four large forks of
+about fifteen feet in height, are placed in the ground, usually about
+twenty feet from each other, with hewn logs, or beams across; from these
+beams, other pieces of wood are placed slanting; smaller pieces are
+placed above, leaving an aperture at the top, to admit the light, and to
+give vent to the smoke. These upright pieces are interwoven with osiers,
+after which, the whole is covered with earth, though not sodded. An
+opening is left at one side, for a door, which is secured by a kind of
+projection of ten or twelve feet, enclosed on all sides, and forming a
+narrow entrance, which might be easily defended. A buffalo robe
+suspended at the entrance, answers as a door. The fire is made in a hole
+in the ground, directly under the aperture at the top. Their beds
+elevated a few feet, are placed around the lodge, and enclosed with
+curtains of dressed elk skins. At the upper end of the lodge, there is a
+kind of trophy erected; two buffalo heads, fantastically painted, are
+placed on a little elevation; over them are placed, a variety of
+consecrated things, such as shields, skins of a rare or valuable kind,
+and quivers of arrows. The lodges seem placed at random, without any
+regularity or design, and are so much alike, that it was for some time
+before I could learn to return to the same one. The village is
+surrounded by a palisade of cedar poles, but in a very bad state. Around
+the village, there are little plats enclosed by stakes, intwined with
+osiers, in which they cultivate maize, tobacco, and beans; but their
+principal field is at the distance of a mile from the village, to which,
+such of the females whose duty it is to attend to their culture, go and
+return morning and evening. Around the village they have buffalo robes
+stuck up on high poles. I saw one so arranged as to bear a resemblance
+to the human figure, the hip bone of the buffaloe represented the head,
+the sockets of the thigh bones looked like eyes." (Op. cit., pp.
+247-248.)
+
+On June 14 they walked together to the upper of the two villages, which
+were separated by a narrow stream. They entered several lodges and were
+always pleasantly received by the occupants and offered food, which
+included fresh buffalo meat served in wooden dishes or bowls, and
+"homony made of corn dried in the milk, mixed with beans, which was
+prepared with buffalo marrow." This latter, according to Bradbury, was
+"warmed on the fire in an earthen vessel of their own manufacture."
+Later, when he returned to the same village, he wrote (p. 158): "I
+noticed over their fires much larger vessels of earthenware than any I
+had before seen, and was permitted to examine them. They were
+sufficiently hardened by the fire to cause them to emit a sonorous tone
+on being struck, and in all I observed impressions on the outside
+seemingly made by wicker work. This led me to enquire of them by signs
+how they were made? when a squaw brought a basket, and taking some clay,
+she began to spread it very evenly within it, shewing me at the same
+time that they were made in that way. From the shape of these vessels,
+they must be under the necessity of burning the basket to disengage
+them, as they are wider at the bottom than at the top. I must here
+remark, that at the Great Salt Lick, or Saline, about twenty miles from
+the mouth of the Wabash, vast quantities of Indian earthenware are
+found, on which I have observed impressions exactly similar to those
+here mentioned. From the situation of these heaps of fragments, and
+their proximity to the salt works, I am decidedly of opinion that the
+Indians practised the art of evaporating the brine, to make salt, before
+the discovery of America."
+
+It was the custom of the people of the village to gather in the evenings
+on the tops of their lodges, there to sit and converse, and "every now
+and then the attention of all was attracted by some old men who rose up
+and declaimed aloud, so as to be heard over the whole village." Within
+the village women were often seen busily engaged in dressing buffalo
+robes, stretched on frames near the lodges. Men, playing at various
+games, or sitting in groups smoking and talking; children and dogs
+innumerable. Such was the appearance of an Arikara village a little more
+than a century ago.
+
+On the 18th of June Bradbury visited the bluffs southwest of the village
+and on one discovered 14 buffalo skulls placed in a row, and in
+describing them said: "The cavities of the eyes and the nostrils were
+filled with a species of _artemisia_ common on the prairies, which
+appears to be a non-descript. On my return I caused our interpreter to
+enquire into the reason for this, and found that it was an honour
+conferred on the buffaloes which they had killed, in order to appease
+their spirits, and prevent them from apprising the living buffaloes of
+the danger they run in approaching the neighbourhood." (Op. cit., p.
+125.)
+
+An interesting observation was made at this time by Brackenridge
+concerning a temporary encampment of a small party of Arikara when away
+from their permanent, well-protected villages. He said (Op. cit., pp.
+254-255): "To avoid surprise, they always encamp at the edge of a wood;
+and when the party is small, they construct a kind of fortress, with
+wonderful expedition, of billets of wood, apparently piled up in a
+careless manner, but so arranged as to be very strong, and are able to
+withstand an assault from a much superior force." Many such inclosures
+were discovered and mentioned by the early explorers of the Upper
+Missouri Valley, and several instances have been cited on the preceding
+pages when treating of the Siouan tribes.
+
+In 1832 Catlin went up the Missouri, and when he arrived at the Arikara
+village he made a sketch of the town as it appeared from the deck of the
+steamboat. The original painting is now in the National Museum,
+Washington, and is reproduced in plate 53. This was engraved and
+presented as plate 80 in his narrative. Writing of this sketch he
+remarked: "Plate 80, gives a view of the Riccaree village, which is
+beautifully situated on the west bank of the river, 200 miles below the
+Mandans; and built very much in the same manner; being constituted of
+150 earth-covered lodges, which are in part surrounded by an imperfect
+and open barrier of piquets set firmly in the ground, and of ten or
+twelve feet in height. This village is built upon an open prairie, and
+the gracefully undulating hills that rise in distance behind it are
+everywhere covered with a verdant green turf, without a tree or a bush
+anywhere to be seen. This view was taken from the deck of the steamer
+when I was on my way up the river." (Catlin, (1), I, p. 204.) At this
+time the Arikara were very hostile to all the traders who passed and
+repassed along the Missouri. They had attacked many canoes and caused
+the death of their occupants. Fearing the outcome of their actions they
+soon left the banks of the Missouri and moved westward. One year after
+Catlin passed the villages Maximilian arrived there while on his way to
+the far upper waters of the Missouri. On June 12, 1833, Maximilian
+wrote: "Moreau's River ... is called the southern boundary of the
+territory of the Arikkaras, though they often make excursions far beyond
+it.... On the morning of the 12th our cannon, muskets and rifles were
+loaded with ball, because we were approaching the village of the hostile
+Arikkaras. We came to Grand River, called in Lewis and Clarke's map
+Wetarko River. As we here touched the bottom, we crossed to the east
+bank, and in half an hour reached Rampart River, which issues from a
+narrow chain of hills, called Les Remparts; and soon afterwards an
+island covered with willows, which, on the large special map of Lewis
+and Clarke, has an Arikkara village, of which there are now no traces.
+From the hills we had a fine prospect over the bend of the river, on
+which the villages of the Arikkaras are situated, and which we reached
+after a short run of only two miles. The two villages of this tribe are
+on the west bank, very near each other, but separated by a small stream.
+They consist of a great number of clay huts, round at the top, with a
+square entrance in front, and the whole surrounded with a fence of
+stakes, which were much decayed, and in many places thrown down. It was
+not quite a year since these villages had been wholly abandoned, because
+their inhabitants, who were extremely hostile to the Whites, killed so
+many Americans, that they themselves foresaw that they would be severely
+chastised by the United States, and therefore preferred to emigrate. To
+this cause was added, a dry, unproductive season, when the crops
+entirely failed; as well as the absence of the herds of buffaloes, which
+hastened their removal.... The principal chief of the Arikkaras, when
+they retired from the Missouri, was called Starapat (the little hawk,
+with bloody claws)." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 166-167.) The Arikara at this
+time appear to have left the banks of the Missouri and removed to the
+vicinity of the Pawnee.
+
+Fort Clark, on the upper Missouri, at the villages of the Mandan and
+Hidatsa, was erected by the American Fur Company during the year 1829.
+
+In 1837 the Mandans suffered from the dreaded smallpox, losing more than
+90 per cent of their number, and the few who survived abandoned their
+large village below Fort Clark and settled a short distance above. And,
+so wrote Hayden in 1855, "About the time that the Mandans left the lower
+village, the Arikaras came and took possession, the former readily
+consenting to this arrangement, because it placed a large body of
+strangers between them and the Dakotas, with whom, in their now feeble
+state, they were unable to contend." (Hayden, (1), p. 434.)
+
+A brief description of the Arikara village as it appeared early in June,
+1850, is to be found in Culbertson's journal. On the 12th of that month
+the steamboat, ascending the Missouri, reached Fort Clark, "a small
+fort, about one hundred feet in length on each side." Just above the
+fort was the village of the Arikara. "The village is composed of two
+hundred lodges, as near as I could learn from the interpreter, and is
+built upon the top of a bluff bank rising about seventy-five feet
+perpendicular from the water. The huts are placed very irregularly,
+sometimes with very narrow, and sometimes with quite broad spaces
+between them. A number of platforms of poles, as high as the lodges
+themselves, are interspersed among them for the convenience of drying
+meat and dressing robes. I noticed a number of squaws busily employed in
+dressing robes." (Culbertson, (1), p. 117.) The typical earth lodge is
+described, one similar to those mentioned on other pages of this sketch,
+but his account of the interior of a habitation is most interesting. He,
+with others, stopped at a large lodge, when, so he wrote: "We were
+conducted to the place of honor, opposite to and facing the door. To our
+right, along the wall, were arranged several bedsteads, rudely made,
+while to the left, a part was cut off by a couple of poles, for the
+accommodation of the horses; the chickens had a coop in one corner, but
+roam at large on most occasions, and the centre is used for a fireplace.
+The lodge was clean, airy, light and comfortable, and there was plenty
+of room for more than those, who I suppose, inhabit it. Behind us were
+hung bows with spears on the ends, and two rude instruments of music,
+made of a number of pumpkins.... Near the fireplace a small wooden
+mortar was sunk in the ground, for pounding corn. The large and high
+room appeared rather scarce of furniture." Many burials were encountered
+when passing between the village and Fort Clark, and there "were little
+patches of corn and pumpkins, generally enclosed by a slight bush
+fence," these probably being the gardens belonging to the people of the
+near-by town. The mortar, "sunk in the ground," as mentioned by
+Culbertson, was evidently similar to the example shown in plate 52, _b_,
+a form which was indicated by Bodmer in his sketch of the interior of a
+Mandan lodge, plate 40.
+
+It will be recalled that the village mentioned in the preceding notes
+was the home of the Mandan during the memorable winter of 1804-05, when
+the expedition of Lewis and Clark encamped a few miles below, and there
+the Mandan continued to dwell until after the epidemic of 1837.
+
+In later years the three tribes, Arikara, Hidatsa, and Mandan, were
+closely associated, living in the vicinity of Fort Berthold, on the left
+bank of the Missouri and about 60 miles above Fort Clark, the Arikara
+having arrived at Fort Berthold, during the month of August, 1862.
+Evidently their ways of life and customs were quite similar, and
+Matthews, in his work on the Hidatsa in particular, but in which he
+treats of the three tribes in general, said: "For cleaning the
+village-grounds, they had rakes made of a few osiers tied together, the
+ends curved and spreading. Their most important agricultural implement
+was the hoe. Before they obtained iron utensils of the white traders,
+their only hoes were made of the shoulder-blades of elk or buffalo,
+attached to wooden handles of suitable length ... as late as 1867, I saw
+a great number in use at Fort Berthold, and purchased two or three, one
+of which was sent to Washington, and, I presume, is now on exhibition in
+the museum of the Smithsonian Institution." (Matthews, (1), p. 19.)
+Several rakes of this description are in the collection of the National
+Museum, Washington. One, bearing the legend "Arickaree," which was
+obtained at Fort Berthold, is shown in plate 54, _a_ (U.S.N.M. 6353). It
+measures 4 feet 10 inches in length and is formed of six pieces bound
+together. It is also of great interest to know that the hoe which was
+sent by Dr. Matthews to the museum is perfectly preserved. It is here
+reproduced in plate 54, _b_ (U.S.N.M. 6326). Written on it is this
+legend: "Ree Indians. Ft Berthold Dacotah Ter. Drs Gray and Matthews."
+The length of the scapula, that of a buffalo, is about 14 inches. Both
+handle and blade are worn smooth from use. The specimen is one of much
+importance.
+
+It will be recalled that Bradbury in 1811 referred to the "medicine
+lodge," then standing in the center of the large Arikara village.
+Matthews, more than 60 years later, mentioned a similar structure then
+standing at the village near Fort Berthold, and said concerning it: "The
+medicine-lodge of the Arickarees is larger than that of the Mandans, and
+is used for a greater variety of ceremonies. Some of these performances,
+consisting of ingenious tricks of jugglery and dances, representative of
+various hunts, we might be inclined to call theatrical rather than
+religious. Probably these Indians consider them both worshipful and
+entertaining. It is often hard to tell how much of a religious ceremony
+is intended to propitiate the unknown powers, and how much to please the
+spectators." (Matthews, (1), p. 10.)
