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diff --git a/37897-h/37897-h.htm b/37897-h/37897-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..814066d --- /dev/null +++ b/37897-h/37897-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,13044 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan, and Caddoan Tribes West of the Mississippi by David I. Bushnell, Jr. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +p { + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; +} + +hr { + margin: 3em auto 3em auto; + height: 0px; + border-width: 1px 0 0 0; + border-style: solid; + border-color: #dcdcdc; + width: 500px; + clear: both; +} + +hr.hr2 { + width: 250px; + margin: 3em auto 3em auto; +} + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} + +table.toc { + margin: auto; + width: 50%; +} + +td.c1 { + text-align: right; + vertical-align: top; + padding-right: 1em; +} + +td.c2 { + text-align: left; + margin-left: 0em; + padding-left: 2em; + text-indent: -2em; + padding-right: 1em; + vertical-align: top; +} + +td.c3 { + text-align: right; + padding-left: 1em; + vertical-align: bottom; +} + +td { padding: 0em 1em; } +th { padding: 0em 1em; } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + color: #999; +} /* page numbers */ + + .blockquot { + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + .bbox {border: solid 2px;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .gap { margin-top: 1em; } + + .hanging {margin-left: 2em; + text-indent: -2em;} + +/* Images */ + .figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; +} + +.figleft { + + clear: left; + margin-left: 0; + margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-right: 1em; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; +} + .bord img { + padding: 1px; + border: 1px solid black; +} + +p.caption { + margin-top: 0; + font-size: 70%; + text-align: left; +} + +p.caption2 { + margin-top: 0; + font-size: 70%; + text-align: center; +} + +/* Transcriber Notes */ +div.tn { + background-color: #EEE; + border: dashed 1px; + color: #000; + margin-left: 20%; + margin-right: 20%; + margin-top: 5em; + margin-bottom: 5em; + padding: 1em; +} + +ul.corrections { + list-style-type: circle; +} + +/* Footnotes */ +div.fn { + background-color: #EEE; + border: dashed 1px; + color: #000; + margin-left: 20%; + margin-right: 20%; + margin-top: 5em; + margin-bottom: 5em; + padding: 1em; +} + + .footnote { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + font-size: 0.9em; +} + + .footnote .label { + position: absolute; + right: 84%; + text-align: right; +} + + .fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: none; +} + + .signature { + text-align: right; + margin-right: 5%; +} + + .signature2 { + text-align: right; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +/* INDEX */ +ul.index { list-style-type: none; + width: 20em; + margin: 2em auto; +} + +ul.index2 { list-style-type: none; } + +li.pad { padding-top: 2.0%; } + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan, and +Caddoan Tribes West of the Mississippi, by David Ives Bushnell + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan, and Caddoan Tribes West of the Mississippi + +Author: David Ives Bushnell + +Release Date: November 1, 2011 [EBook #37897] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VILLAGES OF THE ALGONQUIAN *** + + + + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Julia Neufeld and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +book was produced from scanned images of public domain +material from the Google Print project.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<a name="Frontispiece." id="Frontispiece."></a> +<p><span class="pagenum"></span></p> +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 1</b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Plate_1"></a> +<img src="images/p001.png" width="500" height="326" alt="DRYING BUFFALO MEAT—A TYPICAL CAMP SCENE + +Ernest Henry Griset" title="DRYING BUFFALO MEAT—A TYPICAL CAMP SCENE + +Ernest Henry Griset" /> +<span class="caption">DRYING BUFFALO MEAT—A TYPICAL CAMP SCENE +<br /> +Ernest Henry Griset</span> +</div> + +<div class="center"> +SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION<br /> +BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY<br /> +BULLETIN 77<br /> +</div> + +<h1>VILLAGES OF THE ALGONQUIAN, SIOUAN,<br /> +AND CADDOAN TRIBES WEST OF<br /> +THE MISSISSIPPI</h1> + +<h3>BY</h3> +<h2>DAVID I. BUSHNELL, <span class="smcap">Jr.</span></h2> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 133px;"> +<img src="images/t_page.png" width="133" height="150" alt="Decoration" title="Decoration" /> + +</div> + +<div class="center"><br /><br /> +WASHINGTON<br /> +GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE<br /> +1922<br /> +</div> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p> + +<h4>LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL</h4> + + +<div class="signature"><span class="smcap">Smithsonian Institution</span>,<br /> +<span class="smcap">Bureau of American Ethnology</span>,<br /> +<i>Washington, D. C., January 4, 1921</i>.<br /> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sir:</span> I have the honor to transmit the accompanying manuscript, +entitled "Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan, and Caddoan Tribes +West of the Mississippi," by David I. Bushnell, jr., and to recommend +its publication, subject to your approval, as a bulletin of this Bureau.</p> + +<p> + Very respectfully, +</p> +<div class="signature2"><span class="smcap">J. Walter Fewkes</span>,</div> +<div class="signature"><i>Chief</i>.</div> + +<p> +<span class="smcap">Dr. Charles D. Walcott</span>,<br /> + <i>Secretary of the Smithsonian institution</i>.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p>When Louisiana became a part of the United States the great +wilderness to the westward of the Mississippi was the home of +many native tribes, or groups of tribes, retaining their primitive +manners and customs, little influenced by contact with Europeans. +Their villages were scattered along the water courses or skirted the +prairies, over which roamed vast herds of buffalo, these serving to +attract the Indians and to supply many of their wants—food, raiment, +and covering for their shelters. But so great are the changes +wrought within a century that now few buffalo remain, the Indian +in his primitive state has all but vanished, and even the prairies have +been altered in appearance. The early accounts of the region contain +references to the native camps and villages, their forms and +extent, tell of the manner in which the habitations were constructed, +and relate how some were often removed from place to place. Extracts +from the various narratives are now brought together, thus +to describe the homes and ways of life of the people who once +claimed and occupied a large section of the present United States.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="CONTENTS"> +<tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">Page</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">The tribes and their habitat</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">The buffalo (<i>Bison americanus</i>)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Villages and forms of structures</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Algonquian tribes</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ojibway</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cree</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cheyenne</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Blackfoot confederacy</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arapaho</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sauk and Foxes</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Illinois</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Siouan tribes</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dakota-Assiniboin group</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Mdewakanton</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Wahpeton</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Yanktonai</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Yankton</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Teton</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Oglala</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Assiniboin</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dhegiha group</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Omaha</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Ponca</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Kansa</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Osage</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Quapaw</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chiwere group</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Iowa</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Oto</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Missouri</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Winnebago</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mandan</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hidatsa group</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Hidatsa</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Crows</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caddoan tribes</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pawnee</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arikara</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Wichita</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Waco</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Caddo</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Conclusion</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Authorities cited</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Synonymy</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Explanation of plates</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Index</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p> +<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="PLATES"> +<tr><td align="left" colspan='2'>PLATES</td> +</tr> +<tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">Page</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">1. Drying buffalo meat. Griset</td><td align="right"><a href="#Frontispiece.">Frontispiece.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">2. "A buffalo hunt on the southwestern prairies." Stanley</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">3. "Buffalo hunt." Wimar</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">4. "Buffalo hunting on the frozen snow." Rindisbacher</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">5. <i>a</i>, "A buffalo pound." Kane. <i>b</i>, Scene in a Sioux village, about 1870</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">6. <i>a</i>, Camp of "Sautaux Indians on the Red River." <i>b</i>, Ojibway wigwam</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> at Leech Lake, Minnesota</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">7. <i>a</i>, "Encampment among the islands of Lake Huron." Kane. <i>b</i>, Ojibway</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> camp on bank of Red River</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">8. <i>a</i>, Ojibway camp west of Red River. <i>b</i>, Ojibway camp on bank of</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> Red River</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">9. Ojibway habitations. <i>a</i>, Wigwams covered with elm bark. <i>b</i>, Wigwams</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> covered with birch bark</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">10. <i>a</i>, Ojibway birch bark canoe. <i>b</i>, Ojibway Indians with birch bark</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> canoes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">11. <i>a</i>, Trader's store near Cass Lake. <i>b</i>, Outside an elm bark covered</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> structure</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">12. Objects of Ojibway make. <i>a</i>, Hammer, bag, and two skin-dressing</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> tools. <i>b</i>, Section of a rush mat</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">13. <i>a</i>, Ojibway mortar and pestle. <i>b</i>, Delaware mortar and pestle. <i>c</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> Ojibway birch bark dish</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">14. Cheyenne family</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">15. Piegan camp. Bodmer</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">16. <i>a</i>, Blackfoot camp. Kane. <i>b</i>, Arapaho village</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">17. Atsina camp. Bodmer</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">18. Sauk and Fox habitations. <i>a</i>, Frames of structures. <i>b</i>, Mat-covered</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> lodges</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">19. Sauk and Fox habitation covered with elm bark</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">20. <i>a</i>, Northwest shore of Mille Lac, 1900. <i>b</i>, The Sacred Island in Mille</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> Lac</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">21. "Kaposia, June 19th, 1851." Mayer</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">22. <i>a</i>, "Dakotah village." Eastman. <i>b</i>, "Dakotah encampment." Eastman</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">23. <i>a</i>, Council at the mouth of the Teton. Catlin. <i>b</i>, Fort Pierre, July 4,</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> 1851. Kurz</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">24. <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, Near Fort Laramie, 1868. <i>c</i>, "A skin lodge of an Assiniboin</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> chief." Bodmer</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">25. <i>a</i>, Assiniboin lodges formed of pine boughs. Kane. <i>b</i>, "Horse camp</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> of the Assiniboins, March 21, 1852." Kurz</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">26. <i>a</i>, Tipi of an Omaha chief. <i>b</i>, Page of Kurz's sketchbook</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">27. "The village of the Omahas." 1871</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">28. <i>a</i>, Page of Kurz's sketchbook, showing Omaha village. <i>b</i>, Page of</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> Kurz's sketchbook, showing interior of an Omaha lodge</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">29. "Punka Indians encamped on the banks of the Missouri." Bodmer</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">30. <i>a</i>, Kansa village, 1841. Lehman. <i>b</i>, Dog dance within a Kansa lodge,</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> 1819. Seymour</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">31. Kansa habitation</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">32. <i>a</i>, Frame of an Osage habitation. <i>b</i>, An Iowa structure</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">33. "Oto encampment, near the Platte, 1819." Seymour</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">34. <i>a</i>, Oto pemmican maul. <i>b</i>, Heavy stone maul. <i>c</i>, Mandan implement</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> for dressing hides</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">35. <i>a</i>, Oto dugout canoe, from Kurz's sketchbook. <i>b</i>, Hidatsa bull-boat</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> and paddle</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">36. Winnebago habitations, about 1870. <i>a</i>, Structure with arbor. <i>b</i>, Showing</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> entrance on side</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">37. Winnebago structures</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">38. <i>a</i>, Interior of a Mandan lodge. Catlin. <i>b</i>, Scene in a Mandan village.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> Catlin</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">39. "Mih-tutta-hangkusch," a Mandan village. Bodmer</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">40. Interior of a Mandan lodge. Bodmer</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">41. <i>a</i>, <i>c</i>, Mandan wooden bowls. <i>b</i>, Mandan earthenware jar</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">42. <i>a</i>, Buffalo horn spoon. <i>b</i>, Spoon made of horn of mountain sheep.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> Mandan</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">43. "Miniatarree village." Catlin</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">44. "Winter village of the Minatarres." <i>a</i>, Original pencil sketch. <i>b</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> Finished picture of same. Bodmer</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">45. From Kurz's sketchbook. <i>a</i>, Use of a carrying basket. <i>b</i>, The ring-and-pole game. <i>c</i>, Hidatsa with bull-boats</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">46. Crow tipis. <i>a</i>, "Crow lodge." Catlin. <i>b</i>, Camp at the old agency,</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> 1871</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">47. A camp in a cottonwood grove</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">48. Trader crossing the prairies. Page of Kurz's sketchbook</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">49. Pawnee village, 1871</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">50. Pawnee earth lodges, 1871</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">51. In a Pawnee village, 1871. <i>a</i>, Children at lodge entrance. <i>b</i>, Showing</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> screen near same entrance</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">52. <i>a</i>, Arikara carrying basket. <i>b</i>, Wichita mortar</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">53. "Riccaree village." Catlin</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">54. <i>a</i>, Arikara rake. <i>b</i>, Arikara hoe. <i>c</i>, Crow parfleche box</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">55. Wichita habitations. <i>a</i>, Near Anadarko. <i>b</i>, Lodge standing about</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> 1880</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<h2> +TEXT FIGURES</h2> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Text Figures"> +<tr><td align="left"> 1. The buffalo of Gomara, 1554</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> 2. Tipis</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> 3. Horse travois</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> 4. Plan of the large Mandan village, 1833</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> 5. "The ark of the first man"</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> 6. Typical earth lodges</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> 7. Inclosed bed</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> 8. Plan of the interior of a Mandan lodge</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> 9. Wooden club</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">10. Plan of the Mandan village at Fort Clark</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">11. Plan of a ceremonial lodge</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">12. Plan of the large Hidatsa village</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> +<h2>VILLAGES OF THE ALGONQUIAN, SIOUAN, AND CADDOAN<br /> +TRIBES WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI.</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">By David I. Bushnell, Jr.</span></h3> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>THE TRIBES AND THEIR HABITAT.</h2> + + +<p>The country occupied by the tribes belonging to the three linguistic +groups whose villages are now to be described extended from +south of the Arkansas northward to and beyond the Canadian +boundary, and from the Mississippi across the Great Plains to the +Rocky Mountains. It thus embraced the western section of the valley +of the Mississippi, including the entire course of the Missouri, +the hilly regions bordering the rivers, and the vast rolling prairies. +The climatic conditions were as varied as were the physiographical +features, for, although the winters in the south were comparatively +mild, in the north they were long and severe.</p> + +<p>The three linguistic families to be considered are the Algonquian, +Siouan, and Caddoan. Many Algonquian and Siouan tribes formerly +lived east of the Mississippi, and their villages have already +been described (Bushnell, (1)),<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> but within historic times all Caddoan +tribes appear to have occupied country to the westward of the +river, although it is not improbable that during earlier days they +may have had villages beyond the eastern bank of the stream, the +remains of which exist.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> For citation of references throughout this bulletin, <i>see</i> "Authorities cited," p. 186.</p></div> + +<p>The Algonquians included in this account comprise principally +the three groups which may be termed the western division of the +great linguistic family. These are: (1) The Blackfoot confederacy, +composed of three confederated tribes, the Siksika or +Blackfeet proper, the Piegan, and the Kainah or Bloods; (2) the +Arapaho, including several distinct divisions, of which the Atsina, +or Gros Ventres of the Prairie, who were closely allied with the +Blackfeet, were often mentioned; (3) the Cheyenne, likewise forming +various groups or divisions. Belonging to the same great family +were the Cree or Kristinaux, whose habitat was farther north, +few living south of the Canadian boundary; also the Ojibway, whose +villages were scattered northward from the upper waters of the +Mississippi. Some Sauk later lived west of the Mississippi, as did +bands of the Foxes and some of the Illinois tribes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>The Siouan tribes were among the most numerous and powerful +on the continent, and those to be mentioned on the following pages +belonged to several clearly defined groups. As classified in the +Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> these include:</p> + +<p>I. Dakota-Assiniboin group: 1, Mdewakanton; 2, Wahpekute +(forming, with the Mdewakanton, the Santee); 3, Sisseton; 4, Wahpeton; +5, Yankton; 6, Yanktonai; 7, Teton—(a) Sichangu or Brulés, +(b) Itazipcho or Sans Arcs, (c) Sihasapa or Blackfeet, (d) Miniconjou, +(e) Oohenonpa or Two Kettles, (f) Oglala, (g) Hunkpapa; +8, Assiniboin.</p> + +<p>II. Dhegiha group: 1, Omaha; 2, Ponca; 3, Quapaw; 4, Osage—(a) +Pahatsi, (b) Utschta, (c) Santsukhdhi; 5, Kansa.</p> + +<p>III. Chiwere group: 1, Iowa; 2, Oto; 3, Missouri.</p> + +<p>IV. Winnebago.</p> + +<p>V. Mandan.</p> + +<p>VI. Hidatsa group: 1, Hidatsa; 2, Crows.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Bull. 30, Bur. Amer. Ethn., part 2, p. 579.</p></div> + +<p>The Caddoan family is less clearly defined than either of the preceding, +but evidently consisted of many small tribes grouped, and +forming confederacies. Those to be mentioned later include: (1) +The Arikara; (2) the Pawnee confederacy, composed of four tribes—(a) +Chaui or Grand Pawnee, (b) Kitkehahki or Republican Pawnee, +(c) Pitahauerat or Tapage Pawnee, (d) Skidi or Wolf Pawnee; (3) +the Wichita confederacy, including the Waco and various small +tribes; (4) the Caddo proper.</p> + +<p>Although the latter are included in the same linguistic group +with the Arikara, Pawnee, and others as mentioned above, they are +regarded by some as constituting a distinct linguistic stock.</p> + +<p>During the years following the close of the Revolution, the latter +part of the eighteenth century, many tribes, or rather the remnants +of tribes, then living east of the Mississippi, sought a refuge in the +West beyond the river. Many settled on the streams in the southern +part of the present State of Missouri and northern Arkansas, and, as +stated by Stoddard when writing about the year 1810: "A considerable +number of Delawares, Shawanese, and Cherokees, have built +some villages on the waters of the St. Francis and White Rivers. +Their removal into these quarters was authorized by the Spanish +government, and they have generally conducted themselves to the +satisfaction of the whites. Some stragglers from the Creeks, Chocktaws, +and Chickasaws, who are considered as outlaws by their respective +nations, have also established themselves on the same waters; +and their disorders and depredations among the white settlers are +not unfrequent." (Stoddard, (1), pp. 210-211.) And at about the +same time another writer, referring to the same region, said: "Below<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +the Great Osage, on the waters of the Little Osage, Saint Francis, +and other streams, are a number of scattered bands of Indians, and +two or three considerable villages. These bands were principally +Indians, who were formerly outcasts from the tribes east of the Mississippi. +Numbers have since joined from the Delawares, Shawanoes, +Wayondott, and other tribes towards the lakes. Their warriors +are said to be five or six hundred. They have sometimes made excursions +and done mischief on the Ohio river, but the settlements on +the Mississippi have suffered the most severely by their depredations." +(Cutler, (1), p. 120.)</p> + +<p>No attempt will be made in the present work to describe the habitations +or settlements occupied by the scattered bands just mentioned.</p> + +<p>It is quite evident that during the past two or three centuries great +changes have taken place in the locations of the tribes which were +discovered occupying the region west of the Mississippi by the first +Europeans to penetrate the vast wilderness. Thus the general movement +of many Siouan tribes has been westward, that of some Algonquian +groups southward from their earlier habitats, and the Caddoan +appear to have gradually gone northward. It resulted in the converging +of the tribes in the direction of the great prairies occupied by +the vast herds of buffalo which served to attract the Indian. Until +the beginning of this tribal movement it would seem that a great +region eastward from the base of the Rocky Mountains, the rolling +prairie lands, was not the home of any tribes but was solely the range +of the buffalo and other wild beasts, which existed in numbers now +difficult to conceive.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>THE BUFFALO.</h2> + +<h3>(<i>Bison americanus</i>.)</h3> + + +<p>With the practical extermination of the buffalo in recent years, +and the rapid changes which have taken place in the general appearance +of the country, it is difficult to picture it as it was two or more +centuries ago. While the country continued to be the home of the +native tribes game was abundant, and the buffalo, in prodigious +numbers, roamed over the wide region from the Rocky Mountains to +near the Atlantic. It is quite evident, and easily conceivable, that +wherever the buffalo was to be found it was hunted by the people of +the neighboring villages, principally to serve as food. But the different +parts of the animal were made use of for many purposes, and, +as related in an early Spanish narrative, one prepared nearly four +centuries ago, when referring to "the oxen of Quivira ... Their +masters have no other riches nor substance: of them they eat, they +drink, they apparel, they shooe themselves: and of their hides they +make many things, as houses, shooes, apparell and ropes: of their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> +bones they make bodkins: of their sinews and haire, threed: of their +hornes, maws, and bladders, vessels: of their dung, fire: and of their +calves-skinnes, budgets, wherein they drawe and keepe water. To bee +short, they make so many things of them as they neede of, or as many +as suffice them in the use of this life." (Gomara, (1), p. 382.) A +crude engraving of a buffalo made at that time is reproduced in figure +<a href="#figure_1">1</a>.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"><a name="figure_1"></a> +<img src="images/f001.png" width="500" height="378" alt="Fig. 1.—The buffalo of Gomara, 1554" title="Fig. 1.—The buffalo of Gomara, 1554" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 1.—The buffalo of Gomara, 1554</span> +</div> + +<p>The preceding account describes the customs of the people then +living in the southern part of the region treated in the present +sketch, either a Caddoan or a neighboring tribe or group, and it +suggests another reference to the great importance of the buffalo, +but applying to the +tribes of the north more +than three centuries +later.</p> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 2<a name="Plate_2"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/p002.png" width="500" height="294" alt=""A BUFFALO HUNT ON THE SOUTHWESTERN PRAIRIES" + +J. M. Stanley, 1845" title=""A BUFFALO HUNT ON THE SOUTHWESTERN PRAIRIES" + +J. M. Stanley, 1845" /> +<span class="caption">"A BUFFALO HUNT ON THE SOUTHWESTERN PRAIRIES" + +J. M. Stanley, 1845</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 3<a name="Plate_3" id="Plate_3"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/p003.png" width="500" height="289" alt=""BUFFALO HUNT" + +Carl Wimar, 1860" title=""BUFFALO HUNT" + +Carl Wimar, 1860" /> +<span class="caption">"BUFFALO HUNT" + +Carl Wimar, 1860</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 4<a name="Plate_4"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/p004.png" width="500" height="270" alt=""BUFFALO HUNTING ON THE FROZEN SNOW" + +Peter Rindisbacher, about 1825" title=""BUFFALO HUNTING ON THE FROZEN SNOW" +Peter Rindisbacher, about 1825 +" /> +<span class="caption">"BUFFALO HUNTING ON THE FROZEN SNOW"<br /> + +Peter Rindisbacher, about 1825</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 5<a name="Plate_5"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p005a.png" width="300" height="182" alt="a. "A Buffalo Pound." Paul Kane, 1845" title="a. "A Buffalo Pound." Paul Kane, 1845" /> +<span class="caption">a. "A Buffalo Pound." Paul Kane, 1845</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p005b.png" width="300" height="321" alt="b. Scene in a Sioux village, about 1870. Photograph by S. J. Morrow" title="b. Scene in a Sioux village, about 1870. Photograph by S. J. Morrow" /> +<span class="caption">b. Scene in a Sioux village, about 1870. Photograph by S. J. Morrow</span> +</div> + +<p>"The animals inhabiting +the Dakota country, +and hunted more or less +by them for clothing, +food, or for the purposes +of barter, are buffalo, +elk, black- and +white-tailed deer, big-horn, +antelope, wolves +of several kinds, red and +gray foxes, a few beaver +and otter, grizzly bear, badger, skunk, porcupine, rabbits, muskrats, +and a few panthers in the mountainous parts. Of all those just mentioned +the buffalo is most numerous and most necessary to their +support. Every part of this animal is eaten by the Indian except +the horns, hoofs, and hair, even the skin being made to sustain life +in times of great scarcity. The skin is used to make their lodges +and clothes, the sinews for bowstrings, the horns to contain powder, +and the bones are wrought into various domestic implements, or +pounded up and boiled to extract the fatty matter. In the proper +season, from the beginning of October until the 1st of March, the +skins are dressed with the hair remaining on them, and are either +worn by themselves or exchanged with the traders." (Hayden, (1), +p. 371.)</p> + +<p>In the early days the tribes who occupied a region frequented by +or in the vicinity of the range of the buffalo could and undoubtedly +did kill sufficient numbers to satisfy their various wants and requirements, +but hunting was made more easy in later times when horses +were possessed by the Indian. Then it became possible for the bands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +of hunters, or even the entire village, to follow the vast herds, to +surround and kill as many as they desired, and to carry away great +quantities of meat to be "jerked," or dried, for future use. So intimately +connected were the buffalo with the life of the tribes of the +plains and the circumjacent country that frequent allusions will be +made to the former when describing the camps and villages of the +latter.</p> + + +<p>The various ways of hunting the buffalo and other wild beasts of the +plains and mountainous country, as practiced by the different tribes, +have been described by many writers. The several methods of hunting +the buffalo were often forced through natural conditions, but +nothing could have exceeded the excitement produced during the +chase by well-mounted Indian hunters. This was the usual custom +of the tribes of the plains after horses had become plentiful and the +buffalo continued numerous. The paintings reproduced in plates <a href="#Plate_2">2</a> +and <a href="#Plate_3">3</a> vividly portray this phase of the hunt. In the north the +hunters were compelled during the long winters to attack the herds +on the frozen, snow-covered prairies, and plate <a href="#Plate_4">4</a> shows a party of +hunters, wearing snowshoes, mingled with the buffalo. This sketch, +made about the year 1825, bears the legend: "Indian Hunters pursuing +the Buffalo early in the spring when the snow is sufficiently +frozen to bear the men but the Animal breaks through and cannot +run." This graphic sketch may represent a party of Cree or Assiniboin +hunters, probably the latter, and it will be noticed that they are +using bows and arrows, not firearms, although other drawings by the +same artist representing a summer hunt shows them having guns.</p> + +<p>Another custom in the North was that of constructing inclosures +of logs and branches of trees, leaving one opening through which +the buffalo were driven, and when thus secured were killed. Such +an inclosure, or pound, is shown in plate <a href="#Plate_5">5</a>, <i>a</i>. This is a reproduction +of the original painting made by Paul Kane, September, 1845. In +describing it he wrote: "These pounds can only be made in the +vicinity of forests, as they are composed of logs piled up roughly, +five feet high, and enclose about two acres. At one side an entrance +is left, about ten feet wide, and from each side of this, to the distance +of half a mile, a row of posts or short stumps, called dead men, are +planted, at the distance of twenty feet each, gradually widening out +into the plain from the entrance. When we arrived at the pound we +found a party there anxiously awaiting the arrival of the buffaloes, +which their companions were driving in. This is accomplished as +follows:—A man, mounted on a fleet horse, usually rides forward +till he sees a band of buffaloes. This may be sixteen or eighteen miles +distant from the ground, but of course the nearer to it the better. +The hunter immediately strikes a light with a flint and steel, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +places the lighted spunk in a handful of dried grass, the smoke arising +from which the buffaloes soon smell and start away from it at +the top of their speed. The man now rides up alongside of the herd, +which, from some unaccountable propensity, invariably endeavour to +cross in front of his horse. I have had them follow me for miles in +order to do so. The hunter thus possesses an unfailing means, wherever +the pound may be situated, of conducting them to it by the +dexterous management of his horse. Indians are stationed at intervals +behind the posts, or dead men, provided with buffalo robes, who, +when the herd are once in the avenue, rise up and shake the robes, +yelling and urging them on until they get into the enclosure, the spot +usually selected for which is one with a tree in the centre. On this +they hang offerings to propitiate the Great Spirit to direct the herd +towards it. A man is also placed in the tree with a medicine pipestem +in his hand, which he waves continually, chaunting a sort of +prayer to the Great Spirit, the burden of which is that the buffaloes +may be numerous and fat." (Kane, (1), pp. 117-119.) Quite similar +to this is the description of a pound constructed by the Cree a few +years later. This was some 120 feet across, "constructed of the +trunks of trees, laced with withes together, and braced by outside +supports," and within "lay tossed in every conceivable position over +two hundred dead buffalo." Another pound erected at this time had +the "dead men" extending for a distance of 4 miles from the entrance. +(Hind, (1), I, pp. 356-359.) Maximilian, Lewis and Clark, and +other explorers of the upper Missouri Valley refer to enclosures into +which the Indians drove antelope. And that the custom was followed +by the tribes far east of the Mississippi is proved by the writings of +early explorers. Champlain in 1615 gave an account, accompanied +by an interesting drawing, of such a hunt, and Lahontan nearly a +century later presented an illustration bearing the legend: "Stags +block'd up in a park, after being pursued by y<sup>e</sup> Savages." Many +other references could be quoted, as the ways of hunting followed by +the Indians have always been of interest to the many writers who +have described the manners and customs of the people.</p> + +<p>What was probably a characteristic view in a Sioux village of half +a century ago, after a successful hunt, is shown in the old photograph +reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_5">5</a>, <i>b</i>. Here, in front of the group of skin tipis, +are quantities of meat suspended and being "jerked" or dried in the +air. Buffalo skins are stretched on the ground, and in the immediate +foreground are two women scraping a skin. This is a picture of the +greatest interest and rarity.</p> + +<p>The sight of the great herds roaming unmolested over the far-reaching +prairies proved of interest to all who saw them, and many +accounts are left by the early travelers. One brief description of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +such a scene may be quoted. It refers to a place in the upper Missouri +Valley, not far from a Mandan village, and was written June +22, 1811:</p> + +<p>"We arrived on the summit of a ridge more elevated than any we +had yet passed. From thence we saw before us a beautiful plain, as +we judged, about four miles across, in the direction of our course, +and of similar dimensions from east to west. It was bounded on all +sides by long ridges, similar to that which we had ascended. The +scene exhibited in this valley was sufficiently interesting to excite +even in our Canadians a wish to stop a few minutes and contemplate +it. The whole of the plain was perfectly level, and, like the rest of +the country, without a single shrub. It was covered with the finest +verdure, and in every part herds of buffaloes were feeding. I counted +seventeen herds, but the aggregate number of the animals it was +difficult even to guess at: some thought upwards of 10,000." (Bradbury, +(1), pp. 134-135.) And this was but one of innumerable similar +scenes to have been witnessed throughout the wide range of the vast +herds.</p> + +<p>"The Indians say ... that in travelling over a country with +which they are unacquainted they always follow the buffalo trail, for +this animal always selects the most practicable route for his road." +(Warren, (1), p. 74.) This is a well-known fact, and many roads +both east and west of the Mississippi which have now developed into +important highways owe their origin to this cause.</p> + +<p>The story of the buffalo will ever be one of interest, becoming more +and more so as the years pass; and so it is gratifying to know that +nearly all the available information bearing on the customs of the +animal, the migration of the herds, their ancient habitat, and their +rapid reduction in numbers was some years ago brought together and +preserved in a single volume. (Allen, (1).) This was done while +the buffalo were still quite numerous, and many facts recorded were +derived from hunters or others acquainted with the customs of the +times.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>VILLAGES AND FORMS OF STRUCTURES.</h2> + + +<p>The villages as well as the separate structures reared by the many +tribes who formerly occupied the region treated in the present work +presented marked characteristics, causing them to be easily identified +by the early travelers through the wilderness of a century ago. The +mat and bark covered wigwam predominated among the Algonquian +tribes of the north, although certain members of this great linguistic +family also used the skin tipi so typical of the Siouan tribes of the +plains, while some of the latter stock constructed the earth lodge<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +similar to that erected by the Caddoan tribes. Thus, it will be understood +no one group occupied habitations of a single form to the exclusion +of all others, and again practically all the tribes had two or +more types of dwellings which were reared and used under different +conditions, some forming their permanent villages, others, being +easily removed and transported, serving as their shelters during long +journeys in search of the buffalo. The villages of the several groups +will now be mentioned in detail.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Algonquian Tribes.</span></h3> + +<p>The numerous tribes and the many confederated groups belonging +to the great Algonquian linguistic family extended over the continent +from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic coast, and from +Labrador on the north southward to Carolina. They surrounded +the Iroquoian tribes of the north, and, at various places came in contact +with members of other stocks. The combined population of the +widely scattered Algonquian tribes was greater than that of any other +linguistic family in North America.</p> + +<p>The native tribes of tidewater Virginia and those who were encountered +by the New England colonists, tribes so intimately associated +with the early history of the Colonies, belonged to this stock, as +did the later occupants of the Ohio Valley and of the "country of +Illinois." In the present work the villages of other members of the +linguistic group will be considered, including those of the Ojibway +and the related Cree, and of the Blackfoot confederacy, Arapaho, and +Cheyenne, usually termed the western division of the stock. Several +tribes whose villages stood east of the Mississippi in early historic +times will also be mentioned.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">ojibway.</span></h4> + +<p>The Ojibway (the Sauteux of many writers) formed the connecting +link between the tribes living east of the Mississippi and those +whose homes were across the "Great River." A century ago their +lands extended from the shores of Lake Superior westward, beyond +the headwaters of the Mississippi to the vicinity of the Turtle Mountains, +in the present State of North Dakota. Thus they claimed the +magnificent lakes of northern and central Minnesota—Mille Lac, +Leech Lake, Cass Lake, and Red Lake—on the shores of which stood +many of their camps and villages, serving as barriers against invasions +and attacks by their inveterate enemies, the Sioux. The +Ojibway are essentially a timber people, whose manners and customs +were formed and governed by the environment of lakes and streams, +and who were ever surrounded by the vast virgin forests of pine. +While game, fish, and wild fowl were abundant and easily obtained,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +yet during the long winters when the lakes were frozen and the land +was covered by several feet of snow there were periods of want when +food was scarce.</p> + +<p>The habitations and other structures of the Ojibway, which have +already been described and figured (Bushnell, (2)), were of various +forms, constructed of several materials, and varying in different +localities, according to the nature of the available supply of barks +or rushes.</p> + +<p>In the north, on the shores of Lake Superior and westward along +the lakes and streams, as in the valley of Red River and the adjacent +region, the majority of structures were covered with sheets of birch +bark, secured to frames of small saplings.</p> + +<p>About the year 1804 Peter Grant, a member of the old North-West +Company, and for a long period at the head of the Red River Department +of the company, prepared an account of the Sauteux Indians, +and when describing the habitations of the people, wrote: +"Their tents are constructed with slender long poles, erected in the +form of a cone and covered with the rind of the birch tree. The +general diameter of the base is about fifteen feet, the fire place +exactly in the middle, and the remainder of the area, with the exception +of a small place for the hearth, is carefully covered with the +branches of the pine or cedar tree, over which some bear skins and +old blankets are spread, for sitting and sleeping. A small aperture +is left in which a bear skin is hung in lieu of a door, and a space is +left open at the top, which answers the purpose of window and +chimney. In stormy weather the smoke would be intolerable, but +this inconvenience is easily removed by contracting or shifting the +aperture at top according to the point from which the wind blows. +It is impossible to walk, or even to stand upright, in their miserable +habitations, except directly around the fire place. The men sit +generally with their legs stretched before them, but the women have +theirs folded backwards, inclined a little to the left side, and can +comfortably remain the whole day in those attitudes, when the +weather is too bad for remaining out of doors. In fine weather they +are very fond of basking in the sun.</p> + +<p>"When the family is very large, or when several families live +together, the dimensions of their tents are, of course, in proportion +and of different forms. Some of these spacious habitations resemble +the roof of a barn, with small openings at each end for doors, and +the whole length of the ridge is left uncovered at top for the smoke +and light." (Grant, (1), pp. 329-330.) And referring briefly to +the ways of life of the people: "In the spring, when the hunting +season is over, they generally assemble in small villages, either at +the trader's establishment, or in places where fish or wild fowl<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +abound; sturgeon and white fish are most common, though they +have abundance of pike, trout, suckers, and pickerel. They sometimes +have the precaution to preserve some for the summer consumption, +this is done by opening and cleaning the fish, and then +carefully drying it in the smoke or sun, after which it is tied up very +tight in large parcels, wrapped up in bark and kept for use; their +meat, in summer, is cured in the same manner.... Their meat is +either boiled in a kettle, or roasted by means of a sharp stick, fixed +in the ground at a convenient distance from the fire, and on which +the meat is fixed and turned occasionally towards the fire, until the +whole is thoroughly done; their fish is dressed in the same manner." +(Op. cit., pp. 330-331.)</p> + +<p>The method of cooking food, as mentioned in the preceding paragraph, +is graphically illustrated in the old sketch made a century +ago, now reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_6">6</a>, <i>a</i>. This shows a family gathered +about a small fire where food is being prepared, and beyond is a +bark-covered wigwam. The sketch bears the legend, "A family +from the tribe of the wild Sautaux Indians on the Red River. +Drawn from nature." It indicates the primitive dress and appearance +of the people, and it is of interest to compare this with the +photograph which is reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_6">6</a>, <i>b</i>, showing another small +group of the people three-quarters of a century later. Such were the +changes within that period.</p> + +<p>Similar to the preceding were the habitations shown by Kane in +a sketch made during the early summer of 1845, the original painting +being reproduced as plate <a href="#Plate_7">7</a>, <i>a</i>. This was described as "an +Indian encampment amongst the islands of Lake Huron; the wigwams +are made of birch-bark, stripped from the trees in large pieces +and sewed together with long fibrous roots; when the birch tree cannot +be conveniently had, they weave rushes into mats ... for covering, +which are stretched round in the same manner as the bark, upon +eight or ten poles tied together at the top, and stuck in the ground +at the required circle of the tent, a hole being left at the top to +permit the smoke to go out. The fire is made in the centre of the +lodge, and the inmates sleep all round with their feet towards it." +(Kane, (1), pp. 6-7.) The interesting painting could well have +been made among the Ojibway camps or settlements of northern +Minnesota instead of representing a group of wigwams located +many miles eastward, but this tends to prove the similarity of the +small villages in the region where large sheets of birch bark were +to be obtained.</p> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 6<a name="Plate_6"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p006a.png" width="300" height="209" alt="a. "A family from the tribe of the wild Sautaux Indians on the Red River." Drawn from +nature, 1821" title="a. "A family from the tribe of the wild Sautaux Indians on the Red River." Drawn from +nature, 1821" /> +<span class="caption">a. "A family from the tribe of the wild Sautaux Indians on the Red River." Drawn from +nature, 1821</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p006b.png" width="300" height="234" alt="b. Ojibway wigwam. Leech Lake, Minnesota, 1896" title="b. Ojibway wigwam. Leech Lake, Minnesota, 1896" /> +<span class="caption">b. Ojibway wigwam. Leech Lake, Minnesota, 1896</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 7<a name="Plate_7"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p007a.png" width="300" height="183" alt="a. "Encampment among the Islands of Lake Huron." Paul Kane, 1845" title="a. "Encampment among the Islands of Lake Huron." Paul Kane, 1845" /> +<span class="caption">a. "Encampment among the Islands of Lake Huron." Paul Kane, 1845</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p007b.png" width="300" height="220" alt="b. Ojibway camp on bank of Red River. Photograph by H. L. Hime, 1858" title="b. Ojibway camp on bank of Red River. Photograph by H. L. Hime, 1858" /> +<span class="caption">b. Ojibway camp on bank of Red River. Photograph by H. L. Hime, 1858</span> +</div> + +<p>Between the loosely placed sheets of bark were necessarily many +openings through which the wind could enter, and in addition was +the open space at the top intentionally left as a vent through which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +the smoke could escape from the inside. In describing the appearance +of the interior of such a structure it was told how—</p> + +<p>"Around the fire in the centre, and at a distance of perhaps 2 feet +from it, are placed sticks as large as one's arm, in a square form, +guarding the fire; and it is a matter of etiquette not to put one's +feet nearer the fire than that boundary. One or more pots or +kettles are hung over the fire on the crotch of a sapling. In the +sides of the wigwam are stowed all clothing, food, cooking utensils, +and other property of the family." When referring to the great +feeling of relief on arriving at such a shelter in the frozen wilderness +the same writer continued:</p> + +<p>"When one has been traveling all day through the virgin forest, +in a temperature far below zero, and has not seen a house nor a +human being and knows not where or how he is to pass the night, +it is the most comforting sight in the whole world to see the glowing +column of light from the top of the wigwam of some wandering +family out hunting, and to look in and see that happy group bathed +in the light and warmth of the life-giving fire ... and no one, +Ojibway or white, is ever refused admission; on the contrary, +they are made heartily welcome, as long as there is an inch of +space." (Gilfillan, (1), pp. 68-69.) As a missionary among the +Ojibway of northern Minnesota for a quarter of a century, Dr. +Gilfillan learned to know and love the forests and lakes in the +changing seasons of the year and to know the ways of life of the +Ojibway as few have ever known them.</p> + +<p>The structures just mentioned were of a circular form, with the +ends of the poles which supported the bark describing a circle on +the ground. Of quite similar construction were the larger oval +wigwams, where two groups of poles were arranged at the ends in +the form of semicircles, with a ridgepole extending between the tops +of the two groups. Other poles rested against the ridgepole and so +formed the sloping supports upon which the strips of bark were +placed. One most interesting example of this form of primitive +habitation was visited by the writer during the month of October, +1899. It formed one of a small group of wigwams which at that +time stood near the Canadian boundary, north of Ely, Minnesota. +It was about 18 feet in length and between 8 and 9 feet in width. +There were two entrances, one at each end, with hanging blankets +to cover the openings. Within, along the median line on the ground, +burned four small fires. Beautiful examples of rush mats, made +by the women, were spread upon the ground near the sloping walls, +these serving as seats during the day and sleeping places at night. +Many articles hung from the poles which sustained the bark covering, +as small bags and baskets, and many bunches of herbs. In one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +corner was a large covered <i>mokak</i>, and on the opposite side was a +carefully wrapped drum, owned by the old Ojibway, <i>Ahgishkemunsit</i>, +the Kingfisher, who was sitting on the ground near by.</p> + +<p>Quite similar to the preceding must have been the wigwam visited +by Hind in 1858. This stood a short distance from Manitobah +House, of the Hudson's Bay Company, and belonged to an Ojibway +hunter. As Hind wrote: "His birch-bark tent was roomy and clean. +Thirteen persons including children squatted round the fire in the +centre. On the floor some excellent matting was laid upon spruce +boughs for the strangers; the squaws squatted on the bare ground, +the father of the family on an old buffalo robe. Attached to the +poles of the tent were a gun, bows and arrows, a spear, and some +mink skins. Suspended on cross pieces over the fire were fishing +nets and floats, clothes, and a bunch of the bearberry to mix with +tobacco for the manufacture of kinni-kinnik." (Hind, (1), II, p. 63.) +Hind was accompanied on his second journey, in 1858, by a photographer, +Humphrey Lloyd Hime, who made many interesting negatives +while in the Indian country. Among the photographs made at +this time are three views of bark wigwams of the Ojibway which +stood near the banks of Red River. These are now reproduced in +plates <a href="#Plate_7">7</a>, <i>b</i>, and <a href="#Plate_8">8</a> <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>.</p> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 8<a name="Plate_8"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p008a.png" width="300" height="202" alt="a. Ojibway camp west of Red River. Photograph by H. L. Hime, 1858" title="a. Ojibway camp west of Red River. Photograph by H. L. Hime, 1858" /> +<span class="caption">a. Ojibway camp west of Red River. Photograph by H. L. Hime, 1858</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p008b.png" width="300" height="200" alt="b. Ojibway camp on bank of Red River. Photograph by H. L. Hime, 1858" title="b. Ojibway camp on bank of Red River. Photograph by H. L. Hime, 1858" /> +<span class="caption">b. Ojibway camp on bank of Red River. Photograph by H. L. Hime, 1858</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 9<a name="Plate_9"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p009a.png" width="300" height="199" alt="a. Wigwams covered with elm bark" title="a. Wigwams covered with elm bark" /> +<span class="caption">a. Wigwams covered with elm bark</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p009b.png" width="300" height="208" alt="b. Two types of wigwams covered with birch bark + +OJIBWAY HABITATIONS, ABOUT 1865" title="b. Two types of wigwams covered with birch bark + +OJIBWAY HABITATIONS, ABOUT 1865" /> +<span class="caption">b. Two types of wigwams covered with birch bark<br /> + +OJIBWAY HABITATIONS, ABOUT 1865</span> +</div> + +<p>While in the vicinity of Red River the year before (1857) Hind +encountered several interesting Ojibway structures. At a point not +far north of the Minnesota boundary his party crossed the Roseau +a few miles east of Red River, and there "on the bank at the crossing +place the skeletons of Indian wigwams and sweating-houses were +grouped in a prominent position, just above a fishing weir where +the Ojibways of this region take large quantities of fish in the spring. +The framework of a large medicine wigwam measured twenty-five +feet in length by fifteen in breadth; the sweating-houses were large +enough to hold one man in a sitting position, and differed in no +respect from those frequently seen on the canoe route between Lakes +Superior and Winnipeg, and which have been often described by +travelers." (Hind, (1), I, p. 163.) During the journey, when camping +on an island in Bonnet Lake, the party encountered "an Indian +cache elevated on a stage in the centre of the island. The stage was +about seven feet above the ground, and nine feet long by four broad. +It was covered with birch bark, and the treasures it held consisted +of rabbit-skin robes, rolls of birch bark, a ragged blanket, leather +leggings, and other articles of winter apparel, probably the greater +part of the worldly wealth of an Indian family." (Op. cit., p. 120.)</p> + +<p>The canoe route between the lakes mentioned by Hind was often +broken by dangerous rapids, around which it was necessary to carry +the canoes, as Catlin described the Ojibway party doing at the Falls +of St. Anthony.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>The ceremonial lodge of the Ojibway, where the Mĭdé rites were +enacted, was often 100 feet or more in length and about 12 feet in +width. The frame was made of small saplings, bent and fastened +by cords, similar to the frames of wigwams which were to be covered +with mats or sheets of bark, but the coverings of the ceremonial +lodges were usually of a more temporary nature, boughs and branches +of the pine and spruce being sometimes used, which would soon +fall away, although the rigid frame would stand from year to year, +to be covered when required. Somewhat of this form was the +"medicine lodge," described by Kane. This stood in the center of +a large camp of the "Saulteaux" or Ojibway, not far from Fort +Alexander, which was about 3 miles above Lake Winnipeg, on the +bank of Winnipeg River. The camp was visited June 11, 1846, and +in referring to the lodge: "It was rather an oblong structure, composed +of poles bent in the form of an arch, and both ends forced into +the ground, so as to form, when completed, a long arched chamber, +protected from the weather by a covering of birch bark.... +On my first entrance into the medicine lodge ... I found four +men, who appeared to be chiefs, sitting upon mats spread upon +the ground gesticulating with great violence, and keeping time to +the beating of a drum. Something, apparently of a sacred nature +was covered up in the centre of the group, which I was not allowed +to see.... The interior of their lodge or sanctuary was hung +round with mats constructed with rushes, to which were attached +various offerings consisting principally of bits of red and blue cloth, +calico, &c., strings of beads, scalps of enemies, and sundry other +articles beyond my comprehension." (Kane, (1), pp. 68-71.)</p> + +<p>It is quite evident the frame of the large lodge encountered by +Hind was similar to the structure described by Kane a few years +before. Both stood in the northern part of the Ojibway country, +a region where birch bark was extensively used as covering for the +wigwams, and where it was easily obtained.</p> + +<p>The temporary, quickly raised shelters of the Ojibway were described +by Tanner, who learned to make them from the people with +whom he remained many years. Referring to a journey up the valley +of the Assiniboin, he wrote: "In bad weather we used to make a +little lodge, and cover it with three or four fresh buffaloe hides, and +these being soon frozen, made a strong shelter from wind and snow. +In calm weather, we commonly encamped with no other covering +than our blankets." (Tanner, (1) p. 55.) On another occasion fire +destroyed the wigwam and all the possessions of the family with +whom he lived, and then, so he said: "We commenced to repair our +loss, by building a small grass lodge, in which to shelter ourselves +while we should prepare the pukkwi for a new wigwam. The women<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +were very industrious in making these.... At night, also, when it +was too dark to hunt, Wa-me-gon-a-biew and myself assisted at this +labour. In a few days our lodge was completed." (Op. cit., p. 85.) +And again when near Rainy Lake, "I had no pukkwi, or mats, for +a lodge and therefore had to build one of poles and long grass." +(p. 214.) It is quite evident the shelters of poles and grass, as mentioned +by Tanner, were similar to those erected by the Assiniboin as +described on another page, and as indicated in the painting by Paul +Kane, which is reproduced as plate <a href="#Plate_25">25</a>, <i>a</i>.</p> + +<p>Two very interesting old photographs, made more than half a +century ago, are shown in plate <a href="#Plate_9">9</a>. One, <i>a</i>, represents clearly the +elm-bark covering of the wigwams, and in this picture the arbor +suggests a Siouan rather than an Ojibway encampment; <i>b</i> is more +characteristic of the Ojibway.</p> + +<p>The structures encountered in the Ojibway country farther south +differed from those already mentioned, the majority of which were +covered with sheets of birch bark, a form which must necessarily have +been restricted to the northern country. But the type was widely +scattered northward, and undoubtedly extended eastward to the +Atlantic, especially down the valley of the St. Lawrence into northern +Maine and the neighboring Provinces. South of this zone were +the dome-shaped mat or bark covered wigwams, varying in different +localities according to the available supply of barks, or of rushes to +be made into mats, which served to cover the rigid, oval-topped +frame. Most interesting examples were standing in the Ojibway +settlements on the shore of Mille Lac, Minnesota, during the spring +of 1900. One, which may be accepted as a type specimen, was of a +quadrilateral rather than oval outline of base, and measured about +14 feet each way, with a maximum height of 6 feet or more. The +saplings which formed the frame were seldom more than 2 inches in +diameter, one end being set firmly in the ground, the top being bent +over and attached to similar pieces coming from the opposite side. +Other small saplings or branches were tied firmly to these in a horizontal +position about 2 feet apart, thus forming a rigid frame, over +which was spread the covering of mats and sheets of bark, the latter +serving as the roof. In this particular example the covering was +held in place by cords which passed over the top and were attached +to poles which hung horizontally about a foot above the ground. A +second row of mats was fastened to the inside of the frame and +others were spread on the ground near the walls. A small fire +burned within near the center of the open space, although the cooking +was often done outside, just beyond the single entrance.</p> + +<p>Although the Ojibway were numerous, they had few large villages +or settlements. They lived for the most part in small, scattered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +groups, and often moved from place to place. However, there +were some long-occupied sites, as at Red Lake, Sandy Lake, on the +shores of Leech Lake, where the Pillagers gathered, and the more +recently occupied villages at Mille Lac, sites once covered by the +settlements of the Mdewakanton. These villages, which should more +properly be termed "gathering places," at once suggest the various +descriptions and accounts of the great village of the Illinois, which +stood on the banks of the upper Illinois during the latter part of +the seventeenth century and was many times visited by the French.</p> + +<p>When the Ojibway and Sioux gathered at Fort Snelling, at the +mouth of the Minnesota River, during the summer of 1835 in the +endeavor to establish peace between the two tribes or groups, they +were encamped on opposite sides of the fort. Catlin, who was there +at the time, wrote of the temporary camp of the Ojibway: "their +wigwams made of birch bark, covering the frame work, which was +of slight poles stuck in the ground, and bent over at the top, so as +to give a rooflike shape to the lodge, best calculated to ward off +rain and winds." (Catlin, (1), II, p. 137.) Unfortunately, the +original painting of the camp does not exist in the great collection of +Catlin paintings now belonging to the National Museum, Washington. +In the catalogue of the collection printed in London, 1848, it +appears as "334, Chippeway Village and Dog Feast at the Falls of +St. Anthony; lodges built with birch-bark; Upper Mississippi."</p> + +<p>An outline drawing of the picture was given as plate 238 to illustrate +the account quoted above, but how accurate either description +or sketch may be is now quite difficult to determine. However, it is +doubtful if the structures had flat ends, as indicated, and mats may +have formed part of the covering. Catlin continued his narrative +and told of the removal of the camp (p. 138): "After the business +and amusements of this great Treaty between the Chippeways and +Sioux were all over, the Chippeways struck their tents by taking +them down and rolling up their bark coverings, which, with their +bark canoes seen in the picture, turned up amongst their wigwams, +were carried to the water's edge; and all things being packed in, +men, women, dogs, and all, were swiftly propelled by paddles to the +Falls of St Anthony." They reached "an eddy below the Falls, and +as near as they could get by paddling." Here the canoes were unloaded +and the canoes and all else carried about one-half mile above +the Falls, where they again embarked and continued on their way. +It is interesting to contemplate this scene and to realize it was enacted +within the limits of the present city of Minneapolis so short a +time ago. A beautiful example of the light birch-bark canoe of the +Ojibway is shown in plate <a href="#Plate_10">10</a>, <i>a</i>, and a photograph of two old Ojibway +Indians with similar canoes is reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_10">10</a>, <i>b</i>. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +canoes indicated by Kane in his painting (pl. <a href="#Plate_7">7</a>, <i>a</i>) were of this form, +probably the most graceful and easiest propelled craft ever devised.</p> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 10<a name="Plate_10"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p010a.png" width="300" height="214" alt="a. Ojibway birch bark canoe. Northern Minnesota, 1899" title="a. Ojibway birch bark canoe. Northern Minnesota, 1899" /> +<span class="caption">a. Ojibway birch bark canoe. Northern Minnesota, 1899</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p010b.png" width="300" height="189" alt="b. Ojibway Indians with birch bark canoes. North of Ely, Minn., 1899" title="b. Ojibway Indians with birch bark canoes. North of Ely, Minn., 1899" /> +<span class="caption">b. Ojibway Indians with birch bark canoes. North of Ely, Minn., 1899</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 11<a name="Plate_11"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p011a.png" width="300" height="212" alt="a. Trader's store at the village of the Pillagers, Cass Lake in the distance on the right. +November 26, 1899" title="a. Trader's store at the village of the Pillagers, Cass Lake in the distance on the right. +November 26, 1899" /> +<span class="caption">a. Trader's store at the village of the Pillagers, Cass Lake in the distance on the right. +November 26, 1899</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p011b.png" width="300" height="228" alt="b. Outside an elm-bark structure. At the Ojibway village of Sagawamick, on south shore of +Mille Lac, Minnesota. May 21, 1900" title="b. Outside an elm-bark structure. At the Ojibway village of Sagawamick, on south shore of +Mille Lac, Minnesota. May 21, 1900" /> +<span class="caption">b. Outside an elm-bark structure. At the Ojibway village of Sagawamick, on south shore of +Mille Lac, Minnesota. May 21, 1900</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 12<a name="Plate_12"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p012a.png" width="300" height="302" alt="a. Hammer, bag, and two skin-dressing tools" title="a. Hammer, bag, and two skin-dressing tools" /> +<span class="caption">a. Hammer, bag, and two skin-dressing tools</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p012b.png" width="300" height="222" alt="b. Section of a rush mat, as used to form covering for a wigwam + +OBJECTS OF OJIBWAY MAKE" title="b. Section of a rush mat, as used to form covering for a wigwam + +OBJECTS OF OJIBWAY MAKE" /> +<span class="caption">b. Section of a rush mat, as used to form covering for a wigwam<br /> + +OBJECTS OF OJIBWAY MAKE</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 13<a name="Plate_13"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/p013a.png" width="250" height="109" alt="a. Ojibway mortar and pestle" title="a. Ojibway mortar and pestle" /> +<span class="caption">a. Ojibway mortar and pestle</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/p013b.png" width="200" height="329" alt="b. Delaware mortar and pestle" title="b. Delaware mortar and pestle" /> +<span class="caption">b. Delaware mortar and pestle</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p013c.png" width="300" height="117" alt="c. Ojibway birch bark dish" title="c. Ojibway birch bark dish" /> +<span class="caption">c. Ojibway birch bark dish</span> +</div> + +<p>The various structures in an Ojibway village do not appear to have +been erected or placed with any degree of order. Certainly this is +true of conditions in recent times, and whether any accepted or +recognized plan was followed in the past is not known. The small +wigwams formed an irregular group on the shore of a lake or the +bank of a stream surrounded by the primeval forest.</p> + +<p>In the month of May, 1900, a council house which had been erected +by the Ojibway some years before stood on a high point of land in +the midst of dense woods, about 1 mile north of the outlet of Mille +Lac—the beginning of Rum River—and about 200 yards from the +lake shore. It was oriented with its sides facing the cardinal points, +about 20 feet square, with walls 6 feet in height and the peak of the +roof twice that distance above the ground. The heavy frame was +covered with large sheets of elm bark, which had evidently been renewed +from time to time during the preceding years. No traces of +seats remained and grass was again growing on the ground which +had served as the floor. This was the scene of the treaty of October +5, 1889, between the Ojibway of Mille Lac and the United States +Government. Within a short time this very interesting primitive +structure had disappeared and two years later no trace of it remained. +Whether this represented an ancient type of building could not be +ascertained.</p> + +<p>The Ojibway villages were supplied with the usual sweat houses, +a small frame covered with blankets or other material, so often described. +Resembling these were the shelters prepared for the use of +certain old men who were believed to possess the power of telling of +future events and happenings. Such a lodge was seen standing on +the shore of Lake Superior, about 18 miles from Fond du Lac, July +27, 1826. As described by McKenney: "At this place, Burnt river +is a place of divination, the seat of a <i>jongleur's</i> incantations. It is a +circle, made of eight poles, twelve feet high, and crossing at the top, +which being covered in with mats, or bark, he enters, and foretells +future events." (McKenney, (1), p. 269.) Interesting, indeed, are +the many accounts of the predictions believed to have been made by +these old men.</p> + +<p>A remarkable performance of this nature was witnessed by Paul +Kane. When returning from the far West during the summer of +1848 the small party of which he was one arrived at Lake Winnipeg +and on July 28 had advanced about midway down the eastern shore. +On that day Kane made this entry in his journal: +"<i>July 28th.</i>—About +2 o'clock P.M., we endeavoured to proceed, but got only as +far as the Dog's Head, the wind being so strong and unfavourable,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +that it was thought useless to run any risk for the short distance we +would be able to make against it. In the evening our Indians constructed +a jonglerie, or medicine lodge, the main object of which +was to procure a fair wind for next day. For this purpose they +first drive ten or twelve poles, nine or ten feet long, into the ground, +enclosing a circular area of about three feet in diameter, with a boat +sail open at the top. The medicine-man, one of which is generally +found in every brigade, gets inside and commences shaking the poles +violently, rattling his medicinal rattle, and singing hoarse incantations +to the Great Spirit for a fair wind. Being unable to sleep on +account of the discordant noises, I wrapped a blanket round me, and +went out into the woods, where they were holding their midnight +orgies, and lay down amongst those on the outside of the medicine +lodge, to witness the proceedings. I had no sooner done so than the +incantations at once ceased, and the performer exclaimed that a white +man was present. How he ascertained this fact I am at a loss to +surmise ... The Major, [M'Kenzie] ... with many other intelligent +persons, is a firm believer in their medicine." (Kane, (1), pp. +439-441.)</p> + +<p>In addition to the several forms of structures erected by the Ojibway, +as already described, they reared the elm-bark lodge which resembled +in form the log cabin of the early settlers. Three of these +were standing on the south shore of Mille Lac, Minnesota, during the +spring of 1900, and the outside of one, showing the manner in which +the bark covering was placed, is indicated in plate <a href="#Plate_11">11</a>, <i>b</i>. This was +similar in shape to the Sauk and Fox habitation reproduced in plate +<a href="#Plate_19">19</a>, although the Ojibway structure was more skillfully constructed. +Habitations of a like nature were found among the Sioux villages +on the banks of the Mississippi in the vicinity of Fort Snelling, and +others were erected within a generation by the Menomini in northern +Wisconsin, but whether this may be considered a primitive form +of structure has not been determined.</p> + +<p>A trader's store standing near the Ojibway village on the shore +of Cass Lake, Minnesota, during the late autumn of 1899 is shown +in plate <a href="#Plate_11">11</a>, <i>a</i>. Similar cabins were occupied by some of the Indian +families, these having taken the place of the native wigwams.</p> + +<p>Various objects of primitive forms, made and used by the Ojibway +within a generation, are shown in plates <a href="#Plate_12">12</a> and <a href="#Plate_13">13</a>.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">cree.</span></h4> + +<p>The Cree (the Knisteneaux of Mackenzie) were closely related to +the Ojibway; they spoke the same language, and had many customs +in common. As Hayden wrote: "The Cree nation was originally a +portion of the Chippewa, as the similarity of language proves; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +even now they are so mingled with the latter people as with difficulty +to be considered a distinct tribe, further than a slight difference +in language and their local position." (Hayden, (1), p. 235.) Formerly +they occupied the forest region to the eastward of the country +which they later claimed. There they were probably accustomed to +the mat or bark covered structures, similar to those of the neighboring +Ojibway, but in more recent times, after having been attracted to +the prairies by the buffalo, they followed the customs of the prairie +tribes and for the most part made and used the typical conical skin-covered +lodge.</p> + +<p>After reaching the open country, and becoming more accustomed +to the life of roving hunters, they were necessarily less sedentary in +their habits than formerly, and their camps probably seldom remained +long in any one place. They became scattered over a wide +region, and in 1856 it was said: "They number about ten or eleven +hundred persons. Like most of the tribes in the Northwest Territory, +they are separated into clans or bands, and live in different districts +for greater advantages in hunting." Here is given a list of the +several bands, with the number of skin lodges claimed by each group, +but the "Pis-ka-kau-a-kis, or 'Magpies,' are about thirty lodges; are +stationed at Tinder Mountain; live in dirt lodges and log-cabins; +cultivate the soil to some extent, and raise considerable quantities of +corn and potatoes; hunt buffalo during the winter, and trade also with +the Hudson's Bay Company." (Hayden, (1), p. 237.) The same +writer continues (p. 238): "Besides the foregoing there are about +two hundred lodges more who are not formed into bands, but scattered +along Lac de L'Isle Croix, and live by hunting reindeer, moose, +fish, and wild fowl. They live in skin tents in the summer, but sometimes +build log and bark huts in winter, and seldom more than one +cabin is found in the same place. These are the poorest of the Crees."</p> + +<p>Thus it will be understood how scattered bands of the same tribe +often reared and occupied several forms of habitations, influenced +by their natural surroundings and requirements. And here are references +to the use of the bark-covered lodge, the skin-covered lodge +of probably a different shape, the structure covered with earth or sod, +and, lastly, the log cabin, by widely dispersed bands of the Cree.</p> + +<p>A simple form of temporary shelter was constructed by the Cree +and Ojibway to serve during certain ceremonies. This was described +about a century ago when recounting the customs of the "Sauteaux +and the Crees." It was told that in public feasts "Several chiefs +unite in preparing a suitable place, and in collecting sufficient provisions, +for the accommodation of a numerous assemblage. To provide +a place, poles are fixed obliquely into the ground, enclosing a sufficient +space to hold several hundred, and at times, nearly a thousand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +people. On these poles, skins are laid, at the height of twelve or +fifteen feet, thus forming a spacious court, or tent. The provisions +consist both of dried and of fresh meat, as it would not be practicable +to prepare a sufficient quantity of fresh meat, for such a multitude, +which, however, consists only of men. At these feasts, the guests +converse only on elevated topics, such as the public interests of the +tribe, and the noble exploits of their progenitors, that they may +infuse a publick and an heroic spirit, into their young men. Dancing +always forms the concluding ceremony, at these festivals; and the +women, who are not permitted to enter the place where they are celebrated, +dance and sing around them, often keeping time with the +music within." (Harmon, (1), p. 362.) It is to be regretted that +these early accounts are often so lacking in detail, and that so much +is left to imagination. In this instance the form of the large structure +was not mentioned, but it was probably extended, resembling to +some degree the Mĭdé lodge of the Ojibway. Among the latter the +large ceremonial lodge was covered with mats, sheets of bark, or +sometimes with skins or boughs of pine or spruce. Like customs may +have prevailed among the Cree.</p> + +<p>Proving the wandering, roving disposition of the Cree, and the consequent +lack of permanent villages, Maximilian wrote from Fort +Union, at the mouth of the Yellowstone, during the latter part of +June, 1833: "The Crees live in the same territory as the Assiniboins, +that is, between the Saskatschawan, the Assiniboin, and the Missouri. +They ramble about in small bands with the others, are poor, +have many dogs, which carry their baggage, but only a few horses. +They live, like the Assiniboins, in leather tents, follow the herds of +buffaloes, of which they sometimes kill great numbers in their parks. +The Crees are reckoned at 600 or 800 tents." (Maximilian, (1), pp. +199-200.)</p> + +<p>The dog travois, such as was used by the Cree and mentioned in the +preceding account, was of very ancient origin, having been seen and +described by the first Spanish explorers to traverse the prairie lands +of the Southwest. In <i>Relacion Postrera de Sivola</i>, prepared in the +year 1541, appears this interesting note:</p> + +<p>"These people have dogs like those in this country, except that +they are somewhat larger, and they load these dogs like beasts of +burden, and make saddles for them like our pack saddles, and they +fasten them with their leather thongs, and these make their backs +sore on the withers like pack animals. When they go hunting, they +load these with their necessities, and when they move—for these Indians +are not settled in one place, since they travel wherever the cows +[buffalo] move, to support themselves—these dogs carry their houses, +and they have the sticks of their houses dragging along tied on to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +the pack-saddles, besides the load which they carry on top, and the +load may be, according to the dog, from 35 to 50 pounds." (Winship, +(1), pp. 510-571.) This description could easily refer to conditions +and customs among the tribes three centuries and more later.</p> + +<p>A very graphic sketch of a dog travois was made at Fort Union, +October 10, 1851, by the Swiss artist, Friedrich Kurz, and is now reproduced +in plate <a href="#Plate_26">26</a>, <i>b</i>, showing the method of attaching the poles, +and how the load was rolled and placed upon the latter. The use +of the horse for a similar purpose in later years followed as a +natural sequence.</p> + +<p>Among the many paintings by Paul Kane, now preserved in the +Royal Ontario Museum of Archæology, at Toronto, is one bearing +the legend: "Cree Indians Travelling." It represents a small party +of Indians, some walking, others mounted on horses, with several +horse and dog travois. The latter show long poles attached to the +sides of the dogs, one end of the poles dragging on the ground, while +about midway of their length is a small pack upon which a child +is seated. The broken, rolling land of the north is represented with +a few clumps of small trees. The picture is one of much beauty +and interest, depicting as it does some of the primitive customs of +the Cree.</p> + +<p>During the summer of 1858 the Hind expedition into the region +far west of the Red River encountered many small groups of Cree +hunters and also observed the ancient camp sites of the same tribe. +They wrote in part: "Immediately on the banks of the Qu'appelle +Valley near the 'Round Hill' opposite Moose Jaws Forks, are the +remains of ancient encampments, where the Plain Crees, in the +day of their power and pride, had erected large skin tents, and +strengthened them with rings of stones placed round the base. These +circular remains were twenty-five feet in diameter, the stones or +boulders being about one foot in circumference. They wore the +aspect of great antiquity, being partially covered with soil and grass. +When this camp ground was occupied by the Crees, timber no doubt +grew in the valley below, or on the prairie and ravines in detached +groves, for their permanent camping grounds are always placed near +a supply of fuel.</p> + +<p>"Making an early start in search of wood, we came suddenly upon +four Cree tents, whose inmates were still fast asleep; about three +hundred yards west of them we found ten more tents, with over +fifty or sixty Indians in all. They were preparing to cross the +valley in the direction of the Grand Coteau, following the buffalo. +Their provisions for trade, such as dried meat and pemmican, were +drawn by dogs, each bag of pemmican being supported upon two +long poles, which are shaft, body, and wheels in one. Buffalo Pound<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +Hill Lake, sixteen miles long, begins near Moose Jaws Forks, and +on the opposite or south side of this long sheet of water, we saw +eighteen tents and a large number of horses. The women in those +we visited on our side of the valley and lake, had collected a great +quantity of the mesaskatomina berry which they were drying." +And not far beyond we "began to find the fresh bones of buffalo +very numerous on the ground, and here and there startled a pack of +wolves feeding on a carcas which had been deprived of its tongue +and hump only by the careless, thriftless Crees. On the high banks +of the valley the remains of ancient encampments in the form of +rings of stones to hold down the skin tents are everywhere visible, +and testify to the former numbers of the Plain Crees.... The +largest ancient encampment we saw lies near a shallow lake in the +prairie about a mile from the Qu'appelle valley. It is surrounded +by a few low sandy and gravelly hills, and is quite screened from +observation. It may have been a camping ground for centuries, as +some circles of stones are partially covered with grass and embedded +in the soil." (Hind, (1), I, pp. 338-341.)</p> + +<p>This is a simple explanation of the origin of small circles of stones +now encountered in different parts of the country, but in other +localities, where stones were not obtainable, masses of sod were used +for the same purpose, and these in turn may have caused the small +earth circles which are now discovered in the lower Mississippi +Valley and elsewhere.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">cheyenne.</span></h4> + +<p>As has been remarked by the most observant student of this tribe: +"Information as to the region occupied by the Cheyenne in early +days is limited and for the most part traditional. Some ethnologists +declare that Indian tradition has no historical value, but other +students of Indians decline to assent to this dictum. If it is to be +accepted, we can know little of the Cheyenne until they are found +as nomads following the buffalo over the plains. There is, however, +a mass of traditionary data which points back to conditions at a +much earlier date quite different from these. In primitive times +they occupied permanent earth lodges and raised crops of corn, +beans, and squashes, on which they largely depended for subsistence." +(Grinnell, (1), p. 359.)</p> + +<p>According to tradition, which in part is verified by the accounts +of early explorations, the Cheyenne at one time lived in the valley +of the Minnesota, whence they gradually moved westward. Thus at +least a part of the tribe removed from the edge of the timbered +region to the plains, a movement which probably took place during +the latter part of the eighteenth century.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>While living in the vicinity of the Minnesota the villages and +camps of the Cheyenne undoubtedly resembled those of the Sioux +of later days; the conical skin-covered lodge, or possibly the mat or +bark structure of the timber people, as used by the Ojibway and +others. But during the same period it is evident other bands of the +tribe lived quite a distance westward, probably on the banks of the +Missouri, and there the habitations were the permanent earth lodge, +similar to those of the Pawnee, Mandan, and other Missouri Valley +tribes. Sioux traditions refer to Cheyenne villages on the banks of +the Missouri near Fort Yates, Sioux County, North Dakota. These +were visited and described by Dr. Grinnell, during the spring of 1918, +who wrote: "The Teton Sioux, now allotted and scattered over the +Standing Rock Indian reservation, declare that on the west bank of +the Missouri river, not far from Fort Yates, there were formerly two +Cheyenne villages.... I visited the two sites. The most northerly +one is situated on a bluff above the Missouri river on the south +side of Porcupine creek, less than five miles north of Ft. Yates. The +village has been partly destroyed by the Missouri river, which has +undermined the bank and carried away some of the house rings reported +to have been well preserved, but a number remain. Of these +a few are still seen as the raised borders of considerable earth lodges, +the rings about the central hollow being from twelve to fifteen inches +above the surrounding soil, and the hollows noticeably deep. In +most cases, however, the situation of the house is indicated merely by +a slight hollow and especially by the peculiar character of the grass +growing on the house site. The eye recognizes the different vegetation, +and as soon as the foot is set on the soil within a house site, the +difference is felt between that and the ground immediately without +the site. The houses nearest both Porcupine creek and the Missouri +river stand on the bank immediately above the water, and it is possible +that some of those on the Porcupine have been undermined and +carried away by that stream when in flood. This settlement must +have been large. It stands on a flat, now bisected by a railroad embankment, +slightly sloping toward the river, and the houses stood +close together." More than 70 large house sites were counted, "one +at least being 60 feet in diameter," and in addition to these were a +large number of smaller ones. "On the gently rising land to the +west of the Porcupine village the Cheyenne are said to have planted +their corn, as also on the flats on the north side of the Porcupine +river. The village site now stands on the farm of Yellow Lodge, a +Yankton Sioux, who stated that he had always been told by the old +people that this was a Cheyenne village and that in plowing he had +often turned up pottery from the ground." And in reference to the +age of this interesting site: "Sioux tradition declares that the village<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +on the Porcupine river was established about 1733 or a little earlier, +perhaps 1730; they fix the date as about one hundred years before +the stars fell, 1833. It was a large village and was occupied for fifty +years or more and then the people abandoned it and moved over to a +point on Grand river twenty miles above its mouth. The date of the +removal is given as about the time of a great flood at this point, which, +it is said, took place about 1784." (Grinnell, Op. cit.) This later +village existed until about 1840 and appears to have been composed of +skin lodges, not the permanent earth structures. Sioux tradition +also places the earlier home of the people who erected the village on +the Porcupine at some point in the Valley of the Minnesota.