+
+From the various quotations given on the preceding pages it is possible
+to form a good idea of the appearance of an ancient Arikara village. A
+large number of earth-covered lodges, of varying sizes, were placed
+without order but rather close together, often with a "medicine lodge"
+in the center of the group. All were surrounded by a palisade, often
+reared in connection with a ditch and embankment. The village at Fort
+Berthold was thus protected until the winter of 1865, at which time the
+stockade was cut down and used as fuel, and it was never replaced.
+
+As late as 1872 there were 43 earth-covered lodges standing at the
+Arikara village near Fort Berthold, together with 28 log cabins.
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 54
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Rake marked "Arickaree." Collected at Fort Berthold.
+Length 4 feet 10 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6353)]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Agricultural implement formed of a scapula of a
+buffalo attached to a wooden handle. Marked "Ree Indians. Ft. Berthold,
+Dacotah Ter. Drs. Gray and Matthews." Length of scapula about 14 inches.
+(U.S.N.M. 6326)]
+
+[Illustration: _c._ Parfleche box. "Crows, Montana Ter. J. I. Allen."
+Length 28 inches, width 13-1/2 inches. (U.S.N.M. 130574)]
+
+BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 55
+
+[Illustration: _a._ Grass-covered structures near Anadarko]
+
+[Illustration: _b._ Grass-covered lodge, about 1880
+
+WICHITA HABITATIONS]
+
+In addition to the earth-covered lodges found in the permanent villages,
+they had skin tents which were occupied when away from their towns on
+war or hunting expeditions. Like the great majority of the native
+tribes, the Arikara would move about during certain seasons of the year.
+Hayden, writing about the year 1855, referred to this custom: "At the
+commencement of the winter the Arikaras leave their village in quest of
+buffalo, which seldom approach near enough to be killed in the vicinity
+of their cabins. They then encamp in skin tents, in various directions
+from the Missouri or along its banks, wherever the buffalo may chance to
+range. They pass the winter in hunting, and return to their permanent
+village early in the spring, bringing with them their skins in an
+unprepared state, with a great supply of meat." (Hayden, (1), p. 354.)
+Such were the hunting parties often met by the traders and explorers, as
+that mentioned by Sergeant Gass on October 15, 1804. That they were
+skilled agriculturists is attested by a note referring to the time they
+were still living in the old Mandan village below Fort Clark, October
+11, 1853. In the journal of a party at that time descending the Missouri
+from Fort Benton to St. Louis appears this entry:
+
+"Arrived at Fort Clark, or Aricaree's village. It is situated on the top
+of a very high bluff on the bank of the river.... The Rees are not
+friendly to the whites, and are kept from open hostilities only by fear.
+They are a large tribe, and on the fertile meadows they occupy, raise a
+great amount of corn and pumpkins, which they exchange with the Crows
+and Dacotahs for dried buffalo meat and robes. They exported five
+thousand bushels of excellent corn this year...." (Saxton, (1), p. 265.)
+And it must be remembered that the principal implement was the primitive
+hoe, formed of a scapula of a buffalo attached to a wooden handle.
+
+WICHITA.
+
+Like the other members of this linguistic family, whose villages have
+already been described, the Wichita had two forms of dwellings, which
+they occupied under different conditions. One served as the structure in
+their permanent villages, the other being of a more temporary nature.
+But, instead of the earth-covered lodges used farther north, their fixed
+villages were composed of groups of high circular structures, entirely
+thatched from bottom to top. Their movable camps, when away from home on
+war or hunting expeditions, consisted of the skin-covered tents of the
+plains.
+
+The peculiar thatched structures were first seen and described by
+Europeans in the year 1541, when Coronado crossed the vast rolling
+prairies and reached the Quivira (the Wichita) about the northeastern
+part of the present State of Kansas. Here extensive village sites, with
+innumerable traces of occupancy, undoubtedly indicate the positions of
+the ancient settlements.
+
+In the narrative of the expedition led by Coronado, prepared by one of
+the Spanish officers, Juan Jaramillo, appears an interesting though very
+brief description of the thatched dwellings of the people of Quivira:
+
+"The houses which these Indians have were of straw, and most of them
+round, and the straw reached down to the ground like a wall, so that
+they did not have the symmetry or the style of these here [referring to
+pueblos]; they have something like a chapel or sentry box outside and
+around these, with an entry, where the Indians appear seated or
+reclining." (Winship, (1), p. 591.) Castaneda, writing of the same
+villages, said: "The houses are round, without a wall, and they have one
+story like a loft, under the roof, where they sleep and keep their
+belongings. The roofs are of straw." (Winship, (1), pp. 528-529.) This
+evidently referred to structures similar to that shown on the right of
+the lodge in plate 55, _a_.
+
+A photograph of a large Wichita dwelling, of the form mentioned, is
+reproduced in plate 55, _b_. The picture was probably made about the
+year 1880. The door in front is open, and there appears to be another on
+the extreme left, which would be 90 deg. from the former; therefore there
+were evidently four entrances. This is explained in the following
+account of the construction and arrangement of such a dwelling:
+
+"Its construction was begun by drawing a circle on the ground, and on
+the outline setting a number of crotched posts, in which beams were
+laid. Against these, poles were set very closely in a row so as to lean
+inward; these in turn were laced with willow rods and their tops brought
+together and securely-fastened so as to form a peak. Over this frame a
+heavy thatch of grass was laid and bound down by slender rods, and at
+each point where the rods joined an ornamental tuft of grass was tied.
+Two poles, laid at right angles, jutting out in four projecting points,
+were fastened to the apex of the roof, and over the center, where they
+crossed, rose a spire, 2 ft. high or more, made of bunches of grass.
+Four doors, opening to each point of the compass, were formerly made,
+but now, except when the house is to be used for ceremonial purposes,
+only two are provided, one on the east to serve for the morning, and one
+on the west to go in and out of when the sun is in that quarter. The
+fireplace was a circular excavation in the center of the floor, and the
+smoke found egress through a hole left high up in the roof toward the E.
+The four projecting beams at the peak pointed toward and were symbolic
+of the four points of the compass, where were the paths down which the
+powers descended to help man. The spire typified the abode in the zenith
+of the mysterious permeating force that animates all nature. The
+fireplace was accounted sacred; it was never treated lightly even in the
+daily life of the family. The couches of the occupants were placed
+against the wall. They consisted of a framework on which was fitted a
+woven covering of reeds. Upon this robes or rush mats were spread. The
+grass house is a comely structure. Skill is required to build it, and it
+has an attractive appearance both within and without." (Fletcher, (1).)
+
+An interesting photograph made some 30 or 40 years ago, near Anadarko,
+Caddo County, Oklahoma, is reproduced in plate 55, _a_. This shows a
+grass lodge of the usual form, and to the right of it appears to be an
+arbor or shelter, having a thatched roof but open on the sides. This
+second structure may be of the form which was seen by the Spaniards
+nearly four centuries ago, a place "where the Indians appear seated or
+reclining." It undoubtedly served as a gathering place, out of doors,
+and gave protection from the rays of the sun.
+
+WACO.
+
+On August 23, 1853, the expedition under command of Lieut. A. W. Whipple
+camped at some point in the southwestern portion of the present McClain
+County, Oklahoma, and that evening were visited by two Indians, "the one
+tall and straight, the other ill-looking. Their dress consisted of a
+blue cotton blanket wrapped around the waist, a head-dress of eagles'
+feathers, brass wire bracelets, and moccasins. The outer cartilages of
+their ears were cut through in various places, and short sticks inserted
+in place of rings. They were painted with vermilion, and carried bows of
+bois d'arc three feet long, and cow-skin quivers filled with arrows. The
+latter were about twenty-six inches in length, with very sharp steel
+heads, tastefully and skillfully made. The feathers with which they were
+tipped, and the sinews which bound them, were prettily tinted with red,
+blue, and green. The shafts were colored red, and said to be poisoned."
+(Whipple, (1), p. 22.) Unable to converse with the two strangers, the
+interpreter proceeded to interview them by signs. "The graceful motions
+of the hands seemed to convey ideas faster than words could have done,
+and with the whole operation we were highly amused and interested. Our
+visitors now said that they were not Kichais, but Huecos, and that they
+were upon a hunting expedition." Referring to the same two Indians
+another member of the expedition wrote:
+
+"The newcomers belonged to the tribe of Wakos, or Waekos, neighbours of
+the Witchita Indians, who live to the east of the Witchita Mountains, in
+a village situated on the bank of a small river rising in that
+direction. They were now on a journey to the Canadian, to meet a
+barter-trader there, but having heard of our expedition, had turned out
+of their way to pay us a visit. The Wakos and Witchitas differ only in
+name, and in some slight varieties of dialect; their villages are built
+in the same style, and are only about a thousand yards from one another.
+Their wigwams, of which the Witchitas count forty-two, and the Wakos
+only twenty, look a good deal like haycocks, and are constructed with
+pliable poles, eighteen or twenty feet long, driven into the ground in a
+circle of twenty-five feet diameter; the poles are then bent together
+and fastened to one another at the top, and the spaces between filled
+with plaited willow twigs and turf, a low aperture being left for a
+door, and one above for a chimney. A place is hollowed out in the centre
+for a fireplace, and around this, and a little raised, are placed the
+beds of the inhabitants of the hut; which, when covered with good
+buffalo skins, make tolerable resting-places. Each of these wigwams is
+generally occupied by two families; and the Wako tribe is reckoned at
+about two hundred, that of the Witchitas at not less than eight hundred
+members. These Indians practise agriculture; and beans, peas, maize,
+gourds, and melons are seen prospering very well round their villages."
+(Moellhausen, (1), I, pp. 115-116.)
+
+CADDO.
+
+The "Caddo proper," or Cenis as they were called by Joutel, early
+occupied the southwestern part of the present State of Arkansas, the Red
+River Valley, and adjacent region to the south and west.
+
+La Salle was murdered near the banks of the Trinity, in eastern Texas,
+March 20, 1687. Joutel and several others of the party pushed on, and
+nine days later, when traversing the valley of the Red River, arrived at
+a village of the Cenis. Fortunately a very good account of the people
+and their homes is preserved in Joutel's narrative, and from it the
+following quotations are made:
+
+"The _Indian_ that was with us conducted us to their Chief's Cottage.
+By the Way, we saw many other Cottages, and the Elders coming to meet us
+in their Formalities, which consisted in some Goat Skins dress'd and
+painted of several Colours, which they wore on their Shoulders like
+Belts, and Plumes of Feathers of several Colours, on their Heads, like
+Coronets.... All their Faces were daub'd with black or red. There were
+twelve Elders, who walk'd in the Middle, and the Youth and Warriors in
+Ranks, on the Sides of those old Men." After remaining a short time with
+the chief "They led us to a larger Cottage, a Quarter of a League from
+thence, being the Hut in which they have their public Rejoycings, and
+the great Assemblies. We found it furnish'd with Mats for us to sit on.
+The Elders seated themselves round about us, and they brought us to eat,
+some _Sagamite_, which is their Pottage, little Beans, Bread made of
+_Indian_ Corn, and another Sort they make with boil'd Flower, and at
+last they made us smoke."
+
+They proceeded to another village not far away, and, so the narrative
+continues: "By the Way, we saw several Cottages at certain Distances,
+stragling up and down, as the Ground happens to be fit for Tillage. The
+Field lies about the Cottage, and at other Distances there are other
+large Huts, not inhabited, but only serving for publick Assemblies,
+either upon Occasion of Rejoycing, or to consult about Peace and War.
+
+"The Cottages that are inhabited, are not each of them for a private
+Family, for in some of them are fifteen or twenty, each of which has its
+Nook or Corner, Bed and other Utensils to its self: but without any
+Partition to separate it from the rest: However, they have Nothing in
+Common besides the Fire, which is in the Midst of the Hut, and never
+goes out. It is made of great Trees, the Ends whereof are laid together,
+so that when once lighted, it lasts a long Time, and the first Comer
+takes Care to keep it up." Here follows a brief description of the
+appearance of the structures of the village, the dwellings resembling
+those later mentioned as being typical of the Wichita. "The Cottages are
+round at the Top, after the manner of a Bee-Hive, or a Reek of Hay. Some
+of them are sixty Foot Diameter." There follows a brief account of the
+method of constructing such a house. "In order to build them, they plant
+Trees as thick as a Man's thigh, tall and strait, and placing them in a
+Circle, and joyning the Tops together, from the Dome, or round Top, then
+they lash and cover them with Weeds. When they remove their Dwellings,
+they generally burn the Cottages they leave, and build new on the Ground
+they design to inhabit. Their Moveables are some Bullocks Hides and
+Goats Skins well cur'd, some Mats close wove, wherewith they adorn their
+Huts, and some Earthen Vessels, which they are very skilful at making,
+and wherein they boil their Flesh or Roots, or _Sagamite_, which, as has
+been said, is their Pottage. They have also some small Baskets made of
+Canes, serving to put in their Fruit and other Provisions. Their Beds
+are made of Canes, rais'd two or three Foot above the Ground, handsomely
+fitted with Mats and Bullocks Hides, or Goats Skins well cur'd, which
+serve them for Feather Beds, or Quilts and Blankets; and those Beds are
+parted one from another by Mats hung up." (Joutel, (1), pp. 106-109.)