</p> + +<p>The second of the two sites mentioned stood some 2 miles below +Porcupine Creek, and it is the belief of Dr. Grinnell that these were +the villages to which Lewis and Clark referred in their journals as +having been passed by the expedition on the 15th and 16th of October, +1804. At that time game was abundant and several hunting +parties of the Arikara were encountered, and an entry in the journal +dated October 15, 1804, reads: "We stopped at three miles on the +north a little above a camp of Ricaras who are hunting, where we +were visited by about thirty Indians. They came over in their skin +canoes, bringing us meat, for which we returned them beads and +fishhooks. About a mile higher we found another encampment of +Ricaras on the south, consisting of eight lodges: here we again ate +and exchanged a few presents. As we went we discerned numbers +of other Indians on both sides of the river; and at about nine miles +we came to a creek on the south, where we saw many high hills resembling +a house with a slanting roof; and a little below the creek +an old village of the Sharha or Cheyenne Indians.... At sunset we +halted, after coming ten miles over several sandbars and points, +above a camp of ten Ricara lodges on the north side." (Lewis and +Clark, (1), pp. 108-109.) Such was the nature of the country a +little more than a century ago.</p> + +<p>Another ancient village site presenting many interesting features +stands on the bank of an old bed of the Sheyenne River, near Lisbon, +Ransom County, N. Dak. This would have been about midway +between the Minnesota River and the village on the Missouri near +Porcupine Creek. A plan of this village made a few years ago is +now preserved in the Historical Society of North Dakota and was +reproduced by Dr. Grinnell in the article cited. It shows a large +number—70 or more—earth-lodge sites, varying in size, but closely +grouped, and protected by a ditch except on the river side. There +is a remarkable similarity between this site and others east of the +Mississippi, where structures of a like form evidently stood in the +centuries before the coming of Europeans. The ditch may have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +been accompanied by an embankment, in turn surmounted by palisades. +The river served to protect the settlement on the north, the +encircling embankment and ditch reaching the bank of the stream +both above and below the occupied area.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately no sketch or picture of any sort of a Cheyenne +earth lodge is known to exist, but the villages just mentioned must +necessarily have resembled in appearance those of the Pawnee of a +later generation, remarkable photographs of which have been preserved +and which are shown in the present work. And as Dr. Grinnell +has said in a recent communication (February 2, 1920) when +referring to the places long ago occupied by the camps of the +Cheyenne: "I have walked about on the sites of these old villages, +and the grandmother of a woman of my acquaintance, and probably +the father of that woman, lived in earth-lodge houses, presumably +very similar to those occupied in my time by the Pawnees and the +Mandans. I have never seen one, however, and do not know anyone +who has seen one. Many years ago, I might have procured from old +Elk River a description of such houses, though he was even then very +old and growing feeble. It is too late to lament that now."</p> + +<p>The conical skin lodge of the Cheyenne resembled that of other +plains tribes, and they must in earlier times, when buffalo were so +numerous and easily secured, have been rather large and commodious +structures. When Lewis and Clark descended the Missouri, on their +return from the far west, they reached on August 21, 1806, an encampment +of the Cheyenne on the bank of the Missouri, opposite the +upper village of the Arikara, not far below the old Cheyenne village +mentioned in the journal of the expedition on October 15, 1804. To +quote from the entry made August 21, 1806: "... arrived opposite +to the upper Ricara villages. We saluted them with the discharge +of four guns, which they answered in the same manner; and +on our landing we were met by the greater part of the inhabitants +of each village, and also by a band of Chayennes, who were encamped +on a hill in the neighbourhood...." After conversing with all +concerning the Mandans, "The sun being now very hot, the chief of +the Chayennes invited us to his lodge, which was at no great distance +from the river. We followed him, and found a very large lodge, +made of twenty buffaloe skins, surrounded by eighteen or twenty +lodges, nearly equal in size. The rest of the nation are expected to-morrow, +and will make the number of one hundred and thirty or +fifty lodges, containing from three hundred and fifty to four hundred +men, at which the men of the nation may be computed. These +Chayennes are a fine looking people, of a large stature, straight +limbs, high cheek-bones and noses, and of a complexion similar to +that of the Ricaras." (Lewis and Clark, (1), II, pp. 413-414.)</p> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 14<a name="Plate_14"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/p014.png" width="500" height="317" alt="CHEYENNE. STUMP HORSE AND FAMILY" title="CHEYENNE. STUMP HORSE AND FAMILY" /> +<span class="caption">CHEYENNE. STUMP HORSE AND FAMILY</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 15<a name="Plate_15"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/p015.png" width="500" height="272" alt=""ENCAMPMENT OF THE PIEKANN INDIANS" + +Karl Bodmer, 1833" title=""ENCAMPMENT OF THE PIEKANN INDIANS" + +Karl Bodmer, 1833" /> +<span class="caption">"ENCAMPMENT OF THE PIEKANN INDIANS"<br /> + +Karl Bodmer, 1833</span> +</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p> + +<p>The photograph reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_14">14</a> shows a Cheyenne family +group, an interesting example of a travois, and part of a lodge. +The latter differs from all described on the preceding pages and +evidently resembles those erected by the Pawnee in their temporary +camps. This form may have been used in later times in the place +of the conical skin lodge, although the latter was not abandoned, but, +as among other tribes, the Cheyenne appear to have erected several +types of shelters or habitations, governed by the available supply of +materials necessary for their construction.</p> + +<p>Large lodges, evidently tipis, set up for special purposes by the +Cheyenne, are mentioned by Grinnell. In the spring of 1853 the +main village of that tribe, so he wrote, stood "at the mouth of +Beaver Creek on the South Platte. There a large lodge was set up +as a meeting-place for each of the soldier bands. To each such place +came the relations of those killed the year before to implore the soldier +bands to take pity on them and to help to revenge their injuries." +And at this time many presents were given the warriors. (Grinnell, +(2), p. 80.)</p> + +<p>This was before many of the primitive customs of the tribe had +been changed through contact with the whites.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">blackfoot confederacy.</span></h4> + +<p>The tribes forming this group are the Siksika, or Blackfeet proper, +the Piegan, and the Kainah, or Bloods. Closely allied and associated +with these were the Atsina, a branch of the Arapaho, but who +later became incorporated with the Assiniboin. These tribes roamed +over a wide territory of mountains, plains, and valleys.</p> + +<p>Early accounts of the manners and ways of life of the Blackfeet +are to be found in the journals kept by traders belonging to the +Hudson's Bay Company, who penetrated the vast, unknown wilderness +southwestward from York Factory during the eighteenth century. +Although the records are all too brief and leave much to be +desired, nevertheless they are of the greatest interest, referring as +they do to the people while yet in a primitive state, with no knowledge +of the customs of Europeans.</p> + +<p>The first of the journals to be mentioned is that of Anthony +Hendry, who left York Factory June 26, 1754. He ascended Hayes +River many miles, thence, after crossing numerous lakes and streams +and traversing forests and plains, arrived on Monday, October 14, +1754, at a point not far northeastward from the present city of +Calgary, Alberta. This was in the country of the Blackfeet, mentioned +in the journal as the Archithinue Natives. That same day, +so the narrative continues: "Came to 200 tents of Archithinue Natives,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +pitched in two rows, and an opening in the middle; where we +were conducted to the Leader's tent; which was at one end, large +enough to contain fifty persons; where he received us seated on a +clear [white] Buffalo skin, attended by 20 elderly men. He made +signs for me to sit down on his right hand: which I did. Our Leader +set on several grand-pipes, and smoked all round, according to their +usual custom: not a word was yet spoke on either side. Smoking +being over, Buffalo flesh boiled was served round in baskets of a +species of bent, and I was presented with 10 Buffalo tongues." The +following day he again visited the lodge of the chief, where he received +as a gift "a handsome Bow & Arrows," and the journal continues: +"I departed and took a view of the camp. Their tents were +pitched close to one another in two regular lines, which formed a +broad street open at both ends. Their horses are turned out to +grass, their legs being fettered: and when wanted, are fastened to +lines cut of Buffalo skin, that stretches along & is fastened to stakes +drove in the ground. They have hair halters, Buffalo skin pads, & +stirrups of the same."</p> + +<p>Although Hendry mentioned the encampment to consist of 200 +lodges it is quite evident others were in the vicinity, or came soon +after his arrival, for three days later, on October 17, he noted in his +journal "322 tents of Archithinue Natives unpitched and moved +Westward." (Hendry, (1), pp. 337-340.) They did not have permanent +villages, and "never wanted food, as they followed the +Buffalo & killed them with the Bows and Arrows. They were unacquainted +with the canoe, would not eat fish, and their garments +were finely painted with red paint." Such were the Blackfeet about +the middle of the eighteenth century.</p> + +<p>On June 27, 1772, Matthew Cocking, second factor at York Factory, +started on a journey quite similar to that performed by Hendry +just eighteen years earlier. He ascended Hayes River, passed north +of Lake Winnipeg, and continued in a southwestwardly direction to +some point not far north of the South Saskatchewan River in the +extreme western part of the present Province of Saskatchewan. +When near this position on December 1, 1772, they encamped not far +from a "Beast pound," which had probably stood from year to year. +That day, so he entered in his journal, "our Archithinue friends +came to us and pitched a small distance from us; on one side the +pound 21 tents of them, the other seven are pitched another way." +And the following day, "the Archithinue Natives repairing the +pound, the repair we gave it on our arrival not being sufficient." +Two days later "the Archithinue Natives drove into the pound 3 +male & one female Buffalo, & brought several considerable droves +very near. They set off in the Evening; & drive the Cattle all night.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +Indeed not only at this Game, but in all their actions they far excell +the other Natives. They are all well mounted.... Their Weapons, +Bows & Arrows. Several have on Jackets of Moose leather six fold, +quilted, & without sleeves." Cocking evidently visited many of the +tents, and on December 5 wrote: "Our Archithinue Friends are +very Hospitable, continually inviting us to partake of their best +fare; generally berries infused in water with fat, very agreeable +eating. Their manner of showing respect to strangers is, in holding +the pipe while they smoke: this is done three times. Afterwards +every person smokes in common; the Women excepted.... The +tobacco they use is of their own planting.... These people are much +more cleanly in their cloathing, & food, than my companions: Their +Victuals are dressed in earthen pots, of their own Manufacturing; +much in the same form as Newcastle pots, but without feet: their +fire tackling a black stone used as flint, & a kind of Ore as a steel, +using tuss balls as tinder, (i. e.) a kind of moss." December 6, 1772: +"No success in pounding: the Strangers say the season is past." On +December 21 "we were joined by ten tents of Asinepoet Indians," +and the following day "by five tents of Nehetheway Indians." The +former were Assiniboin and the latter Cree. (Cocking, (1), pp. +110-112.)</p> + +<p>One of the reasons which inspired Cocking to undertake the long +journey into the wilderness was the desire to win the Blackfeet away +from the French interests, and to persuade them to carry their furs +to the posts of the Hudson's Bay Company. Soon the English were +successful in their endeavors, and for several generations secured +the furs and robes collected by the people of the ever-shifting camps, +who followed the buffalo as the vast herds moved from place to +place with the changing seasons of the year. Later, traders from +another people penetrated the country to the upper waters of the +Missouri, and certain of the Blackfeet began trading at the posts +erected by these newcomers. The various tribes wandered over a +wide region, and 60 years ago it was said:</p> + +<p>"The Blood Indians range through the district along Maria, +Teton, and Belly Rivers, inclining west and northwest far into the +interior. In this section, wood is more abundant, pasturage excellent, +and, consequently, buffalo almost always abound there. The +Blackfeet inhabit a portion of country farther north than the Bloods, +extending to the banks of the Saskatchewan, along which they often +reside. They have never altogether abandoned their English friends, +and more frequently dispose of their furs to them than to the American +traders on the head branches of the Missouri. The Piegans +roam through the Rocky Mountains on the south side of Maria River, +on both banks of the Missouri.... They also hunt as far down the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +Missouri as the Mussel-shell River, and up that stream to the borders +of the Crow country. The three divisions ... constitute the Blackfoot +nation proper, whose name has become notorious for their fierce +and deadly struggles with all the neighboring tribes, and in former +times struck terror to all white men who travelled in any district +from the Saskatchewan to the Yellowstone, and from the Yellowstone +to the Columbia.... These bands all live in skin tents, like +the rest of the prairie tribes, follow the chase for a subsistence, and +in former years were famous for their war excursions against neighboring +tribes." (Hayden, (1), pp. 249-250.)</p> + +<p>The region mentioned would have included the central portion of +the present State of Montana and northward. Marias River flows +into the Missouri just below Fort Benton.</p> + +<p>Maximilian, who visited the Blackfeet during the summer of 1833, +has left a very concise and interesting account of the appearance of +their camps:</p> + +<p>"The leather tents of the Blackfeet, their internal arrangement, +and the manner of loading their dogs and horses, agree, in every +respect, with those of the Sioux and Assiniboins, and all the wandering +tribes of hunters of the upper Missouri. The tents, made of +tanned buffalo skin, last only for one year; they are, at first, neat and +white, afterwards brownish, and at the top, where the smoke issues, +black, and, at last, transparent, like parchment, and very light inside. +Painted tents, adorned with figures, are very seldom seen, and only a +few chiefs possess them. When these tents are taken down, they leave +a circle of sods, exactly as in the dwellings of the Esquimaux. They +are often surrounded by fifteen or twenty dogs, which serve, not for +food, but only for drawing and carrying their baggage. Some Blackfeet, +who have visited the Sioux, have imitated them in eating dogs, +but this is rare. Near the tents they keep their dog sledges, with +which they form conical piles resembling the tents themselves, but +differing from them in not being covered with leather. On these they +hang their shields, travelling bags, saddles and bridles; and at some +height, out of the reach of the hungry dogs, they hang the meat, which +is cut into long strips, their skins, &c. The medicine bag or bundle, +the conjuring apparatus, is often hung and fastened to a separate +pole, or over the door of the tent. Their household goods consist +of buffalo robes and blankets, many kinds of painted parchment bags, +some of them in a semicircular form, with leather strings and fringes; +wooden dishes, large spoons made of the horn of the mountain sheep, +which are very wide and deep.... In the center of the tent there +is a small fire in a circle composed of stones, over which the kettle +for cooking is suspended." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 250-251.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>A painting of a Piegan camp was made at that time by Bodmer, +who accompanied Maximilian, and served as an illustration in the +latter's work. It is here reproduced as plate <a href="#Plate_15">15</a>. It shows clearly +the many skin lodges forming the encampment, the numerous dogs +and horses, with some of the Indians wrapped in highly decorated +buffalo robes. Some of the lodges are decorated, but the great +majority are plain, thus conforming with the description.</p> + +<p>Maximilian again wrote while at Fort McKenzie, in August, 1833:</p> + +<p>"Having made our arrangements on the first day of our arrival, +and viewed the Indian camp, with its many dogs, and old dirty +leather tents, we were invited, on the following day, together with +Mr Mitchell, to a feast, given by the Blackfoot chief, Mehkskehme-Sukahs +(the iron shirt). We proceeded to a large circle in the +middle of the camp, enclosed with a kind of fence of boughs of +trees, which contained part of the tents, and was designed to confine +the horses during the night, for the Indians are so addicted to horse +stealing that they do not trust each other. The hut of the chief +was spacious; we had never before seen so handsome a one; it was +full fifteen paces in diameter, and was very clean and tastefully +decorated. We took our seats, without ceremony, on buffalo skins, +spread out on the left hand of the chief, round the fire, in the +centre of the tent, which was enclosed in a circle of stones, and +a dead silence prevailed. Our host was a tall, robust man, who at +this time had no other clothes than his breechcloth; neither women +nor children were visible. A tin dish was set before us, which contained +dry grated meat, mixed with sweet berries, which we ate +with our fingers, and found very palatable. After we had finished, +the chief ate what was left in the dish, and took out of a bag a +chief's scarlet uniform, with blue facings and yellow lace, which he +had received from the English, six red and black plumes of feathers, +a dagger with its sheath, a coloured pocket-handkerchief, and two +beaver skins, all of which he laid before Mr Mitchell as a present, +who was obliged to accept these things whether he liked or not, +thereby laying himself under the obligation of making presents in +return, and especially a new uniform. When the chief began to +fill his pipe, made of green talc, we rose and retired (quite in Indian +fashion) in silence, and without making any salutations." (Op. cit., +pp. 261-262.)</p> + +<p>As Maximilian had already visited and seen many skin lodges +as he ascended the Missouri, his remarks concerning this one which +belonged to the Blackfeet chief are most interesting. It was between +40 and 50 feet in diameter, very clean and well decorated, +probably a remarkable example.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>The circles of earth which indicated the former positions of lodges +were noticed by Maximilian, and he again mentioned them while at +Fort Union, at the mouth of the Yellowstone, October 16, 1833. He +said (p. 305): "The little prairie fox was so hungry, and, therefore +so tame, that it often visited the environs of the fort, and we found +these pretty little animals among the circles of turf which were left +on the removal of the Indian tents."</p> + +<p>Another visit to the Piegan, in the same region, was made just +20 years later, during the month of September, 1853. J. M. Stanley, +who accompanied Gov. Stevens as the artist of the expedition, left +camp on the banks of Marias River and three days later, September +14, 1853, reached the divide between Milk and Bow Rivers: "From +this divide I had a view of the Bull's Head, forming the base of +Cypress mountain.... At 1 o'clock I descended to a deep valley, in +which flows an affluent of Beaver river. Here was the Piegan camp, +of ninety lodges, under their chief Low Horn, one hundred and +sixty-three miles north, 20° west, of Fort Benton.</p> + +<p>"Little Dog conducted me, with my party, to his lodge, and immediately +the chief and braves collected in the 'council Lodge,' to +receive my message...." This was conducted with customary formality, +and the next day, September 15, "At an early hour a town +crier announced the intention of the chief to move camp. The +horses were immediately brought in and secured around their respective +lodges, and in less than one hour the whole encampment +was drawn out in two parallel lines on the plains, forming one of +the most picturesque scenes I have ever witnessed.</p> + +<p>"Preparation for their transportation is made in the following +manner: The poles of the lodges, which are from twenty to thirty-five +feet in length, are divided, the small ends being lashed together +and secured to the shoulders of the horse, allowing the butt-ends to +drag upon the ground on either side; just behind the horse are secured +to cross-pieces, to keep the poles in their respective places, and +upon which are placed the lodge and domestic furniture. This also +serves for the safe transportation of the children and infirm unable +to ride on horseback—the lodge being folded so as to allow two or +more to ride securely. The horses dragging this burden—often of +three hundred pounds are also ridden by the squaws, with a child +astride behind, and one in her arms, embracing a favorite young +pup.</p> + +<p>"Their dogs (of which they have a large number) are also used in +transporting their effects in the same manner as the horses, making, +with ease, twenty miles a day, dragging forty pounds. In this way +this heterogeneous caravan, comprising of a thousand souls, fell into +line and trotted quietly until night, while the chiefs and braves rode<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +in front, flank, or rear, ever ready for the chase or defence against a +foe.... Like other tribes in this region, the Piegans retain all their +primitive customs, adhering with faithful pertinacity to the ceremonies +of their forefathers." (Stanley, (1), pp. 448-449.) At that +time the Piegan were estimated to have had 430 lodges, the average +number of persons occupying each being 10.</p> + +<p>During this brief but interesting journey Stanley made many +sketches of the Indians with whom he came in contact, but not one of +the drawings is known to exist at the present time. His beautiful +painting of a buffalo hunt, shown in plate <a href="#Plate_2">2</a>, is one of his five pictures +now in the National Museum at Washington.</p> + +<p>The Blackfeet allies often moved in great numbers from place to +place when searching for the herds of buffalo or tracking some enemy +tribe. Such a war party was encountered on the banks of the River +Saskatchewan, two days' journey below Fort Pitt, about the present +town of Battleford, Saskatchewan, on June 1, 1848. Among the +party then going from Fort Pitt to Norway House, the Hudson's Bay +Company's post on the northeast shore of Lake Winnipeg, was the +Canadian artist Kane, who entered in his journal: "We saw a large +party of mounted Indians, riding furiously towards us. On their +nearer approach they proved to be a large war party, consisting of +Blackfoot Indians, Blood Indians, Sur-cees, Gros Ventres, and Paygans.... +We instantly put ashore to meet them.... They told +us they were a party of 1,500 warriors, from 1,200 lodges, who were +then 'pitching on' towards Fort Edmonton; that is, they were making +short journeys, and pitching their tents on towards Edmonton, +leaving few behind capable of bearing arms. They were in pursuit +of the Crees and Assiniboines, whom they threatened totally to annihilate, +boasting that they themselves were as numerous as the grass +on the plains. They were the best mounted, the best looking, the +most warlike in appearance, and the best accoutred of any tribe I +had ever seen on the continent during my route.... After our +smoke several of the young Braves engaged in a horse race, to which +sport they are very partial, and at which they bet heavily; they generally +ride on those occasions stark naked, without a saddle, and with +only a lasso fastened to the lower jaw of the horse as represented in +Sketch No. 16." (Kane, (1), pp. 417-420.) The "sketch No. 16" is +here reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_16">16</a>, <i>a</i>. It shows, in addition to the horses, +several conical skin-covered lodges, the one on the right being highly +decorated.</p> + +<p>The valley of the Saskatchewan and southward to the waters of +the Missouri was a region frequented by many tribes, rich in game, +and one from which the Hudson's Bay Company derived quantities +of furs. The Blackfeet, who, as already mentioned, occupied in recent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +years the country about the headwaters of the Missouri, formerly +lived farther north, and about the close of the eighteenth century were +encountered near the Saskatchewan, neighbors of the Assiniboin and +Cree. About the year 1790 Mackenzie traversed the country, and +wrote, regarding the number and distribution of the tribes then claiming +that northern region: "At Nepawi, and South-Branch House, +about thirty tents of Knisteneaux, or ninety warriors; and sixty tents +of Stone-Indians, or Assiniboins, who are their neighbors, and are +equal to two hundred men; their hunting ground extends upwards +to about Eagle Hills. Next to them are those who trade at Forts +George and Augustus, and are about eighty tents or upwards of +Knisteneaux: on either side of the river, their number may be two +hundred. In the same country are one hundred and forty tents of +Stone-Indians; not quite half of them inhabit the West woody country; +the others never leave the plains, and their numbers cannot be +less than four hundred and fifty men. At the Southern headwaters +of the North branch dwells a tribe called Sarsees, consisting of about +thirty-five tents, or one hundred and twenty men. Opposite to those +Eastward, on the head-waters of the South Branch, are the Picaneaux, +to the number of from twelve to fifteen hundred men. Next to them, +on the same water, are the Blood-Indians, of the same nation as the +last, to the number of about fifty tents, or two hundred and fifty men. +From them downwards extend the Black-Feet Indians, of the same +nation as the two last tribes; their number may be eight hundred +men. Next to them, and who extend to the confluence of the South +and North branch, are the Fall, or Big-bellied Indians, who may +amount to about six hundred warriors." (Mackenzie, (1), p. lxx.) +"South-Branch House" of this narrative stood between the north +and south branches of the Saskatchewan, near the present town of +Dalmeny, in the Province of Saskatchewan. The Picaneaux, who +probably possessed from 200 to 300 skin-covered lodges, were the +Piegan, the Piekann Indians of Maximilian, whose village as it +appeared in 1833 was painted by Bodmer. Likewise the Fall or Big-bellied +Indians, whose habitat about the year 1790 was near the junction +of the two branches of the Saskatchewan, were the Atsina, the +Gros Ventres of the Prairie, and their village or camp in 1790 was +probably quite similar to the one visited by Maximilian 43 years +later, when it was sketched by Bodmer.</p> + +<p>By reason of the roving disposition of the northern tribes, those +mentioned in the preceding quotations and their neighbors, it was +not possible for them to erect and maintain permanent villages. The +skin-covered lodge served as a shelter easily and quickly raised and +readily transported from place to place as requirements and desires +made necessary. But many bark-covered structures were probably +to have been found scattered throughout the wooded sections.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>Something of the manners and ways of life of these people may be +gathered from another passage in Mackenzie's narrative: "In the fall +of the year the natives meet the traders at the forts, where they barter +the furs or provisions which they may have procured; then they obtain +credit, and proceed to hunt the beavers, and do not return till the +beginning of the year; when they are again fitted out in the same +manner and come back the latter end of March, or the beginning of +April. They are now unwilling to repair to the beaver hunt until the +waters are clear of ice, that they may kill them with fire-arms, which +the Chepewyans are averse to employ. The major part of the latter +return to the barren grounds, and live during the summer with their +relations and friends in the enjoyment of that plenty which is derived +from numerous herds of deer. But those of that tribe who are +most partial to these desarts, cannot remain there in winter, and they +are obliged, with the deer, to take shelter in the woods during that +rigorous season, when they contrive to kill a few beavers, and send +them by young men, to exchange for iron utensils and ammunition." +(Mackenzie, (1), pp. xc-xci.)</p> + +<p>The large ceremonial lodges erected by the Blackfeet were among +the most interesting structures reared by the tribes of the Northwest. +A remarkable example was encountered by the Fisk party September +1, 1862, near the banks of Milk River, a short distance from Fort +Benton. As described in the journal: "We passed this afternoon +an abandoned camp of some three thousand or four thousand Blackfeet +Indians. A large 'medicine lodge,' in which they had celebrated +their superstitious rites, was left standing, although its covering +had been mostly stripped from its frame-work. It was circular, +and about one hundred feet in diameter and forty feet high +in the centre, the roof poles running from the top down to and +around a tree, which was erected for a centre pole. This, in time of +occupancy, is covered with dressed buffalo skins, and constitutes the +Indian's highest achievement in the architectural line." (Fisk, (1), +p. 24.) The entire ceremony attending the selection of a site for +the structure, the cutting of the poles, the erection of the associated +sweat lodges, and the final raising of the medicine lodge, has been +recorded by Grinnell, (3), pages 263-267, and is one of the most complete +accounts of a native ceremony ever prepared.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">arapaho.</span></h4> + +<p>The ancient habitat of the Arapaho, according to tradition, was +once far northeast of the country which they later occupied. It +may have been among the forests of the region about the headwaters +of the Mississippi, the present State of Minnesota, where their +villages would have stood on the shores of lakes and streams. But<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +later, like the related Cheyenne, with whom they have been closely +allied during recent generations and probably for a long period, they +reached the prairies, through what causes may never be known, +and there, with different environments, their manners and ways of +life changed. While a people of the timbered country, they undoubtedly +reared and occupied the forms of habitations so characteristic +of the forests, as exemplified by the wigwams of the Ojibway +and other tribes in recent times, but after reaching the prairie country, +where buffalo were obtained in such vast numbers, their villages +or camps assumed the appearance of those of the Siouan tribes, +conical skin lodges taking the place of the mat or bark covered +structures.</p> + +<p>The Atsina, a detached division of the Arapaho, closely associated +with the Blackfeet, were often mentioned by the early writers as +the Gros Ventres of the Prairie, and in certain English narratives +as the Fall or Rapid Indians. In other journals they were mentioned +under the name Minnetarees of Fort de Prairie. Thus they +were called by the early American explorers.</p> + +<p>On May 29, 1805, just two weeks before arriving at the Great +Falls of the Missouri, the Lewis and Clark party reached Judith +River, and a short distance above its junction with the Missouri "We +saw the fires of one hundred and twenty-six lodges, which appeared +to have been deserted about twelve or fifteen days, and on the other +side of the Missouri a large encampment, apparently made by the +same nation. On examining some moccasins which we found there, +our Indian woman said that they did not belong to her own nation +the Snake Indians, but she thought that they indicated a tribe on this +side of the Rocky mountains, and to the north of the Missouri; +indeed it is probable that these are the Minnetarees of fort de +Prairie." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, p. 234.) The following year, +when the expedition was returning from the west, the tribe was again +mentioned. On July 15, 1806, the expedition passed Shields River, +and two days later reached Brattons River (now Bridger Creek), a +tributary of the Yellowstone in the present Sweetgrass County, +Montana. Here, "In one of the low bottoms of the river was an +Indian fort, which seems to have been built during the last summer. +It was built in the form of a circle, about fifty feet in diameter, +five feet high, and formed of logs, lapping over each other, and covered +on the outside with bark set up on end, the entrance also +was guarded by a work on each side of it, facing the river. These +intrenchments, the squaw informs us, are frequently made by the +Minnetarees and other Indians at war with the Shoshonees, when +pursued by their enemies on horseback." Another similar work was +encountered the next day. (Lewis and Clark, (1), II, pp. 379-380.)</p> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 16<a name="Plate_16"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p016a.png" width="300" height="213" alt="a. Blackfoot camp. Paul Kane, 1848" title="a. Blackfoot camp. Paul Kane, 1848" /> +<span class="caption">a. Blackfoot camp. Paul Kane, 1848</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p016b.png" width="300" height="223" alt="b. Arapaho village, Whitewood Canyon, Wyoming, about 1870" title="b. Arapaho village, Whitewood Canyon, Wyoming, about 1870" /> +<span class="caption">b. Arapaho village, Whitewood Canyon, Wyoming, about 1870</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 17<a name="Plate_17"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/p017.png" width="500" height="284" alt=""CAMP OF THE GROS VENTRES OF THE PRAIRIES" ON THE UPPER MISSOURI + +Karl Bodmer, 1833" title=""CAMP OF THE GROS VENTRES OF THE PRAIRIES" ON THE UPPER MISSOURI + +Karl Bodmer, 1833" /> +<span class="caption">"CAMP OF THE GROS VENTRES OF THE PRAIRIES" ON THE UPPER MISSOURI + +Karl Bodmer, 1833</span> +</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p> + +<p>The preceding references to fortified camps are of great interest, +but similar works were mentioned by other explorers of the upper +Missouri Valley. During the summer of 1833 several were encountered +by Maximilian, and on July 18 of that year he wrote: "On +this day at noon, we reached, on the south bank, an Indian fort ... +it is a kind of breastwork, which Indian war-parties construct in +haste of dry trunks of trees.... This fort consisted of a fence, +and several angles, enclosing a rather small space, with the open +side towards the river. In the center of the space there was a +conical hut, composed of wood. Near this fort, on the same bank of +the river, there was a beaver's den made of a heap of brushwood." +(Maximilian, (1), p. 216.) Six days before, on July 12, they had +encountered several huts probably similar to that which stood within +the "fort." In the narrative it is said: "Just at the place where our +vessel lay, were four old Indian huts, of some war or hunting party, +composed of trunks and boughs of trees piled together in a square, +in which some of our party made a fire to cook their meat. Scarcely +100 paces above these huts, was the Indian Fort Creek of Lewis and +Clark." (Op. cit., p. 212.)</p> + +<p>Elsewhere in this sketch other native "forts" will be mentioned. +The erection of such works appears to have been quite common +among the widely scattered tribes.</p> + +<p>Fortunately, a very interesting picture of a skin lodge village or +camp of the Atsina has been preserved, a painting made by Bodmer +during the summer of 1833, when it was visited by Maximilian. It +stood on the bank of the Yellowstone, at the mouth of the Big Horn, +near the dividing line between Rosebud and Yellowstone Counties, +Montana. Describing the settlement as it appeared on the evening +of August 3, 1833. Maximilian wrote: "On the left was the mouth +of Bighorn River, between considerable hills, on which numbers of +Indians had collected. In the front of the eminence the prairie declined +gently towards the river, where above 260 leather tents of the +Indians were set up; the tent of the principal chief was in the foreground, +and, near it, a high pole, with the American flag. The +whole prairie was covered with Indians, in various groups, and with +numerous dogs; horses of every colour were grazing round, and +horsemen galloping backwards and forwards, among whom was a +celebrated chief, who made a good figure on his light bay horse." +These were the Gros Ventres, "called by the English, Fall Indians." +(Maximilian, (1), pp. 231-232.) Bodmer's painting, or more correctly, +an engraving made from the painting, is reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_17">17</a>.</p> + +<p>On July 8, 1842, Fremont, while on his journey to the Rocky Mountains, +reached a village of the Arapaho and Cheyenne. But before +arriving at the village the party came in contact with a large number<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +of Indians belonging to the two tribes, who were chasing a herd of +buffalo. Of the exciting scene presented by these many mounted +Indians and the rushing buffalo, he left a vivid account: "We were +too far to hear the report of the guns, or any sound; and at every +instant, through the clouds of dust, which the sun made luminous, +we could see for a moment two or three buffalo dashing along, and +close behind them an Indian with his long spear, or other weapon, +and instantly again they disappeared. The apparent silence, and +the dimly seen figures flitting by with such rapidity, gave it a kind +of dreamy effect, and seemed more like a picture than a scene of real +life. It had been a large herd when the <i>cerne</i> commenced, probably +three or four hundred in number; but, though I watched them +closely, I did not see one emerge from the fatal cloud where the work +of destruction was going on. After remaining here about an hour, +we resumed our journey in the direction of the village.</p> + +<p>"Gradually, as we rode on, Indian after Indian came dropping +along, laden with meat; and by the time we had neared the lodges, +the backward road was covered with the returning horsemen. It +was a pleasant contrast with the desert road we had been traveling. +Several had joined company with us, and one of the chiefs invited +us to his lodge. The village consisted of about one hundred and +twenty-five lodges, of which twenty were Cheyennes; the latter +pitched a little apart from the Arapahoes. They were disposed in a +scattering manner on both sides of a broad, irregular street, about +one hundred and fifty feet wide, and running along the river. As +we rode along, I remarked near some of the lodges a kind of tripod +frame, formed of three slender poles of birch, scraped very clean, +to which were affixed the shield and spear, with some other weapons +of a chief. All were scrupulously clean, the spear-head was burnished +bright, and the shield white and stainless. It reminded me of +the days of feudal chivalry; and when, as I rode by, I yielded to the +passing impulse, and touched one of the spotless shields with the +muzzle of my gun, I almost expected a grim warrior to start from the +lodge and resent my challenge. The master of the lodge spread out +a robe for me to sit upon, and the squaws set before us a large +wooden dish of buffalo meat. He had lit his pipe in the mean while, +and when it had been passed around, we commenced our dinner while +he continued to smoke. Gradually, five or six other chiefs came in, +and took their seats in silence. When we had finished, our host +asked a number of questions.... A storm had been gathering for +the past hour, and some pattering drops on the lodge warned us that +we had some miles to our camp.... We found our companions +under some densely foliaged old trees, about three miles up the +river.... Nearly opposite was the mouth of one of the most considerable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +affluents of the South fork, <i>la Fourche aux Castors</i>, (Beaver +fork,) heading off in the ridge to the southeast." (Fremont, (1), pp. +29-30.) This would have been near the eastern boundary of the +present Morgan County, Colorado, a region approaching the western +edge of the great prairie, in the midst of the range of vast herds of +buffalo. The entire description of the events of the day as prepared +by Fremont reads more like fiction than fact and is one of the clearest +and most concise accounts extant of a buffalo hunt by native +tribes under such conditions. The paintings by Stanley and Wimar, +as reproduced in plates <a href="#Plate_2">2</a> and <a href="#Plate_3">3</a>, would serve to illustrate Fremont's +narrative.</p> + +<p>The following year (1843) Fremont, on his second expedition, +reached St. Vrain's Fort; thence continuing up the South Fork of +the Platte he soon arrived in the vicinity of the present city of Denver, +and at some point not far below the mouth of Cherry Creek +discovered a large Arapaho village. This was on July 7, 1843, and +to quote from his journal: "We made this morning an early start, +continuing to travel up the Platte; and in a few miles frequent +bands of horses and mules, scattered for several miles round about, +indicated our approach to the Arapaho village, which we found +encamped in a beautiful bottom, and consisting of about 160 lodges. +It appeared extremely populous, with a great number of children; +a circumstance which indicated a regular supply of the means of +subsistence. The chiefs, who were gathered together at the farther +end of the village, received us (as probably strangers are always +received to whom they desire to show respect or regard) by throwing +their arms around our necks and embracing us.... I saw +here, as I had remarked in an Arapaho village the preceding year, +near the lodges of the chiefs, tall tripods of white poles supporting +their spears and shields, which showed it to be a regular custom.... +Though disappointed in obtaining the presents which had been evidently +expected, they behaved very courteously, and after a little +conversation, I left them, and, continuing up the river, halted to +noon on the bluff, as the bottoms are almost inundated; continuing +in the afternoon our route along the mountains, which are dark, +misty, and shrouded." (Fremont, (1), pp. 111-112.)</p> + +<p>A photograph of a small Arapaho village, standing in Whitewood +Canyon, Wyoming, about the year 1870, is reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_16">16</a>, b. +The skin-covered lodges shown in this photograph were probably +similar to those sketched by Bodmer a generation before.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">sauk and foxes.</span></h4> + +<p>It is not the purpose of the present sketch to trace the early +migrations of the two related tribes, or to refer to their connection,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +linguistically or socially. However, it is evident their villages were +similar in appearance, and both had two distinct forms of habitations +which were occupied during different seasons of the year. The +summer villages of both tribes consisted of bark houses, and near +by were gardens in which they raised corn, squashes, beans, and +some tobacco, but with the coming of autumn the families scattered +and sought the more protected localities where game was to be secured, +and there erected the dome-shaped, mat-covered lodge, resembling +the structures of other tribes of the region.</p> + +<p>The middle of the eighteenth century found the two tribes established +in villages near the mouth of Rock River, on the left bank +of the Mississippi, in the present Rock Island County, Illinois. +Here they were visited by Long and his small party August 1, 1817, +at which time the Fox settlement "containing about thirty cabins, +with two fires each," stood on the left bank of Rock River, at its +junction with the Mississippi. The Sauk village was 2 miles up +Rock River and consisted "of about one hundred cabins, of two, +three, and in some instances, four fires each," and it was, so Long +wrote, "by far the largest Indian village situated in the neighborhood +of the Mississippi between St. Louis and the Falls of St. +Anthony." (Long, (1), pp. 68-69.) This was the birthplace, in +the year 1767, of the great Sauk leader Black Hawk. At the time +of Long's visit the people of the two villages had several hundred +acres of corn, "partly in the low ground and extended up the slopes +of the bluffs," and were in a very prosperous condition.</p> + +<p>The village was destroyed by the militia June 15, 1831, and those +who escaped soon after crossed the Mississippi. In 1837, having +ceded their hunting grounds in Iowa to the Government, they removed +to a tract in Kansas beyond the Missouri, where they continued +to reside for some 20 years as practically one tribe. Later +the majority of the Foxes returned to Iowa and secured a small +tract of land near Tama, in Tama County, on the left bank of Iowa +River, where a mixed group continues to dwell. In 1867 the remaining +Sauk ceded their lands in Kansas and removed to the Indian +Territory.</p> + +<p>As already mentioned, the tribes erected two distinct types of +habitations. The mat-covered lodge is shown in plate <a href="#Plate_18">18</a>. The bare +frames, ready for the mat coverings, are indicated in <i>a</i>, while the +completed structure is represented in <i>b</i> of the same plate. Both +photographs were made near Tama within the past few years.</p> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 18<a name="Plate_18"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p018a.png" width="300" height="200" alt="a. Frames of structures ready to be covered with mats or sheets of bark" title="a. Frames of structures ready to be covered with mats or sheets of bark" /> +<span class="caption">a. Frames of structures ready to be covered with mats or sheets of bark</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p018b.png" width="300" height="233" alt="b. Mat-covered lodges + +SAUK AND FOX HABITATIONS" title="b. Mat-covered lodges + +SAUK AND FOX HABITATIONS" /> +<span class="caption">b. Mat-covered lodges<br /> + +SAUK AND FOX HABITATIONS</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 19<a name="Plate_19"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/p019.png" width="500" height="311" alt="SAUK AND FOX HABITATION COVERED WITH ELM BARK" title="SAUK AND FOX HABITATION COVERED WITH ELM BARK" /> +<span class="caption">SAUK AND FOX HABITATION COVERED WITH ELM BARK</span> +</div> + +<p>During the summer of 1820 Schoolcraft was on the upper Mississippi +and stopped at the village of the Sioux chief "La Petit Corbeau," +which stood on the bank of the river a few miles below the +present city of St. Paul. He was conducted to the lodge of the chief, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>which, so he wrote, "is spacious, being about sixty feet in length by +thirty in width—built in a permanent manner of logs, and covered +with bark." (Schoolcraft, (2), p. 318.) A few days later, on +August 6, 1820, he left the mouth of the Wisconsin, passed the mouth +of Turkey River, which joins the Mississippi from the west, and 1 +mile below the mouth of Turkey River arrived at a Fox village +which stood on the left bank of the Mississippi. This would have +been near the present village of Cassville, Grant County, Wisconsin. +Here were twelve lodges, "large, and built of logs, in the same substantial +manner practised among the Narcotah bands." This refers +to the village of La Petit Corbeau and others which he had recently +visited. And continuing the narrative, "The cause of their being +now deserted, is the fear entertained of an attack from the Sioux, +in retaliation for the massacre lately perpetrated upon the banks of +the St. Peter's. The desertion appears to have taken place after +they had planted their corn, and from the order in which the village +is left, it may be concluded that its re-occupation is kept in +view. I found several small gardens and corn fields adjoining the +village, in which squashes, beans, and pumpkins were abundant, but +the corn had been nearly all destroyed, probably by wild animals. +Walking back from the river half a mile ... I was surprised to +find an extensive field of water- and musk-melons, situated in the +midst of a grove of small, scattering trees, but without any inclosure. +Some of the fruit had been destroyed by animals, but a great abundance +still remained." (Op. cit., pp. 340-341.)</p> + +<p>The preceding references would seem to apply to summer habitations, +as distinguished from the mat-covered structures already mentioned. +The descriptions are rather vague, and the lodges encountered +by Schoolcraft may have been similar in form to that +shown in plate <a href="#Plate_19">19</a>. This most interesting and valuable photograph +was made in the Indian Territory probably 40 years or more ago, +and represents a rather large dwelling. It shows clearly the manner +in which sheets of bark were placed and secured to serve as roof and +sides, and in this instance the bark appears to be that of the elm.</p> + +<p>Interesting notes on the manners and ways of life of the Sauk +and Foxes just a century ago are to be found in a communication +from Maj. M. Marston, of the Fifth Infantry, to Morse. Marston +was commanding officer at Fort Armstrong, from which place the +letter was written during the month of November, 1820. At that +time the Fox village standing on the bank of the Mississippi, opposite +Fort Armstrong, consisted of "thirty-five permanent lodges," +and this may refer to the type of structures shown in plate <a href="#Plate_19">19</a>. As +Marston then wrote: "There is also a small Sauk village of five or six +lodges on the west bank of the Mississippi, near the mouth of Des<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +Moin river, and below Fort Edwards; and a Fox village near the +lead mines (about a hundred miles above this place,) of about twenty +lodges; and another near the mouth of the Wapsipinica of about ten +lodges." Thus the villages and camps of the two tribes were to have +been seen on both banks of the Mississippi, but undoubtedly the +greater part of their hunting was done westward from the river, +within the present State of Iowa. A century ago the people of the +village would leave "as soon as their corn, beans, &c., are ripe and +taken care of, and their traders arrive and give out their credit, (or +their outfits on credit,) and go to their wintering grounds; it being +previously determined in council, on what particular ground each +party shall hunt. The old men, women, and children, embark in +canoes; the young men go by land with their horses; on their arrival, +they immediately commence their winter's hunt, which lasts about +three months." The traders would follow and remain in convenient +places. During the winter most of the Indians would pay their +debts, get many necessary articles, and at the same time reserve the +more valuable skins. These, "such as beaver, otter, &c., they take +home with them to their villages, and dispose of for such articles as +they may afterwards find necessary." The winter of 1819-20 was +evidently a very prosperous one for the two tribes as well as for the +traders, and Marston wrote: "These traders, including the peltries +received at the United States Factory, near Fort Edwards, collected +of the Sauk and Fox Indians during this season, <i>nine hundred and +eighty packs</i>. They consisted of 2,760 beaver skins; 922 Otter; +13,440 Raccoon; 12,900 Musk Rat; 500 Mink; 200 Wild Cat; 680 Bear +Skins; 28,600 Deer. Whole number, 60,082."</p> + +<p>At the close of the winter hunt "they return to their villages, in +the month of April, and after putting their lodges in order, commence +preparing the ground to receive the seed. The number of +acres cultivated by that part of the two nations, who reside at their +villages in this vicinity, is supposed to be upwards of <i>three hundred</i>. +They usually raise from seven to eight thousand bushels of corn, +besides beans, pumpkins, melons, &c. About one thousand bushels +of the corn they annually sell to traders and others; the remainder +(except about five bushels for each family, which is taken with them,) +they put into bags, and bury in holes dug in the ground, for their +use in the spring and summer. The labor of agriculture is confined +principally to the women, and this is done altogether with a hoe. +In June, the greatest part of the young men go out on a summer +hunt, and return in August. While they are absent the old men and +women are collecting rushes for mats, and bark to make into bags +for their corn, &c.</p> + +<p>"The women usually make about three hundred floor mats every +summer.... The twine which connects the rushes together, is made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +either of basswood bark, after being boiled and hammered, or the +bark of the nettle; the women twist or spin it by rolling it on the +knee with the hand." (Morse, (1), App., pp. 124-127.) Some men, +as well as women, of these tribes are often employed in and about the +lead mines on the Mississippi, not far from their villages.</p> + +<p>The customs of the tribes, as related in the preceding notes, their +hunts away from the villages during certain seasons of the year, +their return to plant and care for their fields and gardens, and the +placing of the surplus grain in caches, had probably been followed +by native tribes of the Mississippi Valley and adjacent regions for +generations before the coming of the Europeans.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">illinois.</span></h4> + +<p>Although the tribes of the loosely constituted Illinois confederacy +claimed and occupied a wide region east of the Mississippi, in later +years centering in the valley of the Illinois River, nevertheless certain +villages are known to have crossed and recrossed the great river. +Thus, in the early summer of 1673, Père Marquette arrived at a +village of the Peoria then standing on the right or west bank of the +Mississippi, at or near the mouth of the Des Moines. Two months +later it had removed to the upper Illinois. A few weeks after passing +the Peoria Marquette discovered another of the Illinois tribes, +the Michigamea, living near the northeastern corner of the present +State of Arkansas, and consequently west of the Mississippi. On +the map of Pierre van der Aa, <i>circa</i> 1720, two small streams are +shown flowing into the Mississippi from the west, a short distance +south of the Missouri. The more northerly of the two is probably +intended to represent the Meramec and a dot at the north side of +the mouth of the stream bears the legend: "<i>Village des</i> Ilinois <i>et des</i> +Caskoukia," probably the Cahokia. This stream forms the boundary +between Jefferson and St. Louis Counties, Missouri, and a short distance +above its junction with the Mississippi are traces of a large +village, with many stone-lined graves, probably indicating the position +of the Illinois village of two centuries ago. Also, on the +d'Anville map, issued in the year 1755, an "Ancien Village Cahokias" +is shown at a point corresponding with the mouth of the small +Rivière des Pères, a stream which joins the Mississippi and there +forms the southern boundary of the city of St. Louis. Until covered +by railroad embankments many small mounds were visible near +the mouth of the Rivière des Pères, indications of the old settlement +were numerous, and graves were encountered on the neighboring +hills. These were evidently the remains of the "Ancien Village +Cahokias." The many salt springs found on the Missouri side of +the Mississippi served to attract the Indians from the eastern shore.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +Establishing their camps in the vicinity of the springs, they would +evaporate the waters and so obtain a supply of salt, a process which +continued long after the French had settled in this part of upper +Louisiana.</p> + +<p>The villages of the Illinois tribes have been described in a former +publication (Bushnell, (1)).</p> + +<p>About the close of the eighteenth century many scattered bands +of various tribes whose habitat was east of the Mississippi sought +new homes to the westward. Especially was this true after the signing +of the treaty of Greenville, Ohio, August 3, 1795. But two years +before the signing of this important treaty small groups of Shawnee +and Delaware crossed the river, and by the year 1793 had established +a village on Apple Creek, near the Mississippi and some 40 miles +south of the French settlement of Ste. Genevieve. A few years later +these, or others of the same tribes, had small towns not far west +of St. Louis and only a short distance south of the Missouri. Within +another generation many of the remaining tribes were removed from +east of the Mississippi by the Government to lands set apart for +them just west of the western boundary of Missouri. But for many +years after the beginning of the nineteenth century the western +part of the Ozarks was occupied, or frequented, by bands of several +tribes.</p> + +<p>It seems quite evident that with the removal of the tribes from the +east came certain changes in their customs and ways of life. And +it is doubtful whether all attempted to erect their native form of +habitations. Again, before leaving the east they had seen and constructed +the log cabin of the pioneers, and it is evident similar structures +were reared by them in their new homes, or at least by some of +the tribes, among them the Delaware. An interesting account of one +of these later settlements has been preserved, but it is very brief. It +was mentioned in the journal of a dragoon, one of the command then +crossing the wilderness from St. Louis to the valley of the Arkansas, +and was prepared about the beginning of December, in the year 1833: +"It was drawing towards the close of the day, when at a little distance +we descried a cluster of huts that we imagined might be a +squatter settlement, but upon a nearer approach, found it to be the +remains of a log-town long since evacuated, that had formerly been +the settlement of a tribe of the Delawares.... The site was a beautiful +one; and the associations that were connected with it, as well +as the many vestiges of rude art that remained about it, invested this +spot with many pleasing sources of reflection. As we entered the +town, our regiment slackened their pace, and slowly rode through +this now silent ruin. A small space of cleared land encompassed the +settlement, but scarce large enough to relieve it from the deep gloom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +of the lofty and surrounding forest of aged oaks.... The huts +were small, containing but one apartment, built of logs, many of +which had become so decayed as to have fallen to the ground, and the +whole was covered with a rich coat of moss." (Hildreth, (1), pp. +70-71.) Scattered throughout the settlement, near and between the +ruined houses, stood many large oaks. On the trunks of some of +these had been cut various figures and symbols by the Indians.</p> + +<p>This Delaware village evidently stood not far from the present +town of Springfield, Green County, Missouri. Just beyond it began +the "Kickapoo prairie, which is the commencement of that immense +chain of prairie land that extends in broken patches to the Rocky +Mountains." (Op. cit., p. 70.)</p> + +<p>The preceding reference to various figures cut on the trees near +the deserted village tends to recall a somewhat similar allusion by +Irving. On November 2, 1832, during his "Tour on the Prairies," +so he wrote: "We came out upon an extensive prairie, and about six +miles to our left beheld a long line of green forest, marking the course +of the north fork of the Arkansas. On the edge of the prairie, and +in a spacious grove of noble trees which overshadowed a small brook, +were traces of an old Creek hunting camp. On the bark of the trees +were rude delineations of hunters and squaws, scrawled with charcoal; +together with various signs and hieroglyphics, which our half-breeds +interpreted as indicating that from this encampment the +hunters had returned home." (Irving, Washington. (1), p. 187.)</p> + +<p>It is to be regretted that all such figures should so soon have disappeared, +as did the frail structures of the native villages, leaving only +fragments of pottery and bits of stone, ashes, and occasional animal +bones to indicate where they had once stood.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Siouan Tribes.</span></h3> + +<p>The numerous and widely scattered tribes belonging to the Siouan +linguistic family formerly had a combined population which caused +this to rank as the second largest stock north of Mexico, being exceeded +only by the Algonquian.</p> + +<p>All evidence tends to prove that during past centuries the many +tribes who were found living west of the Mississippi when the great +central valley of the continent first became known to Europeans had, +within a few generations, migrated from the eastward. This is likewise +indicated by certain tribal traditions. Many had undoubtedly +occupied the upper parts of the Ohio Valley, and were probably the +builders of the great earthworks discovered in that region. What +impelled the westward movement of the tribes may never be determined. +Whether they were forced to abandon their early habitat +by stronger forces, by the lack of food which made it necessary for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +them to seek a more plentiful supply, or by reason of causes distinct +from either of these can never be definitely known.</p> + +<p>But some remained in the east; all did not join in the migration, +and the native tribes encountered by the colonists living in the piedmont +region of Virginia and extending southward into Carolina +belonged to this linguistic family. Their villages have been mentioned +in a former publication. (Bushnell, (1), pp. 92-94.)</p> + +<p>It is more than probable that while living east of the Mississippi +all reared and occupied structures similar to those of the Algonquian +tribes of later generations, mat and bark covered lodges, such as +continued in use by the Osage, Quapaw, and others even after they +had reached their new homes, but some through necessity were compelled +to adopt other forms of dwellings. Thus many were found +occupying the conical skin tipi, while some had learned the art of +building the large earth-covered lodges, an art which had evidently +been derived from the Caddoan tribes coming from the Southwest.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">dakota-assiniboin group.</span></h4> + +<p>The Dakota constitute the largest division of the great Siouan +linguistic family. To quote from the Handbook, this group includes +the following tribes, a classification which is recognized by the people +themselves: "1. Mdewakanton; 2. Wahpeton; 3. Wahpekute; 4. Sisseton; +5. Yankton; 6. Yanktonai; 7. Teton, each of which is again subdivided +into bands and subbands." These seven principal divisions +are often referred to as the Seven Council Fires of the Dakota. The +first four groups as given in this classification formed the eastern +division, and their home, when first encountered by Europeans, was +in the densely forested region about the headwaters of the Mississippi. +The others lived westward, reaching far into the plains. The Assiniboin, +in historic times a separate tribe, was originally a part of the +Yanktonai, from whom they separated and became closely allied +with the Algonquian Cree. Thus some of the Dakota as first known +to history were a timber people, others lived where the forest and +prairie joined, with a mingling of the fauna and flora of the two +regions, and in later years the Oglala, the principal division of the +Teton, extended their wanderings to and beyond the Black Hills, +crossing the great buffalo range.</p> + +<p>As will be shown in the sketches of the dwellings and other structures +of the Dakota tribes, those who lived in the timbered region, +occupying much of the present State of Minnesota, erected the type +of habitation characteristic of the region, but in the villages along +the Minnesota both bark and skin covered lodges were in use, and the +more western villages were formed exclusively of the latter type, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +conical skin tipi of the plains. There appears to have been very little +variation in the form of structure as erected by the widely scattered +bands.</p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Mdewakanton.</span></h5> + +<p>When preparing a sketch of the villages and village sites of the +Mdewakanton, it is quite natural to begin with a brief description of +the site of the village to which Father Hennepin was led captive, +during the early spring of the year 1680. On the afternoon of April +11 of that year, while ascending the Mississippi with two companions, +he was taken by a war party of the Sioux, and after much anxiety +and suffering reached the Falls of St. Anthony, which he so named. +Thence, going overland through the endless forests, they arrived at +the village of their captors. Soon Indians were seen running from +the village to meet them, and then it was that "One of the principal +Issati chiefs gave us his peace-calumet to smoke, and accepted the +one we had brought. He then gave us some wild rice to eat, presenting +it to us in large bark dishes." From this place they were later taken +in bark canoes "a short league ... to an island where their cabins +were." (Shea, (1), pp. 224-225.)</p> + +<p>The Mdewakanton "mystery lake village," of the Santee or eastern +division of the Dakota, were considered by some as "the only +Dakota entitled to the name Isanyati (`Santee'), given them from +their old home on Mille Lac, Minnesota, called by them Isantamde, +'Knife Lake.'" There is no doubt of the Mdewakanton being the +Issati of Hennepin, to whose principal village he was taken, and +where he remained for some weeks during the year 1680. It has +always been acknowledged that the village stood on or near the shore +of Mille Lac, but not until 1900 was a site discovered which appears +without doubt to indicate the position of that ancient settlement. +The outlet of Mille Lac is Rum River, which enters the Mississippi +at Anoka. The stream soon after leaving the lake expands into a +series of small lakes, usually designated as the First, Second, and +Third Lake, from the outlet at Mille Lac. Rum River leaves Mille +Lac near the southwest corner, but soon turns eastward, therefore +the three lakes are rather parallel with the south shore of the great +lake. At the upper end of Third Lake is an isolated mass, rising +some feet above the highest stage of water, and having a superficial +area of several acres. On May 29, 1900, this spot was surrounded by +a marsh, in places overgrown with rushes, with pools of water, more +numerous on the north side. But a short time has elapsed since all +the lakes were somewhat deeper and more water flowed in Rum +River. And at that time the waters surrounded this elevated mass +and it stood as an island at the head of Third Lake. When the surface<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +of this island was examined it was found to be strewn with innumerable +fragments of pottery, some fractured stones, and a few +stone implements. The amount of pottery was greater than is often +found on any site, in any part of the country, and it was quite evident +this island was once occupied by a large, permanent native settlement. +Without doubt this was the site of the village to which +Hennepin was taken in a bark canoe, "an island where their cabins +were." At present this is in Sec. 25, T. 42, R. 27, Mille Lacs County, +Minnesota.</p> + +<p>No description of the ancient village has been preserved, but it +undoubtedly resembled the settlements of other tribes living in the +midst of the great forests. The structures were probably bark or +mat covered, many of an oval form quite similar to those of the Ojibway, +who later occupied the near-by sites on the shores of Mille Lac. +And like the Ojibway, the Mdewakanton may have had more than +one type of dwelling in the same village, or structures of different +forms may have served different purposes.</p> + +<p>The shores of Mille Lac, one of the most beautiful sheets of water +in Minnesota, abound in traces of the ancient settlements which +stood generations or centuries ago. Near several of the sites are +groups of a hundred or more burial mounds, all of which may be attributed +to the Siouan tribes. One village, the site of which is marked +by a large number of mounds, stood on the shore of the bay in the +northwestern part of the lake, shown in the photograph reproduced +in plate <a href="#Plate_20">20</a>, <i>a</i>.</p> + +<p>The sacred or mysterious island, known as such to the Sioux and +later to the Ojibway, is in the southern part of the lake, several miles +from the south shore. It is a remarkable spot, one to be looked upon +by the Indian as a place of mystery. So small that often it is not +visible from the shore, it consists of a great quantity of blocks of +granitic formation which are piled to a height of 20 feet or more upon +a ledge which comes to within a foot or less of the surface of the +lake. The island is about 250 feet in length from east to west, the +width from north to south being about one-half the length. Some of +the great blocks are 10 or 12 feet in length, 4 or 5 feet in thickness +and width, and would weigh many tons. The ledge extends for a +distance of about 150 feet to the north and east of the island, covered +by a foot or more of water. There is no soil on the island, no vegetation, +and its only occupants are numbers of gulls. A photograph of +this most interesting spot, made by the writer May 20, 1900, is reproduced +as plate <a href="#Plate_20">20</a>, <i>b</i>.</p> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 20<a name="Plate_20"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p020a.png" width="300" height="229" alt="a. Northwest shore of Mille Lac, 1900. Site of an ancient Sioux settlement" title="a. Northwest shore of Mille Lac, 1900. Site of an ancient Sioux settlement" /> +<span class="caption">a. Northwest shore of Mille Lac, 1900. Site of an ancient Sioux settlement</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p020b.png" width="300" height="228" alt="b. The Sacred Island in the southern part of Mille Lac. May, 1900" title="b. The Sacred Island in the southern part of Mille Lac. May, 1900" /> +<span class="caption">b. The Sacred Island in the southern part of Mille Lac. May, 1900</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 21<a name="Plate_21"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/p021.png" width="500" height="297" alt=""KAPOSIA, JUNE 19TH, 1851" + +F. B. Mayer" title=""KAPOSIA, JUNE 19TH, 1851" + +F. B. Mayer" /> +<span class="caption">"KAPOSIA, JUNE 19TH, 1851" + +F. B. Mayer</span> +</div> + +<p>According to the stories of the old Ojibway who were still living +on the shore of Mille Lac during the spring of 1900, the Mdewakanton +were driven from that region about the middle of the eighteenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +century, and moving southward settled along the banks of the Mississippi. +Descendants of these were occupying well-known villages +on the Mississippi and Minnesota during the summer of 1823, when +Major Long and his party ascended the rivers from Prairie du +Chien.</p> + +<p>Before leaving Prairie du Chien to discover the course of the +Minnesota, or St. Peters, as it was then designated, the members of +the expedition were divided into two groups, one to go overland to +the mouth of the St. Peters, the other to convey the supplies by boat +to that point. Both parties visited the principal villages on the way. +First following the route of those who went overland, on June 26, +1823, they encountered a village of five lodges, evidently on the +Iowa River, in the present Winneshiek County, Iowa. Two days +later, June 28, they arrived at the more important village of Wapasha, +in the present Wabasha County, Minnesota, and as told in +the narrative: "Whatever might be the reveries in which the party +were indulging, they were soon recalled to the dull realities of +travelling, by the howling and barking of a band of dogs, that announced +their approach to an Indian village consisting of twenty +fixed lodges and cabins. It is controlled by Wa-pa-sha, an Indian +chief of considerable distinction. In his language, (Dacota,) his +name signifies <i>the red leaf</i>. A number of young men fantastically +decorated with many and variously coloured feathers, and their faces +as oddly painted, advanced to greet the party. One of them, the son +of the chief, was remarkable for the gaudiness and display of his +dress, which from its showy appearance imparted to his character +foppishness.... The chief is about fifty years of age, but appears +older.... His disposition to the Americans has generally been a +friendly one." (Keating, (1), I, pp. 249-250.) Hennepin's reception +by the ancestors of the same people, in their ancient village near +Mille Lac, about a century and a half earlier, may have been quite +similar to this accorded the members of the Long expedition in +1823.</p> + +<p>On the evening of June 30 the party going by land arrived "at +an Indian village, which is under the direction of Shakea, (<i>the man +that paints himself red</i>;) the village has retained the appellation +of Redwing, (<i>aile rouge</i>,) by which the chief was formerly distinguished." +This was on the site of the present Red Wing, Goodhue +County, Minnesota. There the party remained overnight, and on +the following morning, July 1, 1823, the boat bearing the supplies +belonging to the expedition, on its way from Prairie du Chien to +Fort St. Anthony, reached the village, and "The whole party being +again united, the chief invited them to his lodge, with a view to have +a formal conversation with them.... As a compliment to the party,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +the United States' flag was hoisted over his cabin, and a deputation +of some of his warriors waited at our encampment to invite us to +his lodge. We were received in due ceremony; the chief and his +son, Tatunkamane, (the walking buffalo,) were seated next to the +entrance. We took our stations near them, on the same bed-frame, +while his warriors seated themselves on the frame opposite to us." +This was followed by handshaking, and the smoking of the pipe of +peace. (Op. cit., pp. 251-252.) The two parties again separated +and those passing overland arrived at the fort the following evening.</p> + +<p>The boat party, ascending the Mississippi, arrived at "Wapasha's +village" on June 29, soon after the departure of the others who +were going overland. They left Redwing early in the afternoon of +July 1, and on the following day passed the St. Croix. Continuing, +they "passed an Indian village consisting of ten or twelve huts, +situated at a handsome turn on the river, about ten miles below the +mouth of the St. Peter; the village is generally known by the name +of the <i>Petit Corbeau</i>, or Little Raven, which was the appellation of +the father and grandfather of the present chief.... As the village +was abandoned for the season, we proceeded without stopping. The +houses which we saw here were differently constructed from those +which we had previously observed. They are formed by upright +flattened posts, implanted in the ground, without any interval except +here and there some small loopholes for defence; these posts support +the roof, which presents a surface of bark. Before and behind +each hut, there is a scaffold used for the purpose of drying maize, +pumpkins, &c." Late in the same day they arrived at the fort. +(Keating, (1), I, pp. 288-289.) Whether the method of constructing +lodges by forming the walls of upright posts or logs was of native +conception or was derived from the French is now difficult to determine. +In referring to the customs prevailing in the Mississippi +Valley, particularly the French portions, about the year 1810, Brackenridge +said: "In building their houses, the logs, instead of being +laid horizontally, as ours, are placed in a perpendicular position, +the interstices closed with earth or stone, as with us." (Brackenridge, +(1), p. 119.) The old courthouse at St. Louis was built after +this method. Again, among some tribes along the eastern slopes of +the Rocky Mountains, as will be told on another page, were to have +been found small, well-protected lodges formed of upright poles, and +in this instance there is no reason to suspect European influence. +Therefore it is not possible to say definitely whether the structures +standing on the banks of the Mississippi during the summer of +1823 were of a primitive, native form, or if they represented the +influence of the early French who had penetrated the region many +years before.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>Just three years before the Long expedition passed up the Mississippi +and prepared the preceding descriptions of the Sioux settlements +Schoolcraft went down the river, and in his journal are to be +found brief references to the same villages. To quote from the +journal, August 2, 1820: "Four miles below Carver's cave, we landed +at the village of Le Petit Corbeau, or the Little Raven. Here is a +Sioux band of twelve lodges, and consisting of about two hundred +souls, who plant corn upon the adjoining plain, and cultivate the +cucumber, and pumpkin. They sallied from their lodges on seeing +us approach, and gathering upon the bank of the river fired a kind +of <i>feu-de-joie</i>, and manifested the utmost satisfaction on our landing.... +We were conducted into his cabin which is spacious, being +about sixty feet in length by thirty in width—built in a permanent +manner of logs, and covered with bark." (Schoolcraft, (2), +pp. 317-318.) The following day at noon the party arrived "at +the Sioux village of Talangamane, or the Red wing, which is handsomely +situated on the west banks of the river, six miles above Lake +Pepin. It consists of four large, and several small lodges, built of +logs in the manner of the little Raven's village. Talangamane is +now considered the first chief of his nation.... Very few of his +people were at home, being engaged in hunting or fishing. We observed +several fine corn fields near the village, but they subsist chiefly +by taking sturgeon in the neighbouring lake, and by hunting the +deer. The buffalo is also occasionally killed, but they are obliged +to go two days journey west of the Mississippi, before this animal +is found in plenty. We observed several buffalo skins which were +undergoing the Indian process of tanning." (Op. cit., p. 323.) +The third settlement was reached during the afternoon of August 4, +1820, at which time, to quote from the journal, "we made a short +halt at the Sioux village of Wabashaw, which is eligibly situated +on the west bank of the Mississippi, sixty miles below Lake Pepin. +It consists of four large lodges, with a population of, probably, +sixty souls. A present of tobacco and whiskey was given, and we +again embarked at twenty minutes before five o'clock." (Op, cit., +p. 334.) The question now arises, Were the various structures seen +by Schoolcraft, those "built in a permanent manner of logs," constructed +of "upright flattened posts," as mentioned in the Long +narrative? If so, it is evident similar habitations were reared by the +Foxes and were encountered by Schoolcraft at the Fox village standing +on the left bank of the Mississippi, below the mouth of the +Wisconsin, August 6, 1820. However, the statements are rather +vague, and the various dwellings may have been quite similar to the +bark houses more clearly described in later narratives. But it is +beyond question that some of the structures were strongly built, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +Long on July 16, 1817, wrote: "Passed a Sioux village on our right +containing fourteen cabins. The name of the chief is the Petit Corbeau, +or Little Raven.... One of their cabins is furnished with +loop holes, and is situated so near the water that the opposite side of +the river is within musket-shot range from the building.... The +cabins are a kind of stockade buildings, and of a better appearance +than any Indian dwellings I have before met with." (Long, +(1), p. 31.)</p> + +<p>One of the most interesting accounts of the villages just mentioned +is contained in the journal of a traveler who visited them in 1849, the +year the Territory of Minnesota was created. On May 16 of that +year he "passed Wapasha's Prairie ... a beautiful prairie in Minnesota, +about nine miles long and three miles wide, occupied by +the chief Wapasha (or Red-Leaf) and his band of Sioux, whose +bark lodges are seen at the upper end of the prairie." (Seymour, (1), +p. 75.) And later in the day, after leaving Lake Pepin, "an Indian +village, called Red Wing, inhabited by a tribe of Sioux is seen on the +Minnesota shore. It appears to contain about one dozen bark lodges, +and half as many conical lodges, covered with buffalo skins; also, a +log or frame house, occupied by a missionary. Indian children were +seen running, in frolicsome mood, over the green prairie, and Indian +females were paddling their canoes along the shore. This village is +near the mouth of Cannon River." On the following day, May 17, +1849, Seymour passed the village of Kaposia, occupied by the chief +Little Crow, or Little Raven. It stood on the west bank of the river +about 5 miles below the then small town of St. Paul. The Indian village +at that time consisted of about 40 lodges, having a population of +some 300. A few days later he went to the village, and regarding +the visit wrote: "During the time I visited them, the Indians were +living in skin lodges, such as they use during the winter, and when +traveling. These are formed of long, slender poles, stuck in the +ground, in a circle of about eight feet in diameter, and united at the +top, and covered with the raw hide of the buffalo, having the hair +scraped off. They are in the form of a cone, and can be distinguished +from those of the Winnebagos and other Indians as far as they can +be seen. During the summer they live in bark houses, which are +more spacious, and when seen from a distance, resemble, in form +and appearance, the log cabins of the whites. When passing in sight +of the village, a few days afterward, I noticed that they had removed +their skin lodges, and erected their bark houses. The population of +this village, as I before remarked, is from 250 to 300 souls." He entered +one of the small skin-covered lodges. "An iron kettle, suspended +in the center, over a fire, forms the principal cooking utensil. +Blankets spread around on the ground, were used as seats and beds." +(Op. cit., pp. 137-138.) A cemetery, with its scaffold burials, stood +on the bluffs in the rear of the village. There is reason to believe +these were the first skin-covered tipis encountered by Seymour while +ascending the Mississippi.</p> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 22<a name="Plate_22"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p022a.png" width="300" height="207" alt="a. "Dakotah Village." Seth Eastman" title="a. "Dakotah Village." Seth Eastman" /> +<span class="caption">a. "Dakotah Village." Seth Eastman</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p022b.png" width="300" height="197" alt="b. "Dakotah Encampment." Seth Eastman" title="b. "Dakotah Encampment." Seth Eastman" /> +<span class="caption">b. "Dakotah Encampment." Seth Eastman</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 23<a name="Plate_23"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p023a.png" width="300" height="203" alt="a. Council at the mouth of the Teton. George Catlin" title="a. Council at the mouth of the Teton. George Catlin" /> +<span class="caption">a. Council at the mouth of the Teton. George Catlin</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p023b.png" width="300" height="222" alt="b. Page of Kurz's Sketchbook, showing Fort Pierre and the Indian encampment, July 4, 1851" title="b. Page of Kurz's Sketchbook, showing Fort Pierre and the Indian encampment, July 4, 1851" /> +<span class="caption">b. Page of Kurz's Sketchbook, showing Fort Pierre and the Indian encampment, July 4, 1851</span> +</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p> + +<p>It will be noticed that in the preceding description of Kaposia no +mention is made of log structures, such as were alluded to by Long +and Schoolcraft. Only the typical bark house and the conical skin-covered +tipi were seen by Seymour. Fortunately a most valuable +and interesting picture of the village, as it appeared on June 19, +1851, is preserved and is now reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_21">21</a>. Both forms of +habitations are shown, and in the distance, on the left, are indicated +the scaffold burials standing on the bluffs in the rear of the settlement. +On the extreme right is the prow of a canoe, evidently on the +immediate bank of the Mississippi. Having this remarkable sketch, +it is gratifying to find a brief description of the two forms of lodges, +and also to know that the notes may have referred to Kaposia in +particular. It tells that "the lodges are from eight to fifteen feet +in diameter, about ten to fifteen feet high and made of buffalo-skins +tanned. Elk skins are used for this purpose also. The summer house +is built of wood, or perches set upright, twenty or thirty feet long, +by fifteen or twenty wide. The perches are set in the ground about +one foot, and are about six feet out of the ground. Over this is put +a roof of elm bark. They are very comfortable for summer use. +The lodge of skin lasts three or four years; the lodge of wood seven +or eight years." (Prescott, (1), p. 67.)</p> + +<p>The bark houses, which resembled "the log cabins of the whites," +were shown by Capt. Eastman in one of his paintings. It was used +as an illustration by Schoolcraft, and is here reproduced as plate +<a href="#Plate_22">22</a>, <i>a</i>. It is less interesting than the sketch of Kaposia, but in many +respects the two are quite similar.</p> + +<p>Several bark houses of the form just mentioned stood on the shore +of Mille Lac, forming part of the Ojibway village visited in 1900, +and similar to these were the "winter habitations," occasionally +erected by the Menominee, as mentioned and figured by Hoffman as +plate xviii in his work on that tribe. (Hoffman, (1), p. 255.) It is +rather curious that these should be described as "winter habitations" +among that Algonquian tribe, and as being occupied during the summer +by the Siouan people. As a matter of fact this strong distinction +may not have existed. The use of this type of house by the Foxes +has already been mentioned. Whether these may be regarded as representing +a purely aboriginal form of structure is not easily determined, +but they will at once recall the unit of the long communal +dwellings of the Iroquois. The slanting roof, the flat front and back, +and the upright walls, all covered with large sheets of bark, were the +same.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>Again returning to the narrative of the Long expedition. Early +in July, 1823, the party having rested at the mouth of the Minnesota, +or St. Peters River, began ascending that stream. Having advanced +a short distance they arrived at the village of Taoapa, better known +as "Shakopee's Village," from the name of the chief of this band +of the Mdewakanton. It stood in the present Scott County, Minnesota, +and in the summer of 1823 "consisted of fifteen large bark +lodges, in good order; they were arranged along the river. Some of +them were large enough to hold from thirty to fifty persons, accommodated +as the Indians usually are in their lodges. The ground near +it is neatly laid out, and some fine corn-fields were observed in the +vicinity. There were scaffolds annexed to the houses, for the purpose +of drying maize, etc.; upon these we were told that the Indians +sleep during very hot nights." Near the village were seen various +scaffold burials, while "In the midst of the corn-fields a dog was +suspended, his head decorated with feathers, and with horse-hair +stained red; it was probably a sacrifice for the protection of the corn-fields +during the absence of the Indians." Six miles above the village +was Little Prairie. (Keating, (1), pp. 329-330.) Quite likely the +structures at this village were similar to those described above, which +resembled in outline the log cabins of the white settlers.</p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Wahpeton.</span></h5> + +<p>The Wahpeton, "dwellers among leaves," constitute one of the +seven great divisions of the Dakota, and to quote from the Handbook: +"Historic and linguistic evidence proves the affinity of this +tribe with the Sisseton, Wahpekute, and Mdewakanton. Hennepin +(1680) mentions them as living in the vicinity of Mille Lac, Minn., +near the Mdewakanton, Sisseton, and Teton. On his map they are +placed a little to the N. E. of the lake." While living in the seclusion +of the vast forests which surrounded the great lakes of central +Minnesota, the villages of the Wahpeton were probably formed of +groups of bark or mat covered structures so typical of the region at +a later day. Gradually they left the timbered regions, and about the +first years of the last century were living near the mouth of the +Minnesota River. Thence they appear to have moved up the stream, +and during the summer of 1823 were encountered by the Long expedition +in the vicinity of Big Stone Lake, in the present Lac qui Parle +County, Minnesota. The account of the meeting with the Indians +on the prairie, and later of their visit to the village, by the members +of the expedition, is most interesting. On July 21, 1823, "While +traveling over the prairie which borders upon this part of the St. +Peter, that connects Lake qui Parle with Big Stone Lake, our attention +was aroused by the sight of what appeared to be buffaloes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +chased across the prairie. They, however, soon proved to be Indians; +their number, at first limited to two, gradually increased to near one +hundred; they were seen rising from every part of the prairie, and +after those in advance had reconnoitered us, and made signals that +we were friends, by discharging their guns, they all came running +towards us, and in a few minutes we found ourselves surrounded by +a numerous band.... Some of them were mounted on horseback, +and were constantly drumming upon the sides of their horses with +their heels, being destitute both of whip and spur. Many of them +came and shook hands with us, while the rest were riding all round +us in different directions. They belonged, as we were told, to the +Wahkpatoan, [Wahpeton] one of the tribes of the Dacotas.... As +we rode towards their lodges, we were met by a large party of squaws +and children, who formed a very motly group.... The village, to +which they directed us, consisted of thirty skin lodges, situated on a +fine meadow on the bank of the lake. Their permanent residence, +or at least that which they have occupied as such for the last five +years, is on a rocky island, (Big Island), in the lake, nearly opposite +to, and within a quarter of a mile of, their present encampment. +Upon the island they cultivate their cornfields, secure against the +aggressions of their enemies. They had been lately engaged in hunting +buffalo, apparently with much success. The principal man led +us to his lodge, wherein a number of the influential men were admitted, +the women being excluded; but we observed that they, with the +children, went about the lodge, peeping through all the crevices, and +not unfrequently raising the skins to observe our motion. They soon +brought in a couple of large wooden dishes, filled with pounded +buffalo meat boiled, and covered with the marrow of the same +animal; of this we partook with great delight." This was followed +by another feast, in a near-by tent, and still a third where a dog had +been killed and prepared, "which is considered not only as the greatest +delicacy, but also as a sacred animal, of which they eat only on +great occasions." The party did not remain long at the village, but +continued on up the lake shore, and soon encountered on a bluff "two +Indian lodges, in one of which was Tatanka Wechacheta, (the buffalo +man,) an Indian who claims the command of the Wahkpatoans." +Later in the day the party returned to these lodges, where "the chief, +and his principal men, were in waiting. We entered the skin lodge, +and were seated on fine buffalo robes, spread all round; on the fire, +which was in the centre of the lodge, two large iron kettles, filled +with choicest pieces of buffalo, were placed.... Our hosts were gratified +and flattered at the quantity which we ate; the residue of the +feast was sent to our soldiers. In this, and every other instance +where we have been invited to a feast by Indians, we observed that +they never eat with their guests." (Keating, (1), I, pp. 367-373.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>The village of skin-covered tipis standing on the shore of the lake, +as seen by members of the expedition on that July day nearly a century +ago, must have resembled the painting later made by Capt. +Eastman, which is reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_22">22</a>, <i>b</i>, taken from Schoolcraft. +In the painting the tipis are undoubtedly too closely placed, but +otherwise they are quite accurately shown. This illustration as used +in Schoolcraft bears the legend "Dakotah Encampment."</p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Yanktonai.</span></h5> + +<p>Like other divisions of the Dakota, the Yanktonai formerly lived +in the thickly timbered region surrounding the headwaters of the +Mississippi, in the central portion of the present State of Minnesota, +and, like them, moved southward and westward until they reached +the plains and the habitat of the buffalo. Although in their earlier +home they undoubtedly reared the mat-covered structures, nevertheless +when they reached the open country they constructed the conical +skin lodge.</p> + +<p>During the latter part of July, 1823, the Long expedition reached +a village of this tribe then standing in the vicinity of Lake Traverse, +in the present Traverse County, Minnesota. In the narrative of the +expedition very little is said regarding the appearance of the encampment, +which may not have offered any peculiar features, but much +was said concerning the dress and ways of the inhabitants. In part +the narrative states: "The principal interest which we experienced in +the neighbourhood of Lake Traverse, was from an acquaintance with +Wanotan, (the Charger,) the most distinguished chief of the Yanktoanan +tribe, which, as we were informed, is subdivided into six +bands. He is one of the greatest men of the Dacota nation, and +although but twenty-eight years of age, he has already acquired +great renown as a warrior." As the party neared the establishment +of the Columbia Fur Company, on the border of the lake, "a salute +was fired from a number of Indian tents which were pitched in the +vicinity, from the largest of which the American colours were flying. +And as soon as we had dismounted from our horses, we received an +invitation to a feast which Wanotan had prepared for us." Three +dogs had been killed and prepared for the great occasion. "We repaired +to a sort of pavilion which they had erected by the union of +several large skin lodges. Fine Buffalo robes were spread all around, +and the air was perfumed by the odour of sweet scenting grass which +had been burned in it. On entering the lodge we saw the chief +seated near the further end of it, and one of his principal men pointed +out to us the place which was destined for our accommodation; it +was at the upper end of the lodge." (Keating, (1), I, pp. 429-432.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>Arranging the skin covers of several large tipis in such a way as +to form a single shelter, to serve as a ceremonial "lodge," was the +custom of many tribes, and other instances will be mentioned. But +another and more elaborate form of structure was used by the tribes +just mentioned. In 1858, when describing certain customs of the +people then living along the course of the Minnesota and in the +vicinity of Lake Traverse, Riggs referred to the sacred dance and +said: "Among the Dakotas a most remarkable society exists which +is called <i>Wakan wachepe</i>, or Sacred Dance, of which the medicine +sack is the badge. It may be regarded as the depository and guardian +of whatever they esteem as <i>wakan</i>, or sacred." He then related the +contents of the bag and the meaning of the ceremony, and continues: +"A large skin lodge is usually occupied as the center of operations, +the door of which is made wide by throwing up the corners. From +this, on each hand, extends a kind of railing, some thirty or forty +feet, on which skins are thrown. The entrance is at the farther end. +All around the inside of this sanctum sanctorum and along the extended +sides sit those who are called to the dance. Beyond this and +near the place of entrance is a fire, with great kettles hanging over it, +which are filled with dried buffalo meat or other food; and near by +lay several packs or bags of the same, which are consecrated to the +feast. The whole village are gathered around and are looking over +or peeping through the holes in the barricades." Much was then +told about the strange and curious ceremonies enacted within the +lodge. (Riggs, (1), pp. 505-506.)</p> + +<p>Leaving the encampment in the vicinity of the post of the Columbia +Fur Company, the Long expedition moved northward, and when +just beyond Lake Traverse, while traversing the prairies on July 27, +1823, "passed a party of squaws engaged in conveying to their camp +some slices of fresh meat to jerk; their fellow labourers were dogs. +Each of the dogs had the ends of two poles crossed and fastened +over the shoulders, with a piece of hide underneath to prevent chafing. +The other extremities dragged on the ground. This sort of vehicle +was secured to the animal by a string passing round the breast, and +another under the abdomen; transverse sticks, the ends of which +were fastened in the poles, kept these at a proper distance, and supported +the meat. This seems to be the only mode of harnessing dogs, +practised among the Sioux; we believe, they never use them in teams, +as is customary with the traders." (Keating, (1), II, pp. 9-10.)</p> + +<p>The expedition soon arrived at Pembina, near the international +boundary, where it would appear they found the two characteristic +forms of native habitations in use by the Indians. A drawing was +at that time made by Seymour and used as an illustration in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +narrative, showing the "two different kind of lodges used by the +northwest Indians," the first being the skin lodge of the prairie +tribes, and "of this nature are all the lodges used by the Dacotas;" +the second were the bark-covered structures of the Ojibway, "who +for the most part live to the north-east of the buffalo regions." To +this latter class must have belonged the habitations of the Siouan +tribes before they were forced from their early homes among the +forests and lakes to the eastward.</p> + +<p>When referring to the two characteristic forms of habitations it +will be of interest to quote from the writings of one who traversed +the country more than a century and a half ago, when all was in its +primitive condition, but, like many writers of that period, he failed +to give details which at the present time would prove of the greatest +value. He wrote: "The Indians, in general, pay a greater attention +to their dress and to the ornaments with which they decorate their +persons, than to the accommodation of their huts or tents. They +construct the latter in the following simple and expeditious manner.</p> + +<p>"Being provided with poles of a proper length, they fasten two +of them across, near their ends, with bands made of bark. Having +done this, they raise them up, and extend the bottom of each as wide +as they purpose to make the area of the tent: they then erect others +of an equal height, and fix them so as to support the two principal +ones. On the whole they lay skins of the elk or deer, sewed together, +in quantity sufficient to cover the poles, and by lapping over +to form the door. A great number of skins are sometimes required +for this purpose, as some of their tents are very capacious. That of +the chief warrior of the Naudowessies was at least forty feet in circumference, +and very commodious.</p> + +<p>"They observe no regularity in fixing their tents when they +encamp, but place them just as it suits their conveniency.</p> + +<p>"The huts also, which those who use no tents erect when they +travel, for very few tribes have fixed abodes or regular towns or +villages, are equally simple, and almost as soon constructed.</p> + +<p>"They fix small pliable poles in the ground, by bending them till +they meet at the top and form a semi-circle, then lash them together. +These they cover with mats made of rushes platted, or with birch +bark, which they carry with them in their canoes for this purpose.</p> + +<p>"These cabins have neither chimnies nor windows; there is only +a small aperture left in the middle of the roofs through which the +smoke is discharged, but as this is obliged to be stopped up when it +rains or snows violently, the smoke then proves exceedingly troublesome.</p> + +<p>"They lie on skins, generally those of the bear, which are placed +in rows on the ground; and if the floor is not large enough to contain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +beds sufficient for the accommodation of the whole family, a frame +is erected about four or five feet from the ground, in which the +younger part of it sleep." (Carver, (1), pp. 152-154.) Though +lacking much in detail, nevertheless the preceding notes are of historical +interest and value, describing as they do the primitive habitations +which were reared and occupied by the native tribes living in +the upper Mississippi Valley about the middle of the eighteenth +century. Skins of the elk and deer were evidently used as coverings +for the conical tipi, which seems to prove the lack of a sufficient +number of buffalo skins to serve the purpose, although farther west, +beyond the timbered country, where buffalo were more easily obtained, +their skins were made use of and covered the shelters of tribes +by whom they were hunted.</p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Yankton.</span></h5> + +<p>When the expedition under the leadership of General Atkinson +ascended the Missouri, during the summer of 1825, he wrote regarding +the Yankton: "The Yanctons are a band of the Sioux, and rove +in the plains north of the Missouri, from near the Great Bend, down +as far as the Sioux river. They do not cultivate, but live by the chase +alone, subsisting principally upon buffalo. They cover themselves +with leather tents, or lodges, which they move about from place to +place, as the buffalo may chance to range. They are pretty well supplied +with fusees, and with horses, and a few mules. They are estimated +at 3,000 souls, of which 600 are warriors. They are comfortably +habited in frocks, or shirts of dressed skins, and leggings, reaching +to the waist, of the same; they use besides, robes of buffalo skins, +which are frequently beautifully wrought with porcupine quills, or +painted tastefully; are friendly to the whites, but make war upon +almost all other tribes, except those of their own nation. Their +trading ground is on the river Jaques." (Atkinson, (1), pp. 8-9.) +On June 17 the party arrived at Fort Lookout, a post of the +American Fur Company, and four days later, "on the 21st, the +Tetons, Yanctons, and Yanctonies, three distinct bands of the Sioux +Nation, having arrived, a council was opened, and, on the 22d, a +treaty concluded with them." This great gathering of the tribes, +with their numerous skin-covered tipis, would have presented a sight +similar to that witnessed and described by Catlin just seven years +later, in the vicinity of Fort Pierre.</p> + +<p>An excellent description of the skin-covered tipi of the Sioux, but +of the structures of the Yankton in particular, is contained in Maximilian's +narrative. Writing on May 25, 1833, he said the "Sioux +Agency, or, as it is now usually called, Fort Lookout, is a square, +of about sixty paces, surrounded by pickets, twenty or thirty feet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +high, made of squared trunks of trees placed close to each other, +within which the dwellings are built close to the palisades.... About +ten leather tents or huts of the Sioux, of the branch of the Yanktons +or Yanktoans, were set up near the fort.... All these Dacotas of +the Missouri, as well as most of those of the Mississippi, are only +hunters, and, in their excursions, always live in portable leather +tents.... The tents of the Sioux are high pointed cones, made of +strong poles, covered with buffalo skins, closely sewed together. +These skins are scraped on both sides, so that they become as transparent +as parchment, and give free admission to the light. At the +top, where the poles meet, or cross each other, there is an opening, +to let out the smoke, which they endeavor to close by a piece of the +skin covering of the tent, fixed to a separate pole standing upright, +and fastened to the upper part of the covering on the side from +which the wind blows. The door is a slit, in the front of the tent, +which is generally closed by another piece of buffalo hide, stretched +upon a frame. A small fire is kept up in the centre of the tent. +Poles are stuck in the ground, near the tent, and utensils of various +kinds are suspended from them. There are, likewise, stages, on which +to hang the newly-tanned hides; others, with gaily-painted parchment +pouches and bags, on some of which they hang their bows, +arrows, quivers, leather shields, spears, and war clubs.</p> + +<p>"We paid a visit to Wahktageli in his tent, and had some difficulty +in creeping into the narrow, low entrance, after pulling aside the +skin that covered it. The inside of this tent was light, and it was +about ten paces in diameter. Buffalo skins were spread on the +ground, upon which we sat down. Between us and the side of the +tent were a variety of articles, such as pouches, boxes, saddles, arms, +&c. A relation of the chief was employed in making arrows, which +were finished very neatly, and with great care. Wahktageli immediately, +with much gravity, handed the tobacco-pipe round, and seemed +to inhale the precious smoke with great delight.... The conversation +was carried on by Cephier, the interpreter kept by the Agency, +who accompanied us on this visit.... The owner of a neighbouring +tent had killed a large elk, the skin of which the women +were then busily employed in dressing. They had stretched it out, +by means of leather straps, on the ground near the tent, and the +women were scraping off the particles of flesh and fat with a very +well-contrived instrument. It is made of bone, sharpened at one +end, and furnished with little teeth like a saw, and, at the other end, +a strap, which is fastened round the wrist." (Maximilian, (1), pp. +148-152.) A drawing by Bodmer, reproduced by Maximilian on +page 151 of the work cited, is here shown as figure <a href="#figure_2">2</a>. It represents +a small group of tipis, of the type mentioned in the narrative, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +on the right, in the rear, is a tripod with what appears to be a +shield suspended from it. The bone implement mentioned as being +used by the women to remove particles of flesh from the skin of +the recently killed elk belonged to a well-known type which was +extensively used throughout the region. It was formed of the large +bones of the leg of the buffalo, elk, or moose. Many old examples +are preserved in the National Museum, Washington.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"><a name="figure_2"></a> +<img src="images/f002.png" width="500" height="342" alt="Fig. 2.—Tipis." title="Fig. 2.—Tipis." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 2.—Tipis.</span> +</div> + +<p>When dealing with the agents of the Government the Yankton +would gather on the plains around Fort Pierre. Just 20 years after +Maximilian's visit to the upper Missouri a small party passed down +the river, and on October 18, 1853, entered in their journal: "We +reached Fort Pierre about 12 o'clock m.... Two days before our +arrival at this place, the main body of the Yankton Sioux, in number +some twenty-five hundred, had left for the buffalo country. They +have been here to receive their presents from the government. Two +more bands are expected in a few days." (Saxton, (1), p. 267.) And +some days later, while continuing down the Missouri: "The prairies +are burning in every direction, and the smoke is almost stifling."</p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Teton.</span></h5> + +<p>The Teton, moving westward from their early habitat to the east +and north of the Minnesota, were encountered on the banks of the +Missouri by Captains Lewis and Clark when they ascended the river, +during the early autumn of 1804. On September 26 of that year<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +the expedition reached the mouth of Teton River (the present Bad +River), which enters the Missouri from the west at Pierre, Stanley +County, South Dakota. Here stood the great village of the Teton, +concerning which Sergeant Gass gave a very interesting account in +his journal: "We remained here all day. Capt. Lewis, myself and +some of the men, went over to the Indian camp. Their lodges are +about eighty in number, and contain about ten persons each; the +greater part women and children. The women were employed in +dressing buffaloe skins, for clothing for themselves and for covering +their lodges. They are the most friendly people I ever saw; but will +pilfer if they have an opportunity. They are also very dirty: the +water they make use of, is carried in the paunches of the animals +they kill, just as they are emptied, without being cleaned.... About +3 o'clock we went aboard the boat accompanied with the old chief +and his little son. In the evening captain Clarke and some of the +men went over, and the Indians made preparations for a dance. At +dark it commenced. Captain Lewis, myself and some of our party +went up to see them perform. Their band of music, or orchestra, +was composed of about twelve persons beating on a buffalo hide, and +shaking small bags that made a rattling noise. They had a large fire +in the centre of their camp; on one side the women, about 80 in number, +formed a solid column round the fire, with sticks in their hands, +and the scalps of the Mahas they had killed, tied on them. They +kept moving, or jumping round the fire, rising and falling on both +feet at once; keeping a continual noise, singing and yelling. In this +manner they continued till 1 o'clock at night, when we returned to +the boat with two of the chiefs." (Gass, (1), pp. 45-46.)</p> + +<p>In the journal of the expedition is a very full account of the events +which transpired during the two days spent at the Teton camp, +but only part will now be quoted, sufficient to describe the place +of meeting: "Captain Lewis went on shore and remained several +hours, and observing that their disposition was friendly we resolved +to remain during the night to a dance, which they were preparing +for us. Captains Lewis and Clark, who went on shore one after the +other, were met on landing by ten well dressed young men, who took +them up in a robe highly decorated and carried them to a large +council house, where they were placed on a dressed buffaloe skin +by the side of the grand chief. The hall or council-room was in the +shape of three quarters of a circle, covered at the top and sides with +skins well dressed and sewed together. Under this shelter sat about +seventy men, forming a circle round the chief, before whom were +placed a Spanish flag and the one we had given them yesterday. +This left a vacant circle of about six feet diameter, in which the +pipe of peace was raised on two forked sticks, about six or eight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +inches from the ground, and under it the down of the swan was +scattered: a large fire, in which they were cooking provisions, stood +near, and in the centre about four hundred pounds of excellent +buffaloe meat as a present for us." Then followed several addresses +by the chiefs; offerings of dog meat to the flag "by way of sacrifice," +and the smoking of the pipe of peace. (Lewis and Clark, +(1), I, pp. 84-86.) The entire ceremony proved of the greatest +interest. Then followed an account of the habitations standing in +the village: "Their lodges are very neatly constructed, in the same +form as those of the Yanktons; they consist of about one hundred +cabins, made of white buffaloe hide dressed, with a larger one in +the centre for holding councils and dances. They are built round +with poles about fifteen or twenty feet high, covered with white +skins; these lodges may be taken to pieces, packed up, and carried +with the nation wherever they go, by dogs which bear great burdens. +The women are chiefly employed in dressing buffaloe skins: they +seem perfectly well disposed, but are addicted to stealing any thing +which they can take without being observed." (Op. cit., pp. 88-89.)</p> + +<p>During the year 1832 George Catlin remained for some time at +and near the mouth of the Teton, where a few years before had +been erected a station of the American Fur Company, which was +soon given the name Fort Pierre. "The country about this Fort +is almost entirely prairie, producing along the banks of the river +and streams only, slight skirtings of timber.... On my way up +the river I made a painting of this lovely spot, taken from the +summit of the bluffs, a mile or two distant, showing an encampment +of Sioux, of six hundred tents of skin lodges, around the +Fort, where they had concentrated to make their spring trade; +exchanging their furs and peltries for articles and luxuries of civilized +manufactures." (Catlin, (1), I, p. 209.) And he continued +(p. 211): "I mentioned that this is the nucleus or place of concentration +of the numerous tribe of the Sioux, who often congregate +here in great masses to make their trades with the American Fur +Company; and that on my way up the river, some months since, I +found here encamped, six hundred families of Sioux, living in tents +covered with buffalo hides. Amongst these there were twenty or +more of the different bands, each one with their chief at their head, +over whom was a <i>superior chief</i> and leader, a middle-aged man, of +middling stature, with a noble countenance.... The name of this +chief is Ha-won-je-tah (the one horn) of the Mee-ne-cow-e-gee band, +who has risen rapidly to the highest honours in the tribe."</p> + +<p>About this time a "grand feast" was prepared by the Indians in +honor of the Indian agent and the several Americans who were then +at Fort Pierre, including Catlin. A sketch of the gathering is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +shown in plate <a href="#Plate_23">23</a>, <i>a</i>, after the illustration in Catlin's narrative, but +it may be of interest to know that the original painting is now in +the National Museum, Washington. Describing this scene, Catlin +wrote:</p> + +<p>"The two chiefs, Ha-wan-je-tah and Tchan-dee ... brought their +two tents together, forming the two into a semi-circle, enclosing a +space sufficiently large to accommodate 150 men; and sat down with +that number of the principal chiefs and warriors of the Sioux nation." +The several Americans were "placed on elevated seats in +the centre of the crescent; while the rest of the company all sat +upon the ground, and mostly cross-legged, preparatory to the feast +being dealt out. In the centre of the semi-circle was erected a flag-staff, +on which was waving a white flag, and to which also was tied +the calumet, both expressive of their friendly feelings towards us. +Near the foot of the flag-staff were placed in a row on the ground, +six or eight kettles, with iron covers on them, shutting them tight, +in which were prepared the viands for our <i>voluptuous</i> feast. Near +the kettles, and on the ground also, bottomside upwards, were a +number of wooden bowls, in which the meat was to be served out. +And in front, two or three men, who were there placed as waiters, +to light the pipes for smoking, and also to deal out the food." (Op. +cit., p. 228.) The account of the ceremony which soon followed +proves the gathering to have been one of much interest, and to the +Indians one of great moment. The arrangement of the two large +tipis so as to form a single shelter recalls the site of the gathering +near the shore of Lake Traverse only a few years before. It is to +be regretted that Catlin did not leave a more detailed description +of the appearance of the great encampment as it was at the time of +his visit, but he devoted much of his time to painting portraits of +the Indians, of which he prepared a large number.</p> + +<p>Although Catlin found representatives of many bands of Sioux +gathered about on the plain surrounding Fort Pierre, nevertheless +the comparatively permanent village of the Teton was near the mouth +of the stream of that name. Maximilian, who ascended the Missouri +during the spring of 1833, arrived at Fort Pierre late in May, and +in his journal said: "The Sioux, who live on Teton River, near +Fort Pierre, are mostly of the branch of the Tetons; though there are +some Yanktons here." (Maximilian, (1), p. 150.) He elsewhere +mentioned that "the tents are generally composed of fourteen skins," +therefore consider the great number of buffalo required to furnish +coverings for the lodges mentioned by Catlin. Maximilian wrote +on May 30, 1833, near Fort Pierre: "Round an isolated tree in the +prairie I observed a circle of holes in the ground, in which thick +poles had stood. A number of buffalo skulls were piled up there;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +and we were told that this was a medicine, or charm, contrived by +the Indians in order to entice the herds of buffaloes. Everywhere +in the plain we saw circles of clods of earth, with a small circular +ditch, where the tents of many Indians had stood." (Op. cit., p. +157.) These were evidently the remains of the encampment seen +by Catlin the preceding year.</p> + +<p>A sketch of Fort Pierre as it appeared July 4, 1851, is given in +plate <a href="#Plate_23">23</a>, <i>b</i>. This was the work of the young Swiss artist, Friedrich +Kurz, and is now reproduced for the first time. The small groups +of Indians, the tipis standing near the fort, and the rolling prairie +in the distance are all graphically shown.</p> + +<p>The several divisions of the Teton performed the sun dance, at +which time a large ceremonial lodge would be erected, which stood +alone in the camp circle, formed of the numerous skin tipis. The +lodge as reared at different times and by the various tribes varied +in form and method of construction, but it seems to have been the +custom of all the tribes to abandon the structure at the termination +of the ceremonies. It was regarded as a sacred place and one not +to be destroyed by man. Large structures of this sort were often +encountered by parties traversing the plains and adjacent regions, +and one, probably erected by a tribe of the Teton, was discovered +by the Raynolds party, July 16, 1859, in the extreme eastern part +of the present Crook County, Wyoming. In the journal of the +expedition it was written on that day, "We have not yet met any +Indians, nor any indications of their recent presence. The site of +our camp is, however, marked by the remains of an immense Indian +lodge, the frame of which consists of large poles, over thirty feet +in length. Close by is also a high post, around which a perfect +circle of buffalo skulls has been arranged." (Raynolds, (1), p. 31.) +This may have been used during the preceding year, at which time the +skin tipis of the people enacting the sacred ceremonies were pitched +in the form of a circle with the great lodge standing in the center. +But with the completion of the annual dance the participants removed, +with their skin tipis, to other localities, allowing the sacred +structure to be destroyed by the elements.</p> + +<h6>OGLALA.</h6> + +<p>Of the early history of this, the principal division of the Teton, +nothing is known. During the first years of the last century they +were discovered by Lewis and Clark on the banks of the upper Missouri, +south of the Cheyenne River, in the present Stanley County, +South Dakota. They hunted and roamed over a wide region, and by +the middle of the century occupied the country between the Forks of +the Platte and beyond to the Black Hills. While living on the banks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +of the Missouri their villages undoubtedly resembled the skin-covered +tipi settlements of the other kindred tribes, and later, when they had +pushed farther into the prairie country, there was probably no change +in the appearance of their structures. A very interesting account of +the villages of this tribe, with reference to their ways of life, after +they had arrived on the banks of the Platte, is to be found in the +narrative of Stansbury's expedition, during the years 1849 and 1850.</p> + +<p>July 2, 1849, the expedition crossed the South Fork of the Platte, +evidently at some point in the western part of the present Keith +County, Nebraska, and on the following day "crossed the ridge between +the North and South Forks of the Platte, a distance of eighteen +and a half miles." On July 5 the expedition began moving up the +right bank of the North Fork, and after advancing 23 miles encamped +on the bank of the river. They had arrived in the region dominated +by the Oglala. "Just above us, was a village of Sioux, consisting of +ten lodges. They were accompanied by Mr. Badeau, a trader; and +having been driven from the South Fork by the cholera, had fled +to the emigrant-road, in the hope of obtaining medical aid from the +whites. As soon as it was dark, the chief and a dozen of the braves +of the village came and sat down in a semicircle around the front +of my tent, and, by means of an interpreter, informed me that they +would be very glad of a little coffee, sugar, or biscuit. I gave them +what we could spare." This particular band had not suffered very +severely from the ailment, but were greatly heartened to receive +medicines from the doctor, or "medicine-man," of the expedition, +and when they returned to their village "the sound of the drum and +the song, expressive of the revival of hope, which had almost departed, +resounded from the 'medicine lodge,' and continued until a +late hour of the night." (Stansbury, (1), pp. 44-45.) During this +visit some of the Indians told of a larger camp about 2 miles distant, +where many were ill with the dreaded malady.</p> + +<p>The following morning, July 6, 1849, the expedition resumed its +advance up the valley, and soon reached the "upper village," of +which an interesting account is given in the journal. It "contained +about two hundred and fifty souls. They were in the act of breaking +up their encampment, being obliged to move farther up the river +to obtain fresh grass for their animals. A more curious, animated, +and novel scene I never witnessed. Squaws, papooses, dogs, puppies, +mules, and ponies, all in busy motion, while the lordly, lazy men +lounged about with an air of listless indifference, too proud to render +the slightest aid to their faithful drudges. Before the lodge of each +brave was erected a tripod of thin slender poles about ten feet in +length, upon which was suspended his round white shield, with some +device painted upon it, his spear, and a buckskin sack containing +his 'medicine' bag.... We continued our journey, accompanied for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +several miles by the people of both villages. The whole scene was +unique in the highest degree. The road was strewn for miles with +the most motley assemblage I ever beheld, each lodge moving off +from the village as soon as its inhabitants were ready, without waiting +for the others. The means of transportation were horses, mules, +and dogs. Four or five lodge-poles are fastened on each side of the +animal, the ends of which trail on the ground behind, like the shafts +of a truck or dray. On these, behind the horse, is fastened a light +framework, the outside of which consists of a strong hoop bent into +an oval form, and interlaced with a sort of network of rawhide. +Most of these are surmounted by a light wicker canopy, very like our +covers for children's wagons, except that it extends the whole length +and is open only at one side. Over the canopy is spread a blanket, +shawl, or buffalo-robe, so as to form a protection from the sun or +rain. Upon this light but strong trellice-work, they place the lighter +articles, such as clothing, robes, &c., and then pack away among +these their puppies and papooses, (of both which they seem to have +a goodly number;) the women, when tired of walking, get upon them +to rest and take care of their babies.... The dogs also are made to +perform an important part in this shifting of quarters. Two short, +light lodge-poles are fastened together at the small end, and made +to rest at the angle upon the animal's back, the other end of course, +trailing upon the ground. Over his shoulders is placed a sort of +pad, or small saddle, the girth of which fastens the poles to his sides, +and connects with a little collar or breast-strap. Behind the dog, a +small platform or frame is fastened to the poles, similar to that used +for the horses, upon which are placed lighter articles, generally puppies, +which are considered quite valuable, being raised for beasts +of burden as well as for food and the chase.... The whole duty of +taking down and putting up the lodges, packing up, loading the +horses, arranging the lodge-poles, and leading or driving the animals, +devolves upon the squaws, while the men stalk along at their +leisure; even the boys of larger growth deeming it beneath their +dignity to lighten the toils of their own mothers." (Op. cit., pp. +45-47.)</p> + +<p>From the preceding account of the movement of a village of the +Oglala it is quite apparent they did not advance in the orderly manner +followed by the Pawnee, as described by Murray in 1835, but +the dreaded illness from which many were then suffering may have +caused the rather demoralized condition of the band. The travois +as used at that time was similar to the example shown in plate <a href="#Plate_14">14</a>, +although the latter was in use by the Cheyenne a generation later. +But the frame was not always utilized, and often the tipi, folded +and rolled, with other possessions of the family, rested upon the +poles or upon the back of the horse.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>Horses thus laden, and with trailing poles on either side, left a +very distinctive trail as they crossed the prairie, and as described: +"The trail of the Plain Indians consists usually of three paths, close +together, yet at fixed distances apart. They are produced as follows: +The framework of their lodges or tents are made of long poles +which, on a journey, are tied to each side of a pony, and allowed to +trail upon the ground. The result is that a long string of ponies, +thus laden and following each other, will wear a triple path—the +central one being caused by the tread of the ponies, the two outer +by the trailing of the lodge-poles." (Bell, (1), pp. 25-26.) An +illustration of a horse so loaded is given on page 26 and is here reproduced +as figure <a href="#figure_3">3</a>. It bears the legend "Sioux Indian Lodges or +Tents; one packed for a journey, the other standing," and, although +crude, conveys a clear conception of the subject.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"><a name="figure_3"></a> +<img src="images/f003.png" width="500" height="421" alt="Fig. 3.—Horse travois." title="Fig. 3.—Horse travois." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 3.—Horse travois.</span> +</div> + +<p>To continue the narrative of the Stansbury expedition. The party +advanced up the river and pursued their journey to the Great Salt +Lake and there wintered. The following year they returned to the +east and on September 21, 1850, reached the left bank of the North +Fork of the Platte, at a point near the center of the present Carbon +County, Wyoming. Describing the site of their encampment that +night, near the bank of the Platte: "The place we now occupy has +long been a favorite camp-ground for the numerous war-parties<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +which annually meet in this region to hunt buffalo and one another. +Remains of old Indian stockades are met with scattered about among +the thickets; and the guide informed us, that four years since there +were at one and the same time, upon this one bottom, fifteen or +twenty of these forts, constructed by different tribes. Most of them +have since been destroyed by fire. As this was the season of the year +when we might expect to find them upon their expeditions, we were +on the <i>qui vive</i>, lest we should be surprised." They remained in +camp the following day, Sunday, and that evening entered in the +journal: "Several herds of buffalo were seen during the day."</p> + +<p>The morning of the 23d was warm and cloudy, and the party soon +after leaving their camp forded the river "on a ripple, with a depth +of eighteen inches." The water was clear, with a pebbly bottom. +That this location was frequented by Indians was again indicated +by the discovery of another great group of "forts," as told in the +narrative: "Immediately above where we crossed, were about twenty +Indian forts, or lodges constructed of logs set up endwise, somewhat +in the form of an ordinary skin lodge, which had been erected among +the timber by different war-parties: they appeared to be very strong, +and were ball-proof." (Stansbury, (1), pp. 243-246.) These +strongly constructed lodges will at once recall the rather similar +structures which stood at some of the Siouan villages, on the Mississippi +below the mouth of the Minnesota, during the early years +of the last century.</p> + +<p>On September 27, when about midway across the present Albany +County, Wyoming, the expedition encountered a large number of Indians +belonging to a village a short distance beyond. These proved +to be the Oglala, and during the following day the village was visited +by Stansbury, who wrote in the journal: "This village was the +largest and by far the best-looking of any I had ever seen. It consisted +of nearly one hundred lodges, most of which were entirely +new, pitched upon the level prairie which borders on the verdant +banks of the Laramie. No regular order seemed to be observed in +their position, but each builder appeared to have selected the site for +his habitation according to his own fancy.</p> + +<p>"We rode at once to the lodge of the chief, which was painted in +broad horizontal stripes of alternate black and white, and, on the side +opposite to the entrance, was ornamented with large black crosses on +a white ground. We found the old fellow sitting on the floor of his +lodge, and his squaw busily engaged over a few coals, endeavouring to +fry, or rather boil, in a pan nearly filled with grease, some very +suspicious-looking lumps of dough, made doubtless from the flour +they had received from us yesterday.... After some further conversation, +another chief, named the 'Iron Heart,' rose up and invited<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +us to a feast at his lodge: we accordingly accompanied him, +and found him occupying the largest and most complete structure in +the village, although I was assured that the Sioux frequently make +them much larger. It was intended to be used whenever required, +for the accommodation of any casual trader that might come among +them for the purpose of traffic, and was accordingly called 'The +Trader's Lodge.' It was made of twenty-six buffalo-hides, perfectly +new, and white as snow, which, being sewed together without a +wrinkle, were stretched over twenty-four new poles, and formed a +conical tent of thirty feet diameter upon the ground, and thirty-five +feet in height." This must have been a magnificent example of the +tipi of the plains tribes, and is one of the largest of which any record +has been preserved.</p> + +<p>Moving in a southeastwardly direction from the great village, they +passed many mounted Indians killing buffalo, and later in the day +passed another Oglala village of some 50 lodges, moving southward. +The surface of the prairie for many miles was strewn with the remains +of buffalo, which had been killed by the Indians and from which +only choice pieces had been removed. (Op. cit., pp. 254-257.) They +were now ascending the western slopes of the Black Hills, and approaching +the region dominated by the Cheyenne, and two days later, +September 29, 1850, were a short distance south of a village of the +latter tribe.</p> + +<p>The region just mentioned, the southeastern part of Wyoming, +was traversed by a missionary who, July 24, 1835, encountered a +party of 30 or 40 mounted Indians. "They were Ogallallahs, headed +by eight of their chiefs, clad in their war habiliments, and presenting +somewhat of a terrific appearance.... They told us their whole +village was only a few hours' travel ahead of us, going to the +Black Hills for the purpose of trading." Late the following day the +party overtook the Indians, "consisting of more than two thousand +persons. These villages are not stationary, but move from place to +place, as inclination or convenience may dictate. Their lodges are +comfortable, and easily transported. They are constructed of eight +or ten poles about eighteen feet long, set up in a circular form, the +small ends fastened together, making an apex, and the large ends are +spread out so as to enclose an area of about twenty feet in diameter. +The whole is covered with their coarse skins, which are elk, or buffalo, +taken when they are not good for robes. A fire is made in the centre, +a hole being left in the top of the lodge for the smoke to pass out. +All that they have for household furniture, clothing, and skins for +beds, is deposited around according to their ideas of propriety and +convenience. Generally not more than one family occupies a lodge." +(Parker, (1), pp. 66-67.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>Fort Laramie was reached by the Stansbury expedition on July +12, 1849, after advancing about 100 miles beyond the Oglala villages +passed six days before. The fort stood on the emigrant road, and +was likewise a great gathering place of the neighboring Indians. +An interesting account of the visit of a party of emigrants just four +years before is preserved: "Our camp is stationary to-day; part of +the emigrants are shoeing their horses and oxen; others are trading +at the fort and with the Indians.... In the afternoon we gave the +Indians a feast, and held a long <i>talk</i> with them. Each family, as +they could best spare it, contributed a portion of bread, meat, coffee +or sugar, which being cooked, a table was set by spreading buffalo +skins upon the ground, and arranging the provisions upon them. +Around this attractive board, the Indian chiefs and their principal +men seated themselves, occupying one fourth of the circle; the remainder +of the male Indians made out the semi-circle; the rest of +the circle was completed by the whites. The squaws and younger +Indians formed an outer semi-circular row immediately behind their +dusky lords and fathers." (Palmer, (1), pp. 25-26.) This was +June 25, 1845, and the account of the gathering of emigrants and +Indians is followed by a brief description of the fort itself which +is of equal interest; "Here are two forts. Fort Laramie, situated +upon the west side of Laramie's fork, two miles from Platte river, +belongs to the North American Fur Company. The fort is built of +<i>adobes</i>. The walls are about two feet thick, and twelve or fourteen +feet high, the tops being picketed or spiked. Posts are planted in +these walls, and support the timber for the roof. They are then +covered with mud. In the centre is an open square, perhaps twenty-five +yards each way, along the sides of which are ranged the dwellings, +store rooms, smith shop, carpenter's shop, offices, &c., all fronting +upon the inner area. There are two principal entrances; one at +the north, the other at the south." (Op. cit., pp. 27-28.) Outside +the fort proper, on the eastern side, stood the stables, and a short +distance away was a field of about 4 acres where corn was planted, +"by way of experiment." About 1 mile distant was a similar though +smaller structure called Fort John. It was then owned and occupied +by a company from St. Louis, but a few months later it was purchased +by the North American Fur Company and destroyed. Such +were the typical "forts," on and beyond the frontier during the +past century.</p> + +<p>The Indians would gather about the fort, their skin tipis standing +in clusters over the surrounding prairie. Such groups are shown +in plate <a href="#Plate_24">24</a>, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>. These two very interesting photographs were made +during the visit of the Indian Peace Commission to Fort Laramie in +1868, and it is highly probable the tipis shown in the pictures were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +occupied by some of the Indians with whom the commissioners +treated.</p> + +<p>The Black Hills lay north and west of the region then occupied +by the Oglala, and although it is known that the broken country +was often visited and frequented by parties of Indians in quest of +poles for their tipis, yet it seems doubtful if any permanent settlements +ever stood within the region. Dodge, in discussing this question, +said:</p> + +<p>"My opinion is, that the Black Hills have never been a permanent +home for any Indians. Even now small parties go a little way into +the Hills to cut spruce lodge-poles, but all the signs indicate that +these are mere sojourns of the most temporary character.</p> + +<p>"The 'teepe,' or lodge, may be regarded as the Indian's house, the +wickup as his tent. One is his permanent residence, the other the +make-shift shelter for a night. Except in one single spot, near the +head of Castle Creek, I saw nowhere any evidence whatever of a +lodge having been set up, while old wickups were not unfrequent in +the edge of the Hills. There is not one single teepe or lodge-pole +trail, from side to side of the Hills, in any direction, and these poles, +when dragged in the usual way by ponies, soon make a trail as difficult +to obliterate as a wagon road, visible for many years, even +though not used." (Dodge, (1), pp. 136-137.)</p> + +<p>Col. R. I. Dodge, from whose work the preceding quotation has +been made, was in command of the military escort which formed +part of the expedition into the Black Hills during the summer of +1875. The traces of the lodges which had stood near the head of +Castle Creek, as mentioned in 1875, undoubtedly marked the position +of the small encampment encountered by the Ludlow party the +previous year. In the journal of that expedition, dated July 26, 1874, +is to be found this brief mention: "In the afternoon occurred the +first rencontre with Indians. A village of seven lodges, containing +twenty-seven souls, was found in the valley. The men were away +peacefully engaged in hunting; the squaws in camp drying meat, +cooking, and other camp avocations. Red Cloud's daughter was the +wife of the head-man, whose name was One Stab. General Custer +was desirous they should remain and introduce us to the hills, but the +presence among our scouts of a party of Rees, with whom the Sioux +wage constant war, rendered them very uneasy, and toward night-fall, +abandoning their camp, they made the escape. Old One Stab +was at headquarters when the flight was discovered, and retained both +as guide and hostage.... The high limestone ridges surrounding +the camp had weathered into castellated forms of considerable grandeur +and beauty and suggested the name of Castle Valley." (Ludlow, +(1), p. 13.) Red Cloud, whose daughter is mentioned above,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +was one of the greatest chiefs and warriors of the Oglala; born in +1822 near the forks of the Platte, and lived until December, 1909.</p> + +<p>Although there may never have been any large permanent camps +within the Black Hills district, nevertheless it is quite evident the +region was frequented and traversed by bands of Indians, who left +well-defined trails. Such were discovered by an expedition in 1875, +and after referring to small trees which had been bent down by the +weight of snow the narrative continued: "The snow must be sometimes +deep enough to hide trails and landmarks, as the main Indian +trails leading through the Hills were marked by stones placed in +the forks of the trees or by one or more sets of blazes, the oldest +almost overgrown by the bark." (Newton and Jenney, (1), p. 302.) +And in the same work (p. 323), when treating of the timber of the +Hills, it was said: "The small slender spruce-trees are much sought +after by the Indians, who visit the Hills in the spring for the purpose +of procuring them for lodge-poles."</p> + +<p>In another work Dodge described the customs of the tribes with +whom he had been in close contact for many years. The book is +illustrated with engravings made from original drawings by the +French artist Griset, and one sketch shows a few Indians, several +tipis, and frames from which are hanging quantities of buffalo meat +in the process of being dried. (Dodge, (2), p. 353.) This suggests +the scene at Red Cloud's camp. The original drawing is now reproduced +as plate <a href="#Plate_1">1</a>, the frontispiece.</p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Assiniboin.</span></h5> + +<p>The Assiniboin were, until comparatively recent times, a part of +the Yanktonai, from whom they may have separated while living in +the forest region of the northern section of the present State of +Minnesota. Leaving the parent stock, they joined the Cree, then +living to the northward, with whom they remained in close alliance. +Gradually they moved to the valleys of the Saskatchewan and Assiniboin +Rivers and here were encountered by Alexander Henry in 1775. +Interesting though brief notes on the structures of the Assiniboin +as they appeared in 1775 and 1776 are contained in the narrative of +Henry's travels through the great northern country. In 1775, when +west of Lake Winnipeg, Henry wrote: "At eighty leagues above +Fort de Bourbon, at the head of a stream which falls into the Sascatchiwaine, +and into which we had turned, we found the Pasquayah +village. It consisted of thirty families, lodged in tents of a circular +form, and composed of dressed ox-skins, stretched upon poles twelve +feet in length, and leaning against a stake driven into the ground in +the centre. On our arrival, the chief, named Chatique, or the Pelican, +came down upon the beach, attended by thirty followers, all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +armed with bows and arrows and with spears." (Henry, (1), pp. +256-257.) Fort de Bourbon stood at the northwest corner of Lake +Winnipeg, and the Assiniboin village of Pasquayah was on the present +Carrot River, which flows parallel with the Saskatchewan before +joining the larger stream. This was in the eastern part of the province +of Saskatchewan.</p> + +<p>Early the following year Henry made a visit to an Assiniboin +village, to reach which he crossed many miles of the frozen wilderness. +He was accompanied by a party of Indians and the short account +of the journey contains much of interest. They left Fort des +Prairies, "built on the margin of the Pasquayah, or Sascatchiwaine," +February 5, 1776, and, as is recorded in the journal, "At noon, we +crossed a small river, called Moose-river, flowing at the feet of very +lofty banks. Moose-river is said to fall into Lake Dauphin. Beyond +this stream, the wood grows still more scanty, and the land more +and more level. Our course was southerly. The snow lay four +feet deep. The Indians travelled swiftly; and, in keeping pace with +them, my companions and myself had too much exercise, to suffer +from the coldness of the atmosphere; but, our snow-shoes being of a +broader make than those of the Indians, we had much fatigue in +following their track. The women led, and we marched till sunset, +when we reached a small coppice of wood, under the protection of +which we encamped. The baggage of the Indians was drawn by +dogs, who kept pace with the women, and appeared to be under their +command. As soon as we halted, the women set up the tents, which +were constructed, and covered, like those of the Cristinaux.</p> + +<p>"The tent, in which I slept, contained fourteen persons, each of +whom lay with his feet to the fire, which was in the middle; but, the +night was so cold, that even this precaution, with the assistance of +our <i>buffalo-robes</i> was insufficient to keep us warm. Our supper was +made on the tongues of the wild ox, or buffalo, boiled in my kettle, +which was the only one in the camp."</p> + +<p>On the morning of February 7, "I was still asleep, when the +women began their noisy preparations for our march. The striking +of the tents, the tongues of the women, and the cries of the dogs, +were all heard at once. At the first dawn of day, we commenced our +journey. Nothing was visible but the snow and sky; and the snow +was drifted into ridges, resembling waves.</p> + +<p>"Soon after sunrise, we descried a herd of oxen, extending a mile +and a half in length, and too numerous to be counted. They travelled, +not one after another, as, in the snow, other animals usually +do, but, in a broad phalanx, slowly, and sometimes stopping to feed."</p> + +<p>One week was required to reach their destination, and during the +morning of the 12th of February the party arrived at a small wood,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> +in which the Assiniboin village stood. And "at the entrance of +the wood, we were met by a large band of Indians, having the appearance +of a guard; each man being armed with his bow and spear, +and having his quiver filled with arrows.... Forming themselves in +regular file, on either side of us, they escorted us to the lodge, or tent, +which was assigned us. It was of a circular form, covered with +leather, and not less than twenty feet in diameter. On the ground +within, ox-skins were spread, for beds and seats."</p> + +<p>Later, the same day of their arrival, they were invited to a feast in +the tent of the chief. An Indian appeared. "We followed him accordingly, +and he carried us to the tent of the great chief, which we +found neither more ornamented, nor better furnished, than the rest." +And another feast followed in the evening, "Every thing was nearly +as before, except that in the morning all the guests were men, and +now half were women. All the women were seated on one side of the +floor of the tent, and all the men on the other, with a fire placed between +them."</p> + +<p>The village consisted of about 200 tents, "each tent containing +from two to four families." And here "I saw, for the first time, one +of those herds of horses which the Osinipoilles possess in numbers. +It was feeding on the skirts of the plain." (Henry, (1), pp. 275-289.) +Such was a great Assiniboin village nearly a century and a half ago.</p> + +<p>The entire village was to return to Fort des Prairies, and so, on +the morning of February 20, 1776, the tents were struck, and "Soon +after sunrise, the march began. In the van were twenty-five soldiers, +who were to beat the path, so that the dogs might walk. They were +followed by about twenty men, apparently in readiness for contingent +services; and after these went the women, each driving one +or two, and some, five loaded dogs. The number of these animals, +actually drawing loads, exceeded five hundred. After the baggage, +marched the main body of men, carrying only their arms. The +rear was guarded by about forty soldiers. The line of march certainly +exceeded three miles in length." (Op. cit., p. 309.)</p> + +<p>It is easy to visualize this great body of Indians passing over the +frozen plain, camping at night under the scant protection of a small +cluster of trees. The hundreds of dogs carrying the skin lodges of +the villages, the men and women moving forward on snowshoes, +undoubtedly stopping to kill buffalo and thus to obtain food for all. +An exciting and animated scene it must have been, but only typical +and characteristic, not unusual.</p> + +<p>The preceding description of the movement of an entire village +suggests a passage in the journal of La Verendrye, treating of the +same people a generation earlier. Late in the autumn of 1738 a +small party of French, accompanied by a numerous band of Assiniboin,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +set out from the village of the latter to visit the Mandan, +who lived many leagues distant. La Verendrye, the leader of the +expedition, wrote: "I observed to M. de la Marque the good order +in which the Assiniboins march to prevent surprise, marching always +on the prairies, the hillsides and valleys from the first mountain, +which did not make them fatigued by mounting and descending +often in their march during the day. There are magnificent plains +of three or four leagues. The march of the Assiniboins, especially +when they are numerous, is in three columns, having skirmishers in +front, with a good rear guard, the old and lame march in the middle, +forming the central column.... If the skirmishers discovered herds +of cattle on the road, as often happens, they raise a cry which is +soon returned by the rear guard, and all the most active men in +the columns join the vanguard to hem in the cattle, of which they +secure a number, and each takes what flesh he wants. Since that +stops the march, the vanguard marks out the encampment which +is not to be passed; the women and dogs carry all the baggage, the +men are burdened only with their arms; they make the dogs even +carry wood to make the fires, being often obliged to encamp in the +open prairie, from which the clumps of wood may be at a great distance." +(La Verendrye, (1), p. 13.)</p> + +<p>The Assiniboin appear to have possessed a great fondness for +visiting other tribes, and many narratives of journeys in the upper +Missouri Valley contain references to meeting with such parties.</p> + +<p>The size of the Assiniboin camps was often mentioned by the early +writers. Thus Tanner wrote: "When we came from the Little Saskawjawun +into the Assinneboin river, we came to the rapids, where +was a village of one hundred and fifty lodges of Assinneboins, and +some Crees." (James, (2), p. 57.) This was a century ago, when +the villages retained their primitive appearance, and so it is to be +regretted that no detailed description was prepared of this large +group of skin-covered tipis.</p> + +<p>The two associated tribes extended their wanderings to the southward, +reaching the Missouri, a large gathering of the allies being encountered +by Lewis and Clark at the Mandan towns in November, +1804. In their journal, on November 14, appears this entry: "The +river rose last night half an inch, and is now filled with floating ice. +This morning was cloudy with some snow: about seventy lodges of +Assiniboins and some Knistenaux are at the Mandan village, and this +being the day of adoption and exchange of property between them +all, it is accompanied by a dance, which prevents our seeing more +than two Indians to-day: these Knistenaux are a band of Chippeways +whose language they speak; they live on the Assiniboin and Saskashawan +rivers, and are about two hundred and forty men...."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +And on the following day: "The ceremony of yesterday seem to continue +still, for we were not visited by a single Indian. The swan are +still passing to the south." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, p. 127.)</p> + +<p>As will be recalled, the expedition under command of Lewis and +Clark wintered near the Mandan towns, and on April 7, 1805, proceeded +on their journey up the Missouri. On the 13th of April they +arrived at a small creek which entered the Missouri about 20 miles +above the mouth of the Little Missouri. They ascended the creek +and at a distance of about 1½ miles reached a pond "which seemed to +have been once the bed of the Missouri: near this lake were the remains +of forty-three temporary lodges which seem to belong to the +Assiniboins, who are now on the river of the same name." The following +day, April 14, 1805, after advancing about 15 miles beyond +the creek entered on the 13th, "we passed timbered low grounds and +a small creek: in these low grounds are several uninhabited lodges +built with the boughs of the elm, and the remains of two recent +encampments, which from the hoops of small kegs found in them we +judged could belong to Assiniboins only, as they are the only Missouri +Indians who use spirituous liquors: of these they are so passionately +fond that it forms their chief inducement to visit the British +on the Assiniboin." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 185-186.)</p> + +<p>During the days following many Assiniboin camps were discovered.</p> + +<p>From these brief statements recorded in 1804 and 1805 it will be +understood that when a large party of the Assiniboin moved, or +when on a visit to another tribe, they carried with them their skin +lodges, but when on a hunting trip they raised temporary shelters of +brush and boughs, and the same custom was undoubtedly followed by +war parties.</p> + +<p>Evidently the establishment in after years of posts of the American +Fur Company at certain points along the course of the upper Missouri +served to attract bands of the Assiniboin as well as representatives +of other tribes. Several interesting accounts of the arrival of +such parties at Fort Union, near the mouth of the Yellowstone, are +preserved. Thus Maximilian wrote when at the fort, June 29, 1833: +"The expected arrival of more Assiniboins was delayed; they do not +willingly travel with their leather tents in wet weather, because their +baggage then becomes very heavy.... On the 30th of June, at noon, +a band of Indians had arrived, and twenty-five tents were set up near +the fort. The women, who were short, and mostly stout, with faces +painted red, soon finished this work, and dug up with their instruments +the clods of turf, which they lay round the lower part of the +hut. One of these tents, the dwelling of a chief, was distinguished +from the rest. It was painted of the colour of yellow ochre, had a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +broad reddish-brown border below, and on each of its sides a large +black bear was painted (something of a caricature it must be confessed), +to the head of which, just above the nose, a piece of red +cloth, that fluttered in the wind, was fastened, doubtless a medicine." +Continuing, the narrative recorded the arrival of others. "Another +band of Assiniboins appeared at a distance. To the west, along the +wood by the river-side, the prairie was suddenly covered with red +men, most of whom went singly, with their dogs drawing the loaded +sledges. The warriors, about sixty in number, formed a close +column.... The whole column entered the fort, where they smoked, +ate, and drank: and, meantime, forty-two tents were set up. The new +camp had a very pretty appearance; the tents stood in a semicircle, +and all the fires were smoking, while all around was life and activity." +(Maximilian, (1), pp. 202-204.)</p> + +<p>A painting of the dwelling of the chief, with a broad border at the +bottom, "and on each of its sides a large black bear," was made by +Bodmer and reproduced by Maximilian. It is here shown in plate +<a href="#Plate_24">24</a>, <i>c.</i> Several interesting details are represented in this graphic +sketch. The dog travois is well shown, both the manner in which a +dog appeared when the frame was attached, and the several pairs of +poles with the small net-covered frames, standing together to the left +of the principal tipi.</p> + +<p>The preceding quotation from Maximilian is suggestive of an +entry in the journal of the Swiss artist Friedrich Kurz, made some +years later. Kurz wrote while at Fort Union: "October 13, 1851. +As we were weighing and hanging up dried meat, a lot of Assiniboins +came to the fort with squaws and many horse and dog travois. As +a whole these trading parties do not show much of interest, but there +are always many details to be picked up, of great value to a painter." +(Bushnell, (3), p. 15.) Kurz remained at Fort Union until April +19, 1852, when he descended the Missouri to St. Louis, and thence +returned to his native city of Bern. While still at Fort Union on +March 21, 1852, he made the sketch now reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_25">25</a>, <i>b</i>, +which bears the legend, "Horse camp of the Assiniboins." It shows +a group of skin-covered lodges in the midst of a grove of cottonwoods, +and evidently the Missouri is in the distance on the right. +At that time (1851-52), according to Kurz, the Assiniboin then +living in the vicinity of Fort Union numbered 420 lodges, with 1,050 +men, but "from 2-3000 Assiniboins live far above, near lake Winnibeg."</p> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 24<a name="Plate_24"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p024a.png" width="300" height="124" alt="a. Near Fort Laramie, 1868" title="a. Near Fort Laramie, 1868" /> +<span class="caption">a. Near Fort Laramie, 1868</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p024b.png" width="300" height="123" alt="b. Near Fort Laramie, 1868" title="b. Near Fort Laramie, 1868" /> +<span class="caption">b. Near Fort Laramie, 1868</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p024c.png" width="300" height="209" alt="c. "A skin lodge of an Assiniboin chief." Karl Bodmer" title="c. "A skin lodge of an Assiniboin chief." Karl Bodmer" /> +<span class="caption">c. "A skin lodge of an Assiniboin chief." Karl Bodmer</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 25<a name="Plate_25"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p025a.png" width="300" height="185" alt="a. Assiniboin lodges "formed entirely of pine branches." Paul Kane, 1848" title="a. Assiniboin lodges "formed entirely of pine branches." Paul Kane, 1848" /> +<span class="caption">a. Assiniboin lodges "formed entirely of pine branches." Paul Kane, 1848</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p025b.png" width="300" height="203" alt="b. "Horse camp of the Assiniboins, March 21, 1852." Friedrich Kurz" title="b. "Horse camp of the Assiniboins, March 21, 1852." Friedrich Kurz" /> +<span class="caption">b. "Horse camp of the Assiniboins, March 21, 1852." Friedrich Kurz</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 26<a name="Plate_26"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p026a.png" width="300" height="265" alt="a. Tipi of Gi-he-ga, an Omaha chief. Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871" title="a. Tipi of Gi-he-ga, an Omaha chief. Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871" /> +<span class="caption">a. Tipi of Gi-he-ga, an Omaha chief. Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p026b.png" width="300" height="185" alt="b. Page of Kurz's Sketchbook" title="b. Page of Kurz's Sketchbook" /> +<span class="caption">b. Page of Kurz's Sketchbook</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 27<a name="Plate_27"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/p027.png" width="500" height="303" alt=""THE VILLAGE OF THE OMAHAS" + +Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871" title=""THE VILLAGE OF THE OMAHAS" + +Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871" /> +<span class="caption">"THE VILLAGE OF THE OMAHAS" + +Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871</span> +</div> + +<p>The Assiniboin living in the far northwest had another and simpler +form of temporary structure, as mentioned by Kane. He wrote, +when arriving at Rocky Mountain Fort, a post of the Hudson's +Bay Company, April 21, 1848: "This fort is beautifully situated on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>the banks of the Saskatchewan, in a small prairie, backed by the +Rocky Mountains in the distance. In the vicinity was a camp of +Assiniboine lodges, formed entirely of pine branches." (Kane, (1), +p. 408.) The painting made by him showing the fort and lodges is +reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_25">25</a>, <i>a</i>.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">dhegiha group.</span></h4> + +<p>Five tribes are considered as belonging to this group of the Siouan +linguistic family: Omaha, Ponca, Quapaw, Osage, and Kansa. Distinct +from the Dakota-Assiniboin tribes already mentioned, these +undoubtedly some centuries ago lived in the central and upper +Ohio valleys, whence they moved westward to and beyond the Mississippi. +To these tribes may be attributed the great earthworks +of the southern portion of Ohio and the adjacent regions bordering +the Ohio River. To quote from the Handbook: "Hale and Dorsey +concluded from a study of the languages and traditions that, in the +westward migration of the Dhegiha from their seat on Ohio and +Wabash rivers, after the separation, at least as early as 1500, of the +Quapaw, who went down the Mississippi from the mouth of the +Ohio, the Omaha branch moved up the great river, remaining awhile +near the mouth of the Missouri while war and hunting parties explored +the country to the northwest. The Osage remained on Osage +River, and the Kansa continued up the Missouri, while the Omaha, +still including the Ponca, crossed the latter stream and remained +for a period in Iowa, ranging as far as the Pipestone quarry at the +present Pipestone, Minnesota."</p> + +<p>While living in the heavily timbered valleys reaching to the Ohio +the several tribes now being considered unquestionably occupied villages +consisting of groups of mat-covered lodges of the type erected +by the Osage and Quapaw until the present time. But with the +Omaha, Ponca, and Kansa, it was different, and when they reached +the intermediate region, where forest and prairie joined, they were +compelled to adopt a new form of structure, one suited to the natural +environments, and thus they began to make use of the earth-covered +lodge, and the conical skin tipi, with certain variations in form. +The characteristic structures of the five tribes will now be briefly +described, beginning with those of the Omaha.</p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Omaha.</span></h5> + +<p>When Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri in 1804 they found +the Omaha village not far from the Missouri, in the present Dakota +County, Nebraska. On the 13th of August the expedition reached +the mouth of a creek entering the right bank of the Missouri. Just +beyond they encamped on a sandbar, "opposite the lower point of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +large island." From here Sergeant Ordway and four men were sent +to the Omaha village and returned the following day. "After crossing +a prairie covered with high grass, they reached the Maha creek, +along which they proceeded to its three forks, which join near the +village: they crossed the north branch and went along the south; the +walk was very fatiguing, as they were forced to break their way +through grass, sunflowers, and thistles, all above ten feet high, and +interspersed with wild pea. Five miles from our camp they reached +the position of the ancient Maha village: it had once consisted of +three hundred cabins, but was burnt about four years ago, soon after +the smallpox had destroyed four hundred men, and a proportion of +women and children. On a hill, in the rear of the village, are the +graves of the nation." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 44-45.)</p> + +<p>Seven years after Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri the +traveler Bradbury visited the Omaha village standing on or near +the site of the one mentioned in the earlier narrative. May 12, 1811, +while away from the boat and traversing the country in search of +botanical specimens, he arrived on the summit of the bluffs, and, to +quote from his journal: "I had a fine view of the town below. It +had a singular appearance; the framework of the lodges consists of +ten or twelve long poles, placed in the periphery of a circle of about +sixteen feet in diameter, and are inclined towards each other, so as +to cross at a little more than half their length from the bottom; and +the tops diverging with the same angle, exhibit the appearance of one +cone inverted on the apex of another. The lower cone is covered with +dressed buffalo skins, sewed together, and fancifully painted; some +with an undulating red or yellow band of ten or twelve inches in +breadth, surrounding the lodge at half its height; on others, rude +figures of horses, buffaloes, or deer were painted; others again with +attempts at the human face, in a circle, as the moon is sometimes +painted; these were not less than four feet in diameter. I judged +there were not fewer than eighty lodges. I did not remain long on +the summit of the bluffs, as I perceived, from the heaps of earth, some +of these recent, that it was a burial ground, and I knew the veneration +they have for the graves of their ancestors." (Bradbury, (1), +pp. 65-67.)</p> + +<p>It is interesting to read of the number of decorated lodges then +standing in an Omaha village, but in later years fewer structures +were so ornamented. A typical example of a tipi of half a century +ago is shown in plate <a href="#Plate_26">26</a>, <i>a</i>, from a photograph made by Jackson in +1871.</p> + +<p>According to the best authorities on the Omaha, from whose monographs +much of the following information has been gleaned, the +earth lodge and the skin tipi are the only forms of habitations made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +use of by the Omaha in recent generations. The earth lodge resembled +those of other tribes of the upper Missouri, and among the +Omaha the work of erecting such a structure was shared in by both +man and woman.</p> + +<p>"The marking out of the site and the cutting of the heavy logs +were done by the men. When the location was chosen, a stick was +thrust in the spot where the fireplace was to be, one end of a rawhide +rope was fastened to the stick and a circle 20 to 60 feet in diameter +was drawn on the earth to mark where the wall was to be +erected. The sod within the circle was removed, the ground excavated +about a foot in depth, and the earth thrown around the circle +like an embankment. Small crotched posts about 10 feet high were +set 8 or 10 feet apart and 1½ feet within the circle, and on these +were laid beams. Outside this frame split posts were set close together, +having one end braced against the bottom of the bank and +the other end leaning against the beams, thus forming a wall of +timber. The opening generally, though not always, faced the east. +Midway between the central fireplace and the wall were planted 4 +to 8 large crotched posts about 10 feet in height, on which heavy +beams rested, these serving to support the roof. This was made of +long, slender, tapering trees stripped of their bark. These were tied +at their large ends with cords (made from the inner bark of the +linden) to the beams at the top of the stockade and at the middle +to those resting in the crotches of the large posts forming the inner +circle about the fireplace. The slender ends were cut so as to form +the circular opening for the smoke, the edges being woven together +with elm twine, so as to be firm. Outside the woodwork of the walls +and roof, branches of willow were laid crosswise and bound tight +to each slab and pole. Over the willows a heavy thatch of coarse grass +was arranged so as to shed water. On the grass was placed a thick +coating of sod. The sods were cut to lap and be laid like shingles. +Finally they were tamped with earth and made impervious to rain. +The entrance way, 6 to 10 feet long, projected from the door and +was built in the same manner as the lodge and formed a part of it. +A curtain of skin hung at the inner and one at the outer door of +this entrance way. Much labor was expended on the floor of the +lodge. The loose earth was carefully removed and the ground then +tamped. It was next flooded with water, after which dried grass +was spread over it and set on fire. Then the ground was tamped +once again. This wetting and heating was repeated two or three +times, until the floor became hard and level and could be easily +swept and kept clean. Brooms were made of brush or twigs tied +together. Couches were arranged around the wall in the spaces between +the posts of the framework. These were provided with skins<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +and pillows, and served as seats by day and as beds by night. In +the building of an earth lodge the cutting and putting on of the +sods was always done by women, and as this part of the task had to +be accomplished rapidly to prevent the drying out of the sods, which +must hold well together, kindred helped one another. The erection +of this class of dwelling required considerable labor, hence only the +industrious and thrifty possessed these lodges." (Fletcher and +La Flesche, (1), pp. 97-98.)</p> + +<p>Although the earth-covered lodge, as just described, was used in +the permanent villages, nevertheless in the same villages were to +have been seen many of the conical skin tipis. Both types of habitation +were standing at the Omaha village in 1871 when the photograph, +now reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_27">27</a>, was made by W. H. Jackson.</p> + +<p>Near each earth lodge, "generally to the left of the entrance, the +cache was built. This consisted of a hole in the ground about 8 feet +deep, rounded at the bottom and sides, provided with a neck just +large enough to admit the body of a person. The whole was lined +with split posts, to which was tied an inner lining of bunches of +dried grass. The opening was protected by grass, over which sod +was placed. In these caches the winter supply of food was stored; +the shelled corn was put into skin bags, long strings of corn on the +cob were made by braiding the outer husks, while the jerked meat +was packed in parfleche cases. Pelts, regalia, and extra clothing +were generally kept in the cache; but these were laid in ornamented +parfleche cases, never used but for this purpose." (Op. cit., p. 98.)</p> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 28<a name="Plate_28"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p028a.png" width="300" height="226" alt="a. Page of Kurz's Sketchbook showing Omaha village, May 20, 1851" title="a. Page of Kurz's Sketchbook showing Omaha village, May 20, 1851" /> +<span class="caption">a. Page of Kurz's Sketchbook showing Omaha village, May 20, 1851</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p028b.png" width="300" height="223" alt="b. Page of Kurz's Sketchbook showing interior of an Omaha lodge, May 16, 1851" title="b. Page of Kurz's Sketchbook showing interior of an Omaha lodge, May 16, 1851" /> +<span class="caption">b. Page of Kurz's Sketchbook showing interior of an Omaha lodge, May 16, 1851</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 29<a name="Plate_29"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/p029.png" width="500" height="306" alt=""PUNKA INDIANS ENCAMPED ON THE BANKS OF THE MISSOURI" + +Karl Bodmer, 1833" title=""PUNKA INDIANS ENCAMPED ON THE BANKS OF THE MISSOURI" + +Karl Bodmer, 1833" /> +<span class="caption">"PUNKA INDIANS ENCAMPED ON THE BANKS OF THE MISSOURI" + +Karl Bodmer, 1833</span> +</div> + +<p>On pages 95 and 96 of the work just cited appears a very interesting +description of the making and raising of a skin tipi. "Formerly +the cover was made of 9 to 12 buffalo skins tanned on both +sides. To cut and sew this cover so that it would fit well and be +shapely when stretched over the circular framework of poles required +skilful workmanship, the result of training and of accurate measurements.... +The tent poles were 14 to 16 feet long. Straight young +cedar poles were preferred. The bark was removed and the poles +were rubbed smooth. The setting up of a tent was always a woman's +task. She first took four poles, laid them together on the ground, +and then tied them firmly with a thong about 3 feet from one +end. She then raised the poles and spread their free ends apart and +thrust them firmly into the ground. These four tied poles formed the +true framework of the tent. Other poles—10 to 20 in number, according +to the size of the tent—were arranged in a circle, one end +pressed well into the ground, the other end laid in the forks made +by the tied ends of the four poles. There was a definite order in +setting up the poles so that they would lock one another, and when +they were all in place they constituted an elastic but firm frame,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +which could resist a fairly heavy wind." There was probably very +little variation in the ways and customs of the different members of +the tribe, and the tents of an entire village would have been raised +after the same, long-established manner. But the structures in an +Omaha village did not surround an open space, "nor were they set so +the people could live in the order of their gentes, an order observed +when they were on the hunt and during their tribal ceremonies. Yet +each family knew to what gens it belonged, observed its rites, and +obeyed strictly the rule of exogamy. To the outward appearance a +village presented a motley group of tribesmen. The dwellings and +their different corrals were huddled together; the passageways between +the lodges were narrow and tortuous. There was little of the +picturesque. The grass and weeds that grew over the earth lodges +while the people were off on their summer buffalo hunt were all cut +away when the tribe returned. So, except for the decorations on the +skin tents, there was nothing to relieve the dun-colored aspect." +(Op. cit., p. 99.) Such was the appearance of an Omaha village in +the valley of the Missouri.</p> + +<p>In 1847 the Omaha erected a village on the banks of Papillon +Creek, near the line between Sarpy and Douglas Counties, Nebraska. +Four years later it was visited by Kurz during his journey up the +Missouri. Kurz was camped near Council Bluffs, on the left bank +of the Missouri. Opposite was Bellevue, the trading post of Peter +A. Sarpy, and while at the latter place, May 16, 1851, Kurz entered +in his journal: "In Bellevue I have drawn an Indian winter house +made of earth, and also a Pawnee girl." And on May 20 he wrote: +"Again crossed the river to Bellevue in order to visit the Omaha village +some six miles distant; went over the bluffs, as being the shortest +way, then crossed the high prairie ... to the <i>Papillon</i> creek +which partly surrounds the village of the Omahas. The village itself +is built on a hill.... The camp or village is composed of leather +tents and earth-covered lodges. Between the tents and lodges are +scaffolds for drying meat and also an enclosure for the horses.... +I walked into the village and watched a group of young men endeavoring +to throw lances through rolling rings, the others being +gathered on top the earth lodges, [pl. <a href="#Plate_26">26</a> <i>b</i>] as spectators." (Bushnell, (3), p. 11.) Sketches made by Kurz at that time are reproduced +in plate <a href="#Plate_28">28</a>. The interior of an earth lodge, drawn at Bellevue +May 16, 1851, is shown in <i>b</i>; the couches extending along the +wall are clearly indicated, also the fireplace in the center of the lodge, +over which is hanging a hook for the suspension of a kettle. The village, +which stood on the banks of Papillion Creek, is shown in the +lower part of <i>a</i>, of the same plate. Both forms of dwellings are represented +in the sketch; also the scaffolds for drying meat and other +purposes, and several inclosures in which their horses were confined.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>On June 12 Kurz attended a sacred dance performed for the benefit +of a wounded man. He referred to it in his journal as being +given by the Buffalo Society, where all wore buffalo masks. It was +held in a large earth lodge, and he was accompanied by the chief, +Joseph La Flesche.</p> + +<p>The site of the small village mentioned by Kurz was identified a +few years ago by Gilder, and some of the ruins were examined. It +stood in the forks of the Papillion, about 4 miles in a direct line west +of the Missouri. To quote from the brief narrative: "It was here +the Omaha lived last before going on a reservation, and where they +were visited by the Swiss artist, Kurz.... It was found that the +ruins were quite shallow and had left but slight depressions, while +others left small circular mounds above the surrounding level. The +Rock Island Railroad has cut through the village, and at least one +cache was exposed from top to bottom—about fifteen feet. In all +instances the caches were outside the lodge sites.</p> + +<p>"The surface yielded fractured iron pots, delft or figured china +of white man's manufacture, and rusty iron objects, besides flint +scrapers and chips, potsherds, and the usual accumulations of a village +prior to contact with white people. The writer cannot attribute +the flint implements to the Omaha, but considers the favorable +site on a plateau at the junction of two streams to have been used by +another people long before the Omaha erected their lodges there." +(Gilder, (1), p. 75.)