+
+The preceding is probably the clearest description of the furnishings of
+a native structure standing beyond the Mississippi during the last
+quarter of the seventeenth century that has been preserved. The large
+circular structures served as the dwelling place of many individuals.
+The beds were placed, so it may be assumed, in a line around the wall,
+each separated from its neighbor by a mat. A large fire burned in the
+center of the space. In many respects the large dwellings of the Caddo
+must have closely resembled the great round structures which stood north
+of St. Augustine, Florida, about the year 1700. (Bushnell, (1), pp.
+84-86.)
+
+Brief accounts of the many small tribes living south of the Arkansas
+River soon after the transfer of Louisiana contain references to the
+numerous villages, but fail, unfortunately, to describe the structures
+in detail. (Sibley, (1), pp. 721-725.) The dwellings probably resembled
+those already mentioned as standing a century and more before.
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION.
+
+
+The references brought together and presented on the preceding pages
+will reveal the nature of the dwellings and the appearance of the camps
+and villages which stood, so short a time ago, in the region between the
+Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains. First encountered in the southern
+part of the country by the Spanish expeditions led by De Soto and
+Coronado before the middle of the sixteenth century, and by the French
+who entered the upper and central portions of the Mississippi Valley
+during the latter part of the seventeenth century, all types of
+structures continued to be reared and occupied until the latter half of
+the nineteenth century, while some forms are even now in use, although
+it is highly probable that within another generation these, too, will
+have disappeared.
+
+Various writers during the eighteenth century mentioned the tribes of
+the Upper Missouri Valley, but all accounts prepared at that time are
+rather vague, as was their knowledge of conditions on and in the region
+bordering the Great Plains. And not until after the transfer of
+Louisiana to the United States, and as a result of the several
+expeditions sent out by the Government to explore the newly acquired
+territories, did the various groups of tribes, with their peculiar
+characteristics, become known with a degree of certainty. But with the
+transfer of Louisiana conditions rapidly changed. Hunters and traders
+soon penetrated the wilderness where few had gone before. Fort Crawford,
+at the mouth of the Wisconsin; Fort Snelling, just below the Falls of
+St. Anthony; and Leavenworth, on the Missouri, were established before
+the close of the first quarter of the century. Towns were built farther
+and farther beyond the old frontier, and on April 18, 1851, Kurz wrote
+in his journal:
+
+"St Joseph, formerly the trading post of Joseph Robidoux, is at the foot
+of the Blacksnake hills, on the left bank of the Missouri.... The
+streets are crowded with traders and emigrants on their way to
+California and Oregon. Many Indians of the tribes of the Pottowatomis,
+Foxes (Musquakees), Kikapoos, Iowas, and Otoes are continually in the
+town.... In summer the _Bourgeois_, or Chiefs, the clerks and _Engages_
+of the fur companies enliven the streets.... St. Joseph is now what St
+Louis was formerly--their gathering place." Thus the Indian in his
+primitive state was doomed, as were the vast herds of buffalo which then
+roamed, unopposed, over the far-reaching prairies.
+
+In studying the various types of structures it is interesting to learn
+how the natural environments influenced the form of dwellings erected by
+the tribes of a particular section. Thus in the densely timbered country
+of the north, about the headwaters of the Mississippi and far beyond,
+the mat and bark covered wigwams were developed and employed practically
+to the exclusion of all other forms of habitations. But on the plains,
+and in the regions bordering the great buffalo ranges, the skin-covered
+conical tipis predominated, although other forms were sometimes
+constructed by the same people. The earth lodges as erected by certain
+tribes of the Missouri Valley were the most interesting native
+structures east of the Rocky Mountains, and these at once suggest the
+_Rotundas_, or great council houses once built by the Cherokees and
+Creeks east of the Mississippi.
+
+In treating of the habitations and villages of the several tribes
+references have been made, incidentally, to the manners and ways of life
+of the people who once claimed and occupied so great a part of the
+present United States.
+
+
+
+
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+
+
+SYNONYMY
+
+
+ Accancea=Quapaw.
+ Ahnahaways=Amahami.
+ Alkansa=Quapaw.
+ Archithinue=Blackfeet.
+ Aricaree, Arickarees, Arikkaras=Arikara.
+ Arkansa=Quapaw.
+ Arwacahwas=Amahami.
+ Asinepoet, Assinneboins=Assiniboin.
+ Assonis=Caddo.
+ Awachawi=Amahami.
+ Big-bellied Indians=Atsina.
+ Big Bellys=Hidatsa.
+ Canzee=Kansa.
+ Cenis=Caddo.
+ Chayennes=Cheyenne.
+ Chepewyans=Chipewyan.
+ Chippeway=Chippewa.
+ Cristinaux=Cree.
+ Dacotahs=Dakota.
+ Fall Indians=Atsina.
+ Grosventre Indians, Grosventres, Gros Ventres of the Missouri=Hidatsa.
+ Gros Ventres of the Prairie=Atsina.
+ Huecos=Waco.
+ Kansas, Kanzas, Kaws=Kansa.
+ Knistenaux, Knisteneaux=Cree.
+ Konsee, Konza, Konzas=Kansa.
+ Machigamea=Michigamea.
+ Maha=Omaha.
+ Manitaries, Minatarres, Minnetarees=Hidatsa.
+ Minnetarees of Fort de Prairie=Atsina.
+ Naudowessies=Dakota.
+ Nehetheway=Cree.
+ Ogallallaha=Oglala.
+ Ojibway=Chippewa.
+ Omawhaw=Omaha.
+ Osinipoilles=Assiniboin.
+ Otoes, Ottoes=Oto.
+ Ougapa=Quapaw.
+ Pay-gans, Picaneaux, Piekann=Piegan.
+ Poncara, Punca, Punka=Ponca.
+ Quappa=Quapaw.
+ Quivira=Wichita.
+ Rapid Indians=Atsina.
+ Ree, Ricaras, Riccaree, Rickarees, Rus=Arikara.
+ Sak=Sauk.
+ Sarsees=Sarsi.
+ Saulteaux, Sautaux, Sauteaux, Sauteux=Chippewa.
+ Sharha=Cheyenne.
+ Shoe Indians=Amahami.
+ Shoshonees=Shoshoni.
+ Soulier Noir=Amahami.
+ Stone Indians=Assiniboin.
+ Sur-cees=Sarsi.
+ Upsaroka=Crows.
+ Waekoes, Wakos=Waco.
+ Wattasoons=Amahami.
+ Witchita=Wichita.
+ Yanctonies=Yanktonai.
+ Yanctons=Yankton.
+
+
+
+
+EXPLANATION OF PLATES
+
+
+The art of photography has made it possible to preserve a pictorial
+record of the dwellings and other structures of native tribes beyond the
+Mississippi, and many early photographs, together with drawings and
+paintings by various artists, have been selected to illustrate the
+present work.
+
+
+PLATE 1
+
+One of the original drawings by Griset reproduced by woodcuts in Col. R.
+I. Dodge's work _The Plains of the Great West_, 1877. The reproduction
+is now made exact size of the original. Collection of David I. Bushnell,
+jr.
+
+Ernest Henry Griset, born in France, 1844; died March 22, 1907. Lived in
+England, where he did much of his work. In 1871 he exhibited at Suffolk
+Street. Some of his paintings are hung in the Victoria and Albert
+Museum. More than 30 examples of his work belong to the Smithsonian
+Institution, Washington. "His reputation rests on his water-color
+studies of animals, for which he was awarded prizes in London. Two of
+his best-known works are _Cache-cache_, and _Travailleurs de la foret_."
+
+
+PLATE 2
+
+Reproduction of one of the five paintings by Stanley now in the United
+States National Museum, Washington, D. C.
+
+James M. Stanley, born in Canandaigua, New York, January 17, 1814; died
+April 10, 1872. He moved to Michigan in 1835 and became a portrait
+painter in Detroit; two years later removed to Chicago. About this time
+he visited the "Indian Country" in the vicinity of Fort Snelling, and
+there made many sketches. Returned to the eastern cities, where he spent
+several years, but in 1842 again went west and began his wanderings over
+the prairies far beyond the Mississippi, reaching Texas and New Mexico.
+His _Buffalo Hunt on the Southwestern Prairies_ was made in 1845. From
+1851 to 1863 Stanley lived in Washington, D. C., during which time he
+endeavored to have the Government purchase the many paintings which he
+had made of Indians and of scenes in the Indian country, but
+unfortunately he was not successful. His pictures were hanging in the
+Smithsonian Building, and on January 24, 1865, when a large part of the
+building was ruined by fire, only five of his pictures escaped
+destruction, they being in a different part of the structure. The five
+are now in the National Museum, including the large canvas shown in this
+plate.
+
+
+PLATE 3
+
+This is considered to be one of Wimar's best works. The original is
+owned by the City Art Museum, St. Louis, Missouri. Size of canvas, 36
+inches high, 60 inches long.
+
+Charles Ferdinand Wimar, usually known as Carl Wimar, was born in
+Germany, 1828; died in St. Louis, November, 1862. Came to America and
+settled in St. Louis during the year 1843. A few years later he met the
+French artist Leon de Pomarede, with whom he later studied and made
+several journeys up the Missouri for the purpose of sketching. Went to
+Europe and returned to St. Louis about 1857. His _Buffalo Hunt_, now
+reproduced, was painted in 1860, exhibited at the St. Louis Fair during
+the autumn of that year, when it was seen by the Prince of Wales, later
+Edward VII, for whom a replica was made.
+
+
+PLATE 4
+
+One of four water-color sketches by Peter Rindisbacher secured in London
+some years ago. Size of original 9-1/4 inches high, 17-1/8 inches long.
+Collection of David I. Bushnell, jr. Twenty or more similar sketches are
+in the library of the Military Academy, West Point. One of these was
+used as an illustration by McKenney and Hall in their great work; the
+second used by them is in a private collection in Washington. Another of
+the pictures now at West Point was reproduced by wood cut and appeared
+on page 181 of Burton's Gentleman's Magazine, Philadelphia, April, 1840.
+Rindisbacher may have come to America with the Swiss colonists who
+settled in the Red River Valley in 1821, and in the Public Archives of
+Canada are six small sketches which were probably made by him at that
+time. (See pl. 6, _a_.)
+
+
+PLATE 5
+
+_a._ A scene near Fort Carlton, 1846, showing buffalo approaching a
+pound. Reproduction of a photograph of the painting by Kane, now in the
+Royal Ontario Museum of Archaeology, Toronto, Canada. Size of painting,
+18 inches high, 29 inches long.
+
+Paul Kane, born at York, the present city of Toronto, 1810; died 1871.
+After spending several years in the United States he went to Europe,
+where he studied in various art centers. Returned to Canada, and from
+early in 1845 until the autumn of 1848 traveled among the native tribes
+of the far west, making a large number of paintings of Indians and
+scenes in the Indian country. One hundred or more of his paintings are
+in the Museum at Toronto; others are in the Public Archives of Canada,
+Ottawa. Some of the sketches and paintings were reproduced in his work
+_Wanderings of an Artist_, London, 1859.
+
+_b._ Reproduction of a photograph, probably made in the upper Missouri
+Valley about 1870.
+
+
+PLATE 6
+
+_a._ Reproduction of a water-color sketch now in the collection in
+Public Archives of Canada, Ottawa. It is one of six small sketches "by
+an artist, probably Swiss, who accompanied the European emigrants
+brought by Lord Selkirk's agents to the Red River Settlement in 1821."
+Size of original, 5-5/8 inches high, 7-5/8 inches long. Although not
+signed it suggests and resembles the work of Peter Rindisbacher. (See
+note, pl. 4.)
+
+_b._ Reproduced from an original photograph furnished by the Minnesota
+Historical Society, St. Paul.
+
+
+PLATE 7
+
+_a._ Reproduction of a photograph of a painting by Kane, now in the
+Museum at Toronto. Size of original, 18 inches high, 29 inches long.
+(See note, pl. 5, _a_.) This was engraved and shown on page 7 of his
+work _Wanderings of an Artist_.