</p> + +<p>Innumerable ruins of earth lodges were to have been found in the +vicinity of the present city of Omaha, the great majority of which +stood in early days before the arrival of Europeans in the valley of +the Missouri, and it is not possible to say by which tribe the villages +were erected. Many large ruins were discovered on Childs Point, in +the extreme northeastern corner of Sarpy County, just south of +Omaha, and some 4 miles northeast of the small village visited by +Kurz. Some of the ruins were carefully examined by Gilder. One, +which appears to have been considered as possessing the typical characteristics +of the group, was described by Gilder, who wrote: "In all +house ruins similar to the one here described, the main fireplace, four +or five feet in diameter, is situated near the exact center. From this +fireplace the floor extends, nearly flat, to within ten feet of the extreme +outer edge or periphery of the ruin. Here a platform, or step, +twelve to fourteen inches high and almost vertical, rose from the +floor and sloped rather sharply to the outer rim.... Around the +line of the inner circumference of the platform, at distances of approximately +five feet, the remains of posts six or seven inches in +diameter were discovered. These were either in the form of charcoal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +or of wood dust. Sometimes bowlders lay about the remains of the +posts, as if designed to aid in holding them in position. The grain +of the charcoal posts indicated the wood to have been oak. About +the posts, under the floor, and also under the platform, objects were +more numerous than at other points in the ruin. The charred remains +of four posts about eight feet apart surrounded the central +fireplace. There were two features of house construction that stand +out conspicuously: (1) the floor was approximately six to eight feet +lower than the level of the surrounding ridge; (2) the angle at which +the slabs, logs, or paling probably leaned inward from the periphery +seems to indicate the highest part of the roof at about the same distance +above the surrounding level as the floor was below, making the +highest part of the roof about fifteen feet above the fireplace in the +center of the dwelling.... Little besides broken flint instruments, +flint chips, shells, potsherds, and fractured drift bowlders were found +upon the floor itself; the major number of objects was beneath the +floor surface, very often covered with bowlders, as if the latter had +been placed to mark the spot. Small fireplaces were of frequent +occurrence on all parts of the floor.</p> + +<p>"Three caches were found in the first ruin.... In one, fifteen feet +west of the center of the dwelling were found flint blades, a score +of Unio shells, a mano or muller made from a rounded drift +bowlder ... and a pottery pipe in form of a soaring bird.... +The bottom of this cache was six feet from the surface. The second +cache lay at the southeastern side of the ruin. Its bottom was eight +feet from the surface of the ground. It contained thirty shells, several +large flint blades, other large flint implements of unknown +use ... animal bones, projectile points, and a small piece of galena. +The third cache, in the northeastern part of the ruin, was the largest +and deepest of the three, its bottom being nine feet and a half from +the surface. On a small shelf, or niche, at its eastern side, two feet +from the bottom, lay, a small image of a human face carved from +pink soapstone, a number of animal bones and skulls, fish bones and +scales, and Unio shells.</p> + +<p>"So many and varied were the objects found in the ruin, so +abundant the charred sticks and grasses, that the impression is conveyed +that the dwelling had been abandoned in haste and that it +had burned to the ground." (Gilder, (1), pp. 58-61.) The objects +discovered in this ancient ruin were truly varied, as the discoverer +remarked, and likewise of the greatest interest, including specimens +of stone, bone, and pottery, with bones of animals which had probably +served as food. But how interesting it would be to know the +date of the construction of this large lodge, and the tribe to which +its occupants belonged—questions which may never be determined.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +However, it unquestionably belonged to people of a tribe who reared +and occupied similar structures in the valley of the Missouri as late +as the latter half of the nineteenth century.</p> + +<p>Other quite similar ruins a short distance north of the city of +Omaha were examined by Gilder. Many objects of bone, stone, and +pottery were discovered. Caches were encountered, and to quote +from his account of the work: "The caches within the house sites +are smaller in diameter near the top than at the bottom, the latter +part flaring out somewhat in the manner of a large earthen pot. +The bottom of the caches are rounded, and the walls are almost as +hard as fired clay. In the very bottom of each cache was a quantity +of dust, or earth as fine as dust (not compact as at other points), +in which were found small arrowpoints, flint blades, shell beads, and +flint flakes. In each case where the cache was found within the +house circle it occurred close under the western wall, back of the +fireplace and exactly opposite the entrance to the lodge, the latter +in every instance facing the east." (Gilder, (2), p. 716.)</p> + +<p>Before closing this brief sketch of the Omaha villages and forms +of structures, it will be of interest to quote from the writings of one +who was intimately acquainted with the people of whom he wrote. +Referring to their various types of habitations, he says:</p> + +<p>"The primitive domiciles of the Omaha were chiefly (1) lodges +of earth or, more rarely, of bark or mats, and (2) skin lodges or +tents. It may be observed that there were no sacred rites connected +with the earth lodge-building or tent-making among the +Omaha and Ponka. When earth lodges were built, the people did +not make them in a tribal circle, each man erecting his lodge where +he wished; yet kindred commonly built near one another. The +earth lodges were made by the women, and were intended principally +for summer use, when the people were not migrating or going on the +hunt.... Earth lodges were generally used for large gatherings, such +as feasts, councils, or dances.... On a bluff near the Omaha agency +I found the remains of several ancient earth lodges, with entrances +on the southern sides. Two of these were 75 feet and one was 100 +feet in diameter. In the center of the largest there was a hollow +about 3 feet deep and nearly 4 feet below the surface outside the +lodge.</p> + +<p>"The Omaha sometimes make bark lodges for summer occupancy, +as did the Iowa and Sak." (Dorsey, (1), pp. 269-271.)</p> + +<p>Referring to the more temporary structure, the skin tipi: "The +tent was used when the people were migrating, and also when they +were traveling in search of the buffalo. It was also the favorite +abode of a household during the winter season, as the earth lodge was +generally erected in an exposed situation, selected on account of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +comfort in the summer. The tent could be pitched in the timber or +brush, or down in wooded ravines, where the cold winds never had +full sweep. Hence, many Indians abandoned their houses in winter +and went into their tents, even when they were of canvas.</p> + +<p>"The tent was commonly made of ten or a dozen dressed or tanned +buffalo skins. It was in the shape of a sugar loaf, and was from 10 +to 12 feet high, 10 or 15 feet in diameter at the bottom, and about a +foot and a half in diameter at the top, which served as a smoke-hole.... +No totem posts were in use among the Omaha. The tent +of the principal man of each gens was decorated on the outside with +his gentile badge, which was painted on each side of the entrance as +well as on the back of the tent." (Op. cit., pp. 271-274.)</p> + +<p>In an earlier work, "A Study of Siouan Cults," Dr. Dorsey showed +the varied designs on ceremonial tipis of the different Siouan tribes. +Among other interesting illustrations are pictures of lodges erected +at the time of the Sun dance, with the great camp circle as formed at +that time. (Dorsey, (2).)</p> + +<p>A clear insight into the ways of life of the primitive Omaha of +a century ago, before their native manners and customs had been +changed through influence with the whites, may be obtained from +the narrative of the Long expedition. A great part of the recorded +information was imparted by John Dougherty, at that time deputy +Indian agent for the tribes of the Missouri.</p> + +<p>In 1819 and 1820, the period of the narrative, the permanent village +of the tribe stood on the banks of Omaha Creek, about 2½ miles +from the right bank of the Missouri, in the present Dakota County, +Nebraska. As told on preceding pages, this was the large, permanent +village of the tribe, but nevertheless it was occupied for less +than half the year, and as related by Dougherty: "The inhabitants +occupy their village not longer than five months in the year. In +April they arrive from their hunting excursions, and in the month +of May they attend to their horticultural interests, and plant maize, +beans, pumpkins, and watermelons, besides which they cultivate no +other vegetable. They also, at this season, dress the bison skins, +which have been procured during the winter hunt, for the traders, +who generally appear for the purpose of obtaining them. The +young men, in the mean time, are employed in hunting within the +distance of seventy or eighty miles around, for beaver, otter, deer, +muskrat, elk, &c.</p> + +<p>"When the trading and planting occupations of the people are +terminated, and provisions begin to fail them, which occurs generally +in June, the chiefs assemble a council for the purpose of deliberating +upon the further arrangements necessary to be made...." A feast +is prepared, and all gather to determine where and when the next<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> +hunt shall take place. These important questions being settled, all +are in readiness, and "The day assigned for their departure having +arrived, the squaws load their horses and dogs, and take as great a +weight upon their own backs, as they can conveniently transport, and, +after having closed the entrances to their several habitations, by +placing a considerable quantity of brushwood before them, the whole +nation departs from the village." And thus they continue to move +until word is brought that herds of buffalo are near, then they +encamp at the nearest watercourse. The skin lodges, having been +conveyed by means of the travois, are soon set up, to be occupied +during the period of the hunt. These "are often fancifully ornamented +on the exterior, with figures, in blue and red paint, rudely +executed, though sometimes depicted with no small degree of taste." +The buffalo skins obtained during the summer hunt were known as +<i>summer skins</i>, and were used especially for the covering of their +lodges and also for their garments. After a successful hunt all parts +of the buffalo were carried to the camp and the vertebrae were +crushed "by means of stone axes, similar to those which are not unfrequently +ploughed up out of the earth in the Atlantic states."</p> + +<p>After the summer hunt "The nation return towards their village +in the month of August, having visited for a short time the Pawnee +villages for the purpose of trading their guns for horses. They +are sometimes so successful, in their expedition, in the accumulation +of meat, as to be obliged to make double trips, returning about mid-day +for half the whole quantity, which was left in the morning. +When within two or three days journey of their own village, runners +are dispatched to it, charged with the duty of ascertaining the safety +of it, and the state of the maize.</p> + +<p>"On the return of the nation, which is generally early in September, +a different kind of employment awaits the ever industrious +squaws. The property buried in the earth is to be taken up and +arranged in the lodges, which are cleaned out, and put in order. The +weeds which during their absence had grown up, in every direction +through the village, are cut down and removed. A sufficient quantity +of <i>sweet corn</i> is next to be prepared, for present and future use."</p> + +<p>Being now plentifully supplied with food, unless for some unforeseen +cause having an ample quantity of buffalo meat and corn, +together with the other products of the gardens, they would "content +themselves in their village until the latter part of October, when, +without the formality of a council, or other ceremony, they again +depart from the village, and move in separate parties to various +situations on both sides of the Missouri, and its tributaries, as far +down as the Platte. Their primary object at this time, is to obtain, +on credit from the traders, various articles, indispensably necessary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +to their fall, winter, and spring hunts; such as guns, particularly +those of <i>Mackinaw</i>, powder, ball, and flints, beaver traps, brass, tin, +and camp-kettles, knives, hoes, squaw-axes and tomahawks.</p> + +<p>"Having obtained these implements, they go in pursuit of deer, or +apply themselves to trapping for beaver and otter. Elk was some +time since an object of pursuit, but these animals are now rather rare, +in the Omawhaw territories.</p> + +<p>"This hunt continues until towards the close of December, and +during the rigours of the season they experience an alternation of +abundance and scarcity of food."</p> + +<p>The skins secured during the late autumn hunt would be carried +to the traders and left as payment for the goods previously obtained +on credit, and also given in exchange for blankets, wampum, and +various other articles. Thence they would return to their permanent +village "in order to procure a supply of maize from their places of +concealment, after which they continue their journey, in pursuit of +bisons.... This expedition continues until the month of April, +when they return to their village as before stated, loaded with provisions. +It is during this expedition that they procure all the skins, +of which the bison robes of commerce are made; the animals at this +season having their perfect winter dress, the hair and wool of which +are long and dense." (James, (1), I, pp. 200-221.)</p> + +<p>Such was the life of the Omaha a hundred years ago, and it may +have been quite the same for many generations, omitting, of course, +the visits made to the traders. But their systematic hunts had probably +been performed ever since the Omaha reached the valley of the +Missouri, and possibly long before.</p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Ponca.</span></h5> + +<p>That the Ponca and Omaha were formerly a single tribe is accepted +without question, and that the separation took place long after +they crossed the Mississippi from their ancient habitat is established +by the traditions of the two tribes. Probably the two tribes in later +years, after the separation, continued to resemble one another to such +a degree that the villages of one could not have been distinguished +from those of the other.</p> + +<p>A deserted village of the Ponca was discovered by members of the +Lewis and Clark expedition in 1804, and according to the narrative +of the expedition on September 5 they arrived at the "river Poncara," +which entered the Missouri from the south, and at its mouth +was 30 yards in width. "Two men whom we despatched to the village +of the same name, returned with information that they had +found it on the lower side of the creek; but as this is the hunting +season, the town was so completely deserted that they had killed a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +buffaloe in the village itself." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 66-67.) +The "river Poncara," later to be known as Ponca Creek, enters the +right bank of the Missouri in the western part of the present Knox +County, Nebraska. Here they continued to live for some years, and +during the spring of 1833 Maximilian said they "dwell on both sides +of Running-water River, and on Ponca Creek, which Lewis and +Clark call Poncara." Running-water River was the earlier name +of the Niobrara. "The band of them, which we met with here, has +set up eight or nine leather tents, at the mouth of Basil Creek, on a +fine forest." On May 12, 1833, appears this note in the narrative: +Arrived "opposite the huts of the Punca Indians. They lay in the +shade of a forest, like white cones, and, in front of them, a sand bank +extended into the river, which was separated from the land by a +narrow channel. The whole troop was assembled on the edge of the +bank, and it was amusing to see how the motley group crowded together, +wrapped in brown buffalo skins, white and red blankets—some +naked, of a deep brown colour." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 137-139.) +A sketch made at that time by Bodmer and reproduced by +Maximilian is here shown in plate <a href="#Plate_29">29</a>. It bears the legend "Punka +Indians Encamped on the Banks of the Missouri."</p> + +<p>Although at that time living in the typical skin tipi, Maximilian +stated (p. 137), "They formerly lived, like the Omahas, in clay huts +at the mouth of the river, but their powerful enemies, the Sioux and +the Pawnees, destroyed their villages, and they have since adopted +the mode of life of the former, living more generally in tents made +of skins, and changing their place from time to time." The village +visited by members of the Lewis and Clark expedition, September 5, +1804, when they "killed a buffaloe in the village itself," was probably +composed of earth-covered lodges.</p> + +<p>When discovering a trail, or rather tracks made by a number +of Indians crossing the prairie, it was often possible to determine +the nature of the party. The Ponca, who often moved from place to +place, setting up their tipis in various localities during the course of +the year, could have been held in mind by Gregg when he wrote: +"These lodges are always pitched or set up by the squaws, and with +such expedition, that, upon the stopping of an itinerant band, a town +springs up in a desert valley in a few minutes, as if by enchantment. +The lodge-poles are often neatly prepared, and carried along from +camp to camp. In conveying them one end frequently drags on the +ground, whereby the trail is known to be that of a band with +families, as war parties never carry lodge-poles." (Gregg, (1), II, +pp. 286-288.) The rapidity and skill with which the squaws set up +and arranged the tipis, when the site of the camp had been selected, +was commented on by many writers, and what an interesting and +animated scene it must have been.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p> +<h5><span class="smcap">Kansa.</span></h5> + +<p>To quote from the Handbook: "Their linguistic relations are +closest with the Osage, and are close with the Quapaw. In the traditional +migration of the group, after the Quapaw had first separated +therefrom, the main body divided at the mouth of Osage River, the +Osage moving up that stream and the Omaha and Ponca crossing +Missouri River and proceeding northward, while the Kansa ascended +the Missouri on the south side to the mouth of Kansa River. Here +a brief halt was made, after which they ascended the Missouri on +the south side until they reached the present north boundary of +Kansas, where they were attacked by the Cheyenne and compelled +to retrace their steps. They settled again at the mouth of Kansas +River, where the Big Knives, as they called the whites, came with +gifts and induced them to go farther west. The native narrators +of this tradition give an account of about 20 villages occupied successively +along Kansas River before the settlement at Council Grove, +Kansas, whence they were finally removed to their reservation in +Indian Ter. Marquette's autograph map, drawn probably as early +as 1674, places the Kansas a considerable distance directly west +of the Osage and some distance south of the Omaha, indicating that +they were then on Kansas River.... It is known that the Kansa +moved up Kansas River in historic times as far as Big Blue River, +and thence went to Council Grove in 1847. The move to the Big +Blue must have taken place after 1723."</p> + +<p>Thus it would appear that for many generations the villages of +the Kansa had stood near the eastern boundary of the great plains, +a region where buffalo were plentiful, one suited to the wants and +requirements of the native tribes.</p> + +<p>On June 26, 1804, the Lewis and Clark expedition reached the +mouth of the Kansas and encamped on the north side, where they +remained two days. In the journal of those days they referred to +the Kansa, and said: "On the banks of the Kanzas reside the Indians +of the same name, consisting of two villages, one at about twenty, +the other forty leagues from its mouth, and amounting to about three +hundred men. They once lived twenty-four leagues higher than the +Kanzas [river], on the south bank of the Missouri.... This nation +is now hunting in the plains for the buffaloe which our hunters have +seen for the first time." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 18-19.) A +few days later, July 2, after advancing a short distance up the +Missouri, above the mouth of the Kansas, they arrived at the site of +an ancient village of the tribe. In the journal (p. 20) is this account: +"Opposite our camp is a valley, in which was situated an +old village of the Kansas, between two high points of land, and on +the bank of the river. About a mile in the rear of the village was a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +small fort, built by the French on an elevation. There are now no +traces of the village, but the situation of the fort may be recognized +by some remains of chimnies, and the general outline of the fortification, +as well as by the fine spring which supplied it with water." +Three days later, July 5, 1804, while on the right bank of the Missouri, +they "came along the bank of an extensive and beautiful prairie, +interspersed with copses of timber, and watered by Independence +creek. On this bank formerly stood the second village of the Kanzas; +from the remains it must have been once a large town." (Op. cit., +pp. 21-22.)</p> + +<p>The village mentioned by Lewis and Clark as standing on the +banks of the Kansas River some 40 league above its confluence with +the Missouri may have been the one visited and described by Maj. +George C. Sibley during the summer of 1811. Sibley wrote in his +journal: "The Konsee town is seated immediately on the north bank +of the Konsee River, about one hundred miles by its course above +its junction with the Missouri; in a beautiful prairie of moderate +extent, which is nearly encircled by the River; one of its Northern +branches (commonly called the Republican fork, which falls in a +few hundred paces above the village) and a small creek that flows +into the north branch. On the north and southwest it is overhung +by a chain of high prairie hills which give a very pleasing effect to +the whole scene.</p> + +<p>"The town contains one hundred and twenty-eight houses or +lodges which are generally about 60 feet long and 25 feet wide, +constructed of stout poles and saplings arranged in form of an +arbour and covered with skins, bark and mats; they are commodious +and quite comfortable. The place for fire is simply a hole in the +earth, under the ridge pole of the roof, where an opening is left +for the smoke to pass off. All the larger lodges have two, sometimes +three, fire places; one for each family dwelling in it. The +town is built without much regard to order; there are no regular +streets or avenues. The lodges are erected pretty compactly together +in crooked rows, allowing barely space sufficient to admit a +man to pass between them. The avenues between these crooked rows +are kept in tolerable decent order and the village is on the whole +rather neat and cleanly than otherwise. Their little fields or patches +of corn, beans and pumpkins, which they had just finished planting, +and which constitute their whole variety, are seen in various directions, +at convenient distances around the village. The prairie was +covered with their horses and mules (they have no other domestic +animals except dogs)."</p> + +<p>The manuscript journal from which the preceding quotation is +made is now in the possession of Lindenwood College, St. Charles, +Mo., the copy having been made by Mrs. N. H. Beauregard.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>The preceding is a clear though all too brief account of a native +village, prepared at a time when it continued in a primitive condition. +The site, on the left bank of Kansas River just below the +mouth of the Republican, would have been about the present Fort +Riley, near the northern line of Geary County. In some respects this +is the most interesting description of a Kansa village given in the +present work. The habitations—long mat-covered lodges—were of +the type erected by the Osage and Quapaw, kindred tribes of the +Kansa, and it is highly probable they represented the form of dwellings +reared by the same tribes many generations before in their +ancient villages which then stood in the valley of the Ohio, far east +of the Mississippi.</p> + +<p>Just 15 years elapsed between the time of the Lewis and Clark +expedition and the arrival of the Long party in the country of the +Kansa. In August, 1819, to those aboard the steamboat <i>Western +Engineer</i>, "The site of an old village of the Konzas, and the remains +of a fortification erected by the French, were pointed out a few +miles below Isle au Vache. This island, which lies about one hundred +miles above Fort Osage, was the wintering post of Capt. Martin's +detachment, destined to proceed in advance of the troops ordered +to the Missouri." And nothing shows more clearly the changed conditions +in that region during the past century than the continuation +of this narrative: "Captain Martin, with three companies of the +rifle regiment, left Bellefontain in September 1818, and arrived at +Isle au Vache in October, with the expectation of resuming his march, +as early in the following spring as the weather would permit. But +not having received the necessary supplies of provisions as anticipated, +they had been compelled to remain till the time of our arrival, +subsisting themselves principally by hunting.... Between +two and three thousand deer, besides great numbers of bears, turkies, +&c. had been taken." On August 23, 1819, a large number of Kansa +Indians, from their villages on the river bearing their tribal name, +gathered at Isle au Vache to meet members of the Long party in +council. "There were present at this council, one hundred and sixty-one +Konzas, including chiefs and warriors, and thirteen Osages." +(James, (1), I, pp. 110-112.)</p> + +<p>While at Fort Osage members of the Long expedition left for an +overland journey to the Kansa towns. The party was led by Say, +and left the fort August 6, arriving at the villages just two weeks +later. The Kansa town then stood in the extreme southwestern corner +of the present Pottawatomie County, Kansas, at the mouth of the +Big Blue. And "as they approached the village, they perceived the +tops of the lodges red with the crowds of natives; the chiefs and +warriors came rushing out on horseback, painted and decorated, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +followed by great numbers on foot ... the village was in confusion, +the hunters having lately returned; and being then engaged +in preparations for the journey to Isle au Vache." The journey was +that mentioned above, when the Indians arrived at Isle au Vache +to hold council with Long. Continuing the narrative: "The approach +to the village is over a fine level prairie of considerable extent; +passing which, you ascend an abrupt bank of the height of ten +feet, to a second level, on which the village is situate in the distance, +within about ¼ of a mile of the river. It consists of about 120 lodges, +placed as closely together as convenient, and destitute of any regularity +of arrangement. The ground area of each lodge is circular, +and is excavated to the depth of from one to three feet, and the +general form of the exterior may be denominated hemispheric.</p> + +<p>"The lodge, in which we reside, is larger than any other in the +town, and being that of the grand chief, it serves as a council house +for the nation. The roof is supported by two series of pillars, or +rough vertical posts, forked at top for the reception of the transverse +connecting pieces of each series; twelve of these pillars form the outer +series, placed in a circle; and eight longer ones, the inner series, also +describing a circle; the outer wall, of rude frame work, placed at a +proper distance from the exterior series of pillars, is five or six feet +high. Poles, as thick as the leg at base, rest with their butts upon the +wall, extending on the cross pieces, which are upheld by the pillars +of the two series, and are of sufficient length to reach nearly to the +summit. These poles are very numerous, and, agreeable to the position +which we have indicated, they are placed all around in a radiating +manner, and support the roof like rafters. Across these are laid +long and slender sticks or twigs, attached parallel to each other by +means of bark cord; these are covered by mats made of long grass, or +reeds, or with the bark of trees; the whole is then covered completely +over with earth, which, near the ground, is banked up to the eaves. A +hole is permitted to remain in the middle of the roof to give exit to +the smoke. Around the walls of the interior, a continuous series of +mats are suspended; these are of neat workmanship, composed of a +soft reed, united by bark cord, in straight or undulated lines, between +which, lines of black paint sometimes occur. The bedsteads are elevated +to the height of a common seat from the ground, and are about +six feet wide; they extend in an uninterrupted line around three-fourths +of the circumference of the apartment, and are formed in the +simplest manner of numerous sticks, or slender pieces of wood resting +at their ends on cross pieces, which are supported by short notched +or forked posts, driven into the ground; bison skins supply them +with a comfortable bedding. Several medicine or mystic bags are +carefully attached to the mats of the wall, these are cylindrical, and +neatly bound up; several reeds are usually placed upon them, and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +human scalp serves for the fringe and tassels. Of their contents we +know nothing. The fireplace is a simple shallow cavity, in the center +of the apartment, with an upright and a projecting arm for the support +of the culinary apparatus." (Op. cit., pp. 120-121.)</p> + +<p>Say and his associates left the Kansa village to rejoin the main +party aboard the steamboat <i>Western Engineer</i>, then waiting near Isle +au Vache, but soon after starting on the journey were attacked by +some wandering Pawnee and forced to return to seek refuge among +those whom they had just left. And as told in the narrative, they +were, as a consequence, able to witness an interesting ceremony in +one of the large earth lodges. This was August 23, 1819. "Mr. Say's +party were kindly received at the village they had left on the preceding +day. In the evening they had retired to rest in the lodge set +apart for their accommodation, when they were alarmed by a party +of savages, rushing in armed with bows, arrows and lances, shouting +and yelling in a most frightful manner. The gentlemen of the +party had immediate recourse to their arms, but observing that some +squaws, who were in the lodge, appeared unmoved, they began to +suspect that no molestation to them was intended. The Indians collected +around the fire in the centre of the lodge, yelling incessantly; +at length their howlings assumed something of a measured tone, and +they began to accompany their voices with a sort of drum and rattles. +After singing for some time, one who appeared to be their leader, +struck the post over the fire with his lance, and they all began to +dance, keeping very exact time with the music. Each warrior had, +besides his arms, and rattles made of strings of deer's hoof, some +part of the intestines of an animal inflated, and inclosing a few small +stones, which produced a sound like pebbles in a gourd shell. After +dancing round the fire for some time, without appearing to notice +the strangers, they departed, raising the same wolfish howl, with +which they had entered; but their music and their yelling continued +to be heard about the village during the night.</p> + +<p>"This ceremony, called the <i>dog dance</i>, was performed by the Konzas +for the entertainment of their guests. Mr. Seymour took an opportunity +to sketch the attitudes and dresses of the principal figures." +(Op. cit., p. 135.) The sketch made by Seymour was engraved and +served as an illustration in the narrative of the expedition prepared +by James. It is here reproduced as plate <a href="#Plate_30">30</a>, <i>b</i>. The interior of the +large earth lodge is clearly shown. The "continuous series of mats" +are suspended around the wall, and the "bedsteads," as described, +serve as seats for the guests. Mats are also represented as spread +over the floor in the foreground.</p> + +<p>On August 25, 1819, the steamboat <i>Western Engineer</i> steamed away +from Isle au Vache, and that night, after having advanced about +23 miles up the Missouri, stopped at the mouth of Independence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +Creek, and a little above the creek, on the right bank of the Missouri, +was "the site of an old Konza town, called formerly the village of +the Twenty Four." This was evidently the same site as mentioned by +Lewis and Clark, July 5, 1804. Ruins of the earth lodges had undoubtedly +remained quite distinct, being overgrown with the grass +of the prairie.</p> + +<p>Isle au Vache, in the Missouri, faces Oak Mills, Atchison County, +Kansas, and Iatan, Platte County, Missouri. A brief history of the +island was prepared a few years ago. (Remsburg, (1), pp. 436-443.)</p> + +<p>Interesting notes on the habitations of the Kansa Indians are contained +in a narrative prepared by one who passed through their +country during the month of May, 1834.</p> + +<p>On the night of May 1 the party encamped on a small branch of +the Kansas River, where they were joined by some members of the +Kansa tribe who occupied six lodges in a near-by woods. "This +party is a small division of a portion of this tribe, who are constantly +wandering; but although their journeys are sometimes pretty extensive, +they seldom approach nearer to the settlements than they +are at present." Later they arrived at the banks of the Kansas +River, and as it was approached, so the narrative continues, "we saw +a number of Indian lodges, made of saplings driven into the ground, +bent over and tied at top, and covered with bark and buffalo skins. +These lodges, or wigwams, are numerous on both sides of the river. +As we passed them, the inhabitants, men, women, and children, +flocked out to see us, and almost prevented our progress by their +eager greetings. Our party stopped on the bank of the river, and +the horses were unloaded and driven into the water." They crossed +the river by means of a large flat-bottomed boat, and reaching the +opposite bank saw many Indian lodges with some frame houses occupied +by whites. "The canoes used by the Indians are mostly made +of buffalo skins, stretched, while recent, over a light frame work of +wood, the seams sewed with sinews, and so closely, as to be wholly +impervious to water. These light vessels are remarkably buoyant, +and capable of sustaining very heavy burthens." That evening they +were visited by the Kansa chief who lived near by, a "young man +about twenty-five years of age, straight as a poplar, and with a +noble countenance and bearing.... The Kaws living here appear to +be much more wealthy than those who joined our camp on the prairie +below.... Their dress consists, universally of deer skin leggings, +belted around the loins, and over the upper part of the body a buffalo +robe or blanket." (Townsend, (1), pp. 30-33.)</p> + +<p>During the morning of May 20, 1834, the party departed from +the Kansa settlement on or near the banks of the Kansas River, +"leaving the river immediately, and making a N. W. by W. course—and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +the next day came to another village of the same tribe, consisting +of about thirty lodges, and situated in the midst of a beautiful level +prairie.... The lodges here are constructed very differently from +those of the lower village. They are made of large and strong timbers, +a ridge Pole runs along the top, and the different pieces are +fastened together by leathern thongs. The roofs, which are single, +make but one angle, are of stout poplar bark, and forms an excellent +defence, both against rain and the rays of the sun, which must be +intense during midsummer in this region. These prairies are often +visited by heavy gales of wind, which would probably demolish the +huts, were they built of frail materials like those below. We encamped +in the evening on a small stream called Little Vermillion +creek...." (Op. cit., pp. 33-34.)</p> + +<p>The sketch by Seymour conveys a very good idea of the general +appearance of the interior of a Kansa lodge, and an equally interesting +picture of the village, as it was just 22 years later, is to be +found in one of Father de Smet's works. He arrived at the first +of the villages May 19, 1841, and in describing it said: "At the +first sight of their wigwams, we were struck at the resemblance they +bore to the large stacks of wheat which cover our fields in harvest-time. +There were of these in all no more than about twenty, grouped +together without order, but each covering a space about one hundred +and twenty feet in circumference, and sufficient to shelter from thirty +to forty persons. The entire village appeared to us to consist of +from seven to eight hundred souls,—an approximation which is +justified by the fact that the total population of the tribe is confined +to two villages, together numbering 1900 inhabitants. These +cabins, however humble they may appear, are solidly built and convenient. +From the top of the wall, which is about six feet in height, +rise inclined poles, which terminate round an opening above, serving +at once for a chimney and window. The door of the edifice consists +of an undressed hide on the most sheltered side, the hearth occupies +the centre and is in the midst of four upright posts destined to +support the <i>rotunda</i>; the beds are ranged round the wall and the +space between the beds and the hearth is occupied by the members of +the family, some standing, others sitting or lying on skins, or yellow +colored mats. It would seem that this last named article is regarded +as a piece of extra finery, for the lodge assigned to us had one of +them." (De Smet, (1), pp. 65-66.) Following this description of a +lodge is an account of its occupants. He refers to the women busily +engaged at various occupations, and the men, some eating or smoking, +and others plucking the hair from their brows and beard. The brief +description of the interior of the lodge conforms with those of the +earlier writers, but it is to be regretted that more was not said about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +the outside of the structure. Were they covered with earth or thatch? +The village visited by Say in 1819 was composed of earth-covered +lodges, clearly described, but the drawing made by one of Father +de Smet's associates (it is marked <i>Geo. Lehman, del.</i>) represents +the large circular houses with overhanging roofs, more closely resembling +thatch than the usual covering of earth and sod. This +drawing, which was reproduced in the work cited, is here shown in +plate <a href="#Plate_30">30</a>, <i>a</i>. The structures standing in the village visited by Father +de Smet may have resembled the bark-covered house illustrated in +plate <a href="#Plate_31">31</a>. This most interesting photograph was probably made +about 40 years ago, and at once suggests the frame, covered with +bark, and ready for the final covering of earth; in other words, an +unfinished earth lodge. However, it was probably a complete and +finished structure.</p> + +<p>Regarding the large village visited by De Smet as mentioned above, +one historian of the tribe has written: "An important village, and the +largest of the tribe at that time, was that of old Kah-he-gah-wa-ti-an-gah, +known as Fool Chief, which from about 1830 to 1846 was +located on the north side of the Kansas river, just north of the present +Union Pacific station of Menoken.... Until recent years the lodge-circle +marks were visible and its exact location easy to be found." +(Morehouse, (1), p. 348.)</p> + +<p>A year passed between the visit of Father de Smet to the Kansa +towns and the arrival of Fremont in the same locality, but it had +been a period of trouble for the tribe and they had suffered greatly. +On June 18, 1842, Fremont wrote in his journal: "We left our camp +seven, journeying along the foot of the hills which border the Kansas +valley.... I rode off some miles to the left, attracted by the appearance +of a cluster of huts near the mouth of the Vermillion. It +was a large but deserted Kansas village, scattered in an open wood, +along the margin of the stream, chosen with the customary Indian +fondness for beauty of scenery. The Pawnees had attacked it in the +early spring. Some of the houses were burnt, and others blackened +with smoke, and weeds were already getting possession of the cleared +places." (Fremont, (1), pp. 12-13.)</p> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 30<a name="Plate_30"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p030a.png" width="300" height="155" alt="a. Kansa village, 1841. George Lehman" title="a. Kansa village, 1841. George Lehman" /> +<span class="caption">a. Kansa village, 1841. George Lehman</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p030b.png" width="300" height="185" alt="b. Dog dance within a Kansa lodge, August 23, 1819. Samuel Seymour" title="b. Dog dance within a Kansa lodge, August 23, 1819. Samuel Seymour" /> +<span class="caption">b. Dog dance within a Kansa lodge, August 23, 1819. Samuel Seymour</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 31<a name="Plate_31"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/p031.png" width="500" height="292" alt="KANSA HABITATION" title="KANSA HABITATION" /> +<span class="caption">KANSA HABITATION</span> +</div> + +<p>It is quite probable that during their journeys away from the permanent +villages the Kansa, like other tribes of the Missouri Valley, +made use of skin tipis as being easily transported from one place to +another. It would also appear that in later years the earth and bark +covered lodge ceased to be used, and that skin tipis were constructed +to the exclusion of other forms of dwellings. A missionary who resided +at the Kansa agency from 1865 to 1868 wrote: "The tribe at +that time was divided into three bands, or villages, as they were generally +called. Ish-tal-a-sa's village occupied the northern part of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>the reserve. He was not only village chief, but head chief of the +whole tribe also. Fool Chief's village occupied the central part of +the reserve, and Al-le-ga-wa-ho's the southern portion. The latter +became head chief after Ish-tal-a-sa's death. There were probably +about 300 in each band. Their custom was for the entire band to +camp together in some desirable locality, where wood, water and +grass for their ponies were accessible, and remain until the pasture +was eaten down, and then move to another site. Another reason for +moving was to get away from the filth that always accumulated in +an Indian village. Their tents, or tepees, were made of buffalo +skins.... The lodge, as they usually designated their tepees, was +easily taken down and removed to another place." (Spencer, (1), +p. 373.)</p> + +<p>Of the numerous tribes mentioned at the present time no one +appears to have erected a greater variety of dwellings than did the +Kansa, whose habitations were of several distinct forms and were +constructed of various materials.</p> + +<p>The long mat-covered lodges described by Sibley in 1811, as at that +time standing in the village at the mouth of the Republican, on the +left bank of the Kansas River, may be accepted as being the typical +or primitive form of structure erected by the tribe. Eight years +later Say and his companions reached another village, a few miles +eastward from the one preceding, and there found the circular earth +lodges. Evidently the ruined towns mentioned by Lewis and Clark +as being visible from the Missouri River were once groups of similar +earth lodges. But all circular lodges were not covered with earth +and sod; in some instances the walls and roofs were formed of +sheets of bark.</p> + +<p>During the month of May, 1834, many small dwellings were +standing on both banks of the Kansas River which were formed by +covering a frame composed "of saplings driven into the ground, bent +over and tied at top," with sheets of bark and buffalo skins. And not +far away was another village of the same tribe but presenting a very +different appearance. The structures were described as being "made +of large and strong timbers, a ridge pole runs along the top, and +the different pieces are fastened together by leathern thongs. The +roofs, which are single, make but one angle, are of stout poplar +bark." Whether this was of circular or quadrangular base is difficult +to determine, but probably the latter, resembling the example +shown in plate <a href="#Plate_19">19</a>. And in addition to the various structures already +noted, the conical skin tipis were extensively used by the Kansa, +probably serving in early days when the people were away from +their more permanent villages, but later they were more generally +utilized.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span></p> +<h5><span class="smcap">Osage.</span></h5> + +<p>From the earliest historical times the habitat of the Osage was +among the hills and valleys of the Ozarks, south of the Missouri, in +the present State of Missouri, and here they continued to dwell until +their removal during the early part of the last century.</p> + +<p>When Père Marquette passed down the Mississippi, late in the +month of June, 1673, he learned of the Osage, and on his map, +prepared soon afterwards, indicated the villages of that tribe near a +stream which was evidently the river bearing their tribal name. +They continued to occupy rather permanent villages until the beginning +of the nineteenth century.</p> + +<p>The tribe included three bands, two of which may be rather old; +the third more recently created. These are: (1) Pahatsi or Great +Osage, (2) Utsehta or Little Osage, (3) Santsukhdhi or Arkansas +band. The latter dates from the year 1802 or thereabouts, when a +large part of the Great Osage, under the leadership of the chief Big +Track, removed to the vicinity of the Arkansas.</p> + +<p>The Osage, unlike certain other members of the Siouan group to +which they belong, continued to erect and occupy the mat or bark +covered habitations so characteristic of the forest tribes. Their villages +which stood among the Ozarks were probably similar in appearance +to the ancient settlements of their ancestors which once +occupied a part of the upper valley of the Ohio, whence they migrated +to the region beyond the Mississippi. But the country which +served as their new home was one well suited to the wants and requirements +of the tribe. Game was plentiful, the streams teemed +with fish, and wild fruits were to be had in vast quantities. Thus +food was easily obtained.</p> + +<p>The expedition under the command of Captains Lewis and Clark +began ascending the Missouri May 14, 1804, and just one month later, +on June 15, arrived at the site of an earlier settlement of the Little +Osage. In the journal the entry for that day states that: "We +passed several islands and one creek on the south side, and encamped +on the north opposite a beautiful plain, which extends as +far back as the Osage river, and some miles up the Missouri. In +front of our encampment are the remains of an old village of the +Little Osage, situated at some distance from the river, and at the +foot of a small hill. About three miles above them, in view of our +camp is the situation of the old village of the Missouris after they +fled from the Sauks. The inroads of the same tribe compelled the +Little Osage to retire from the Missouri a few years ago, and establish +themselves near the Great Osages." And two days later, at a +place about 20 miles above their camp, on the 15th, they reached +"the crossing place for the Sauks, Ayauways, and Sioux, in their +excursions against the Osage." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, p. 15.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>The ruined or deserted village of the Little Osage seen by the +party stood on the right or south bank of the Missouri, in the western +part of the present Saline County, Missouri, not far from the +village of Malta. The structures which had stood at this old site +were probably similar to those later erected by the people in their +new village near the town of the Great Osage, both of which were +visited two years later. They were situated far south of the Missouri, +in the northern part of the present Vernon County, in the +valley of the Little Osage River.</p> + +<p>During the latter part of August, 1806, Pike arrived at the two +villages of the Osage, having departed from Fort Bellefontain a +short time before on his journey to the far west. But, unfortunately, +his accounts of the native tribes and their villages which +he encountered during his travels are neither full nor clear, and so +it is with the description of the habitations of the Osage. To quote +from the narrative: "The Osage lodges are generally constructed +with upright posts, put firmly in the ground, of about 20 feet in +height, with a crotch at the top; they are generally about 12 feet distant +from each other; in the crotch of those posts, are put the ridge +poles, over which are bent small poles, the ends of which are brought +down and fastened to a row of stakes of about 5 feet in height; +these stakes are fastened together with three horizontal bars, and +form the flank walls of the lodge. The gable ends are generally +broad slabs and rounded off to the ridge pole. The whole of the +building and sides are covered with matting made of rushes, of two +or three feet in length, and four feet in width, which are joined +together, and entirely exclude the rain. The doors are in the side +of the building, and generally are one on each side. The fires are +made in holes in the centre of the lodge; the smoke ascending through +apertures left in the roof for the purpose; at one end of the dwelling +is a raised platform, about three feet from the ground, which is +covered with bear skins, and generally holds all the little choice +furniture of the master, and on which repose his honorable guests.... +They vary in length from 36 to 100 feet." (Pike, (1), App., +pp. 11-12.)</p> + +<p>Fort Osage, soon to be named Fort Clark, stood on the right +bank of the Missouri, a short distance northeast of Independence, in +Jackson County, Missouri. During the early years of the last century +it was a gathering place for the Osage and neighboring tribes, and +several interesting accounts are preserved of the appearance of the +Indian lodges clustered about the post. Both Bradbury and Brackenridge +made mention of the fort in their journals. The former +wrote on April 8, 1811, and told of his arrival: "About ten o'clock +we came in sight of the fort, about six miles distant. We had not +been long in sight before we saw the flag was hoisted, and at noon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +we arrived, saluting with a volley as we passed on to the landing +place, where we met Mr. Crooks, who had come down from the +wintering station at the mouth of the river Naduet to meet us. +There were also collected at the landing place about 200 Indians, +men, women, and children, of the Petit Osage nation, whose village +was then about 300 yards from the fort." And continuing: "At +evening Dr. Murray proposed that we should walk into the village, +and I found it to consist of about one hundred lodges of an oblong +form, the frame of timber, and the covering mats, made of the +leaves of flag, or <i>Typha palustris</i>. On our return through the town, +we called at the lodge belonging to a chief named Waubuschon, +with whom Dr. Murray was particularly acquainted. The floor was +covered with mats, on which they sat; but as I was a stranger, I +was offered a cushion. A wooden bowl was now handed round, containing +square pieces of cake, in taste resembling ginger-bread. On +enquiry I found it was made of the pulp of the persimon, mixed +with pounded corn. This bread they called staninca." (Bradbury, +(1), pp. 35-37.)</p> + +<p>Less than three weeks elapsed before Brackenridge reached the +fort in the company of Manuel Lisa. April 25, 1811, "About eleven, +came in sight of Fort Osage, situate on a bluff, three miles off, on a +commanding eminence.... A number of Indians of the Osage +nation, of all ages, and sexes, were scattered along the bank, attracted +by curiosity, some with old buffalo robes thrown over their shoulders, +others dressed out in the gayest manner.... On landing at the +fort, on a very rocky shore, a soldier under arms, who waited for +us at the water's side, escorted Mr. Lisa and myself to the fort, +where we were politely received by the commanding officer. While +Mr. Lisa was transacting some business, accompanied by Mr. Sibley, +the factor, and an interpreter, I went to deliver a pipe to <i>Sans +Oreille</i>, (a warrior, and head man of this tribe) sent to him by +gen. Clark....</p> + +<p>"The lodges of the Little Osage, are sixty in number, and within +gun shot of the fort; but they are about to remove their village to +a prairie, three miles off. Their lodges are of a circular form, not +more than ten or fifteen feet in diameter, constructed by placing +mats, made of coarse rushes, over forks and poles.</p> + +<p>"All three of the Osage bands, together with some Kansas, were +lately encamped here for the purpose of trading, to the number of +fifteen hundred warriors." (Brackenridge, (1), pp. 216-217.)</p> + +<p>It is more than probable the Little Osage were then returning to +their distant villages. Within less than three weeks the group of +dwellings in the vicinity of the post had been reduced in number +from about 100 to 60, and undoubtedly before the lapse of many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +days all would have begun their homeward journey. But the structures +as described would have resembled the dwellings in their +permanent villages, differing from the more temporary lodges discovered +by Schoolcraft a few years later.</p> + +<p>When Schoolcraft traversed the southern part of the State of Missouri +a century ago, crossing the Ozarks and following the deep +valleys which separated the ridges, he encountered many deserted +camps of the Osages and frames of one or more habitations, the mat +or bark covers often having been removed, thus allowing the bare +frames to remain. These had been the temporary shelters occupied +by small parties hunting away from their home villages. On November +27, 1818, so he wrote, "night overtook us, and we encamped +in an Indian bark tent on the bank of the river, which had not been +occupied for one or two years." (Schoolcraft, (1), p. 28.) The +river mentioned was the Great North Fork of White River, and the +latter was soon reached. Continuing their journey over the rough +and rugged hills, through tangled masses of vegetation, often advancing +only a few miles each day, and that with the greatest exertion, +they arrived December 30, 1818, in the region a short distance east of +James River, possibly in the present Christian County, Missouri. +Here they encountered several deserted camps, of which, fortunately, +interesting accounts are preserved in the narrative: "In pursuing +up the valley of Swan Creek, about nine miles, we fell into the Osage +trace, a horse-path beaten by the Osages in their hunting excursions +along this river, and passing successively three of their camps, now +deserted, all very large, arranged with much order and neatness, and +capable of quartering probably 100 men each. Both the method of +building camps, and the order of encampment observed by this singular +nation of savages, are different from any thing of the kind I +have noticed among the various tribes of aboriginal Americans, +through whose territories I have had occasion to travel. The form of +the tent or camp may be compared to an inverted bird's nest, or +hemisphere, with a small aperture left in the top, for the escape of +smoke; and a similar, but larger one, at one side, for passing in and +out. It is formed by cutting a number of slender flexible green-poles +of equal length, sharpened at each end, stuck in the ground like +a bow, and, crossing at right angles at the top, the points of entrance +into the ground forming a circle. Small twigs are then wove in, +mixed with the leaves of cane, moss, and grass, until it is perfectly +tight and warm. These tents are arranged in large circles, one +within another, according to the number of men intended to be +accommodated. In the centre is a scaffolding for meat, from which +all are supplied every morning, under the inspection of a chief, whose +tent is conspicuously situated at the head of the encampment, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +differs from all the rest, resembling a half cylinder inverted. Their +women and children generally accompany them on these excursions, +which often occupy three months." Schoolcraft soon crossed the ridge +separating Swan Creek from Findley's River, the latter "running +from the north-east, and tributary to James' river, the main north-western +branch of White River." (Op. cit., pp. 52-53.)</p> + +<p>It must be understood that this description applies to a temporary +encampment of the Osage, not to a permanent village, although they +would probably not have differed greatly in appearance. The structures +in a camp were rather smaller than those in the villages, and +the latter were covered with mats or sheets of bark instead of the +walls being composed of the crude wattlework, as mentioned in the +preceding account.</p> + +<p>Throughout the region traversed by Schoolcraft are to be found +traces of ancient camps, some quite large, others small. The innumerable +caves and caverns occurring in the limestone formations +through which the many streams have cut deep valleys show evidence +of long occupancy by the natives. Great masses of wood ashes, intermingled +with broken and lost implements of bone and stone, fragments +of pottery vessels, and charred or broken bones of animals +which had served as food, are to be found accumulated near the +opening, beneath the overhanging strata. The great majority of +such material should undoubtedly be attributed to the Osage, whose +hunters penetrated all parts of the Ozarks.</p> + +<p>A beautiful example of a frame for an Osage habitation is shown +in plate <a href="#Plate_32">32</a>, <i>a</i>, a reproduction of a photograph made near Hominy, +Oklahoma, in 1911. This was probably the form of structure seen +by the early travelers, which is more clearly described on the following +pages. It is interesting, showing as it does the manner in +which the uprights were placed in the ground, then bent over and +bound in place. As the Osage undoubtedly lived, generations ago, +in the Ohio Valley, it is possible the ancient village sites discovered +in Ross County, Ohio, belonged either to this or a related tribe, +and the ground plan of the structures revealed during the exploration +of a certain site would agree with the typical Osage habitation +of recent years. A ground plan was prepared by the discoverer of +the ancient village site (Mills, (1)) and was reproduced on page 139, +Bulletin 71, of this Bureau.</p> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 32<a name="Plate_32"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p032a.png" width="300" height="200" alt="a. Frame of an Osage habitation, near Hominy, Okla., 1911" title="a. Frame of an Osage habitation, near Hominy, Okla., 1911" /> +<span class="caption">a. Frame of an Osage habitation, near Hominy, Okla., 1911</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p032b.png" width="300" height="229" alt="b. An Iowa structure" title="b. An Iowa structure" /> +<span class="caption">b. An Iowa structure</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 33<a name="Plate_33"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/p033.png" width="500" height="290" alt=""OTO ENCAMPMENT, NEAR THE PLATTE, 1819" + +Samuel Seymour" title=""OTO ENCAMPMENT, NEAR THE PLATTE, 1819" + +Samuel Seymour" /> +<span class="caption">"OTO ENCAMPMENT, NEAR THE PLATTE, 1819" + +Samuel Seymour</span> +</div> + +<p>On the plan of the ancient settlement which stood many generations +ago are several interesting features in addition to the outline +of the oval habitation. North of the space once occupied by the +dwelling are many comparatively large caches, with fireplaces between. +On the opposite side of the structure were encountered 30 +burials, representing children and adults. It would be of the greatest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>interest at the present time to discover the exact location of one of +the Osage villages of a century ago, and to determine the position +of the caches and burials, if any exist, in relation to the sites of the +habitations.</p> + +<p>About the time of Schoolcraft's journey through the Ozarks another +traveler went up the valley of the Arkansas, and when far +west of the Mississippi came in contact with the Osage. Nuttall, +on July 15, 1819, wrote: "The first village of the Osages lies about +60 miles from the mouth of the Verdigris, and is said to contain 7 +or 800 men and their families. About 60 miles further, on the +Osage River, is situated the village of the chief called White Hair. +The whole of the Osages are now, by governor Clark, enumerated at +about 8000 souls. At this time nearly the whole town, men, and +women, were engaged in their summer hunt, collecting bison tallow +and meat. The principal chief is called by the French Clarmont, +although his proper name is the Iron bird, a species of Eagle." +(Nuttall, (1), p. 173.) Under date of August 5, 1819, he referred +to the women of the tribe, saying: "It is to their industry and ingenuity, +that the men owe every manufactured article of their dress, +as well as every utensil in their huts. The Osage women appear to +excel in these employments. Before the Cherokees burnt down their +town on the Verdigris, their houses were chiefly covered with hand-wove +matts of bulrushes. Their baskets and bed matts of this material +were parti-coloured and very handsome. This manufacture, I +am told, is done with the assistance of three sticks, arranged in some +way so as to answer the purpose of a loom, and the strands are +inlaid diagonally. They, as well as the Cherokees and others, frequently +take the pains to unravel old blankets and cloths, and reweave +the yarn into belts and garters." (Op. cit., pp. 192-193.)</p> + +<p>Evidently it was not the custom of the Osage to entirely abandon +their villages when they went on their periodical hunts. Some remained, +either through choice or necessity. In the above quotation +Nuttall spoke of "nearly the whole town" being absent on their +summer hunt, and one very familiar with the habits of the tribe +said: "The Osages and Kansas live in villages, which, even during +the hunting seasons, are never wholly abandoned, as in the case +with several tribes settled on the Missouri." (Hunter, (1), p. 334.) +Regarding the general appearance of the villages: "Their lodges +are built promiscuously, in situations to please their respective proprietors: +they are arranged to neither streets nor alleys, and are +sometimes so crowded, as to render the passage between them difficult."</p> + +<p>That some of the Osage constructed very long structures is told +by Morse, but if the dimensions given in his account are accurate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> +they refer to the unusual rather than to the usual form of habitation +erected by members of that tribe. He said: "The Osages of the +Arkansaw occupy several villages. The principal village contains +about three hundred lodges or huts, and about three thousand souls. +The lodges are generally from fifty to a hundred feet in length; +and irregularly arranged, they cover a surface of about half a mile +square. They are constructed of posts, matting, bark and skins. +They have neither floors nor chimneys. The fire is built on the +ground, in the centre of the lodge, and the family, and the guests, +sit around in a circle, upon skins or mats." (Morse, (1), p. 219.) +These various statements appear grossly exaggerated, and on page +225 of the same work appears the statement that "Their villages +are nothing more than what they can remove on the shortest notice, +one horse being capable of carrying house, household furniture, and +children all at one load." Morse included in his notes on the Osage +several letters written by missionaries then working among the +tribe. One communication from Dr. Palmer, dated at Union, March +18, 1820, contained a note on their habitations: "Their houses are +made of poles, arched from fifteen to twenty feet, covered by +matting made of flags. At the sides they set up rived planks, lining +the inside with neatly made flagg matting. They build several fires +in the lodge, according to its size, or the number of wives the owner +has. For a fire-place, they dig a hole about as big as a bushel-basket, +leaving the smoke to ascend through a hole in the roof. +Around the fire they spread their mats to sit or eat." And when +visiting the settlement, "Having entered the lodge, and had our +horses turned out, we took a humble seat around the fire. Presently +there was brought to us a wooden bowl, filled with food made of +corn. In a short time we were invited to eat at another lodge, and +before we had finished, at another, and another." And another +letter, from W. C. Requa, dated February 3, 1822, told of the native +dwellings. He wrote at that time: "I live at present among the +Osages, at one of their villages about fifty miles from Union. This +unhappy people live in low huts, covered with long grass or flag, +but so badly put together that they leak considerably in a storm of +rain. They have very little furniture, merely a few pots or kettles +in which they boil their provisions. The art of cooking their meat +in any other way than boiling is unknown among them, except +roasting it on a stick before the fire. They have very little variety +in their food. Wild game, corn, dried pumpkins, and beans constitute +about all on which they subsist. With this, however, they +are contented. They have wooden bowls, out of which they eat, +drink, wash themselves." (Op. cit., pp. 227-233.) Union, where the +two communications were written, was probably Union Agency,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +which stood on the right bank of the Arkansas River, just southwest +of Fort Gibson, in the present Muskogee County, Oklahoma. The +settlement "about fifty miles from Union" may have been on the +Verdigris, near the center of the present Rogers County, Oklahoma.</p> + +<p>An interesting description of a deserted camp of the Osage was +prepared by Irving, as it appeared, standing near the banks of the +Arkansas, October 11, 1832. On that day, so he wrote: "We came +in sight of the Arkansas. It presented a broad and rapid stream, +bordered by a beach of fine sand, overgrown with willows and +cotton-wood trees. Beyond the river, the eye wandered over a beautiful +champaign country, of flowery plains and sloping uplands.... Not +far from the river, on an open eminence, we passed through the +recently deserted camping place of an Osage war party. The frames +of their tents or wigwams remained, consisting of poles bent into an +arch, with each end stuck into the ground; these are intertwined +with twigs and branches, and covered with bark and skins. Those +experienced in Indian lore, can ascertain the tribe, and whether on +a hunting or warlike expedition, by the shape and disposition of the +wigwams. Beatte pointed out to us, in the present skeleton camp, +the wigwam in which the chiefs had held their consultations round +the council fire; and an open area, well trampled down, on which +the grand war-dance had been performed." (Irving, W., (1), pp. +38-39.) The frames probably resembled the example shown in +plate <a href="#Plate_32">32</a>, <i>a</i>.</p> + +<p>This mention of a dance by Irving suggests the description of a +ceremony witnessed at the village of the Little Osage during the +same year. The account of a "war-dance" was prepared July 25, +1832: "Much of the ceremony consisted in a sort of dancing march +round the streets of the village between their lodges.... In their +marching round the settlement, the warriors were followed by a +band of musicians, some drumming on a piece of deer skin, stretched +over the head of a keg, and others singing their wild songs. Among +the retinue I observed a great many youths, who appeared to be +young disciples, catching the spirit of their seniors and fathers. +Another group followed, who appeared to be mourners, crying for +vengeance on their enemies, to reward them for the death of some +relative." (Colton, (1), pp. 299-300.)</p> + +<p>A brief but interesting sketch of the manners and ways of life of +the Osage of a century ago is to be found in Morse's work already +quoted. Although the notes were prepared to apply to several +neighboring tribes, they referred primarily to the tribe now being +discussed. First speaking of their gardens: "They raise annually +small crops of corn, beans, and pumpkins, these they cultivate entirely +with the hoe, in the simplest manner. Their crops are usually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +planted in April, and receive one dressing before they leave their +villages for the summer hunt, in May. About the first week in +August they return to their villages and gather their crops, which +have been left unhoed and unfenced all the season. Each family, if +lucky, can save from ten to twenty bags of corn and beans, of a +bushel and a half each; besides a quantity of dried pumpkins. On +this they feast, with the dried meat saved in the summer, till September, +when what remains is <i>cashed</i>, and they set out on the fall +hunt, from which they return about Christmas. From that time, +till some time in February or March, as the season happens to be +mild or severe, they stay pretty much in their villages, making only +short hunting excursions occasionally, and during that time they +consume the greater part of their <i>cashes</i>. In February or March +the spring hunt commences; first the bear, and then the beaver hunt. +This they pursue till planting time, when they again return to their +village, pitch their crops, and in May set out for the summer hunt, +taking with them their residue, if any, of their corn, &c. This is +the circle of an Osage life, here and there indented with war and +trading expeditions; and thus it has been, with very little variation, +these twelve years past." (Morse, (1), pp. 203-205.)</p> + +<p>The cornfields were left without watchers and were probably often +destroyed by roving parties of the enemy or by wild beasts. On +August 18, 1820, a hunter belonging to a division of the Long expedition +"returned with the information of his having discovered a +small field of maize, occupying a fertile spot at no great distance +from the camp, it exhibited proofs of having been lately visited by +the cultivators; a circumstance which leads us to believe that an ascending +column of smoke seen at a distance this afternoon, proceeded +from an encampment of Indians, whom, if not a war party, we +should now rejoice to meet. We took the liberty, agreeable to the +custom of the Indians, of procuring a mess of corn, and some small +but nearly ripe watermelons, that were also found growing there, +intending to recompense the Osages for them, to whom we supposed +them to belong." The following morning, August 19, they encountered +several small cornfields near a creek along which they were +passing, and that day discovered "an Indian camp, that had a more +permanent aspect than any we had before seen near this river. The +boweries were more completely covered, and a greater proportion of +bark was used in the construction of them. They are between sixty +and seventy in number. Well worn traces or paths lead in various +directions from this spot, and the vicinity of the cornfields induce +the belief that it is occasionally occupied by a tribe of Indians, for +the purpose of cultivation as well as of hunting." (James, (1), II, +pp. 220-221.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>The encampment just mentioned may have resembled the one described +by Schoolcraft the preceding year, though many miles away +in the heart of the Ozarks.</p> + +<p>Although it is quite probable that hunting parties of the Osage, +during their wanderings, reached all parts of the Ozarks, and occupied +camps on banks of many streams in distant regions far away +from their more permanent villages, nevertheless all sites do not +present the same characteristic features. Thus in the central and +eastern sections of the hill country, as in the valleys of the Gasconade +and its tributary, the Piney, and along the courses of the streams +farther eastward quantities of fragmentary pottery are to be found +scattered over the surface of the many village and camp sites, and +here it may be remarked that seldom are traces of a settlement not +to be discovered at the junction of two streams, however small or +large they may be.</p> + +<p>A great many caves, some rather large, occur in the limestone +formation, often in the cliffs facing or near the streams. As previously +mentioned, these show evidence of long or frequent occupancy +by the Indians. At the openings are masses of wood ashes +and charcoal, filling the space between the sides to a depth of several +feet, and in the caves encountered in the vicinity of the Gasconade +quantities of broken pottery are found, with bones of animals which +served as food, various implements, shells, etc., all intermingled with +the accumulated ashes. A short distance from the bank of the Piney, +several miles above its junction with the Gasconade, a cave of more +than usual interest is met with in the high cliff. This is in Pulaski +County. Flowing from the cave is a small stream of clear, very cold +water. It enters the main chamber through an opening not more +than 4 feet in height and about the same in width, the stream, when +the cave was visited some years ago, being 3 or 4 inches in depth. +A few yards up the watercourse the channel widens several feet and +so continues for a short distance. This widening was caused by +pieces of chert having been removed from the mass, this evidently +having been one of the sources whence the Indians secured material +for the making of their implements. The bed of the stream was +strewn with flakes and roughly formed rejected pieces of stone.</p> + +<p>Thus, as has been shown, vessels of earthenware were made and +used by the people who occupied or frequented this part of the +Ozark country, but conditions appear to have been different in the +western sections. Bits of pottery do not occur on the surface of the +camp sites, and it is evident it was neither made nor used by the +occupants of certain settlements. Fragments of pottery are not encountered +on these particular sites, but large stone mortars are often +found, objects which do not seem to have been very frequently used +farther east.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>The valleys of the James and White Rivers, in Stone and Taney +Counties, Missouri, were visited some years ago and many interesting +sites were discovered. Traces of a comparatively extensive village +were encountered on the E. ½ of lot 1, S. W. ¼ of Sec. 9, T. 22, +R. 23, Stone County, on the left bank of White River. Within a +radius of a few feet, on a level spot near the center of the once occupied +area, were found four large sandstone mortars, the concavity +of the largest being about 15 inches in diameter and 6 inches in +depth, while the entire block of stone was more than 2 feet in thickness. +When discovered, June 11, 1901, the mortars gave the impression +of not having been touched since they were last used by some of +the inhabitants of the ancient village, and from the surrounding surface, +an acre or more in extent, were collected several hundred stone +implements, but not a fragment of pottery was encountered. This +site, although rather larger and more extensive than the majority, +was, nevertheless, typical of the 20 or more which were discovered +during that interesting journey through the valleys mentioned. +Quantities of stone implements were gathered from the surface of +the sites, and many mortars were found, but no pottery.</p> + +<p>While the material recovered from the sites in the valley of the +Gasconade is similar to that found to the eastward, the finding of +mortars and the lack of pottery on the James and White River Valley +sites suggests a different culture, and it is possible the latter owe +their origin to parties of the Wichita or neighboring tribes who entered +the western valleys of the Ozarks from the prairie lands.</p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Quapaw.</span></h5> + +<p>This, the southernmost tribe of the Dhegiha group, occupied several +villages west of the Mississippi, near the mouth of the Arkansas. +When the closely allied tribes had removed from their ancient +habitat in the upper valley of the Ohio, and had arrived at the +mouth of that stream, the Quapaw are believed to have turned southward +while the others went northward. The name of the tribe, +Quapaw, signifies "downstream people;" Omaha being translated +"those going against the wind or current." As a people they seem to +have been known to the members of the De Soto expedition about +1541, probably occupying villages on or near the sites of the settlements +visited by the French during the latter part of the next +century.</p> + +<p>Père Marquette, while on his memorable journey down the Mississippi, +in the year 1673, went as far as the mouth of the Arkansas, +where he lingered a few days before returning northward on July +17. The villages of the Quapaw, designated the Arkansa, were +reached, but the habitations were only briefly described: "Their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +cabins, which are long and wide, are made of bark; they sleep at the +two extremities, which are raised about two feet from the ground. +They keep their corn in large baskets, made of cane, or in gourds, +as large as half barrels." They used both wooden dishes and "plates +of baked earth. Their cooking was done in large earthen pots, of +their own make." (Shea, (2), p. 48.) But the most interesting +early account of the villages is contained in Joutel's narrative of La +Salle's last expedition, when he attempted to reach the Illinois +country overland from the Gulf coast. Through jealousy and +intrigue of members of the expedition he was murdered by one of +their number, March 20, 1687; but others continued eastward, and on +July 24, 1687, arrived at the four villages of the Quapaw, and to +quote from the narrative of the expedition: "The Nation of the +<i>Accancea's</i> consists of four Villages. The first is call'd <i>Otsotchove</i>, +near which we were; the second <i>Toriman</i>, both of them seated on the +River; the third <i>Tonginga</i>; and the fourth <i>Cappa</i>, on the Bank of +the <i>Missisipi</i>. These Villages are built after a different Manner +from the others we had seen before, in this Point, that the Cottages, +which are alike as to their Materials and Rounding at the Top, are +long, and cover'd with the Bark of Trees, and so very large, that several +of them can hold two hundred Persons, belonging to several +Families. The People are not so neat as the <i>Cenis</i> [Caddo], or the +<i>Assonis</i> [Caddo], in their Houses, for some of them lie on the +Ground, without any Thing under them but some Mats, or dress'd +Hide. How ever, some of them have more Conveniencies, but the +Generality has not. All their Movables consist in some Earthen +Vessels and oval wooden Platters, which are neatly made, and with +which they drive a Trade."</p> + +<p>The expedition was then resting at the village standing on the +banks of the Arkansas, not far above its junction with the Mississippi. +Here they remained three days, departing on July 27. On +that day "We imbark'd on a Canoe belonging to one of the Chiefs, +being at least twenty Persons, as well Women as Men, and arriv'd +safe, without any Trouble, at a Village call'd <i>Toriman</i>, for we were +going down the River." The river was the Arkansas. Later in the +day they reached the "fatal River, so much sought after by us, called +<i>Colbert</i>, when first discover'd, and <i>Missisipi</i>, or <i>Mechassipi</i> by the +Natives that were near us." The party lingered at Toriman during +the twenty-eighth, and on the following day arrived at "the next +Village call'd <i>Tonningua</i>, seated on the Bank of that River [the +Mississippi], where we were receiv'd in the Chief's Cottage, as we +had been in the others." On July 30, "We set out for Cappa, the +last Village of the <i>Accancea's</i>, eight Leagues distant from the Place +we had left." (Joutel, (1), pp. 155-161.) Passing up the Mississippi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +from the Quapaw towns, they encamped during the night of +August 2 on an island, "for our greater Safety, for we were then +come into an Enemy's Nation, call'd <i>Machigamea</i>, which put our +Indians into great Frights."</p> + +<p>Père Anastasius Douay, also a member of the party, had very little +to say about their stop among the Quapaw, only that "We visited +three of these villages, the Torimans, the Doginga, and the Kappa; +everywhere we had feasts, harangues, calumet-dances, with every +mark of joy." (Shea, (2), p. 220.) Evidently his notes were faulty, +as no mention was made of the fourth town.</p> + +<p>When La Harpe made his journey into the region bordering the +Mississippi some distance above New Orleans he encountered the +Quapaw, and in his journal referred to them as the Alkansa, and +said: "La nation Alkansa, ainsi nommée parce qu'elle sort des +Canzés [Kansa] etablis sur le Missouri, est situé sur le bord du +Mississipi dans un terrein isolé par les ruisseaux qui l'environnent; +elle se divise en trois villages, Ougapa, Torisna et Tonginga, éloignés +d'une lieue les uns les autres, et renfermant ensemble quatre cents +habitans; leur principal chef est celui des Ougapas; les Sotoüis le +reconnaissent aussi pour le leur; ils Sotoüis le reconnaissent aussi +pour le leur; ils sont tous sortis de la même nation et parlent le +même langue." (La Harpe, (1), p. 317.) Elsewhere he referred to +reaching the "rivière Blanche, qui court dans le nord-ouest du coté +des Osages," which entered the "rivière des Sotoüis," or Arkansas, +4 leagues from the Mississippi. Here stood a village of the Sotoüis, +consisting of 40 habitations and having a population of 330.</p> + +<p>Nearly a century elapsed between the time of La Harpe's visit to +the country occupied by the Quapaw and the journey performed by +Nuttall. On February 27, 1819, when the latter was ascending the +Arkansas River, he wrote: "In the course of the day we passed the +outlet of the bayou, or rather river, Meta, which diagonally traverses +the Great Prairie, also two Indian villages on the south bank [of the +Arkansas].... The first was the periodical residence of a handful of +Choctaws, the other was occupied by the Quapaws." (Nuttall, (1), +p. 91.) This was near the line between Lincoln and Desha Counties, +Arkansas. Some distance beyond, apparently at some point in the +present Jefferson County, on March 11, 1819, he saw other native +villages, but whether occupied by Quapaw or some other tribe was +not told. However, they were probably Quapaw settlements. On +that day: "Passed Mr. Embree's, and arrived at Mr. Lewismore's. +Six miles above, we also saw two Indian villages, opposite each of +those settlements.... The Indians, unfortunately, are here, as usual, +both poor and indolent, and alive to wants which they have not the +power of gratifying. The younger ones are extremely foppish in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +their dress; covered with feathers, blazing calicoes, scarlet blankets, +and silver pendants. Their houses, sufficiently convenient with their +habits, are oblong square, and without any other furniture than +baskets and benches, spread with skins for the purpose of rest and +repose. The fire, as usual, is in the middle of the hut, which is constructed +of strips of bark and cane, with doors also of the latter +split and plaited together." (Op. cit., pp. 97-98.)</p> + +<p>When returning down the Arkansas, on January 18, 1820, Nuttall +evidently reached the Quapaw village which he had passed when +ascending the stream during the preceding February. He wrote: +"About noon we landed at one of the Quapaw or Osark villages, but +found only three houses constructed of bark, and those unoccupied. +In the largest of them, apparently appropriated to amusement and +superstition, we found two gigantic painted wooden masks of +Indians, and a considerable number of conic pelt caps, also painted. +These, as we learnt from an Indian who came up to us from some +houses below, were employed at festivals, and worn by the dancers.... +At the entrance of the cabin, and suspended from the wall, +there was a female figure, with a rudely carved head of wood painted +with vermillion. Being hollow, and made of leather, we supposed it +to be employed as a mask for one of the musicians, having in one +hand a pendent ferule, as if for the purpose of beating a drum. In +the spring and autumn the Quapaws have a custom of making a +contribution dance, in which they visit also the whites, who live in +the vicinity, and the chief alms which they crave is salt or articles +of diet." The following day the party reached Arkansas Post. +(Nuttall, (1), p. 223.)</p> + +<p>This account of the ceremonial lodge, for such it undoubtedly was, +of the Quapaw of a century ago, is most interesting, as it proves how +the rapidly diminishing tribe held to their old customs. The tribe +gradually disappeared from the lower Arkansas. The remnants of +this once large body moved westward, and on August 11, 1853, some +were encountered by the Whipple expedition in the extreme north +west corner of the Choctaw Nation, on the right bank of the Canadian, +where the Shawnee Hills reach to the river bank. There, on +the "high bank of the Canadian, stand still some wigwams or rather +log-houses of Quappa Indians, who may boast of not having yet +quitted the land of their forefathers. But they have shrunk to a +small band that cannot furnish above twenty-five warriors, and it +would scarcely be supposed that they are all who are left of the once +powerful tribe of the Arkansas, whose hunting grounds extended +from the Canadian to the Mississippi." (Möllhausen, (1), I, p. 74.)</p> + +<p>Probably no section of the country has revealed more traces of +the period of aboriginal occupancy than has that part of the Mississippi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> +Valley which extends southward from the Ohio to the Arkansas. +This was the region traversed by the Quapaw during the +latter part of their migration from their earlier habitat east of the +Mississippi, and may have been occupied by them since the fifteenth +century, or before. Many of the mound groups, village sites, and +burial places occurring within this area may undoubtedly be justly +attributed to the Quapaw. Vast quantities of earthenware vessels, +of great variety of forms and sizes, have been recovered from the +sites north of the Arkansas, and these often present marked characteristics +differing from the ware found farther south. The Quapaw +are known to have been skilled pottery makers. As already mentioned, +Marquette, in 1673, referred to their "plates of baked earth," +and also to the large earthen cooking vessels "of their own make." +And in 1687 Joutel wrote of their earthen vessels "with which they +drive a Trade." Therefore it is more than probable that much of +the ancient pottery encountered in this part of the Mississippi Valley +was made by this southern Siouan tribe. Many of the village sites +discovered near the Mississippi, north of the Arkansas, were probably +once occupied by the Quapaw who, by the latter part of the seventeenth +century, had moved as far south as the mouth of the Arkansas +River, in the present Desha County. The earlier references to the +tribe, those contained in the narratives of the De Soto expedition, +1541, mention the towns being protected by encircling embankments +and ditches. The former were probably surmounted by palisades. +The village or villages of this period probably stood on the bank of +the Mississippi, and one may have occupied the interesting site at +Avenue, in Phillips County, where some remarkable pottery vessels +have been discovered. Other ancient sites in Lee and Crittenden +Counties, north of Phillips, were possibly occupied by the same +people at different times.</p> + +<p>The position of the village of the Algonquian Michigamea, who +lived north of the Quapaw, has not been determined.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">chiwere group.</span></h4> + +<p>This group, so designated by the late Dr. J. O. Dorsey, includes +three tribes, the Iowa, Oto, and Missouri, who spoke slightly different +dialects of the same language. According to tribal traditions, +they were, generations ago, allied and associated with the Winnebago, +from whom they separated and scattered while living in the +vicinity of the Great Lakes east of the Mississippi, where the Winnebago +continued to dwell. It is not the purpose of the present sketch +to trace the movements of the three tribes from their ancient habitat +to the banks of the Mississippi, thence westward to the Missouri and +beyond, but the routes followed in their migrations can be fairly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> +accurately determined by comparing their own statements and traditions +with early historical records, and it is quite probable that many +village sites now discovered within this region were once occupied +by some members of these tribes.</p> + +<p>While living east of the Mississippi in a region of lakes and +streams surrounded by vast forests, their habitations were undoubtedly +the bark or mat covered structures, but when some moved far +west and came in contact with tribes beyond the Missouri they evidently +learned the art of constructing the earth-covered lodge which +they soon began to occupy. Likewise when and where the skin tipi +first became known to them is not possible to determine, but probably +not until they had reached the valley of the Missouri and were nearing +the banks of that stream north of the Kansas.</p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Iowa.</span></h5> + +<p>On September 15, 1819, the expedition under command of Maj. +Stephen H. Long arrived at the mouth of Papillion Creek, on the +right bank of the Missouri a few miles above the Platte, a site now +covered by the city of Omaha, Nebraska. In the narrative of the +expedition it is said that at the mouth of the Papillion "we found +two boats belonging to the Indian traders at St Louis. They had +passed us some days before, and were to remain for the winter at the +mouth of the Papillion, to trade with the Otoes, Missouries, and other +Indians.</p> + +<p>"The banks of the Missouri above the Platte, have long been frequented +by the Indians, either as places of permanent or occasional +residence. Deserted encampments are often seen. On the northeast +side, near the mouth of Mosquito river, are the remains of an +old Ioway village. Four miles above, on the opposite side, was formerly +a village of the Otoes." (James, (1), I, pp. 144-145.)</p> + +<p>As mentioned elsewhere, the Iowa and their kindred tribes had +migrated from their ancient habitat in the vicinity of the Great +Lakes to the Missouri Valley, and in 1848 a map was prepared by +an Iowa Indian showing the route of the tribe from the mouth of +Rock River, Illinois, to the banks of the Missouri, across the State +which perpetuates the tribal name. The map was reproduced by +Schoolcraft. (Schoolcraft, (3), III, pp. 256-257.)</p> + +<p>Unfortunately very little is to be found in the early writings +regarding the appearance of the Iowa villages, but they probably +did not differ from those of the tribes with whom they were so closely +associated, and the primitive village, composed of a group of mat or +bark covered structures, must have resembled the towns of the +Osage. But in addition to the usual habitation the Iowa evidently +erected a larger, longer structure. Maximilian on April 25, 1833,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +when in the region then occupied by the Iowa, wrote: "The canal +between Nadaway Island and the cantonment is called Nadaway +Slew, at the end of which we saw the remains of some Indian huts. +In a dark glen in the forest, we observed a long Indian hut, which +occupied almost its whole breadth, and must have served for a great +number of persons." (Maximilian, (1), p. 124.) It is to be +regretted that a full description of this "long Indian hut" was not +preserved. It may have been a ceremonial lodge rather than a large +dwelling.</p> + +<p>An interesting though brief account of the Iowa as they were at +this time is preserved. It was related by a missionary, Samuel M. +Irvin, who arrived among the Iowa April 10, 1837. They were living +in the northwestern part of Missouri, the "Platte purchase," but +were soon to be removed to lands west of the Missouri. At that time, +the spring of 1837, so the narrative continues: "They numbered in +all 830. They were a wild, warlike, roving people, and in a most +wretched condition, depending mainly on the chase for a subsistence. +Their habitations were of the most frail and temporary kind. They +were shelters in the form of huts or houses made of the bark of trees +stretched over slender poles and tied together with bark strings, or +they were tents or lodges made of the skins of the buffalo or elk, and +sewed together with the sinews of these animals. These bark houses +were mainly for summer shelter, and would in a few years yield to +the wear of time, when they would be abandoned and a new location +sought. The skin tents were carried with them, and made their +habitations wherever they chanced to stop. They were strictly a +migratory and unsettled people." (Plank, (1), p. 312.) And "domestic +animals, excepting ponies and dogs, were not among them. +Indeed, to some of them, such things as cattle, hogs, sheep and +poultry were almost unknown, and did such animals happen their +way they would pounce upon them for present food as quickly as +upon a buffalo or wild turkey."</p> + +<p>An excellent picture of an Iowa habitation accompanied the article +from which the preceding quotations have been made and is now +reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_32">32</a>, <i>b</i>.</p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Oto.</span></h5> + +<p>When Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri during the summer of +1804 they reached the mouth of the Platte July 21. At that time, so +they entered in their journal, the Oto were living on the south side of +the Platte 10 leagues above its junction with the Missouri, and 5 +leagues beyond, on the same bank, were the Pawnee. Living with +the Oto were the remnants of the Missouri who had, a few years +before, joined them. On August 3, 1804, the expedition having +ascended the Missouri to about the location of the present city of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +Council Bluffs, Iowa, held a council with representatives of the two +tribes, Oto and Missouri, an event which has been perpetuated in the +name of the city. A majority of the two tribes were then absent from +their village on their summer buffalo hunt, consequently few were +present at the council.</p> + +<p>On May 3, 1811, Bradbury arrived at the Oto village, but it was +deserted. All were probably some miles away hunting the buffalo. +However, a very interesting description of the habitations in the deserted +village is preserved. First referring to the Platte: "The southern +bank is wholly divested of timber, and as the village is situated on +a declivity near the river, we could see the lodges very distinctly, but +there was no appearance of Indians." (p. 54.) On the following day, +May 4, 1811, he visited the village and found it "to consist of about +fifty-four lodges, of a circular form, and about forty feet in diameter, +with a projecting part at the entrance, of ten or twelve feet in length, +in the form of a porch. At almost every lodge, the door or entrance +was closed after the manner which is customary with Indians when +they go on hunting parties and take their squaws and children with +them. It consists in putting a few sticks across, in a particular manner, +which they so exactly note and remember, as to be able to discover +the least change in their position. Although anxious to examine +the internal structure of the lodges, I did not violate the injunction +conveyed by this slight obstruction, and after searching some time +found a few that were left entirely open. On entering one, I found +the length of the porch to be an inclined plane to the level of the floor, +about two and a half or three feet below the surface of the ground; +round the area of the lodge are placed from fifteen to eighteen posts, +forked at the top, and about seven feet high from the floor. In the +centre, a circular space of about eight feet in diameter is dug, to the +depth of two feet; four strong posts are placed in the form of a +square, about twelve feet asunder, and at equal distances from this +space these posts are about twenty feet high, and cross pieces are laid +on the tops. The rafters are laid from the forked tops of the outside +posts over these cross pieces, and reach nearly to the centre, where a +small hole is left for the smoke to escape; across the rafters small +pieces of timber are laid; over these, sticks and a covering of sods, and +lastly earth. The fire is made in the middle of the central space, +round the edges of which they sit, and the beds are fixed between the +outer posts. The door is placed at the immediate entrance into the +lodge; it is made of a buffalo skin, stretched in a frame of wood, and +is suspended from the top. On entering, it swings forward, and when +let go, it falls to its former position." (Bradbury, (1), pp. 56-57.)</p> + +<p>It is to be regretted that Bradbury did not give a more detailed +account of the general appearance of the village; that he did not tell +of the placing of the lodges, and of the other structures, if any stood<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> +within the village. But this large group of earth-covered lodges +undoubtedly resembled the village of the Republican Pawnee, as +shown in the photograph made by Jackson more than half a century +later.</p> + +<p>In the narrative of the Long expedition, during the spring of 1820, +more than a century ago, is a brief note on the Oto. It reads: "The +Oto nation of Indians is distinguished by the name of <i>Wah-toh-ta-na</i>. +The permanent village of this nation is composed of large dirt lodges, +similar to those of the Konzas and Omawhaws, and is situate on the +left bank of the river Platte, or Nebreska, about forty miles above +it confluence with the Missouri." (James, (1), I, p. 338.) On the +map which accompanies the narrative the village is indicated on the +south or right bank of the Platte, in the eastern part of the present +Saunders County, Nebraska. Continuing, the journal states (p. 342): +"The hunting grounds of the Oto nation, extend from the Little +Platte up to the Boyer creek, on the north side of the Missouri, and +from Independence creek to about forty miles above the Platte, on +the south side of that river. They hunt the bison, between the Platte +and the sources of the Konzas rivers." Thus their hunting grounds +included one of the richest and most fertile sections of the valley of +the Missouri, now occupied by many towns and villages.</p> + +<p>Much of interest respecting the manners and ways of life of the +Oto when they occupied their village near the mouth of the Platte +is to be found in Irving's narrative of the expedition of which he was +a member. During the summer of 1833 the small party under the +leadership of Commissioner H. L. Ellsworth left St. Louis and, with +several teams, proceeded up the Valley of the Missouri. They traversed +the vast rolling prairie: "Hour after hour passed on; the +prospect was still the same. At last a loud cry from our guide announced +that we had come in sight of the cantonment. There was +a snowy speck resting upon the distant green; behind it rose a forest +of lofty timber which shadowed the Missouri. This was Leavenworth.... +It was mid day when we first caught sight of Leavenworth, +but it was near sunset before we arrived there. About a dozen +white-washed cottage-looking houses, composed the barracks and the +abodes of the officers. They are so arranged as to form the three sides +of a hollow square; the fourth is open, and looks out into a wide but +broken prairie. It is a rural looking spot—a speck of civilization +dropped in the heart of a wilderness." (Irving, J. T., (1), I, pp. +46-47.) From Fort Leavenworth they continued up the valley, soon +reaching the village of the Oto, near the banks of the Platte. After +describing the reception accorded the party by the people of the +town Irving wrote: "The village of the Otoe Indians is situated +upon a ridge of swelling hills overlooking the darkly wooded banks +of the Platte river, about a quarter of a mile distant. There is but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +little beauty or neatness about an Indian town. The lodges are built +in the shape of a half egg. They frequently are twenty feet in height, +and sometimes sixty in diameter. The roofs are formed of long poles, +which diverge like the radii of a circle, from one common centre. +The ring of the circle is formed of upright posts, driven closely together +in the ground, and projecting upward about five feet. These +are interwoven with brushwood and the smaller branches of trees, +and form the support of the outer end of the poles composing the +roof, the interstices of which are also interwoven with twigs and +brushwood. The whole is then covered with earth, and when finished +resembles a large hillock. The town contained about seventy of these +lodges, standing singly or in groups, without any attention to order +or regularity. Within, they are capacious, but dark, being lighted +merely by a small aperture at the top, which serves both as window +and chimney. The fire is built in a cavity in the centre, directly under +the hole in the roof, by which the smoke escapes after floating in easy +wreaths about the interior.</p> + +<p>"As the lodges are very spacious, a little back from the fire there +is a circular range of tree trunks standing like columns, and connected +by timber laid in their forks, forming a support for the roof, +which otherwise, from the great length of the poles that form it, and +the heavy mass of superincumbent earth, might fall in, and bury the +inhabitants. Around the wall of the building, are ranged cribs or +berths for sleeping, screened from view by heavy mats of grass and +rushes. Over the fire is inclined a forked stake, in the hook of +which hangs a large kettle, generally filled with buffalo flesh and +corn. This, to judge from its looks, is never removed from the fire, +even for the purpose of cleaning it." (Op. cit., pp. 158-160.)</p> + +<p>A week or more passed after the arrival of the party at the Oto +village before a council was held with the chief men of the tribe, +"for the purpose of forming a treaty, with respect to the lands lying +in the neighbourhood of the Nemahaw river." The time for holding +the council having arrived, the commissioner and his party proceeded +from their camp to the earth-covered lodge in which the ceremony +was to be enacted. They entered and "found nearly the whole tribe +assembled, and seated in circles, in the large lodge of the Iotan chief. +At the far end of the building was the Iotan; and by his side were +stationed those two worthies, the Big Kaw and the Thief. Next +them were the stern forms of the older warriors and braves.... +The lodge was excessively crowded. One ring was formed beyond +another; one dark head rose behind another; until the dim, dusk outlines +of the more distant were lost in shadow, and their glistening +eyes alone could be seen. The passage which led to the air was completely +crowded with women and children; and half a dozen curious +faces were peering down through the round hole in the roof.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>"The most of them had adorned themselves for the occasion. +Plumes were floating from their scalp-locks; their heads and breasts +were painted with vermilion, and long strings of wampum hung +from their necks and mutilated ears. But at the present moment +there appeared to be no thought of their appearance. Every sense +was wrapped up in an intense interest in the approaching council; +every breath was held; and every eye fixed with eagerness upon the +face of the Commissioner, as he arose to address the meeting." (Op. +cit., pp. 233-235.) This vivid description of the gathering of the +Oto in a great earth-covered structure near the banks of the Missouri +during the summer of 1833 tends to recall Lieut. Timberlake's meeting +with the head men of the Cherokee, when they came together +in the townhouse at Chote late in the year 1761. The two structures +were of similar appearance and probably did not differ greatly in +size, although at Chote there were several tiers of seats surrounding +the central space within the house which were lacking in the Oto +lodge, but the two gatherings were evidently quite similar, although +belonging to different generations and being in regions separated by +many hundreds of miles of forest and plain. The great rotundas, +or townhouses of the Cherokee, were the most interesting of the +various native structures which formerly stood east of the Mississippi. +(Bushnell, (1), pp. 59-63.)</p> + +<p>The preceding notes on the Oto refer to their permanent earth-lodge +villages, which were occupied only part of each year. When +away from the village they would make use of the skin-covered +tipi, although the temporary shelter of the Pawnee may have been +copied by some members of the tribe. Fortunately a very good description +of the appearance of a winter encampment of several +families, at some point far west of the Missouri on the prairie of +Nebraska, during the winter of 1851-52, has been preserved. The +account was prepared by a traveler who became separated from his +companions and reached the camp unexpectedly while traversing +the snow-covered wilderness. The "little camp consisted of two +large tents, which stood in a deep ravine, overgrown with stunted +oaks, and on the banks of a deep stream, whose waters were hidden +beneath a thick covering of ice." One tent belonged to the chief +Wa-ki-ta-mo-nee, the other to a half-breed named Louis Farfar. +Arriving at the camp, so the narrative continues, I "crawled into +the tent of the medicine-man, and took my place by his blazing +fire, while the other occupants lay or crouched around. The old +mother was busy in the preparation of the meat, and by her side, +next the opening, were two daughters; the older about eighteen, the +younger about two years old. The father of the family, his son, and +Schin-ges-in-ki-nee had, according to Indian custom, kept the best<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +places for themselves, which was so much the better for me as I +was placed between them. The medicine pipe, with a bowl cut out +of some red stone, went round briskly, and the time that was employed +in distributing the meat intended for the meal I spent in +taking a good view of the Indian dwelling. Sixteen long poles, +made of slender pine trees, were so placed as to form a circle of +sixteen or eighteen feet in diameter, their tops being bent over and +fastened together. Around this framework was thrown, like a +mantle, the tent leather, consisting of a great number of buffalo-hides, +tanned white, and neatly sewed together for the purpose +with sinews. The leather did not reach quite to the top, but left +an opening, by which the smoke could escape; but there were two +prolongations of the tent leather, something like flags, which were +supported by particular poles, so as, in stormy weather or contrary +winds, to form a very tolerable chimney. The tent was fixed so +firmly to the ground with pegs that the tightly stretched sides would +admit neither the rain nor the snow, when it melted from the heat +of the fire; and the inhabitants had not only a secure refuge, but +a tolerably comfortable dwelling. The various possessions of the +Indians were hung round on the tent poles, where they only took up +room that could easily be dispensed with, and kept out the cold +that could have most readily found an entrance at those places. On +the space round the fire, buffalo-hides were spread for beds at night, +and when rolled up in the day made convenient seats; the fire, in +a kind of pit half a foot deep, and two and a half in diameter, was +a mass of glowing embers, with a number of logs blazing on the +top, and diffused a most pleasant warmth over the small space. +Near the fire a branch of a tree was stuck into the ground, and +another placed horizontally across it, and running the whole breadth +of the tent, from which hung the most indispensable of household +utensils in the form of a great kettle, whilst the rest of the pole +was covered with wet and torn mocassins and gaiters, in a manner +that was certainly more convenient than ornamental.... Besides the +wild half-naked forms of the Indians, a number of dogs, young and +old, made part of the company assembled in Wa-ki-ta-mo-nee's tent. +The attention of the mistress of the family, a very dirty old squaw, +was exclusively devoted to the vast kettle and its bubbling contents; +a row of roughly-cut wooden platters stood before her, and by +means of a pointed stick she fished up from the cauldron large joints +of bear and half turkeys, and loaded each of the platters with a huge +portion of the savoury smelling food." (Möllhausen, (1), I, pp. +171-175.) The second tent, so he wrote, "was more spacious" than +the one which he had entered, and described. This is an interesting +description of a small winter camp of the Oto as it stood in the midst<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +of the snow-covered prairie, near a stream "whose waters were +hidden beneath a thick covering of ice." The scene could undoubtedly +have been repeated in many localities in the vast region west of +the Missouri. The identity of the stream near which the two tents +stood during the winter of 1851-52 is suggested by a note in Fremont's +journal, written 10 years earlier. On June 22, 1842, when +traversing the prairies, soon to reach the right bank of the Platte, +he wrote: "Made our bivouac in the midst of some well-timbered +ravines near the Little Blue.... Crossing the next morning a number +of handsome creeks, with clear water and sandy beds, we reached +at 10 A. M., a very beautiful wooded stream, about thirty-five feet +wide, called Sandy creek, and sometimes, as the Ottoes frequently +winter there, Otto fork." (Fremont, (1), p. 14.) The greater part +of the course of Sandy Creek is through the present Clay and +Thayer Counties, Nebraska, a hundred miles or more south of west +from the Oto village then situated near the mouth of the Platte.</p> + +<p>Möllhausen remained with the Oto until the temporary camp was +abandoned, then returned with them to their permanent village. +The journey required several weeks but in time they approached the +Missouri, and as they neared their destination: "We passed the +burial place of the Ottoes just before we descended into the valley, +and shortly afterwards came to the village. The first consisted of a +number of hillocks inclosed by rough palings, and decorated with +sticks with little bits of coloured stuff and feathers fluttering from +them. The village, which lay not many hundred yards farther was +a group of about sixty huts of various construction, some of clay, +shaped like haycocks or baking ovens, others like small houses, built +of thick oak bark. These dwellings stood mostly empty, as the inhabitants +had pitched their tents just now in the angle formed by +the Nebrasca and Missouri, on account of the rich grass to be found +in these bottom lands under the protecting snow, and because they +and their cattle were in that situation more sheltered from the violent +gales of wind." (Möllhausen, (1), I, pp. 210-211.) Here is a +reference to a third form of habitation known to the Oto. In addition +to the earth-covered lodge and the skin tipi, both of which were +characteristic of the time and place, they appear to have reared +structures similar to the habitation of the Sauk and Fox, as shown +in plate <a href="#Plate_19">19</a>, a type of dwelling known to several neighboring tribes +in the upper Mississippi Valley.</p> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 34<a name="Plate_34"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p034a.png" width="300" height="83" alt="a. "Pemmican maul, Oto Agency, Nebrasca, J. W. Griest." Formed of one piece of wood. +Extreme length, 39 inches. (U.S.N.M. 22437)" title="a. "Pemmican maul, Oto Agency, Nebrasca, J. W. Griest." Formed of one piece of wood. +Extreme length, 39 inches. (U.S.N.M. 22437)" /> +<span class="caption">a. "Pemmican maul, Oto Agency, Nebrasca, J. W. Griest." Formed of one piece of wood. +Extreme length, 39 inches. (U.S.N.M. 22437)</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p034b.png" width="300" height="113" alt="b. Heavy stone maul with handle attached. "Yankton Sioux. Fort Berthold. Drs. Gray and +Matthews, U. S. A." Extreme length about 2 feet 2 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6325)" title="b. Heavy stone maul with handle attached. "Yankton Sioux. Fort Berthold. Drs. Gray and +Matthews, U. S. A." Extreme length about 2 feet 2 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6325)" /> +<span class="caption">b. Heavy stone maul with handle attached. "Yankton Sioux. Fort Berthold. Drs. Gray and +Matthews, U. S. A." Extreme length about 2 feet 2 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6325)</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p034c.png" width="300" height="141" alt="c. "Tools of the Mandans for dressing leather, Dakota. Drs. Gray and Matthews, U. S. A." Handle +of antler, with flint blade attached. Extreme length of handle about 11 inches. (U.S.N.M. 8409)" title="c. "Tools of the Mandans for dressing leather, Dakota. Drs. Gray and Matthews, U. S. A." Handle +of antler, with flint blade attached. Extreme length of handle about 11 inches. (U.S.N.M. 8409)" /> +<span class="caption">c. "Tools of the Mandans for dressing leather, Dakota. Drs. Gray and Matthews, U. S. A." Handle +of antler, with flint blade attached. Extreme length of handle about 11 inches. (U.S.N.M. 8409)</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 35<a name="Plate_35"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p035a.png" width="300" height="162" alt="a. Oto dugout canoe, from Kurz's Sketchbook, May 15, 1851" title="a. Oto dugout canoe, from Kurz's Sketchbook, May 15, 1851" /> +<span class="caption">a. Oto dugout canoe, from Kurz's Sketchbook, May 15, 1851</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p035b.png" width="300" height="258" alt="b. Bull-boat and paddle, obtained from the Hidatsa. Marked "Fort Buford, Dak. Ter. Grosventres +Tribe. Drs. Gray and Matthews." (U.S.N.M. 9785)" title="b. Bull-boat and paddle, obtained from the Hidatsa. Marked "Fort Buford, Dak. Ter. Grosventres +Tribe. Drs. Gray and Matthews." (U.S.N.M. 9785)" /> +<span class="caption">b. Bull-boat and paddle, obtained from the Hidatsa. Marked "Fort Buford, Dak. Ter. Grosventres +Tribe. Drs. Gray and Matthews." (U.S.N.M. 9785)</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 36<a name="Plate_36"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p036a.png" width="300" height="238" alt="a. Structure showing arbor over entrance" title="a. Structure showing arbor over entrance" /> +<span class="caption">a. Structure showing arbor over entrance</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p036b.png" width="300" height="239" alt="b. Long structure with entrance on one side + +WINNEBAGO HABITATIONS, ABOUT 1870" title="b. Long structure with entrance on one side + +WINNEBAGO HABITATIONS, ABOUT 1870" /> +<span class="caption">b. Long structure with entrance on one side + +WINNEBAGO HABITATIONS, ABOUT 1870</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 37<a name="Plate_37"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/p037.png" width="500" height="291" alt="WINNEBAGO STRUCTURES" title="WINNEBAGO STRUCTURES" /> +<span class="caption">WINNEBAGO STRUCTURES</span> +</div> + +<p>It is quite evident that after leaving the permanent earth-lodge +village of the Oto the Long party just a century ago passed one of +the temporary camps of the same people. This, fortunately, was +sketched by the artist of the expedition and reproduced in the narrative +of the journey, and is now shown in plate <a href="#Plate_33">33</a>. To quote from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>the narrative: "For the elucidation of what we have said respecting +the form and arrangement of the skin, or travelling lodges of the Indians, +we subjoin an engraving, representing an encampment of Oto +Indians, which Mr. Seymour sketched near the Platte river. In this +plate, the group of Indians on the left is intended to represent a +party of Konza Indians approaching to perform the calumet dance +in the Oto village. It may be proper to remark, that this party +when still distant from the Otoes, had sent forward a messenger, +with the offer of a prize to the first Oto that should meet them. This +circumstance was productive of much bustle and activity among the +warriors and young men, who eagerly mounted their horses, and exerted +their utmost speed." (James. (1), II, pp. 188-189.)</p> + +<p>Various ethnological specimens collected among the Oto a generation +or more ago are in the collections of the National Museum. +One quite rare object, a "pemmican maul," formed of a single piece +of wood, is figured in plate <a href="#Plate_34">34</a>, <i>a</i>.</p> + +<p>An original sketch by Kurz in May, 1851, representing a group of +Oto with a dugout canoe, is reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_35">35</a>, <i>a</i>.</p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Missouri.</span></h5> + +<p>In the narrative of the Lewis and Clark expedition appears this +record: "June 13, 1804. We passed ... a bend of the river, Missouri +and two creeks on the north, called the Round Bend creeks. +Between these two creeks is the prairie, in which once stood the +ancient village of the Missouris. Of this village there remains no +vestige, nor is there any thing to recall this great and numerous +nation, except a feeble remnant of about thirty families. They were +driven from their original seats by the invasions of the Sauks and +other Indians from the Mississippi, who destroyed at this village +two hundred of them in one contest." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, p. +13.) About 5 miles beyond they reached the mouth of Grand River +which flows from the northwest, serves as the boundary between Carroll +and Chariton Counties, Missouri, and enters the left bank of the +Missouri River. Therefore the old village of the Missouri evidently +stood at some point in the latter county. It was probably composed +of a number of mat and bark covered lodges resembling the village +of the Osage which stood a few miles farther up the river. Two days +later, June 15, the party identified the site or remains of the former +village of the Little Osage, and, so the narrative continues: "About +three miles above them, in view of our camp is the situation of the +old village of the Missouris after they fled from the Sauks." (Op. +cit., p. 15.) From this village the few Missouri Indians appear to +have sought refuge among the Oto, then living on the banks of the +Platte.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p> +<h4><span class="smcap">winnebago.</span></h4> + +<p>When first known to Europeans the Winnebago occupied the region +west of Green Bay, west of Lake Michigan, where, according to +the Jesuit missionaries, they had resided for many generations. +There they were living in the year 1634 when visited by Nicollet, +and just 35 years later, during the winter of 1669-70, a mission on +the shore of the same bay was conducted by Père Allouez, which +proved a gathering place for various tribes, including the Winnebago, +Sauk and Foxes, Menominee, and Potawatomi. These, with +the exception of the Winnebago, were Algonquian tribes.</p> + +<p>As already mentioned, the Oto, Iowa, and Missouri appear to have +been closely connected with the Winnebago, all speaking dialects +understood by one another. And it is also evident that when the +Oto, Iowa, and Missouri began their movement westward to the +Mississippi and beyond the Winnebago remained behind. However, +about the beginning of the last century they reached the banks of +the Mississippi, and by successive moves during the next 50 years +some arrived in western Minnesota, soon to be removed to lands beyond +the Missouri, adjoining the Omaha, in the northeastern part of +Nebraska.</p> + +<p>While living in the vicinity of Green Bay their villages were +groups of mat and bark-covered lodges, typical of the tribes of the +wooded country which abounded in lakes and streams. And it is +quite evident that during their migration westward, when they made +long stops before finally reaching the banks of the Missouri, they +continued to erect and occupy structures similar to those which had +stood in their old villages generations before.</p> + +<p>Typical examples of Winnebago dwellings are shown in plates <a href="#Plate_36">36</a> +and <a href="#Plate_37">37</a>. The arbor over the entrance is an interesting feature, seldom +appearing in the Algonquian villages, although often shown in +front of Siouan lodges.</p> + +<p>In a forthcoming publication Radin has given a list of the various +forms of structures erected by the Winnebago, some of which existed +until very recent years. (Radin, (1).)</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">mandan.</span></h4> + +<p>As mentioned in the sketch of the Assiniboin, a small party of +French accompanied by members of that tribe during the autumn of +1738 went southward from the Assiniboin country to the Mandan +towns, where the French remained several weeks. The leader of the +expedition, La Verendrye, prepared an account of the journey, this +being the earliest record of a visit by Europeans to the Mandans +known to exist, although it is easily conceived that French trappers +may have been among the tribe earlier in the century.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>The expedition arrived among the Mandan November 28, 1738, +after a journey of 46 days, but soon pushed forward to a larger +village. Fortunately the journal contains references to the ways of +life of the Mandan and a brief description of their fortified or protected +settlements. At that time the tribe was said to have had six +villages, and evidently all were protected by encircling palisades. +The village in which the French then rested consisted of 130 lodges, +and "all the streets, squares and huts resembled each other." The +French were particularly interested in the manner in which the town +was protected, but the account in the journal must exaggerate the +strength, or rather the size, of the ditch. The palisade was described +as being 15 feet in height, and "At fifteen points doubled +are green skins which are put for sheathing when required, fastened +only above in the places needed, as in the bastion there are +four at each curtain well flanked. The fort is built on a height in +the open prairie with a ditch upwards of fifteen feet deep by fifteen +to eighteen feet wide. Their fort can only be gained by steps or +posts which can be removed when threatened by an enemy. If all +their forts are alike, they may be called impregnable to Indians.... +Both men and women of this nation are very laborious; their +huts are large and spacious, separated into several apartments by +thick planks; nothing is left lying about; all their baggage is in +large bags hung on posts; their beds made like tombs surrounded +by skins.... Their fort is full of caves, in which are stored such +articles as grain, food, fat, dressed robes, bear skins. They are +well supplied with these; it is the money of the country.... They +make wicker work very neatly, flat and in baskets. They make use +of earthen pots, which they use like many other nations for cooking +their food." (La Verendrye, (1), p. 21.) In addition to the six +more important villages there appear to have been others, similar +but smaller. Referring to these La Verendrye wrote (p. 23): "We +noticed that in the plain there were several small forts, of forty or +fifty huts, built like the large ones, but no one was there at the time. +They made us understand that they came inside for the summer to +work their fields and that there was a large reserve of grain in their +cellars." Evidently these were nearer their cornfields, away from +the river banks, and were occupied only parts of each year.</p> + +<p>From this all too brief account of the Mandan it is quite evident +that when they were first encountered by the French, living in their +earth lodges, their villages strongly palisaded, their caches filled +with corn and other food supplies, buffalo robes and bear skins, +they were in their most powerful and prosperous state. But what +great changes they were destined to undergo during the next hundred +years!</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>On October 19, 1804, the Lewis and Clark party discovered the +first of the ruined villages of the Mandan, evidently standing on the +left bank of the Missouri, in the southern part of the present Burleigh +County, North Dakota. It proved an interesting day. "In +walking along the shore we counted fifty-two herds of buffaloe and +three of elk, at a single view. Besides these we also observed elk, +deer, pelicans, and wolves." The ruined village had been protected +by palisades and, according to the Arikara chief, who accompanied +them, had been occupied by the Mandan. These, so they wrote, "are +the first ruins which we have seen of that nation in ascending the +Missouri." During the night of October 19 the expedition encamped +on the south, i. e., right, bank of the Missouri, evidently about 2 miles +below the mouth of Little Heart River, which flows from the westward +and joins the Missouri in the present Morton County, North +Dakota. The following day they advanced 12 miles up the Missouri.</p> + +<p>October 21, 1804, was cold and bleak. Snow and ice covered the +ground, and the wind blew strong from the northeast. That day +the expedition advanced only 7 miles. They passed the mouth of +Big Heart River and the site of Bismarck, the present capital of +the State. Two miles above their camp of the night previous, about +opposite the mouth of the Big Heart, they reached "the ruins of a +second Mandan village, which was in existence at the same time with +that just mentioned. It is situated on the north at the foot of a +hill in a beautiful and extensive plain, which is now covered with +herds of buffaloes; nearly opposite are remains of a third village on +the south of the Missouri, and there is another also about two miles +further on the north, a little off the river. At the distance of seven +miles we encamped on the south, and spent a cold night." The next +day, October 22, they discovered other ruined towns of the Mandan. +"In the morning we passed an old Mandan village on the south, +near our camp; at four miles another on the same side.... At six +we reached an island about one mile in length, at the head of which +is a Mandan village on the north in ruins, and two miles beyond a +bad sandbar. At eight miles are remains of another Mandan village +on the south; and at twelve miles encamped on the south.... +These villages, which are nine in number, are scattered along each +side of the river within a space of twenty miles; almost all that +remains of them is the wall which surrounds them, the fallen heaps +of earth which covered the houses, and occasionally human skulls +and the teeth and bones of men, and different animals, which are +scattered on the surface of the ground." (Lewis and Clark, (1), +I, pp. 112-114.) Other deserted villages were passed as they continued +ascending the Missouri, to arrive late on the 26th of October, +at an old field of the Mandan, about one-half mile below the first of +their then occupied villages.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>The winter encampment of the expedition, Fort Mandan, was +situated on the left bank of the Missouri, about opposite the future +Fort Clark, and some 7 or 8 miles below the mouth of Knife River, +and consequently several miles from the first Mandan village. Here +the expedition remained until April 7, 1805. The lower of the +Mandan villages was "Matootonha," the second and smaller was +"Rooptahee." The list continues and refers to "the third village +which is called Mahawha, and where the Arwacahwas reside." "The +fourth village where the Minnetarees live, and which is called Metaharta." +A fifth village is mentioned but its name is not given. (Op. +cit., pp. 120-121.) Referring to these more in detail the narrative +tells something of their origin: November 21, 1804, "The villages +near which we are established are five in number, and are the residence +of three distinct nations: the Mandans, the Ahnahaways, and +the Minnetarees. The history of the Mandans, as we received it from +our interpreters and from the chiefs themselves, and as it is attested +by existing monuments, illustrates more than that of any other +nation the unsteady movements and the tottering fortunes of the +American nations. Within the recollection of living witnesses, the +Mandans were settled forty years ago in nine villages, the ruins of +which we passed about eighty miles below, and situated seven on the +west and two on the east side of the Missouri. The two finding themselves +wasting away before the small-pox and the Sioux, united into +one village, and moved up the river opposite to the Ricaras. The +same causes reduced the remaining seven to five villages, till at length +they emigrated in a body to the Ricara nation, where they formed +themselves into two villages, and joined those of their countrymen +who had gone before them. In their new residence they were still +insecure, and at length the three villages ascended the Missouri +to their present position. The two who had emigrated together still +settled in the two villages on the northwest side of the Missouri, +while the single village took a position on the southeast side. In +this situation they were found by those who visited them in 1796; +since which the two villages have united into one. They are now in +two villages, one on the southeast of the Missouri, the other on the +opposite side, and at the distance of three miles across. The first, +in an open plain, contains about forty or fifty lodges, built in the +same way as those of the Ricaras: the second, the same number, and +both may raise about three hundred and fifty men.</p> + +<p>"On the same side of the river, and at the distance of four miles +from the lower Mandan village, is another called Mahaha. It is +situated in a high plain at the mouth of the Knife river, and is the +residence of the Ahnahaways. This nation, whose name indicated +that they were 'people whose village is on a hill,' formerly resided<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +on the Missouri, about thirty miles below where they now live. The +Assiniboins and Sioux forced them to a spot five miles higher, where +the greatest part of them were put to death, and the rest emigrated +to their present situation, in order to obtain an asylum near the +Minnetarees. They are called by the French, Soulier Noir or Shoe +Indians; by the Mandans, Wattasoons, and their whole force is about +fifty men.</p> + +<p>"On the south side of the same Knife river, half a mile above the +Mahaha and in the same open plain with it, is a village of the Minnetarees +surnamed Metaharta, who are about one hundred and fifty men +in number. On the opposite side of Knife river, and one and a +half mile above this village is a second of Minnetarees, who may be +considered as the proper Minnetaree nation. It is situated in a +beautiful low plain, and contains four hundred and fifty warriors." +(Op. cit., pp. 129-131.)</p> + +<p>In their journal, kept while in winter quarters at Fort Mandan, +are to be found many interesting references to the Mandan. To +quote several of these will tend to shed light on the ways of life in +the native village. On November 22, 1804, the Mandan sold to the +members of the expedition "a quantity of corn of a mixed colour, +which they dug up in ears from the holes made near the front of their +lodges, in which it is buried during the winter." This had probably +been gathered only a few weeks before the arrival of the party at +the village, then deposited in the caches for future use. December +19 the weather had moderated, and the Indians were seen playing a +game on the level space between the lodges of the first and second +chiefs, a distance of about 50 yards. The entry for January 13, +1805, contains an interesting note: "We have a continuation of clear +weather, and the cold has increased, the mercury having sunk to +34 below 0. Nearly one half of the Mandan nation passed down the +river to hunt for several days; in these excursions men, women and +children, with their dogs, all leave the village together, and after +discovering a spot convenient for the game, fix their tents; all the +family bear their part in the labour, and the game is equally divided +among the families of the tribe." And on February 12, it was told +how "The horses of the Mandans are so often stolen by the Sioux, +Ricaras, and Assiniboins, that the invariable rule now is to put the +horses every night in the same lodge with the family. In the summer +they ramble in the plains in the vicinity of the camp, and feed +on the grass, but during cold weather the squaws cut down the cottonwood +trees as they are wanted, and the horses feed on the boughs +and bark of the tender branches, which are also brought into the +lodges at night and placed near them."</p> + +<p>About the year 1797, and consequently a few years before the arrival +of the Lewis and Clark expedition at the Mandan villages, John<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> +McDonnell, a partner of the North-West Company, made brief mention +of the Mandan in his journal. He wrote: "These Indians live in +settled villages, fortified with palisades, which they seldom ever +abandon, and they are the best husbandman in the whole Northwest. +They raise indian corn or maize, beans, pumpkins, squashes in considerable +quantity, not only sufficient to supply their own wants, with +the help of the buffalo, but also to sell and give away to all strangers +that enter their villages." (McDonnell, (1), pp. 272-273.) And in +1804 another representative of the old North-West Company referred +to the gardens of the Mandans and said in part:</p> + +<p>"In the spring, as soon as the weather and the state of the ground +will permit, the women repair to the fields, when they cut the stalks +of the Indian corn of the preceding year and drop new seed into the +socket of the remaining roots. A small kind of pumpkins which +are very productive they plant with a dibble, and raise the ground +into hillocks the same as those about Indian corn. Their kidney +beans they plant in the same manner. They cultivate a tall kind of +sunflower, the seed of which is reckoned good eating dry and pounded +with fat and made into balls of three or four ounces; they are found +excellent for long journeys." (Mackenzie, Charles, (1), pp. 338-339.) +And the narrative continued: "The only implement used +among the Mandanes for the purpose of agriculture is a hoe made +from the shoulder blade of a buffalo and which is ingrafted upon a +short crooked handle. With this crooked instrument they work very +expeditiously, and soon do all that is required for their supplies."</p> + +<p>As already mentioned, the Lewis and Clark party departed from +their winter quarters April 7, 1805, to pursue their journey westward. +The next year, on August 14, 1806, when returning, they again arrived +at the Mandan villages. They reached Rooptahee, where they +were kindly received by the people, but it is interesting to know that +during the 16 months which had intervened between the departure +and return of the Lewis and Clark party a great change had taken +place in the appearance of the native village. As mentioned in the +journal, "This village has been rebuilt since our departure, and was +now much smaller; a quarrel having arisen among the Indians, in +consequence of which a number of families had removed to the +opposite side of the river." Such were the changes ever occurring +among the people of the upper Missouri. Old villages were abandoned +and new ones built, some to be divided and others united, +consequently very few of the ruined sites discovered along the course +of the river represent towns which were occupied at the same time.</p> + +<p>Although the work just quoted contains much of interest pertaining +to the Mandan and neighboring tribes, subsequent writers described +the appearance of the villages and separate structures more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +in detail, and from the narratives of Catlin and Maximilian, supplemented +by many sketches, it is possible to visualize the primitive +earth-lodge villages with their many peculiar features.</p> + +<p>Catlin remained among the Mandan for some weeks during the +year 1832 and wrote at that time: "They have two villages only, +which are about two miles distant from each other.... Their +present villages are beautifully located, and judiciously also, for defence +against the assaults of their enemies. The site of the lower +(or principal) town, in particular is one of the most beautiful and +pleasing that can be seen in the world, and even more beautiful than +imagination could ever create. In the very midst of an extensive +valley (embraced within a thousand graceful swells and parapets or +mounds of interminable green, changing to blue, as they vanish in +distance) is built the city, or principal town of the Mandans." This +was evidently the lower village, the first encountered when ascending +the Missouri, the Matootonha of Lewis and Clark, and Mihtutta-hangusch +of Maximilian. Describing the position of this town, +Catlin continued: "The ground on which the Mandan village is at +present built, was admirably selected for defence; being on a bank +forty or fifty feet above the bed of the river. The greater part of +this bank is nearly perpendicular and of solid rock. The river, suddenly +changing its course to a right-angle, protects two sides of the +village, which is built upon this promontory or angle; they have +therefore but one side to protect, which is effectually done by a strong +piquet, and a ditch inside of it, of three or four feet in depth. The +piquet is composed of timbers of a foot or more in diameter, and +eighteen feet high, set firmly in the ground at sufficient distances +from each other to admit of guns and other missiles to be fired between +them. The ditch ... is inside of the piquet, in which +their warriors screen their bodies from the view and weapons of their +enemies." (Catlin, (1), I, pp. 80-81.) This is followed by a description +of the earth-covered lodges, "closely grouped together, +leaving but just room enough for walking and riding between them." +Outside they appeared to be made entirely of earth, but entering he +was surprised "to see the neatness, comfort, and spacious dimensions +of these earth-covered dwellings." The structures varied in size, +some being 40, others 60 feet in diameter. All were of a circular +form with the floors 2 feet or more below the original surface. "In +the centre, and immediately under the sky-light is the fire-place, a +hole of four or five feet in diameter, of a circular form, sunk a foot +or more below the surface, and curbed around with stone. Over the +fire-place, and suspended from the apex of diverging props or poles, +is generally seen the pot or kettle, filled with buffalo meat; and +around it are the family, reclining in all the most picturesque attitudes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> +and groups, resting on their buffalo-robes and beautiful mats of +rushes." Their beds, or sleeping places, stood against the wall and +were formed of poles lashed together and covered with buffalo skins. +Each such bed was screened by skins of the buffalo or elk, arranged as +curtains, with a hole in front to serve as an entrance. "Some of +these coverings or curtains are exceedingly beautiful, being cut tastefully +into fringe, and handsomely ornamented with porcupine's quills +and picture writings or hieroglyphics." Catlin's sketch of the interior +of a lodge, as just described, is reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_38">38</a>, <i>a</i>. In +this picture the beds resting against the wall are clearly shown, the +sunken fireplace is surrounded by the occupants of the lodge, and on +the extreme right are two pottery vessels and a bull-boat, so characteristic +of the upper Missouri.</p> + +<p>Near the center of the large village, surrounded by the lodges, was +the open space where games were played and their various ceremonies +enacted. Referring to this, Catlin wrote (Op. cit., p. 88): "In the +centre of the village is an open space, or public area, of 150 feet in +diameter, and circular in form, which is used for all public games +and festivals, shows and exhibitions and also for their 'annual +religious ceremonies.'... The lodges around this open space front +in, with their doors towards the centre; and in the middle of +this circle stands an object of great religious veneration.... This +object is in form of a large hogshead, some eight or ten feet high, +made of planks and hoops.... One of the lodges fronting on this +circular area, and facing this strange object of their superstition, +is called the 'Medicine Lodge,' or council house. It is in this +sacred building that these wonderful ceremonies, in commemoration +of the flood, take place." Later Catlin witnessed the remarkable +ceremony, as enacted by the Mandan in the midst of their large +village, and prepared a series of paintings showing the various +phases. The original pictures are in the collection belonging to the +United States National Museum, and one, the last, showing what they +termed the "last race," is now reproduced as plate <a href="#Plate_38">38</a>, <i>b</i>. In the +center of the open space stands the sacred object, "in form of a large +hogshead." An outline drawing of this painting was reproduced +as plate 69 in Catlin's work.</p> + +<p>One of the most interesting and vivid passages in Catlin's writings +is his description of this village as it impressed him. To quote (Op. +cit., pp. 88-89): "In ranging the eye over the village from where +I am writing, there is presented to the view the strangest mixture and +medley of unintelligible trash (independent of the living beings that +are in motion), that can possibly be imagined. On the roofs of the +lodges, besides the groups of living, are buffaloes' skulls, skin canoes, +pots and pottery; sleds and sledges—and suspended on poles, erected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +some twenty feet above the doors of their wigwams, are displayed +in a pleasant day, the scalps of warriors, preserved as trophies; and +thus proudly exposed as evidence of their warlike deeds. In other +parts are raised on poles the warriors' pure and whitened shields and +quivers, with medicine-bags attached; and here and there a sacrifice +of red cloth, or other costly stuff, offered up to the Great Spirit, over +the door of some benignant chief, in humble gratitude for the blessings +which he is enjoying. Such is a part of the strange medley that +is before and around me; and amidst them ... can be seen in +distance, the green and boundless, treeless, bushless prairie; and on +it, and contiguous to the piquet which encloses the village, a hundred +scaffolds on which their 'dead live,' as they term it." Such was +the appearance of the great Mandan town in the year 1832, and this +description would probably have applied to many of the ruined villages +which stood on the banks of the Missouri farther down the +river, which were occupied during past generations by the ancestors +of those whom Catlin met and whose portraits have been preserved.</p> + +<p>Maximilian, accompanied by the artist Karl Bodmer, left St. Louis +April 10, 1833, on board the steamboat <i>Yellow Stone</i>, bound for the +upper Missouri. Arriving at Fort Pierre they boarded the <i>Assiniboin</i>. +The <i>Yellow Stone</i> being loaded with "7,000 buffalo skins and +other furs," was to return to St. Louis. Starting from Fort Pierre +June 5, they arrived at Fort Clark, among the Mandan, just two +weeks later. Maximilian wrote on June 18: "At half-past seven we +passed a roundish island covered with willows, and reached then the +wood on the western bank, in which the winter dwellings of part of +the Mandan Indian are situated; and saw, at a distance, the largest +village of this tribe, Mih-Tutta-Hang-Kush, in the vicinity of which +the whole prairie was covered with riders and pedestrians. As we +drew nearer the huts of that village, Fort Clarke, lying before it, +relieved by the background of the blue prairie hills, came in sight, +with the gay American banner waving from the flag-staff.... The +<i>Assiniboin</i> soon lay to before the fort, against the gently sloping +shore, where above 600 Indians were waiting for us." (Maximilian, +(1), p. 171.) They departed from Fort Clark the following day +and on June 24, "the seventy-fifth day since our departure from St. +Louis," arrived at Fort Union, near the mouth of the Yellowstone. +Returning to Fort Clark November 8, they remained throughout the +winter, departing April 18, 1834.</p> + +<p>During the long winter months Maximilian learned much of the +manners and ways of life of the Mandan, and his records are, in +many respects, to be preferred to those of Catlin. To quote his +description of the Mandan towns: "Their villages are assemblages +of clay huts, of greater or less extent, placed close to each other,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> +without regard to order. Mih-Tutta-Hang-Kush, the largest of the +Mandan villages, was about 150 or 200 paces in diameter, the second +was much smaller. The circumference forms an irregular circle, and +was anciently surrounded with strong posts, or palisades, which have, +however, gradually disappeared as the natives used them for fuel in +the cold winters. At four places, at nearly equal distances from +each other, is a bastion built of clay, furnished with loop-holes, and +lined both within and without with basket-work of willow branches. +They form an angle, and are open towards the village; the earth is +filled in between the basket-work and it is said that these bulwarks, +which are now in a state of decay, were erected for the Indians by +the Whites." It is curious and interesting that a similar observation +should have been made by La Verendrye nearly a century before, +and so the question arises, If made by Europeans, who were they? +No protection or fortification of this sort was at the second and +smaller village. A plan of the larger village, indicating its position +on the right bank of the Missouri a short distance above Fort Clark, +is given by Maximilian on page 394 and is here reproduced in figure +<a href="#figure_4">4</a>. This would probably have been near the southern line of the +present Mercer County, North Dakota.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"><a name="figure_4"></a> +<img src="images/f004.png" width="500" height="368" alt="Fig. 4.—Plan of the large Mandan village, 1833." title="Fig. 4.—Plan of the large Mandan village, 1833." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 4.—Plan of the large Mandan village, 1833.</span> +</div> + +<p>Continuing the description of the large village, Maximilian +wrote: "The huts, as I have before remarked, stand close to each +other, leaving, in the centre, an open circular space, about sixty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +paces in diameter, in the centre of which (among the Mandans) the +ark of the first man is set up, of which we shall speak in the sequel. +It is a small cylinder, open above, made of planks, about four or +five feet high, fixed in the ground, and bound with climbing plants, +or pliable boughs, to hold them together (see the woodcut, p. 342 +[fig. <a href="#figure_5">5</a>]).</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 492px;"><a name="figure_5"></a> +<img src="images/f005.png" width="492" height="500" alt="Fig. 5.—"The ark of the first man."" title="Fig. 5.—"The ark of the first man."" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 5.—"The ark of the first man."</span> +</div> + +<p>"At the north end of this circular space is the medicine lodge, in +which festivals are celebrated, and certain customs practised, which +are connected with the religious notions of this people.... At the +top of a high pole, a figure is here placed, made of skins, with a +wooden head, the face painted black, and wearing a fur cap and +feathers, which is intended to represent the evil spirit Ochkih-Hadda.... Other +grotesque figures, made of skins and bundles +of twigs, we saw hanging on high +poles, most of them being offerings +to the deity. Among the huts +are many stages of several stories, +supported by poles, on which they +dry the maize. The huts themselves +are of a circular form, +slightly vaulted, having a sort of +portico entrance. When the inmates +are absent the entrance is +shut up with twigs and thorns; and +if they wish merely to close the door +they put up a skin stretched out +on a frame, which is shoved aside +on entering. In the centre of the roof is a square opening for the +smoke to find vent, over which is a circular sort of screen made of +twigs, as a protection against the wind and rain, and which, when +necessary, is covered with skins (see woodcut [fig. <a href="#figure_6">6</a>]).</p> + + + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 38<a name="Plate_38"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p038a.png" width="300" height="204" alt="a. Interior of a Mandan lodge. George Catlin" title="a. Interior of a Mandan lodge. George Catlin" /> +<span class="caption">a. Interior of a Mandan lodge. George Catlin</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p038b.png" width="300" height="244" alt="b. Scene in a Mandan village. George Catlin" title="b. Scene in a Mandan village. George Catlin" /> +<span class="caption">b. Scene in a Mandan village. George Catlin</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 39<a name="Plate_39"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/p039.png" width="500" height="304" alt=""MIH-TUTTA-HANG-KUSCH," A MANDAN VILLAGE + +Karl Bodmer, 1833" title=""MIH-TUTTA-HANG-KUSCH," A MANDAN VILLAGE + +Karl Bodmer, 1833" /> +<span class="caption">"MIH-TUTTA-HANG-KUSCH," A MANDAN VILLAGE + +Karl Bodmer, 1833</span> +</div> + +<p>"The interior of the hut is spacious, tolerably light, and cleanly. +Four strong pillars towards the middle, with several cross beams, +support the roof. The inner circumference of the hut is formed by +eleven or fifteen thick posts, four or five feet in height, between +which other rather shorter ones are placed close to each other. On +these shorter posts, which are all of an equal height, are long rafters, +inclining to the centre; they are placed near each other, and bear the +roof. On the outside the huts are covered with a kind of mat, made +of osiers, joined together with bark, and now the skeleton of the hut +is finished. Over this hay is spread, and the outer covering is of +earth. The men and women work together in erecting these huts, +and the relations, neighbours, and friends, assist them in the +work.... In the centre of the hut a circular place is dug for the +fire, over which the kettle is suspended. This fire-place, or hearth, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>is often enclosed with a ledge of stones. The fuel is laid, in moderately +thick pieces, on the external edge of the hearth, crossing each +other in the middle, when it is kindled, and the pieces gradually +pushed in as they burn away. The Indians are not fond of large +fires. The inmates sit round it, on low seats, made of peeled osiers, +covered with buffalo or bear skin. Round the inner circumference +of the hut lie or hang the baggage, the furniture, and other property, +in leather bags, the painted parchment travelling bags, and the +harness of the horses; and on separate stages there are arms, sledges, +and snow-shoes, while meat and maize, piled up, complete the motley +assemblage." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 342-344.)</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"><a name="figure_6"></a> +<img src="images/f006.png" width="500" height="262" alt="Fig. 6.—Typical earth lodges." title="Fig. 6.—Typical earth lodges." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 6.—Typical earth lodges.</span> +</div> + +<p>Among the many interesting paintings made by Bodmer during +his journey with Maximilian is one of the large Mandan village, +plate <a href="#Plate_39">39</a>, looking down the Missouri, showing the cluster of earth +lodges on the summit of the cliff which terminates abruptly at the +river. A structure rather lower than the others, on the immediate +edge of the level area, is probably the "bastion," as represented in +the plan, figure <a href="#figure_4">4</a>, pointing out over the cliff. Beyond the village, +but evidently screened from view by the high cliff upon which the +latter stood, was Fort Clark, near the mouth of a small stream which +flowed into the Missouri.</p> + +<p>In these large circular structures the beds stood against the wall +and the single opening faced inward. These were described by Catlin +and clearly indicated in his drawing of an interior of a lodge, plate +<a href="#Plate_38">38</a>, <i>a</i>. In Maximilian's work (p. 344) is a sketch of such a bed which +shows it as a unit, not attached to the wall, and capable of being +moved about. The sketch is reproduced in figure <a href="#figure_7">7</a>. These were so +formed and inclosed in skins as to protect the occupants from the +cold blasts of air which must have circulated about in the interior of +the lodge during certain seasons of the year. And as additional<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +protection "In the winter huts they place, at the inside of the door, +a high screen of willow boughs, covered with hides, which keeps off +the draught of air from without, and especially protects the fire." +And Maximilian related how, about the middle of November or before, +the Indians removed to their winter huts which were in a timbered +area, and thus more protected from the winds and storms of +winter. There they remained until the latter part of February, or +the beginning of March, being governed by the climatic conditions. +Thus about four months of the year would be spent in their winter +village. As the greater part of their possessions would be deposited +in underground caches they made frequent trips between their villages +to get what was desired—food, clothing, skins, and other supplies. +In the winter, when the frozen prairie was covered with ice +and snow, they made use of sledges drawn by dogs to transport their +goods from place to place. The sledges were "made of a couple of +thin, narrow boards, +nine or ten feet in +length, fastened together +with leather +straps, and with four +cross-pieces, by way +of giving them firmness."</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"><a name="figure_7"></a> +<img src="images/f007.png" width="500" height="262" alt="Fig. 7.—Inclosed bed." title="Fig. 7.—Inclosed bed." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 7.—Inclosed bed.</span> +</div> + +<p>On the evening of +November 30, 1833, +Maximilian returned +to Fort Clark from a visit of a few days to the villages a short distance +above. They passed through "the forest-village belonging to +the inhabitants of Ruhptare," referring to the winter village of the +people of the smaller Mandan town. They entered one of the winter +lodges, and "there was an abundance of meat hanging up in this hut, +as they had had a very successful buffalo hunt." After returning to +Fort Clark Maximilian wrote: "The Mandan village near the fort +was now entirely forsaken by the inhabitants. The entrances to +the huts were blocked with bundles of thorns; a couple of families +only still remained, one of which was that of Dipauch, whom Mr +Bodmer visited every day, in order to make a drawing of the interior +of the hut. Instead of the numerous inhabitants, magpies +were flying about, and flocks of snow buntings were seen in the +neighbourhood about the dry plants of the prairie, where the Indian +children set long rows of snares, made of horsehair, to catch +them alive." (Op. cit., p. 425.) The drawing made by Bodmer of +the interior of the lodge proves to be one of his most interesting +pictures. It was reproduced as plate <span class="smcap">xix</span>, and is here shown in +plate <a href="#Plate_40">40</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>The people of Mih-tutta-hang-kusch having removed to their +winter settlement, prepared to have "a great medicine feast," and +Maximilian was invited to be present, and so, as he recorded in his +narrative, "we proceeded thither, on the 3rd of December, in the +afternoon. Mr. Kipp took his family with him, and Mato-Topé +and several other Indians accompanied us. We were all well armed, +because it was asserted that a band of hostile Indians had been seen +among the prairie hills on the preceding day. Our beds, blankets, +and buffalo skins were laid on a horse, on which Mr Kipp's wife, a +Mandan Indian, rode. Thus we passed, at a rapid pace, through the +prairie, along the Missouri, then below the hills, which are pretty +high.... After proceeding +about an hour and a half we +reached the village in the +wood, which is the winter +residence of the inhabitants +of Mih-Tutta-Hang-Kush. +We stopped at the hut of +Mr. Kipp's father-in-law, +Mandeek-Suck-Choppenik +(the medicine bird), who accommodated +us with a night's +lodging. The description of +this hut may serve for all the +winter huts of these Indians. +It was about twenty paces in +diameter, and circular; <i>h</i> is +the fence or wall of the hut, +supported inside by strong, +low posts, on which rests the +vaulted roof, which has a +square hole to let the smoke escape; <i>g</i> is the entrance, protected +by two projecting walls covered above. At <i>f</i> is the door, consisting +of a piece of leather stretched on a frame. At <i>d d</i> there is a +cross wall of considerable height, made of reeds and osier twigs +woven together, to keep off the draught of air. At <i>e e e</i> there is +another cross wall, only three feet high, behind which the horses +stand; <i>a</i> is the fireplace, round which, at <i>c c c c</i>, are the seats of +the inmates, consisting of benches formed of basket-work, covered +with skins; <i>b b b b</i> are four strong pillars which bear the roof, +and are very well united above by cross beams. At <i>i</i> there was a +large leather case for the beds in which the family slept. A chain, +with a large kettle, was suspended from the roof over the fire, to +cook our supper, consisting of very pleasant flavoured sweet maize."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> +(Op. cit., pp. 425-426.) A plan of the lodge is given on page 426, +here reproduced as figure <a href="#figure_8">8</a>.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 420px;"><a name="figure_8"></a> +<img src="images/f008.png" width="420" height="500" alt="Fig. 8.—Plan of the interior of a Mandan lodge." title="Fig. 8.—Plan of the interior of a Mandan lodge." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 8.—Plan of the interior of a Mandan lodge.</span> +</div> + +<p>The "great medicine feast" was to begin the evening of their +arrival at the winter village and to last 40 nights. That evening +"after seven o'clock we repaired to the medicine lodge; it was entirely +cleared, except that some women sat along the walls; the fire +burned in the centre, before which we took our seats, near the partition +<i>d d</i>, with several distinguished men of the band of soldiers. At +our left hand, the other soldiers, about twenty-five in number, were +seated in a row; some of them were handsomely dressed, though the +majority were in plain clothes. They had their arms in their hands, +and in the centre were three men who beat the drum." (Op. cit., pp. +426-427.) The lengthy detailed account of what followed during +the course of the "feast" is most interesting, but will not be mentioned +in this sketch.</p> + +<p>As among the many neighboring tribes of the Missouri Valley, +the buffalo served as the principal source of food for the Mandan. +Often sufficient meat could be secured very near the towns; again it +would be necessary to undertake long journeys in search of the moving +herds. It will be recalled that on January 13, 1805, when the +mercury stood 34° below zero, Lewis and Clark saw "nearly one half +of the Mandan nation" pass down the frozen Missouri on a hunt to +last several days. And a few years later, just at the beginning of +summer, June 25, 1811, Brackenridge wrote: "At ten, passed an old +Mandan village; and at some distance above, saw a great number of +Mandan Indians on their march along the prairie. They sometimes +go on hunting parties by whole villages, which is the case at present; +they are about five hundred in number, some on horseback, some on +foot, their tents and baggage drawn by dogs. On these great hunting +parties, the women are employed in preserving the hides, drying +the meat, and making a provision to keep. Very little of the buffalo +is lost, for after taking the marrow, they pound the bones, boil them, +and preserve the oil." (Brackenridge, (1), p. 260.) On such trips +away from their permanent earth-lodge villages the Mandan made +use of the skin-covered tipi.</p> + +<p>In addition to the food supplied by the chase the people of the +permanent villages had large gardens in which they raised quantities +of corn and beans of various sorts, gourds and sunflowers of +several varieties, and of the seeds of the latter "very nice cakes are +made." Many animals in addition to the buffalo, and various plants +besides those cultivated in the gardens, served the Mandan for food.</p> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 40<a name="Plate_40"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/p040.png" width="500" height="325" alt=""THE INTERIOR OF THE HUT OF A MANDAN CHIEF" + +Karl Bodmer, 1833" title=""THE INTERIOR OF THE HUT OF A MANDAN CHIEF" + +Karl Bodmer, 1833" /> +<span class="caption">"THE INTERIOR OF THE HUT OF A MANDAN CHIEF" + +Karl Bodmer, 1833</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 41<a name="Plate_41"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/p041a.png" width="250" height="141" alt="a. Mandan wooden bowl. Marked "Ft. Berthold, Dacotah Ter. +Drs. Gray and Matthews." Diameter 7¼ ¼ inches, depth 2 inches. +(U.S.N.M. 6341)" title="a. Mandan wooden bowl. Marked "Ft. Berthold, Dacotah Ter. +Drs. Gray and Matthews." Diameter 7¼ ¼ inches, depth 2 inches. +(U.S.N.M. 6341)" /> +<span class="caption">a. Mandan wooden bowl. Marked "Ft. Berthold, Dacotah Ter. +Drs. Gray and Matthews." Diameter 7¼ ¼ inches, depth 2 inches. +(U.S.N.M. 6341)</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 235px;"> +<img src="images/p041b.png" width="235" height="283" alt="b. Mandan earthenware jar, collected by Drs. Gray +and Matthews. (U.S.N.M. 8407)" title="b. Mandan earthenware jar, collected by Drs. Gray +and Matthews. (U.S.N.M. 8407)" /> +<span class="caption">b. Mandan earthenware jar, collected by Drs. Gray +and Matthews. (U.S.N.M. 8407)</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p041c.png" width="300" height="148" alt="c. Wooden bowl. Marked "Bowl of Mandan Indians, Dakota T. Drs. Gray and Matthews—U. S. A." +Diameters 10¾ and 9¼ inches, depth 3½ inches. (U.S.N.M. 8406)" title="c. Wooden bowl. Marked "Bowl of Mandan Indians, Dakota T. Drs. Gray and Matthews—U. S. A." +Diameters 10¾ and 9¼ inches, depth 3½ inches. (U.S.N.M. 8406)" /> +<span class="caption">c. Wooden bowl. Marked "Bowl of Mandan Indians, Dakota T. Drs. Gray and Matthews—U. S. A." +Diameters 10¾ and 9¼ inches, depth 3½ inches. (U.S.N.M. 8406)</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 42<a name="Plate_42"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p042a.png" width="300" height="137" alt="a. Spoon, marked "Buffalo horn spoon, presented by Gen. T. Duncan." Length about 10 inches. +(U.S.N.M. 12259)" title="a. Spoon, marked "Buffalo horn spoon, presented by Gen. T. Duncan." Length about 10 inches. +(U.S.N.M. 12259)" /> +<span class="caption">a. Spoon, marked "Buffalo horn spoon, presented by Gen. T. Duncan." Length about 10 inches. +(U.S.N.M. 12259)</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p042b.png" width="300" height="142" alt="b. Spoon made of horn of mountain sheep. "Mandan Indians, Dacotah Ter. Drs. Gray and +Matthews." Extreme length 16½ inches. (U.S.N.M. 6333)" title="b. Spoon made of horn of mountain sheep. "Mandan Indians, Dacotah Ter. Drs. Gray and +Matthews." Extreme length 16½ inches. (U.S.N.M. 6333)" /> +<span class="caption">b. Spoon made of horn of mountain sheep. "Mandan Indians, Dacotah Ter. Drs. Gray and +Matthews." Extreme length 16½ inches. (U.S.N.M. 6333)</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 43<a name="Plate_43"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/p043.png" width="500" height="288" alt=""MINATARREE VILLAGE" + +George Catlin" title=""MINATARREE VILLAGE" + +George Catlin" /> +<span class="caption">"MINATARREE VILLAGE" + +George Catlin</span> +</div> + +<p>At the time of Catlin's and Maximilian's visits to the Mandan +the latter were making and using their primitive forms of utensils +such as had been in use for generations. Wooden mortars, bowls<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +hollowed out of hard knots, spoons made of the horn of buffalo +and mountain sheep, and, most interesting of all, dishes and vessels +made of pottery—all these were used in the preparation or serving +of food. Some remarkable examples of wooden bowls made by +the Mandan are now preserved in the collection of the United States +National Museum, Washington. One of the most interesting is shown +in plate <a href="#Plate_41">41</a>, <i>c</i> (U.S.N.M. 8406), and another, of simpler form but +equally well made, in plate <a href="#Plate_41">41</a>, <i>a</i> (U.S.N.M. 6341). Both examples +were evidently quite old even when collected. They are fashioned +out of maple knots, worked thin and smooth, and are beautiful +specimens. Large spoons, often termed "drinking cups," were, as +already mentioned, made of the horns of buffalo and mountain +sheep. The former were extensively used by many tribes, and usually +resembled the one shown in plate <a href="#Plate_42">42</a>, <i>a</i>. The spoons made of +mountain-sheep horns were often much larger and thinner, of a +yellowish hue, and the handles were frequently bent into form or +decorated. A very beautiful spoon of this sort is shown in plate +<a href="#Plate_42">42</a>, <i>b</i>. (U.S.N.M. 6333.)</p> + +<p>Pottery dishes and vessels, so Catlin wrote, "are a familiar part +of the culinary furniture of every Mandan lodge, and are manufactured +by the women of this tribe in great quantities, and modelled +into a thousand forms and tastes. They are made by the hands +of the women, from a tough black clay, and baked in kilns which +are made for the purpose, and are nearly equal in hardness to our +own manufacture of pottery; though they have not yet got the art +of glazing, which would be to them a most valuable secret. They +make them so strong and serviceable, however, that they hang them +over the fire as we do our iron pots, and boil their meat in them +with perfect success." (Op. cit., p. 116.) Maximilian described the +art of pottery making among the Mandan as exactly like that of +the two associated tribes, the Hidatsa and Arikara. He wrote +regarding the three tribes that they "understand the manufacture +of earthen pots and vessels, of various forms and sizes. The clay is +of a dark slate colour, and burns a yellowish-red, very similar to +what is seen in the burnt tops of the Missouri hills. This clay is +mixed with flint or granite reduced to powder by the action of +fire. The workwoman forms the hollow inside of the vessel by means +of a round stone which she holds in her hand while she works and +smooths the outside with a piece of poplar bark. When the pot is +made, it is filled and surrounded with dry shavings, and then burnt, +when it is ready for use. They know nothing of glazing." (Op. cit., +p. 348.) This was probably the simple process of manufacture followed +by the widely scattered tribes, and the apparent ease with +which the vessels were made accounts for the great quantities of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +fragments now discovered scattered over ancient village sites. Two +small vessels made by the Mandan, and collected by Dr. Matthews +half a century ago, are in the National Museum collection, and one +is shown in plate <a href="#Plate_41">41</a>, <i>b</i>. Very few perfect specimens exist, several +being in the collection of the State Historical Society of North +Dakota. The specimens in the National Museum are rather small, +but some very large vessels were made and used +in boiling their food.</p> + +<p>Bows and arrows were the principal weapons +of the Mandan. The heads of the arrows, at +the time of Maximilian's stay among the people, +were made of thin bits of iron, although persons +then living remembered the use of stone. Lances +and clubs were likewise made and used, and +when mentioning the latter Maximilian said, +"a simple, knotty, wooden club is called mauna-panischa," +and gives, on page 390, a woodcut +of such a weapon. It is of interest to know +that an example of this peculiar form of weapon, +which at once suggests the traditional club of +Hercules, is preserved in the Museo Kircheriana, +in Rome. It is one of four specimens +now belonging to the museum which were collected +by Maximilian, the other three being a +knife sheath, a horse bridle, and a saddle +blanket, all being beautifully decorated with +colored quillwork. The club is shown in figure +<a href="#figure_9">9</a>, after a drawing made for the writer in 1905 +by Dr. Paribeni, of the museum. The smaller +end is bound or braided with tanned skin, to +serve as a handle, and around the upper end of +the wrapping is a band of quillwork similar in +workmanship to that on the other objects. All +are remarkably well preserved, and several +specimens in the Ethnological Museum in Florence may have belonged +to the Maximilian collection.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 135px;"><a name="figure_9"></a> +<img src="images/f009.png" width="135" height="500" alt="Fig. 9.—Wooden club." title="Fig. 9.—Wooden club." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 9.—Wooden club.</span> +</div> + +<p>The Mandans, like other tribes of the upper Missouri Valley, were +very expert in the art of dressing skins, especially those of the buffalo. +They used two forms of implements, one of which is similar to those +shown in plate <a href="#Plate_12">12</a>, <i>a</i>; the second, rather more complicated, is represented +in plate <a href="#Plate_34">34</a>, <i>c</i>. This is a beautiful old specimen now in the +National Museum. The handle is formed of a piece of elk antler; the +blade is of clear, brownish flint, well chipped. Other similar objects +are preserved in the collection.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>How fortunate it was that Catlin and Maximilian chose to spend +much time among the Mandan during the years 1832, 1833, and 1834. +A few years later, in the spring of 1837, the dreaded smallpox swept +away the greater part of this most interesting nation, and "when the +disease had abated, and when the remnant of this once powerful +nation had recovered sufficiently to remove the decaying bodies from +their cabins, the total number of grown men was twenty-three, of +women forty, and of young persons sixty or seventy. These were all +that were left of the eighteen hundred souls that composed the nation +prior to the advent of that terrific disease, and even those that recovered +were so disfigured as scarcely to be recognized." (Hayden, +(1), p. 433.) Soon those who survived deserted their old village near +Fort Clark and removed a few miles above, and the town was, about +this time, occupied by the Arikara. It is interesting to know that +the small remnant of the Mandan continued to follow their own +peculiar customs and to maintain their tribal unity although so +reduced in numbers. It will not be necessary in the present sketch to +trace the later history of the tribe.</p> + +<p>In recent years the State Historical Society of North Dakota has +caused surveys to be made of the more important village sites in that +State. In addition to the plans of the sites, showing the position of +the earth lodges, they have been fortunate in obtaining drawings of +the Mandan and Hidatsa villages, made by a Mandan living on the +Fort Berthold Reservation. In writing of the picture and plan of +the "most important historical site of the Mandan tribe in the state, +the one visited and described by Lewis and Clark, Catlin, and Maximilian," +Libby said: "The Indian chart and the map of the village +as it appears to-day are here shown. It is seen that the two representations +are not essentially unlike. The grouping of the houses +about a common center, at one side of which is the holy tepee, is the +predominating characteristic of each." The Indian drawing, although +crude, shows some details omitted by Catlin in his many +sketches; but the map (fig. <a href="#figure_10">10</a>) is of the greatest interest. It shows +the site near Fort Clark as it appeared about the year 1908, and to +quote from the description: "In the center of the tepees, on the space +devoted by the old Mandans to the 'big canoe' and cedar post of the +'elder man,' stands now a large tepee (shown in dotted outline) +which was placed there by the Arikara who occupied the village after +the small-pox scourge of 1837 had killed or driven away the original +inhabitants." The structures surrounding the open space were occupied +by the principal men of the village, and the names as given by +Libby were secured by him from "Bad Gun, Rushing War Eagle, +son of the Ma-ta-to-pe or Four Bears, whose portrait Catlin painted." +In the list of names "Tepee No. 1 was the holy tepee and was also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> +used by Lance Shoulder," and "No. 2 was occupied by Four Bears." +The list includes fifteen names. At the time the survey was made +the entire ditch could not be traced, but its general course could be +followed, thus indicating the approximate boundary of the town, +"beyond which only a few tepees are located." (Libby, (1), pp. +498-499.)</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"><a name="figure_10"></a> +<img src="images/f010.png" width="500" height="315" alt="Fig. 10.—Plan of the Mandan village at Fort Clark." title="Fig. 10.—Plan of the Mandan village at Fort Clark." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 10.—Plan of the Mandan village at Fort Clark.</span> +</div> + +<p>When it is realized how little is known regarding the arrangement +of the many ancient villages which once stood in the country east of +the Mississippi, villages which in their time were probably as +large and important as those of the Mandan of the last century, it +is not possible to overestimate the value of the work of the Historical +Society in causing to be made an accurate survey of the sites +and in securing descriptions of the villages from some who remember +them. A generation later this would not have been possible.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">hidatsa group.</span></h4> + +<p>Two tribes are regarded as constituting this group: The Hidatsa +proper, known to the earlier writers as the Minnetarees, and to +others as the Gros Ventres of the Missouri; and the Crows. The +Hidatsa and the Crows were, until a few generations ago, one people, +but trouble developed and the latter moved farther up the Missouri +to the Rocky Mountains, and there they were discovered by the early +explorers of the region.</p> + +<p>The Amahami may have been a distinct tribe, and as such were +recognized by Lewis and Clark, but according to their own traditions +they, together with the Hidatsa and Crows, once formed a single<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> +tribe. Their language differs only slightly from that of the Hidatsa. +During the early years of the last century their one village stood at +the mouth of Knife River. Already greatly reduced in numbers, +they suffered during the epidemic of 1837, and later the majority of +those who had survived became more closely associated with the +Hidatsa.</p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Hidatsa.</span></h5> + +<p>The Hidatsa, also known as the Minnetarees and designated by +some writers the Gros Ventres of the Missouri, a name which must +not be confused with Gros Ventres of the Prairie often applied to +the Atsina, lived when first known to Europeans near the junction +of the Knife and Missouri Rivers, in the eastern part of the present +Mercer County, North Dakota. Some are of the belief that it was +the Hidatsa and not the Mandan whom the French, under La Verendrye, +visited during the autumn and winter of 1738, but in the +present sketch the Mandan are accepted as undoubtedly being the +tribe at whose villages the French remained.</p> + +<p>The Hidatsa villages as seen by Catlin and Maximilian during the +years 1832, 1833, and 1834 had probably changed little since the +winter of 1804-05, when Lewis and Clark occupied Fort Mandan, +their winter quarters, some 8 miles below the mouth of Knife River. +Describing the villages, Catlin said the principal one stood on the +bank of Knife River and consisted of 40 or 50 earth-covered lodges, +each from 40 to 50 feet in diameter, and this town being on an elevated +bank overlooked the other two which were on lower ground +"and almost lost amidst their numerous corn fields and other profuse +vegetation which cover the earth with their luxuriant growth.</p> + +<p>"The scenery along the banks of this little river, from village to +village, is quite peculiar and curious; rendered extremely so by the +continual wild and garrulous groups of men, women, and children, +who are wending their way along its winding shores, or dashing and +plunging through its blue waves, enjoying the luxury of swimming, +of which both sexes seem to be passionately fond. Others are paddling +about in their tub-like canoes, made of the skins of buffaloes." +(Catlin, (1), I, p. 186.) Among the great collection of Catlin's +paintings belonging to the United States National Museum, in Washington, +is one of the large village. The original painting is reproduced +in plate <a href="#Plate_43">43</a>. A drawing of the same was shown as plate in +Catlin's work cited above. The work is crude but interesting historically, +and conveys some idea of the appearance of the town, +although in this, as in other paintings by the same artist, the earth +lodges are very poorly drawn, failing to show the projection which +served as the entrance and having the roofs too rounded and dome-shaped. +Bodmer's sketches are far superior.