+
+_b._ Reproduced from an original photograph made near the Red River
+during the summer of 1858 by Humphrey Lloyd Hime, who was photographer
+with the expedition led by Henry Youle Hind.
+
+
+PLATE 8
+
+_a_ and _b_. Same as _b_, plate 7. Original photographs are in the
+Bureau of American Ethnology.
+
+
+PLATE 9
+
+Both _a_ and _b_ are from original photographs belonging to the
+Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul. The two small prints are mounted
+on similar cards, that of _b_ bearing the name of C. A. Zimmerman,
+photographer. The name has been cut from _a_. Both are attributed to
+Zimmerman, who, in 1869, purchased the studio of Whitney, which had been
+established some years. The negatives may have been made by Whitney, and
+although the prints are catalogued as Ojibway habitations, nevertheless
+_a_ resembles more closely the Siouan type, with an arbor over the
+entrance, and the photograph may have been made in a Sioux village. The
+dwellings are quite similar to the Winnebago structure shown in plate
+36, _a_.
+
+Charles Alfred Zimmerman was born in Strassburg, Alsace, June 21, 1844;
+died in St. Paul, Minnesota, September 23, 1909.
+
+
+PLATE 10
+
+Reproductions of original photographs by David I. Bushnell, jr. October,
+1899.
+
+
+PLATE 11
+
+_a._ This small log structure stood near the southeastern shore of Cass
+Lake, Minnesota. Several Ojibway Indians are in the picture. Original
+photograph by David I. Bushnell, jr. November, 1899.
+
+_b._ The old Ojibway medicine man, Nagwanabe, a name well known in
+Ojibway annals, is shown holding a club of unusual design which he said
+he took from a Sioux warrior many years ago, during a fight between some
+of his people and members of that tribe. Original photograph by David I.
+Bushnell, jr. 1900.
+
+
+PLATE 12
+
+_a._ Objects collected among the Ojibway. At top, a hammer formed of a
+section of a small tree with part of a branch cut to serve as a handle.
+Used in driving plugs in maple trees during the season of sugar making.
+Mille Lac, May, 1900. Bag braided of narrow strips of cedar bark. Size
+about 9-1/2 inches square. From the Ojibway settlement on shore of
+Basswood Lake, north of Ely, Lake County, Minnesota, October, 1899. Two
+tools used in dressing skins. Formed of leg bones of moose, beveled and
+serrated. Length of example on right, 15 inches. Cass Lake, Minnesota,
+1898.
+
+_b._ Section of rush mat.
+
+
+PLATE 13
+
+_a._ Wooden mortar and pestle collected among the Ojibway. Length of
+pestle about 37-1/2 inches. Reproduced from Fourteenth Annual Report
+Bureau of Ethnology, part 1, p. 257.
+
+_b._ Mortar and pestle collected among the Delaware by Dr. E. Palmer and
+acquired by the National Museum November 11, 1868. Length of pestle
+33-1/2 inches. Diameter of mortar 7-1/2 inches, height 15 inches. (U. S.
+N. M. 6900.)
+
+_c._ Birch-bark dish, type used extensively by the Ojibway and other
+northern tribes. Reproduced from Nineteenth Annual Report Bureau of
+American Ethnology, part 2, Pl. LXXIX.
+
+
+PLATE 14
+
+Reproduced from an original negative now in the Bureau of American
+Ethnology.
+
+
+PLATE 15
+
+Reproduced from the engraving of the painting by Bodmer, as used by
+Maximilian.
+
+Karl Bodmer, born in Zurich, Switzerland, 1805; died 1894. Studied under
+Cornu. He accompanied Maximilian, Prince of Wied, on several journeys,
+including that up the Valley of the Missouri. Many of his original
+sketches made during that memorable trip are now in the Edward E. Ayer
+collection, Newberry Library, Chicago. His later works are chiefly of
+wooded landscapes, some being scenes in the valleys of the Missouri and
+Mississippi. Bodmer was a very close friend of the great artist Jean
+Francois Millet. De Cost Smith, in Century Magazine, May, 1910,
+discussing the close association of the two artists, and referring
+especially to their joint work, wrote: "The two men must have worked
+together from the pure joy of friendship, for it must be confessed that
+the work of neither was very greatly improved by the other's additions.
+Bodmer would put a horse into one of Millet's Indian pictures and add
+some vegetation in the foreground, Millet would return the favor by
+introducing figures into Bodmer's landscapes." But this does not refer
+to the sketches made by Bodmer during his journey up the Missouri in
+1833.
+
+
+PLATE 16
+
+_a._ Reproduction of a wood cut on page 420 of _Wanderings of an
+Artist_. The original painting by Kane is now in the Royal Ontario
+Museum of Archaeology, Toronto, being No. 51 in the catalogue. Size of
+painting, 18 inches high, 29 inches long. (See note, pl. 5, _a_.)
+
+_b._ The original photograph from which this illustration is made is in
+the collection of the United States National Museum, Washington, D. C.
+It is not known by whom the negative was made.
+
+
+PLATE 17
+
+Reproduced from the engraving of the original painting by Bodmer, as
+used by Maximilian. (See note, pl. 15.)
+
+
+PLATE 18
+
+Both _a_ and _b_ are reproductions of photographs furnished by the State
+Historical Society of Iowa.
+
+
+PLATE 19
+
+Reproduction of an original photograph in a scrapbook, which contains
+many manuscript notes, news clippings, etc., prepared by Newton H.
+Chittenden. The book is now in the Manuscript Division, Library of
+Congress, Washington, D. C.
+
+
+PLATE 20
+
+From original photographs by David I. Bushnell, jr. 1900.
+
+
+PLATE 21
+
+Reproduction of an original pencil sketch of the Sioux village of
+Kaposia, made June 19, 1851, by F. B. Mayer. The drawing is now in the
+Edward E. Ayer collection, Newberry Library, Chicago.
+
+Frank Blackwell Mayer, born in Baltimore, Maryland, December 27, 1827;
+died in 1908. Many of his paintings represented scenes in Indian life,
+and in 1886 he completed a canvas entitled _The Treaty of Traverse des
+Sioux_, the treaty having been signed during the summer of 1851, about
+the time the sketch of Kaposia was made.
+
+
+PLATE 22
+
+Both _a_ and _b_ are reproduced from engravings of paintings by Eastman,
+used by Schoolcraft in _Information respecting the History, Conditions,
+and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States, 1851-1857_.
+
+Seth Eastman, born in Brunswick, Maine, January 24, 1808; died in
+Washington, D. C., August 31, 1875. Was appointed to the Military
+Academy, West Point, at the age of 16, and was graduated June, 1829.
+Served at Fort Crawford and Fort Snelling, where he had ample
+opportunities for studying the Indians who frequented the posts. In
+November, 1831, he was detailed for duty at the Academy and retired from
+active service December, 1863. From 1850 to 1855 he was engaged in the
+preparation of the illustrations used in the work mentioned above,
+evidently under the supervision of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs.
+
+
+PLATE 23
+
+_a._ Reproduction of a drawing made by Catlin of one of his oil
+sketches. The original painting is now in the United States National
+Museum, Washington, D. C.
+
+George Catlin, born in Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania, 1796; died in Jersey
+City, New Jersey, December 23, 1872. In the year 1832 he went to the
+then far west, and during the succeeding eight years traveled among
+numerous native tribes, making many paintings portraying the life and
+customs of the people. He went to Europe, taking with him his great
+collection of pictures and objects obtained from the Indians among whom
+he had been for so long a time. One hundred and twenty-six of his
+pictures were shown at the Centennial Exposition, Philadelphia, 1876,
+and now more than 500 of his works, portraits and scenes are preserved
+in the National Museum, forming a collection of inestimable value and
+interest.
+
+_b._ Fort Pierre, after sketch by Kurz, July 4, 1851.
+
+Friedrich Kurz, born in Bern, Switzerland, 1818; died 1871. At the
+suggestion of his friend Karl Bodmer, he came to America in 1846, for
+the purpose of studying the native tribes, intending to prepare a
+well-illustrated account of his travels. He landed at New Orleans and
+reached St. Louis by way of the Mississippi. The trouble with Mexico had
+developed, and for that reason instead of going to the Southwest, to
+endeavor to accomplish among the tribes of that region what Bodmer had
+already done among the people of the Upper Missouri Valley, he decided
+to follow the route of the latter and ascend the Missouri to the Rocky
+Mountains. But although his plans were changed he did not become
+discouraged, and on October 28, 1851, entered in his journal: "My plan
+is still for the gallery.... I shall have lots of correct drawings."
+Cholera raged along the upper Missouri in 1851, and for that reason Kurz
+was unable to remain at Fort Pierre. However, he reached Fort Berthold
+July 9, 1851. Later he continued to Fort Union at the mouth of the
+Yellowstone, where he remained until April 19, 1852. Returning, he
+reached St. Louis May 25, thus covering the distance from the mouth of
+the Yellowstone in five weeks and one day. He arrived in Bern during
+September of that year and was soon appointed drawing master in the
+schools of his native city, a position which he held until his death.
+
+During the winter of 1851-52, while Kurz was at Fort Union, a German
+artist of some ability was with the Oto and Omaha near the banks of the
+Missouri. H. Baldwin Moellhausen, late in the autumn of 1851, became lost
+on the frozen, snow-covered prairies south of the Platte, and was
+rescued by a family of Oto encamped on the bank of a small stream. He
+remained with the Oto and later returned with them to their village near
+the mouth of the Platte. From the Oto village he went up the Missouri to
+the Omaha, with whom he stayed some weeks. While with the two tribes he
+made many sketches of the Indians and scenes depicting the ways of life
+of the people. When he returned to his home in Berlin he carried with
+him the collection of drawings, and these, if found at the present time,
+would probably prove of much interest.
+
+
+PLATE 24
+
+Both _a_ and _b_ are reproductions of photographs made in the vicinity
+of Fort Laramie in 1868, during the visit of the Indian Peace
+Commission. The commission was composed of a number of Army officers who
+went among many of the Plains tribes for the purpose of gaining their
+friendship for the Government. From original prints in the possession of
+Mrs. N. H. Beauregard, St. Louis. The name of the photographer is not
+known.
+
+_c._ From the engraving of the original picture by Bodmer, as used by
+Maximilian. (See note, pl. 15.)
+
+
+PLATE 25
+
+_a._ Reproduced from a photograph of the original painting by Kane, now
+in the Royal Ontario Museum of Archaeology, Toronto. Rocky Mountain Fort
+in the distance on the right. No. 57 in the catalogue. Size of picture,
+18 inches high, 29 inches long. (See note, pl. 5, _a_.)
+
+_b._ From a photograph of a water-color sketch by Kurz. (See note, pl.
+23, _b_.)
+
+
+PLATE 26
+
+_a._ From an original negative now in the Bureau of American Ethnology,
+made by Jackson in 1871. It was probably made at the Omaha village shown
+in plate 27.
+
+_b._ A page of Kurz's sketchbook. (See note, pl. 23, _b_.)
+
+
+PLATE 27
+
+Omaha village, from an original negative made by Jackson in 1871 and now
+in the Bureau of American Ethnology. According to La Flesche, "The
+location of the Omaha village can best be described as in the southwest
+quarter of Section 30, Township 25, Range 10, in the extreme eastern
+border of Thurston County, Nebraska. The land was allotted in 1883 to
+Pe-de-ga-hi, one of the Omaha chiefs. It is about three-quarters of a
+mile west of the historic site known as Blackbird Hill, on which the
+great medicine man Blackbird was buried."
+
+
+PLATE 28
+
+Both _a_ and _b_ represent pages in Kurz's sketchbook. (See note, pl. 23,
+_b_.)
+
+
+PLATE 29
+
+Reproduced from the engraving of Bodmer's painting, as illustrated by
+Maximilian. (See note, pl. 15.)
+
+
+PLATE 30
+
+_a._ Reproduction of the illustration in De Smet's work, where the
+picture is signed _Geo. Lehman, del._
+
+_b._ Reproduced from the engraving after a drawing by Samuel Seymour.
+
+In the instructions issued to members of the expedition, dated
+"Pittsburgh, March 31, 1819," Major Long stated: "Mr. Seymour, as
+painter for the expedition, will furnish sketches of landscapes,
+whenever we meet with any distinguished for their beauty and grandeur.
+He will also paint miniature likenesses, or portraits if required, of
+distinguished Indians, and exhibit groups of savages engaged in
+celebrating their festivals or sitting in council, and in general
+illustrate any subject, that may be deemed appropriate in his art."
+
+
+PLATE 31
+
+Reproduced from a photograph in the Chittenden scrapbook. (See note, pl.
+19.)
+
+
+PLATE 32
+
+_a._ From an original photograph furnished by Francis La Flesche.
+
+_b._ Reproduced from an illustration in Transactions of the Kansas State
+Historical Society, 1907-1908, Vol. X. Topeka, 1908.
+
+
+PLATE 33
+
+Reproduced from an engraving of the original drawing by Samuel Seymour.
+(See note, pl. 30, _b_.)
+
+
+PLATE 34
+
+Specimens in the United States National Museum.
+
+
+PLATE 35
+
+_a._ After original drawing by Friedrich Kurz. (See note, pl. 23, _b_.)
+
+_b._ Photograph of specimen now in the United States National Museum.
+
+
+PLATE 36
+
+Both _a_ and _b_ are reproduced from original photographs in the United
+States National Museum, Washington. It is not known by whom the
+negatives were made.
+
+
+PLATE 37
+
+From a photograph made about the year 1900, furnished by Miss Alice C.
+Fletcher. The structures stood near the bank of the Missouri, north of
+the Omahas. The photograph was reproduced as plate 18 in the
+Twenty-seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology.
+
+
+PLATE 38
+
+_a._ From the drawing by Catlin of the original painting. This is No.
+503 in Catlin's Catalogue (London, 1848), where it is described as "The
+Interior of a Mandan Lodge, showing the manner in which it is
+constructed of poles and covered with dirt. The chief is seen smoking
+his pipe, and his family grouped around him."
+
+_b._ After the original painting in the National Museum, Washington.
+This is the fourth and last of Catlin's paintings representing different
+scenes during the remarkable ceremony by the Mandan. No. 507 in the
+Catalogue, where it is referred to as "The Last Race."
+
+George Catlin. (See note, pl. 23, _a_.)
+
+
+PLATE 39
+
+From the engraving of Bodmer's painting used by Maximilian. (See note,
+pl. 15.)
+
+
+PLATE 40
+
+Reproduced from the engraving of Bodmer's painting as used by
+Maximilian. (See note, pl. 15.)
+
+
+PLATE 41
+
+Two wooden bowls and a pottery vessel collected among the Mandan.
+Specimens in the United States National Museum.
+
+
+PLATE 42
+
+Examples of spoons, one made of a buffalo horn, the other formed from a
+horn of a mountain sheep, now in the United States National Museum.
+
+
+PLATE 43
+
+Reproduction of the original painting by Catlin, now in the United
+States National Museum, Washington. It is No. 383 in Catlin's Catalogue,
+described as "Minatarree Village, earth-covered lodges, on Knife River,
+1,810 miles above St. Louis."
+
+George Catlin. (See note, pl. 23, _a_.)
+
+
+PLATE 44
+
+_a._ Original pencil sketch by Bodmer of the finished picture shown in
+_b_. The sketch is now in the Edward E. Ayer collection, Newberry
+Library, Chicago.
+
+_b._ Reproduction of a photograph of the engraving as used by
+Maximilian.
+
+
+PLATE 45
+
+After original sketches by Friedrich Kurz. (See note, pl. 23, _b_.)
+
+
+PLATE 46
+
+_a._ Reproduction of the original painting by Catlin, now in the United
+States National Museum, Washington. It is mentioned as No. 491 in
+Catlin's Catalogue and described as a "Crow Lodge, of twenty-five
+buffalo-skins." A drawing made from the painting appeared as plate 20 in
+Vol. I of Catlin's work.
+
+_b._ From the original negative by Jackson now in the Bureau of American
+Ethnology.
+
+
+PLATE 47
+
+A rather crude woodcut, made from this photograph, was used in
+Dunraven's book, _The Great Divide_. Unfortunately it is not known when
+or by whom this most interesting negative was made, but it was probably
+the work of J. D. Hutton, a member of the Raynolds party during the
+exploration of the Yellowstone Valley, 1859-1860. Although the Raynolds
+journal is in the War Department in Washington, there is no record or
+list of the photographs, many of which are known to have been made
+during the journey. A number of Hutton's photographs were reproduced by
+Hayden in his work _Contributions to the Ethnography and Philology of
+the Indian Tribes of the Missouri Valley_, Philadelphia, 1862.
+
+
+PLATE 48
+
+A page from Kurz's sketchbook, carried by him during his travels through
+the Upper Missouri Valley. This shows several traders approaching Fort
+Union and a herd of buffalo in the distance on the right. (See note, pl.
+23, _b_.)
+
+
+PLATE 49
+
+Two negatives were made by Jackson, evidently without moving the camera.
+One was reproduced in Bulletin 69 of this Bureau's publications; the
+second is now shown. The first negative now belongs to the Bureau, but
+the present plate is a reproduction of a photograph furnished by the
+Peabody Museum, Harvard University.
+
+Concerning the photographs now reproduced in plates 49, 50, and 51, Mr.
+W. H. Jackson, now of Detroit, wrote to the Bureau, April 28, 1921, and
+said in part: "Negatives to which you refer, viz, of Pawnee village
+scenes, were made by myself in 1871 on my return from the first
+Yellowstone expedition of the Survey, this trip also including a visit
+to the Omaha Agency."
+
+
+PLATE 50
+
+Earth lodges standing in the Pawnee village. From original negative by
+W. H. Jackson, 1871. Negative now in the Bureau of American Ethnology.
+
+
+PLATE 51
+
+Views in the Pawnee village, after photographs by Jackson, 1871.
+Original photographs belonging to the Bureau of American Ethnology.
+
+
+PLATE 52
+
+Specimens in the United States National Museum.
+
+
+PLATE 53
+
+Reproduction of a photograph of the original painting by Catlin, now in
+the United States National Museum. It is No. 386 in Catlin's Catalogue,
+described as "Riccaree Village, with earth-covered lodges, 1,600 miles
+above St. Louis."
+
+George Catlin. (See note, pl. 23, _a_.)
+
+
+PLATE 54
+
+Specimens in the United States National Museum.
+
+
+PLATE 55
+
+_a._ From a photograph in the Chittenden scrapbook. (See note, pl. 19.)
+
+_b._ After a photograph in the collection of the United States National
+Museum.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ ACCANCEA. _See_ Quapaw.
+
+ AGRICULTURE--
+ among Sauk and Foxes, 40
+ of the Arikara, 179
+ of the Mandan, 127
+ of the Osage, 106
+
+ ALGONQUIAN FAMILY--
+ characteristics of villages of, 7
+ general movement of groups of, 3
+ groups comprising western division of, 1
+ largest north of Mexico, 43
+ villages of, described, 1
+
+ AL-LE-GA-WA-HO'S VILLAGE, 97
+
+ ALLEN, J.A., book by, on the buffalo, 7
+
+ ALLOUEZ, PERE, mission conducted by, 122
+
+ AMAHAMI--
+ once united with the Hidatsa and Crow, 140
+ village of, on Knife River, 125, 141
+
+ AMERICAN FUR COMPANY--
+ post of, 75
+ trade of, with Sioux, 61
+
+ ANIMALS--
+ domestic, lack of, among the Iowa, 114
+ domestic, of the Kansa, 90
+ of the Dakota country, 4
+ _See_ Buffalo, Dogs, Game.
+
+ ARAPAHO--
+ an Algonquian group, 1
+ country occupied by, 33-34
+ habitations of, 34
+
+ ARAPAHO VILLAGE--
+ described by Fremont, 36-37
+ photograph of, 37
+
+ ARBOR ENTRANCE, a Siouan feature, 122
+
+ ARCHITHINUE NATIVES, name applied to Blackfeet, 25, 26
+
+ ARIKARA--
+ a Caddoan group, 2
+ encampments of, visited by Lewis and Clark, 23
+ hostility of, to whites, 176, 179
+ Mandan village occupied by, 139
+ migration of, 167, 169-170
+ pottery of, 174
+ settlement of, near Fort Berthold, 147
+ skilled agriculturists, 179
+ warfare of, with Sioux, 70
+
+ AKIKARA VILLAGES--
+ described by Brackenridge, 172, 173
+ described by Bradbury, 172
+ described by Maximilian, 175-176
+ on the Missouri, 168
+ sites of, 168-169
+ sketched by Catlin, 175
+
+ ARK OF THE FIRST MAN, 129, 132
+
+ ARKANSA. _See_ Quapaw.
+
+ ARKANSAS BAND, a division of the Osage, 98
+
+ ASSINIBOIN, a Missouri River steamboat 130
+ trip of, to the Yellowstone River, 142
+
+ ASSINIBOIN TRIBE--
+ alliance of, with Cree, 71
+ camp of, described by Maximilian, 75-76
+ country occupied by, 71
+ location and number of, 32
+ of the Dakota-Assiniboin group, 2
+ on the march, 73, 74
+ relation of, to other tribes, 44
+ separated from Yanktonai, 71
+ structures of, 71, 72, 73, 76-77
+ with Cree, at Mandan village, 74
+
+ ASSINIBOIN VILLAGE--
+ size of, 73, 74
+ movement of, 73, 74
+
+ ATSINA, a division of the Arapaho, 1, 25
+ allied with tribes of the Blackfeet confederacy, 25, 34
+ fortified camps of, 34
+ incorporated with the Assiniboin, 25
+ various names for, 34
+
+ ATSINA VILLAGE, described by Maximilian, 35
+
+ AVENUE, pottery on site of, 112
+
+ AWACHAWI, an Hidatsa village, 142
+
+ AWATICHAY, an Hidatsa village, 142
+
+ AYAUWAYS, excursions of, against the Osage, 98
+
+ BARK-COVERED LODGES--
+ as summer habitations, 38, 51, 84
+ as winter habitations, 51
+ employed in timber country, 184-185
+ erected by the Dakota, 44
+ of the Kansa, 95
+ of the Mdewakanton, 50
+ of the Ojibway, 9-13, 16, 17, 56
+ of the Osage, 98
+ of the Oto, 120
+ of the Quapaw, 109
+ of the Sauk and Foxes, 39
+
+ BASKETRY--
+ of the Arikara, 169
+ of the Osage, 103
+
+ BEAUREGARD, MRS. N.H., copy by, of manuscript, 90
+
+ BEDS--
+ of the Caddo, 183
+ of the Kansa, 92
+ of the Mandan, 133, 134
+
+ BELLEVUE, a trading post on the Missouri, 81
+
+ BIG-BELLIED INDIANS. _See_ Atsina.
+
+ BIG KAW, an Oto Indian, 117
+
+ BIG KNIVES, Kansa name for the whites, 89
+
+ BIG TRACK, an Osage chief, 98
+
+ BIRCH BARK STRUCTURES, 9-13
+ _See_ Bark-covered lodges.
+
+ BLACKFEET CONFEDERACY, tribes composing, 1, 25
+
+ BLACKFEET INDIANS--
+ camps of, described by Maximilian, 28
+ ceremonial lodges of, 33
+ country inhabited by, 27, 32
+ descriptions of, 25-28
+ manner of living, 33
+ number of, 32
+ warlike nature of, 28
+ war party of, 31
+ _See_ Siksika.
+
+ BLACK HAWK, birthplace of, 38
+
+ BLACK HILLS, no permanent Indian settlement in, 70
+
+ BLOOD INDIANS--
+ country occupied by, 27, 32
+ number of, 32
+ _See_ Kainah.
+
+ BODMER--
+ painting by, of Atsina village, 35
+ painting by, of chief's lodge, 76
+ painting by, of Mandan village, 133
+ drawing by, of tipis, 58
+ sketch by, in Newberry Library, 143
+
+ BOWLS, WOODEN, of the Mandan, 137
+
+ BRADBURY, visit of, to Omaha village, 78
+
+ BRULES, a Teton band, 2
+
+ BRUSH SHELTERS OF THE ASSINIBOIN, 75
+
+ BUFFALO--
+ Arikara offering to, 174
+ hunting of, 4-7
+ importance of, to the Indian, 3-4
+ manner of traveling, 72
+
+ BUFFALO HUNT--
+ described by Fremont, 35-36
+ of the Oglala, 68
+
+ BUFFALO POUNDS, 5-6
+ use of, by Blackfeet, 26
+
+ BUFFALO SKULLS, a charm to entice buffaloes, 62-63
+
+ BUFFALO SOCIETY, Omaha, dance given by, 82
+
+ BUFFALO TRAILS, followed by Indians, 7
+
+ BULL-BOAT--
+ characteristic of upper Missouri, 129
+ of the Hidatsa, 146-147
+
+ BURIALS--
+ Omaha, 78
+ Oto, 120
+ scaffold, mention of, 50-51
+
+ CACHES--
+ described by Fletcher and La Flesche, 80
+ described by Matthews, 150
+ exposed by railroad cut, 82
+ for storage of corn, 126
+ Omaha, described by Gilden, 83, 84
+ on elevated stage, 12
+
+ CADDO--
+ a tribe of the Caddoan family, 2
+ country occupied by, 155, 182
+ described by Joutel, 182-183
+
+ CADDOAN FAMILY--
+ confederacies of, 2
+ country occupied by, 1
+ earth lodge characteristic of, 7-8
+ general movement of, 3
+ tribes composing, 2
+
+ CAHOKIA TRIBE, village of, 41
+
+ CANNON RIVER, village near mouth of, 50
+
+ CANOES--
+ birch-bark, 15-16
+ made of buffalo skins, 94
+ of the Arikara, 172
+ of the Hidatsa, 141
+ Oto, 121
+ _See_ Bull-boat.