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>On June 19, 1833, Maximilian, aboard the steamboat <i>Assiniboin</i>, +left Fort Clark bound for Fort Union at the mouth of the Yellowstone. +Soon after passing the Mandan village of Ruhptare, so Maximilian +wrote: "We saw before us the fine broad mirror of the +river, and, at a distance on the southern bank, the red mass of the +clay huts of the lower village of the Manitaries, which we reached +in half an hour. The Missouri is joined by the Knife River, on +which the three villages of the Manitaries are built. The largest, +which is the furthest from the Missouri, is called Elah-Sa (the village +of the great willows); the middle one, Awatichay (the little +village), where Charbonneau, the interpreter, lives; and the third, +Awachawi (le village des souliers), which is the smallest, consisting +of only eighteen huts, situated at the mouth of Knife River.... +The south bank of the river was now animated by a crowd of Indians, +both on foot and on horseback; they were the Manitaries, +who had flocked from their villages to see the steamer and to welcome +us. The appearance of this vessel of the Company, which +comes up, once in two years, to the Yellow Stone River, is an event +of the greatest importance to the Indians.... The sight of the red +brown crowd collected on the river side, for even their buffalo skins +were mostly of this colour, was, in the highest degree, striking. We +already saw above a hundred of them, with many dogs, some of +which drew sledges, and others, wooden boards fastened to their +backs, and the ends trailing on the ground, to which the baggage +was attached with leather straps." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 178-179.)</p> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 44<a name="Plate_44"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p044a.png" width="300" height="183" alt="a. Original pencil sketch" title="a. Original pencil sketch" /> +<span class="caption">a. Original pencil sketch</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p044b.png" width="300" height="236" alt="b. Finished picture of the same + +"WINTER PICTURE OF THE MINATARRES + +Karl Bodmer, 1833" title="b. Finished picture of the same + +"WINTER PICTURE OF THE MINATARRES + +Karl Bodmer, 1833" /> +<span class="caption">b. Finished picture of the same + +"WINTER PICTURE OF THE MINATARRES + +Karl Bodmer, 1833</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 45<a name="Plate_45"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 175px;"> +<img src="images/p045a.png" width="175" height="176" alt="a. Manner of carrying basket similar to that +shown in plate 52, a" title="a. Manner of carrying basket similar to that +shown in plate 52, a" /> +<span class="caption">a. Manner of carrying basket similar to that +shown in plate <a href="#Plate_52">52</a>, a</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p045b.png" width="300" height="86" alt="The ring-and-pole game." title="The ring-and-pole game." /> +<span class="caption">The ring-and-pole game.</span> +</div> + + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p045c.png" width="300" height="221" alt="c. Hidatsa group with bull-boats. At Fort Berthold, July 13, 1851 + +FROM KURZ'S SKETCHBOOK" title="c. Hidatsa group with bull-boats. At Fort Berthold, July 13, 1851 + +FROM KURZ'S SKETCHBOOK" /> +<span class="caption">c. Hidatsa group with bull-boats. At Fort Berthold, July 13, 1851 + +FROM KURZ'S SKETCHBOOK</span> +</div> + +<p>As told in the preceding section, Maximilian returned from Fort +Union to Fort Clark, where, with the artist Bodmer, he spent the +long winter. While near the Mandan towns he made several visits +to the Hidatsa villages a few miles above, and learned much of the +manners and ways of life of the people. He again spoke of the three +villages on the banks of Knife River, "two on the left bank, and +the third, which is much the largest, on the right bank." He continued: +"At present the Manitaries live constantly in their villages, +and do not roam about as they formerly did, when, like the Pawnees +and other nations, they went in pursuit of the herds of buffaloes as +soon as their fields were sown, returned in the autumn for the harvest, +after which they again went into the prairie. In these wanderings +they made use of leather tents, some of which are still standing +by the side of their permanent dwellings" (p. 395). He then described +the dress and general appearance of the people and continued: +"The Manitari villages are similarly arranged as those of +the Mandans, except that they have no ark placed in the central +space, and the figure of Ochkih-Hadda is not there. In the principal +village, however, is the figure of a woman placed on a long pole, +doubtless representing the grandmother, who presented them with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> +the pots, of which I shall speak more hereafter. A bundle of brushwood +is hung on this pole, to which are attached the leathern dress +and leggins of a woman. The head is made of wormwood, and has +a cap with feathers. The interior of their huts is arranged as among +the Mandans: like them the Manitaries go, in winter, into the forests +on both banks of the Missouri, where they find fuel, and, at the same +time, protection against the inclement weather. Their winter villages +are in the thickest of the forest, and the huts are built near to each +other, promiscuously, and without any attempt at order or regularity. +They have about 250 or 300 horses in their three villages, and a considerable +number of dogs" (pp. 396-397). Bodmer's picture of the +"Winter Village of the Minatarres," made during the winter of +1833, is probably the most accurate drawing of an earth-lodge village +in existence. It was given as plate xxvi by Maximilian, which is +here reproduced as plate <a href="#Plate_44">44</a>, <i>b</i>. A pencil sketch which may be considered +as the original sketch made by Bodmer, and from which the +finished picture was made, is now in the E. E. Ayer collection preserved +in the Newberry Library. Unfortunately the drawing is unfinished +but is very interesting historically. It is shown in plate <a href="#Plate_44">44</a>, <i>a</i>.</p> + +<p>Maximilian then referred briefly to the creation myth of the people +with whom he was then resting. The entire surface was once +covered with water. There were two beings: one a man who lived in +the far Rocky Mountains who made all; the other was the old woman +called grandmother by the members of the tribe. "She gave the +Manitaries a couple of pots, which they still preserve as a sacred +treasure," and "When their fields are threatened with a great drought +they are to celebrate a medicine feast with the old grandmother's +pots, in order to beg for rain: this is, properly, the destination of +the pots. The medicine men are still paid, on such occasions, to sing +for four days together in the huts, while the pots remain filled with +water." Such were the superstitious beliefs of these strange people.</p> + +<p>November 26, 1833, Maximilian, Bodmer, and several others went +from Fort Clark to the winter village to attend "a great medicine +feast among the Manitaries." They passed the two Mandan towns +and during the journey saw a large stone, "undoubtedly one of those +isolated blocks of granite which are scattered over the whole prairie, +and which the Indians, from some superstitious notion, paint with +vermilion, and surround with little sticks, or rods, to which were +attached some feathers." The little party had seen much of interest +on the way, and it was late in the day when they arrived at the village, +"the large huts of which were built so close to each other that +it was sometimes difficult to pass between them." Herds of buffalo +having been reported in the vicinity of the village, a party of Indians +had decided to start after them the following day, and planned "to +implore the blessings of heaven upon their undertaking by a great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +medicine feast." This appears to have been a ceremony arranged by +the women of the village. The structure in which the dance took +place was not one of the earth-covered lodges of the town, but a rather +temporary shelter of unusual shape. As described by Maximilian: +"Between the huts, in the centre of the village, an elliptical space, +forty paces or more in length, was enclosed in a fence, ten or twelve +feet high, consisting of reeds and willow twigs inclining inwards. +(See the woodcut.) [Fig. <a href="#figure_11">11</a>.] An entrance was left at <i>a</i>; <i>b</i> represents +the fence; <i>d</i> are the four fires, burning in the medicine lodge, +which were kept up the whole time. At <i>e</i> the elder and principal +men had taken their seats; to the right sat the old chief, Lachpitzi-Sihrisch +(the yellow bear); some parts of his face were painted red, +and a bandage of yellow skin encircled his head. Places were assigned +to us on the right hand of the yellow bear. At <i>f</i>, close to the +fence, the spectators, especially the women, were seated: the men +walked about, some of them handsomely dressed, others quite simply; +children were seated round the fires, which they kept alive by throwing +twigs of willow trees into them." Here follows a description of +the ceremony, and it is related how six elderly men who had been +chosen by the younger ones to represent buffalo bulls, entered the inclosure. +They came from the hut opposite and when they were within, +and after certain formalities, were seated at <i>c</i>. The ceremony was +attended by smoking, the pipes were "brought first to the old men +and the visitors; they presented the mouth-piece of the pipe to us in +succession, going from right to left: we each took a few whiffs, +uttered, as before, a wish or prayer, and passed the pipe to our next +neighbours.... The six buffalo bulls, meantime, sitting behind the +fire, sang, and rattled the medicine sticks, while one of them constantly +beat the badger skin. After a while they all stood up, bent +forward, and danced; that is, they leaped as high as they could with +both their feet together, continuing to sing and rattle their sticks, +one of them beating time on the badger. Their song was invariably +the same, consisting of loud, broken notes and exclamations. When +they had danced for some time, they resumed their seats.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"><a name="figure_11"></a> +<img src="images/f011.png" width="500" height="217" alt="Fig. 11.—Plan of a ceremonial lodge." title="Fig. 11.—Plan of a ceremonial lodge." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 11.—Plan of a ceremonial lodge.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>"The whole was extremely interesting. The great number of red +men, in a variety of costumes, the singing, dancing, beating the +drum, &c., while the lofty trees of the forest, illumed by the fires, +spread their branches against the dark sky, formed a <i>tout ensemble</i> +so striking and original, that I regretted the impracticability of +taking a sketch of it on the spot."</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 403px;"><a name="figure_12"></a> +<img src="images/f012.png" width="403" height="500" alt="Fig. 12.—Plan of the large Hidatsa village." title="Fig. 12.—Plan of the large Hidatsa village." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 12.—Plan of the large Hidatsa village.</span> +</div> + +<p>Two days after the dance, on November 28, 1833, Maximilian +visited the chief Yellow Bear in his lodge. The interior presents an +interesting appearance: "The beds, consisting of square leathern +cases, were placed along +the sides of the spacious +hut, and the inmates sat +round the fire variously +occupied. The Yellow +Bear, wearing only his +breech-cloth, sat upon +a bench made of willow +boughs, covered with +skins, and was painting +a new buffalo robe with +figures in vermillion +and black, having his +colours standing by him, +ready mixed, in old potsherds. +In lieu of a +pencil he was using the +more inartificial substitute +of a sharp-pointed +piece of wood. The +robe was ornamented +with the symbols of +valuable presents which he had made, and which had gained the Yellow +Bear much reputation, and made him a man of distinction." +(Maximilian, (1), pp. 419-423.)</p> + +<p>Among the historic village sites which have been studied and surveyed +by the State Historical Society of North Dakota, as mentioned +in the preceding sketch of the Mandan, was that "of the +largest Hidatsa village on Knife river." The map made for the +society is here reproduced in figure <a href="#figure_12">12</a>. This, to quote Libby, "shows +the present appearance of the ... largest Hidatsa village site, +located just north of the mouth of Knife river. From the position +and direction of the doorways, it is seen that these villages show no +such large grouping as is characteristic of the Mandan village...." +It was observed that the circles marking the positions of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> +the earth lodges were much deeper in the Hidatsa villages than in +the two Mandan sites. In the former the extreme depth below the +"highest part of the rim was often three feet and very commonly +over two feet," but on the Mandan sites the depressions were quite +shallow. And "in many cases it was observed that in and near the +Hidatsa villages were mounds of debris of varying heights, while +nothing of the kind was seen on or near Mandan sites." (Libby, +(1), p. 500.) Noting these characteristic features of the two groups +of villages, or rather of the villages of the two tribes, should reduce +the difficulty of identifying other ancient sites in the upper Missouri +Valley.</p> + +<p>The several quotations already made refer to the earth-covered +lodges of the Hidatsa, but the same people also made use of the +typical skin tipi, although less often mentioned by the early writers. +They probably resembled the structures used by the Crow. On +November 8, 1833, when Maximilian was returning to Fort Clark +from the mouth of the Yellowstone, he wrote: "At twelve o'clock we +were opposite the first Manitari summer village, and saw, on the other +side, many Indians.... The invitations to land became more vociferous +and numerous." Going ashore "we were immediately conducted, +by a distinguished man, Ita-Widahki-Hisha (the red shield), to his +tent, which stood apart on the prairie, on the summit of the bank. +The white leather tent was new, spacious, and handsomely ornamented +with tufts of hair of various colours, and at each side of the +entrance, finished with a stripe and rosettes of dyed porcupine quills, +very neatly executed. It had been well warmed by a good fire, a most +refreshing sight to us. We took our seats around it, with the numerous +family, the brother and uncle of the chief, young men, women, +and children. The chief had rather a long beard, like the Punca +chief, Shudegacheh, and his right breast was tattooed with black +stripes.... A large dish of boiled maize and beans was immediately +set before us; it was very tender and well dressed, and three of us +eat out of the dish with spoons made of the horn of buffalo, or bighorn; +after which the red Dacota pipe went round." (Maximilian; +(1), p. 316.) This must have been a beautiful example of the buffalo-skin +tipi, new and white, decorated with quillwork and tufts of hair.</p> + +<p>Continuing down the Missouri to Fort Clark they passed women +in their "round leather boats," and saw others, "proceeding towards +the river, with their boats hanging on their heads and down their +backs."</p> + +<p>An example of a "bull-boat" and paddle is shown in plate <a href="#Plate_35">35</a>, <i>b</i>. +It was collected among the Hidatsa and is now preserved in the +collection of the National Museum. It is a specimen of great interest +and rarity, though once so extensively used by the tribes of the Missouri<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> +Valley. Several boats of this sort are shown by Bodmer in his +picture of the Mandan village (pl. <a href="#Plate_39">39</a>), and Kurz likewise left many +drawings of these peculiar craft (pl. <a href="#Plate_45">45</a>, <i>c</i>).</p> + +<p>In addition to the several forms of structures already mentioned, +the Hidatsa evidently erected a very secure temporary lodge when +away from their villages on hunting trips. On November 7, 1833, +when descending the Missouri, and just before arriving at Fort Clark, +Maximilian wrote: "Our breakfast was prepared at nine o'clock, +when we lay to on the north bank, in a narrow strip of forest, where +we found some old Indian hunting lodges, built, in a conical form, +of dry timber. They had, doubtless, been left by the Manitaries, who +had come thus far on their hunting excursions. The lower part of +the huts, or lodges, was covered with the bark of trees; the entrance +was square, and bones were scattered in all directions. We proceeded +with a bleak, high wind, saw the singular clay tops of the hills, and, +in the forest, the stages made of poles, where the Indian hunters dry +the flesh of the animals they have taken in the chase. About twelve +o'clock we came to the spot where some stakes indicated the former +site of a Mandan village.... We are now in the centre of the territory +of the Manitaries." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 314-315.) Probably +the danger of attack by their enemies made necessary the erection of +these comparatively secure shelters.</p> + +<p>About the year 1845 many Hidatsa removed from the vicinity of +Knife River and reared a new village not far from Fort Berthold, +some 60 miles up the Missouri from old Fort Clark. They were +joined from time to time by other members of their tribe, and also +by many of the remaining Mandan. In 1862 the Arikara became the +third tribe to settle near Fort Berthold. But in 1850 the Arikara +continued to occupy the old Mandan town just below Fort Clark, the +large village of earth lodges so often visited and mentioned by the +explorers and traders during the early years of the last century. +It is quite evident the new settlement of the Hidatsa did not differ +in appearance from the old Mandan town, the later home of the Arikara, +and on June 13, 1850, Culbertson wrote from Fort Berthold: +"The village, with its mud lodges, differs nothing in looks from the +Ree village described yesterday, except in one particular, that is, +the inhabitants are now engaged in surrounding it with pickets. The +logs are well prepared and are all up except on the west side; a +bastion with loop holes is placed in the middle of each side. This +picket is of course to protect the inmates against enemies by whom +they are frequently attacked." (Culbertson, (1), pp. 118-119.) This +is a most interesting reference. Could this palisade have been the +one to which Matthews alluded as having stood until 1865? The +manner of constructing the palisade, with "a bastion ... in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +the middle of each side," will tend to recall the similar arrangement +as indicated on the drawing of the ancient Mahican village about +two centuries before. (Bushnell, (1), p. 26.)</p> + +<p>In the autumn of 1853, just 20 years after Maximilian was +among the Hidatsa, an officer passed down the Missouri from Fort +Benton to St. Louis, thence to continue to Washington, where he +arrived November 21. In his journal are several brief references to +the Hidatsa, or, as he designated the tribe, the Gros Ventres. To +quote from the journal: "October 8 ... a fine region, full of +game, and occasionally speaking a hunting party of Gros Ventres +out after buffalo." The next day the small party arrived at Fort +Berthold, late in the afternoon. Then, so the journal continues: "We +received many visits from the Gros Ventres, and gave them a few +presents. The Gros Ventres have a large village of mud houses—very +unsightly outside, but within warm and comfortable." The following +morning, October 10, 1853, "I visited some of the lodges of +the Gros Ventres, and found them exceedingly comfortable and capable +of accommodating comfortably a hundred persons. One part +of the lodge is appropriated to the horses, dogs, cattle, and chickens, +and another to their own sleeping apartments. They all seemed to +live sociably and comfortable together during the long cold winters +of this cold latitude.... We left Fort Berthold early; but, before +we had advanced far, were driven ashore by a strong wind, which +continued throughout the day. The smoke from the burning prairies +is so dense as to almost hide the sun. The fires, burning in every +direction, present at night a beautiful and magnificent, though terrible +appearance." (Saxton, (1), pp. 264-265.) What a vivid, +though brief, description of conditions in the Upper Missouri Valley +when all was in a primitive state.</p> + +<p>During the years following the visits of Catlin and Maximilian +many changes took place in the native villages standing on the banks +of the upper Missouri and its tributaries. Writing of a period about +40 years after Maximilian's stay among the Mandan and Hidatsa, +the winter of 1833-34, Dr. Matthews said: "The Hidatsa, Minnetaree, +or Grosventre Indians, are one of the three tribes which at +present inhabit the permanent village at Fort Berthold, Dakota +Territory, and hunt on the waters of the Upper Missouri and Yellowstone +Rivers, in Northwestern Dakota and Eastern Montana." Describing +the village, he continued: "The village consists of a number +of houses built very closely together, without any attempt at regularity +of position. The doors face in every possible direction; and +there is great uniformity in the appearance of the lodges; so it is a +very difficult matter to find one's way among them." In a footnote +to this paragraph is given the number of structures standing there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> +in the year 1872. The note reads: In the fall of 1872, Dr. C. E. +McChesney, then physician at the Berthold agency, counted, with +great care, the buildings in the village and, in a letter, gave me +the following results:</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Total Houses"> +<tr><td align="left">Old-style (round) lodges of Rees</td><td align="right">43</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Log-cabins of Rees</td><td align="right">28</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right">—</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Total number of houses of Rees</span></td><td> </td><td align="right">71</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td align="left">Old-style lodges of Grosventres and Mandans</td><td align="right">35</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Log-cabins of Grosventres and Mandans</td><td align="right">69</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right">—</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Total number of houses of Grosventres and Mandans </span></td><td> </td><td align="right">104</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td align="right">—</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Total of houses in village</span></td><td> </td><td align="right">175</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The note states that "owing to the stupidity of the interpreter" +it was not possible to separate the Grosventres from the Mandans, +which was to be regretted.</p> + +<p>The "old-style lodges" were the earth-covered lodges, and Matthews +follows with an excellent description of how they were constructed. +He tells of the building of the frame, "covered with +willows, hay, and earth," and over the opening in the center of the +top "of many of the lodges are placed frames of wicker-work, on +which skins are spread to the windward in stormy weather to keep +the lodges from getting smoky. Sometimes bull-boats are used for +this purpose." (Matthews, (1), pp. 3-6.) A comment on the work +of the early artists is worthy of being mentioned at this time: "Prince +Maximilian's artist [Karl Bodmer] usually sketches the lodge very +correctly; but Mr. Catlin invariably gives an incorrect representation +of its exterior. Whenever he depicts a Mandan, Arickaree, or +Minnetaree lodge, he makes it appear as an almost exact hemisphere, +and always omits the entry." (Op. cit., p. 6.)</p> + +<p>Game, especially the buffalo, was becoming less plentiful in the +vicinity of the villages, and Matthews told how, "Every winter, until +1866, the Indians left their permanent village, and, moving some distance +up the Missouri Valley, built temporary quarters, usually in +the center of heavy forests and in the neighborhood of buffalo.... +The houses of the winter-villages resembled much the log-cabins of +our own western pioneers. They were neatly built, very warm, had +regular fire-places and chimneys built of sticks and mud, and square +holes in the roofs for the admission of light." About that time some +cabins of this sort were erected "in the permanent village at Fort +Berthold; every year since, they are becoming gradually more numerous +and threaten to eventually supplant the original earth-covered +lodges." And in 1877 "game has recently become very scarce in their +country, they are obliged to travel immense distances, and almost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> +constantly, when they go out on their winter-hunts. Requiring, +therefore, movable habitations, they take with them, on their journeys, +the ordinary skin-lodges, or 'tepees,' such as are used by the +Dakotas, Assiniboines, and other nomadic tribes of the region." (Op. +cit., pp. 6-7.)</p> + +<p>Matthews's description of the caches prepared by the tribes with +whom he was so closely associated is most interesting, and it tends to +explain the origin and use of the numerous pits often discovered in +the vicinity of ancient village sites east of the Mississippi. He wrote: +"The numerous <i>caches</i>, or pits, for storing grain, are noteworthy +objects in the village. In summer, when they are not in use, they are +often left open, or are carelessly covered, and may entrap the unwary +stroller. When these Indians have harvested their crops, and before +they start on their winter-hunt, they dig their <i>caches</i>, or clear out +those dug in previous years. A <i>cache</i> is a cellar, usually round, +with a small opening above, barely large enough to allow a person to +descend; when finished, it looks much like an ordinary round cistern. +Reserving a small portion of corn, dried squash, etc., for winter use, +they deposit the remainder in these subterranean store-houses, along +with household-utensils, and other articles of value which they wish +to leave behind. They then fill up the orifices with earth, which +they trample down and rake over; thus obliterating every trace of the +excavation. Some <i>caches</i> are made under the floors of the houses, +others outside, in various parts of the village-grounds; in each case, +the distance and direction from some door, post, bedstead, fire-place, +or other object is noted, so that the stores may be found on the return +of the owners in the spring. Should an enemy enter the village while +it is temporarily deserted, the goods are safe from fire and theft. +This method of secreting property has been in use among many tribes, +has been adopted by whites living on the plains, and is referred to +in the works of many travelers." (Op. cit., pp. 8-9.)</p> + +<p>Such were the characteristic features of the Hidatsa villages.</p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Crows.</span></h5> + +<p>Before the separation of the Crows from the Hidatsa they may have +occupied permanent villages of earth-covered lodges, such as the latter +continued to erect and use until very recent years. But after the +separation the Crows moved into the mountains, the region drained +by the upper tributaries of the Missouri, and there no longer built +permanent structures but adopted the skin tipi, so easily erected and +transported from place to place. Many of their tipis were very large, +beautifully made and decorated, and were evidently not surpassed in +any manner by the similar structures constructed by other tribes of +the Upper Missouri Valley.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>During the summer of 1805 François Antoine Larocque, a clerk attached +to the Upper Red River Department of the Compagnie du +Nord-Ouest, visited the Crows and in his journal recorded much of +interest respecting the manners of the people. Larocque had, during +the winter of 1804-05, remained near the Mandan and Hidatsa villages, +and thus met Captains Lewis and Clark in their winter encampment. +A large party of the Crows, the Rocky Mountain Indians of +the journal, came to the Hidatsa villages on Knife River. There they +were met by Larocque, with whom they departed for their distant +country, on Saturday, June 29, 1805. His narrative contains a brief +reference to the people. He wrote: "This nation known among the +Sioux by the name of Crow Indians inhabit the eastern part of the +Rocky Mountains at the head of the River aux Roches Jaunes (which +is Known by the Kinistinaux and Assiniboines by the name of River +a la Biche, from the great number of elks with which all the Country +along it abounds) and its Branches and Close to the head of the +Missouri.</p> + +<p>"There are three principal tribes of them whose names in their +own language are <i>Apsarechas</i>, <i>Keetheresas</i> and <i>Ashcabcaber</i>, and +these tribes are again divided into many other small ones which at +present consist but of a few people each, as they are the remainder +of a numerous people who were reduced to their present number by +the ravage of the Small Pox, which raged among them for many +years successively and as late as three years ago. They told me +they counted 2000 Lodges or tents in their Camp when all together +before the Small Pox had infected them. At present their whole +number consist of about 2400 persons dwelling in 300 tents and are +able to raise 600 Wariors like the Sioux and Assiniboines. They +wander about in Leather tents and remain where there are Buffaloes +and Elks. After having remained a few days in one place so that +game is not more so plentiful as it was they flit to another place where +there are Buffaloes or deers and so on all the year around. Since the +great decrease of their numbers they generally dwell all together +and flit at the same time and as long as it is possible for them to live +when together they seldom part." (Larocque, (1), pp. 55-56.) The +narrative continues: "They live upon Buffaloes & Deer, a very few +of them eat Bears or Beaver flesh, but when compelled by hunger; +they eat no fish." The Crows were at that time in their primitive +condition. "They have never had any traders with them, they get their +battle Guns, ammunitions etc. from the Mandans & Big Bellys in +exchange for horses, Robes, Leggings & shirts, they likewise purchase +corn, Pumpkins & tobacco from the Big Bellys as they do not +cultivate the ground."</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>Unfortunately, Larocque did not describe the appearance of the +tipis, but such information was supplied by later writers.</p> + +<p>Catlin visited the Crows during the summer of 1832 and saw many +who frequented Fort Union, at the mouth of the Yellowstone, during +his stay at that post. He wrote at that time: "The Crows who live +on the head waters of Yellow Stone, and extend from this neighborhood +also to the base of the Rocky Mountains, are similar ... to the +Blackfeet: roaming about a great part of the year." And describing +their habitations, he said: "The Crows, of all the tribes in this region, +or on the Continent, make the most beautiful lodge ... they +construct them as the Sioux do, and make them of the same material; +yet they oftentimes dress the skins of which they are composed almost +as white as linen, and beautifully garnish them with porcupine quills, +and paint and ornament them in such a variety of ways, as renders +them exceedingly picturesque and agreeable to the eye. I have procured +a very beautiful one of this description, highly ornamented, +and fringed with scalp-locks and sufficiently large for forty men to +dine under. The poles which support it are about thirty in number, +of pine, and all cut in the Rocky Mountains.... This tent, when +erected, is about twenty-five feet high." (Catlin, (1), I, pp. 43-44.) +Catlin's original painting of this most interesting tipi is in the +National Museum, Washington, and is here reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_46">46</a>, <i>a</i>. +The same was drawn and given by Catlin as plate 20 in his work.</p> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 46<a name="Plate_46"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p046a.png" width="300" height="250" alt="a. "Crow lodge." George Catlin" title="a. "Crow lodge." George Catlin" /> +<span class="caption">a. "Crow lodge." George Catlin</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p046b.png" width="300" height="223" alt="b. Crow camp at the old agency on the Yellowstone, near Shields River. Photograph by W. H. +Jackson, 1871 + +CROW TIPIS" title="b. Crow camp at the old agency on the Yellowstone, near Shields River. Photograph by W. H. +Jackson, 1871 /> + +CROW TIPIS" /> +<span class="caption">b. Crow camp at the old agency on the Yellowstone, near Shields River. Photograph by W. H. +Jackson, 1871<br /> + +CROW TIPIS</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 47<a name="Plate_47"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/p047.png" width="500" height="295" alt="A CAMP IN A COTTONWOOD GROVE + +Photograph not identified, but probably made by J. D. Hutton" title="A CAMP IN A COTTONWOOD GROVE + +Photograph not identified, but probably made by J. D. Hutton" /> +<span class="caption">A CAMP IN A COTTONWOOD GROVE + +Photograph not identified, but probably made by J. D. Hutton</span> +</div> + +<p>As told elsewhere in this work, Maximilian, on June 18, 1833, +arrived at Fort Clark. At that time representatives of several tribes +were gathered in the vicinity of the fort. These included Crows, +"of which tribe there were now seventy tents about the fort." Referring +to these in particular, he remarked: "The tents of the Crows +are exactly like those of the Sioux, and are set up without any regular +order. On the poles, instead of scalps, there were small pieces +of coloured cloth, chiefly red, floating like streamers in the wind." +(Maximilian, (1), p. 172.) Later in the day Maximilian accompanied +the Indian agent to the tipi occupied by the Crow chief Eripuass. +This he found to be of much interest. "The interior of the tent itself +had a striking effect. A small fire in the centre gave sufficient light; +the chief sat opposite the entrance, and round him many fine tall +men, placed according to their rank, all with no other covering than +a breech-cloth. Places were assigned to us on buffalo hides near the +chief, who then lighted his Sioux pipe, which had a long flat tube, +ornamented with bright yellow nails, made each of us take a few +puffs, holding the pipe in his hand, and then passed it round to the +left hand." And speaking of the tribe as a whole he wrote: "The +territory in which they move about is bounded, to the north or +north-west, by the Yellow Stone River, and extends round Bighorn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> +River, towards the sources of Chayenne River and the Rocky Mountains. +These Indians are a wandering tribe of hunters, who neither +dwell in fixed villages, like the Mandans, Manitaries, and Arikkaras, +nor make any plantations except of tobacco, which, however, are very +small.... They roam about with their leather tents, hunt the buffalo, +and other wild animals, and have many horses and dogs, which, however, +they never use for food.... The Crow women are very skilful in +various kinds of work, and their shirts and dresses of bighorn leather, +embroidered and ornamented with dyed porcupine quills, are particularly +handsome, as well as their buffalo robes, which are painted and +embroidered in the same manner." (Op. cit., pp. 174-175.)</p> + +<p>During the spring of 1863 a peculiar type of log house was discovered +in the Crow country which had probably been erected by +members of that tribe. They may have resembled the cabins mentioned +by Matthews as standing at the Fort Berthold Reservation +nine years later. On May 2, 1863, a member of the Yellowstone expedition +entered in his journal: "In the timber along the river, we +saw many houses built of dry logs and bark; some are built like +lodges, but the most of them are either square or oblong, and among +them were many large and strong corrals of dry logs. The Crows +evidently winter along here, and, from the sign, they are very numerous." +The following day, "We camped three miles below Pompey's +Pillar, on which we found the names of Captain Clark and two +of his men cut in the rock, with the date July 25, 1806.... Buffalo +to be seen in every direction, and very tame.... No wonder the +Crows like their country; it is a perfect paradise for a hunter.... +About sundown a large band of buffalo came in to drink at a water-hole +about two hundred yards in front of our camp." (Stuart, (1), +pp. 176-178.) This may have represented a winter camp ground, +with permanent huts to which the Crows returned from year to year. +It was in the northeastern part of the present Yellowstone County, +Montana.</p> + +<p>A very interesting description of a Crow camp is to be found in +Lord Dunraven's narrative of his hunting trip to the Yellowstone +region performed during the year 1874. The particular camp stood +not far from the present Livingston, Montana. In describing the +camp he wrote: "The lodges are tall, circular dwellings, composed of +long fir-poles planted on a circle in the ground. These slope inwards +and form a cone, meeting and leaning against each other at the apex; +and upon them is stretched a covering of buffalo hides. They make +very comfortable, clean and airy houses, and are far preferable to +any tent, being much warmer in winter and cooler in summer. A +tepee will hold from twelve to fifteen or even twenty individuals; +several families, therefore, generally occupy one in common. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> +earth is beaten down hard, forming a smooth floor, and in the middle +burns the fire, the smoke finding an exit through an aperture +at the top. The portions of the tepee assigned to each family or +couple are divided by a kind of wicker-work screen at the head and +foot, separating a segment of a circle of about eight or ten feet in +length and five or six in breadth, closed by the screen at either end, +and at the outer side by the wall of the lodge, but being open towards +the interior. The fire is common property, and has a certain +amount of reverence paid to it. It is considered very bad manners, +for instance, to step between the fire and the place where the head +man sits. All round, on the lodge poles and on the screens, are suspended +the arms, clothing, finery, and equipment of the men and +their horses. Each lodge forms a little community in itself.</p> + +<p>"The tepees are pitched with all the regularity of an organized +camp, in a large circle, inside which the stock is driven at night or +on an alarm or occasion of danger. Outside the door is struck a +spear or pole, on which is suspended the shield of the chief and a +mysterious something tied up in a bundle, which is great medicine." +(Dunraven, (1), pp. 94-95.)</p> + +<p>A white shield supported outside a tipi is visible in the photograph +reproduced as plate <a href="#Plate_47">47</a>. This remarkable picture has not, unfortunately, +been identified, but it was undoubtedly made in the Upper +Missouri Valley, and from the nature of the tipis, many appearing +to be quite small, it may be assumed that it was a party of +Indians who had come on a trading trip, rather than that it represented +a regular village.</p> + +<p>Several accounts are preserved of large structures discovered in +the region frequented by the Crows which, although not positively +identified, were possibly erected by members of that tribe. Thus +Lewis and Clark on July 24, 1806, arrived at an island in the Yellowstone +River between 5 and 6 miles below the mouth of Clark's Fork, +and wrote: "It is a beautiful spot with a rich soil, covered with wild +rye, and a species of grass like the blue-grass, and some of another +kind, which the Indians wear in plaits round the neck, on account +of a strong scent resembling that of vanilla. There is also a thin +growth of cottonwood scattered over the island. In the centre is a +large Indian lodge which seems to have been built during the last +summer. It is in the form of a cone, sixty feet in diameter at the +base, composed of twenty poles, each forty-five feet long, and two +and a half in circumference, and the whole structure covered with +bushes. The interior was curiously ornamented. On the tops of the +poles were feathers of eagles, and circular pieces of wood, with sticks +across them in the form of a girdle: from the centre was suspended +a stuffed buffaloe skin; on the side fronting the door was hung a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> +cedar bush: on one side of the lodge a buffaloe's head; on the other +several pieces of wood stuck in the ground. From its whole appearance, +it was more like a lodge for holding councils, than an ordinary +dwelling house." (Lewis and Clark, (1), II, p. 386.) This was undoubtedly +a ceremonial lodge, and it was probably quite similar to +another observed a few years later. To quote the description of the +second example: "In the country of the Crow Indians, (Up-sa-ro-ka,) +Mr. Dougherty saw a singular arrangement of the magi. +The upper portion of a cotton-wood tree was implanted, with its +base in the earth, and around it was a sweat house, the upper part +of the top of the tree arising through the roof. A gray bison skin, +extended with oziers on the inside so as to exhibit a natural appearance, +was suspended above the house, and on the branches were attached +several pairs of children's mockasins and leggings, and from +one of the limbs of the tree, a very large fan made of war eagle's +feathers was dependent." (James, (1), I, p. 272.)</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Caddoan tribes.</span></h3> + +<p>The ancient habitat of the many small tribes which evidently later +became confederated, thus forming the principal groups of this linguistic +stock, was in the southwest, whence the Pawnee and Arikara, +and those gathered under the name of the Wichita, moved northward.</p> + +<p>The Caddo proper, the name of a tribe later applied to the confederated +group of which they formed the principal member, formerly +occupied the valley of the Red River of Louisiana, the many +villages of the several tribes being scattered along the banks of that +stream and of its tributaries in northern Louisiana, southwestern +Arkansas, and eastern Texas. Although usually included in the +same linguistic group with the Pawnee, Arikara, Wichita, and others, +several notable authorities are inclined to regard the Caddo as constituting +a separate and distinct linguistic group. This may be +established and recognized in the future.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">pawnee.</span></h4> + +<p>Soon after the transfer of Louisiana to the United States Government +several expeditions were sent out to explore the newly acquired +domains and to discover the native tribes who claimed and +occupied parts of the vast territory. Of these parties, that led by +Capts. Lewis and Clark was the most important, but of great interest +was the second expedition under command of Lieut. Z. M. Pike, +which traversed the country extending from the Mississippi to the +Rocky Mountains, and reached the Pawnee villages near the North +Platte during the month of September, 1806. How long the Pawnee<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> +had occupied that region may never be determined, but they had evidently +migrated from the southwest, probably moving slowly, making +long stops on the way. As a tribe they were known to the Spaniards +as early as the first half of the sixteenth century, and appear +to have been among the first of the plains tribes to be visited by +French and Spanish traders.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately Pike did not prepare a very extensive account of +the Pawnee as they appeared during the autumn of 1806, but wrote +in part: "Their houses are a perfect circle, (except where the door +enters) from whence there is a projection of about 15 feet; the +whole being constructed after the following manner, Viz: 1st. there +is an excavation of a circular form, made in the ground, of about +4 feet deep and 60 diameter, where there is a row of posts about 5 +feet high, with crotches at the top, set firmly in all round, and +horizontal poles from one to the other. There is then a row of +posts, forming a circle of about 10 feet width in the diameter of the +others, and 10 feet in height; the crotches of those are so directed, +that horizontal poles are also laid from one to the other; long poles +are then laid slanting, perpendicularly from the lower poles over the +upper, and meeting nearly at the top, leaving only a small aperture +for the smoke of the fire to pass out, which is made on the ground +in the middle of the lodge. There is then a number of small poles +put up round the circle, so as to form the wall, and wicker work +run through the whole. The roof is then thatched with grass, and +earth thrown up against the wall until a bank is made to the eves +of the thatch; and that is also covered with earth one or two feet +thick, and rendered so tight, as entirely to exclude any storm whatsoever, +and make them extremely warm. The entrance is about 6 +feet wide, with walls on each side, and roofed like our houses in +shape, but of the same materials as the main building. Inside there +are numerous little apartments constructed of wicker work against +the wall with small doors; they have a great appearance of neatness +and in them the members of the family sleep and have their little deposits. +Their towns are by no means so much crowded as the Osage, +giving much more space, but they have the same mode of introducing +all their horses into the village at night, which makes it extremely +crowded. They keep guards with the horses during the day. They +are extremely addicted to gaming, and have for that purpose a +smooth piece of ground cleared out on each side of the village for +about 150 yards in length." (Pike, (1), Appendix, p. 15.)</p> + +<p>Although Pike's account of this interesting tribe is very brief and +unsatisfactory, it was soon to be followed by a more complete and +comprehensive description. This refers to the notes prepared by +members of the Long expedition, 14 years later.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>The expedition under command of Maj. Stephen H. Long arrived +at Council Bluff, "so called by Lewis and Clark, from a council +with the Otoes and Missouries held there, on the 3rd of August, 1804," +during the early autumn of 1819. Winter quarters were established +at a point about 5 miles lower down the Missouri and at a short distance +north of the present city of Omaha, Nebr. This was called +Engineer Cantonment, and during the ensuing months many Indians +visited the encampment to treat with Maj. O'Fallon, the commissioner.</p> + +<p>Leaving the majority of the party in quarters at the cantonment, +Maj. Long and others of the expedition, on October 11, "began to +descend the Missouri in a canoe, on their way towards Washington +and Philadelphia." Returning from the east they reached Engineer +Cantonment May 28, 1820, having arrived at St. Louis April 24, +"from Philadelphia to Council Bluff, to rejoin the party."</p> + +<p>During the absence of the commanding officers some members of +the expedition made a short trip to the Pawnee villages, and the +following brief account appears in the narrative on May 1, 1820:</p> + +<p>"At each of the villages, we observed small sticks of the length of +eighteen inches or two feet, painted red, stuck in the earth in various +situations, but chiefly on the roofs of the houses, each bearing the +fragment of a human scalp, the hair of which streamed in the wind. +Before the entrance to some of the lodges were small frames, like +painter's easels, supporting each a shield, and generally a large +painted cylindrical case of skin, prepared like parchment, in which +a war dress is deposited. The shield is circular, made of bison skin, +and thick enough to ward off an arrow, but not to arrest the flight of +a rifle ball at close quarters.... The lodges, or houses, of these +three villages, are similar in structure, but differ in size. The description +of those of the Konzas will apply to them, excepting that +the beds are all concealed by a mat partition, which extends parallel +to the walls of the lodge, and from the floor to the roof. Small apertures, +or doors, at intervals in this partition, are left for the different +families, that inhabit a lodge, to enter their respective bed +chambers." (James, (1), pp. 367-368.)</p> + +<p>After the return of Maj. Long the reunited party left Engineer +Cantonment, June 6, 1820, and soon reached the Pawnee villages, +situated about 100 miles westward, on the Loup River, a branch of +the Platte. The narrative of this part of the journey is most interesting: +"The path leading to the Pawnee villages runs in a direction +a little south of west from the cantonment, and lies across a +tract of high and barren prairie for the first ten miles. At this distance +it crosses the Papillon, or Butterfly creek, a small stream discharging +into the Missouri, three miles above the confluence of the +Platte."</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>After advancing for several days over the prairie, on June 10, "At +sunset we arrived at a small creek, eleven miles distant from the village +of the Grand Pawnees, where we encamped. On the following +morning, having arranged the party according to rank, and given +the necessary instructions for the preservation of order, we proceeded +forward and in a short time came in sight of the first of the Pawnee +villages. The trace on which we had travelled since we left the Missouri, +had the appearance of being more and more frequented as we +approached the Pawnee towns; and here, instead of a single footway, +it consisted of more than twenty parallel paths, of similar size and +appearance.... After a ride of about three hours, we arrived +before the village, and despatched a messenger to inform the chief +of our approach. Answer was returned that he was engaged with +his chiefs and warriors at a medicine feast, and could not, therefore, +come out to meet us.... The party which accompanied Major +Long, after groping about some time, and traversing a considerable +part of the village, arrived at the lodge of the principal chief. Here +we were again informed that <i>Tarrarecawaho</i>, with all the principal +men of the village, were engaged at a medicine feast.</p> + +<p>"Notwithstanding his absence, some mats were spread for us upon +the ground, in the back part of the lodge. Upon these we sat down, +and after waiting some time, were presented with a large wooden +dish of hominy, or boiled maize. In this was a single spoon of the +horn of a bison, large enough to hold half a pint, which, being used +alternately by each of the party, soon emptied the dish of its contents."</p> + +<p>An excellent example of an old spoon similar to the one mentioned +in the preceding paragraph is shown in plate <a href="#Plate_42">42</a>, <i>a</i> (U.S.N.M. +12259). It is about 10 inches in length and much worn from long +use. Unfortunately it is not known when or where it was collected, +but without doubt it came from the Upper Missouri Valley.</p> + +<p>Continuing the narrative: "The interior of this capacious dwelling +was dimly lighted from a hole at the top, through which the sun's +rays, in a defined column, fell upon the earthen floor. Immediately +under this hole, which is both window and chimney, is a small depression +in the centre of the floor, where the fire is made; but the upper +parts of the lodge are constantly filled with smoke; adding much to +the air of gloominess and obscurity, which prevail within. The furniture +of Long-hair's lodge consisted of mats, ingeniously woven of +grass or rushes, bison robes, wooden dishes, and one or two small +brass kettles. In the part of the lodge immediately opposite the +entrance, we observed a rude niche in the wall, which was occupied +by a bison skull. It appeared to have been exposed to the weather, +until the flesh and periosteum had decayed, and the bones had become +white....</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>"Our visit to this village seemed to excite no great degree of attention. +Among the crowd, who surrounded us before we entered the +village, we observed several young squaws rather gaily dressed, being +wrapped in clean and new blankets, and having their heads ornamented +with wreaths of gnaphalium and the silvery leaves of the +prosalea canescens. On the tops of the lodges we also saw some display +of finery, which we supposed to have been made on account of +our visit. Flags were hoisted, shields, and bows, and quivers, were +suspended in conspicuous places, scalps were hung out; in short, the +people appeared to have exposed whatever they possessed, in the +exhibition of which, they could find any gratification of the vanity. +Aside from this, we received no distinguished marks of attention +from the Grand Pawnees." (James, (1), I, pp. 427-437.)</p> + +<p>The camp of the expedition was a little more than a mile from the +village of the Grand Pawnee, and the intervening prairie must have +presented an animated sight, being "covered with great numbers of +horses, intermixed with men, women, and children." Nearer the +village were groups of squaws "busily engaged in dressing the skins +of the bison for robes." During the afternoon many Indians arrived +at the camp, men wishing to trade horses, the women endeavoring to +trade various articles. And on the following morning, June 11, 1820, +many groups of women were seen leaving the village, accompanied by +their dogs, bound for their fields of corn situated a few miles away.</p> + +<p>The expedition next arrived at the village of the Republican +Pawnee, 4 miles from that of the Grand Pawnee. Both villages stood +on the immediate bank of the stream. Remaining there but a short +time, they continued on to the Loup village. Here they encamped +during the night of June 12, leaving early on the following morning. +On the morning of the 13th many squaws were again observed making +their way to the cornfields, with their small children. Some +stopped to admire the "novel appearance" of the members of the +expedition, many brought various vegetables, jerked buffalo meat and +tallow to exchange for whatever they could obtain.</p> + +<p>"The three Pawnee villages, with their pasture grounds, and insignificant +enclosures, occupy about ten miles in length of the fertile +valley of the Wolf river. The surface is wholly naked of timber, +rising gradually to the river hills, which are broad and low, and from +a mile to a mile and a half distant." (James, (1), I, p. 447.)</p> + +<p>During the latter part of the summer of 1833 the small party +under the leadership of Commissioner Henry L. Ellsworth reached +the Pawnee towns, and in the narrative of the expedition are to be +found many references to the customs of the people whose habitations +were the primitive earth-covered lodges. The second morning +after arriving at the village of the Grand Pawnee several members<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> +of the party walked about among the lodges, and at that time, so +wrote Irving: "The warriors were collected in small knots of five +or six, and by their vehement gestures, were apparently engaged in +earnest conversation. The children were rolling and tumbling in +the dirt; the squaws were busily engaged. Some were bringing from +their lodges large leather sacks of shelled corn; others were spreading +it out to dry, upon the leather of their buffalo-skin tents, which +had been stretched out upon the ground. Others were cleansing +from it the decayed kernels and packing it up in small sacks of +whitish undressed leather, resembling parchment. These were then +deposited in cache-holes for a winter's store.</p> + +<p>"At a distance from the village, a band of females were slowly +wending along the top of the low prairie ridges, to their daily +labour in the small plantations of corn. These are scattered in every +direction round the village, wherever a spot of rich, black soil, gives +promise of a bountiful harvest. Some of them are as much as eight +miles distant from the town." (Irving, J. T., (1), II, pp. 44-45.)</p> + +<p>Later the same day a council was held at the lodge of the chief, +attended by the principal men of the village, and it is interesting +to read the description of the gathering of those who were to participate: +"The lodge had been swept clean; a large cheery fire was +crackling in the centre. The rabble crowd of loungers and hangers-on +had been routed; and besides the family of the chief, we were +the only occupants of the spacious building.</p> + +<p>"At mid-day the chiefs and braves began to assemble. They were +full dressed; many of the young warriors had spent the whole morning +in preparation, and now presented themselves, fully ornamented +for the meeting.</p> + +<p>"As the hour for the opening of the council grew nearer, the tall, +muffled warriors poured in, in one continuous stream. They moved +quietly to the places allotted them, and seating themselves in silence +round the chief, according to their rank.... The crowd continued +flowing in until the lodge was filled almost to suffocation. As they +came in, they seated themselves, until five or six circles were formed, +one beyond the other, the last ranging against the wall of the building. +In the ring nearest the chiefs, sat the principal braves, or those +warriors whose deeds of blood entitled them to a high rank in the +councils of the nation. The more distant circles were filled by such +young men of the village as were admitted to its councils. The passage +leading to the open air, was completely blocked up with a tight +wedged mass of women and children, who dared venture no nearer +to the deliberations of the tribe." (Op. cit., pp. 48-50.) When all +had gathered the chief filled a large stone pipe, took a few puffs, +then handed it to the members of the commissioner's party, who in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> +turn passed it to the other Indians. The addresses were then made +and the council deliberated on the several questions presented.</p> + +<p>The expedition moved on from the Grand Pawnee to the village +of the Republican Pawnee, which stood on the bank of the Loup +Fork of the Platte, some 20 miles distant from the former, with the +rolling prairie between. Approaching the river they could see, on +the far side, "a high bluff, on which was situated the dingy lodges +of the Republican village." They were welcomed by the people of +the village, and soon reached the lodge of the principal chief, Blue +Coat, which they entered. Then "it was not long before the lodge +became crowded. The old warriors moved with a hushed step +across the building, and listened to our conversation." Soon an invitation +was received to attend a feast at the lodge of the second +chief. Entering that lodge, he was seen seated upon "a small leather +mat.... Around him were lounging about a dozen Indians. Some, +reclining with their backs against the pillars supporting the roof, +with their eyes half closed, were smoking their stone pipes. Some +were lying half asleep upon the clay floor, with their feet within a +few inches of the fire; and others were keeping up a sleepy song.</p> + +<p>"At a short distance from the fire, half a dozen squaws were +pounding corn, in large mortars, and chattering vociferously at the +same time. In the farther part of the building, about a dozen naked +children, with faces almost hid by their bushy, tangled hair, were +rolling and wrestling upon the floor, occasionally causing the lodge +to echo to their childish glee. In the back ground, we could perceive +some half dozen shaggy, thievish-looking wolf dogs, skulking among +the hides and bundles, in search of food, and gliding about with the +air of dogs, who knew that they had no business there." (Op. cit., +pp. 96-99.) Such was a domestic scene within a Pawnee lodge.</p> + +<p>A very clear and concise description of the interior arrangement +and fittings of an earth lodge, one standing in the village of the +Grand Pawnee during the autumn of 1835, has been preserved in +Dunbar's journal. On October 22, after referring to the construction +of the lodge itself, he wrote: "Within these buildings the earth +is beat down hard, and forms the floor. In the center a circular +place is dug about 8 inches deep, and 3 feet in diameter. This is the +fireplace. The earth that is taken from this place is spatted down +around it, and forms the hearth. Near the fireplace a stake is firmly +fixed in the earth in an inclined position, and serves all the purposes +of a crane. Mats made of rushes are spread down round the fire on +which they sit. Back next the walls are the sleeping apartments. +A frame work is raised about two feet from the floor, on this are +placed small rods, interwoven with slips of elm bark. On these +rods a rush mat is spread. At proper distances partitions are set<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> +up, composed of small willow rods interwoven with slips of bark. +In front of these apartments, either a partition of willow rods is +erected, or rush mats are hung up as curtains. But this is not always +the case. In some lodges the simple platform alone is to be seen, +without either partitions, or curtains. In others there is not even +the platform, and the inmates sleep on the ground.</p> + +<p>"In these lodges several families frequently live together. I believe +there are as many as three different families in the lodge +where I stop. Each family has its particular portion of the dwelling, +and the furniture of each is kept separate." (Dunbar, (2), p. +600.) Comparing the two preceding accounts it is easy to visualize +the interior of Pawnee earth lodges as they were nearly a century +ago.</p> + +<p>The preceding references to the women of the villages going early +in the morning to their fields of corn recall a note in Fremont's journal +a few years later. He wrote when returning from the mountains, +on September 22, 1842, "We arrived at the village of the Grand +Pawnees, on the right bank of the river [the Platte] about thirty +miles above the mouth of the Loup fork. They were gathering in +their corn, and we obtained from them a very welcome supply of +vegetables." (Fremont, (1), p. 78.)</p> + +<p>The villages described in the accounts already quoted were the +permanent settlements of the tribe, groups of earth-covered lodges +quite similar to those erected by other tribes in the Upper Missouri +Valley. Fortunately several remarkable photographs of the villages +and of the separate structures are in existence, having been made by +W. H. Jackson in 1871. The most valuable of the early pictures is +reproduced as plate <a href="#Plate_49">49</a>. And here it may be remarked that this is +a different photograph from the one which was presented as plate 12 +in Bulletin 69 of this bureau's publications, and although both were +made at the same time, nevertheless they differ in minor details. It +is therefore of interest to know two negatives were made at that time. +This was the village of the Republican Pawnee. In plate <a href="#Plate_50">50</a> are two +of the large earth-covered lodges, showing the tunnel-like entrances, +and with many persons sitting on the tops of the structures. The entrance +is more clearly shown in plate <a href="#Plate_51">51</a>, where a brush mat protects +the side. This may be part of a small inclosure.</p> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 48<a name="Plate_48"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/p048.png" width="500" height="296" alt="TRADER CROSSING THE PRAIRIES + +Page of Kurz's Sketchbook, August 28, 1851" title="TRADER CROSSING THE PRAIRIES + +Page of Kurz's Sketchbook, August 28, 1851" /> +<span class="caption">TRADER CROSSING THE PRAIRIES + +Page of Kurz's Sketchbook, August 28, 1851</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 49<a name="Plate_49"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p049.png" width="300" height="167" alt="PAWNEE-VILLAGE WHICH STOOD ON THE LOUPE FORK OF THE PLATTE RIVER + +Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871" title="PAWNEE-VILLAGE WHICH STOOD ON THE LOUPE FORK OF THE PLATTE RIVER + +Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871" /> +<span class="caption">PAWNEE-VILLAGE WHICH STOOD ON THE LOUPE FORK OF THE PLATTE RIVER + +Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 50<a name="Plate_50"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/p050.png" width="500" height="277" alt="LODGES IN THE PAWNEE VILLAGE WHICH STOOD ON THE LOUPE FORK OF THE PLATTE RIVER + +Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871" title="LODGES IN THE PAWNEE VILLAGE WHICH STOOD ON THE LOUPE FORK OF THE PLATTE RIVER + +Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871" /> +<span class="caption">LODGES IN THE PAWNEE VILLAGE WHICH STOOD ON THE LOUPE FORK OF THE PLATTE RIVER + +Photograph by W. H. Jackson, 1871</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 51<a name="Plate_51"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/p051a.png" width="250" height="298" alt="a. Children at lodge entrance" title="a. Children at lodge entrance" /> +<span class="caption">a. Children at lodge entrance</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/p051b.png" width="250" height="298" alt="b. Showing screen near same entrance + +IN A PAWNEE VILLAGE + +Photographs by W. H. Jackson, 1871" title="b. Showing screen near same entrance + +IN A PAWNEE VILLAGE + +Photographs by W. H. Jackson, 1871" /> +<span class="caption">b. Showing screen near same entrance<br /> + +IN A PAWNEE VILLAGE + +Photographs by W. H. Jackson, 1871</span> +</div> + +<p>In addition to the permanent earth-covered lodges the Pawnee +made extensive use of temporary skin-covered shelters, unlike the +conical lodge of the plains tribes. These served as their habitations +during the hunting season, when away from their villages. A most +valuable and interesting description of the ways and customs of the +Pawnee while occupying their movable villages was prepared by one +who, during the summer and autumn of 1835, lived among the people,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> +sharing their primitive ways of life and thereby learning many of +their peculiar traits. The English traveler, Charles A. Murray, +whose narrative is quoted in part on the following pages, left Fort +Leavenworth July 7, 1835, and two weeks later reached the summer +camp of the Pawnee: "and a more interesting or picturesque scene +I never beheld. Upon an extensive prairie gently sloping down to a +creek, the winding course of which marked a broken line of wood +here and there interspersed with a fine clump of trees, were about five +thousand savages, inclusive of women and children; some were sitting +under their buffalo-skin lodges lazily smoking their pipes; while +the women were stooping over their fires busily employed in preparing +meat and maize for these indolent lords of the creation. Far as +the eye could reach, were scattered herds of horses, watched (or as +we should say in Scotland, 'tented') by urchins, whose whole dress +and equipment was the slight bow and arrow, with which they exercised +their infant archery upon the heads of the taller flowers, or +upon the luckless blackbird perched near them. Here and there might +be seen some gay young warrior ambling along the heights, his painted +form partially exposed to view as his bright scarlet blanket waved in +the breeze." (Murray, (1), I, pp. 277-278.) Later he described the +manner of moving and pitching their large temporary camps: "On +reaching the camping-place, which is selected by the grand chief (or, +in his absence, by the next in rank), the senior squaw chooses the +spot most agreeable to her fancy, and orders the younger women and +children, who lead the pack-horses and mules (generally from five to +ten in number, according to the size or wealth of the family), to +halt; but in making this choice of ground, she is restricted within +certain limits, and those of no great extent, as the Pawnees observe +great regularity both in their line of march and encampment. I +could not ascertain whether these regulations were invariable, or +made at the pleasure of the chief; but I believe the latter; and that +on leaving their winter, or stationary, villages, he issues the general +orders on this subject, which are observed during the season or the +expedition; at any rate, they never varied during my stay among +them.</p> + +<p>"They move in three parallel bodies; the left wing consisting of +part of the Grand Pawnees and the Tapages; the centre of the remaining +Grand Pawnees; and the right of the Republicans.... +All these bodies move in 'Indian file,' though of course in the mingled +mass of men, women, children, and pack-horses, it was not very +regularly observed; nevertheless, on arriving at the halting-place, +the party to which I belonged invariably camped at the eastern +extremity of the village, the great chief in the centre, and the +<i>Républiques</i> on the western side; and this arrangement was kept so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> +well, that, after I had been a few days with them, I could generally +find our lodge in a new encampment with very little trouble, although +the village consisted of about six hundred of them, all nearly +similar in appearance.</p> + +<p>"They first unpack and unsaddle the horses, which are given to a +boy to drive off to their grass and water; they then arrange all their +bales, saddles, &c. in a semi-circular form, and pile them from two +to three feet high. Around the exterior of these they drive into the +ground eight or ten curved willow rods, from two to three feet distant +from each other, but all firmly bound by leather thongs to four +large upright poles, that form the front of the lodge, and along +which run transverse willow rods, to which the extremities of the +curved ones are fastened. When the frame, or skeleton, is thus +finished, they stretch the cover (made of buffalo hides, sewed together) +tight over the whole, leaving an aperture for entrance and +egress in the centre of the front; and in fine weather, the whole +front open.</p> + +<p>"This is an accurate description of a Pawnee summer-lodge; but, +of course, the dimensions vary according to the number and wealth +of the families residing therein; in some tents I have observed the +front consisting of six or eight upright poles, to which were fixed +more skins, for additional shelter or shade. On the grass, in the +interior, are spread mats, made by the squaws from reeds, and skins +of buffalo or bear.</p> + +<p>"From the foregoing it will be easily understood that the bales +of cloth, maize, skins, and whatever other property they possess, +form the back of the tent. Each occupant, from the chief to the +lowest in rank, has his assigned place; sleeps upon his own blanket, +or buffalo robe; has his bow and quiver suspended over his head; +his saddle, bridle, and laryettes, &c. behind his back: and thus little +confusion prevails, although each individual has only just room to +sit or lie at full length.</p> + +<p>"Before the tent a kind of shield is raised, upon three poles pyramidically +placed, on which is the device of the chief, by which his +tent is to be recognised.... In the interior of the tent, and generally +about the centre of its concave, is suspended the 'medicine,' +which is most carefully and religiously preserved.... Under the +head of 'medicine,' the Indians comprise not only its own healing +department, but everything connected with religion of superstition; +all omens, all relics, and everything extraordinary or supernatural." +(Murray (1), I, pp. 282-286.)</p> + +<p>Late in the year 1835 Murray left the Pawnee encampment to +return to Fort Leavenworth, but, meeting with an accident, was not +able to proceed on his way. The Pawnee were likewise moving, and +in moving over the prairie made a well-defined trail. Retracing his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> +way, and seeking the Pawnee, he wrote: "About ten o'clock on the +following day we found the great Pawnee trail, and, following it, +came at mid-day to the place where they had camped the night +before, and a most hideous spectacle did it present; the grass was +all trodden into mud—hundreds of circular heaps of charred wood +attested the number of fires that had been used; and the whole plain +was strewed with split heads, bare skeletons, and scattered entrails +of buffalo; while some hundreds of the half-starved Pawnee dogs +who had lingered behind the village were endeavoring to dispute +some morsels of the carcasses with the gaunt snarling wolves, who +were stripping the scanty relics of skin and sinew which are left by +Indian butchery attached to the bone." (Op. cit., p. 438.) This +vivid description of the appearance of an abandoned camp site quite +agrees with a reference made by Dr. Grinnell a few years ago. +Writing of events during the year 1853, and alluding to an +abandoned camp of the Pawnee that year discovered by the +Cheyenne, he said: "It was a big camp; and there were many fires. +It seemed as if the Pawnees had been camped there killing buffalo +for a long time. There were still many dogs in the camp. On one +side was a well-beaten trail which led to another camp two hundred +yards off where a number of people had been camped, not in lodges +but in shelters made of willows bent over, after the fashion of a +sweat-house." (Grinnell, (2), p. 86.)</p> + +<p>These temporary and easily erected structures of the Pawnee were +probably quite similar in form and appearance to that of the +Cheyenne, part of which is shown in plate <a href="#Plate_14">14</a>. But in the latter +instance the cover is not formed of the primitive buffalo skin, but +of canvas, or some other material obtained from the trader.</p> + +<p>The Pawnee had a strange method of dealing with their sick or +wounded during the movement of a village from place to place, +and, so wrote Father De Smet, "if, in the long journeys which they +undertake in search of game, any should be impeded, either by age +or sickness, their children or relations make a small hut of dried +grass to shelter them from the heat of the sun or from the weather, +leaving as much provision as they are able to spare, and thus abandon +them to their destiny.... If, some days after, they are successful +in the chase, they return as quickly as possible to render assistance +and consolation. These practices are common to all the nomadic +tribes of the mountains." (De Smet, (2), pp. 356-357.) It is more +than probable that similar grass shelters were constructed and used +by small parties when away from the villages, but such structures +would necessarily have been of only temporary use.</p> + +<p>In addition to the semicircular skin-covered lodge mentioned by +Murray, the Pawnee evidently made use of the conical tipi. This +was described by Dunbar when he wrote: "Their movable dwellings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +consist of from 12 to 20 poles (the number varying with the size) +about 16 feet long, and a covering. Three of these poles are tied +together near the top and set up. The string, with which these poles +are tied together, is so long that one end of it reaches to the ground, +when the poles are set up. The other poles are now successively +set up save one, the top of each leaning against the three, first set +up, and forming with them a circle. The string is then wound +round them all at the top several times and fastened. The cover is +tied to the top of the remaining pole by which it is raised up, then +is spread round them all and tied together on the opposite side, where +is the entrance formed by leaving the cover untied about three feet +from the ground. Over the entrance the skin of a bear or some other +animal is suspended. The tents are always set up with their entrances +toward the east. At the top the smoke passes out among +the poles, a place being left for that purpose. The fire place, crane +and hearth are similar to those in their fixed habitations. The furniture +is placed back next the cover. Rush mats are then spread +down forming a sort of floor. On these they sit, eat and sleep. The +large tents are about 18 feet in diameter at the base. The tent covers +are made of buffalo skins, scraped so thin as to transmit light, and +sewed together. These when new are quite white, and a village of +them presents a beautiful appearance. Some of them are painted +according to Pawnee fancy. They carry their tent poles with them +during their whole journey. From three to six of them, as the case +may be, are tied together at the larger end, and made fast to the +saddle, an equal number on each side, the other end drags on the +ground." (Dunbar, (2), pp. 602-603.)</p> + +<p>From these various records it will be understood the Pawnee made +use of several forms of temporary and comparatively easily transported +and erected structures when away from their permanent villages +of earth-covered lodges. And what is true of the Pawnee +would probably apply to other tribes of the upper Missouri Valley.</p> + +<p>The Pawnee, as did other tribes of the region, made long journeys +away from their villages in quest of the buffalo, and an interesting +account of their annual hunts, as conducted about the year 1835, has +been preserved. Then it was told how "The Pawnees make two hunts +each year, the summer and winter hunt. To perform the winter hunt +they leave their villages usually in the last week of October, and do +not return to them again till about the first of April. They now prepare +their cornfields for the ensuing season. The ground is dug up +with the hoe, the corn is planted and well tended. When it has attained +to a certain height they leave it, and go out to their summer +hunt. This is done near the last of June. About the first of September +they return to their villages. Formerly the buffalo came<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> +down to and far below their villages. Now they are obliged to travel +out from ten to twenty days to reach them. The buffalo are rapidly +diminishing and will in time become extinct.</p> + +<p>"When they leave their villages to hunt the buffalo, they take +every man and beast with them, and the place of their habitations is +as desolate and solitary during their absence as any other spot on +the prairie. When the time of departure arrives all the furniture +and provisions they wish to carry with them are packed on the horses. +The residue of their scant furniture and provisions are concealed in +the earth till their return. As each family gets ready they fall into +the train, which frequently extends some miles." (Dunbar, (1), pp. +329-330.) The narrative continues and relates many of the mannerisms +of the people, and tells of their peculiar traits. And it is difficult +to realize the great distance traveled during the hunting trips +away from the permanent earth-lodge villages. Dunbar accompanied +them on several of their hunts and wrote (Op. cit., p. 331): "The first +hunting tour I performed with them they traveled, from the time they +left their village till they returned to it again in the spring, about +400 miles. During the first summer hunt I was with them they traveled +700 miles before returning to their village. During my second +winter hunt they traveled 900 miles, second summer hunt 800 miles."</p> + +<p>The moving about over the vast rolling prairies of the people of +an entire village, while on their distant hunts, covering many hundreds +of miles, and carrying with them practically all of their belongings, +with innumerable dogs and horses, stopping now to kill +the buffalo and again pushing on in quest of more, constituted one +of the most interesting and characteristic phases of primitive life on +the prairies. But within a few decades all has changed, and now +many towns and villages occupy the region once traversed by the +roving bands.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">arikara.</span></h4> + +<p>When or where the Arikara separated from their kindred tribe, +the Pawnee, may never be determined, but during the years which +followed the separation they continued moving northward, leaving +ruined villages to mark the line of their migration. Sixty years ago +it was said: "That they migrated upward, along the Missouri, from +their friends below is established by the remains of their dirt villages, +which are yet seen along that river, though at this time mostly overgrown +with grass. At what time they separated from the parent +stock is not now correctly known, though some of their locations +appear to have been of very ancient date, at least previous to the +commencement of the fur trade on the Upper Missouri. At the time +when the old French and Spanish traders began their dealings with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> +the Indians of the Upper Missouri, the Arikara village was situated +a little above the mouth of Grand River, since which time they have +made several removals and are now located at Fort Clark, the former +village of the Mandans." (Hayden, (1), pp. 351-352.)</p> + +<p>The beginning of the last century found the Arikara living in three +villages, all on the right bank of the Missouri. In the journal of the +French trader Le Raye are brief references to the villages, together +with some notes on the manners and customs of the inhabitants. +April 22, 1802, he wrote: "The <i>Ricaras</i> or <i>Rus</i> have three villages, +situated on the south bank of the Missouri, in the great bend of the +river. The lower village is on a large bottom covered with cotton +wood, and contains about fifty huts." He then describes the manner +in which the earth-covered lodges were built and refers to the structures +being "placed with great regularity," a statement which does +not seem to have been borne out by later writers. Continuing, he +said: "The town is picketed with pickets twelve feet high and set +very close, to prevent firing between them. There is one gate way, +which is shut at night." On May 27, 1802, he left the lower village, +"crossed Missouri, and arrived the same evening at the upper village. +This village is situated on an Island in the Missouri, and is fortified +in the same manner as the lower village, containing about sixty huts.... +The next morning we proceeded, and soon left the Missouri, +travelling a northwest course, in a well beaten path." (Le Raye, (1), +pp. 171-180.)</p> + +<p>Although the preceding notes may not be very accurate, nevertheless +they are of interest on account of the period they cover, just +before the transfer of Louisiana to the United States, and two years +before the most important expedition ascended the Missouri.</p> + +<p>To trace the sites of early Arikara villages as mentioned by Lewis +and Clark, and as seen by them when the expedition under their +command passed up the Missouri during the early autumn of 1804, +is most interesting. On September 29 of that year they reached the +mouth of a small creek which entered the Missouri from the south, +"which we called Notimber creek from its bare appearance. Above +the mouth of this stream, a Ricara band of Pawnees had a village +five years ago: but there are no remains of it except the mound +which encircled the town." This would have been in the present +Stanley County, South Dakota. Two days later, on October 1, +they "passed a large island in the middle of the river, opposite +the lower end of which the Ricaras once had a village on the south +side of the river: there are, however, no remnants of it now, except +a circular wall three or four feet in height, which encompassed the +town." Two miles beyond was the mouth of the Cheyenne River.</p> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 52<a name="Plate_52"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/p052a.png" width="250" height="373" alt="a. Arikara carrying basket. (U.S.N.M. 8430)" title="a. Arikara carrying basket. (U.S.N.M. 8430)" /> +<span class="caption">a. Arikara carrying basket. (U.S.N.M. 8430)</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/p052b.png" width="250" height="358" alt="b. Wooden mortar. "Witchata Inds. Dr. E. Palmer." Height +of body 13½ inches. (U.S.N.M. 6899)" title="b. Wooden mortar. "Witchata Inds. Dr. E. Palmer." Height +of body 13½ inches. (U.S.N.M. 6899)" /> +<span class="caption">b. Wooden mortar. "Witchata Inds. Dr. E. Palmer." Height +of body 13½ inches. (U.S.N.M. 6899)</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 53<a name="Plate_53"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/p053.png" width="500" height="318" alt=""RICCAREE VILLAGE" + +George Catlin" title=""RICCAREE VILLAGE" + +George Catlin" /> +<span class="caption">"RICCAREE VILLAGE" + +George Catlin</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>On the third day after passing the mouth of the Cheyenne they +reached "Teal creek," and "A little above this is an island on the +north side of the current, about one and a half mile in length and +three quarters of a mile in breadth. In the centre of this island is +an old village of the Ricaras, called Lahoocat; it was surrounded +by a circular wall, containing seventeen lodges. The Ricaras are +known to have lived there in 1797, and the village seems to have +been deserted about five years since: it does not contain much timber."</p> + +<p>On October 6, two days' travel beyond Teal Creek, and at a distance +of about 32 miles above it, "We halted for dinner at a village +which we suppose to have belonged to the Ricaras: it is situated +in a low plain on the river, and consists of about eighty lodges, +of an octagonal form, neatly covered with earth, and placed as +close to each other as possible, and picketed round. The skin canoes, +mats, buckets, and articles of furniture found in the lodges, induce +us to suppose that it had been left in the spring. We found three +different sorts of squashes growing in the village; we also killed +an elk near it, and saw two wolves." On the following day, after +advancing about 4 or 5 miles, they encountered "another village or +wintering camp of the Ricaras, composed of about sixty lodges, built +in the same form as those passed yesterday, with willow and straw +mats, baskets, buffalo-skin canoes, remaining entire in the camp."</p> + +<p>The baskets may have included many similar to two rare examples +now in the National Museum, Washington, one of which is +shown in plate <a href="#Plate_52">52</a>, <i>a</i> (U.S.N.M. 8430).</p> + +<p>On October 9, 1804, after passing the mouth of the river called +by them the Wetawhoo or Wetarko, soon to be known as Grand +River, which flows into the Missouri from the west in the present +Corson County, South Dakota, the expedition stopped and held a +council with the Indians. There they remained until October 11, +when "At one o'clock we left our camp with the grand chief and +his nephew on board, and at about two miles anchored below a +creek on the south, separating the second and third village of the +Ricaras, which are about half a mile distant from each other.... +These two villages are placed near each other in a high smooth +prairie; a fine situation, except that having no wood the inhabitants +are obliged to go for it across the river to a timbered lowland +opposite to them."</p> + +<p>The expedition left the Arikara during the afternoon of October +12, and on that date in the narrative appears an interesting account +of the then recent migrations of the tribe: "They were originally +colonies of Pawnees, who established themselves on the Missouri, below +Chayenne, where the traders still remember that twenty years +ago they occupied a number of villages. From that situation a part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> +of the Ricaras emigrated to the neighborhood of the Mandans, with +whom they were then in alliance. The rest of the nation continued +near the Chayenne till the year 1797, in the course of which, distressed +by their wars with the Sioux, they joined their countrymen +near the Mandans. Soon after a new war arose between the Ricaras +and the Mandans, in consequence of which the former came down +the river to their present position. In this migration those who had +first gone to the Mandans kept together, and now live in the two +lower villages, which may be considered as the Ricaras proper. The +third village was composed of such remnants of the villages as had +survived the wars, and as these were nine in number a difference of +pronunciation and some difference of language may be observed between +them and the Ricaras proper, who do not understand all the +words of these wanderers. The villages are within the distance of +four miles of each other, the two lower ones consist of between one +hundred and fifty and two hundred men each, the third of three +hundred." (Lewis and Clark, (1), I, pp. 92-104.) Following this, on +page 106, is a brief description of the earth-covered lodges of the +Arikara, which were of "a circular or octagonal form, and generally +about thirty or forty feet in diameter," but a rather better description +was prepared by one of the members of the expedition, Patrick +Gass, who wrote on October 10: "This day I went with some of +the men to the lodges, about 60 in number. The following is a +description of the form of these lodges and the manner of building +them.</p> + +<p>"In a circle of a size suited to the dimensions of the intended lodge +they set up 16 forked posts five or six feet high, and lay poles from +one fork to another. Against these poles they lean other poles, +slanting from the ground, and extending about four inches above +the cross poles; these are to receive the ends of the upper poles that +support the roof. They next set up four large forks, fifteen feet +high, and about ten feet apart, in the middle of the area; and poles +or beams between these. The roof poles are then laid on extending +from the lower poles across the beams which rest on the middle forks, +of such a length as to leave a hole at the top for a chimney. The +whole is then covered with willow branches, except the chimney and +a hole below to pass through. On the willow branches they lay +grass and lastly clay. At the hole below they build a pen about +four feet wide and projecting ten feet from the hut; and hang a +buffalo skin at the entrance of the hut for a door. This labour +like every other kind is chiefly performed by the squaws. They +raise corn, beans and tobacco." (Gass, (1), p. 52.) And five days +later Gass entered in his journal: "At 7 we saw a hunting party +of the Rickarees, on their way down to the villages. They had 12<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> +buffalo-skin canoes or boats laden with meat and skins; beside some +horses that were going down the bank by land. They gave us a part +of their meat. The party consisted of men, women, and children." +(Op. cit., p. 54.)