+
+ CAPPA, a Quapaw village, 109
+
+ CASTANEDA, thatched houses mentioned by, 179
+
+ CATLIN, GEORGE--
+ among the Mandan, 128
+ among the Teton, 61
+ Arikara village sketched by, 175
+ collection of paintings by, in National Museum, 15, 129, 141, 175
+ incorrect drawings by, of earth lodges, 149
+ Indian portraits painted by, 62
+ Ojibway camp described by, 15
+
+ CAVES, in the Ozarks, occupied by Indians, 107
+
+ CEREMONIAL LODGE--
+ of the Crows, 155
+ of the Hidatsa, 144
+ of the Ojibway, 13
+ of the Quapaw, 111
+ of the Sun dance, 63
+ _See_ Medicine lodge.
+
+ CEREMONIAL SHELTER, temporary, of the Cree and Ojibway, 18-19
+
+ CEREMONIES, Arikara, in medicine lodge, 178
+
+ CHATIQUE, an Assiniboin chief, 71
+
+ CHAUI, a tribe of the Pawnee confederacy, 2
+
+ CHEROKEES, migration of remnant of, 2
+
+ CHEYENNE INDIANS--
+ an Algonquian group, 1
+ described by Lewis and Clark, 24
+ in Arapaho village, 36
+ lodges of, for special purposes, 25
+ lodges of, like Pawnee, 24, 25
+ territory occupied by, 21
+ various habitations of, 22
+
+ CHEYENNE VILLAGE SITES--
+ described by Grinnell, 22-23
+ mentioned by Lewis and Clark, 23
+
+ CHIEFS, decorations on lodges of, 67, 76
+
+ CHILDS POINT, ruins on, 82
+
+ CHIPPEWAY--
+ treaty of, with Sioux, 15
+ _See_ Ojibway.
+
+ CHIWERE GROUP OF SIOUAN TRIBES, 2
+ habitations of, 113
+ tribes composing, 112
+
+ CHOCTAW, temporary village of, 110
+
+ CHOLERA AMONG THE OGLALA, 64
+
+ CHOTE, town house at, 118
+
+ CIRCLES--
+ of earth, 21, 28, 30
+ of stone, 20, 21
+
+ CLARMONT, French name of Osage chief, 103
+
+ CLOTHING--
+ made of buffalo hides, 3, 4
+ of the Kansa, 94
+
+ CLUB, wooden, of the Mandan, 138
+
+ COCKING, MATTHEW, journey of, 26-27
+
+ COLBERT, first name of Mississippi River, 109
+
+ CORN, cultivation of, 39, 40, 106, 127, 179
+
+ CORONADO EXPEDITION, thatched houses seen by, 179
+
+ COUNCIL BLUFFS, origin of the name, 115, 157
+
+ COUNCIL HOUSE--
+ of the Kansa, 92-93
+ of the Ojibway, 16
+ of the Oto, 117
+ of the Teton, 60
+
+ CREE INDIANS--
+ habitations of, 17-21
+ language of, 17
+ population of, 18, 19
+ related to Ojibway, 17
+ loving disposition of, 19
+ territory inhabited by, 1, 18, 19
+ with Assiniboin at Mandan village, 74
+ _See_ Knistenaux.
+
+ CROW INDIANS--
+ a tribe of the Hidatsa group, 2
+ arrangement of camps of, 154
+ ceremonial lodge of, 154-155
+ country inhabited by, 151, 152-153
+ described by Larocque, 151
+ lodges of, described, 152-154
+ separation of, from the Hidatsa, 150
+ wandering habits of, 153
+
+ CUSTER, GENERAL, mention of, 70
+
+ CUSTOMS--
+ of the Blackfeet, 26-27
+ of the Cree, 18-19
+ of the Ojibway, 8-11, 13, 17
+ of the Omaha, 85-87
+ of the Osage, 105-106
+ of the Pawnee, 163-165
+ of the Sauk and Foxes, 39-41
+ of the Teton, 60-61
+ of the Wahpeton, 53
+ of the Yanktonai, 54-57
+
+ DAKOTA-ASSINIBOIN GROUP, 2
+ country occupied by, 44
+ habitations of, 44-45
+ tribes composing, 44
+
+ DANCE--
+ of the Teton, 60
+ _See_ Dog dance, Sacred dance, Sun dance, War dance.
+
+ DE SMET, FATHER, at the Kansa villages, 95-96
+
+ DECORATION OF LODGES, 28, 67, 75-76, 78, 85
+
+ DELAWARE INDIANS--
+ abandoned settlement of, 42-43
+ log cabins built by, 42
+ migration of remnant of, 2, 3
+
+ DHEGIHA GROUP, 2
+ migration of, 77
+
+ DODGE, COL. R. I., with expedition into Black Hills, 70
+
+ DOG DANCE OF THE KANSA, 93
+
+ DOG FEAST, painting of, 15
+
+ DOG TRAVOIS, 19-20, 55, 65, 76
+
+ DOGS--
+ as a sacrifice, 52, 61
+ as beasts of burden, 28
+ as food, 28, 53, 54
+ as sacred animals, 53
+ use of, for transportation, 72, 73
+ _See_ Dog travois.
+
+ DORSEY, J. O., Omaha structures described by, 85
+
+ DOUAY, PERE ANASTASIUS, Quapaw villages mentioned by, 110
+
+ DWELLINGS. _See_ Lodges, Tipi, Wigwam.
+
+ EARTH CIRCLES--
+ explanations of, 21
+ noticed by Maximilian, 28, 30
+
+ EARTH LODGE--
+ Arikara, 170, 173, 176
+ characteristic of Missouri River tribes, 185
+ Cheyenne, no pictures of, 24
+ erected by Caddoan tribes, 8
+ Gros Ventres, 148
+ Hidatsa, 142
+ interior of, 81, 161-162
+ Mandan, 128, 130, 132, 133
+ most accurate drawing of, 143
+ not in tribal circle, 84
+ Omaha, 79-80, 82-83
+ Oto, 115, 116, 117
+ Pawnee, 156, 161-162
+ suggestive of Creek and Cherokee council house, 185
+ used by Dhegiha group, 77
+
+ EARTHENWARE--
+ in the Ozark country, 107
+ _See_ Pottery.
+
+ EARTHWORKS, attributed to Dhegiha group, 77
+
+ EASTMAN, CAPT., painting by, 51, 54
+
+ ELAH-SA, an Hidatsa village, 142
+
+ ELLSWORTH, H. L., expedition led by, 116, 159-161
+
+ ELM BARK, structures of, 16, 17, 39
+ _See_ Bark-covered lodges.
+
+ ENGINEER CANTONMENT, winter quarters of Long expedition, 157
+
+ ENTRANCE--
+ to earth lodge, 149
+ to Winnebago dwelling, 122
+
+ ENVIRONMENT, influence of--
+ on form of dwelling, 184
+ on manners and customs, 8
+
+ FALL INDIANS, location and number of, 32
+ _See_ Atsina.
+
+ FALL OF THE RAPID INDIANS, a name for the Atsina, 34
+
+ FALLS OF ST. ANTHONY--
+ Indian camp at, 15
+ named by Father Hennepin, 45
+
+ FEASTS--
+ given by Blackfoot chief, 29
+ of the Cree, 18-19
+ of the Teton Sioux, 61-62
+
+ FISH, method of curing, 10
+
+ FLOOR MATS, method of making, 41
+
+ FOOD--
+ method of cooking illustrated, 10
+ of the Mandan, 127, 136
+ of the Ojibway, 8-9
+ of the Osage, 104, 105-106
+ _See_ Agriculture, Buffalo, Corn, Dogs, Fish, Game.
+
+ FOOL CHIEF, a Kansa chief, 96
+ village of, 97
+
+ FORT BERTHOLD, tribes near, 147
+
+ FORT CLARK--
+ erection of, 176
+ Mandan village near, 130, 139, 140
+ _See_ Fort Osage.
+
+ FORT CRAWFORD, establishment of, 184
+
+ FORT DE BOURBON--
+ location of, 72
+ mention of, 71
+
+ FORT DES PRAIRIES, mention of, 72
+
+ FORT JOHN, destroyed by North American Fur Company, 69
+
+ FORT LARAMIE, description of, 69
+
+ FORT LEAVENWORTH, early description of, 116
+
+ FORT LOOKOUT, treaty concluded at, 57
+
+ FORT OSAGE--
+ later named Fort Clark, 99
+ village near, 100
+
+ FORT PIERRE--
+ gathering of Yankton near, 57, 59
+ sketch of, 63
+
+ FORT SNELLING--
+ encampment at, 15
+ establishment of, 184
+
+ FORT UNION--
+ Assiniboin camp at, 75
+ stay at, of Friedrich Kurz, 76
+ visit at, of Maximilian, 142
+
+ FORT YATES, villages near, 22
+
+ FORTIFIED VILLAGES--
+ Arikara, 168, 171, 172
+ Hidatsa, 147
+ Mandan, 123, 131
+
+ FORTS BUILT BY INDIANS, 34, 35
+
+ FOX INDIANS--
+ habitat of, 1
+ present location of, 38
+ visited by Long, 38
+ _See_ Sauk and Foxes.
+
+ FREMONT, arrival of, at Kansa towns, 96
+
+ FUR TRADE OF THE TETON, 61
+
+ FURS, huge quantities of, collected by Sauk and Foxes, 40
+
+ GAME--
+ abundance of, at Isle au Vache, 91
+ _See_ Animals, Buffalo, Hunting.
+
+ GAMES--
+ played by the Omaha, 81
+ space for playing, 129
+
+ GILDER, R. F., village site identified by, 82
+
+ GILFILLAN, DR. J. A., missionary among the Ojibway, 11
+
+ GRAND PAWNEE--
+ visit to, of Long expedition, 158
+ _See_ Chaui.
+
+ GRANT, PETER, Ojibway dwellings described by, 9-10
+
+ GRASS LODGE--
+ as temporary shelter, 13-14
+ of the Caddo, 183
+ of the Wichita, 179-180
+ photograph of, 180
+
+ GREAT OSAGE, an Osage band, 98
+
+ GRINNELL, GEORGE B., erection of medicine lodge described by, 33
+
+ GROS VENTRES. _See_ Hidatsa.
+
+ GROS VENTRES OF THE MISSOURI, a name applied to the Hidatsa, 141
+
+ GROS VENTRES OF THE PRAIRIE, a name applied to the Atsina, 34, 141
+ _See_ Atsina.
+
+ HABITATIONS. _See_ Lodges, Tipi, Wigwam.
+
+ HA-WON-JE-TAH, a Teton Sioux chief, 61, 62
+
+ HENDRY, ANTHONY, Journal of, 25
+
+ HENRY, ALEXANDER, travels of, through Assiniboin country, 71-73
+
+ HIDATSA GROUP, tribes composing, 2, 140
+
+ HIDATSA TRIBE--
+ ceremonial lodge of, 144
+ creation myth of, 143
+ temporary lodge of, 147
+ winter village of, 143, 149
+ _See_ Minnetarees.
+
+ HIDATSA VILLAGES--
+ descriptions of, 142-143, 145-146, 148-150
+ Indian drawings of, 139
+ location of, 141
+ near Fort Berthold, 147
+ painting of, by Catlin, 141
+ plan of, 145
+ sites of, compared with Mandan, 146
+ temporary, for winter use, 149
+
+ HIME, HUMPHREY LLOYD, photographs made by, 12
+
+ HIND EXPEDITION--
+ camp sites observed by, 20-21
+ Ojibway structures encountered by, 12
+
+ HOE, made by Arikara, 177
+
+ HORSE TRAVOIS, 30, 65, 66
+
+ HORSERACING of the Blackfeet, 31
+
+ HORSES, housed in lodges of the Mandan, 126
+
+ HOUSE RINGS, 20, 21, 22, 28, 30
+
+ HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY--
+ journals of traders of, 25
+ trade of, with the Blackfeet, 27
+ trading post of, 76
+
+ HUNKPAPA, a Teton band, 2
+
+ HUNTING--
+ customs of the Osage, 103, 106
+ customs of the Sauk and Foxes, 40
+ excursions of the Mandan, 126
+ excursions of the Omaha, 85-87
+ grounds used for, by Oto, 116
+ of antelope, a method of, 6
+ of buffalo, 4-7
+ parties of the Mandan, 136
+ trips of the Pawnee, 166-167
+
+ ILLINOIS CONFEDERACY, villages of, 41-43
+
+ ILLINOIS INDIANS--
+ village of, 41
+ west of the Mississippi, 1
+
+ IMPLEMENTS--
+ agricultural, of the Arikara, 177
+ flint, on Omaha village site, 82, 83
+ for skin dressing, 138
+ stone, found on White River, 108
+
+ INDIAN PEACE COMMISSION, visit of, to Fort Laramie, 69
+
+ IOTAN, an Oto chief, 117
+
+ IOWA TRIBE--
+ appearance of villages of, 113
+ belonging to Chiwere group, 2
+ brief description of, 114
+ closely connected with Winnebago, 122
+ habitations of, 114
+ migration of, 113
+
+ IRON BIRD, an Osage chief, 103
+
+ IRVIN, SAMUEL M., missionary among the Iowa, 114
+
+ IRVING, WASHINGTON--
+ deserted village described by, 105
+ Indian symbols mentioned by, 43
+
+ ISH-TAL-A-SA'S VILLAGE, 97
+
+ ISLE AU VACHE--
+ brief history of, by Remsburg, 94
+ council at, between Kansa and Long party, 91
+ location of, 94
+ remains near, 91
+
+ ISSATI VILLAGE, site of, 45
+
+ ITAZIPCHO, a Teton band, 2
+ _See_ Sans Arcs.
+
+ JACKSON, W. H., photographs made by, 162
+
+ JARAMILLO, JUAN, an officer of the Coronado expedition, 179
+
+ JONGLERIE, or medicine lodge, 16-17
+
+ JOURNALS OF TRADERS, Blackfeet described in, 25
+
+ JOUTEL--
+ account by, of Quapaw villages, 109
+ Caddo tribe described by, 182-183
+
+ KAINAH, a tribe of the Blackfeet confederacy, 1, 25
+
+ KANE, PAUL--
+ Ojibway wigwam described by, 10
+ paintings by, 20, 77
+
+ KANSA INDIANS--
+ a tribe of the Dhegiha group, 2, 77
+ attack on, by Pawnee, 96
+ dress of, 94
+ migration of, 89
+ population of, 89, 95
+ variety of dwellings of, 97
+ villages of, described, 90, 92, 95-96, 97
+ visit of, to the Oto, 121
+
+ KAPOSIA, village of, 50, 51
+
+ KINGFISHER, an old Ojibway, 12
+
+ KITKEHAHKI, a tribe of the Pawnee confederacy, 2
+
+ KNISTENAUX--
+ at Mandan village, 74
+ language spoken by, 74
+ location and number of, 32
+ _See_ Cree.
+
+ KURZ, FRIEDRICH--
+ among the Omaha, 81
+ at Fort Union, 76
+ sketches by, 20, 63, 121
+
+ LA FLESCHE, JOSEPH, an Omaha chief, 82
+
+ LA HARPE, meeting of, with the Quapaw, 110
+
+ LA PETIT CORBEAU, a Sioux chief, village of, 38
+
+ LA SALLE EXPEDITION, 109, 182
+
+ LA VERENDRYE EXPEDITION, 73-74, 122
+
+ LAC DE L'ISLE CROIX, Cree bands along, 18
+
+ LAHCOCAT, an Arikara village, 169
+
+ LAKE HURON, encampment on islands of, 10
+
+ LAKE SUPERIOR, structures on shores of, 9
+
+ LAROCQUE, ANTOINE, visit of, among the Crows, 151
+
+ LE RAYE, references in journal of, to the Arikara, 168
+
+ LEAVENWORTH, establishment of, 184
+
+ LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION, villages visited by, 23, 34, 60, 74,
+ 75, 78, 89, 90, 114-115, 124-126
+
+ LINDENWOOD COLLEGE, manuscript journal in possession of, 90
+
+ LIQUOR, use of, among Indians, 75
+
+ LITTLE DOG, a Piegan Indian, 30
+
+ LITTLE OSAGE, an Osage band, 98
+
+ LITTLE OSAGE RIVER, Osage villages in valley of, 99
+
+ LITTLE RAVEN, village of, 48, 49, 50
+
+ LODGES. _See_ Bark-covered lodges, Ceremonial lodge, Earth lodge,
+ Grass lodge, Log houses, Mat-covered lodge, Skin lodge,
+ Thatched lodge, Tipi, Traders lodge, Wigwam.
+
+ LOG CABINS--
+ built by Cree, 18
+ of the Delaware, 42
+ _See_ Log houses.
+
+ LOG HOUSES--
+ construction of, 48
+ of Fox Indians, 38
+ of Sioux chief, 39
+ of upright posts, 48, 49, 50
+
+ LONG, MAJ. STEPHEN H., expedition under command of, 47, 157
+
+ LOUISIANA PURCHASE, change of conditions due to, 184
+
+ LOW HORN, a Piegan chief, 30
+
+ LUDLOW EXPLORING PARTY, 70
+
+ MAHAWHA, village of the Amahami, 125
+
+ MALTA, MO., former Osage village near, 99
+
+ MANDAN--
+ a Siouan tribe, 2
+ history of, 125
+ settled near Fort Berthold, 147
+ village sites of, compared with Hidatsa, 146
+
+ MANDAN VILLAGES--
+ described by Catlin, 128, 129-130
+ described by Maximilian, 130-132
+ deserted, 124
+ French expedition to, 122-123
+ Indian drawings of, 139
+ occupied by Arikaras, 176
+ plan of, 131
+
+ MANITOBAH HOUSE, wigwam near, 12
+
+ MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. _See_ Customs.
+
+ MARQUETTE, PERE--
+ Illinois tribes visited by, 41
+ Osage villages listed by, 98
+ Quapaw villages reached by, 108
+
+ MARSTON, MAJOR M., life of Sauk and Foxes described by, 39-41
+
+ MARTIN, CAPTAIN, stay of detachment of, at Isle au Vache, 91
+
+ MAT-COVERED LODGE--
+ as winter habitation, 38
+ of the Kansa, 91, 92
+ of the Osage, 98, 99, 100
+ used by Dhegiha group, 77
+
+ MATOOTONHA, a Mandan village, 125
+
+ MATS, rush, method of making, 41
+
+ MATTHEWS, description by, of Hidatsa villages, 148-150
+
+ MAXIMILIAN, villages visited by, 19, 28, 29, 35, 88, 130-136, 175-176
+
+ MDEWAKANTON TRIBE--
+ a division of the Dakota, 2, 44
+ sites of settlements of, 15
+ villages of, 45-52
+
+ MEDICINE, meaning of the term, 164
+
+ MEDICINE BAG OF THE DAKOTAS, 55
+
+ MEDICINE FEAST--
+ of the Hidatsa, 143-145
+ of the Mandan, 135, 136
+
+ MEDICINE LODGE--
+ Arikara, 172-173, 178
+ ceremony of erecting, 33
+ of the Blackfeet, 33
+ of the Mandan, 129
+ Ojibway, 12, 13, 16-17
+
+ METAHARTA, a Minnetaree village, 125, 126
+
+ MICHIGAMEA--
+ an Illinois tribe, 41
+ position of village of, not determined, 112
+ visited by Marquette, 41
+
+ M[)I]DE LODGE OF THE OJIBWAY, 13, 19
+
+ MIH-TUTTA-HANGUSCH, a Mandan village, 128, 130, 131
+
+ MILLE LAC, village sites on, 45-46
+
+ MINICONJOU, a Teton band, 2
+
+ MINNETAREES--
+ intrenchments made by, 34
+ population of village of, 126
+ winter village of, 143
+ _See_ Hidatsa.
+
+ MINNETAREES OF FORT DE PRAIRIE, a name for the Atsina, 34
+
+ MISSISSIPPI RIVER, first name of, 109
+
+ MISSOURI TRIBE--
+ ancient village of, 121
+ connected with Winnebago, 122
+ of the Chiwere group, 2
+ remnants of, with the Oto, 114
+
+ MORTARS--
+ stone, in the Ozark country, 107, 108
+ wooden, of the Arikara, 177
+
+ NATIONAL MUSEUM--
+ bone scrapers in, 59
+ collection in, of paintings by Catlin, 15, 129, 141, 175
+ Oto specimens in, 121
+
+ NEWBERRY LIBRARY, sketch in, by Bodmer, 143
+
+ NICOLLET, visit of, to the Winnebago, 122
+
+ NIOBRARA RIVER, early name of, 88
+
+ NUTTALL, THOMAS, journey of, 103, 110, 111
+
+ OCHKIH-HADDA, the evil spirit of the Mandan, 132, 142
+
+ O'FALLON, MAJ., commissioner with Long expedition, 157
+
+ OGLALA--
+ a Teton band, 2
+ country occupied by, 63
+ epidemic of cholera among, 64
+ log lodges of, 67
+ moving of village of, 64-65
+ skin lodges of, 68
+ wanderings of, 44
+
+ OHIO VALLEY, ancient village sites of, 102
+
+ OJIBWAY--
+ ceremonial structures of, 18-19
+ habitations of, 8-17
+ location of villages of, 1
+ meeting of, with Sioux, to establish peace, 15
+ territory claimed by, 8
+ village sites of, 15
+ _See_ Chippeway.
+
+ OMAHA TRIBE--
+ manners and customs of, 85-87
+ meaning of the name, 108
+ migration of, 77
+ of the Dhegiha group, 2, 77
+
+ OMAHA VILLAGES, 77-87
+ destroyed by fire, 78
+
+ ONE STAB, an Oglala head-man, 70
+
+ OOHENONPA, a Teton band, 2
+
+ OSAGE INDIANS--
+ a tribe of the Dhegiha group, 2, 77
+ habitat of, 98
+ industry of women, 103
+ life of, described by Morse, 106
+ structures of, 99, 101-104
+ villages of, described, 100, 103-104
+ villages of, listed by Pere Marquette, 98
+
+ OTO TRIBE--
+ a tribe of the Chiwere group, 2
+ closely connected with Winnebago, 122
+ councils with, 115, 117-118
+ country occupied by, 114
+ habitation of, described by Bradbury, 115
+ temporary camp of, described by James, 120
+ winter camp of, described by Moelhausen, 118
+
+ OTSOTCHOVE, a Quapaw village, 109
+
+ OZARKS--
+ caves of, 107
+ habitat of the Osage, 98
+ hunting ground of the Osage, 107
+
+ PAHATSI, an Osage band, 2, 98
+
+ PALISADES. _See_ Fortified villages.
+
+ PALMER, DR., missionary to the Osage, 104
+
+ PAPILLION CREEK, Omaha village on, 81
+
+ PASQUAYAH VILLAGE, 71
+
+ PAWNEE CONFEDERACY, tribes composing, 2
+
+ PAWNEE INDIANS--
+ abandoned camp of, 165
+ attack by, on Kansa village, 96
+ council held with, 160-161
+ country occupied by, 159
+ customs of, 163-165
+ habitations of, 156, 158, 161-162
+ manner of moving, 163
+ migration of, 156
+ temporary camp of, 164
+
+ PAWNEE VILLAGES--
+ description of, 157, 162
+ orderly removal of, 65
+ photographs of, 162
+
+ PELICAN, THE, an Assiniboin chief, 71
+
+ PEMBINA, native habitations at, 55
+
+ PEMMICAN MAUL, of the Oto, 121
+
+ PEORIA, VILLAGE OF, visited by Marquette, 41
+
+ PERSIMMON PULP, bread made of, 100
+
+ PETIT CORBEAU, village of, 48, 49, 50
+
+ PICANEAUX, location and number of, 32
+ _See_ Piegan.
+
+ PIEGAN INDIANS--
+ a tribe of the Blackfeet confederacy, 1, 25
+ camp of, described, 30-31
+ camp of, painted by Bodmer, 29
+ country occupied by, 27
+ population of, 31, 32
+ _See_ Picaneaux.