</p> + +<p>Two years later, on the return of the expedition, they again passed +the villages of the Arikara, arriving opposite the upper village August +21, 1806, at which time there was an exchange of salutes of four +guns each.</p> + +<p>In 1812 Cutler wrote regarding the Arikara: "They live in fortified +villages, claim no land, except that on which their villages stand, +and the fields they improve." (Cutler, (1), p. 125.)</p> + +<p>It is quite evident, from the preceding references as well as from +the observations of later travelers, that the Arikara villages were +usually, if not always, surrounded by palisades. But to have surrounded +the area occupied by the lodges by stout posts placed +close together would have required some time and, with the primitive +implements and methods of collecting the necessary number of +timbers, would have been a laborious undertaking. However, they +appear to have had another way of protecting their towns. This +was told by a French trader who was at the Arikara village in 1795. +During the early part of June of that year several Indians arrived +among the Arikara and told that three Sioux villages "had assembled +and formed an army of five hundred warriors, intending to +attack the village of the Ricaras." Fearing this attack, the narrative +continues: "The Ricaras have fortified their village by placing +palisades five feet high which they have reinforced with earth. The +fort is constructed in the following manner: All around their village +they drive into the ground heavy forked stakes, standing from +four to five feet high and from fifteen to twenty feet apart. Upon +these are placed cross-pieces as thick as one's thigh; next they place +poles of willow or cottonwood, as thick as one's leg, resting on the +cross-pieces and very close together. Against these poles which are +five feet high they pile fascines of brush which they cover with an +embankment of earth two feet thick; in this way, the height of the +poles would prevent the scaling of the fort by the enemy, while the +well-packed earth protects those within from their balls and arrows." +(Trudeau, (1), pp. 454-455.) Undoubtedly many embankments +found east of the Mississippi owe their origin to this method +of protecting the villages which they once surrounded.</p> + +<p>The most interesting and comprehensible accounts of the Arikara +villages were prepared during the month of June, 1811. Two travelers +that spring ascended the Missouri with rival parties of traders, +but they were acquainted and again met on the upper Missouri on +June 3. Brackenridge arrived at the village on June 12, and wrote:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>"The village appeared to occupy about three quarters of a mile +along the river bank, on a level plain, the country behind it rising +into hills of considerable height. There are little or no woods anywhere +to be seen. The lodges are of a conical shape, and look like +heaps of earth. A great number of horses are seen feeding in the +plains around, and on the sides of the hills. I espied a number of +squaws, in canoes, descending the river and landing at the village. +The interpreter informed me, that they were returning home with +wood. These canoes are made of a single buffalo hide, stretched +over osiers, and are of a circular form. There was but one woman +in each canoe, who kneeled down, and instead of paddling sideways, +placed the paddle before; the load is fastened to the canoe.... +About two o'clock fourteen of us crossed over, and accompanied the +chief to his lodge. Mats were laid around for us to sit on, while +he placed himself on a kind of stool or bench. The pipe was handed +around, and smoked; after which, the herald, (every chief or great +man, has one of them) ascended the top of the lodge and seated +himself near an open place, and began to bawl out like one of our +town criers; the chief every now and then addressing something to +him through the aperture before mentioned. We soon discovered +the object of this, by the arrival of the other chiefs, who seemed to +drop in, one after the other, as their names were called.</p> + +<p>"When all were seated, the pipe was handed to the chief, who +began as is usual on solemn occasions, by blowing a whiff upwards as +it were to the sky, then to the earth, and after to the east and west, +after which the pipe was sent round. A mark of respect in handing +the pipe to another, is to hold it until the person has taken several +whiffs." (Brackenridge, (1), pp. 245-246.)</p> + +<p>Bradbury, who was also present at the gathering on June 12, +entered in his journal:</p> + +<p>"I quitted the feast, in order to examine the town, which I found +to be fortified all round with a ditch, and with pickets or pallisadoes, +of about nine feet high. The lodges are placed without any regard +to regularity, which renders it difficult to count them, but there +appears to be from 150 to 160, and they are constructed in the same +manner as those of the Ottoes, with the additional convenience of a +railing on the eaves: behind this railing they sit at their ease and +smoke. There is scarcely any declivity in the scite of the town, and +as little regard is paid to cleanliness, it is very dirty in wet weather." +(Bradbury, (1), pp. 114-115.) Later he wrote (pp. 165-166): "I +am not acquainted with any customs peculiar to this nation, save that +of having a sacred lodge in the centre of the largest village. This is +called the <i>Medicine lodge</i>, and in one particular, corresponds with +the sanctuary of the Jews, as no blood is on any account whatsoever +to be spilled within it, not even that of an enemy; nor is any one,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> +having taken refuge there, to be forced from it. This lodge is also +the general place of deposit for such things as they devote to the +<i>Father of Life</i>."</p> + +<p>On the following day, June 13, 1811, Brackenridge "rambled +through the village," which he found "excessively filthy," with innumerable +dogs running about. Then he proceeded to describe the +habitations: "The lodges are constructed in the following manner: +Four large forks of about fifteen feet in height, are placed in the +ground, usually about twenty feet from each other, with hewn logs, +or beams across; from these beams, other pieces of wood are placed +slanting; smaller pieces are placed above, leaving an aperture at +the top, to admit the light, and to give vent to the smoke. These +upright pieces are interwoven with osiers, after which, the whole is +covered with earth, though not sodded. An opening is left at one +side, for a door, which is secured by a kind of projection of ten or +twelve feet, enclosed on all sides, and forming a narrow entrance, +which might be easily defended. A buffalo robe suspended at the +entrance, answers as a door. The fire is made in a hole in the +ground, directly under the aperture at the top. Their beds elevated +a few feet, are placed around the lodge, and enclosed with curtains +of dressed elk skins. At the upper end of the lodge, there is a kind +of trophy erected; two buffalo heads, fantastically painted, are placed +on a little elevation; over them are placed, a variety of consecrated +things, such as shields, skins of a rare or valuable kind, and quivers +of arrows. The lodges seem placed at random, without any regularity +or design, and are so much alike, that it was for some time +before I could learn to return to the same one. The village is surrounded +by a palisade of cedar poles, but in a very bad state. Around +the village, there are little plats enclosed by stakes, intwined with +osiers, in which they cultivate maize, tobacco, and beans; but their +principal field is at the distance of a mile from the village, to which, +such of the females whose duty it is to attend to their culture, go +and return morning and evening. Around the village they have +buffalo robes stuck up on high poles. I saw one so arranged as to +bear a resemblance to the human figure, the hip bone of the buffaloe +represented the head, the sockets of the thigh bones looked like eyes." +(Op. cit., pp. 247-248.)</p> + +<p>On June 14 they walked together to the upper of the two villages, +which were separated by a narrow stream. They entered several +lodges and were always pleasantly received by the occupants and +offered food, which included fresh buffalo meat served in wooden +dishes or bowls, and "homony made of corn dried in the milk, mixed +with beans, which was prepared with buffalo marrow." This latter, +according to Bradbury, was "warmed on the fire in an earthen vessel<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> +of their own manufacture." Later, when he returned to the same +village, he wrote (p. 158): "I noticed over their fires much larger +vessels of earthenware than any I had before seen, and was permitted +to examine them. They were sufficiently hardened by the +fire to cause them to emit a sonorous tone on being struck, and in all +I observed impressions on the outside seemingly made by wicker +work. This led me to enquire of them by signs how they were +made? when a squaw brought a basket, and taking some clay, she +began to spread it very evenly within it, shewing me at the same +time that they were made in that way. From the shape of these +vessels, they must be under the necessity of burning the basket to +disengage them, as they are wider at the bottom than at the top. I +must here remark, that at the Great Salt Lick, or Saline, about twenty +miles from the mouth of the Wabash, vast quantities of Indian +earthenware are found, on which I have observed impressions exactly +similar to those here mentioned. From the situation of these +heaps of fragments, and their proximity to the salt works, I am +decidedly of opinion that the Indians practised the art of evaporating +the brine, to make salt, before the discovery of America."</p> + +<p>It was the custom of the people of the village to gather in the +evenings on the tops of their lodges, there to sit and converse, and +"every now and then the attention of all was attracted by some old +men who rose up and declaimed aloud, so as to be heard over the +whole village." Within the village women were often seen busily +engaged in dressing buffalo robes, stretched on frames near the +lodges. Men, playing at various games, or sitting in groups smoking +and talking; children and dogs innumerable. Such was the appearance +of an Arikara village a little more than a century ago.</p> + +<p>On the 18th of June Bradbury visited the bluffs southwest of +the village and on one discovered 14 buffalo skulls placed in a row, +and in describing them said: "The cavities of the eyes and the +nostrils were filled with a species of <i>artemisia</i> common on the +prairies, which appears to be a non-descript. On my return I caused +our interpreter to enquire into the reason for this, and found that it +was an honour conferred on the buffaloes which they had killed, in +order to appease their spirits, and prevent them from apprising +the living buffaloes of the danger they run in approaching the +neighbourhood." (Op. cit., p. 125.)</p> + +<p>An interesting observation was made at this time by Brackenridge +concerning a temporary encampment of a small party of Arikara +when away from their permanent, well-protected villages. He said +(Op. cit., pp. 254-255): "To avoid surprise, they always encamp at +the edge of a wood; and when the party is small, they construct a +kind of fortress, with wonderful expedition, of billets of wood, apparently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> +piled up in a careless manner, but so arranged as to be +very strong, and are able to withstand an assault from a much +superior force." Many such inclosures were discovered and mentioned +by the early explorers of the Upper Missouri Valley, and +several instances have been cited on the preceding pages when treating +of the Siouan tribes.</p> + +<p>In 1832 Catlin went up the Missouri, and when he arrived at the +Arikara village he made a sketch of the town as it appeared from the +deck of the steamboat. The original painting is now in the National +Museum, Washington, and is reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_53">53</a>. This was engraved +and presented as plate 80 in his narrative. Writing of this +sketch he remarked: "Plate 80, gives a view of the Riccaree village, +which is beautifully situated on the west bank of the river, 200 miles +below the Mandans; and built very much in the same manner; being +constituted of 150 earth-covered lodges, which are in part surrounded +by an imperfect and open barrier of piquets set firmly in the ground, +and of ten or twelve feet in height. This village is built upon an +open prairie, and the gracefully undulating hills that rise in distance +behind it are everywhere covered with a verdant green turf, without +a tree or a bush anywhere to be seen. This view was taken from +the deck of the steamer when I was on my way up the river." (Catlin, +(1), I, p. 204.) At this time the Arikara were very hostile to all +the traders who passed and repassed along the Missouri. They had +attacked many canoes and caused the death of their occupants. Fearing +the outcome of their actions they soon left the banks of the Missouri +and moved westward. One year after Catlin passed the villages +Maximilian arrived there while on his way to the far upper +waters of the Missouri. On June 12, 1833, Maximilian wrote: "Moreau's +River ... is called the southern boundary of the territory +of the Arikkaras, though they often make excursions far beyond it.... +On the morning of the 12th our cannon, muskets and rifles were +loaded with ball, because we were approaching the village of the hostile +Arikkaras. We came to Grand River, called in Lewis and +Clarke's map Wetarko River. As we here touched the bottom, we +crossed to the east bank, and in half an hour reached Rampart River, +which issues from a narrow chain of hills, called Les Remparts; and +soon afterwards an island covered with willows, which, on the large +special map of Lewis and Clarke, has an Arikkara village, of which +there are now no traces. From the hills we had a fine prospect over +the bend of the river, on which the villages of the Arikkaras are situated, +and which we reached after a short run of only two miles. +The two villages of this tribe are on the west bank, very near each +other, but separated by a small stream. They consist of a great number +of clay huts, round at the top, with a square entrance in front,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> +and the whole surrounded with a fence of stakes, which were much +decayed, and in many places thrown down. It was not quite a year +since these villages had been wholly abandoned, because their inhabitants, +who were extremely hostile to the Whites, killed so many +Americans, that they themselves foresaw that they would be severely +chastised by the United States, and therefore preferred to emigrate. +To this cause was added, a dry, unproductive season, when the crops +entirely failed; as well as the absence of the herds of buffaloes, which +hastened their removal.... The principal chief of the Arikkaras, +when they retired from the Missouri, was called Starapat (the little +hawk, with bloody claws)." (Maximilian, (1), pp. 166-167.) The +Arikara at this time appear to have left the banks of the Missouri +and removed to the vicinity of the Pawnee.</p> + +<p>Fort Clark, on the upper Missouri, at the villages of the Mandan +and Hidatsa, was erected by the American Fur Company during the +year 1829.</p> + +<p>In 1837 the Mandans suffered from the dreaded smallpox, losing +more than 90 per cent of their number, and the few who survived +abandoned their large village below Fort Clark and settled a short +distance above. And, so wrote Hayden in 1855, "About the time that +the Mandans left the lower village, the Arikaras came and took possession, +the former readily consenting to this arrangement, because +it placed a large body of strangers between them and the Dakotas, +with whom, in their now feeble state, they were unable to contend." +(Hayden, (1), p. 434.)</p> + +<p>A brief description of the Arikara village as it appeared early in +June, 1850, is to be found in Culbertson's journal. On the 12th of +that month the steamboat, ascending the Missouri, reached Fort +Clark, "a small fort, about one hundred feet in length on each side." +Just above the fort was the village of the Arikara. "The village is +composed of two hundred lodges, as near as I could learn from the +interpreter, and is built upon the top of a bluff bank rising about +seventy-five feet perpendicular from the water. The huts are placed +very irregularly, sometimes with very narrow, and sometimes with +quite broad spaces between them. A number of platforms of poles, +as high as the lodges themselves, are interspersed among them for +the convenience of drying meat and dressing robes. I noticed a number +of squaws busily employed in dressing robes." (Culbertson, +(1), p. 117.) The typical earth lodge is described, one similar to +those mentioned on other pages of this sketch, but his account of the +interior of a habitation is most interesting. He, with others, stopped +at a large lodge, when, so he wrote: "We were conducted to the +place of honor, opposite to and facing the door. To our right, along +the wall, were arranged several bedsteads, rudely made, while to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> +left, a part was cut off by a couple of poles, for the accommodation +of the horses; the chickens had a coop in one corner, but roam at +large on most occasions, and the centre is used for a fireplace. The +lodge was clean, airy, light and comfortable, and there was plenty +of room for more than those, who I suppose, inhabit it. Behind us +were hung bows with spears on the ends, and two rude instruments +of music, made of a number of pumpkins.... Near the fireplace a +small wooden mortar was sunk in the ground, for pounding corn. +The large and high room appeared rather scarce of furniture." Many +burials were encountered when passing between the village and Fort +Clark, and there "were little patches of corn and pumpkins, generally +enclosed by a slight bush fence," these probably being the +gardens belonging to the people of the near-by town. The mortar, +"sunk in the ground," as mentioned by Culbertson, was evidently +similar to the example shown in plate <a href="#Plate_52">52</a>, <i>b</i>, a form which was indicated +by Bodmer in his sketch of the interior of a Mandan lodge, +plate <a href="#Plate_40">40</a>.</p> + +<p>It will be recalled that the village mentioned in the preceding notes +was the home of the Mandan during the memorable winter of 1804-05, +when the expedition of Lewis and Clark encamped a few miles below, +and there the Mandan continued to dwell until after the epidemic of +1837.</p> + +<p>In later years the three tribes, Arikara, Hidatsa, and Mandan, were +closely associated, living in the vicinity of Fort Berthold, on the +left bank of the Missouri and about 60 miles above Fort Clark, the +Arikara having arrived at Fort Berthold, during the month of August, +1862. Evidently their ways of life and customs were quite +similar, and Matthews, in his work on the Hidatsa in particular, but +in which he treats of the three tribes in general, said: "For cleaning +the village-grounds, they had rakes made of a few osiers tied together, +the ends curved and spreading. Their most important agricultural +implement was the hoe. Before they obtained iron utensils of the +white traders, their only hoes were made of the shoulder-blades of +elk or buffalo, attached to wooden handles of suitable length ... as +late as 1867, I saw a great number in use at Fort Berthold, and purchased +two or three, one of which was sent to Washington, and, I +presume, is now on exhibition in the museum of the Smithsonian Institution." +(Matthews, (1), p. 19.) Several rakes of this description +are in the collection of the National Museum, Washington. One, +bearing the legend "Arickaree," which was obtained at Fort Berthold, +is shown in plate <a href="#Plate_54">54</a>, <i>a</i> (U.S.N.M. 6353). It measures 4 feet +10 inches in length and is formed of six pieces bound together. It is +also of great interest to know that the hoe which was sent by Dr. +Matthews to the museum is perfectly preserved. It is here reproduced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> +in plate <a href="#Plate_54">54</a>, <i>b</i> (U.S.N.M. 6326). Written on it is this legend: "Ree +Indians. Ft Berthold Dacotah Ter. Drs Gray and Matthews." +The length of the scapula, that of a buffalo, is about 14 inches. Both +handle and blade are worn smooth from use. The specimen is one of +much importance.</p> + +<p>It will be recalled that Bradbury in 1811 referred to the "medicine +lodge," then standing in the center of the large Arikara village. +Matthews, more than 60 years later, mentioned a similar structure +then standing at the village near Fort Berthold, and said concerning +it: "The medicine-lodge of the Arickarees is larger than that of the +Mandans, and is used for a greater variety of ceremonies. Some of +these performances, consisting of ingenious tricks of jugglery and +dances, representative of various hunts, we might be inclined to call +theatrical rather than religious. Probably these Indians consider +them both worshipful and entertaining. It is often hard to tell how +much of a religious ceremony is intended to propitiate the unknown +powers, and how much to please the spectators." (Matthews, (1), +p. 10.)</p> + +<p>From the various quotations given on the preceding pages it is +possible to form a good idea of the appearance of an ancient Arikara +village. A large number of earth-covered lodges, of varying sizes, +were placed without order but rather close together, often with a +"medicine lodge" in the center of the group. All were surrounded +by a palisade, often reared in connection with a ditch and embankment. +The village at Fort Berthold was thus protected until the +winter of 1865, at which time the stockade was cut down and used +as fuel, and it was never replaced.</p> + +<p>As late as 1872 there were 43 earth-covered lodges standing at the +Arikara village near Fort Berthold, together with 28 log cabins.</p> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 54<a name="Plate_54"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p054a.png" width="300" height="93" alt="a. Rake marked "Arickaree." Collected at Fort Berthold. Length 4 feet 10 inches. +(U.S.N.M. 6353)" title="a. Rake marked "Arickaree." Collected at Fort Berthold. Length 4 feet 10 inches. +(U.S.N.M. 6353)" /> +<span class="caption">a. Rake marked "Arickaree." Collected at Fort Berthold. Length 4 feet 10 inches. +(U.S.N.M. 6353)</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p054b.png" width="300" height="147" alt="b. Agricultural implement formed of a scapula of a buffalo attached to a wooden handle. Marked +"Ree Indians. Ft. Berthold, Dacotah Ter. Drs. Gray and Matthews." Length of scapula +about 14 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6326)" title="b. Agricultural implement formed of a scapula of a buffalo attached to a wooden handle. Marked +"Ree Indians. Ft. Berthold, Dacotah Ter. Drs. Gray and Matthews." Length of scapula +about 14 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6326)" /> +<span class="caption">b. Agricultural implement formed of a scapula of a buffalo attached to a wooden handle. Marked +"Ree Indians. Ft. Berthold, Dacotah Ter. Drs. Gray and Matthews." Length of scapula +about 14 inches. (U.S.N.M. 6326)</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p054c.png" width="300" height="153" alt="c. Parfleche box. "Crows, Montana Ter. J. I. Allen." Length 28 inches, width 13½ inches. +(U.S.N.M. 130574)" title="c. Parfleche box. "Crows, Montana Ter. J. I. Allen." Length 28 inches, width 13½ inches. +(U.S.N.M. 130574)" /> +<span class="caption">c. Parfleche box. "Crows, Montana Ter. J. I. Allen." Length 28 inches, width 13½ inches. +(U.S.N.M. 130574)</span> +</div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 55<a name="Plate_55"></a></b></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p055a.png" width="300" height="220" alt="a. Grass-covered structures near Anadarko" title="a. Grass-covered structures near Anadarko" /> +<span class="caption">a. Grass-covered structures near Anadarko</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/p055b.png" width="300" height="226" alt="b. Grass-covered lodge, about 1880 + +WICHITA HABITATIONS" title="b. Grass-covered lodge, about 1880 + +WICHITA HABITATIONS" /> +<span class="caption">b. Grass-covered lodge, about 1880 + +WICHITA HABITATIONS</span> +</div> + +<p>In addition to the earth-covered lodges found in the permanent +villages, they had skin tents which were occupied when away from +their towns on war or hunting expeditions. Like the great majority +of the native tribes, the Arikara would move about during certain +seasons of the year. Hayden, writing about the year 1855, referred +to this custom: "At the commencement of the winter the Arikaras +leave their village in quest of buffalo, which seldom approach near +enough to be killed in the vicinity of their cabins. They then encamp +in skin tents, in various directions from the Missouri or along its +banks, wherever the buffalo may chance to range. They pass the +winter in hunting, and return to their permanent village early in +the spring, bringing with them their skins in an unprepared state, +with a great supply of meat." (Hayden, (1), p. 354.) Such were +the hunting parties often met by the traders and explorers, as that +mentioned by Sergeant Gass on October 15, 1804. That they were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> +skilled agriculturists is attested by a note referring to the time +they were still living in the old Mandan village below Fort Clark, +October 11, 1853. In the journal of a party at that time descending +the Missouri from Fort Benton to St. Louis appears this entry:</p> + +<p>"Arrived at Fort Clark, or Aricaree's village. It is situated on +the top of a very high bluff on the bank of the river.... The Rees +are not friendly to the whites, and are kept from open hostilities +only by fear. They are a large tribe, and on the fertile meadows +they occupy, raise a great amount of corn and pumpkins, which they +exchange with the Crows and Dacotahs for dried buffalo meat and +robes. They exported five thousand bushels of excellent corn this +year...." (Saxton, (1), p. 265.) And it must be remembered that +the principal implement was the primitive hoe, formed of a scapula +of a buffalo attached to a wooden handle.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">wichita.</span></h4> + +<p>Like the other members of this linguistic family, whose villages +have already been described, the Wichita had two forms of dwellings, +which they occupied under different conditions. One served +as the structure in their permanent villages, the other being of a +more temporary nature. But, instead of the earth-covered lodges +used farther north, their fixed villages were composed of groups +of high circular structures, entirely thatched from bottom to top. +Their movable camps, when away from home on war or hunting +expeditions, consisted of the skin-covered tents of the plains.</p> + +<p>The peculiar thatched structures were first seen and described +by Europeans in the year 1541, when Coronado crossed the vast +rolling prairies and reached the Quivira (the Wichita) about the +northeastern part of the present State of Kansas. Here extensive +village sites, with innumerable traces of occupancy, undoubtedly +indicate the positions of the ancient settlements.</p> + +<p>In the narrative of the expedition led by Coronado, prepared by +one of the Spanish officers, Juan Jaramillo, appears an interesting +though very brief description of the thatched dwellings of the people +of Quivira:</p> + +<p>"The houses which these Indians have were of straw, and most +of them round, and the straw reached down to the ground like a wall, +so that they did not have the symmetry or the style of these here +[referring to pueblos]; they have something like a chapel or sentry +box outside and around these, with an entry, where the Indians +appear seated or reclining." (Winship, (1), p. 591.) Castañeda, +writing of the same villages, said: "The houses are round, without +a wall, and they have one story like a loft, under the roof, where +they sleep and keep their belongings. The roofs are of straw."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> +(Winship, (1), pp. 528-529.) This evidently referred to structures +similar to that shown on the right of the lodge in plate <a href="#Plate_55">55</a>, <i>a</i>.</p> + +<p>A photograph of a large Wichita dwelling, of the form mentioned, +is reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_55">55</a>, <i>b</i>. The picture was probably made about +the year 1880. The door in front is open, and there appears to be +another on the extreme left, which would be 90° from the former; +therefore there were evidently four entrances. This is explained in +the following account of the construction and arrangement of such +a dwelling:</p> + +<p>"Its construction was begun by drawing a circle on the ground, +and on the outline setting a number of crotched posts, in which +beams were laid. Against these, poles were set very closely in a row +so as to lean inward; these in turn were laced with willow rods +and their tops brought together and securely-fastened so as to form +a peak. Over this frame a heavy thatch of grass was laid and +bound down by slender rods, and at each point where the rods +joined an ornamental tuft of grass was tied. Two poles, laid at +right angles, jutting out in four projecting points, were fastened +to the apex of the roof, and over the center, where they crossed, +rose a spire, 2 ft. high or more, made of bunches of grass. Four +doors, opening to each point of the compass, were formerly made, +but now, except when the house is to be used for ceremonial purposes, +only two are provided, one on the east to serve for the morning, +and one on the west to go in and out of when the sun is in that +quarter. The fireplace was a circular excavation in the center of +the floor, and the smoke found egress through a hole left high up +in the roof toward the E. The four projecting beams at the peak +pointed toward and were symbolic of the four points of the compass, +where were the paths down which the powers descended to help +man. The spire typified the abode in the zenith of the mysterious +permeating force that animates all nature. The fireplace was accounted +sacred; it was never treated lightly even in the daily life +of the family. The couches of the occupants were placed against +the wall. They consisted of a framework on which was fitted a +woven covering of reeds. Upon this robes or rush mats were spread. +The grass house is a comely structure. Skill is required to build it, +and it has an attractive appearance both within and without." +(Fletcher, (1).)</p> + +<p>An interesting photograph made some 30 or 40 years ago, near +Anadarko, Caddo County, Oklahoma, is reproduced in plate <a href="#Plate_55">55</a>, <i>a</i>. +This shows a grass lodge of the usual form, and to the right of it +appears to be an arbor or shelter, having a thatched roof but open +on the sides. This second structure may be of the form which was +seen by the Spaniards nearly four centuries ago, a place "where the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> +Indians appear seated or reclining." It undoubtedly served as a +gathering place, out of doors, and gave protection from the rays +of the sun.</p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Waco.</span></h5> + +<p>On August 23, 1853, the expedition under command of Lieut. +A. W. Whipple camped at some point in the southwestern portion +of the present McClain County, Oklahoma, and that evening were +visited by two Indians, "the one tall and straight, the other ill-looking. +Their dress consisted of a blue cotton blanket wrapped +around the waist, a head-dress of eagles' feathers, brass wire bracelets, +and moccasins. The outer cartilages of their ears were cut +through in various places, and short sticks inserted in place of rings. +They were painted with vermilion, and carried bows of bois d'arc +three feet long, and cow-skin quivers filled with arrows. The latter +were about twenty-six inches in length, with very sharp steel heads, +tastefully and skillfully made. The feathers with which they +were tipped, and the sinews which bound them, were prettily tinted +with red, blue, and green. The shafts were colored red, and said to +be poisoned." (Whipple, (1), p. 22.) Unable to converse with the +two strangers, the interpreter proceeded to interview them by signs. +"The graceful motions of the hands seemed to convey ideas faster +than words could have done, and with the whole operation we were +highly amused and interested. Our visitors now said that they +were not Kichais, but Huécos, and that they were upon a hunting +expedition." Referring to the same two Indians another member +of the expedition wrote:</p> + +<p>"The newcomers belonged to the tribe of Wakos, or Waekos, +neighbours of the Witchita Indians, who live to the east of the +Witchita Mountains, in a village situated on the bank of a small +river rising in that direction. They were now on a journey to the +Canadian, to meet a barter-trader there, but having heard of our +expedition, had turned out of their way to pay us a visit. The +Wakos and Witchitas differ only in name, and in some slight varieties +of dialect; their villages are built in the same style, and are +only about a thousand yards from one another. Their wigwams, of +which the Witchitas count forty-two, and the Wakos only twenty, +look a good deal like haycocks, and are constructed with pliable +poles, eighteen or twenty feet long, driven into the ground in a +circle of twenty-five feet diameter; the poles are then bent together +and fastened to one another at the top, and the spaces between filled +with plaited willow twigs and turf, a low aperture being left for a +door, and one above for a chimney. A place is hollowed out in the +centre for a fireplace, and around this, and a little raised, are +placed the beds of the inhabitants of the hut; which, when covered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> +with good buffalo skins, make tolerable resting-places. Each of +these wigwams is generally occupied by two families; and the Wako +tribe is reckoned at about two hundred, that of the Witchitas at +not less than eight hundred members. These Indians practise agriculture; +and beans, peas, maize, gourds, and melons are seen prospering +very well round their villages." (Möllhausen, (1), I, pp. +115-116.)</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">caddo.</span></h4> + +<p>The "Caddo proper," or Cenis as they were called by Joutel, early +occupied the southwestern part of the present State of Arkansas, the +Red River Valley, and adjacent region to the south and west.</p> + +<p>La Salle was murdered near the banks of the Trinity, in eastern +Texas, March 20, 1687. Joutel and several others of the party pushed +on, and nine days later, when traversing the valley of the Red River, +arrived at a village of the Cenis. Fortunately a very good account +of the people and their homes is preserved in Joutel's narrative, and +from it the following quotations are made:</p> + +<p>"The <i>Indian</i> that was with us conducted us to their Chief's +Cottage. By the Way, we saw many other Cottages, and the Elders +coming to meet us in their Formalities, which consisted in some +Goat Skins dress'd and painted of several Colours, which they wore +on their Shoulders like Belts, and Plumes of Feathers of several +Colours, on their Heads, like Coronets.... All their Faces were +daub'd with black or red. There were twelve Elders, who walk'd in +the Middle, and the Youth and Warriors in Ranks, on the Sides of +those old Men." After remaining a short time with the chief "They +led us to a larger Cottage, a Quarter of a League from thence, being +the Hut in which they have their public Rejoycings, and the great +Assemblies. We found it furnish'd with Mats for us to sit on. The +Elders seated themselves round about us, and they brought us to eat, +some <i>Sagamite</i>, which is their Pottage, little Beans, Bread made of +<i>Indian</i> Corn, and another Sort they make with boil'd Flower, and at +last they made us smoke."</p> + +<p>They proceeded to another village not far away, and, so the narrative +continues: "By the Way, we saw several Cottages at certain +Distances, stragling up and down, as the Ground happens to be fit +for Tillage. The Field lies about the Cottage, and at other Distances +there are other large Huts, not inhabited, but only serving for +publick Assemblies, either upon Occasion of Rejoycing, or to consult +about Peace and War.</p> + +<p>"The Cottages that are inhabited, are not each of them for a +private Family, for in some of them are fifteen or twenty, each of +which has its Nook or Corner, Bed and other Utensils to its self: but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> +without any Partition to separate it from the rest: However, they +have Nothing in Common besides the Fire, which is in the Midst of +the Hut, and never goes out. It is made of great Trees, the Ends +whereof are laid together, so that when once lighted, it lasts a long +Time, and the first Comer takes Care to keep it up." Here follows +a brief description of the appearance of the structures of the +village, the dwellings resembling those later mentioned as being +typical of the Wichita. "The Cottages are round at the Top, after +the manner of a Bee-Hive, or a Reek of Hay. Some of them are +sixty Foot Diameter." There follows a brief account of the method +of constructing such a house. "In order to build them, they plant +Trees as thick as a Man's thigh, tall and strait, and placing them +in a Circle, and joyning the Tops together, from the Dome, or +round Top, then they lash and cover them with Weeds. When +they remove their Dwellings, they generally burn the Cottages +they leave, and build new on the Ground they design to inhabit. +Their Moveables are some Bullocks Hides and Goats Skins well +cur'd, some Mats close wove, wherewith they adorn their Huts, and +some Earthen Vessels, which they are very skilful at making, and +wherein they boil their Flesh or Roots, or <i>Sagamise</i>, which, as has +been said, is their Pottage. They have also some small Baskets made +of Canes, serving to put in their Fruit and other Provisions. Their +Beds are made of Canes, rais'd two or three Foot above the Ground, +handsomely fitted with Mats and Bullocks Hides, or Goats Skins well +cur'd, which serve them for Feather Beds, or Quilts and Blankets; +and those Beds are parted one from another by Mats hung up." +(Joutel, (1), pp. 106-109.)</p> + +<p>The preceding is probably the clearest description of the furnishings +of a native structure standing beyond the Mississippi during the +last quarter of the seventeenth century that has been preserved. The +large circular structures served as the dwelling place of many individuals. +The beds were placed, so it may be assumed, in a line around +the wall, each separated from its neighbor by a mat. A large fire +burned in the center of the space. In many respects the large dwellings +of the Caddo must have closely resembled the great round structures +which stood north of St. Augustine, Florida, about the year +1700. (Bushnell, (1), pp. 84-86.)</p> + +<p>Brief accounts of the many small tribes living south of the Arkansas +River soon after the transfer of Louisiana contain references to +the numerous villages, but fail, unfortunately, to describe the structures +in detail. (Sibley, (1), pp. 721-725.) The dwellings probably +resembled those already mentioned as standing a century and more +before.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span></p> +<h2>CONCLUSION.</h2> + +<p>The references brought together and presented on the preceding +pages will reveal the nature of the dwellings and the appearance of +the camps and villages which stood, so short a time ago, in the region +between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains. First encountered +in the southern part of the country by the Spanish expeditions +led by De Soto and Coronado before the middle of the sixteenth century, +and by the French who entered the upper and central portions +of the Mississippi Valley during the latter part of the seventeenth +century, all types of structures continued to be reared and occupied +until the latter half of the nineteenth century, while some forms +are even now in use, although it is highly probable that within another +generation these, too, will have disappeared.</p> + +<p>Various writers during the eighteenth century mentioned the tribes +of the Upper Missouri Valley, but all accounts prepared at that +time are rather vague, as was their knowledge of conditions on and +in the region bordering the Great Plains. And not until after the +transfer of Louisiana to the United States, and as a result of the +several expeditions sent out by the Government to explore the newly +acquired territories, did the various groups of tribes, with their +peculiar characteristics, become known with a degree of certainty. +But with the transfer of Louisiana conditions rapidly changed. +Hunters and traders soon penetrated the wilderness where few had +gone before. Fort Crawford, at the mouth of the Wisconsin; Fort +Snelling, just below the Falls of St. Anthony; and Leavenworth, on +the Missouri, were established before the close of the first quarter +of the century. Towns were built farther and farther beyond the +old frontier, and on April 18, 1851, Kurz wrote in his journal:</p> + +<p>"St Joseph, formerly the trading post of Joseph Robidoux, is at +the foot of the Blacksnake hills, on the left bank of the Missouri.... +The streets are crowded with traders and emigrants on their way +to California and Oregon. Many Indians of the tribes of the Pottowatomis, +Foxes (Musquakees), Kikapoos, Iowas, and Otoes are continually +in the town.... In summer the <i>Bourgeois</i>, or Chiefs, the +clerks and <i>Engagés</i> of the fur companies enliven the streets.... St. +Joseph is now what St Louis was formerly—their gathering place." +Thus the Indian in his primitive state was doomed, as were the vast +herds of buffalo which then roamed, unopposed, over the far-reaching +prairies.</p> + +<p>In studying the various types of structures it is interesting to +learn how the natural environments influenced the form of dwellings +erected by the tribes of a particular section. Thus in the densely +timbered country of the north, about the headwaters of the Mississippi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> +and far beyond, the mat and bark covered wigwams were developed +and employed practically to the exclusion of all other forms +of habitations. But on the plains, and in the regions bordering the +great buffalo ranges, the skin-covered conical tipis predominated, +although other forms were sometimes constructed by the same people. +The earth lodges as erected by certain tribes of the Missouri Valley +were the most interesting native structures east of the Rocky Mountains, +and these at once suggest the <i>Rotundas</i>, or great council houses +once built by the Cherokees and Creeks east of the Mississippi.</p> + +<p>In treating of the habitations and villages of the several tribes +references have been made, incidentally, to the manners and ways +of life of the people who once claimed and occupied so great a part +of the present United States.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span></p> +<h2>AUTHORITIES CITED.</h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">Allen, Joel Asaph.</span></p> +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) History of the American Bison, Bison americanus. <i>In</i> Ninth Annual +Report of the United States Geological Survey, for the year 1875. +Washington, 1877.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Atkinson, Henry.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Expedition up the Missouri, 1825. Doc. 117, 19th Congress, 1st +session, House of Rep. War Department. Washington, 1826.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bell, William A.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) New Tracks in North America. London, 1870.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Brackenridge, H. M.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Views of Louisiana; together with a Journal of a Voyage up the +Missouri River, in 1811. Pittsburgh, 1814.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bradbury, John.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Travels in the Interior of America, in the years 1809, 1810, and 1811. +Liverpool, 1817.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bushnell, D. I., Jr.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Native Villages and Village Sites East of the Mississippi. Bulletin +69, Bureau of American Ethnology. Washington, 1919.</p></blockquote> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) Ojibway Habitations and other Structures. <i>In</i> Report of the Smithsonian +Institution for the year ending June 30, 1917. Washington, +1919.</p></blockquote> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(3) Ethnographical Material from North America in Swiss Collections. +<i>In</i> American Anthropologist, Vol. 10, No. 1, Jan.-Mar. 1908.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Carver, Jonathan.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Travels through the Interior parts of North America, in the years +1766, 1767, and 1768. London, 1781. Reprint New York, 1838.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Catlin, George.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the +North American Indians. London, 1844. 2 vols.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cocking, Matthew.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of ... 1772-1773. <i>In</i> Proceedings and Transactions of the +Royal Society of Canada. Vol. II, Third series. 1908.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Colton, C.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Tour of the American Lakes ... in 1830. London. 1833. 2 vols.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Culbertson, Thaddeus A.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of an Expedition to the Mauvaises Terres and the Upper +Missouri in 1850. <i>In</i> Fifth Annual Report of the Smithsonian +Institution. Washington, 1851.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cutler, Jervis.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, +and Louisiana. Boston, 1812.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">De Smet.</span></p> + +<p><i>See</i> Smet.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dodge, Richard Irving.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Black Hills. New York, 1876.</p></blockquote> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) The Plains of the Great West. New York, 1877.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span><span class="smcap">Dorsey, James Owen.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Omaha dwellings, furniture, and implements. <i>In</i> Thirteenth Annual +Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. Washington, 1896.</p></blockquote> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) A Study of Siouan Cults. <i>In</i> Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau +of Ethnology. Washington, 1894.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Douay, Anastasius.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journey of 1687. <i>In</i> Shea (2).</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dunbar, John.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Presbyterian Mission among the Pawnee Indians in Nebraska, +1834 to 1836. <i>In</i> Collections of the Kansas State Historical +Society, 1909-10. Vol. XI. Topeka, 1910.</p></blockquote> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) Journal of. <i>In</i> Collections of the Kansas State Historical Society, +1915-1918, Vol. XIV. Topeka, 1918.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dunraven, Earl of.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Great Divide: Travels in the Upper Yellowstone in the Summer +of 1874. London, 1876.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fisk, J. L.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) North overland expedition for protection of emigrants from Fort +Abercrombie to Fort Benton, 1862. Ex. Doc. No. 80, 37th Cong., 3d +session. Washington, 1863.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fletcher, Alice C.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Grass Houses. <i>In</i> Handbook of American Indians, Bulletin 30, +Bureau of American Ethnology, pt. 1. Washington, 1907.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fletcher, Alice C.</span>, and <span class="smcap">La Flesche, Francis</span>.</p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Omaha Tribe. <i>In</i> Twenty-seventh Annual Report Bureau of +American Ethnology, 1905-1906. Washington, 1911.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fremont, J. C.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains in the +year 1842, and to Oregon and North California in the years 1843-44. +Washington, 1845.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gass, Patrick.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of the Voyage and Travels of a Corps of Discovery. Philadelphia, +1811.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gilder, R. F.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Excavation of Earth-Lodge Ruins in Eastern Nebraska. <i>In</i> American +Anthropologist, vol. 11, No. 1, Jan.-Mar. 1909.</p></blockquote> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) Archeology of the Ponca Creek District, Eastern Nebraska. <i>In</i> +American Anthropologist, vol. 9, No. 4, Oct.-Dec. 1907.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gilfillan, J. A.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Ojibways in Minnesota. <i>In</i> Collections of the Minnesota Historical +Society, Vol. IX. St. Paul, 1901.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gomara, F. L. de.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) <i>In</i> Hakluyt, Vol. III. London, 1600.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grant, Peter.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Sauteux Indians. <i>In</i> Masson (2).</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gregg, Josiah.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Commerce of the Prairies. New York, 1844. 2 vols.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grinnell, George Bird.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Early Cheyenne Villages. <i>In</i> American Anthropologist, vol. 20, No. 4, +Oct.-Dec., 1918.</p></blockquote> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) The Fighting Cheyennes. New York, 1915.</p></blockquote> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(3) Blackfoot Lodge Tales. New York, 1892.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span><span class="smcap">Handbook of American Indians.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">Bulletin 30, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington. Part 1, 1907; +Part 2, 1910.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Harmon, D. W.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) A Journal of Voyages and Travels in the Interiour of North America. +Andover, 1820.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hayden, F. V.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Contributions to the Ethnography and Philology of the Indian +Tribes of the Missouri Valley. <i>In</i> Transactions of the American +Philosophical Society, Vol. XII. Philadelphia, 1862.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hendry, Anthony.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of ... 1754-1755. <i>In</i> Proceedings and Transactions of the +Royal Society of Canada. Vol. I, Third series, 1907.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hennepin, Louis.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journey of 1680. <i>In</i> Shea (1).</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Henry, Alexander.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories, between +the years 1760 and 1776. New York, 1809.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hildreth, James.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Dragoon Campaigns to the Rocky Mountains. New York, 1836.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hind, Henry Youle.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Narrative of the Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition of +1857 and of the Assinniboine and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedition +of 1858. London, 1860. 2 vols.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hoffman, Walter James.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Menomini Indians. <i>In</i> Fourteenth Annual Report Bureau of +Ethnology. Washington, 1896.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hunter, John D.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Memoirs of a Captivity among the Indians of North America. +London, 1823.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Irving, John T., Jr.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Indian Sketches, taken during an Expedition to the Pawnee Tribes. +Philadelphia, 1836. 2 vols.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Irving, Washington.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) A Tour on the Prairies. New York, 1856.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">James, Edwin.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains, +performed in the years 1819 and 1820. Philadelphia, 1823. 2 vols.</p></blockquote> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) A Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner ... +during thirty years residence among the Indians. New York, 1830.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Joutel.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of his voyage to Mexico: His Travels Eight hundred +Leagues through Forty Nations of Indians in Louisiana to Canada: +His Account of the great River Missasipi. London, 1719.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Kane, Paul.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Wanderings of an Artist among the Indians of North America. +London, 1859.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Keating, William H.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River ... +under command of Stephen H. Long. Philadelphia, 1824. 2 vols.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">La Harpe, Bernard de.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal Historique de l'établissement des Francais a la Louisiane. +Nouvelle-Orleans, 1831.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span><span class="smcap">Larocque, François Antoine.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of ... from the Assiniboine to the Yellowstone, 1805. Publications +of the Canadian Archives, No. 3, Ottawa, 1910.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">La Verendrye.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of ... 1738-1739. <i>In</i> Report on Canadian Archives ... +1889. Ottawa, 1890.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Le Raye, Charles.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of. <i>In</i> Cutler (1).</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lewis, M.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Clark, W.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) History of the Expedition under the command of Captains Lewis +and Clark.... Prepared for the press by Paul Allen. Philadelphia, +1814. 2 vols.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Libby, O. G.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Typical Villages of the Mandans, Arikara, and Hidatsa in the +Missouri Valley, North Dakota. <i>In</i> Collections of the State Historical +Society of North Dakota. Vol. II. Bismarck, 1908.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Long, Stephen H.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Voyage in a Six-Oared skiff to the Falls of Saint Anthony in 1817. +<i>In</i> Collections Minnesota Historical Society, Vol. II, pt. 1. 1860.</p></blockquote> + +<p>First Expedition. <i>See</i> James, Edwin. (1).</p> + +<p>Second Expedition. <i>See</i> Keating, W. H. (1).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ludlow, William.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Report of a Reconnaissance of the Black Hills of Dakota, made in +the Summer of 1874. Washington, 1875.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mackenzie, Alexander.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Voyages from Montreal, on the River St. Laurence, through the +Continent of North America, to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans, in +the years 1789 and 1793. London, 1801.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mackenzie, Charles.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Mississouri Indians, a narrative of four trading expeditions to +the Mississouri, 1804-1805-1806. <i>In</i> Masson (1).</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Marquette, Père Jacques.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journey of 1673. <i>In</i> Shea (2).</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Masson, L. R.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Les Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest. Premiere serie. +Quebec, 1889.</p></blockquote> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) Les Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest. Deuxieme serie. +Quebec, 1890.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Matthews, Washington.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Ethnography and Philology of the Hidatsa Indians. <i>In</i> Miscellaneous +Publications, No. 7, United States Geological and Geographical +Survey. Washington, 1877.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Maximilian, Prince of Wied.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Travels in the Interior of North America. London, 1843.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">McDonnell, John.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Red River. <i>In</i> Masson (1).</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">McKenney, Thomas L.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Sketches of a Tour to the Lakes. Baltimore, 1827.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mills, William C.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Explorations of the Baum Prehistoric Village Site. <i>In</i> Ohio Archaeological +and Historical Quarterly, Vol. XV, No. 1. Columbus, +1906.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span><span class="smcap">Möllhausen, Baldwin.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Diary of a Journey from the Mississippi to the Coasts of the Pacific. +London, 1858. 2 vols.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Morehouse, George P.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) History of the Kansa or Kaw Indians. <i>In</i> Transactions of the +Kansas State Historical Society, 1907-1908. Vol X. Topeka, +1908.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Morse, Jedidiah.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) A Report to the Secretary of War of the United States, on Indian +Affairs. New Haven, 1822.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Murray, Charles Augustus.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Travels in North America during the years 1834, 1835, and 1836. +London, 1839. 2 vols.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Newton, Henry</span>, and <span class="smcap">Jenney, Walter P.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Report on the Geology and Resources of the Black Hills of Dakota. +Washington, 1880.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nuttall, Thomas.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) A Journal of Travels into the Arkansa Territory during the year +1819. Philadelphia, 1821.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Palmer, Joel.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of Travels over the Rocky Mountains to the Mouth of the +Columbia River ... 1845 and 1846. Cincinnati, 1847.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Parker, Samuel.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of an Exploring Tour Beyond the Rocky Mountains ... in +the years 1835, 36, and 37. Ithaca, N. Y., 1842.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pike, Z. M.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi, and +Through the Western Parts of Louisiana. Philadelphia, 1810.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Plank, Pryor.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Iowa, Sac and Fox Indian Mission. <i>In</i> Transactions of the +Kansas State Historical Society, 1907-1908. Vol. X. Topeka, +1908.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Prescott, P.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Manners, Customs and Opinions of the Dacotahs. <i>In</i> Schoolcraft, (3), IV.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Radin, Paul.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Winnebago Tribe. <i>In</i> Thirty-seventh Annual Report of the +Bureau of American Ethnology. Washington.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Raynolds, W. F.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Report on the Exploration of the Yellowstone River. Washington, +1868.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Remsburg, G. J.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Isle au Vache. <i>In</i> Transactions of the Kansas State Historical Society, +1903-1904. Vol. VIII. Topeka, 1904.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Riggs, Stephen R.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Dakota Portraits. <i>In</i> Minnesota Historical Society Bulletin, Vol. +II, No. 8, Nov., 1918.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Saxton, Rufus.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal. <i>In</i> Reports of Explorations and Surveys to Ascertain the +Most Practicable and Economical Route for a Railroad from the +Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean ... 1853-1854. Vol. I. +Washington, 1855.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span><span class="smcap">Schoolcraft, Henry R.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of a Tour into the Interior of Missouri and Arkansaw ... +in the years 1818-1819. London, 1821.</p></blockquote> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) Narrative Journal of Travels ... in the year 1820. Albany, 1821.</p></blockquote> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(3) Information Respecting the History, Conditions and Prospects of the +Indian Tribes of the United States. Philadelphia, 1851-1857. 6 +vols.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Seymour, E. S.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Sketches of Minnesota. New York, 1850.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Shea, John Gilmary.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) A Description of Louisiana, by Father Louis Hennepin. New York, +1880.</p></blockquote> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley. New York, +1852.</p></blockquote> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Sibley, John.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Historical Sketches of the Several Indian Tribes in Louisiana, south +of the Arkansa River, and Between the Mississippi and River +Grand. <i>In</i> American State Papers. Vol. IV. Washington, 1832.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Smet, P. J. de.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Letters and Sketches with a Narrative of a Year's Residence Among +the Indian Tribes of the Rocky Mountains. Philadelphia, 1843.</p></blockquote> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(2) Oregon Missions and Travels over the Rocky Mountains, in 1845, +'46. New York, 1847.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spencer, Joab.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Kaw or Kansas Indians: Their Customs, Manners, and Folk-Lore. +<i>In</i> Transactions of the Kansas State Historical Society, +1907-1908. Vol. X. Topeka, 1908.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stanley, J. M.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Visit to the Piegan Camp. <i>In</i> Reports of Explorations and Surveys +to Ascertain the Most Practicable and Economical Route for a +Railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean ... 1853-1854. +Vol. 1. Washington, 1855.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stansbury, Howard.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) An Expedition to the Valley of the Great Salt Lake of Utah. Philadelphia, +1855.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stoddard, Amos.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Sketches ... of Louisiana. Philadelphia, 1812.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stuart, James.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Yellowstone Expedition of 1863. <i>In</i> Contributions to the Historical +Society of Montana. Vol. I. Helena, 1876.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tanner, John.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Narrative of the Captivity of. <i>See</i> James, Edwin. (2).</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Townsend, John K.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Narrative of a Journey Across the Rocky Mountains. Philadelphia, +1839.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Trudeau.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Journal of ... 1794-1795. <i>In</i> South Dakota Historical Collections. +Vol. VII, 1914. Pierre, S. D.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Warren, G. K.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Explorations in the Dacota Country, in the Year 1855. Washington, +1856.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span><span class="smcap">Whipple, A. W.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) Itinerary. <i>In</i> Reports of Explorations and Surveys to Ascertain the +Most Practicable and Economical Route for a Railroad from the +Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean ... 1853-1854. Vol. III. +Washington, 1856.</p></blockquote> + +<p><span class="smcap">Winship, George P.</span></p> + +<blockquote><p class="hanging">(1) The Coronado Expedition, 1540-1542. <i>In</i> Fourteenth Annual Report +Bureau of Ethnology. Pt. 1. Washington, 1896.</p></blockquote> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span></p> +<h2>SYNONYMY</h2> + + +<p> +Accancea=Quapaw.<br /> +Ahnahaways=Amahami.<br /> +Alkansa=Quapaw.<br /> +Archithinue=Blackfeet.<br /> +Aricaree, Arickarees, Arikkaras=Arikara.<br /> +Arkansa=Quapaw.<br /> +Arwacahwas=Amahami.<br /> +Asinepoet, Assinneboins=Assiniboin.<br /> +Assonis=Caddo.<br /> +Awachawi=Amahami.<br /> +Big-bellied Indians=Atsina.<br /> +Big Bellys=Hidatsa.<br /> +Canzee=Kansa.<br /> +Cenis=Caddo.<br /> +Chayennes=Cheyenne.<br /> +Chepewyans=Chipewyan.<br /> +Chippeway=Chippewa.<br /> +Cristinaux=Cree.<br /> +Dacotahs=Dakota.<br /> +Fall Indians=Atsina.<br /> +Grosventre Indians, Grosventres, Gros Ventres of the Missouri=Hidatsa.<br /> +Gros Ventres of the Prairie=Atsina.<br /> +Huecos=Waco.<br /> +Kansas, Kanzas, Kaws=Kansa.<br /> +Knistenaux, Knisteneaux=Cree.<br /> +Konsee, Konza, Konzas=Kansa.<br /> +Machigamea=Michigamea.<br /> +Maha=Omaha.<br /> +Manitaries, Minatarres, Minnetarees=Hidatsa.<br /> +Minnetarees of Fort de Prairie=Atsina.<br /> +Naudowessies=Dakota.<br /> +Nehetheway=Cree.<br /> +Ogallallaha=Oglala.<br /> +Ojibway=Chippewa.<br /> +Omawhaw=Omaha.<br /> +Osinipoilles=Assiniboin.<br /> +Otoes, Ottoes=Oto.<br /> +Ougapa=Quapaw.<br /> +Pay-gans, Picaneaux, Piekann=Piegan.<br /> +Poncara, Punca, Punka=Ponca.<br /> +Quappa=Quapaw.<br /> +Quivira=Wichita.<br /> +Rapid Indians=Atsina.<br /> +Ree, Ricaras, Riccaree, Rickarees, Rus=Arikara.<br /> +Sak=Sauk.<br /> +Sarsees=Sarsi.<br /> +Saulteaux, Sautaux, Sauteaux, Sauteux=Chippewa.<br /> +Sharha=Cheyenne.<br /> +Shoe Indians=Amahami.<br /> +Shoshonees=Shoshoni.<br /> +Soulier Noir=Amahami.<br /> +Stone Indians=Assiniboin.<br /> +Sur-cees=Sarsi.<br /> +Upsaroka=Crows.<br /> +Waekoes, Wakos=Waco.<br /> +Wattasoons=Amahami.<br /> +Witchita=Wichita.<br /> +Yanctonies=Yanktonai.<br /> +Yanctons=Yankton.<br /> +</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p> +<h2>EXPLANATION OF PLATES</h2> + + +<p>The art of photography has made it possible to preserve a pictorial record of +the dwellings and other structures of native tribes beyond the Mississippi, and +many early photographs, together with drawings and paintings by various +artists, have been selected to illustrate the present work.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 1</h4> + +<p>One of the original drawings by Griset reproduced by woodcuts in Col. R. I. +Dodge's work <i>The Plains of the Great West</i>, 1877. The reproduction is now +made exact size of the original. Collection of David I. Bushnell, jr.</p> + +<p>Ernest Henry Griset, born in France, 1844; died March 22, 1907. Lived in +England, where he did much of his work. In 1871 he exhibited at Suffolk +Street. Some of his paintings are hung in the Victoria and Albert Museum. +More than 30 examples of his work belong to the Smithsonian Institution, Washington. +"His reputation rests on his water-color studies of animals, for which +he was awarded prizes in London. Two of his best-known works are <i>Cache-cache</i>, +and <i>Travailleurs de la fôret</i>."</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 2</h4> + +<p>Reproduction of one of the five paintings by Stanley now in the United States +National Museum, Washington, D. C.</p> + +<p>James M. Stanley, born in Canandaigua, New York, January 17, 1814; died +April 10, 1872. He moved to Michigan in 1835 and became a portrait painter +in Detroit; two years later removed to Chicago. About this time he visited +the "Indian Country" in the vicinity of Fort Snelling, and there made many +sketches. Returned to the eastern cities, where he spent several years, but in +1842 again went west and began his wanderings over the prairies far beyond +the Mississippi, reaching Texas and New Mexico. His <i>Buffalo Hunt on the +Southwestern Prairies</i> was made in 1845. From 1851 to 1863 Stanley lived in +Washington, D. C., during which time he endeavored to have the Government +purchase the many paintings which he had made of Indians and of scenes in +the Indian country, but unfortunately he was not successful. His pictures +were hanging in the Smithsonian Building, and on January 24, 1865, when a +large part of the building was ruined by fire, only five of his pictures escaped +destruction, they being in a different part of the structure. The five are now +in the National Museum, including the large canvas shown in this plate.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 3</h4> + +<p>This is considered to be one of Wimar's best works. The original is owned +by the City Art Museum, St. Louis, Missouri. Size of canvas, 36 inches high, +60 inches long.</p> + +<p>Charles Ferdinand Wimar, usually known as Carl Wimar, was born in +Germany, 1828; died in St. Louis, November, 1862. Came to America and +settled in St. Louis during the year 1843. A few years later he met the +French artist Leon de Pomarede, with whom he later studied and made several +journeys up the Missouri for the purpose of sketching. Went to Europe and +returned to St. Louis about 1857. His <i>Buffalo Hunt</i>, now reproduced, was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> +painted in 1860, exhibited at the St. Louis Fair during the autumn of that +year, when it was seen by the Prince of Wales, later Edward VII, for whom +a replica was made.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 4</h4> + +<p>One of four water-color sketches by Peter Rindisbacher secured in London +some years ago. Size of original 9<small><sup>1</sup></small>⁄<small><sub>4</sub></small> inches high, 17<small><sup>1</sup></small>⁄<small><sub>8</sub></small> +inches long. Collection +of David I. Bushnell, jr. Twenty or more similar sketches are in the library +of the Military Academy, West Point. One of these was used as an illustration +by McKenney and Hall in their great work; the second used by them is in a +private collection in Washington. Another of the pictures now at West Point +was reproduced by wood cut and appeared on page 181 of Burton's Gentleman's +Magazine, Philadelphia, April, 1840. Rindisbacher may have come to America +with the Swiss colonists who settled in the Red River Valley in 1821, and in +the Public Archives of Canada are six small sketches which were probably +made by him at that time. (See pl. <a href="#Plate_6">6</a>, <i>a</i>.)</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 5</h4> + +<p><i>a.</i> A scene near Fort Carlton, 1846, showing buffalo approaching a pound. +Reproduction of a photograph of the painting by Kane, now in the Royal Ontario +Museum of Archaeology, Toronto, Canada. Size of painting, 18 inches +high, 29 inches long.</p> + +<p>Paul Kane, born at York, the present city of Toronto, 1810; died 1871. After +spending several years in the United States he went to Europe, where he +studied in various art centers. Returned to Canada, and from early in 1845 +until the autumn of 1848 traveled among the native tribes of the far west, +making a large number of paintings of Indians and scenes in the Indian +country. One hundred or more of his paintings are in the Museum at Toronto; +others are in the Public Archives of Canada, Ottawa. Some of the sketches and +paintings were reproduced in his work <i>Wanderings of an Artist</i>, London, +1859.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Reproduction of a photograph, probably made in the upper Missouri Valley +about 1870.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 6</h4> + +<p><i>a.</i> Reproduction of a water-color sketch now in the collection in Public +Archives of Canada, Ottawa. It is one of six small sketches "by an artist, +probably Swiss, who accompanied the European emigrants brought by Lord Selkirk's +agents to the Red River Settlement in 1821." Size of original, 5<small><sup>5</sup></small>⁄<small><sub>8</sub></small> +inches +high, 7<small><sup>5</sup></small>⁄<small><sub>8</sub></small> + inches long. Although not signed it suggests and resembles the work +of Peter Rindisbacher. (See note, pl. 4.)</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Reproduced from an original photograph furnished by the Minnesota Historical +Society, St. Paul.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 7</h4> + +<p><i>a.</i> Reproduction of a photograph of a painting by Kane, now in the Museum +at Toronto. Size of original, 18 inches high, 29 inches long. (See note, pl. 5, <i>a</i>.) +This was engraved and shown on page 7 of his work <i>Wanderings of an Artist</i>.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Reproduced from an original photograph made near the Red River during +the summer of 1858 by Humphrey Lloyd Hime, who was photographer with the +expedition led by Henry Youle Hind.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 8</h4> + +<p><i>a</i> and <i>b</i>. Same as <i>b</i>, plate 7. Original photographs are in the Bureau of +American Ethnology.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p> +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 9</h4> + +<p>Both <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> are from original photographs belonging to the Minnesota Historical +Society, St. Paul. The two small prints are mounted on similar cards, +that of <i>b</i> bearing the name of C. A. Zimmerman, photographer. The name has +been cut from <i>a</i>. Both are attributed to Zimmerman, who, in 1869, purchased +the studio of Whitney, which had been established some years. The negatives +may have been made by Whitney, and although the prints are catalogued as +Ojibway habitations, nevertheless <i>a</i> resembles more closely the Siouan type, +with an arbor over the entrance, and the photograph may have been made in a +Sioux village. The dwellings are quite similar to the Winnebago structure +shown in plate <a href="#Plate_36">36</a>, <i>a</i>.</p> + +<p>Charles Alfred Zimmerman was born in Strassburg, Alsace, June 21, 1844; +died in St. Paul, Minnesota, September 23, 1909.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 10</h4> + +<p>Reproductions of original photographs by David I. Bushnell, jr. October, +1899.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 11</h4> + +<p><i>a.</i> This small log structure stood near the southeastern shore of Cass Lake, +Minnesota. Several Ojibway Indians are in the picture. Original photograph +by David I. Bushnell, jr. November, 1899.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> The old Ojibway medicine man, Nagwanabe, a name well known in Ojibway +annals, is shown holding a club of unusual design which he said he took +from a Sioux warrior many years ago, during a fight between some of his people +and members of that tribe. Original photograph by David I. Bushnell, jr. +1900.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 12</h4> + +<p><i>a.</i> Objects collected among the Ojibway. At top, a hammer formed of a +section of a small tree with part of a branch cut to serve as a handle. Used in +driving plugs in maple trees during the season of sugar making. Mille Lac, +May, 1900. Bag braided of narrow strips of cedar bark. Size about 9½ inches +square. From the Ojibway settlement on shore of Basswood Lake, north of +Ely, Lake County, Minnesota, October, 1899. Two tools used in dressing skins. +Formed of leg bones of moose, beveled and serrated. Length of example on +right, 15 inches. Cass Lake, Minnesota, 1898.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Section of rush mat.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 13</h4> + +<p><i>a.</i> Wooden mortar and pestle collected among the Ojibway. Length of pestle +about 37½ inches. Reproduced from Fourteenth Annual Report Bureau of +Ethnology, part 1, p. 257.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Mortar and pestle collected among the Delaware by Dr. E. Palmer and +acquired by the National Museum November 11, 1868. Length of pestle 33½ +inches. Diameter of mortar 7½ inches, height 15 inches. (U. S. N. M. 6900.)</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Birch-bark dish, type used extensively by the Ojibway and other northern +tribes. Reproduced from Nineteenth Annual Report Bureau of American +Ethnology, part 2, Pl. LXXIX.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span></p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 14</h4> + +<p>Reproduced from an original negative now in the Bureau of American +Ethnology.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 15</h4> + +<p>Reproduced from the engraving of the painting by Bodmer, as used by +Maximilian.</p> + +<p>Karl Bodmer, born in Zurich, Switzerland, 1805; died 1894. Studied under +Cornu. He accompanied Maximilian, Prince of Wied, on several journeys, +including that up the Valley of the Missouri. Many of his original sketches +made during that memorable trip are now in the Edward E. Ayer collection, +Newberry Library, Chicago. His later works are chiefly of wooded landscapes, +some being scenes in the valleys of the Missouri and Mississippi. Bodmer was +a very close friend of the great artist Jean François Millet. De Cost Smith, +in Century Magazine, May, 1910, discussing the close association of the two +artists, and referring especially to their joint work, wrote: "The two men must +have worked together from the pure joy of friendship, for it must be confessed +that the work of neither was very greatly improved by the other's additions. +Bodmer would put a horse into one of Millet's Indian pictures and +add some vegetation in the foreground, Millet would return the favor by introducing +figures into Bodmer's landscapes." But this does not refer to the +sketches made by Bodmer during his journey up the Missouri in 1833.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 16</h4> + +<p><i>a.</i> Reproduction of a wood cut on page 420 of <i>Wanderings of an Artist</i>. +The original painting by Kane is now in the Royal Ontario Museum of +Archaeology, Toronto, being No. 51 in the catalogue. Size of painting, 18 +inches high, 29 inches long. (See note, pl. 5, <i>a</i>.)</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> The original photograph from which this illustration is made is in +the collection of the United States National Museum, Washington, D. C. It is +not known by whom the negative was made.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 17</h4> + +<p>Reproduced from the engraving of the original painting by Bodmer, as used +by Maximilian. (See note, pl. 15.)</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 18</h4> + +<p>Both <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> are reproductions of photographs furnished by the State Historical +Society of Iowa.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 19</h4> + +<p>Reproduction of an original photograph in a scrapbook, which contains many +manuscript notes, news clippings, etc., prepared by Newton H. Chittenden. +The book is now in the Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D. C.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 20</h4> + +<p>From original photographs by David I. Bushnell, jr. 1900.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 21</h4> + +<p>Reproduction of an original pencil sketch of the Sioux village of Kaposia, +made June 19, 1851, by F. B. Mayer. The drawing is now in the Edward +E. Ayer collection, Newberry Library, Chicago.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>Frank Blackwell Mayer, born in Baltimore, Maryland, December 27, 1827; +died in 1908. Many of his paintings represented scenes in Indian life, and in +1886 he completed a canvas entitled <i>The Treaty of Traverse des Sioux</i>, the +treaty having been signed during the summer of 1851, about the time the +sketch of Kaposia was made.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 22</h4> + +<p>Both <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> are reproduced from engravings of paintings by Eastman, +used by Schoolcraft in <i>Information respecting the History, Conditions, and +Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States, 1851-1857</i>.</p> + +<p>Seth Eastman, born in Brunswick, Maine, January 24, 1808; died in Washington, +D. C., August 31, 1875. Was appointed to the Military Academy, West +Point, at the age of 16, and was graduated June, 1829. Served at Fort Crawford +and Fort Snelling, where he had ample opportunities for studying the +Indians who frequented the posts. In November, 1831, he was detailed for +duty at the Academy and retired from active service December, 1863. From +1850 to 1855 he was engaged in the preparation of the illustrations used in +the work mentioned above, evidently under the supervision of the Commissioner +of Indian Affairs.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 23</h4> + +<p><i>a.</i> Reproduction of a drawing made by Catlin of one of his oil sketches. The +original painting is now in the United States National Museum, Washington, D. C.</p> + +<p>George Catlin, born in Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania, 1796; died in Jersey City, +New Jersey, December 23, 1872. In the year 1832 he went to the then far west, +and during the succeeding eight years traveled among numerous native tribes, +making many paintings portraying the life and customs of the people. He +went to Europe, taking with him his great collection of pictures and objects obtained +from the Indians among whom he had been for so long a time. One +hundred and twenty-six of his pictures were shown at the Centennial Exposition, +Philadelphia, 1876, and now more than 500 of his works, portraits and +scenes are preserved in the National Museum, forming a collection of inestimable +value and interest.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Fort Pierre, after sketch by Kurz, July 4, 1851.</p> + +<p>Friedrich Kurz, born in Bern, Switzerland, 1818; died 1871. At the suggestion +of his friend Karl Bodmer, he came to America in 1846, for the purpose of +studying the native tribes, intending to prepare a well-illustrated account of +his travels. He landed at New Orleans and reached St. Louis by way of the +Mississippi. The trouble with Mexico had developed, and for that reason instead +of going to the Southwest, to endeavor to accomplish among the tribes of +that region what Bodmer had already done among the people of the Upper +Missouri Valley, he decided to follow the route of the latter and ascend the +Missouri to the Rocky Mountains. But although his plans were changed he +did not become discouraged, and on October 28, 1851, entered in his journal: +"My plan is still for the gallery.... I shall have lots of correct drawings." +Cholera raged along the upper Missouri in 1851, and for that reason Kurz was +unable to remain at Fort Pierre. However, he reached Fort Berthold July 9, +1851. Later he continued to Fort Union at the mouth of the Yellowstone, +where he remained until April 19, 1852. Returning, he reached St. Louis May +25, thus covering the distance from the mouth of the Yellowstone in five weeks +and one day. He arrived in Bern during September of that year and was soon +appointed drawing master in the schools of his native city, a position which +he held until his death.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>During the winter of 1851-52, while Kurz was at Fort Union, a German +artist of some ability was with the Oto and Omaha near the banks of the +Missouri. H. Baldwin Möllhausen, late in the autumn of 1851, became lost on +the frozen, snow-covered prairies south of the Platte, and was rescued by a +family of Oto encamped on the bank of a small stream. He remained with +the Oto and later returned with them to their village near the mouth of the +Platte. From the Oto village he went up the Missouri to the Omaha, with whom +he stayed some weeks. While with the two tribes he made many sketches of +the Indians and scenes depicting the ways of life of the people. When he returned +to his home in Berlin he carried with him the collection of drawings, +and these, if found at the present time, would probably prove of much interest.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 24</h4> + +<p>Both <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> are reproductions of photographs made in the vicinity of Fort +Laramie in 1868, during the visit of the Indian Peace Commission. The commission +was composed of a number of Army officers who went among many of +the Plains tribes for the purpose of gaining their friendship for the Government. +From original prints in the possession of Mrs. N. H. Beauregard, St. +Louis. The name of the photographer is not known.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> From the engraving of the original picture by Bodmer, as used by Maximilian. (See note, pl. 15.)</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 25</h4> + +<p><i>a.</i> Reproduced from a photograph of the original painting by Kane, now in +the Royal Ontario Museum of Archaeology, Toronto. Rocky Mountain Fort in +the distance on the right. No. 57 in the catalogue. Size of picture, 18 inches +high, 29 inches long. (See note, pl. 5, <i>a</i>.)</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> From a photograph of a water-color sketch by Kurz. (See note, pl. 23, <i>b</i>.)</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 26</h4> + +<p><i>a.</i> From an original negative now in the Bureau of American Ethnology, +made by Jackson in 1871. It was probably made at the Omaha village shown +in plate 27.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> A page of Kurz's sketchbook. (See note, pl. 23, <i>b</i>.)</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 27</h4> + +<p>Omaha village, from an original negative made by Jackson in 1871 and now +in the Bureau of American Ethnology. According to La Flesche, "The location +of the Omaha village can best be described as in the southwest quarter +of Section 30, Township 25, Range 10, in the extreme eastern border of +Thurston County, Nebraska. The land was allotted in 1883 to Pe-de-ga-hi, +one of the Omaha chiefs. It is about three-quarters of a mile west of the +historic site known as Blackbird Hill, on which the great medicine man Blackbird +was buried."</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 28</h4> + +<p>Both <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> represent pages in Kurz's sketchbook. (See note, pl. 23, <i>b</i>.)</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 29</h4> + +<p>Reproduced from the engraving of Bodmer's painting, as illustrated by +Maximilian. (See note, pl. 15.)</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span></p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 30</h4> + +<p><i>a.</i> Reproduction of the illustration in De Smet's work, where the picture is +signed <i>Geo. Lehman, del.</i></p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Reproduced from the engraving after a drawing by Samuel Seymour.</p> + +<p>In the instructions issued to members of the expedition, dated "Pittsburgh, +March 31, 1819," Major Long stated: "Mr. Seymour, as painter for the expedition, +will furnish sketches of landscapes, whenever we meet with any distinguished +for their beauty and grandeur. He will also paint miniature likenesses, +or portraits if required, of distinguished Indians, and exhibit groups +of savages engaged in celebrating their festivals or sitting in council, and in +general illustrate any subject, that may be deemed appropriate in his art."</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 31</h4> + +<p>Reproduced from a photograph in the Chittenden scrapbook. (See note, +pl. 19.)</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 32</h4> + +<p><i>a.</i> From an original photograph furnished by Francis La Flesche.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Reproduced from an illustration in Transactions of the Kansas State Historical +Society, 1907-1908, Vol. X. Topeka, 1908.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 33</h4> + +<p>Reproduced from an engraving of the original drawing by Samuel Seymour. +(See note, pl. 30, <i>b</i>.)</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 34</h4> + +<p>Specimens in the United States National Museum.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 35</h4> + +<p><i>a.</i> After original drawing by Friedrich Kurz. (See note, pl. 23, <i>b</i>.)</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Photograph of specimen now in the United States National Museum.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 36</h4> + +<p>Both <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> are reproduced from original photographs in the United States +National Museum, Washington. It is not known by whom the negatives were +made.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 37</h4> + +<p>From a photograph made about the year 1900, furnished by Miss Alice C. +Fletcher. The structures stood near the bank of the Missouri, north of the +Omahas. The photograph was reproduced as plate 18 in the Twenty-seventh +Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 38</h4> + +<p><i>a.</i> From the drawing by Catlin of the original painting. This is No. 503 +in Catlin's Catalogue (London, 1848), where it is described as "The Interior +of a Mandan Lodge, showing the manner in which it is constructed of poles +and covered with dirt. The chief is seen smoking his pipe, and his family +grouped around him."</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> After the original painting in the National Museum, Washington. This is +the fourth and last of Catlin's paintings representing different scenes during +the remarkable ceremony by the Mandan. No. 507 in the Catalogue, where it +is referred to as "The Last Race."</p> + +<p>George Catlin. (See note, pl. 23, <i>a</i>.)</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span></p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 39</h4> + +<p>From the engraving of Bodmer's painting used by Maximilian. (See note, +pl. 15.)</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 40</h4> + +<p>Reproduced from the engraving of Bodmer's painting as used by Maximilian. +(See note, pl. 15.)</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 41</h4> + +<p>Two wooden bowls and a pottery vessel collected among the Mandan. Specimens +in the United States National Museum.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 42</h4> + +<p>Examples of spoons, one made of a buffalo horn, the other formed from a +horn of a mountain sheep, now in the United States National Museum.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 43</h4> + +<p>Reproduction of the original painting by Catlin, now in the United States +National Museum, Washington. It is No. 383 in Catlin's Catalogue, described +as "Minatarree Village, earth-covered lodges, on Knife River, 1,810 miles above +St. Louis."</p> + +<p>George Catlin. (See note, pl. 23, <i>a</i>.)</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 44</h4> + +<p><i>a.</i> Original pencil sketch by Bodmer of the finished picture shown in <i>b</i>. The +sketch is now in the Edward E. Ayer collection, Newberry Library, Chicago.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Reproduction of a photograph of the engraving as used by Maximilian.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 45</h4> + +<p>After original sketches by Friedrich Kurz. (See note, pl. 23, <i>b</i>.)</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 46</h4> + +<p><i>a.</i> Reproduction of the original painting by Catlin, now in the United States +National Museum, Washington. It is mentioned as No. 491 in Catlin's Catalogue +and described as a "Crow Lodge, of twenty-five buffalo-skins." A drawing +made from the painting appeared as plate 20 in Vol. I of Catlin's work.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> From the original negative by Jackson now in the Bureau of American +Ethnology.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 47</h4> + +<p>A rather crude woodcut, made from this photograph, was used in Dunraven's +book, <i>The Great Divide</i>. Unfortunately it is not known when or by whom this +most interesting negative was made, but it was probably the work of J. D. +Hutton, a member of the Raynolds party during the exploration of the Yellowstone +Valley, 1859-1860. Although the Raynolds journal is in the War Department +in Washington, there is no record or list of the photographs, many of +which are known to have been made during the journey. A number of Hutton's +photographs were reproduced by Hayden in his work <i>Contributions to the +Ethnography and Philology of the Indian Tribes of the Missouri Valley</i>, Philadelphia, +1862.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span></p> +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 48</h4> + +<p>A page from Kurz's sketchbook, carried by him during his travels through +the Upper Missouri Valley. This shows several traders approaching Fort +Union and a herd of buffalo in the distance on the right. (See note, pl. 23, <i>b</i>.)</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 49</h4> + +<p>Two negatives were made by Jackson, evidently without moving the camera. +One was reproduced in Bulletin 69 of this Bureau's publications; the second +is now shown. The first negative now belongs to the Bureau, but the present +plate is a reproduction of a photograph furnished by the Peabody Museum, +Harvard University.</p> + +<p>Concerning the photographs now reproduced in plates 49, 50, and 51, Mr. +W. H. Jackson, now of Detroit, wrote to the Bureau, April 28, 1921, and said +in part: "Negatives to which you refer, viz, of Pawnee village scenes, were +made by myself in 1871 on my return from the first Yellowstone expedition +of the Survey, this trip also including a visit to the Omaha Agency."</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 50</h4> + +<p>Earth lodges standing in the Pawnee village. From original negative by +W. H. Jackson, 1871. Negative now in the Bureau of American Ethnology.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 51</h4> + +<p>Views in the Pawnee village, after photographs by Jackson, 1871. Original +photographs belonging to the Bureau of American Ethnology.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 52</h4> + +<p>Specimens in the United States National Museum.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 53</h4> + +<p>Reproduction of a photograph of the original painting by Catlin, now in the +United States National Museum. It is No. 386 in Catlin's Catalogue, described +as "Riccaree Village, with earth-covered lodges, 1,600 miles above St. Louis."</p> + +<p>George Catlin. (See note, pl. 23, <i>a</i>.)</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 54</h4> + +<p>Specimens in the United States National Museum.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 55</h4> + +<p><i>a.</i> From a photograph in the Chittenden scrapbook. (See note, pl. 19.)</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> After a photograph in the collection of the United States National +Museum.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p> +<h2>INDEX</h2> + +<div> +<span class="smcap">Accancea</span>. <i>See</i> Quapaw.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Agriculture</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among Sauk and Foxes, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Arikara, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Osage, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Algonquian family</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristics of villages of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">general movement of groups of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">groups comprising western division of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">largest north of Mexico, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">villages of, described, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Al-le-ga-wa-ho's village</span>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Allen, J.A.</span>, book by, on the buffalo, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Allouez, Père</span>, mission conducted by, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Amahami</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">once united with the Hidatsa and Crow, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">village of, on Knife River, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">American Fur Company</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">post of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trade of, with Sioux, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Animals</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">domestic, lack of, among the Iowa, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">domestic, of the Kansa, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Dakota country, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Buffalo, Dogs, Game.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Arapaho</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">an Algonquian group, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-<a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitations of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Arapaho village</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Fremont, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-<a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">photograph of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Arbor entrance</span>, a Siouan feature, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Archithinue natives</span>, name applied to Blackfeet, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Arikara</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a Caddoan group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">encampments of, visited by Lewis and Clark, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hostility of, to whites, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mandan village occupied by, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migration of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>-<a href="#Page_170">170</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pottery of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settlement of, near Fort Berthold, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">skilled agriculturists, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">warfare of, with Sioux, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Akikara villages</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Brackenridge, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Bradbury, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Maximilian, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Missouri, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sites of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>-<a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketched by Catlin, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Ark of the first man</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Arkansa</span>. <i>See</i> Quapaw.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Arkansas band</span>, a division of the Osage, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Assiniboin</span>, a Missouri River steamboat, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trip of, to the Yellowstone River, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Assiniboin tribe</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">alliance of, with Cree, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">camp of, described by Maximilian, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>-<a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">location and number of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Dakota-Assiniboin group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the march, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relation of, to other tribes, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">separated from Yanktonai, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">structures of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>-<a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Cree, at Mandan village, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Assiniboin village</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">size of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">movement of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Atsina</span>, a division of the Arapaho, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">allied with tribes of the Blackfeet confederacy, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fortified camps of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorporated with the Assiniboin, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">various names for, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Atsina village</span>, described by Maximilian, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Avenue</span>, pottery on site of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Awachawi</span>, an Hidatsa village, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Awatichay</span>, an Hidatsa village, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Ayauways</span>, excursions of, against the Osage, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Bark-covered lodges</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as summer habitations, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as winter habitations, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">employed in timber country, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>-<a href="#Page_185">185</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">erected by the Dakota, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Kansa, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Mdewakanton, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Ojibway, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>-<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Osage, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Oto, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Quapaw, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Sauk and Foxes, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Basketry</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Arikara, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Osage, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Beauregard, Mrs. N.H.</span>, copy by, of manuscript, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Beds</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Caddo, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Kansa, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Bellevue</span>, a trading post on the Missouri, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Big-bellied Indians</span>. <i>See</i> Atsina.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Big Kaw</span>, an Oto Indian, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Big Knives</span>, Kansa name for the whites, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Big Track</span>, an Osage chief, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Birch bark structures</span>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>-<a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Bark-covered lodges.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Blackfeet confederacy</span>, tribes composing, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Blackfeet Indians</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">camps of, described by Maximilian, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ceremonial lodges of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country inhabited by, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">descriptions of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-<a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">manner of living, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">warlike nature of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war party of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Siksika.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Black Hawk</span>, birthplace of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Black Hills</span>, no permanent Indian settlement in, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Blood Indians</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Kainah.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Bodmer</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">painting by, of Atsina village, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">painting by, of chief's lodge, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">painting by, of Mandan village, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">drawing by, of tipis, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketch by, in Newberry Library, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Bowls, wooden</span>, of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Bradbury</span>, visit of, to Omaha village, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Brulés</span>, a Teton band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Brush shelters of the Assiniboin</span>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Buffalo</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arikara offering to, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hunting of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>-<a href="#Page_7">7</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">importance of, to the Indian, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>-<a href="#Page_4">4</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manner of traveling, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Buffalo Hunt</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Fremont, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>-<a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Oglala, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Buffalo pounds</span>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>-<a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of, by Blackfeet, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Buffalo skulls</span>, a charm to entice buffaloes, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>-<a href="#Page_63">63</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Buffalo Society</span>, Omaha, dance given by, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Buffalo trails</span>, followed by Indians, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Bull-boat</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristic of upper Missouri, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Hidatsa, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>-<a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Burials</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Omaha, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oto, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">scaffold, mention of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Caches</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Fletcher and La Flesche, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Matthews, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exposed by railroad cut, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for storage of corn, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Omaha, described by Gilden, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on elevated stage, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Caddo</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a tribe of the Caddoan family, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Joutel, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>-<a href="#Page_183">183</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Caddoan family</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">confederacies of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earth lodge characteristic of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>-<a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">general movement of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tribes composing, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Cahokia tribe</span>, village of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Cannon River</span>, village near mouth of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Canoes</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">birch-bark, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>-<a href="#Page_16">16</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made of buffalo skins, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Arikara, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Hidatsa, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oto, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Bull-boat.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Cappa</span>, a Quapaw village, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Castañeda</span>, thatched houses mentioned by, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Catlin, George</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among the Mandan, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among the Teton, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arikara village sketched by, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">collection of paintings by, in National Museum, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrect drawings by, of earth lodges, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian portraits painted by, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ojibway camp described by, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Caves</span>, in the Ozarks, occupied by Indians, <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Ceremonial lodge</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Crows, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Hidatsa, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Ojibway, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Quapaw, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Sun dance, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Medicine lodge.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Ceremonial shelter</span>, temporary, of the Cree and Ojibway, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>-<a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Ceremonies</span>, Arikara, in medicine lodge, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Chatique</span>, an Assiniboin chief, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Chaui</span>, a tribe of the Pawnee confederacy, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Cherokees</span>, migration of remnant of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Cheyenne Indians</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">an Algonquian group, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Lewis and Clark, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Arapaho village, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lodges of, for special purposes, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lodges of, like Pawnee, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">territory occupied by, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">various habitations of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Cheyenne village sites</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Grinnell, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>-<a href="#Page_23">23</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mentioned by Lewis and Clark, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Chiefs</span>, decorations on lodges of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Childs Point</span>, ruins on, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Chippeway</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of, with Sioux, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Ojibway.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Chiwere group of Siouan tribes</span>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitations of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tribes composing, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Choctaw</span>, temporary village of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Cholera among the Oglala</span>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Chote</span>, town house at, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Circles</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of earth, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of stone, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Clarmont</span>, French name of Osage chief, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Clothing</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made of buffalo hides, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Kansa, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Club</span>, wooden, of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Cocking, Matthew</span>, journey of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-<a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Colbert</span>, first name of Mississippi River, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Corn</span>, cultivation of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Coronado expedition</span>, thatched houses seen by, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Council Bluffs</span>, origin of the name, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Council house</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Kansa, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>-<a href="#Page_93">93</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Ojibway, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Oto, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Teton, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Cree Indians</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitations of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>-<a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">language of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">related to Ojibway, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">loving disposition of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">territory inhabited by, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Assiniboin at Mandan village, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Knistenaux.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Crow Indians</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a tribe of the Hidatsa group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrangement of camps of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ceremonial lodge of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>-<a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country inhabited by, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_153">153</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Larocque, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lodges of, described, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_154">154</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">separation of, from the Hidatsa, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wandering habits of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Custer, General</span>, mention of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Customs</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Blackfeet, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-<a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Cree, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>-<a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Ojibway, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>-<a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Omaha, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-<a href="#Page_87">87</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Osage, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Pawnee, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>-<a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Sauk and Foxes, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Teton, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>-<a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Wahpeton, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Yanktonai, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Dakota-Assiniboin group</span>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitations of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>-<a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tribes composing, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Dance</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Teton, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Dog dance, Sacred dance, Sun dance, War dance.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">De Smet, Father</span>, at the Kansa villages, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Decoration of lodges</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>-<a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Delaware Indians</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abandoned settlement of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>-<a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">log cabins built by, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migration of remnant of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Dhegiha group</span>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migration of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Dodge, Col. R. I.</span>, with expedition into Black Hills, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Dog dance of the Kansa</span>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Dog feast</span>, painting of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Dog travois</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>-<a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Dogs</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as a sacrifice, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as beasts of burden, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as food, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as sacred animals, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of, for transportation, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Dog travois.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Dorsey, J. O.</span>, Omaha structures described by, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Douay, Père Anastasius</span>, Quapaw villages mentioned by, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Dwellings</span>. <i>See</i> Lodges, Tipi, Wigwam.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Earth circles</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">explanations of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">noticed by Maximilian, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Earth lodge</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arikara, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristic of Missouri River tribes, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cheyenne, no pictures of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">erected by Caddoan tribes, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gros Ventres, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hidatsa, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interior of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-<a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mandan, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">most accurate drawing of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not in tribal circle, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Omaha, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>-<a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>-<a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oto, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pawnee, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-<a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suggestive of Creek and Cherokee council house, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used by Dhegiha group, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Earthenware</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Ozark country, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Pottery.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Earthworks</span>, attributed to Dhegiha group, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Eastman, Capt.</span>, painting by, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Elah-Sa</span>, an Hidatsa village, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Ellsworth, H. L.</span>, expedition led by, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>-<a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Elm bark</span>, structures of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Bark-covered lodges.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Engineer Cantonment</span>, winter quarters of Long expedition, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Entrance</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to earth lodge, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to Winnebago dwelling, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Environment</span>, influence of—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on form of dwelling, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on manners and customs, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fall Indians</span>, location and number of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Atsina.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fall of the Rapid Indians</span>, a name for the Atsina, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Falls of St. Anthony</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian camp at, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">named by Father Hennepin, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Feasts</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">given by Blackfoot chief, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Cree, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>-<a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Teton Sioux, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-<a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fish</span>, method of curing, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Floor mats</span>, method of making, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Food</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">method of cooking illustrated, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Ojibway, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>-<a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Osage, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Agriculture, Buffalo, Corn, Dogs, Fish, Game.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fool Chief</span>, a Kansa chief, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">village of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fort Berthold</span>, tribes near, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fort Clark</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">erection of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mandan village near, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Fort Osage.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fort Crawford</span>, establishment of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fort de Bourbon</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">location of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mention of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Fort des Prairies</span>, mention of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fort John</span>, destroyed by North American Fur Company, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fort Laramie</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fort Leavenworth</span>, early description of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fort Lookout</span>, treaty concluded at, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fort Osage</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">later named Fort Clark, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">village near, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fort Pierre</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gathering of Yankton near, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketch of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fort Snelling</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">encampment at, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">establishment of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fort Union</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Assiniboin camp at, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stay at, of Friedrich Kurz, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">visit at, of Maximilian, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fort Yates</span>, villages near, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fortified Villages</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arikara, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hidatsa, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mandan, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Forts built by Indians</span>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fox Indians</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitat of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">present location of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">visited by Long, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Sauk and Foxes.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fremont</span>, arrival of, at Kansa towns, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fur trade of the Teton</span>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Furs</span>, huge quantities of, collected by Sauk and Foxes, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Game</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abundance of, at Isle au Vache, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Animals, Buffalo, Hunting.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Games</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">played by the Omaha, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">space for playing, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Gilder, R. F.</span>, village site identified by, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Gilfillan, Dr. J. A.</span>, missionary among the Ojibway, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Grand Pawnee</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">visit to, of Long expedition, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Chaui.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Grant, Peter</span>, Ojibway dwellings described by, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>-<a href="#Page_10">10</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Grass lodge</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as temporary shelter, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>-<a href="#Page_14">14</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Caddo, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Wichita, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">photograph of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Great Osage</span>, an Osage band, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Grinnell, George B.</span>, erection of medicine lodge described by, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Gros Ventres.</span> <i>See</i> Hidatsa.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Gros Ventres of the Missouri</span>, a name applied to the Hidatsa, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Gros Ventres of the Prairie</span>, a name applied to the Atsina, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Atsina.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Habitations</span>. <i>See</i> Lodges, Tipi, Wigwam.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Ha-won-je-tah</span>, a Teton Sioux chief, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Hendry, Anthony</span>, Journal of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Henry, Alexander</span>, travels of, through Assiniboin country, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Hidatsa group</span>, tribes composing, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Hidatsa tribe</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ceremonial lodge of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">creation myth of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">temporary lodge of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">winter village of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Minnetarees.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Hidatsa villages</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">descriptions of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-<a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>-<a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>-<a href="#Page_150">150</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian drawings of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">location of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">near Fort Berthold, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">painting of, by Catlin, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plan of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sites of, compared with Mandan, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">temporary, for winter use, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Hime, Humphrey Lloyd</span>, photographs made by, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Hind Expedition</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">camp sites observed by, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-<a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ojibway structures encountered by, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Hoe</span>, made by Arikara, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Horse travois</span>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Horseracing</span> of the Blackfeet, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Horses</span>, housed in lodges of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">House Rings</span>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Hudson's Bay Company</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">journals of traders of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trade of, with the Blackfeet, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trading post of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Hunkpapa</span>, a Teton band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Hunting</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">customs of the Osage, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">customs of the Sauk and Foxes, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">excursions of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">excursions of the Omaha, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-<a href="#Page_87">87</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">grounds used for, by Oto, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of antelope, a method of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of buffalo, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>-<a href="#Page_7">7</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">parties of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trips of the Pawnee, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>-<a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Illinois confederacy</span>, villages of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>-<a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Illinois Indians</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">village of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">west of the Mississippi, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Implements</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">agricultural, of the Arikara, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">flint, on Omaha village site, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for skin dressing, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stone, found on White River, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Indian Peace Commission</span>, visit of, to Fort Laramie, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Iotan</span>, an Oto chief, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Iowa tribe</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appearance of villages of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">belonging to Chiwere group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">brief description of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">closely connected with Winnebago, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitations of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migration of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Iron Bird</span>, an Osage chief, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Irvin, Samuel M.</span>, missionary among the Iowa, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Irving, Washington</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">deserted village described by, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian symbols mentioned by, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Ish-tal-a-sa's village</span>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Isle au Vache</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">brief history of, by Remsburg, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">council at, between Kansa and Long party, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">location of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">remains near, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Issati village</span>, site of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Itazipcho</span>, a Teton band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Sans Arcs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Jackson, W. H.</span>, photographs made by, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Jaramillo, Juan</span>, an officer of the Coronado expedition, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Jonglerie</span>, or medicine lodge, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>-<a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Journals of traders</span>, Blackfeet described in, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Joutel</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">account by, of Quapaw villages, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caddo tribe described by, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>-<a href="#Page_183">183</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Kainah</span>, a tribe of the Blackfeet confederacy, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Kane, Paul</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ojibway wigwam described by, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">paintings by, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Kansa Indians</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a tribe of the Dhegiha group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attack on, by Pawnee, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dress of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migration of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">variety of dwellings of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">villages of, described, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">visit of, to the Oto, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Kaposia</span>, village of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Kingfisher</span>, an old Ojibway, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Kitkehahki</span>, a tribe of the Pawnee confederacy, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Knistenaux</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Mandan village, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">language spoken by, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">location and number of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Cree.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Kurz, Friedrich</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among the Omaha, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Fort Union, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketches by, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">La Flesche, Joseph</span>, an Omaha chief, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">La Harpe</span>, meeting of, with the Quapaw, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">La Petit Corbeau</span>, a Sioux chief, village of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">La Salle expedition</span>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">La Verendrye expedition</span>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-<a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Lac de L'Isle Croix</span>, Cree bands along, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Lahcocat</span>, an Arikara village, <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Lake Huron</span>, encampment on islands of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Lake Superior</span>, structures on shores of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Larocque, Antoine</span>, visit of, among the Crows, <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Le Raye</span>, references in journal of, to the Arikara, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Leavenworth</span>, establishment of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Lewis and Clark expedition</span>, villages visited by, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>-<a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>-<a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Lindenwood College</span>, manuscript journal in possession of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Liquor</span>, use of, among Indians, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Little Dog</span>, a Piegan Indian, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Little Osage</span>, an Osage band, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Little Osage River</span>, Osage villages in valley of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Little Raven</span>, village of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Lodges.</span> <i>See</i> Bark-covered lodges, Ceremonial lodge, Earth lodge, Grass lodge, Log houses, Mat-covered lodge, Skin lodge, Thatched lodge, Tipi, Traders lodge, Wigwam.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Log Cabins</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">built by Cree, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Delaware, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Log houses.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Log Houses</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">construction of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Fox Indians, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Sioux chief, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of upright posts, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Long, Maj. Stephen H.</span>, expedition under command of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Louisiana Purchase</span>, change of conditions due to, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Low Horn</span>, a Piegan chief, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Ludlow exploring party</span>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Mahawha</span>, village of the Amahami, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Malta, Mo.</span>, former Osage village near, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Mandan</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a Siouan tribe, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settled near Fort Berthold, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">village sites of, compared with Hidatsa, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Mandan villages</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Catlin, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>-<a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Maximilian, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-<a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">deserted, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French expedition to, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>-<a href="#Page_123">123</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian drawings of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">occupied by Arikaras, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plan of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Manitobah House</span>, wigwam near, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Manners and customs.</span> <i>See</i> Customs.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Marquette, Père</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Illinois tribes visited by, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Osage villages listed by, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Quapaw villages reached by, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Marston, Major M.</span>, life of Sauk and Foxes described by, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Martin, Captain</span>, stay of detachment of, at Isle au Vache, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Mat-covered lodge</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as winter habitation, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Kansa, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Osage, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used by Dhegiha group, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Matootonha</span>, a Mandan village, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Mats</span>, rush, method of making, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Matthews</span>, description by, of Hidatsa villages, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>-<a href="#Page_150">150</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Maximilian</span>, villages visited by, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-<a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Mdewakanton tribe</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a division of the Dakota, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sites of settlements of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">villages of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_52">52</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Medicine</span>, meaning of the term, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Medicine bag of the Dakotas</span>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Medicine feast</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Hidatsa, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Medicine lodge</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arikara, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>-<a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ceremony of erecting, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Blackfeet, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ojibway, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>-<a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Metaharta</span>, a Minnetaree village, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Michigamea</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">an Illinois tribe, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of village of, not determined, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">visited by Marquette, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Mĭdé lodge of the Ojibway</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Mih-tutta-hangusch</span>, a Mandan village, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Mille Lac</span>, village sites on, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Miniconjou</span>, a Teton band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Minnetarees</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intrenchments made by, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of village of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">winter village of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Hidatsa.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Minnetarees of Fort de Prairie</span>, a name for the Atsina, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Mississippi River</span>, first name of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Missouri tribe</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ancient village of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">connected with Winnebago, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Chiwere group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">remnants of, with the Oto, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Mortars</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stone, in the Ozark country, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wooden, of the Arikara, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">National Museum</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bone scrapers in, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">collection in, of paintings by Catlin, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oto specimens in, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Newberry Library</span>, sketch in, by Bodmer, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Nicollet</span>, visit of, to the Winnebago, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Niobrara River</span>, early name of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Nuttall, Thomas</span>, journey of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Ochkih-Hadda</span>, the evil spirit of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">O'Fallon, Maj.</span>, commissioner with Long expedition, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Oglala</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a Teton band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">epidemic of cholera among, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">log lodges of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">moving of village of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>-<a href="#Page_65">65</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">skin lodges of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wanderings of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Ohio Valley</span>, ancient village sites of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Ojibway</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ceremonial structures of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>-<a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitations of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>-<a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">location of villages of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meeting of, with Sioux, to establish peace, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">territory claimed by, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">village sites of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Chippeway.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Omaha tribe</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manners and customs of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-<a href="#Page_87">87</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meaning of the name, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migration of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Dhegiha group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Omaha villages</span>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>-<a href="#Page_87">87</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">destroyed by fire, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">One Stab</span>, an Oglala head-man, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Oohenonpa</span>, a Teton band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Osage Indians</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a tribe of the Dhegiha group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitat of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">industry of women, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">life of, described by Morse, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">structures of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">villages of, described, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">villages of, listed by Père Marquette, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Oto tribe</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a tribe of the Chiwere group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">closely connected with Winnebago, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">councils with, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitation of, described by Bradbury, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">temporary camp of, described by James, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">winter camp of, described by Mölhausen, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Otsotchove</span>, a Quapaw village, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Ozarks</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">caves of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitat of the Osage, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hunting ground of the Osage, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Pahatsi</span>, an Osage band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Palisades.</span> <i>See</i> Fortified villages.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Palmer, Dr.</span>, missionary to the Osage, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Papillion Creek</span>, Omaha village on, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Pasquayah village</span>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Pawnee confederacy</span>, tribes composing, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Pawnee Indians</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abandoned camp of, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attack by, on Kansa village, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">council held with, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-<a href="#Page_161">161</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">customs of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>-<a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitations of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-<a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manner of moving, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migration of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">temporary camp of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Pawnee villages</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">description of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">orderly removal of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">photographs of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Pelican, The</span>, an Assiniboin chief, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Pembina</span>, native habitations at, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Pemmican maul</span>, of the Oto, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Peoria, village of</span>, visited by Marquette, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Persimmon pulp</span>, bread made of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Petit Corbeau</span>, village of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Picaneaux</span>, location and number of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Piegan.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Piegan Indians</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a tribe of the Blackfeet confederacy, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">camp of, described, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>-<a href="#Page_31">31</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">camp of, painted by Bodmer, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Picaneaux.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Pike, Lieut. Z. M.</span>, exploring expedition of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Pillagers</span>, gathering place of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Pipes</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ceremonial use of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">from Omaha cache, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of peace, smoking of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Pipestone quarry</span>, tribes ranging near, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Pis-ka-kau-a-kis</span>, a band of Cree, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Pitahauerat</span>, a tribe of the Pawnee confederacy, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +"<span class="smcap">Platte purchase</span>," Iowa living in, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Platte River</span>, Oto village on, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Ponca Indians</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a tribe of the Dhegiha group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitations of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-<a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migration of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">separation of, from the Omaha, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Population</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Arikara villages, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Assiniboin, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Atsina or Fall Indians, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Cheyenne, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Cree, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Crow, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Kansa, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Mandan, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Minnetaree villages, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Osage, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Piegan, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Sarsees, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of village of Sotoüis, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Waco, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Wichita, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Yankton, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Porcupine Creek</span>, village on, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Pottery</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arikara, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fragments of, in Ozark caves, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fragments of, on village site, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Quapaw, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Earthenware.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Pounds, buffalo</span>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>-<a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Quapaw</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a tribe of the Dhegiha group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decrease in population of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meaning of the name, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migration of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">remnants of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Quivira</span>, reached by Coronado, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Radin, Paul</span>, list of Winnebago structures given by, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Rakes</span>, made by Arikara, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Raynolds exploring party</span>, sacred structure discovered by, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Red Cloud</span>, an Oglala chief, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Red River</span>, structures in valley of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Red Wing, Minn.</span>, origin of the name, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Red Wing</span>, village of—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Schoolcraft, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Seymour, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Rees</span>, warfare of, with Sioux, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Republican Pawnee</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Irving, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">visited by Long expedition, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Kitkehahki.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Requa</span>, W. C., Osage described by, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Rings</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of earth, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of stone, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Rocky Mountain Fort</span>, Assiniboin camp near, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Rooptahee</span>, a Mandan winter village, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Rotundas of the Cherokee</span>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Running-water River</span>, early name of the Niobrara, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Rush mats</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for seats and sleeping places, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">method of making, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used for covering dwellings, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sacred dance</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for benefit of sick, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Dakotas, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sacred island in Mille Lac</span>, described, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">St. Joseph</span>, a trading post, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">St. Paul</span>, former Indian village near, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">St. Peters River</span>, exploration of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Salt</span>, making of, by Indians, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sandy Creek</span>, Oto encampment on, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sans Arcs</span>, a Teton band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Itazipcho.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sans Oreille</span>, an Osage chief, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Santee</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">eastern division of the Dakota, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tribes forming, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of the name, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Santsukhdhi</span> an Osage band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sarsees</span>, number and location of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Saskatchewan Valley</span>, tribes inhabiting, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sauk and Foxes</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">agriculture of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">living as one tribe, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manners and ways of life, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">summer and winter habitations of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">villages of, similar in appearance, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Fox Indians, Sauk Indians.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sauk Indians</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">excursions of, against the Osage and Missouris, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Missouri driven out by, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">removal of, to Indian Territory, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">territory of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">village of, visited by Long, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Sauk and Foxes.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sauteux.</span> <i>See</i> Ojibway.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Schoolcraft, H. R.</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">deserted Osage villages encountered by, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">journey of, down the Mississippi, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sioux settlements described by, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Seven Council Fires of the Dakota</span>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Seymour, E. S.</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kaposia described by, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketches by, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Shakopee's village</span>, described by Keating, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Shawanese</span>, migration of remnant of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Shawnee</span>, villages of, west of the Mississippi, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Shields</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arapaho, affixed to tripods, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Pawnee, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sibley, George C.</span>, Kansa village described by, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sichangu</span>, a Teton band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sick and aged</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dance for benefit of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sihasapa</span>, a Teton band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Siksika</span>, a tribe of the Blackfeet confederacy, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Siouan tribes</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">classification of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">general movement of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the East, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">second largest stock north of Mexico, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">skin tipi typical of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">various habitations of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">villages of, described, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">westward migration of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sioux</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">excursions of, against the Osage, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gathering of, with Ojibway, to establish peace, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sisseton</span>, a division of the Dakota, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Skidi</span>, a tribe of the Pawnee Confederacy, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Skin Dressing</span>, implements for, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Skin Lodge</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arapaho, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Assiniboin, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blackfoot, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cheyenne, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">construction of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cree, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Crow, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decorations on, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">descriptions of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">drawings of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">erected by the Dakota, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hidatsa, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kansa, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Omaha, construction of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pawnee, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>-<a href="#Page_166">166</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">predominance of, on the plains, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketched by Kurz, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Teton, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used by roving tribes, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used by the Dhegiha, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used by the Oto, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Skin scraper</span>, bone, described, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Skin tipi</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">when used by Omaha, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-<a href="#Page_85">85</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yankton, described by Maximilian, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>-<a href="#Page_58">58</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sledges of the Mandan</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Smallpox epidemic</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among the Mandan, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among the Omaha, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Smoking custom of the Blackfeet</span>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Pipes.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sotoüis</span>, population of village of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Soulier Noir</span>, French name for the Amahami, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Spears, Arapaho</span>, affixed to tripods, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Spoons, horn</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Mandan, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Pawnee, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Stanley</span>, paintings by, in National Museum, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Stansbury Expedition</span>, narrative of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>-<a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Starapat</span>, an Arikara chief, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">State Historical Society of North Dakota</span>, surveys made by, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Stockade buildings</span>, mentioned by Long, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Stockades</span>, remains of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Fortified villages.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Stone circles</span>, explanation of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Stone Indians.</span> <i>See</i> Assiniboins.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sun dance</span>, lodges erected for, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sunflower seed</span>, cakes made of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sweat house</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Crows, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Ojibway, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Symbols</span>, cut on trees by Indians, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Talangamane</span>, a Sioux chief, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Taoapa</span>, description of village of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Tapage Pawnee.</span> <i>See</i> Pitahauerat.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Tatanka Wechacheta</span>, a Wahpeton chief, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Tatunkamane</span>, son of a Dakota chief, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Tchan-dee</span>, a Teton Sioux chief, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Teton</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a division of the Dakota, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bands composing, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">customs of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">great village of, visited by Lewis and Clark, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Teton River</span>, village near mouth of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Thatched lodges</span>, of the Wichita, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Thief, The</span>, an Oto Indian, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Tinder Mountain</span>, Cree band at, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Tipi</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">drawing of, by Bodmer, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the plains tribes, fine example of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">typical of Siouan tribes, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Skin lodges.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Tonginga</span>, a Quapaw village, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Toriman</span>, a Quapaw village, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Totem posts</span>, not used by Omaha, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Traders lodge</span>, of the Oglala, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Trails</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">across the prairie, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">buffalo, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Black Hills, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made by travois, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Transportation</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among the Oglala, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among the Piegan, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Dog travois, Horse travois.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Travois.</span> See Dog travois, Horse travois.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Treaties</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Greenville, westward migration following, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of peace between Sioux and Chippewas, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">place of, between Ojibway and U. S. Government, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Tetons, Yankton and Yanktonai, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Twenty-Four, village of the</span>, a former Kansa town, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Two Kettles.</span> <i>See</i> Oohenonpa.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Typha palustris</span>, mats made of leaves of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Union Agency</span>, location of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_105">105</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Utensils of the Mandan</span>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>-<a href="#Page_137">137</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Utsehta</span>, an Osage band, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Village of the Twenty-Four</span>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Village sites</span>, not contemporaneous, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wabashaw</span>, a Sioux village visited by Schoolcraft, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Waco Indians</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a tribe of the Wichita confederacy, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appearance of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">grass lodge of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wahktageli</span>, a Yankton chief, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wahpekute</span>, a division of the Dakota, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wahpeton tribe</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a division of the Dakota, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">village of, described, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Wah-toh-ta-na</span>, name for the Oto, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wakan wachepe</span>, a Dakota society, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wa-ki-ta-mo-nee</span>, an Oto chief, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wanotan</span>, a Yanktonai chief, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wapasha</span>, a Dakota chief, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wapasha's Prairie</span>, mentioned by Seymour, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wapasha village</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">War dance, Osage</span>, account of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Warriors</span>, special lodges for use of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wattasoons</span>, Mandan name for the Amahami, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wattlework structures of the Osage</span>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>-<a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Waubuschon</span>, an Osage chief, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wayondott</span>, migration of band of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Weapons of the Mandan</span>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Western Engineer</span>, a steamboat of 1819 on Missouri River, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>-<a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wetarko</span>, Indian name for Grand River, <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">White Hair</span>, an Osage chief, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">White River</span>, village site on, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wichita confederacy</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a Caddoan group, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">thatched dwellings of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wickiup</span>, a temporary shelter, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wigwams</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">construction of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dome-shaped, of the Ojibway, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mat and bark covered, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Lodges.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Winnebago</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a Siouan tribe, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country occupied by, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">villages of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wolf Pawnee.</span> <i>See</i> Skidi.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Women</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">custom concerning, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">industry of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">labor of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Yankton tribe</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a division of the Dakota, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by General Atkinson, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">structures of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>-<a href="#Page_58">58</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Yanktonai</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a division of the Dakota, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">country inhabited by, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Keating, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habitations of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-<a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">village of, near Lake Traverse, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Yellow Bear</span>, an Hidatsa chief, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Yellow Stone</span>, a Missouri River steamboat, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="tn"> +<h3>Transcriber's note:</h3> +<p>Some illustrations were originally located in the middle of paragraphs. These have been adjusted to not interrupt the flow of reading.</p> + +<p>Inconsistent spelling is maintained in this document, for example "Chayenne" and "Cheyenne".</p> + +</div> + + + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan, +and Caddoan Tribes West of the Mississippi, by David Ives Bushnell + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VILLAGES OF THE ALGONQUIAN *** + +***** This file should be named 37897-h.htm or 37897-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/7/8/9/37897/ + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Julia Neufeld and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +book was produced from scanned images of public domain +material from the Google Print project.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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