+
+ PIKE, LIEUT. Z. M., exploring expedition of, 99, 155
+
+ PILLAGERS, gathering place of, 15
+
+ PIPES--
+ ceremonial use of, 172
+ from Omaha cache, 83
+ of peace, smoking of, 61
+
+ PIPESTONE QUARRY, tribes ranging near, 77
+
+ PIS-KA-KAU-A-KIS, a band of Cree, 18
+
+ PITAHAUERAT, a tribe of the Pawnee confederacy, 2
+
+ "PLATTE PURCHASE," Iowa living in, 114
+
+ PLATTE RIVER, Oto village on, 116
+
+ PONCA INDIANS--
+ a tribe of the Dhegiha group, 2, 77
+ habitations of, 87-88
+ migration of, 77
+ separation of, from the Omaha, 87
+
+ POPULATION--
+ of Arikara villages, 170
+ of Assiniboin, 76
+ of Atsina or Fall Indians, 32
+ of Cheyenne, 24
+ of Cree, 19
+ of Crow, 19
+ of Kansa, 89, 93
+ of Mandan, 139
+ of Minnetaree villages, 126
+ of Osage, 104
+ of Piegan, 31
+ of Sarsees, 32
+ of village of Sotoueis, 110
+ of Waco, 182
+ of Wichita, 182
+ of Yankton, 56
+
+ PORCUPINE CREEK, village on, 22
+
+ POTTERY--
+ Arikara, 174
+ fragments of, in Ozark caves, 107
+ fragments of, on village site, 46
+ of the Mandan, 137-138
+ of the Quapaw, 112
+ _See_ Earthenware.
+
+ POUNDS, BUFFALO, 5-6, 26
+
+ QUAPAW--
+ a tribe of the Dhegiha group, 2, 77
+ country occupied by, 108
+ decrease in population of, 111
+ meaning of the name, 108
+ migration of, 77, 112
+ remnants of, 111
+
+ QUIVIRA, reached by Coronado, 179
+
+ RADIN, PAUL, list of Winnebago structures given by, 122
+
+ RAKES, made by Arikara, 177
+
+ RAYNOLDS EXPLORING PARTY, sacred structure discovered by, 63
+
+ RED CLOUD, an Oglala chief, 70, 71
+
+ RED RIVER, structures in valley of, 9, 12
+
+ RED WING, MINN., origin of the name, 47
+
+ RED WING, village of--
+ described by Schoolcraft, 49
+ described by Seymour, 50
+
+ REES, warfare of, with Sioux, 70
+
+ REPUBLICAN PAWNEE--
+ described by Irving, 161
+ visited by Long expedition, 159
+ _See_ Kitkehahki.
+
+ REQUA, W. C., Osage described by, 104
+
+ RINGS--
+ of earth, 21, 28, 30
+ of stone, 20, 21
+
+ ROCKY MOUNTAIN FORT, Assiniboin camp near, 77
+
+ ROOPTAHEE, a Mandan winter village, 125, 134
+
+ ROTUNDAS OF THE CHEROKEE, 118
+
+ RUNNING-WATER RIVER, early name of the Niobrara, 88
+
+ RUSH MATS--
+ for seats and sleeping places, 11
+ method of making, 41
+ used for covering dwellings, 10
+
+ SACRED DANCE--
+ for benefit of sick, 82
+ of the Dakotas, 55
+
+ SACRED ISLAND IN MILLE LAC, described, 46
+
+ ST. JOSEPH, a trading post, 184
+
+ ST. PAUL, former Indian village near, 38
+
+ ST. PETERS RIVER, exploration of, 47
+
+ SALT, making of, by Indians, 42, 174
+
+ SANDY CREEK, Oto encampment on, 120
+
+ SANS ARCS, a Teton band, 2
+ _See_ Itazipcho.
+
+ SANS OREILLE, an Osage chief, 100
+
+ SANTEE--
+ eastern division of the Dakota, 45
+ tribes forming, 2
+ use of the name, 45
+
+ SANTSUKHDHI an Osage band, 2, 98
+
+ SARSEES, number and location of, 32
+
+ SASKATCHEWAN VALLEY, tribes inhabiting, 32
+
+ SAUK AND FOXES--
+ agriculture of, 40
+ living as one tribe, 38
+ manners and ways of life, 39-41
+ summer and winter habitations of, 38
+ villages of, similar in appearance, 38
+ _See_ Fox Indians, Sauk Indians.
+
+ SAUK INDIANS--
+ excursions of, against the Osage and Missouris, 98
+ Missouri driven out by, 121
+ removal of, to Indian Territory, 38
+ territory of, 1
+ village of, visited by Long, 38
+ _See_ Sauk and Foxes.
+
+ SAUTEUX. _See_ Ojibway.
+
+ SCHOOLCRAFT, H. R.--
+ deserted Osage villages encountered by, 101
+ journey of, down the Mississippi, 49
+ Sioux settlements described by, 49
+
+ SEVEN COUNCIL FIRES OF THE DAKOTA, 44
+
+ SEYMOUR, E. S.--
+ Kaposia described by, 50
+ sketches by, 55, 93, 95, 121
+
+ SHAKOPEE'S VILLAGE, described by Keating, 52
+
+ SHAWANESE, migration of remnant of, 2, 3
+
+ SHAWNEE, villages of, west of the Mississippi, 42
+
+ SHIELDS--
+ Arapaho, affixed to tripods, 36, 37
+ of the Pawnee, 157
+
+ SIBLEY, GEORGE C., Kansa village described by, 90
+
+ SICHANGU, a Teton band, 2
+
+ SICK AND AGED--
+ dance for benefit of, 82
+ treatment of, 165
+
+ SIHASAPA, a Teton band, 2
+
+ SIKSIKA, a tribe of the Blackfeet confederacy, 1, 25
+
+ SIOUAN TRIBES--
+ classification of 2
+ general movement of 3
+ in the East 44
+ second largest stock north of Mexico 43
+ skin tipi typical of 7
+ various habitations of 44
+ villages of, described 1
+ westward migration of 43
+
+ SIOUX--
+ excursions of, against the Osage 98
+ gathering of, with Ojibway, to establish peace 15
+
+ SISSETON, a division of the Dakota 2, 44
+
+ SKIDI, a tribe of the Pawnee Confederacy 2
+
+ SKIN DRESSING, implements for 58, 59, 138
+
+ SKIN LODGE--
+ Arapaho 37
+ Assiniboin 71, 76
+ Blackfoot 28
+ Cheyenne 24
+ construction of 56
+ Cree 18, 20
+ Crow 150, 152, 153
+ decorations on 28, 67, 76, 78, 85
+ descriptions of 50, 51
+ drawings of 56
+ erected by the Dakota 45
+ Hidatsa 146
+ Kansa 94
+ Omaha, construction of 80-81, 85
+ Pawnee 162, 164, 165-166
+ predominance of, on the plains 185
+ sketched by Kurz 76
+ Teton 61
+ used by roving tribes 32
+ used by the Dhegiha 77
+ used by the Oto 118
+
+ SKIN SCRAPER, bone, described 58, 59
+
+ SKIN TIPI--
+ when used by Omaha 84-85
+ Yankton, described by Maximilian 57-58
+
+ SLEDGES OF THE MANDAN 134
+
+ SMALLPOX EPIDEMIC--
+ among the Mandan 139
+ among the Omaha 78
+
+ SMOKING CUSTOM OF THE BLACKFEET 26, 27
+ _See_ Pipes.
+
+ SOTOUeIS, population of village of 110
+
+ SOULIER NOIR, French name for the Amahami 126
+
+ SPEARS, ARAPAHO, affixed to tripods 36, 37
+
+ SPOONS, HORN--
+ of the Mandan 137
+ of the Pawnee 158
+
+ STANLEY, paintings by, in National Museum 31
+
+ STANSBURY EXPEDITION, narrative of 64, 66-68
+
+ STARAPAT, an Arikara chief 176
+
+ STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF NORTH DAKOTA, surveys made by 139, 145
+
+ STOCKADE BUILDINGS, mentioned by Long 50
+
+ STOCKADES, remains of 67
+ _See_ Fortified villages.
+
+ STONE CIRCLES, explanation of 20, 21
+
+ STONE INDIANS. _See_ Assiniboins.
+
+ SUN DANCE, lodges erected for 63, 85
+
+ SUNFLOWER SEED, cakes made of 136
+
+ SWEAT HOUSE--
+ of the Crows 155
+ of the Ojibway 12, 16
+
+ SYMBOLS, cut on trees by Indians 43
+
+ TALANGAMANE, a Sioux chief 49
+
+ TAOAPA, description of village of 52
+
+ TAPAGE PAWNEE. _See_ Pitahauerat.
+
+ TATANKA WECHACHETA, a Wahpeton chief 53
+
+ TATUNKAMANE, son of a Dakota chief 48
+
+ TCHAN-DEE, a Teton Sioux chief 62
+
+ TETON--
+ a division of the Dakota 2, 44
+ bands composing 2
+ customs of 60
+ great village of, visited by Lewis and Clark 59-60
+
+ TETON RIVER, village near mouth of 62
+
+ THATCHED LODGES, of the Wichita 179-180
+
+ THIEF, THE, an Oto Indian 117
+
+ TINDER MOUNTAIN, Cree band at 18
+
+ TIPI--
+ drawing of, by Bodmer 58, 59
+ of the plains tribes, fine example of 68
+ typical of Siouan tribes 7
+ _See_ Skin lodges.
+
+ TONGINGA, a Quapaw village 109
+
+ TORIMAN, a Quapaw village 109
+
+ TOTEM POSTS, not used by Omaha 85
+
+ TRADERS LODGE, of the Oglala 68
+
+ TRAILS--
+ across the prairie 88
+ buffalo 7
+ in the Black Hills 70, 71
+ made by travois 66
+
+ TRANSPORTATION--
+ among the Oglala 65
+ among the Piegan 30
+ _See_ Dog travois, Horse travois.
+
+ TRAVOIS. See Dog travois, Horse travois.
+
+ TREATIES--
+ of Greenville, westward migration following 42
+ of peace between Sioux and Chippewas 15
+ place of, between Ojibway and U. S. Government 16
+ with Tetons, Yankton and Yanktonai 57
+
+ TWENTY-FOUR, VILLAGE OF THE, a former Kansa town 94
+
+ TWO KETTLES. _See_ Oohenonpa.
+
+ TYPHA PALUSTRIS, mats made of leaves of 100
+
+ UNION AGENCY, location of 104-105
+
+ UTENSILS OF THE MANDAN 136-137
+
+ UTSEHTA, an Osage band 2, 98
+
+ VILLAGE OF THE TWENTY-FOUR 94
+
+ VILLAGE SITES, not contemporaneous 127
+
+ WABASHAW, a Sioux village visited by Schoolcraft 49
+
+ WACO INDIANS--
+ a tribe of the Wichita confederacy 2
+ appearance of 181
+ grass lodge of 181
+ population of 182
+
+ WAHKTAGELI, a Yankton chief 58
+
+ WAHPEKUTE, a division of the Dakota 2, 44
+
+ WAHPETON TRIBE--
+ a division of the Dakota 2, 44, 52
+ country occupied by 52
+ village of, described 53
+
+ WAH-TOH-TA-NA, name for the Oto, 116
+
+ WAKAN WACHEPE, a Dakota society, 55
+
+ WA-KI-TA-MO-NEE, an Oto chief, 118
+
+ WANOTAN, a Yanktonai chief, 54
+
+ WAPASHA, a Dakota chief, 47
+
+ WAPASHA'S PRAIRIE, mentioned by Seymour, 50
+
+ WAPASHA VILLAGE, description of, 47, 48
+
+ WAR DANCE, OSAGE, account of, 105
+
+ WARRIORS, special lodges for use of, 25
+
+ WATTASOONS, Mandan name for the Amahami, 126
+
+ WATTLEWORK STRUCTURES OF THE OSAGE, 101-102, 105
+
+ WAUBUSCHON, an Osage chief, 100
+
+ WAYONDOTT, migration of band of, 3
+
+ WEAPONS OF THE MANDAN, 138
+
+ WESTERN ENGINEER, a steamboat of 1819 on Missouri River, 91-93
+
+ WETARKO, Indian name for Grand River, 169
+
+ WHITE HAIR, an Osage chief, 103
+
+ WHITE RIVER, village site on, 108
+
+ WICHITA CONFEDERACY--
+ a Caddoan group, 2
+ thatched dwellings of, 179-180
+
+ WICKIUP, a temporary shelter, 70
+
+ WIGWAMS--
+ construction of, 11
+ dome-shaped, of the Ojibway, 14
+ mat and bark covered, 7
+ _See_ Lodges.
+
+ WINNEBAGO--
+ a Siouan tribe, 2
+ country occupied by, 122
+ villages of, 122
+
+ WOLF PAWNEE. _See_ Skidi.
+
+ WOMEN--
+ custom concerning, 19
+ industry of, 103
+ labor of, 65
+
+ YANKTON TRIBE--
+ a division of the Dakota, 2, 44
+ described by General Atkinson, 57
+ population of, 57
+ structures of, 57-58
+
+ YANKTONAI--
+ a division of the Dakota, 2, 44
+ country inhabited by, 54
+ described by Keating, 54, 55
+ habitations of, 56-57
+ village of, near Lake Traverse, 54
+
+ YELLOW BEAR, an Hidatsa chief, 145
+
+ YELLOW STONE, a Missouri River steamboat, 130
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan,
+and Caddoan Tribes West of the Mississippi, by David Ives Bushnell
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